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y

CANADA

AN ENCYCLOP/EDIA OF THE COUNTRY

HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS,

THE PRINCE OF WALES, K.G. . •

CANADA

AN ENCYCL()Ri:i)IA OF THE COUNTRY

THE CANADIAN DOMINION <ONSll)liRKI) IN US HISTOklC ITl Vl-IOM.. ,,■= „,.n„„..

BY A CORPS OF

EMINENT WRITERS AND SPECIALISTS

IN KIVE VOLUMKS

EDITED BY
J. CASXELL HOPKINS

ILLUSTRA.XEL)

VOLUME V.

THE LINSCOTT PUBLISHING COMPANY

TORONTO, CANADA

FC

V

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KiiU-mlaLC<.rdiii>rto Alt ()f ]^^rliimlc:Il..f Cana.lain tlu; vi-aioiictli.>usi.ii,I,.i,rl,t i,,,,,,l.. i i • . •
l.v the HraMk,v-(;arrHs.,„ C..nM.a,,y, IjM.itc.M Jn- the oBU-e ./fXte^^^^

THE HON. SIR ALEXANDRE LACOSTE,
Cl'ef Justice of the Court of (Queen's Bench, Quebec.

PREFACE

w

THE HON. SIR ALEXANDRK LACOSTE, Knt,, U.C.L., I.UD,, Chief Justice of the Quebec Court of yueeii's IVnch.

M'

k. CASri';i,I, UOI'KINS Ims will fiiirilliHl the promise of lii.s I'rosiKJCtu.s. II. s work is, in ivery sense, an
('n('\('l()|)ii'(lia of the cDUiitry, a really iiation.il '.vork, from wliosr pagrs we i:aii obtain the most \ariicl and
comprehensive information in rejjard, practically, to every suhjoi;! relating to Canada. In it, the most
interesting (luestions are treated by men, many of whom, to say the least, are so prominently and emi-
nently identified with their several sul)je<'ts as to give a stamp of authority tr) their utterances. The public will, no
doubt, ureatly appreciate the energy and patieiae and ability dis|)layed by .Mr. C!astell Hopkins in the arduous
work which he has so patriotically undertaken, of making Canada lietter known and thereby contributing to its
importance ai\d /•rfs/i\'f.

The combination, in a single work, of contributions by writers from all the tlifferent sections of the country
will extend to a greatly enlarged circle a knowledge of our distinguisi\ed compatriots, and an appreciation of the
sentiments of the different sections of Canada and of the dilTerent races by whom they are inhabited. It is in the
interest of our common citizenship that we should be brought more nearly together, and be taught by such a work
as this to know each other better, and thus dispel the prejudices which separation tends to create. If this Canada
of ours is ever to reach our high ideal it must be by more intimate companionship, cordiality and nmtual confi-
dence amongst the residents of its now comparatively separated Pro\inces. It is esjiecially imi)ortant for us,
French-Canadians, that our fellow-countrymen of other origins should learn to know us better and appreciate
more correctly the genuine sentiments of patriotism by which we are animated, in common with themselves.
It is not surprising that those who know nothing of us can be easily induced to believe that our origin, our
language, and our religion, and the afie(;tions they naturally inspire, aie incompatible with tin; patriotism and devo-
tion which should animate every true Canadian subject of Creat Hrita.n. No impression could be more misleading
and more untbrtunate. They ignore or forget that, even within fifteen years alter the cession of Canada to (Ireat
Britain, the I'rtnih-Canadian militia were amongst those who contributed most to re|)el the armies of the American
Congress uiuler the walls of Quebec, and that it was a French-('aiiadian who, in iSi j, won for Fngland tlu; victory
of Chateauguay. We certainly cannot give a better evidence of devjtion than to shed our blood in defence of our
country. If England had sought to smo her in the folds of her victorious banners the different creeds and
sentiments of the people of her various Colonies, I may venture to say that her loyal subjects would fall far short
to-day of the hundreds of millions who now recognize allegiance to her. It is, above all, to her liberal |)olitical
jjolicy that she owes the retention of her principal 'Jolony on this continent. She relies on the merits and advantages
of her institutions as her strongest hold upon thii loyalty and devouon of her subjects, and she is right i;i doing so.
We French-Canadians love the English constitution and we share in the pride of it in common with our
fellow-subjects of English birth. We are " Hritishers ", and for tlie institutions which as such we enjoy, we would,
if neeii be, shed our blood. We are satisfied with Confederation : the constitution which it has given us is, if
respected by all, the safety and protection of all. We move forward, side by side with our fellow citizens, full of
hope and confidence in the f'Mui,^; working without any mental reservation to the best of our ability for the pros-
[jcrity and glory of our common country ; ins|'ired by sentiments of liberality and charity for all our compatriots.

It '\i in such a spirit of liberality that Mr. Castell Hopkias has invoked the aid of representative Canadians
of all classes to contribute to the valuable work which he is now bringing to a conclusion. May it serve the double
purpose of increasing the respect for Canada abroad and ceme.iting the spirit of union and harmony amongst us at
home.

^^

&M^i-<^^

EDITOR'S NOTE TO VOLUME V.

THE five Volumes of the Canadian Encyclopjcdia now pr ..-••mted to the public will perhaps warrant a few
personal words from the Editor — words of utterly inadequate thanks to the contributors, of congratulation
to the enterprising and energetic Publishers, of appreciation for the very practical support given to an
arduous undertaking by subscribers throughout Canada and other English-speaking countries. For him-
self, he may truly say that a work of this nature has been the dream of years and that although the Volumes hive
been directly planned and published in the course of a comparatively brief period, they are, so far as the Editor is
responsible, the result of many years' study of Canadian affairs.

The plan of arrangement is original, as stated in the Introduction to the first Volume, and dofs not attempt to
imitate in form any other work of an Encyclopaedic nature. It is not alphabetical, and the various branches of
some wide and far-reaching subject are not therefore scattered under different headings throughout a series of vol-
umes. Those who are interested in Mining or in Agriculture, in Educational Systems or in the Universities, in a
particular religious Denomination or a special constitutional epoch, will find varied information upon the subject
desired, gathered together in the one Section. And, as the years pass by, can there be any doubt that the mass of
history here condensed in contributions by men of recognized experience, authority or standing in the Canadian
community, will become increasingly valuable as a source of knowledge regarding past conditions, when the Work
has served its more immediate purpose of current reference. No history of Canada deals with the topics of mineral,
agricultural, educational, or general material development which are included within the pages of this Work and the
Editor may therefore be permitted to draw attention to the matter as a particular feature of his plan.

The Editor's Notes are, perhaps, a somewhat unique feature of the Volumes. The intention was to provide
extracts from ofhcial documents, historic speeches, political manifestoes, etc., bearing upon the subject in hand and
diflfii-ult of access to the ordinary reader, although necessary to a complete comprehension of the text. Biographies
were only introduced where it seemed desirable to throw light upon names mentioned in the body of t'.\e Work.
This arrangement also enabled the Editor to bring together statistical tables, lists of important appointments and
tabulated references of various kinds which would have been impossible, or else very greatly scattered, under the
ordinary Encyclopicdic treatment.

A few words of special thanks must be given here. Mr. George Johnson, Dominion Statistician ; Mr. R. E.
Gosnell, late Provincial Librarian at Victoria; Mr. F. Blake Crofton, Provincial Librarian at Halifax ; Dr. (leorge
Bryn of Winnipeg ; Sir James M. LeMoine, of Quebec and the Hon. George W. Ross, of Toronto ; have given
the Editor much kindly assistance from time to time. Sincere appreciation may also be expressed for help
accorded by the Earl of Aberdeen when Governor-General of Canada ; to Lord Strathcona, Canadian High
Commissioner in London ; to Sir Charles Tupper, Bart. ; and to Sir Sandford Fleming, of Ottawa. Mr. James
Bain, Jr., of the Toronto Public Library, Mr. Benjamin Suite, of Ottawa, and Mr. John Reade, of the Montreal
Gazttte. have been more than generous with an assistance which cultured and courteous sympathy has rendered
pleasant as well as practical. To the Rev. Dr. William Gregg and the Rev. Dr. R. H. Warden in connection with
the Presbyterian Church history ; to Lieut.-Colonel James Mason and Mr. L. Homfrey-Irving in connection with
Militia matters; to Mr. P. F. Cronin, Editor of the Catholic Register, and Mr. Avern Pardoe, Provincial Librarian
of Ontario, as well as to very many others ; the Editor's thanks are greatly due and most cordially given.

In conclu:;ion, it may be permissible to say that in such measure as these Volumes build into the edifice of
Canadian development a few more bricks of knowledge concerning the resources, history and progress of the
Dominion, in such degree will the Editor feel rewarded. And, as the circulation of the Work extends in Great
Britain and other countries, where people are seeicing inlormation upon matters pertaining to Canada, it does not
seem unreasonable for hinj to hope that these Volumes may also prove of some service to the future of our
country.

ayJjJJUi s'^J/^^.o^

THE RIGHT HON. SIR JOHN A. MACDONALD.

Rcprodui eil Ity permission from a (innpil Pliotogravure
after (he paiiitirig by A. Dtcksoii Patterson, R.C.A.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

SECTION I. Agricultural Resources and De-
veiopment.

Pioneers of the Canai.ian Farm :

By William K. McNaughl, President of the
National Club, Toronto, and one-time
President of the Canadian Manufacturers'
Association 19

Canada's VVhkat Area and Resources:

By Sydney C. I). Roper, late Editor of the

Dominion Statistical Year Book 27

Agricultural Resources and Development
IN Ontario :

By C. C. James, m.a.. Deputy Minister of

Agriculture in Ontario 34

Agriculture in the Maritime Provinces :
By W. W. Hubbard, Editor of The Co Opera-
tive Farmer, Sussex, N.B 41

Agriculture in the Province of Quebec :
By (i. A. Gigault, ex-M.p., Deputy-Commis-
sioner of Agriculture for the Province 48

Resources and Development of Manitoba :
By Lieut.-Colonel the Hon. C. A. Boulton,

Senator of Canada .... 53

Ranching in the Canadian North-West :
By John J. Young, Editor of The Herald,
Calgary, N.VV.T 61

North West Resources and Development :
By William Trant, of Regina, N.W.T 64

Agriculture IN British Columbia :

By R. E. Gosnell, late Provincial Librarian,
Victoria, B.C 68

Development of Canadian Live Stock :

By David McCrae, Director of the Dominion

Cattle Breeders' Association, Guelph 72

Dominion Experimental Farms :
By William Saunders, ll.d., f.r.s.c, Domin-
ion Director of Experimental Farms 79

Agricultural Societies in the Provinces :
By C. C. James, m.a., Deputy Minister of

Agriculture for Ontario 86

Agricultural Education in Ontario :
By James Mills, m.a., ll.d, President of the

Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph 93

Historical Sketch of the Grancjk in
Canada :

By Henry Glendinning, of Manilla, Ont 97

Historv of the Patrons of Industry Order :
By Caleb A. Mallory, Grand President,

1891-98 100

Agricultural Resources and Development
— Editor's Notes:

Dominion and Provincial Ministers of Agri-
culture 106

Farmers and Farming in Canada 106

Impressions of the North-West 107

Some Provincial Agricultural Statistics 109

The Mackenzie River Basin no

Dominion Agricultural Statistics 113

Dr. Parkin on North-West Production 114

SECTION 11. Canadian Literature and Jour-
nalism.

A Review of Canadian Literature :

By the Editor 117

French-Canadian Literature and Jour-
nalism :

By Benjamin Suite, f.r s.c 136

English Literature and Journalism in
Quebec :

By John Reade, f.r.s l., f.r.s.c, Associate

Editor of the Montreal Gazette 147

A Sketch of Canadian Poetry :
By A. B. DeMille, m.a.. Professor of English
Literature in King's College, Windsor,
N.S 166

Canadian Women Writers :
By Thomas O'Hagan, m.a., ph.D 170

Thomas Chandler Haliburton :

By F. Blake Crofton, m.a., Provincial Librar-
ian of Nova Scotia 177

Historical Sketch of Canadian Journal-
ism :
By Arthur F. Wallis, Editor of the Toronto

Mail and Empire 182

Character and Position of the Canadian
Press :
By Edward J. B. Pense, Editor of the Kings-
ton Whig 191

14

CANADA: AN ICNCYCI.OI'.KDIA.

CiKORi.K Hrown and TiiK Globe :

Hy William Huckinghum, ex President of tlie
Canadian I'ress Assoeiation and one-time
Deputy-Minister of the Interior i(j6

TlIK I'lllU.IC LiDKAKlKS OK (,ANAI>A;

Uy James Bain, Jr, Librarian of tiie Toronto

I'ublic Library 207

HisTdRV AM) Work ok riii'. Rovai. Sckiicty ok
Canaha :
Hy Sir |oiin (leorge Hourinot, k.c.m.i; , 1,1.. n.,
D.ci... i.it IJ., Hon. Secretary and ex-Pres-
ident of tile Society ■ ■ • • 212

A Rf,\ iRw ov (Canadian JorRNAi.is.M :

Hy the I'-ditor 220

Editorial Note on Literature and Journalism.. 238

SECTION III. The Chief Cities of Canada.

Thk Annai.s ok Qi'Kiucc CiTV :

Uy Sir James M. Le.Moine, f.r.s.c 241

Ski'.tch ok thic City ok Ottawa :

Uy L. A. Magenis-Lovekin, Editor of the

Ottawa hrec J'less

History and Proc.kkss ok St. John :

Hy \. Alien Jack, (,>.c., h.c.i

Skktcm ok thk City ok Hai.ikax :

By Alexander IL MacKay, u.a., 1.1..U., k.r.s.c.

Historuai. Skktcii ok Montrkai. :

By the Rcy. J. Douglas Borthwick, i.l.d

The CiTlKS OK \'|(T0UIA and \'ANtOl'YKR :

Jly Mrs. !•'. {). Henshaw — " Julian Durham "

History ok the City ok \Vinnipk(; :

By C:harles N. Bell, k.u.o s

Historical Note, by Lady Schultz

History and Procrkss ok Toronto :

By the late James Beaty, g.c, D.c.i. , ex-
Mayor of Toronto

The Cities ok Canada — Editor's Notks :

The City of Montreal

Mayors of Canadian Cities

Canadian Civic Statistics

249

255

260

264

278

282

28s

294

29s
298

SECTION IV. Financial History, Loan Com-
panies and Insurance.

Sketch of Canadian Financial History:
By the Hon. C.eorge E. Foster, n.A., dc.l.,
i,i,.i)., M.P., Late Finance Minister of 'he
1 )ominion y.

Canadian Loan and Savings Comi>a:

By R. H. Tomlinson, Manager of the i^r/V/VA
Canadiiifi /."ai an J Investment Company,
Ltd., of Toronto 313

History and Fro(;re,ss ok Canadian Fire
Insurance :

By J. J. Kenny, Vice-President of the Brit-
ish America and IVestern Assurance Com-
,/>anies 318

'I'hk History ok Like Insiranck in Can-
ada;

By William Mc(^abe, i.l.d., k la ,k.s.s.. Man-
aging Director of the North American Lije
Assurance Company, Toronto 325

Fraternal Insurance and Sick Benkkit
Societies :

By John Ferguson, m.a., m.d 339

Note on Accident Insurance in Canada :

By George G. Burnett, Toronto 347

SECTION V. Natural History in Canada.

The Birds ok Ontario :

By I homas Mcflwraiih, Member of the Amer-
ican Ornithologists' Union 351

The Birds ok the Province ok Qi'ehec :

liy Sir James VL Le Moine, k.r.,s.c 359

Canadian ENTOMOt^odv :

By the Rev. C. J. .S. Tlethune, m a., d c.l.,
K.K s.c, liditor of the Canadian MnlumoU
<>.<ist 366

ZooLooY OK THE Mariti.me Pro"inces :

By R R. McLeod, of Halifa.x, N.S 376

Ca.nadian Natural Hi.story — Editok's
Notes:

The Animals of Canada 380

The Birds of British Columbia 384

The Birds of Manitoba 387

Sketch of the Flora of Canada '388

SECTION VI. Canadian Constitutional History
and Development.

Review of Canadian Constitutional His-
tory :
By the Editor 395

Constiti'tional Development ok New Brun-
swick :
By S. D. Scott, M.A., Editor of the St.
John Sun and Presiclent of the N. B. His-
torical Society

C0N.STITUT10NAL Progress of Nova Scotia :
By the Hon. J. \V. Longley, ma., q.c,
M.P.P., Attorney-General of Nova Scotia. . .

The Origin ok Confederation :

By the Hon. Sir Charles 'Tupper, Bart.,

G.C.M.G., C.Ii., D.CI,., I.L D., M.D., M.P., late

Prime Minister ot Canada.

409

41S

/I

422

• ^

CANADA: AN

The Conkrdkration Movkmknt in Pkincf
Edward Island :
Jly the Hon. Andrew A. Macdonaki, Senator
of (Jaiiada 431

HisrORV AND JUNCTIONS OK TlIK CANADIAN

Sknatk :

liy llie Hon. Lawrence G. Power, Senator of
Canada .... 435

The I'KoviNtiAi. Lecii.slativk Councils ok
Canada ;
Hy Alfred A. Stockton, rh.D., 1,1. 11 , d.c.l.,
g.c, of St. John, N.B 445

Municipal Institutions in Canada :

By Robert Stanley Weir, n.c.i.., of .Montreal.. 452
'i"HE Electoral Franchise in Canada :

By Thomas Hodgins, m.a , y.c, Master-in-

Ordinary of the Supreme Court of Ontario. 465
Editor's Notes :

I'rovincial Oeneral Elections since Confeder-
ation 469

Canadian Parliaments during the Union of

1841-67 470

Canadian Parliaments since Confederation. . 470

SECTION VII. Industrial Development, Forests
and Fisheries.

The Industrial History ok Canada :

By J. J. Cassiduy, Editor u( [hi: Ca/.tidinn

Manu/actunr 473

ENCYCLOP.EDIA.

Progress ok Canadian lNi)USTRiF.s :

By 1'^ B. Biggar, Editor of the Ctimuiian
y nil rial of J'ahiics and of the Canadian
Engineer

Canadian Industry and the Chinese (,)uks-

TION :

I'y (Jeorgo H. Cowan, of Vancouver, B C. . .

The Canadian Iron Industry :

By (leorge E Drummond, President (leneral
Mining Association of the Province of
(Quebec

Canadian Forests and Timber Interests :
By MiiS Catherine Hughe.s, of Ottawa

Forest 'I'ree Ci'ltuke in Canada :

By the Hon Sir Henri (1. Joly de Lotbiniere,
K c M.O., .M.P

The Fisheries ok Canada :

By the Editor

Editor's Notes :

The Agricultural Implement Industry in

Canada

T'.ie Industries of Canada

Forest Wealth ok British Coi.umiiia

Index

n

4'^.S

4'J9

50S

5"
526

533

534

521
538

ILLUSTRATIONS

H.R.H. the Prince of Wales, kg FroMtispicre

The Hon. Sir Alexindre Lacoste 7

The Rij;ht Hon. Sir John A. Macdonaid 11

Maps 17

1. North America.

2. Newfoundland.

3. The World. (The British Empire marked in red.)

4. North Atlantic Routes.

5. Orographical features of Canada.

6. Temperature of Canada.

7. Plan of Toronto.

8. Environs of Toronto.

9. Plan of Ottawa.

10. Plan of Winnipeg.

1 1. Plan of St. John.

12. Plan of Halifax.

1 3. Plan of Montreal.

1 4. Environs of Montreal

15. Plan of Quebec.

1 6. Environs of Quebec.

Farm Scene near Agassiz, B.C 33

Cutting Barley in Ontario 40

Canadian Scenery — A Ranch in the North- West. . . 59

A Manitoba Homestead 67

George Ramsay, Earl of Dalhousie 87

The Hon. Charles Drury 89

The Hon. John Dryden 91

The Hon. Sir John Carling, k.c.m.g 94

The Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph 9e

AVilliam Saunders, ll.d 96

Caleb A. Mallory 101

Joseph L. Haycock 105

Michel Bibaud 119

Charles G. D. Roberts 121

William Kirby 126

Charles Sangster 128

Gilbert Parker 133

Francois-Xavier Garneau 145

Dr. George Stewart. , , 146

PAUK.

riie Hon. Thomas White, m.p 153

Philipj)e Aubert de ( laspc 156

John Reade, k.r.s c 164

Louis Honore Frechette, c.m.c 168

'1 he Hon. George Brown 197

John S. Willison 206

Dr. William Kingsford 211

Sir John George Bourinot, k.c.m.g 214

Archibald Lampman 219

The Hon. Felix Gabriel Marchand 225

Hugh Graham 227

The Hon. William Templeman 237

William Wilfrid Campbell 237

Hope Hill, City of Quebec 247

Sir James M. Le Moine 248

Paul Chomedy de Maisonneuve 265

The Hon. Hugh John Macdonaid 284

The Hon. George Eulas Foster 311

The Hon. George A. Cox 324

Alexander G. Ramsay 327

William McCabe 334

J. Herbert Mason 338

Thomas Mcllwraith 354

The Hon. Thomas D'Arcy McGee 358

Charles Poulett Thomson, Lord Sydenham 398

The Hon. Sir Etienne Paschal Tache 399

The Hon. Sir Narcisse Fortunat Belleau 406

The Hon. John Robson 408

The Hon. Lemuel Allan Wilmot 414

The Hon. James Wilberforce Longley 421

Chief Justice, the Hon. Jonathan Sewell 425

The Hon. Sir Adams George Archibald 427

The Right Hon. Viscount Monck 430

D' Alton McCarthy, q.c, m.p 464

The Hon. Sir Antoine Aim^ Dorion 484

Timber Cove, near City of Quebec 513

The Hon. Sir William Young 520

The Hon. Sir Henri Joly de Lotbiniere 524

Canadian Scenery — jarvis Street, Toronto 531

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197

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SECTION 1.

AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT.

PIONEERS OF THE CANADIAN FARM

av

WILLIAM K. McNADGHT.Prtsldtnt of th«N»lion»l Club. Toronto.

STRANGERS travelling throuKh Canada
fur the Brst time are generally itnpruased
with the beauty of the country, which,
though lacking the garden-like appear-
ance of the more highly cultivated parts of
Europe, nevertheless bears upon its face the
impress of intelligent and sustained tillage. It
would doubtless be hard to make them believe
that, generally speaking, the civilization of Canada
is hardly more than a century old, and that prac-
tically the whole country, except some small and
isolated settlements, was a century ago a prim-
eval wilderness, held in almost undisputed pos-
session by the wild beasts of the forest and the
native Red men, who depended upon the chase
for their subsistence. Perhaps no two pictures
couid present a greater contrast than the Canada
of a century ago and Canada as it stands to-day.
A hundred years since, this country, with the
exception of the few isolated settlements already
referred to, was almost absolutely in a state of
nature which, although beautiful to the eye of
the painter, afforded but little real satisfaction to
the settler, who was forced to wrest his livelihood
from the soil itself. At that period of its history
even those harbingers of civilization, the trappers,
had hardly begun to put in an appearance, and.
while adventurous and hardy voyageurs and
couriers de bois occasionally penetrated the soli-
tudes, they did so only as a means of obtaining
access to those great mercantile forts which the
genius and indomitable perseverance of the
founders of the Hudson's Bay Company had
planned throughout the north-western half of the
American continent. The arable lands of On-
tario, and the vast prairies of the North-West
which now furnish food and offer homes to the
teeming millions of the old world, were as yet
unbroken by the plough, and no larger craft than

10

the tiny birch-bark canoe, propelled by the
p.uUlle of soiiiu dusky savage, had ever furrowed
the magnificent inland seas which are now whit-
ened by the sails or lashed into foam by the
steamships which bear within their bosoms the
commerce of half a continent.

To-day, in the Dominion of Canada, we not
only have highly cultivated farms ahiiust innum-
erable; but dotted over the entire country may
be found towns and cities which will compare
not unfavourably with those of older lands. The
snort of the iron horse is heard from one end of
the country to the other, while tall and smoke-
belching chimneys evidence the fact that the
manufacturing industries of the land have devel-
oped abreast of its requirements and resources.
This transformation, more wonderful in its way
than that performed by the genii of Alladin's
Lamp, challenges at once the wonder as well as
the admiration of those who know anything of
the obstacles which had to be overcome in order
to turn this Dominion from a wilderness into
one of the most fruitful cc^intries upon the face
of the earth. While there have undoubtedly
been many agencies at work to bring about the
present state of affairs, and each is deserving of
its due share of credit, it is nevertheless beyond
question that the original and most potent factor,
and the one which has really made all subsequent
achievements possible, is to be found in the
labours of our Canadian pioneers.

These lowly and obscure toilers in the midst of
our trackless forestslaid broad and deep the founda-
tion of Canada's position. It was their labour
and skill which cleared the forests, opened up the
highways, laid out the sites of our towns and
cities, and utilized the water powers which form
the basis of our manufacturing industries. They
did all this and more, for by their uprightness

30

CANADA: AM KNCVri.OIVKDIA.

' nnd purity of life, ami tlicir peraevcruncc in ovcr-
coinin^; dinicnltiut of every cuiicuiviil)lu kiml.
thuy l.iid tliu loiiiidatiiit) of ii iiiition il cliar:u:tur
wiiicl) has iiiido tliu naiiiu "Canadian" n
synonym for intulli^cncu, pcrscvurancu nnd in-
tegrity wlicrever it i.s known. To thu jjn-at
world at lar^o, thu vast majority of tiiese hinnblu
toilers aru ahscjiiitc-ly unknown. Like the heroic
rank find file of tho Hritish armies which under
the loadership of theindoinitaldc Clive conquered
In<lia, or inspired by thoKcnius of Wolfo added
Canaila totiie ICnipire, these pioneer heroes have
passed oway, and even their names have been
for^jotten, except by their immediate descendants.
They left their impress upon the country, how-
ever, and their life work is writ in lar(,'o nnd
indelible letters upon the pages of Canadian
history.

In the days of the early pioneers, railways were
absolutely unknown, and even ordinary gravel or,
in fact, anv other kind of passable waggon roads
were conspicuous by their absence. To-day, as
a rule, the railway precedes the settler, and where
this is not practicable our paternal Provincial
Governments open up the country for settlement
by means of what are known as " coh^nization
roads," which being properly ditched and
gravelled are fairly useful at all seasons of the
year. In the pioneer days the only roads were
"trails" through the forest, made by cutting
down the underbrush from a space wide enough
to admit of the passage of an ordinary waggoner
cart. Although generally following a given
direction, these roads or trails were necessarily
very crooked, since they had not only to twist
and turn to avoid trees and rocks, but were also
obliged to kLL'p to the dry ridges and accommo-
date themselves to the configuration of the
country. These " nmd roads," as they are called
by the early settlers, were at best only roughly
graded in places with ordinary earth, without any
gravel, and in a great many sections were passable
only during certam portions of the year, notably
during the dry season in summer and the hard
frosts of winter. In those parts of the country
where swamps abounded, the roads were practi-
cally impassable for teams except during the
winter months, when the frost and snow com-
bined to make them firm enough to bear the

weight of teams and loadeil vehicles. As might
have been expected, the dirttuncea traversed by
these trails, winding about us they did to avoid
swamps and marshes, were very much longer
than the real distance from pomt to point,
as the crow tlies; in some cases three or even four
times us long.

So far as I can learn, the first real attempt to
build first-rlass roads in Ontario was inaugurated
by the military authorities, and liiially culmin-
ated in the construclioii of a s|)len(lid highway
(ktiown as The GovL-nwr's Kmid, in honour .of
Governor Simcoe) from one end of the I'rovince
to the other. Passiuj; through what aru known
as tlio towns or cities of Prescott, Urockville,
Kingston, llelleville, Whitby, Toronto, Hamilton.
Mrantford, Lr)ndon and Chatham, it finally found
its way to Windsor, its western terminus. The
effect of opening up this great thoroughfare was
to stimulate thesettlemcnt of lands on both sides
of it for a considerable distance, and though at
the present time its influence is almost unknown
outside of the localities through which it runs, it
was considered a gigantic undertaking in the
early days and something worthy of being talked
about. Before the era of railroads, it was the
principal if not the only means of c< mitnunication
between thu inland towns through which it
passed, ancl each stage of this highway had a
score or two of teamsters or waggoners, whose
sole business it was to haul merchandize from
one point to another, covering the same section
of the road probably tliree times a week, year in
and year out. Those were also the days of the
old fashioned stage coach with its four horses.

At that time, when all of the principal points
in the country were garrisoned by Hritish regu-
lars, this highway was the principal means of
communication between them. It was n i uncom-
mon sight to see detachments of British infantry
from one to five hundred strong marching along
the road in order to exchange barracks with those
who were to take their places. In those days the
genuine " Tommy Atkins" was well and favour-
ably known all over the settled portions of
Canada, and many of these soldiers whose time
had expired, or who had purchased their dis-
charge, secured land and, settling down in this
country, turned their swords into pruning-hooks

CANADA: AN F':N(:Y("I,0IM:I)IA.

•I

and bt'caniu loyul and rt-putiiblu cilizutis.' Hut to
return to tliu pioiK^iirs. The want oi local and
passulili! roiidn inulo it difliciilt for thu early Hut
tit rs to olitain even tliu ordinary nucossitiua of
lif'u which could not l>u niannfacttirt-d at lioniu or
grown upon thuir own farms. Whilu tlioy could
raiHc bu(.'f, nintton and pork ami grow wheat, oats
and potatoes and other cropx in abundance, one
of the principal troubles they encountered was
the ^ettiuff the>r grain ground into Hour ami med.
Griftt mills were few and far between, and us
steam power was practically unobtainable on
account of the expense and ditliculty of transport-
ing the machinery, the mills had to be located
wherever water power was available. It was no
uncommon thing in those early days for the
pioneers to carry their grain on their shoulders
from ten to twenty miles to a mill, and convey
the flour back home again by the same slow and
weary process.

Even where the roads were passable for their
ox-teams and carts the loads which could be
thus conveyed were necessarily small, and the
journey teilious and oftentimes very difhcult.
Where swamps were to be traversed the loads
had sometimes to be portaged across on the
drivers' shoulders, the oxen findinj,' it as much as
they could do to haul the empty cart or waggon
through mud which was often more than axle
deep. Under such conditions we can readily
imdcrstand that.even had these strugijling pioneer
settlers been blessed with njoney with which to
purchase nianufactureil goods, they would have
eX(ierienced considerable difficulty in conveying
them honie from the towns where they were to
be obtained, on account of the distance and the
condition of the roads. With these almost in-
superable obstacles confronting them, it is hardly
to be wondered at that Canailian pioneers used
but few goods which they cor.ld not produce
themselves. If necessity is the mother of in-
vention, it is also the mother of handicrafts.
Necessity compelled the majority of these early
settlers to become manufacturers. Thus the
men who built the log house in which the family
lived also fashioned in a rough and ready way
the scanty furniture which embellished it. Their
carts, sleighs and ox yokes were usually of their
own manufacture, as were also most of the few

farm implements used by them, Huch at ploughs,
harrows ami Hails. They w«'ru in fait Nature's
handicraftsmen, and manufactured almost every
wooden article which they used, purchasing only
the iron parts of composite articles which they
could not themselves make.

The wives of these pioneers were not one whit
behinil their husbands ill this respect, and it was
simply wonderful to conteni|)l.ite the way in
which, in some cases, even ret'uied and delicate
women, heretofore unused to sik h a iiioile of life,
adapted themselves to the exigencies of thusitua-
tion, aiiil by the exercise of ingenuity and thrift
gave an air of chcerfuliiesa and comfort to their
rough and uncouth surroundings. All honour to
these pioneer dames who, in addition to their
ordinary household duties, found time to card
the wool and spin it into yarn, which after being
dyed and woven into cloth by some haiul loom
weaver in the neighbourhood was again taken
in hand by them and made into garments suit-
able for the members of their households.

Another great privation experienced by the
early settlers was the lack of sawmills. True,
the saw and grist mill usually came together
wherever there was a good water power con-
venient to a growing settlement, but as these
were the effects, rather than the cause, of such
settlement it was not to be wondered at that
those who preceded their introduction were put
to no little inconvenience for want of sawn lum-
ber. In many places the only practicable way to
ob'ain lumber was either to saw it by haiul with
a whip saw, or to split logs and hew them down
to the proper thickness with a broad axe, as in
the making of square timber. I5otli of these
methods were slow and expensive so far as time
was concerned, but as it was " Hobson's choice"
they either had to adopt one of them or go with-
out. Under such conditions, however, it can be
readily imagined that house-building and other
operations of a like nriture were not only diffi-
cult, but they were not indulged in to any greater
extent than the actual necessities of the case
required.

At the present time our farmers can, as a rule,
obtain fairly good prices for every kind of produce
they are able to raise upon their farms. Ir a
great many localities, especially in the older

*9

CANADA : AN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

» 1

!M

I

Provinces where factory towns and villages are
plentifiil, they are able to take produce of all
kinds to the market any morning, and, after
selling it for cash, purchase such poods as they
require at the lowest possible prices induced by
an almost too plentiful competition. In contra-
distinction to this state of affairs, the position of
the early settlers was not only unique, but pro-
vocative of hardships in every way. Markets, as
we understand the term, thero were none. It
was perfectly useless for them to raise more
vegetables or garden truck than they could them-
selves consume, for they could not dispose of it
at any price. Tiieir sales were for the most part
confined to wheat, ' dcs and wool, and the little
that they could spare had generally to be teamed
with oxen during the winter for many weary
miles before they could find a purchaser for it at
all. When they had succeeded in getting it to a
market, thd prices ruled very low, probably from
one-third to one-half, or even le: I'tlie present
price for the same products; and even at these
remarkably low figures, payment had generally to
be taivcn out in goods. On the other hand,
manufactupid articles of all kinds were very high
in price, at least from two to three times as dear
as they are to-day. The reason for this was not
far to seek. Canada, at that period of its his-
tory, had no manufactures of its own. All the
manufactured goods that its people used had to
be imported from European countries, and so
between the original cost, then very nmch higher
than f.t present, ocean freight and expensive
inland carriagt;, not to mention the wholesalers'
and retailers' profits, which were at least from
one to two hundred per cent, larger than they
now are, by the time they reached the poor con-
sumer he had to pay pretty dearly for his whistle.
With such very great obstacles, it is hardly to
be wondered that our Canadian pioneers were
but small consumers of mauulactureil goods, or
that they used but few things which they or their
neighbours could not themselves produce. From
this cause also it came about eventually that
artificers of various kinds, such as weavers, shoe-
makers, blacksmiths, waggon- makers, etc , were
induced to take up their abode at favourable
points, where they were accessible to the settlers
of the surrounding country. As many of these

artificers owned farms, ' .ey were quiid willing to
take their pay in manual labour on their land, or,
where this was not the case, in farm produce,
and their customers and themselves were thus
enabled to exchange either the labour, or the
product of their labour, to mutual advantage.
Just here it may be mentioned that some of the
most prosperous and reputable factories in this
country originally made their start in this way,
and, by thrift and areful management and keep-
ing abreast of ihe growing requirements of the
country, have been enabled to expand into
large and flourishing institutions which would
astonish their founders were they allowed to re-
visit the scenes of their earthly activities.

In the early days both churches and schools
were practically unknown, except in the older
and more thickly inhabited settlements. To-day
Canada points with pride, and justly so, to its
splendid system of education. But amongst the
early pioneers books were few and hard to get,
and what little learning the majority of the chil-
dren received was acquired from their parents,
who to their credit usually endeavoured to take
the place of regularly qualified instructors whose
services it v as at that time almost impossible to
obtain. In spite of these serious disadvantages
at the start, the love of education was so inherent
in the race that no sooner did the pioneers begin
to find others settling around them than their
instincts prompted them to build log school-
houses and secure the services of regular teachers.
The currl :ulum of these early schools was indeed
limited, their teachers old-fashioned and perhaps
uncouth, but, for all that, they not -only formed
the nucleus of our prosent splendid educational
system, but succeeded in turning out students,
who, although lacking the polish and the intellec-
tual finish of later university matriculants, were
nevertheless thinking men with ambition and
back-bone enough to fully fit them for every
requirement of their time. Not a few of the
Canadian youths educated in these primitive log
school-houses have made their mark in Canadian
history, and their achievements in after life go to
prove that, no matter how good schools may be,
they are really only the stepping stones to know-
ledge and that a man's education goes on uncon-
sciously from year to year according to his oppor-

CANADA : AN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

n

tunities and abilities and his determination to
make the best of them.

As with the early schools so with the early
churches. At first there were none at all. Later
on, when the settlement had progressed suffi-
ciently to have a schoolhouse, the missionary or
clergyman followed in the wake of the school-
master, and held services in the same building as
often as opportunity offered. It is not my inten-
tion to enlarge upon the hardships or the devoted
and unwearied labours of these pioneer clergymen
of different religious Denominations, but simply
to say in passing that they did a great work in a
very humble and unostentatious way ; a work for
which they reaped little or no earthly reward.
It is impossible for those of us who have always
enjoyed the privilege of attending Divine worship
to understand the delight with which the early
settlers flocked from far and near to hear tiie
preaching of the Word. To their hungry souls,
these infrequent services were like water to the
thirsty traveller, and they counted such oppor-
tunities great gain, even though they h id often
to be purchased at the expense of long and weary
journejs which generally had to be made on
foot. The rude and primitive places of meeting
have long since been replaced by churches in
which is to be found every accessory to modern
worship, but I very much question if the fervent
2eal of those early preachers did not get much
more closely in touch with the innermost hearts
of the people than do their more highly educated
successors who to-day occupy the pulpits of our
land.

It must not be supposed, however, that, while
the early settlers had trials and tribulations
in plenty, there was no sunshine in their lives.
As every cloud is said to have its silver lining,
so they also had their times of refreshment and
merry making, when they cast dull care to the
winds and made the most of their opportunities.
True, their dances were usually held on the
threshing floor of some large barn, the walls
of which were lighted up by home-made tallow
candles, while the best they could boast of in the
way of an orchestra was perhaps a violin played
by some itinerant fiddler or some not over skilful
backwoodsman. It may be admitted, also, that
the manners of those who took part in these

often impromptu functions had not that repose
which marks the caste of " Vere-de-Vere," nor
were they usually dressed in anything more
fashionable than homespun ° and home-made
garments, but in spite of all these drawbacks
they enjoyed themselves just asthorouglily, if not
more so, than do any of our up-to-date exquisites
at a fancy dress ball of the present period.

If the pioneers were rough and perhaps un-
couth, they were at least honest and kind-hearted.
Dependent as they so often were upon their
neighbours for assistance of every kind, they be-
came practical communists, in the sense that
they willingly shared of their plenty with those
who were less fortunately situated than them-
selves, knowing full well that the day might
speedily come when they themselves would have
to ask instead of ^ive a similar favour. Nothing
binds people more closely together than common
hardships and common efforts to surmount them.
Our pioneers could not have been independent
of each other had they so desired, and they
did not try. As a rule they would rather have
shared their last loaf of bread with a neighbour
than have seen him go without, for experience
had taught both their heads and their hearts
that what was the concern of one was really the
concern of all alike. In times of sickness and
trouble, the sympathies of these pioneers went
out to their afflicted neighbours as xreely as if they
had been members of one family. Doctors were
so few and far between as to make their skilled
services practically unattainable in many sections,
and, although they might be rough and uncouth
nurses, they cheerfully sacrificed their own com-
fort and did everything that tender and true
hearts prompted them to do in order to help
the sufferers.

Unlike those vast fertile prairies which lie be-
tween the eastern boundary of Manitoba and the
Reeky Mountains, and which only need to be
broken by the plough in order to bring them
under cultivation, the great bulk of the country
from the Atlantic Ocean to Lake Superior was
originally covered with heavy timber, and before
any crops could be raised upon the land the
forests had to be chopped down and cleared
away. To any person unacquainted with the
modus operandi of clearing a bush farm this would

, iffim

24

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

seem to be an almost insurmountable obstacle, but
although new to the work, our pioneers soon
learned how to accomplish this task quickly and
with the least expenditure of time and labour.
As might be imagined the clearing of such
an enormous tract of territory was a slow and
tedious operation. The country was not stripped
of its forests and brought under cultivation in the
well-defined and systematic manner that the
reaper now uses to mow down a field of grain.
On the contrary the operation was more like the
nibbling of myriads of insects at some gigantic
cheese, attacking it from every quarter until
at last it became so thoroughly honey-combed
that it would no longer hang together. In like
manner the early pioneers were at first, not only
isolated, but often separated by considerable dis-
tances from each other. As fresh settlers arrived
they proceeded to make homes for themselves,
the result of which was, that in the course
of time the forests were turned into cultivated
fields and the isolated patches of clearing were
gradually united so as to make the cleared
country we see to-day.

Underbrtishin^. Although the forest might differ
in various localities as to the nature and sii;e of
its timber, the general principles adopted in
clearing it were practically the same in all parts
of Canada. The preliminary work was that of
underbrushing, or clearing away the growth of
the very small trees or saplings which usually
grow thickly amongst the larger timber. This
work was usually performed in the autumn of the
year before the snow fell so as to insure their
being cut oft as close to the surface of the ground
as possible. This was done so that when the
land was cleared and crops came to be sown their
stumps ivould be out of the way of the plough or
harrow. As soon as cut, these saplings or under-
brush were carefully piled up in the open spaces
in such a way as to insure their being consumed
when the general burning took place later on.

Chopping. The real labour of chopping down
the forest was generally done during the winter
months, when hardly any other kind of work
could be performed to advantage. The only tool
used was what is known as the American chop-
ping axe, an article differing considerably in shape
from the axe of Europe, and generally weighing

from four to five pounds according to the strength
and skill of the person handling it. Of course
the time taken to chop an acre of bush necessa-
rily varied according to the character of the
timber and the skill of the chopper but, taking
the average of choppers and timber lands, it may
be safely said that an acre every fortnight was
about as much as an ordinary man could accom-
plish at this kind of work. The man who had
chopped down ten acres of fairly heavy timber
and cross-cut it properly for logging was con-
sidered to have performed a very fair winter's
work.

While chopping appears to be an accomplish-
ment easily learned, it is nevertheless one in
which skill and brains told, just as in everything
else. This was particularly the case in regard to
the order and the places in which the trees were
made to fall. They were not chopped down at
random and allowed to full just where they listed,
but rather according to a predetermined plar.
Before a single tree was felled, the ground waj
thoroughly explored in order to find out the
general lean of the timber, for very few if any
trees grow really perpendicular. This learned,
the ground was laid out in sections in such a
manner as to throw the timber when felled into
"windrows" or "jam piles". Windrows
were made by chopping a lane twenty-five or
thirty feet wide down through the timber, the
trees all being felled so as to lie parallel with each
other the lengthway of the windrow. Afterwards
all the trees on either side as far as they would
reach were chopped so as to fall as nearly parallel
as possible and with their heads upon the founda-
tion first made, thus bringing an immense body
of timber and brush together and ensuring its
almost total destruction when fired in the spring.
"Jam piles " were generally about the length and
breadth of an ordinary tree, i^nd were formed by
chopping down about a dozen of the largest trees
parallel with each other, for a foundation, after -
which all the trees in the vicinity, as far as they
would reach, were thrown upon it until an
immense circular pile of broken timber and tree
tops was formed.

The highest skill displayed by choppers, out-
side of the purely mechanical part of the work,
was in controlling the direction in which each

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOP.*:UIA.

25

tree would fall. So expert did many of<hem be-
come that they could fashion tlieir cut so as to
throw a tree in any given direction which did
not interfere with the laws of gravity, and some
of them could even gauge their aim accurately
enough to strike a handspike almost every time.
This skill they utilized to advantage, by throwing
heavy trees, v^here possible, over the stumps of
those already cut down, the result generally being
to smash them up into such lengths as to save
the usual cross cutting. As might be imagined,
the chopping down of a tree was only the first
part of the operation of preparing to get rid of it
entirely. To-day, in the old settled districts, a
piece of heavy timber is of considerably more
value than the land. In the pioneer days it was
not only a drug in the market, but a nuisance
which the settler had to get rid of as speedily and
as cheaply as possible. As soon as it was felled,
therefore, the chopper cut off all the limbs and
branches so as to allow them to lie flat on the
windrow, and be in a proper position for burning.
He then cross-cut the trunk with his axe into
convenient lengths for handling ; generally from
eighteen to twenty feet long. This he did by
standing on top of the fallen trunk and chopping
it between his feet, thus getting in his work from
that vantage ground.

The winter's work over, the "chopping" or
" fallow," as the ground covered with the felled
timber was called, was allowed to remain un-
touched until along towards the middle of May
or early in June (according to the season), when
the sun had dried the briish and leaves sufficient-
ly to make them burn readily. The burning of
the brush was a very critical as well as an im-
portant operation, and the settler had to patiently
wait a time when the wind was in a quarter
which would noi only carry the sparks and burn-
ing cinders away from his buildings and crops,
but would not endanger those of his neighbours,
if he had any, before he dared to apply his torch
to the dry leaves and brush along the windward
side cf his chopping. Once alight, the fire fanned
by the breeze quickly spread nntil the whole
chopping was one seething mass of flames, which
licked up leaves, brush, chips, limbs, broken tim-
ber and everything that it could possibly devour,
leaving usually (if the burn was successful) little

beyond the blackened tree trunks outside of the
windrows.

Logging was the next operation, and was
usually performed by a "gang" of five men
where the timber was at all heavy. One of these
drove a yoke of oxen which hauled the logs to some
convenient spot, while the other four (two at
each end) rollpd them, by means of handspikes,
up short skids into tapering heaps four or five
logs deep, each log being kept in place by settling
into the hollow formed by two of the logs in the
layer below. As but few settlers had men or
boys enough in their family to make up a logging
gang of their own, they were forced to band to-
gether and exchan(.:;e work with each other for
this purpose. Thus five men, each having logging
to do, would form a gang, and work probably a
week on each place until they had gone the
round. As a rule the man on whose place they
worked provided the oxen, in which case it
evened up all right, but, where the settler had no
oxtn and they had to be provided by a neighbour,
the owner was entitled to an extra day's work of
a man for the use of his team. The amount of
ground that a gang of men could "log" varied,
of course, with the nature of the timber, and of
the material of which the gang was composed ;
from three-quarters of an acre to one acre was,
however, generally considered to be a fair day's
work.

Sometimes the exigencies of the situation de-
manded that the settler's chopping should be
logged up in a hurry, and, in order to effect this,
he resorted to what was known as a " logging
bee." This meant that his neighbours for miles
around were all invited to come and work to-
gether on hischoppingonagivenday.and as many
yoke of oxen were secured as there were gangs of
men. On the day chosen the men were all
assembled betimes; the fallow was apportioned
and staked out into equal divisions ; leaders were
appointed, each of whom selected the men to
form his own particular gang, and at a given
signal the work commenced. Under the inspira-
tion of '''e " grog boss," usually an old man :.;
the sere and yellow of life who dispensed the
whiskey, this soon developed into a fierce struggle
as to which gang could accomplish their
allotted task in the shortest time. AIthou"h the

ad

CANADA: AN ENCVCLOP/EDIA.

victors were not crowned with laurel, they had
the proud satisfaction of being acknowledged as the
champion loggers, and of being for the time at
least the most envied men in the settlement.

Branding. After the logs hud been made up
into piles they were usually fired as soon as pos-
sible after the job was completed, and by a
judicious use of the handspikes, when they had
burned down pretty well, the brands, as the
charred pieces of logs were called, were kept
burning together until but little was left of them.
When everything about the log heap was burned
that would burn, the remnants or brands were
hauled by the oxen and again made into heaps
and fired. This second logging or " branding,"
as it was called, generally put the finishing
touches on the destruction of the timber, and the
ground was tiien considered to be cleared and
ready for cultivation.

To look at a newly-cleared field, with its black-
ened surface, its great beds of aslies showing
where the log piles had been burned, and its
charred and hideou"? stumps, with their roots
sticking out in every direction, one might wonder
how on earth it could ever be cultivated. As a
matter of fact, it did not receive very much culti-
vation for a few years, and what it did get was of
the most primitive kind. The first crop was
generally potatoes, the work of planting usually
being done by hand with strong iron hoes.
Sometimes wheat was put in as the first crop, in
which case the ground was sometimes harrowed
once before the seed was sown, and a couple of
times afterwards. The harrow used was usually
a very primitive affair, being made of thick round
poles shaped exactly like the letter A, the iron
teeth being placed along the two long legs and
slanted backwards at an angle sufficient to help
the harrow over the roots and othei obstacles
that it was continually compelled to surmount.
In the early days these crops were harvested by
hand with the old-fashioned sickle, and later on
by the cradle, which in its day was considered to
be a wonderful labour-saving machine. If the
settler could manage it, he rarely took more than
one or two crops off his newly-cleared land before
seeding it down in grass, the reason being that
in many sections ploughing was almost impos-
sible on account of the stumps and roots with

which the ground was filled, and which made it
not only almost impossible, but slow and often
dangerous, work.

Once Ljseded down in grass, the land was gen-
erally allowed to remain as hay and pasture for
five or six years, by which time, if the timber had
been hardwood, the smaller stumps and roots
were so much decayed that they could be readily
pulled out by a yoke of oxen. Those capable of
being dealt with in that way were then piled
around the large ones remaining, and the heaps
fired on the first dry and convenient day. The
result of this treatment was to practically clear
the field of stumps altogether, leaving it ready
for its first real ploughing. After this had been
done a couple of times, and the field properly
harrowed and cross-harrowed, the hills and hol-
lows soon disappeared, and it gradually assumed
that smooth and level surface which is the delight
of thft farmer who uses machinery to any consid-
erable extent.

In those parts of the country, however, where
the principal timber was pine or hemlock the
stumps decayed so slowly that the method
already described was practically impossible. As
pine and hemlock stumps of fifty years' standing
may be found almost as sound as the day when
the tree was felled, and as they are extremely
difficult to burn, the only way to get rid of them
was to pull them out with a stumping machine.
This was done pretty much on the same principle
that the dentist pulls a tooth — by force. Once
out, however, the earth was cleaned off their
roots and placed back in the holes from which
they were torn. The stumps themselves were
either put in heaps and burned, or, as was often
the case, hauled to the side of the field and
placed close together along the edge so as to
make a rough-looking but very strong and service-
able fence. These, in brief, are the principal
operations by means of which this Canada of ours
has been transformed from a wilderness into the
great agricultural country that we see at present.
While all of them are still to be seen in the
newly-settled districts of Ontario and Quebec, it
may be safely asserted that, although our present
settlers work hard, they do not have to undergo
anything like the privations or dangers endured
by their predecessors of the early pioneer days.

CANADA'S WHEAT AREA AND RESOURCES

nv

SYDNEY C. D. ROPER, late Editor of the Dominion Statistical Year-Hook.

IT seems difficult to believe that it is not
thirty years since the possession of unde-
veloped wheat lands was the finest immi-
gration advertisement that any country
could wish for, and that to-day the choicest of
these lands are practically going begging for
want of occupiers. Yet such is the case. And
while it is dangerous and unwise to make predic-
tions with any degree of certainty, it seems
reasonably safe to assume that wheat will always
be one of the principal staples ot food throughout
the world, and the question therefore of its pro-
duction always one of considerable interest.
Those countries, therefore, which are capable of
producing it in any quantity will remain impor-
tant factors in the consideration of the world's
food supply. On this assumption that wheat
will never be displaced from its position in the
front rank as an article of food, and in view of
the fact that Canada undoubtedly possesstis an
enormous area of land that is adaptable for
wheat cultivation, it is clearly worth while spend-
ing some little space in an examination of the
extent and capabilities of that area.

With the exception of some of the regions in
the extreme north, there is practically no part of
Canada where the soil and climate are not suit-
able, mOie or less, for the production of wheat,
but some parts of the country offer such particu-
lar advantages for its cultivation that they require
more detailed attention than the rest of the
Dominion, which, therefore, for the purposes of
this article may be divided into two portions —
the Provinces of Quebec, Nova Scotia, New
Brunswick, Prince Edward Island and British
Columbia forming one portion, and the Provinces
of Ontario and Manitoba and the North-West
Territories forming the other. The production
of the Provinces which form the first or less

important portion does not require much con-
sideration, and particulars of the yield are
obtainable from various census returns. In 1688
the Province of Quebec, or New France, as it
was then called, produced 100,971 bushels of
wheat; in 1734, 7371892 bushels, and in 1827,
2,921,240 bushels. The maximum production
was reached in 1850, when, according to the
census returns of 1851, the total yield in the
Province amounted to 3,073,943 bushels, and
since then the quantity has gradually decreased,
until, in 1890, the production was only 1,568,289
bushels. Various causes have combined to make
the pursuit of other branches of agriculture more
profitable than the cultivation of wheat, and it
is extremely probable that the returns for igoo
will show a still further decrease in the Quebec
output of this cereal.

In the Provinces of Nova Scotia and New
Brunswick the crop has always been insignificant,
and is now practically nil, the combined produc-
tion in 1890 having only amounted to 375,615
bushels, and it is not likely that wheat growing
will ever be seriously undertaken there. In the
Province of Prince Edward Island the produc-
tion has steadily increased from 346,125 bushels
in i860 to 613,364 bushels in 1890, the supply
being just about sufficient to feed the population
of the Island. The probabilities are that, while
this Province may continue to produce sufficient
wheat to meet the home demand, it is not likely
to ever have any material surplus for export.
The production in British Columbia has increased
from 173,653 bushels in 1880 to 388,300 bushels
in 1890, but this increase has been mainly inci-
dental to the growth of population and spread
of setttlement, and the Province has still to
import wheat for its own consumption, and, as
everything points to the probabilities of the

T^

38

CANADA : AN ENCYCLOP/I<:i)IA.

I

majority of its population following pursuits other
than agriculturul ones, the chances are that the
hotne demand will always exceed the home
supply. As factors in the question of wheat
production, therefore, the above named Provinces
need not be very seriously consiiioreil, as they
are and are likely to continue consumers, rather
than pidclucers, and will offer an ever increasm^
home market for the product of the remainiiip
districts. But it should, at the same time, be
borne in mind that, while the area actually under
whept is decreasing, the area capable of produr-
ing it is increasing with the progress of settle-
ment and is available for use if ever extraordinary
circumstances should arise to necessitate it.

When we turn, however, to the second portion
of the Dominion we find a very different condition
of affairs, for it is within these limits that the
future of wheat production in Canada lies. The
Province of Ontario, or Upper Canada as it was
formerly called, was for many years the great
wheat-producing district] of Canada. In 1841,
according to census returns, the crop amounted
to 3,22i,rjSq bushels; in i860 to 24,620,425 bush-
els, and in 1880 to 27,406,091 bushels, which was
about 85% of the total production of the Dominion
in that year. About this time (1881) the Provin-
cial ( overnment commenced to collect annual
statistics of the crops of the Province, and in
1882 published the first Report, which placed
the wheat crop for that year at 40,921,201 bush-
els. These Reports have since then been pub-
lished contmually and have afforded a fairly
reliable means of arriving at the annual yield.
Since their establishment there has been a steady
and persistent decline in the area under wheat
cultivation, tlie number of acres in 1882 having
been 1,775, Li7 "^ compared with 1,132,316 acres
in 1896, a decrease of 643,021 acres. The aver-
age acreage during the five years 1891-1895 in
fall wheat was 850,525 acres, and during the
nine years 18S2-1S90 it was 908,723 acres, while
the average acreage in spring wheat during the
same periods was 394,526 acres and 569,426
acres respectively. The decrease in area was
not the result of failing crops, for the average
yield has been well maintained, since in fall
wheat it has been during the two periods 21.3
bushels and 19.4 bushels per acre respectively.

and in spring wheat 15.2 bushels per acre fot
both periods.

It is when we come to the average value that
we find out the cause of the decreased cultivation,
for in fall wheat the value for the five-year period
was 71.4 cents per bushel as against 89.3 cents
for the preceding nine years, and in spring wheat
74.4 cents as compared with 89.1 for thu same
preceding period, and had it not been for the
remarkable appreciation ot wheat in 1891 the dif-
ference would have been still more striking, for
the average value for the four years 1892-1895
was only 63 cents per bushel. In consequence of
this extreme fall in prices the farmers of Ontario
have turned their attention more and more to
stock raising, dairy and mixed farming (substitut-
ing hay and root crops for wheat and barley)
until the Province has become in the main a
dairying rather than a cereal-producing country.
It is evident, however, that wheat cultivation
only needs the stimulus of better prices to
become, almost at any time, once again one of
its piincipal industries, for, encouraged by the
tendency to higher prices during 1896, the farmers
of Ontario increased the acreage under wheat by
141,200 acres, and as the season of 1897 was a
remarkably favourable one the yield was the
largest suice 1891, amounting to 28,856,000
bushels, and present indications point to a still
further increase in the area for 1898. It is im-
possible to say with any exactitude just what is
the extent of the area in Ontario that is actually
suitable for the cultivation of wheat, but, since
the area of the Province, exclusive of the Great
Lakes, is 219,650 square miles, or 140,576,000
acres, it should, after making due allowance for
unfavourable natural conditions, be safe to say
that there are at least 25,000,000 acres well
adapted for growing wheat, the average yield of
which would range from seventeen to eighteen
bushels per acre.

Large, however, as is the area and favourable
as is the climate in Ontario for the production of
wheat, both one and the other sink into com-
parative insignificance when compared with the
capabilities of Manitoba and the North-West
Territories. The Province of Manitoba has an
area of 64,066 square miles, or say 41,000,000
acres, nearly the whole of which is not only well

CANADA: AN KNCYCLOl'.KDIA.

adapt(>i| for wheat growing, but consists to a large
extent of what is perhaps the linest wheat Kunl in
tlie world. The Provincial Government first
commenced to collect crop statistics in 1883,
when the area under wheat was only 260,842
iicres, but this area had increased in i«Sr)5 to
1,140,276 acres, and in tlie present year (i8(j7)
the land sown with wheat amounted to i,2(jo,882
acres. The average yield, year by year, has
varied considerably, ranjjing from 12.4 bushels
per acre in l88g to 27.86 bushels in 1895, but the
general yield has been well maintained and gives
an average for the sixteen years, 1S82-1S97, of
ig bushels per acre. If it was not for a certain
liability to early frost and rain about harvest
time, which conditions have more than once
damaged the most promising crops at the very
moment of maturity, and which are responsible
for the extreme fluctuations in yield, the climate
would be as near perfection as possible.

When all conditions are favourable it would
seem as if the land could not do too much to make
np for less advantageous seasons — well authenti-
cated cases of over 50 bushels to the acre having
been reported on several occasions. The hot
sun, combined with cool nights and dry atmos-
phere, unite with the extreme richness of soil in
producing a firm grain that has no superior in
the world, and what is known as " Manitoba No.
I, extra hard" will always bring the highest
price obtainable in the market. While the actual
crop in 1897 was not so large as reported in some
previous years the circumstances attending its
harvesting have made it one of the most profita-
ble in the history of the Province ; the quality of
the grain was very high, fully two-thirds being
said to grade No. i, hard ; and the appreciation
in price prevailing at the same time resulted in
the farmer's getting from 25 cents to 30 cents per
busliel more for his wheat than he had been
accustomed to get for several years past, thus
bringing about a proportionate degree of pros-
perity throughout the Province.

A large portion of the North-West Territories,
which for the purposes of this article are under-
stood to comprise only the three provisional
Districts of Assiniboia, Alberta and Saskatche-
wan, is almost as equally well adapted to the
growth of wheat as the Province of Manitoba.

The area of these Districts contains about
189,000,000 acres, one-half of which at least
is composed of land more or less suitable
for wheat, but at the present time there are not
300,000 acres under its cultivation, the lack
of population being the principal drawback
to development. No trustworthy statistics, out-
side of census returns, have ever been collected
of the crops in these Districts, and it is impos-
sible to say with any accuracy what the produc-
tion has been. The yield varies in different
localities but the average is probably about
17 bushels to the acre. According to the Census
of 1881 there were 5,675 acres under cultivation
of wheat in the preceding year, and the product
amounted to 119,592 bushels ; the Census of 1SS5
returned the area under wheat at 67,256 acres
and the product at 1,147,124 bushels, and that
of 1891 gave the area at 113,808 acres and the
production 1,792,409 bushels. In his report for
1896 the Lieutenant-Governor of these Districts
placed the area under wheat in that year at 241,-
700 acres and the yield at 4,755,500 bushels,
being an average yield of 19.5 bushels per acre.
It is stated that, in consequence of damage
by frost in the previous year, the area was much
smaller than usual, which no doubt was the case,
but, as the figures given were not collected on any
principle and were only a series of estimates
roughly put together, it may betaken for granted
that they are too high, and that the actual area
and yield were less than the quantities stated.
Beyond the fact that the Territories shared in the
grand harvest weather which prevailed so exten-
sively during the summer of 1897, and reaped
proportionate benefits therefrom, no information
more trustworthy than newspaper reports can
at present be obtained as to the wheat area and
product in the past season.

The Unorganized Territory, being that north-
ern part of the Dominion which has not been
specifically mentioned, undoubtedly contains
a considerable area capable of producing wheat,
but not in such quantities as to leave anything
for export or indeed in sufficient quantity to meet
the local demand for home consumption, and
if these regions are ever settled the bulk of their
wheat supplies will surely have to be purchased
outside. It will be understood, therefore, that

-f

n

30

CANADA; AN ENCYCLOIVKDIA.

ill the consideration of the wheat production
!if Canada the Provinces of Ontario and Mani-
toba and the NorthVVest Territories are the
only portions of the Dominion that need be ma-
terially taken into account, and, in order to illus-
trate this more plainly, the followinp table has
been prepared, whiv;h shows the estimated
crop in the two Provinces in each year for which
official fijjures are available, and the proportion
of their total to the total estimated crop of the
Dominion. The figures obtainable for the yield
in the Territories are of such doubtful value
that it has been thought inadvisable to include
them in the table, otherwise the proportion
would have been so much larger. As it is the
two Provinces have supplied on an average
88.3 per cent, of the total yiehl :

Wheal production in the Provinces of Ontario ami N'anitoba,
and proportion of combined crop to the to;al
wheat crop of Canada— 1882- 1897'.
Onl*rio. Maniloba. u 2 j

iai >• UJ > H 0, J 5

But. Bui. Bus. Bui. Bus. Per Ci.

1882. 4li,!L'l,201 211 • 4,0OiP,U00 17-7 41.!I21,201 041

IBSl 21,:iffl,!l02 13 (i fl,(i8«,:»M 218 27 UlU.'iW 878

1881 &V127,2i« 221 6,174,182 2U1 41,5 1,174 OlS

1885 3(M!<l.S,l(i2 17-9 7,429,410 208 38,o;i7,«02 90 0

1880 27,.'>sa,)l!l5 18'4 5,893,480 15 3 3.3.183 175 87 4

18S7 2.1,(173.723 13 9 12,351,724 27 7 32 42i,152 832

1S8S 20,281,348 171 '7,000,000 152 27,281„3in 827

18S3. 18,B!»,572 15-0 7,201.,')19 12 4 2.5,901,091 84 1

13% 21,951,288 1(!'3 14 005,709 190 30,017,057 8S 4

1891 32,5^1,028 23 3 23,191,599 25 3 55,775025 918

1S92 28,782,892 10 9 14,4,«,8a'5 105 4;i,2.')8,727 90 0

189.') 21T31,.1I1 1.51 15,0I5,»23 15 0 37,317,234 90 4

1894 19.ST9,9!iO 179 17,172,883 17.0 37,()52,8»3 871

18ai 17,028,825 173 31,775,0.18 279 19,403,803 80 1

KSOfi 18,597,783 15 5 14,371,806 113 32,fl09,.'ifl9 84 0

1897 28,850,132 20 1 18,201,950 141 47,118,082 80 3

401,810,095 17 7 205,245,503 18 8 010,085,598 88.3
* No ofTicial relurnt.

The next table, showing the estimated produc-
tion and distribution of wheat in Canada since
1882, has been compiled by the writer upon a
basis arrived at by him som« years ago, while
compiling and editing the Statistical Year-Book,
after a very careful investigation of the whole
question ; and results have, year by year, tended
to show that on the whole the basis was a correct
one. There can, it is thought, be little doubt
that the Provincial returns were in the earlier
years too high, and that they are distinctly more

accurate at the ' ^uent time, and there is also
good reason to b' . 1 that the returns of exports
were, and indeed 1 are, under the mark, as it
is certain that a considerable quantity of wheat
(especially in the form of flour) of which no
record is taken, goes from the country via the
United States for outsi<le ports, principally those
of the United Kingdom. Allowance also has
to be made, which cannot well be estimated, for
loss by fire, water, and in transport, such losses
occurring more or less every year. The Provin-
cial figures, moreover, are made up direct from
threshers' returns, and therefore deductions must
be made for loss in cleaning and for short
measurement and also for damaged grain used
for feed : ' ,

Estimated production and diitribulion of wheat
in Canada— 1883- 1897.

Year.

Eitimiited

2 Si

.11

* 5 i.

Net

Allowance

Requited

Crop.

ExpiirU.

for seed.

for con-
sumption.

U^j!

Bus.

Bus.

Bus.

Bus.

Bus.

1882..,.

47,751,700

42 970,.5.-|5

7 222,285

3 127,917

24,378,200

i«8:t ...

30,810,702

27,7.50,080

'3,510,112

3,3li:{,911

24,081.015

1881 . .

45,.''Ji:i,417

40,827,075

2,792,330

3 001,071

2I952:«»

188.5 ...

42,730 327

38 402,694

4,602 975

3 .190,014

2,5,228,450

1880 ...

38.22l„503

34,402,053

6,133,283

3,.11»,9:I9

2.5,194,755

1887 . .

38,951,233

35,058,810

2,781,65.1

3,247 472

25.768,440

1888 ...

32 901,851

29,668,300

•1,218,030

3,4.57,810

20,049,936

18H9 ...

30,791,050

27,712,491

98,076

3,808 700

28,339,051

1890 ...

41,372,131

37.231,921

4,002,5,59

4,010,979

20,637,908

1891

60,721,193

64.619 073

12 343,420

4 3:15,819

26,945,039

1892 ...

48,182.295

43,364,060

14,798379

4,027,575

27,288,404

1893 ...

41 292.803

37,103522

10,845,886

3,078,172

27,618 118

1891 ..

42,S.'U,80t

38,281 321

7.756,727

3,810,520

27,058,833

1895 ...

57.318,400

51,013000

11,438,876

3,907,252

28,180898

1890 ...

39,415.137

35,473,624

12,747,221

4,845,905

28.522,915

1897...

64,563.650

48,927,285

f 12 972.322

{4,800,000

128,800,000

•Exccu

of Imports.

tQuanliiy avjulabl* for export. J Kstimatnd only.

It is evident that according to the foregoing
figures the estimated crop of the first eight years
considerably exceeded the distribution, a condi-
tion of affairs which can only be explained away
by the reasons given above, the principal factor
in the surplus being no doubt over-estimated
production. It is certain, however, that the crop
returns are continually increasing in accuracy,
and it will be found that, after writing some four
or five million bushels off the Manitoba crop of
i8gi for grain rendered useless by frost and rain,
the whole amount available for distribution dur-
ing the second period of eight years has been
accounted for, since there are probably some
twelve million biishels in the country at the time

CANADA: AN ENCYCL0P^:DIA,

y

of writinjj available for export. The consump-
tion, which varies in diffurent parts of the coun-
try, has been placed at an average of 5^ bushels
per head of the population of the Dominion. In
Ontario it is probably about Bve bushels per head,
in Quebec a little above that fijjuro, and in the
Maritime Provinces, owing to the mo^e extended
use of Indian corn, a little below it, but west of
Ontario through to the Pacific coast it has been
calculated at six bushels per head, whicii makes
SJ- bushels a fair general average for the Domin-
ion. The probability is that this rate is somewhat
higher than the actual one, but, as the probability
also is tiiat the actual production is under the
estimate, the one may be taken at present to set
off the other, and the figures can be reduced as
more exact information becomes available about
both consumption and production. The rate is
higher than the official calculation of consump-
tion in the United States, viz., 4.7 bushels per
head, but allowance has to be made for the
displacement of wheat in certain sections of that
country by corn-meal and rice. It is not so high,
however, as the consumption in the Australasian
Colonies, which ranges from 5 to y^ bushels per
head, nor as in the United Kingdom, where it is
about 6 bushels per head. It is probable that the
deficiency in the export figures already alluded
to is less than it was, and it may be that by
degrees the total exports will be represented with
tolerable correctness, but it is much to be regret-
ted that the details, as published in the Trade
and Navigation Returns, which might be of great
use in many ways, are incorrect and misleading;
e.g., the "oreign exports of wheat from the
Province of Manitoba, which often exceed 50 per
cent, of the total shipments of the Dominion, are
divided up between Ontario and Quebec, and
some insignificant quantity gravely set down as
the total export from that Province.

I have now shown what the actual production
has been down to the present time and have given
some idea of the extent of the area available,
from which details it can be ascertained that the
average production at present is in the neighbour-
hood of 45,000,000 bushels annually, and that
there are something like 160,000,000 acres in the
Provinces of Ontario and Manitoba and the
North-West Territories alone which are suitable

for the cultivation of wheat without any reference
to the capabilities of the rest of the Dominion.
Before speaking of the prospects of the develop-
ment of this area, it may be well to refer for a
moment to the cost of production, which must
always have an important bearing on the remun-
erative ability of wheat growing. It has not been
possible to obtain such exact data on the subject
as would have been desirable, but, as far as the
information available goes, it seems probable
that the average cost of growing a bushel of
wheat in Ontario ranges from 75 cents to 80
cents, and in Manitoba from 58 cents to 60 cents ;
while in Great Britain, which is the largest pur-
chaser of wheat in the world, it is about $1.16
per bushel, and, though the figures themselves
may not be quite correct, it is believed that the
relative proportions are represented with a fair
amount of accuracy.

And now with reference to the prospects for
the future. The wheat resources of Canada are
so large that they cannot be considered except in
general terms, and are practically illimitable, but
to what extent they will be developed is a question
that time alone can answer. The production of
the country in proportion to its capabilities is at
present very small — how can it be increased ?
People have often amused themselves by calculat-
ing what the result in bushels would be if so
many farmers took up so many acres of land and
sowed so many of them with wheat, but such
calculations are of little use and one good prac-
tical suggestion would be of more value than all
the theoretical possibilities. The United States
increased its output from 230 million bushels in
1869 to 611 million bushels in 1891, an increase
of nearly 400 million bushels ; under the same
conditions the Canadian North-West might mul-
tiply its production with still greater results in
about the same space of time, but what are the
present prospects of such conditions prevailing
again ? It has been said that five conditions
must concurrently obtain to insure an increase
in wheat production on a large scale, viz., favour-
able climate, fertile soil, an unemployed area,
sufficient population and ample means of trans-
port. To these should be added one more, and
perhaps the most important one of all, a fair
market price.

WF

3>

CANADA: AN KNCYCLOI'.KDIA.

The favuuiable cliiiiutu Cuiiuda uiuloubtcdly
has, the drawbacks nut buing any greater than
thiise incidental to any climate, wliiiu the soil, if
not, as clanned by some, the riclu-st in the world,
is at any rate unsurpassed in fertility, the average
yield being in excess of that of any of the great
wheat-exporting countries. In tlu United States
it is i-'J hiislu^Is per acre, with a tendency to
increase in consecpience of improved methods of
cultivation; in Russia it is about iiinu bushels ;
in British India about nine bushels ; in Australasia
from ten to eleven bushels ; and in Ar^'entina
probably from twelve to thirteen busiiels, the
data from this country being very indefinite ;
while in the Province of Manitoba the production
of tiie last fourteen years has given an average of
nineteen and one-half bushels per acre. In some
years the tij,'iires for the whole Province run up
as high as twenty-five and twenty-seven bushels;
in the Province of Ontario the production aver-
ages over seventeen and one-half bushels and in
the North-West Territories it is seventeen bush-
els or over. As to the unemployed area it is,
considering the favourable conditions that pertain
to it, probably the largest now remaining adapted
for the cultivation of wheat. The United States
is, and will for some time to coriie, be the largest
exporter of wheat, but, in the opinion of many,
wlieat growing in that country has reached its
maximum, in which case the demands of a steadily
growing population will have a tendency to reduce
the exportable surplus, and it has already been
predicted that the day is not far distant when
the whole local wheat crop will be absorbed by
the home demand.

The first three, then,of the necessary conditions
prevail in Canada to a most satisfactory extent,
and the fourth, viz., ample means of transport,
which is at the present time apparently absent,
may be considered practically to exist, for there
is no question that, in these days of rapid develop-
ment, means of transport will be supplied con-
currently with, if not in advance of, the increase
in production. Therefore the two remaining
conditions, i.e., population and a demand for
wheat at a remunerative price are the ones that
are wanting, and are not only absolutely neces-
sary to a successful realization of the preceding
conditions, but are the hardest to supply. The

first of these two conditions, i.t*., how under
existing circumstances to provide inducements
for the surplus population of other countries
to move in nnd people the vacant lands of the
Canadian North-West, is one of the great
unsolved prol)l('ms of the day. As remaiked
above, thirty years ago these liiiids would have
needed no advertisement, they would have
advertised themselves if they had been within
the reach of settlement, but such a state of affairs
is past and probably gone for ever. The cultiva-
tion of wheat, /xrr st*, is not a remunerative pur-
suit and the market value of agricultural produce
of all kinds is so low that the pursuit of agricul-
ture as a means of livelihood is distinctly out
of favour. The whole tendency of civilized
life to-day is concentration in cities and towns,
the steady-going life on a farm is out of fashion,
people have to get rich in a hurry, and that
can no longer be done by farming. It may
be, however, that continued concentration will
itself provide a remedy by congesting the centres
of population to such an extent that the making
of a living will become impossible to many, and
recourse will of necessity be had to the lands
now lying unoccupied. It being evident then
that the first of these conditions cannot be pro-
vided for without some change in the present
position of affairs, let us see what are the
chances for the second condition — a remunerative
price — the existence of which is, as a matter
of fact, the key to the whole question. It is gen-
erally recognized now that the supply of wheat
will, under ordinary circumstances, be fully equal
to. It not exceed the demand and it might there-
fore seem at first sight as if the great area offer-
tile will it land in Canada was after all of noaU'^iu
very great value. But such is not the case, for
wheat will always be in demand to a certain
extent at some price or another, and, while it ap-
pears tolerably certain that the world will never
again see a continued maintenance of the high
prices of years gone by, it is equally certain that
there will from time to time be appreciations
in value that will go far to make up for the
years of lower prices. Of this fact the present
appreciation (1897) is a good illustration, coming
as it does as a result of two years of comparatively
short ciops and the consequent consumption

CANADA: AN KNCYCLOIVKDIA.

.VI

of resurvc'8. Tliu uppreciutiuii be^un early in the
autniiier aiul, us far asprcHeiit indications go, will
last until next year's crop is wt.-li in Bi|{ht, when,
if tko yield is anything up to tlie average, it will
gradually disappear. The period uf time thus
covered represents what will be the average
duration of these appreciations.

Brief as these periods of better prices will
probably be, they will bo of inestimable bcnetU
to the farmer, the profits resulting being suthcieiit
to carry him over several bad years, during which
he can make a cumfortable living by growing the
coarser grains, stock raising and dairy farniin;^',
knowing that his land is always available for the
production of a remunerative wheat crop when-
ever indications point to the probabilities of a
lively demand. Perhaps one of the most suc-
cessful ways of iiitrodnciiig into the North-\Vt.st
that population which is so essential to its devel-

opment will be by taking proper advantage
of these transient appreciations of wheat values
and pointing out forcibly ami cfTectively the large
profits that are to bo made by those who are on
the spot when the rise in price commences and
matures. The wheat (|(iesti(m is one full of un-
certainties and surprises, and it is quite possible
that one's theories may bo upset by the march
of events, but, however that may be, it seems
tolerably certain that in spite of the unfavourable
outlook at the present time for any permanent
rise in the price of wheat, and in spite of the
apparent difficulties in the way of utilizing to their
full extent the agricultural resources of the coun-
try, the wiieat lands of Canada are a heritage
of enormous value and one that, though it may
require many years of development, can never
be anything but a source of strength and wealth
to the Douiiiiiun.

mm

AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT IN ONTARIO

11 V

C. <:. JAMES, M.A.. Deputy Minljler >>i Agnculluri In Untino,

TIIIC yrciit prirniuy soiircus of wealtli in
tliu Duininioii uf Caiuida iiro four in
iiiiiubcr — oiir lisl.ciios, our iihiks, our
(oil -^13 ami our f.iiins. I'loiii our (".iii-
adiun fisiicrifS we derive annually wialtli to the
amount of $jo,ouo,ooo ; frotn our minus ntaily
ijjo.ooo.oou ; from oiii loifsts alxuit !?So,ooo,oo();
and fmni our f.irnis, a( coiiling to tlie Doiniiiioii
Census, no less an aniMunt than $0oo, 000,000. I
may tlirii comiiiciu i; l>y st.itiiij,' that af,M icuhuii.-
IS the most impoitant iinliistiy of C.inailt to ilay
— wo arc, to ii hirgucxtuiil, >i " nation of farmers."
Let me put the niatt<r in aiiotlu-r foiui. I'or
every doll.u" of tnineials pioihucd last yc.w (li^i)j)
in Caiiail.i there wis over §20 worih of htiiii
products atlded to our wealth, 'llie wluat crop
of Ontario alone was worth nearly as much as all
the gold, silver, copper, nickel, coal, iron, salt,
|)etroli'uiii and other minerals of the wiiole of
Canaii.i. When we keep facts like these in mind
we can readily undi rstaiid w hy the manaj,'ers of
hanks iiiid loan compaiiits aie keen sludi'iits of
a;,'ricuUuial statistics, and wiiy the values of hank
stocks in Canada are so closely affected by the
yield per acre of our staple fielii crofts and the
prices of the same in the {jreat markets of the
world. It may be added that tiie capital in-
vested in Ontario in agricultuie is about $(joo,-
000,000; the persons eiii,'af,'ed in aj^riciilture in
Ontario in i8(jl numbert.d 292,770; and that the
annual agricultural product of the Province is
between $200,000,000 and $300,000,000. The
last item, of course, varies with the product and
market values.

Ontario is a large Province. From the mouth
of the Albany River on James' Bay to Pelee
Island in Lake Erie, the distance is about 750
miles; vvhile from the eastern limit on the St.
Lawrence to the western, near the Lake of the

34

Woods, it Ih about i,oou miles. Its total area is
2.^0,000 square miles, larger than the nine North
Atl.tntic States by one-third ; larger than Maine,
New Hampshire, Vermont, New Yoik, I'ennsyl-
vania and Ohio combined. Hut a small portion
is, as yet, settleil ; in fact, eighty per cent, vif the
entire Province is still in pi)ssession uf the
Crown ; and, while the large portion unsold is
valuable principally for its timber and minerals,
there are several millions of acres of the finest
agricultural land as yet unoccupied. One section
lies along the Kaiiiy River, adjacent to Minne-
sota, U.S.; the other, the valley of Lake Teinis-
camingue, is to the north of Ottawa. These two
distrins aie in the same latitiule as Northern
Minnesota. The former disliict is covered with
deep, black, .illuvial soil, and tiie other with rich
clay overlaid with humus. Explorations in 1898
reveal .1 thud are.i of still greater extent between
Sudbury and Moose Factory.

The old settled portion of Ontario lies in the
triangle, boiin led on one side by the Ottawa and
Lake Nipissing, on the secoiul by the St. Law-
rence, Lake Ontario and Lake Erie, and on the
third by the St. Clair, Lake Ilurcjn and Georgian
Bay. It is worth vvhile opening a map to look
at the configuration. With the exception of a
short /i()W<i/,'(! between Lake Nipissing and Trout
Lake on the north, it is practically an island,
washed by the waters of t\.o large rivers and
three great lakes. In addition, note its shape,
like a wedge pushed down into the heart of the
chief agricultural States, ami you will begin
to realize that its position and surroundings
apparently fit it for a great agricultural land.
Its backbone is the western branch of the
Archaian Rocks, the material out of which rich
clay is made. While the northern point of On-
tario is an ocean port on James' Bay, the south-

CANADA: AN KNCYCLOP.KDIA.

JS

ern point in further iiunth than HoH'toit und
C'hicai;o, U.S. Tlio Hoiitlicrn limit o( Ontario
is below tliu 4iiul panillcl ; the northwcHt boiind-
ary liiiu of tlic United StatiH it the 4ijtli. Prac-
tically ull of thu ^,it4,,{^i iiihabitantH ul Ontario
are to the south uf a straight line drawn from
tlio Sault to Portland, Mainu. In this areu
are 2j,ooo,ooo acres of occnpiccl lands.

I WDuiil diviilo tlio agricultural history of On-
tario into epochs as follows :

1st I rom 1783 10 1812

and I'lom i8ia to iXj;

jrd 1 rom 1837 to 1807

4th I'rom 1867 to 1897

TliL'su piii' Ills aiu of nearly tliu same length,
about tiiiity years — a generation each. In the
iirst period the work consisted mainly in felling
the forests to make an open pl.u e for the rude
log lintises and barns and the small field in which
the wiieat, oats and potatoes might bo grown.
The farms were well described as '* clearings "
and the cleared ground among the stumps served
to produce only enough grain and roots to sustain
the settler's family. Cattle were few in number
and the settler had to add hunting and trappini^
to his occupation of felling and tilling in order
to supply his family with meat and clothing
In thai period the two principal articles exported
from the farm were oak and pine timber and
wood ashes. Reference to the eiily trade
records will show how important tiiese two
items were in the export trade of Upper Canada.
The clearing of land and the making of potashes
for export is an industry but little known to the
farmers of to-day.

With the increase in cleared land came
an increase in the area of land sown to grain,
especially to wheat. This grain had risen
to extraordinary values during the continuance
oi' the great War of 1812-14, and this doubtless
ga;'e increased impetus to its cultivation. An
investigation of the trade returns of the second
period, 1812-1837, will show an increasing
export of wheal to Knr^pe by way of Montreal.
Down to 1873 the exports of Montreal may
be taken as practically those of Ontario alone,
for Manitoba and the North-West had not
yet become exporting sections. Ontario pro-
duced as tine wheat as was to be found in North

America — both spring and fall — and she ban
probably kept up hc!r record in this regard bettPr
than any other port of the older settled portion
of this continent.

From 1783 to 181 a the population had grown
from practically nothing to about Ho.ooo persona,
all of whom, with the exception of a f w hun-
dred, were directly connected with agiiculture.
l*"rom 181 3 to 1837 the population increased
from 80,000 to 3<j7,48y. Hy far the larger por-
tion of this population lived upon the farm. I
find on reference to the year l830that there were
only five towns in the Province of over 1,000
inhabitants each, viz., Hrockville, 1,130; Hamil-
ton (including township), 2,013 ; Loiulon (includ-
ing township), 2,415; Toronto, 2,860, and Kings-
ton, 3,587. In i83(j tlure was only one daily
paper in Ontario and only one bank. Even
matches, steel pens, and postage stamps were as
yet unknown. The first telegraph line from
Toronto to Niagara did not appear until 1847
and the first railway train from Toronto north
to Bradford did not run until 1853. Railway
connection with Montreal by the Grand Trunk
came three years later, in 1856. Even the canals
along the St. Lawrence were small and of simple
construction. The farm exports of the Province
went dou 1 the St. Lawrence in Durham boats
cuid batteaux.

During the third period, from 1837 to 1867, an
extensive immigration set into this Province
from England, Scotland and Ireland. The
great famine in 1846 sent Irish immigrants to
America by the tens of thousands. These new-
comers settled, as a rule, in groups or blocks and
formed the nuclei of some of the richest town-
ships in Ontario.

The love of the British for live-stock is a
marked characteristic and must also be reckoned
with in considering our growth of wealth at this
time. These immigrants from over the sea,
especially those from Aberdeenshire and the
south of Scotland, and those from Northumber-
land, Durham, Yorkshire, and the great sheep
downs of the south of England, brought with
them the love of good horses, good cattle and
good sheep, and the pure-bred stock soon fol-
lowed.

Ontario, by her sunny skies, clear air, clean

36 CANADA: AM ENCYCLOP-iJDlA.

water, and rich pastures, has been well aduptsd companies. The furmers of a township desire to
to tlie rearing of live-stock. The settlers from organize a company. Half a dozen or more
England and Scotland nut only loved good stock, draw up an agreement in accordance with a
but knew how to care f(ir them, and in this period special Act passed for the purpose and register
the true foundation of Ontario's agricultural the agreement at the local registry office. Suffi-
wealth was lai'l. Where do we stand to-daj', cient money is subscribed to erect a factory and
thirty years later ? I can put it in a few words, equip it. A coknmittee of management is
As was proven at the World's Fair in 1893, appointed. Fifty or more farmers agree to send
, there is no other part of the North American their uiill- daily to the factory, where it is made
continent where so great a variety of the best of into cheese or butter by an expert. <" reful
pure-bred stock is to be found to-day as in t :ie record is kept of the milk supplied by each
Province of Ontario. Any one who doubts th's patron, and also of its quality value for cheese or
can have convincing proof of it by visiting the butter. The products are sold and the surplus,
magnificput gatherings of live-stock brought after taking out the cost of making and selling,
together every autumn at the Evliibitions held is divided among the patrons according to the
in Toronto, London and Ottawa, and at the amount of milk ihat each patron sends. In 1897
winter shows held at Guelph and elsewhere by there were 66,104 patrons of the 1,161 cheese
the Fat Stock Associations. What is its extent ? factories. Following the success of the co-
Let me give it in figures : operative cheese factory has come the co-opera-
Total value of live-stock on the farms tive butter factory or creamery. Inside of ten

of Ontario, July ist, 1897 $93,649,804 years it is probable that the making of dairy

Total value of live-stock sold for year butter ut home will become as rare as is the

ending July 1st, 1896 ^29. 753. 599 making of cheese at Lome, and a factory syatem

i\ i value of dairy products made of butter making will be established far greater

Ontario every year 27,000,000 in extent and importance than is our present

We now come to the fourth period, the thirty cheese factory system. I say •' far greater " be-

years just ended, 1867-1897. The main feature cause the consumption of butter exceeds thit of

of this period is the rise of dairying as a specialty cheese.

— it is the age of the coming in of the cheese So much for the main characteristic of our

factory and the creamery. In 1851 the first co- agriculture in each of the four periods referred

operative cheese factory had been started near to. The tree felling, log hauling and burning

Rone, in Oneida Co., New York State, and soon and potash making of the first settlers gave way

after factories sprang up by the score in the to the grain growing of the second period ; then

Hudson Valley and to the west and north. In followed the great boom of live stock develop-

1864 Harvey Farrington, of Herkimer County, ment ; and out of this has come the dairying

New York State, with commendable enterprise which has proved so ext'»nsive and so remuneru-

crossed over into this Province and started the tive. As to what else is now being developed, I

firbt factory at Norwich, in Oxford County. By might refer to the opening up of a great fruit-

1867 there were half a dozen more. In 1883 the growing industry. Four causes have contributed

number had grown to 635, and in 1897 there were much towards the development of our agriculture,

in operation no less than 1,161 factories, pro- These have been felt in all lands, but I will refer

ducing 137, 362,916 pounds of cheese ; the gross pi ncipally to their effect upon this country,

value of this production was approximately They were :

$12,000,000. The amount of creamery butter i. The increased use of machinery,

increased from 2,700,000 lbs. in 1893 to 7,700,- 2. Improvements in means and ir.etliods of

000 in 1897. These amounts refer to cheese and transportation and communication,

butter made only in factories and creameries, 3. The application of scientific discoveries,

most of which are co-operative in character. 4. Changes in methods of work and the iiiiro-

A word here as to the nature of co-operative duction of co-operative associations.

CAN>»OA; AN ENCYCLOP.-HDIA.

IT

ir.etliods i)f

I. Between 1881 and 1891, the decade between
these last two Census enumerations, there was a
large increase in the cultivated area of Canada,
owing mainly to the settlement of the prairie
lands of Manitoba and the North-West. In that
period the wheat area of Manitoba alone in-
creased from about 200,000 acres to gou.ooo.
The Dominion Statistician, in Census Bulletin
No. 18, says that "contemporaneously with this
there has been an increase in the amount of land
improved in Canada from 21,899,180 acres in
1881 to 28,537,242 acres in i8gi." The agricul-
tural product of i8gi was far in advance of that
of 18S1. Yet, if we turn to the farm producers,
we Bud the following statement :

1881. 1)591.

Farmers and farmers' sons in

Canada 656,712 649,506

Here is a falling off to the extent of 7,206,
accompanied by the very large increase in the
improved land of 6,638,062 acres. There are
fewer persons engaged in agricultural work in
Ontario to-day than there were ten years ago,
but the product of their work is much greater.
The agricultural statistics of the Ontario Depart-
ment go back only to 1883. Let me put the
statement in the form of a table :

1883. 1897.

Total farm lands assessed 21,458067 23,360,428

Acies of field crops 7,542,623 8,701,705

VMue of farm land $654 793."25 $SS4,oS4.5S^

Value of implemeiiti 43,522,530 51,299,098

We have therefore an increase in farm lands
of nearly 2,000,000 acres ; an increase in the cul-
tivated land of over 1,000,000 acres; a decrease
in the value of farm lands of $100,000,000; an
mcrease in tne value of farm machinery and
implements of nearly $8,000,000. At the same
time there has been a very marked falling off in
the price and cost of machinery of all kmds. I
conclude, therefore, that in the past fourteen
years, for which we have full statistics, there has
been a very great increase in the machinery,
implements and tools used upon the farms of
this Province. This explains why it has been
possible for a cmaller number of workers to in-
crease their total product,

II. The history of transportation development
in Ontario would be a concise history of the
social and material progress of the people. The

first settlers travelled by canoe, batlean and Dur-
ham bolt, or overland by the Indian trails. The
settlers' roads followed these trails, crude and
winding at first, but straightened and improved
in after years. The corduroy road of the settlers'
own making, and the two or three military roads
constructed in the latter part of the eighteenth
century, were the principal avenues in bringir g out
supplies to the lake front for transportation by sail-
ing vessels down the rapids of the St. Lawrence.
During the second period of transportation de-
velopment, the construction of canals around the
rapids of the St. Lawrence greatly improved die
communication with Montreal and assisted the
farmer with his freight to Europe. About the
middle part of the third period railway construc-
tion began, and for forty-five years the iron and
steel rails have been insinuating themselves
through the farm settlements, and the iron horse
has been pushing himself more and more into the
very heart of the farmer's business. The benefits
of railway communication for the handling of
farm produce and for bringing in farm neces^.ities
are so well known and understood that I need
not delay to discuss them.

III. Agricultural science in Canada dates from
1874, when the Agricultural College and Exper-
imental Farm were started at Guelph. To give
some idea of the work now in progress let me
enumerate the leading institutions ot this nature
in Ontario. We have, as stated, the College
and Experimental Farm at Guelph, three dairy
schools, ten fruit experiment stations and a sys-
tem of experiment work directed from Guelph
and carried on in 1897 by 3,835 farmers located
in all parts of the Province. We have the
Dominion system of Experimental Farms, with
the central farm at Ottawa and four branches
in other Provinces, a dairy school and several
training colleges in Quebec, dairy schools
in New Brunswick and Manitoba and a horticul-
tural school in Nova Scotia.

Botanists are at work studying the plants
of the world, and helping in the production
of new varieties and the improvements of old
varieties. Let me give but one example of the
value of this. About 6,500,000 acres in Ontario
are devoted to grain growing. If by selection
and cross fertilizing we could obtain seed grain

^m

38

CANADA : AN KNCYCI.Ol'.KDIA.

that would add only one bushel per acre to our
crops, the annual grain product would be increased
by 6,500,000 bushels. The grain crops of Ontario
in 1897 were worth over $50,000,000. An im-
provement to the extent of 25 per cent, is quite
within the range of possibility. The President
of the Agricultural College in his Report for
1897, referring to this work in improving varieties
of grain, says: "In this way some excellent
foreign varieties have been introduced, tested
and distributed throughout the Province — var-
ieties which yield from six to eight bushels per
acre more than any varieties previously grown.
In oats and barley alone, the varieties introduced
and distributed by the experiment station have,
within the past four or five years, paid to the
Province a good deal more than the entire cost
of the College for the last ten years."

Entomologists are studying the thousand and
one insects and diseases affecting our grains
and fruits. The importance of Economic En-
tomology to the farmer is thus referred to by the
late Professor Panton of our Agricultural College,
in an article contributed to the Farmers' Insti-
tute Report for 1896-7: "The study of insects
in relation to man has of late years commanded
much attention, and is usually referred to as
Economic Entomology. While there are some
insects beneficial to man, there are many injur-
ious. Some destroy his food, some injure his
clothing, and others attack the animals that
are of use to him. Nearly 100 species ha^e been
found preying upon his grain and forage crops ;
upwards of 40 upon his vegetables ; 50 upon the
grape; 75 upon the apple. The pine has 125
species as enemies; the oak 300; the elm 80;
the hickory 170; the maple 75; the beech 150;
while the unfortunate willow battles against
400 insect foes." The following statistics show
what an immense loss is sustained by man from
insects :

1854. The United States lost $15,000,000 by
the wheat midge.

1857. Canada lost $8,000,000 by the wheat
midge.

1864. The United States lost $73,000,000 by
the chinch-bug.

1870. New York State lost $5,000,000 by the
cabbage woim.

1873. The Southern States lost $25,000,000
by the cotton worm.

1874. The United States lost $356,000,000
by the grasshopper.

1884. Canada lost $500,000 by the clover
midge.

IV. Let me finally refer in a few words to the
changes that have taken place or are now taking
place in the life and methods of the farming
community. It is but a few years since the
farmer lived in a log house built by his own
hands and but rudely furnished. The heating
and cooking were done at the big open fire-place.
The food of his table was entirely of his own
raising and was therefore limited in its variety.
For mail}' years his clothes were of deerskin or of
home spun, his winter's cap one of the same
material, his summer hat was of straw plaited by
his own family. His logging and hauling were
done by o.xen. He cut the grain with sickle,
scythe or cradle, and his wife and children
followed with rakes, binding and shocking the
grain. He threshed on the barn floor with the
cumbersome flail or by the tramping of his
horse's feet, and he winnowed after the manner
of by -gone centuries. He flung a bag of wheat
over tiie back of his only horse, or he placed it in
his canoe, or perchance he swung it over his own
sturdy shoulder, and strode off by the trail to .
the little mill miles away where by water power
it was ground into flour between stones.

To a large e.xtent the farmer now does his own
work and limitsoperations tohisown farm and his
o-.»n help. We still find, however, the thresher
with his three or four helpers going from farm to
farm with his machine and portable steam engine.
Sometimes in a newly settled section the owner
of a mower or binder will engage to cut for his
neighbours in rotation. An interesting event in
farming operations is the annual harvest excur-
sion to the wheat lands of Manitoba. The
farmers of Manitoba are unable of themselves to
iiarvest their extensive crops in the short time
between ripening and frost. Every year from
3,000 to 5,000 extra "hands" go from Ontario
to Manitoba by special trains to take part in this
work. Some return in the autumn, some find
permanent employment, and some remain to
take up claims for themselves. Other cases of

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOIVKDIA.

39

the iiiigration of farm help are to be found in
connection witii fruit growing, hop-piciiing and
flax growing. For instance, when the fruit crops
of the Niagara district are about ripe large num-
bers of Indians from the Grand River reserves
move Into the district, pitch their camp and liire
out to pick strawberries, raspberries, f;;rapes, etc.
When hops are ready to pick in Waterloo
County or around the Bay of yuinte, and when
flax is ready to pull in Perth County and the
adjacent townships, numbers of women and
children from the towns go out to engage in the
work. Migration for temporary work is to be
found also in the vicinity of canning factories.
On the whole, however, the farmer in his method
of work is a^^proximating more and more to the
mode of work known to dwellers in our towns and
cities.

I have referred to the co-operation in work
among the early settlers. We are coming into
another form of co-operation. I have spoken of
the success of co-operative methods in connection
with the making of butter and cheese. One
other form must be mentioned and that is the
great increase in all kinds of associations for
improvement. An agricultural society was or-
ganized at Niagara (Newark) in 1792 or 1793.
Of its existence and of its usefulness but little is
known at the present day. It was not till 1830
that practical encouragement was given these

societies on the part of the Legislature. They
have continued ever since. In 1867 apart from
these general societies for holding fairs, there
was only one other Association, that of the fruit-
growers. In 1897, however, there were Farmers'
Institutes organized in every riding or district of
Ontario, there were twelve live-stock associa-
tions, two dairy associations, a Bee-keepers' As-
sociation and the Entomological Society.

The Report of the Ontario Commissioner of
Agriculture for 1868 filled only 272 pages and its
distribution was confined to a few copies. In
1897 the agricultural reports of the Department
were eleven in number and made 1,808 pages.
Over 200,000 of these Reports were distributed,
in addition to large nambers of bulletins. In the
three years, 186S-69-70, the Legislature spent
$195,969 in behalf of agriculture, of which "^161,-
392 was for agricultural societies, $30,000 for
the Provincial Fa.ir, and $1,050 for the Fruit-
growers' Association. In the three years, 1895-
96-97, the Legislature spent $718,156 for all
agricultural purposes including the agricultural
societies, the various associations, the Agricultural
College, the dairy schools. Farmers' Institutes,
Fruit Experiment Stations, Good Roads' Branch,
Printing of Reports, and collection of Agricultural
Statistics. The total expenditure by the Legis-
lature on behalf of agriculture for the thirty
years, 1868-97, inclusive, has been $4,509,090.

The following statement of agricultur

from the returns sent to the Upper Canada

Pjpulation,
Year. No,

1826 166,379

1827 177.174

1828 186,488

1829 197.815

1830 -'I3.I56

1831 236,702

1832 -263.554

1833 295,863

1834 321,145

1835 347.359

1836 374.099

1837 397.489

X838 399.422

1839 409.048

1840 432.159

1841 455.688

al conditions during

the years 1826-1

841 is made up

Legislature

:

Area

Area

Oxen, 4

Milch

Other

0;:cupied

Cultivated

Horses,

year? and

Cows.No.

Cattle 2 to 4

Acres.

Acres.

No. 1

Upwards, No.

years old.

3.353.653

599.744

23,806

26,302

62,198

25,669

3.579.554

645,792

25,228

29,091

66,878

27,661

3,632,540

668,326

25,701

29,814

67,188

37.304

3,726,330

717.553

28,388

33.332

75.071

34.765

4,018.385

77i<7^7

30.776

33.517

80,892

i2,^i7

4.387.777

818,416

33.428

36,131

84.373

35.162

4,716,372

916,357

36,822

39.054

92.274

35.»72

5.I54.2II

988,956

40,254

41.870

95,042

35760

5,127,064

1.004,779

43.217

42.455

99.823

36,795

5.703.219

1.309.785

48,118

46,080

\ 10,051

39.371

6.089,694

1,283,709

55.064

48,938

I21,02.J

44.706

6,280,611

1.440-505

57,250

48,453

120,110

49.110

6,769,050

1.469.737

63.396

47.703

129,711

50,649

6,670,083

1.556,677

66,220

47,491

i.3f'.i7i

47.607

7,011,706

1,713.163

72,696

48,990

148,483

49.565

6,868,504

1,811,431

75316

49,940

157.411

56,756

flp

4» CANADA: AN ENCYCLOP/KDIA.

The important table which follows is made up from Census reports. The
appears especially prominent :

Ootuio. lajL'. 1SJ8. l-il. IHCl. J871.

Population 4^>7.o5,i 7^5. ij?') 95'2.oo4 i.JO^.O'J' i, 6,50,85 1

Land occupied,

acres 6,zii,yz() 8,413,591 (j,828,(.55 1.1,354, 896 16,162,676

Land improved,

acres 1,751,528 1,780.157 3.705.523 6,051,609 8,833,626

Horses, No 113,647 151.389 201,670 377,681 489,001

Neat cattle 504.963 565,845 744.264 1,015,278 1,403,174

Sheep 575.730 t^33.8o7 967,168 1,170,225 1,514,914

Swine 394*366 484,241 571,496 776,001 874,664

Wheat, bush... 3.221,989 7. 55^-773 12,682.550 24,620,425 14,233,389

Oats, bush 4,788,167 7.055,730 11,395.467 21,220,874 22,138,958

Potatoes 8,080,402 4,751,346 4.973,285 15.325.9'io 17.138,534

increase m

live stock

1881.

1801.

1,926.922

2,112,989

19.259.9"9

21,091,698

11,294,109

M.157.952

590,298

77i,^i^

1,702,167

2.052,474

i.359.i7«

1,021,769

700,922

1,121,396

27,406,091

21,318,582

40.209,929

47,160,246

18,893,996

17,635,151

ife:

:in.:s '^'•^

"^SC

-r^^^^'-

>-Jj^r'-^

'•csT?*'

Barl«y Cutiiny: in Untariu.

ve stock

18U1.

2,ii2,(j8q

AGRICULTURE IN THE MARITIME PROVINCES

BV

W. W. HUBBARD, Editor of The Co-OpfruHir Farmn; Sussex, N. B.

NOVA Scotia and New Brunswick liave
not hitliLTto been noted for their agri-
cultural production, but the little Island '
Province of Prince Edward, in the
Gulf of St. Lawrence, has, for many years, been
a large producer and exporter of food products.
The non-appearance of the field products of the
first mentioned Provinces upon the markets, and
the trade returns showing their large importation
of grains, meats and flour has led to the opinion
that Nova Scotia and New Brunswick were not
capable of agricultural development, and this has
probably kept many settlers from their shores.
As a matter of fact, however, not only is Prince
Edward Island a grand agricultural district, but
the other two Provinces have large areas which
are not excelled in natural ft 'ility and other
favourable crop-growing conditions by any ©ther
areas of equal size on the American continent.

it behooves me then to offer explanations for
this non-development of agriculture. There are
two circumstances which perhaps are most
largely responsible. 1st. The immigration to these
Provinces of the United Empire Loyalists, who
were men of all professions and very few of them
trained fanners, put a class of settlers upon the
lands who bad very little idea how to farm. There
is abundant testimony to this day of the hard-
ships these people underwent and their utter
incapacity to carry on a system of agriculture
such as would have been profitable to them.
Then the immigration which came later, chiefly
from IrelamJ, to New Brunswick and of Highland
Scotch to Nova Scotia, did not bring people who
understood agriculture any better. They came
without capital and had to go to work to earn
their farms. In this way they were trained into
the habits of the older settlers in the new coun-
try, and before they were their own masters had

forgotten all they ever knew of the practice of
agriculture in Ireland and Scotland. 2nd. The
other chief cause of the lack of improvement in
agriculture has, in New Brunswick, undoubtedly
been the great development of the lumber indus-
try and the coast fisheries ; and in Nova Scotia
the allied importance of fish, lumber and
minerals.

Perhaps the results of the lumber business upon
agriculture in New Brunswick in the first half of
the present century cannot better be told than in
a Report made to the Government of that
Province in the year 1849 by Prof. |. F. W.
Johnston, a noted English Chemist, who was
brought out from England to critically examine
the Province from an agricultural standpoint.
In his Report upon the influence of the lumber
industry he says : " ist. It has provided a more
ready market for farm produce in many parts of
the Province. 2nd. It has kept up the prices of
such produce, so that, when the lumbering trade
has been good, the prices have been generally
higher than in neighbouring Provinces. 3rd. It
has given employment at good wages to idle
hands ; and to small farmers it has afforded
winter work and an opportunity of earning money
at a time when they had comparatively little
work at home. These are some of the benefits
which the lumber trade conferred upon the Prov-
ince. But unfortunately, whether from its own
nature or from the abuse and competition of
those who followed it, this trade was also produc-
tive of much evil:

I. It has not merely given labour to idle hands
who could obt?.in no employment in farming,
but, being itself the first and most important
pursuit in the Colony, it became the leadinp
or chief employment of the able-bodied men
of the Province. Farming, which silently grew

♦»

CANADA: AN liNCVCI-OlVKDIA.

Up after tlie liiinLer trade had been already estab-
lished, was CDiisiiiered altogether secondary and
subsidiary to it. The ground was cultivated
chiefly to raise supplies for the lumberman.
As a more " respectable " pursuit, and as afford-
ing the prospect of excitement and a.iventure,
the occupation of lumbering tempted the young
men in great numbers from the more sober and
monotonous pursuits of agriculture, and thus
greatly retarded its progress in tiie Province.

2. It also unsettled and demoralized the minds
of these young men and giive them extravagant
habits of living, wliich they imparted in some
degree to their families and connections, and
which still cling prejudicially to the setlleii
population in some parts of the country.

3. It acted in a similar way upon tiie minds
of many of the most promising immigrants from
the Old Country, enticing them into the woods,
then teaching them thriftless habits, and in iine,
making them not only less valuable additions
to the productive labour of the Provinct;, but also
less able to miintain their families in comfort,
and to train up their children to be useful and
industrious members of society."

And he further says: "The lumber business
has exercised a directly returding and injurious
effect upon the regular culture, the average
productiveness and economical tillage of the
land.

1. It has given occasion to the small farmer
who engaged in it to carry off his hay into the
woods, and thus to diminish greatly the quantity
of manure, by which his land might have been
enriched had his hay been consumed upon his
farm.

2. This selling or carrying off the hay has
made it necessary in numerous instances to
maintain the cattle on the farm at the sfarvmg
point during the winter, so that in spring' they
had become mere skeletons, too weak for their
work, if they were labouring oxen, and probably
short of provender.

3. It has carried him away, not unfrequently
half the summer, attending to the sale and
delivery of his lumber, to the manifest and
ruinous neglect of the operations upon his farm
and of the general tending and welfare of his
family.

4. It has not only carried off the best labour^
ers and distracted the attention of the farmers,
but it has raised the price of labour beyond the
general ability of the farmer, who gave his whole
attention to the land, to employ paid labour
profitably in the operations of husbandry."

What was true in 1849 has been true since
until within the last fifteen years. Within this
period, however, the lumber business has passed
into the hands of large operators and the supply
of logs has been getting farther and farther
removed from the farm lands, so that many erst-
while lumbermen are now giving their farms
their presence and attention for twelve months
of the year. What has been true of New Bruns-
wick has been true to a greater or lesser extent
of Nova Scotia, and with the added diversion
in that Province of more extended fisheries and
considerable mining. The latter occupation,
however, probably is more beneficial than hurtful
to agriculture, as it gives all the year round
employment to many thousands of men and
these mining centres make excellent markets
fur agricultural products. So much by way
of apology for the comparative backward con-
dition of agriculture in the Maritime Provinces.
The assertion was made at the first of this
article that there were many areas in these Prov-
inces which could not be excelled for agriculture
anywhere on the continent. It is, perhaps, not
possible to completely prove this as, unfortun-
ately, in the past no accurate crop statistics have
ever been kept, but from the evidence which
can be adduced the reader will be able to glean
some facts which will be at least corroborative
of the assertion made. A brief glance at these
Provinces geologically, geographically, physically
and meten)Iogically will give us a fuller idea
of their natural wealth for agriculture.

Geologically, the Maritime Provinces have a
fair average chance. P.E. Island is nearly all of
the new red sandstone, which gives a soil of fair
fertility, naturally drained, easily worked and one
responding quickly to applied fertilizers. In
Nova Scotia the south shore of the Province is
principally trap with some loam — Lower Silurian
formation— while there are areas of granite and
gneiss, and the Annapolis Valley section comes
back to red sandstone. The eastern section is

^.■i*

CANADA: AN KNCVCLOIMIDIA.

43

mixed with trap, red sandstone and coal mea-
sures— tills latter consisting largely of grey sand-
stones mixed with varying proportions of clay.
Around the Bay of Fundy there is a large
area of aUuvial land of extraordinary fertility.
Some of it has been cutting hay for 150 years
without any apparent diminution of yield. Tiiis
soil has a crop-producing power far in excess of
tlie plant food contained in it. It is made up of
wash from a variety of rock foundations. Com-
ing up into New Brunswick we find that the coal
measures cover a large breadth of that Province,
forming gently undulating land with many large
bog areas, where vegetable matter has been col-
lecting for centuries and in some places formed
deposits of twenty feet in depth. These bogs,
when drained, are making strong cropping land
and are also valuable, when hauled out, thor-
oughly aired and applied to the neigiibouring
soils as top dressing. The Miramiclii, the Saint
John, the Ricliibucto and numerous other rivers,
run in part or in whole through this district.
Along their banks a fringe of soil is often found
better than the uplands present ; and hence along
the rivers the first settlers found comparatively
fertile tracts of country on which to fix their
families and commence their earliest farming
operations. The intervals and islands of the
River Saint John form some of the richest land
in the Province; but this richness aris- s in a
considerable degree from the circumstance that
this river flows in the upper part of its course
through geological formations of other kinds,
and brings down from the rocks of which they
consist the finely divided materials of which the
alluvial soils of the Counties of Sunbury and
York and Queens for the most part consist.

The Upper Silurian rocks cover an extent of
surface in New Brunswick only inferior to that
formed by the coal measures, and it is on them
that very much of tiie natural fertility of the
Province depends ; and the whole northern por-
tion of the Province rests upon them. From
Woodstock north on the St. John River and
across to the Rcstigouche the whole upland soil
is largely made up of this decaying rock, which
is very strong in potash and gives a soil said to
be equal to anything known elsewhere. T!ie
late Edward Jack, c.e., of Fredericton, who had

examined this tract and had compared it by per-
sonal investigation with the whole eastern part
of the American continent from the Mississippi
Valley to the Atlantic and Hudson's Bay, ex-
pressed it as his honest conviction that there was
no such large area of land, in all the territory he
had examined, so well and naturally adapted to
agriculture as could be found on the Upi>er Sil-
urian formation inNew Brunswick, lying between
the Rivers St. John and Restigouciie. It is to
this formation that the fertility of the alluvial
land along the St. John River can be attributed.

Lime and plaster rockls also widely distributed
in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. Gypsum
is exported very extensively from Windsor and
Antigonish in Nova Scotia, and Albert and Vic-
toria Counties in New Brunswick, and lime rock of
excellent quality is found in immense quantities
in St. John County and more or less elsewhere.
These two sources of a bountiful supply of lime
are great aids to agriculture. I need not refer
here to the mineral wealth of these Provinces or
to its bearing upon agriculture, save to say that
the great coal, iron, gold, silver and copper
wealth of Nova Scotia is sure to attract a large
population in time. New Brunswick is not so
fortunate as her sister Province in minerals, yet
she can show fairly profitable coal seams, nickel
and copper indications, some good gold, consid-
erable manganese and large deposits of iron.
The petroleum area under New Brunswick is
also said to be very large.

Geographically, the Maritime Provinces are
situated in a latitude similar to Southern France
and Northern Italy, and, were it not for the cur-
rent flowing from north to south along the
Atlantic coast, would enjoy a similar climate.
The southern point of Nova Scotia reaches down
to latitude 43 deg. 30", and northern New Bruns-
wick is just up to 48 deg. The longitude is
from 60 deg. west to 69 deg. Speaking from an
English standpoint, the Maritime Provinces are
the most easily reached British possessions out-
side of Europe, and this has served and will in
a greater degree serve to promote trade with the
Mother Country. Within the last decade the
poits of the Maritime Provinces are becoming
the principal all-the-year-round gateways between
the vast continent to the west and Great Britain,

w

m

CANADA; AN ENC:YCL0M<:UIA.

even large quantities of United States produce
Hiiding its exit through this channel. In the
near future, when a Canadian Fast Atlantic pas-
senger and mail Service shall have been arranged,
it is probable we will find a very large proportion
of the passenger traffic fur nioie than two-thirds
of the American continent going this way, as the
ocean voyage is so much shorter than through
any ports outside these Provinces. All this
must stimulate agriculture as well as other
industries.

The position of these Provinces, jutting out as
they do into the Atlantic Ocean, gives them
climatic peculiarities to which I shall later refer.
It also gives them a great extent of coast line,
with beautiful bays and noble harbours. Prince
Edward Island is in reality all sea coast, for no
matter how far into the interior one may gut, an
hour's drive in any given direction will almost
invariably discover salt water. There are bays
which deserve special mention, one, the beautiful
Bay Chaleur, between New Brunswick and the
Gasp(^ Peninsula, without rock, reef or shoal in
its ninety miles of length and forty-five miles of
breadth, is unique in its safety to navigators,
while the Bay of Fundy, between Nova Scotia
and New Brunswick, with its mouth wide-open
to the south-west, has features which are peculiar
only to this Bay. Lying funnel-shaped towards
the great tidal movement from west to cast, it
gathers from the incoming tide a great deal of
water that does not belong to it, and then gradu-
ally compressing it between narrowing shores,
piles it up in places sixty feet in height, and this
gives rise to many peculiarities. This rush of
tide twice a day has formed enormous areas of
marsh land, and the process is still going on.
The great rise and fall of water in this Bay has
also a climatic effect in that it keeps the air
continually moving, and in the regions about its
head there is probably a cooler summer climate
than can be found anywhere in the same latitude.
While this is undesirable for horticulture and
some crops, it is an almost perfect climate for
live stock. The hay crop grows luxuriantly, the
natural p)astures are good, and troublesome flies
are not nearly so bad as in warmer sections.

The physical features of the Maritime Prov-
inces are not, perhaps, in some ways so favour-

able to agriculture as the peninsula of Ontario,
"id certainly do not offer the extended unbroken
areas of tillage land that can be found further
west. Yet these Provinces have some physical
advantages all their own. They aro specially
good for stock-raising purposes. The abundant
supply of fresh water everywhere distributed by
lake, stream and river is perhaps the most impor-
tant physical feature. In no country is this
supply of pure, healthful water excelled, and in
very few is it duplicated. This feature is almost
invaluable for stock-raising purposes, and the
average Maritime farmer will look at you most
incredulously when you tell him of the trials of
a Western Ontario stockman during a severe
drought. It must not be supposed from this that
drought is unknown In these Provinces, for there
are in some seasons long periods of dry weather
which prevent the full development of crops; but
the normal ground water supply is rarely seriously
diminished. There are but few sections where
the wells go dry, and the lakes, larger rivers and
streams always contain abundance of water. To
insure a continuance of this favourable condition.
It is probable that we must conserve our forest
area and not make the mistake of some countries
in pprmitting the ruthless destruction of trees.
There are practically no mountains in the Mari-
time Provinces. Elevations of from 400 to 1,000
feet are frequently found, and considerable por-
tions of southern New Brunswick and Cape
Breton Island in Nova Scotia may be described
as broken, but nowhere is there an elevation
above 2,000 feet — the highest point in New
Brunswick being Bald Mountain in Queen's
C(nmty, N.B., i,(Soo feet, and some points a little
higher in Caj.e Breton, N.S.

The numerous small and large streams give
many chances for water-power, and this is
beneficial to the farmer in enabling him to grind
his grain and get his lumber sawn near home.
The Provinces are, par excellence, the home of the
spruce tree an^ the fir; nowhere does better
spruce grow, nor grow more quickly, and this
fact, with the ability to produce many other
evergreen varieties and nearly all kinds of hard
woods, insures the farmer a fuel supply and ample
building material. The number of rivers, lakes
and navigable streams has not only been of

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOI'.KDIA.

4S

ft . (

inestimable value to the lumbermen, but is of
almost equal value to the farmer in giving him
during the summer months cheap and easy com-
munication with the towns and cities.

Meteorologically, these Provinces have their
own peculiarities both favourable and unfavoura-
ble to agriculture. Their maritime position
delays the change from season to season and mild
open weather will extend up till nearly the New
Year ; while in the spring, ice fields in the Gulf
of St. Lawrence cause a coolness which some-
times extends throughout April and May and
prevents such early seeding as can be done farther
west. The average spring is, for agricultural
purposes, from ten to fifteen days behind the
peninsula of Ontario. The following figures
from the Meteorological Service will afford a
better ideaof the climate than any lengthy descrip-
tion. To give an idea of the precipitation I give
the following figures of rain fall and snow fall :
Nova Scotia. Nkw Brunswick. V. E. Island. Ykar.

Kain. Snow. Kaiii. Snow. Kain. Snow.

In. In. In. In. In. In

36.95 ii6-5 2<>**' '07> J9.S3 "7.1 1874

4382 J...J 34-16 87.4 40.15 78.3 1S78

35.37 115.2 29.69 1W.0 28.07 169.2 1SS2

3S-0S 49 i 3 J- 92 102 I 32.93 60.7 iSi'e

43.42 61.4 32.99 67.9 35.07 50.5 1892

Of course different localities vary much, but
space will not permit of my going into details; the
figures are available in the Canada Meteorological
Reports, which can be had on application to the
Minister of Agriculture at Ottawa. I give, how-
ever, for convenience, the mean temperature at
some of the representative points, with the pre-
cipitation :

Stations. Tkmpkkature, Precipitation.

'il"'- "J"' M«n. Rain. Snow. Total,
mum. mum.

Pritue EJwarJ Iilaiui. o o o In. In. In.

Albeiton 850 9.4 42.36 29.25 48.5 34.10

Geotgetown 91.$ 3.'> 44.08 36.70 67.0 43.44

New Brunswick.

Bathurst 92.0 170 44.46 26.49 98.4 36.33

Dorchester 85.0 15.0 36.31 32.48 54.7 3795

St. John 854 6.0 4168 42.48 52.8 47.76

Nova Scotia,

Digby 82.0 l.o 43.67 29.56 37.1 32.27

Halifax 884 3.0 43.80 48.43 506 53.49

Pictou 90.8 5.0 44.28 37.06 85.5 45^1

Sydney 88.5 i.o 4303 44.o6 767 S'-73

Yarmouth 76.5 1.6 43.43 41.65 104.1 5206

Plowing in the Maritime Provinces can be
commenced, according to locality, from and

after the loth of April, and considerable seeding
is in some years done before the first of May. In
the southern part of New Brunswick, and most
of Nova Scotia and P. E. Island the snow leaves
the fields before the first of April — some years
early in March — and leaves the fields exposed to
considerable freezing and thawing. This is very
hard upon the grass roots, but it is an excellent
pulverizing process for land plowed the previous
autiiiiin. In northern New Brunswick the snow
usually comes in November before heavy freez-
ing and stays till the first of May, thoroughly
protecting the grass. Though the snow is so
late in leaving, vegetation is very little behind
that of the southern part, as the grass starts
growing under the snow and the fields are green
as soon as the snow leaves.

Lands. The price of agricultural land is in
most districts low, running from $5.00 to $25.00
per acre (this includes buildings). Close to towns,
values naturally increase and those dyke lands
which have the wonderful hay-growing powers
that were previously mentioned, are valued from
$100 to $400 per acre, and will, as a rule, pay
good interest on the investment. There are yet
considerable areas of land held by the Crown.
In Nova Scotia about 1,500,000 acres are yet
ungranted, but most of this is unfit fur agricul-
tural purposes. The price of this land is $40
per hundred acres. In New Brunswick it is
estimated that there are about 7,000,000 acres of
ungranted land, and much of it is of splendid
quality for agriculture. Crown lands may there
be acquired for actual settlement as follows :

1. Grants of 100 acres, by settlers over eighteen
years of age, on condition of improving the land
to the extent of $20 (£"4) within three months;
building a house 16 by 20 feet and cultivating 2
acres within one year ; and continuous residence
and cultivation of 10 acres within three years.

2. One hundred acres are given to any settler
over eighteen years of age who pays $20 (£4) in
cash, or does work on the public roads, &c.,
equal to $10 (£2) per annum for three years.
Within two years a house 16 by 20 feet must be
built and 2 acres of land cleared. Continuous
residence for three years from date of entry and
10 acres cultivated in that time are required.

3. Single applications may be made for not

n!

' 'I

1

m

y

,11

w

46

CANADA; AN KNCYCLOI'/KDIA.

more thnn Jtnn acres of Crown Lands without
conditiotis of Sfttli'inent. These are put up to
public auction at an upAct price of $1 (4s. id.)
per acre. I'urcliasu money to be paid at once.
Cost of survey to be paid by purchaser.

In Prince Edwaril Island there are about 45,-
000 acres of vacant Govcrntnent land available,
consisting of forest lands of inediinn (jualitVi and
averaging in price about $1 an acre. Intending
settlers are allowed ten years to pay for their
holdings, the purchase money bearing interest
at 5 per cent, and being payable in ten annual
instalments.

Crops. Since the decemiial Census of 1891,
we have no statistics of farm crops or animals.
The Governments of the Provinces, outside of
Ontario, have never undertaken this work and
so we are very much in tlie dark upon many im-
portant points. In iS()i there were 62,419 horses
kept in Nova Scoti.i ; 5g,5(S6in New lirnnswick ;
and 37,402 in P. 1-. Island. Of horned cattle
Nova Scotia had 309,776; New Brimswick,
202,439; P. E. Island, 91.O29. Of sheep Nova
Scotia had 318,855 ; New Hrnnswick, 181,1 10 ; ami
P. K. Island, 147,097. Of swine Nova Scotia li;id
45,760; New Brunswick, 51,093; and P. 1'-.
Island, 42,652.

In 1S91 Nova Scotia had Wiieat : 14,157
acns ; bushels (spring), i5>S,3o6, bushels ((all),
7,500. Barley: acres, li,()92 ; bushels, 227,530.
Oats: acres, 94,117; bushels. 1,559,842. Rye:
bushels, 23,500. Peas : bushels, 19,536. Buck-
wheat: bushels, 184,421. Beans: bushels, 24,-
950. Corn : bushels, 16,890. Potatoes : acres,
44,854; bushels, 5,113,612. Turnips and other
roots: acres, 6,843; bushels, 1,349,076. Hay
crop : acres, 539,057 ; tons, 632,391. Grass and
clover seed : bushels, 2,117.

New Brunswick had Wheat: acres, 17,306;
bus. (spring), 206,610 ; bus. (fall), 3,199. Barley :
acres, 6,141 ; bus., 100,917. Oats: acres, 157,-
176; bus., 3,025,329. Rye: 6,321 bus. Peas:
bus, 24,352. Buckwheat: bus., 1,136,528. Beans:
bus., 20,137. Corn: bus., 21,021. Potatoes:
acres, 42,703; bus., 4,827,830. Turnips and
other roots: acres, 5,075; bus., 974,363. Hay
crop : acres, 470,834 ; tons, 476,069. Grass and
Clover : bus., 4,947.

Prince Edward Island had Wheat ; acres, 44,-

703; bus. (spring), 596,761 ; bus. (fall), 16,603.
Barley: acres, 7,597; bus., 147,880. Oats:
acres, 153,924; bus., 2,922,552, Rye: bus., aai.
Peas : bus., 4,735. Buckwheat : bus., 84,460.
Means: bus., 2,445. Corn: bus., 2,651. Pota-
toes: acres, 43,521 • bus., 7,071,308. Turnips
and other roots: acres, 4,411; bus., 2.005,453.
Hay crop: acres, 150,108; tons, 132,959.
Grass and Clover Seed : bus., 12,417. While
the above figures show the average for the whole
country where much of the crop is grown under
a very careless system of farming, the returns
from the Experimental Farm, Nappan, N.S.,
show what a car-.ful system will produce.
At this I'arm there has never been high manur-
ing, but always good cultivation, the aim being
to show what could be accomplished by ^ood
farming without expensive fertilizing. Here the
average crops for 5 years have been : Wheat, a6
bus. per acn- ; B.irley, 38 bus. ; Oats, 51 bus.;
Carrots, 450 bus. ; Mangels, 800 bus.; Turnips,
912 bus.; Potatoes, 276 bushels. The quality
of all these products is good, Doubts have often
been expressed about the value of Maritime
Province wheat for milling, but experience at the
New Glasgow Milling Company's mills. New Glas-
gow,N.S., where there isacon^.plete roller process
f^rinding machine, shows that the output from
Nova Scotia and P.E. Island wheat makes flour
in every way as good as that from the western
grain. The coarse grains all grow well and
in New Brunswick large areas of buckwheat
are grown. This grain provides a large amount
of valuable cattle food upon land and under
tillage conditions that would not produce any
other crop. When well treated, as much as 70
bushels can be taken from an acre.

Fruit. These Provinces have great possibilities
as a fruit-growing section and the following
figures of the products for the year 1890 will
show that already a fair start has been made :

New Brunswick. ,\pples, bus., 259,615. Peaches,
bus., 35. Pears, bus., 96. Plums, bus., 3,784.
Cherries, bus., 1,243. Other Fruits, bus., 7,602.
Agres in Nurseries, 147. Acres in Vines, 28.
Pounds of Grapes, 2,065. Nova Scotia. Apples,
bus., 1,051,592. Peaches, bus., 534. Pears,
bus., 7,115. Plums, bus. 9,246. Cherries, bus.,
7,482. Other Fruits, bus., 31,561. Acres in Nur-

CANADA: AN KNCVCLOI'.KDIA.

47

•eiifs, 214. Acres in Vines, 17.5. Pojiiids nl'
Grapefl, 2,065. Prince l-lilwiird Islaml. Apples,
bus., 5-',c)iiS. Pfiulii'S, bus., K). I'cars, bus.,
71. IMiinis, bus., 1,479. Clierrifs, bus,, 4,-165.
Other Fruits, bus., 2,473. Acres in NurscriL-s,
62. Acres in Vines, 72. Pounds of (irapes,
4,402. The crop of apples in Nuva Scotia bas
doubled since tlusc stiilislics were f^atiiertd.
That portion of Nov;i Scotia lyinj; between
the North and South Mountains, stretching from
Windsor on the cast to Dij^by on the west
and known as the Ann.ipolis Valley, is the
section in which most of the fruit is grown, and
as a fruit-Rrowing rej^ion there are few superior
to it on the Atnerican continent.

A ni\)Hils and their products. From the number
of animals kept, us stated above, it will bu seen
♦.hat some beef, milk, mutton and pork must
be made. The dairy industry, thanks to
the active interest of botii Dominion and Pro-
vincial Governments, has made ^'icat advances
durintj the past tin years, and the tnethoils on
which it is conducted are becomiufj yearly more
moderni/ed. Practically all the cheese made is
now manufactured in factories and factory butter-
makmg is all the time increasing. In New
Brunswick there are iilty-tliree factories where
cheese is made, which last season (iS()7) put out
i,io7,j<Si lbs. cheese ; ami nine factories where
butter was made, making over 100,000 lbs. of
butter. An effort, with consitlerable success, is
now being made to start the central creamery
plan of winter butter-making so much in vogue in
\'erniont and New York States. At Sussex,
N.H., a factory is now rinming wliirh makes up
the cream sent in from si.K neighbouring cheese
factory districts, and about a ton of butter per
week is being made. A factory on the same
principle is also running at Woodstock, N.B.,
and is working up a good business. This plan
has been started by the Provincial Department
')f Agriculture. In Nova Scotia there are some
forty factories for making cheese and butter and
many of them are thoroughly equipped for either
work. On P.E. Island there are thirty-five fac-
tories and all but two of them make cheese during
the summer, but many of them make butter dur-
ing the winter season, and the yearly output of

cheeHe and butter is becoming a large factor in
the exports of the Province — biddmg fair in a few
years to over>hadi)W all in other products. Heef
is not made in any considerable (|uantities but
some localities are now going into the fattening
of cattle. Lambs are shipped in very large
numbers from ICastern Nova Scotia and P. H.
Island and some parts of New Hriinswick, to the
New ICnglaiid cities, and are highly prized there
for the (piality of tluir flesh. The supply of
pork is not nearly equal to the local consumption
except on P. IC. Island but it is likely in a very
short time that this stock will be increased mani-
fold.

Taken as a whole, the Maritime Provinces of
("anada can be put down as a country with great
agricultural possibilities. With the home mar-
ket that exists, and with their splendid position
for export to European and tropical markets,
theii; must be a great increase in production if
the people would turn their attention to agricul-
ture. Probably out! cause which has exercised a
deterrent effect ui)on aj,'ricuitural development
has been the lack of educational facilities along
agricultural lines. The trend of education has
all i'.loiig been towartis the learned professions
(so called), and prominent teachers have not
been slow to inculcate a desire in the young
people for a more exrdted sphere (in their opin-
ion) than the farm would afford. In Nova Scotia
some start has been made towards agricultural
education, both in special agricultural and horti-
cultural schools, and in giving the teachers at
the Normal Schools such training as will enable
them to apply their work in the elementary
schools to agricultural thought and practice. In
New Brunswick a Dairy School has been estab-
lished for instruction in cheese-making and but-
ter-making, both in the factory and on the farm.
It is aimed to broaden and extend this School as
the demand for it increases. Looking forward
into the twentieth century, the future seems full
of promise to the farmers of our great Canadian
Dominicn, and nowhere, I should say, was there
a better prospect for solid agricultural advance-
ment, comfortable farm houses and a contented
rural population than in these Maritime Prov-
inces.

r

•^w

^•^

AGRICULTURE IN THE PROVINCE OF QUEBEC

G A. GKiAIH r. Hx M.I'., Iwpiily Commissioner nf Arrlculiure for th« Provlnct.

THE rrovinic of ^)iiclnc lian four iif,'ri(;iil-
Miral scliools: Oku, l.'Assomptidii, Sto.
Anne do la Pocatiiro and CDnipton.
Last year (iHg6-7) tht-y wore attcndcil as
folluvvs: Stc. Anne l)y twenty-sl.x pupils; I.'As-
surnptionby forty-two ; Oka by forty-nine; Coiup-
ton by thirteen. To each of these schools is
aiinc\(!d a butler and cheese factory where, every
year, are to b»; found j,'ood cheese or butter
makers. In l8<jj the Provincial Govennneiit
be^an to subsidise a School of Domestic Economy
|)reviou.sly established at Koberval, in the Lake
St. John region, under the control of the Rever-
end Ursuhne Ladies. The course of domestic
and rural economy given in this institution is as
follows :

1 . All t he pupils, irrespective of age, are traineil
to be good housekeepers, especially in order ami
cleanliness. They are also instructed in the
principal rules of the culinary art. In order to
accustom them to regulate expenditure on re-
ceipts, they keep a detailed account of their
expenses and of moneys received. The whole is
submitted to the approbation of their families.

2. Each pupd mends and repairs her linen, and
must know how to sew and knit before learning
fancy work. The work-room is open every day
for at least three-cjuarters of an hour for the
pupils who wish to karn carding, spinning,
weaving, etc.

3. To ail who are in a position to benefit there-
by, two lessons are given weekly on the theory
and practice of keeping a dairy and making butter
and cheese for family use. Afterwards lessons
are given in agriculture, horticulture, poultry
keeping, etc.

Thirty-seven young ladies followed these les-
sons in 1893 and this year their number is still
larger. The School was destroyed by fire in Jan-

liiitlrr
.Makeri.

Oieete-
MukeiH

Total.

60

154

214

9»

170

ZUS

50

ass

312

tta

172

274

147

155

302

48

uary, 1897, anil re-built <liiring the same year
with great improvements.

In 1892 a Dairy School was esta'.'ished at St.
llyacintho under the control of th'* Dairymen's
Association of the Province, the Government
having given for that purpose a grant of $10,000.
The makers who have followed the courses of the
School since its opening arc :

Couriei.
189^.3

l895-<»
1896-7

•. 466 904 1.370

In tiiis School are al»o trained inspectors for
cheese and butter syndicates ; the latter in virtue
of Article 1753, 54 Vic, c. 20, s. i, which reads
as follow;,: "The Association (Dairymen's),
with a view to obtaining more prompt and com-
plete diffusion of the best methods to be adopted
for the production of milk, the f.ihricatioii of
dairy produce and in general the advancement
of the dairy industry, may subdivide the Provnice
into regional divisions, in which syndicates,
composed of proprietors of butter and cheese
factories and other like industries, may be estab-
lished. The formation and working of such syn
dicates are governed by the regulations niaile '
the said Association and approved by the Lie
enant-Governor-in-Council, and such syndicai ♦
shall be under the dir'jction and supervision of
the Association. To such syndicates the Lieut. -
Governor-in-Council may grant, out '^f the Con-
solidated Revenue Fund, a subsidy equal to one-
half of the expenses incurred for the service of
inspection and instruction organized therein,

CANADA: AN KNCVI I.OIM'DIA.

49

^

incliiiliiiK the Hiilitry of inspectors, their travelling'
ami tit her t:x|)«iiscH ilirectly i-otinccted therewith,
l)ut iK't to exceed tlio »iiiii (li two hundred and
hlly dollarii fur each syndicate."

The InspectotH, inc hiilin(» the Iiiapector-ricn-
eral, are "iipointed by tlio Lieut.-Governoi -in-
Coniud and ate experts whu liuld reitilicatrH of
competence fiotn the lioanl of ExaniinurH formed
l>y the D.iirymiii's Assoeialiiin. I'or these syn-
dicalis the Association e^.lahlished ii'j,Mdati<)ns
which were approved by the Lieut. -Govei nor ui\
the 2.jth of January, iHyi. Many syntbcatcs
were established. In iMijG tliere wi-re tweiity-
eitjht in tlio Province. 'I'iiese associations have
greatly contributed towards biintj[inp; more uni-
formity into and improving tiie (juuiity of our
ilany proibuts.

In 1MS2 a Dairymen's Association was formed
for the Province. It has done mucii useful work
in the promotion and progress of dairy industry,
livery year a general meeting of us members
takes place. Interesting and instrnclive lectures
are then given, the report of which is often con-
sulted with advantage by those interested in
dairying. Since liS(j(j inclusively, the Pro-
vincial Departtnent of Agriculture holds, during
the summer, dairy competitions organized after
the Danish s\stem, in which silver and bronze
medals, diplomas and money prizes are distributed
according to merit. As soon as the makers have
received a despatch or a letter to that cftoct they
forward, by the next train or boat, a box of
butter or cheese niaile by tiiem for market. The
cheese, or butter, must be shipped exactly as it
was ready for exportation. Those whose butter,
or cheese, is considered of ist and 2nd quality
receive prizes; as to the other exhibitors, they
arc informed by private letters of the defects of
ir products. The exhibits are examined by

IV experienced judges cl'osen from among the

idini: exporters and from the Professors of the
Jttiry School ; they are also analyzed by a
chemist. They are paid for by the Government
according to market price, and the Government
also pays for the freight. These competitions
produce thi st results.

Fruits a cultivated in every region of the
Provinci he Montreal district is renowned

for its a^ , . and chiefly its Pameuses, which

cannot bo excelled. The Qucbcr; distiict pro-
duces most delicious plums. Two I'ontological
and Horticultural Societies exist in the Province.
Their refiorts always contain most useful informa-
tion in fruit ciiltuie. This year (iM<j8) the Gov-
ernment has established in the Provin»:e four
bruit Kxperinu iit.d Stations, one of them being
in the County of Gaspe, another in Chicoutimi.
Hy means of these Stations the farmer will obtain
a thorough knowledge of the fruits that are
adapted to the chmato of the region where he
lives. The results of the investigations and
expt-rimeiits of tlicso Stations will certainly
develop fruit-growing ami tviakc more hurative
th.it important branch of our agriculture.

In iiSyo a law was enacted establishing com-
petitions of agricultural merit for the whole
I'rovince. The farms of the competitors are
visited by judges appointeil by the Government.
The distinctions conferred nj)on the successful
competitors consist of:

1. A diploma and s.lver modal for the person
who at the competition has obtained the degree
of " distinguished merit."

2. ■\(iij)loma and bronze medal for the per-
son who has obtained the degree of "great
merit."

3. A diploma for the person who has obtained
the degree of " merit."

" Distinguished merit " is granted to the per-
son who has obtained at the competition 85 out
of loo jioints allowed for perfect cultivation;
" Great merit " is granted to the person who has
obtained 75 per cent, of the same points; and
" Merit " to the person who has obtained 65 per
cent. The judges forward to the Commissioner
of Agriculture a detailed report upon the farm
and farming of each laureate. Such reports,
published annually, are very instructive to the
agricultural class. The number of laureates who
have received silver medals were : 7 in i(S(jo ; 42
in 1891 ; 20 in 1892; 31 in 1893; 18 in 1894; 27
in iS95; 30 in 1896; 8 in 1897.

In iS()6 the Government appointed J. A. Cam-
iraud, of Sherbrooke, as a special ofTicer intrusted
with the mission of improving public highways.
He gave lectures on that subject in several
municipalities and had roads improved by two
road machines and a stone crusher, put at his

m

5°

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOP.IilDIA.

disposal by the Department. The Hon. Louis
Beaubien, then Commissioner of Agriculture,
also offered to every county municipality to pay
one-hall of the first stone crusher's cost and of
the first ro;id maciiino which it vvculd purchase
for the improvement of its public highways. The
Hon. F. G. M. Dechene, the present Commis-
sioner, modified this policy by offering to each
local municipality a grant equal to one-half of the
price of the first road machine which it would
acquire, to the extent of throe municipalities m
every county. A great .;iany municipalities have
availed themselves of this offer ; many miles of
public highways ha"e been worked with the
machines bought with the Government grants;
and it is hoped that before long there will be a
marked improvement in the making and mainten-
ance of our roads.

In 1^96 the Council of Public Instruction
approved of a book entitled " Agriculture in
Schools, in 41 Lessons." 'ihis agricultural
manual is now taught in many of the rural
schools.

The first Agricultural Society \ ^s established
in 17S9. It had H. E. Lord Dorchesteras Patron
and President, Lieut. -Governor Hope as Vice-
President, and many leading men as Directors.
Only the first repoi of this Society is in exist-
ence. It contains the remarks of some members
and the results of the experiments made by them.
In 1897 there were in the Province 65 Agricultu-
ral Societies in operation with \z,~j-o members.
The amount they spent for agricultural purposes
during that year was $67,853 69. According to
law every society should, once in every two
years, hold an exhibition of agricultural produce,
and organize alternately competitions in regard
t'j the best cultivated farms. The intention of
the Legislature was that the societies should
devote as much money for farm and standing
crop competitions as for exhibitions. Some of
these associations co.nply with the spirit of the
law and do a good deal towards improving agri-
culture, but, unfortunately, the majority hold
only exhibitions and neglect the exercise of the
most useful part of their powers. Competitions
for standing crops or the best managed farms
er.courage the farmers to increase Mie fertility of
their farms and to improve their cultural

methods ; improvement which has the most bene-
ficial influence upon agriculture and consequently
upon the production of the soil.

In 1893 a law was enacted authorizing the
formation of Farmers' Clubs and the payment of
a grant to such associations. During the year
1896 there were 509 Clubs in operation with
39,284 members, nnd they spent for agricultural
purposes $94,571.63, including $4,595.71 for the
purchase of thoroughbred animals. Each Club
has seven Directors. Their object ii to promote
improvement in agriculture and horticulture :

I. By holding meetings for discussion and for
hearing lectures on subjects connected with the
theory and practice of improved husbandry.

2 liy promoting the circulation of agricultural
papers.

3. By offering prizes for essays on questions of
theoretical or practical agriculture.

4. By importing or otherwise procuring animals
of superior breeds, new varieties of plants and
grain, and seeds of the best kinds.

5. By organizing ploughing matches, competi-
tions respecting standing crops and the best
cultivated farms.

6. By procuring books, reviews and newspapers
treating of agricultural subjects for the use of
their members.

7. By promoting and favouring experiments in
farming, manure, and improved agricultural
maciMiiery and implements.

Many of these Clubs have every year several
meetings in order to hear lectures and discussions
on agricultural subjects. They hold no exhibi-
tions, but have organized many competitions
respecting standing crops, chiefly for the purpose
of encouraging the production of green fodder,
roots and the use of fertilizers. Many experi-
ments have been made with fertilizers, tiie use of
lime, wood-ashes, etc., and the publication of
the results obtained has been useful to the v/hole
agricultural class. At the same time as the
Farmers' Clubs were established, the Journal of
Aj^rkuUurc published by the Department was
enlarged and greatly improved. In 1892 the
yo/(;'«rt/ had only 7,516 subscribi-rs for both the
French and English editions, and it now has
47,611 readers. Before the establishment of
I'^arm ^rs' Clubs, about one-third of the parishes

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOl'.KDIA.

S«

or municipalities had no members of agricultural
societies, or only a few members. To-day we
find a large number of members of agricultural
associations in almost every municipality, while
the Journal of Agriculture penetrates into every
region of the Province.

The lectures and discussions before Farmers'
Clubs, the competitions and experiments organ-
ized by these associations and the reading of the
Journal of Agriculture by thousands of farmers,
have led to a widespread diffusion of the theories
and facts upon which are based agricultural
improvements. That diffusion has produced most
beneficial results which are visible everywhere.
The agricultural production, and chiefly the pro-
duction of milk, has largely increased ; the far-
mers pay more attention to the maintenance and
increase of the fertility of the soil, and there is a
most satisfactory improvement in the methods of
cultivation. According to statistics gathered by
the Dairymen's Association for this year (1898),
there are in the Province 337 creameries, 1,263
cheese factories, and 217 combined butter and
cheese factories, while, according to the Census,
there were in 1890 only iii creameries and 617
cheese factories.

According to the last Census (1891) the Prov-
ince of Quebec produced :

Wheat 1,553.544 bushels

Barley 1,505,600 "

Oats 16,905,800 "

Peas 1,806,943 "

Buckwheat 2,009,448 "

Beans 79.078 "

Corn 790,685 "

Potatoes 15,024,644 "

Turnips and other roots -.53-. 853 "

I'lax Seed 27,647 "

Apples 1,034,139 "

Fhmis 60,513 "

Hay 2,243,435 tons

Maple Sugar 18,875,231 pounds

Honey 75''^.557 "

Hops 180,297 "

Tobacco 3,958.737

Home-made Butter 30,113,226 "

Home-made Cheese 4,260,941 "

The value of the Creamery butter produced

was $555,932 and that of the cheese made
in factories $2,362,595.

Since that date the production of butter and
cheese has largely increased, if not doubled.
In 1890 the Province had 549,544 milch cows,
730,286 sheep, 369,608 swine.

The swine industry is taking a greater develop-
ment and will add considerably to the revenue
of the farming class. Fruit culture is becoming
every year more and more important. This
year (1898) the crop of wheat is much larger than
usual, wiiich is due to the increased fertility
of the soil, dairying having largely contributed
towards that result.

In 1894, I might add here, Mr. J. D. Leclair,
Superintende;>t of ♦he St. Hyacinthe Dairy
School, and myself, as Assistant-Commissioner
of Agriculture, were sent by the Government
to Denmark and other European countries
in order to collect information regarding the
dairy industry abruad, the agricultural methods
generally in vogue in the different European
countries, and the best means to be adopted for
the furtherance of the exportation of our prod-
ucts to the English market. Besides Denmark
we visited Belgium, France, Ireland and England.
In our Report published in the same year
(1894) we stilted the following conclusions :

" 1st. To develop our butter trade with England
it is absolutely necessary that the vessels doing
tlie service between that country and Canada
be supplied with refrigerators. It is also neces-
sary to ship the butter weekly, that it may arrive
fresh and without that stale taste which relegates
it to the last class.

2nd. The Provincial Dairy School should
be enlarged and improved.

3rd. A competition in dairy products, organized
after the Danish system, would aid in improving
the methods of fabrication of these products.

4th. If we desire to increase our pork exports,
we should try to procure meat suitable to make
bacon, that is to say, not too fat ; to fatten the
pigs when they are young, and to kill them
when they do not weigh over two hundred
pounds. This trade should be developed at the
same time as that of butter, from which, more-
over, it is insenarable.

5tli. The poultry export trade is susceptible of

I

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41

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CANADA: AN ENCYCLOI'/EDIA.

develoj)inent, ami can be maiic remunerative to
ilie raisers, proviilcil the killing, dressing and
packing are properly done.

6tli. Our apples are in favour on the English
market; but if we wish to encourage the niidti-
plication of our orchards and increase the pro-
duction of the fruits, without overcrowding tlie
local market, our luirservini.'n and tlie owners of
theorchanis should try to produce apples that can
be shipped without being bruised, and that will
keep a few months after having been picked;
these apples should command attention by their
quality and appearance.

7th. In England they attach the greatest im-
portance to the uniformity of the products put
up for sale. This uniformity should exist in the
case of our butter, cheese, apples and all our
products.

8th. The schoo's for iustrurtion in the domes-
tic economy of the farm house must be greatly
increased.

gth. An elementarv treatise in agriculture
should be published and tauglit in our primary
schools.

loth. The establishment of agricultural lectures
has done good service in our roimtiy and else-
where to agriculture, and we must try to increase
their efficacy."

The winters in Quebec are cold and the sum-
mers somewhat similar to those in France — this
Province having the summer suns of France,
being in the same latitude. But very exagger-
ated notions prevail abroad as to the severity of
the winters in the Province of Ouebec. There is
decided cold ; but the air is generally dry and
brilliant, and the cold, therefore, not felt to be
unpleasant. Snow always covers the ground
during the winter months. It packs under foot,
and makes everywhere winter roads, over which
heavy loads can be drawn in sleighs with the
greatest ease. These roads, for the purpose of

teaming, are probably the best in the world, and
they are available in the newest and roughest
parts of the country before the regular summer
roads are made. The snow which lasts, gener-
ally commences in Decumber and goes away
in April. The snow covering is most advantage-
ous for agricultural operations, as is also the
winter frost. Both leave the ground in a favour-
able state, after its winter rest, {or rapid vege-
table growth. The climate of Quebec is one of
the healthiest under the sun, as well as the most
pleasant to live in. Fever and ague, though
scourges of the south-western States, are un-
known here. There is no malaria, every climatic
iniluence being healthy and pure.

The soli of the Province is found to be for the
most part extremely rich, and susceptible of the
highest cultivation. It is adapted to the growth
of very varied products. The cereals, hay, root
crops and grain crops, grow everywhere in
abundance where they are cultivated. Spring
wheat gives an average of about fifteen bushels
to the acre. Cattle-breeding on a large scale is
carried on, and for some years past cattle have
been exported in large r^uantities from this Prov-
ince to the English market. For pasturage the
lands of Quebec are of special excellence, parti-
cularly those in the Eastern Townships nnd
north of the St. L'wrence. Indian corn,, flax
and tobacco are grown in many parts of the
Province and yield large crops. Other portions
are especially favourable for the growth of apples
and plums. Large quantities of the former are
exported, and some of the varieties which are
peculiar to this Province cannot be excelled, and
they have specialties which perhaps cannot be
equalled. The small fruits everywhere grow in
profusion, and grapes ripen in the open air in the
southern and western parts of the Province.
They are now beginning to be largely grown and
have proved fairly profitable.

RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT OF MANITOBA

LIEUT. COLONEL, THE HoN. C. A. BOULTON, Senator of Canada.

.n

AMONG the important events of tlie Vic-
torian lira may bo included the opening;
out of tiiat vast territory now known
as tlie North-West Territories of Can-
ada, formerly part of the possessions of the
Hudson's liny Company. In this connection
Prince Rupert, Lord Selkirk and Sir George
Simpson are preserved as leadingnamesin thenew
civilization that has followed upon the footsteps
of early fur traders, such as La Verendrye and
others who have left their traces on the maps to
indicate the part French Canada played in the
pioneer history of this interesting country. The
officers of the Hudson's Bay Company pieserved
for the British Empire a splendid inheritance.
They were cut off from the rest of the world by
physical obstacles, such as the forests of Canada
on the east, the navigation of Hudson's Bay on
the north, the Rocky Mountains on I lie west and
the great desert prairies o( America on the south.
The officers of the Company, scattered in com-
mand of posts throughout the territory, had a
small world all to tliemselves, and made no effort
to expose to the outsiile world the magnificent
resources with which Nature had endowed this
rich agricultural region. Tliey were fur traders,
and the native population were their hunters and
trappers, wlioiii tliey treated with parental care
and ruled witii judgment, but they k('pt them to
their business of trapping, and cl limcd for them-
selves a monoply of the fur-be-iring animals. The
zealous self-sacrificing missionaries of the French
Canadians were among the early pioneers of the
last century, who penetrated through the dense
forests and by the rapid waterways to this far off
region and great lone land, which is to-day a
centre of civilization. They reached the prairie
region of the interior by way of Lake Superior be-
f(jre any effort was made to penetrate it from
the Hudson's Bay.

In i86(j this large territory was transferred to
Canada by the Imperial Government so as to
constitute an unbroken nationality on the soil of
British North America, stretching from the
Atlantic to the Pacific. This was part of an
Imperial policy that was conceived in the minds
of statesmen on both sides of the Atlantic,
upwards of half a century ago ; a policy to carry
out which both political parties in Canada
buried the hatchet for a space. The vast region,
to govern which was now going to test the energy
and capacity of the Canadian people, extended
from the head of Lake Superior to the base of
the Rocky Mountains, through 450 miles of
forest and eight hundred miles of prairie from
east to west, and from the boundary line of the
United States to the Arctic Ocean, well drained
by large rivers and numerous lakes, great and
small. The Province of Manitoba was the first
offspring of the new Canadian nationalitv, the
betr.uiiai of which was entered upon on the First
of July, 1S67. The troubles which arose in 1S69
and 1870 upon the transfer of the country to
Canada necessitated a force of Imperial troops
under Colonel (Lord) Wolseley to firmly estab-
lish Canadian authority. He led his men
through the forests that lie between tlie head of
Lake Superior and the Red River, which river
may be said to mark the eastern boundary of the
prairie region tliat lies beyond. He tracked up
the rivers, and purtai^cd over the heights of land
with a force of a thousand men, and came out at
the mouth of the Winnipeg River on a large lake
of the same name, arriving at Fort Garry on the
First of August, 1870. After placing two compa-
nies of Canatlian militia, one at Fort Garry, the
junction of the Red and Assiniboine Rivers, and
the other at the lower Fort 30 miles below, on
the Red River, forts that had been built by the
Hudson's Bay Company to protect their stores

1

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54

CANADA : AN ENCYCLOIMiDIA.

from Indian raids or from attacks by their great
rivals, the Nor' West Fur Trading Company,
Colonel Wolseley returned by the same route,
having in one summer brought his troops through
the trackless forests for 450 miles, returning the
same season, before the close of navigation on
Lake Superior.

Co-incident with tlic issue of the Queen's proc-
lamation upon tlie arrival of Colonel Wolseley
in August, 1870, Liiiit. -Governor Archibald,
under the authority of Canadian legislation,
established his Government and extended the
British constitution to the population of the Sel-
kirk Settlement as part and parcel of Canada
under the title of tiie Province of Manitoba.
The Provircial powers were the same as those
extended to all the Provinces of the Dominion.
For nearly fifteen years after the establishment
of the Provincial Government the Hon. John
Norquay, a native of the Selkirk Settlement and
partly of Indian bltjod, was tlie leading spirit in
the Government of the Province and held the
position of Premier during that time. In 187.J
the Canadian Government passed an Act for the
construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway
and, after surveys had marked the way, let con-
tracts for the construction of that portion between
Lake Superior and tiie Red River, where the
town of Winnipeg was situated on the site of
Fort Garry. It ',v;tc, however, not until 1880
that the idea of a trans-contuicntal railway took
practical shape. In 1SS2 the Lake Sup;rior sec-
tion by its completion brought eastern and west-
ern Canada together on Canadian soil, and with
it came a rush of the Canadian people to enter
upon the pioneer work of developing a n 'W
Province. Within a }ear they doubled the pop-
ulation that had drifteil in, in the decade of the
seventies, over the American railway lines from
the south. In 18S1 the boundaries of the
Province were extended to the 29th range of
townships west, making it about three hundred
miles from north to south — a square block of
prairie soil which is hard to beat for its uniform
richness, drained by the Assiniboine River, the
Red River, the Souris River and numerous other
smaller rivers. The " bottom lands," which
extend from eighty to one hundred miles east
and west of Winnipeg, have been at one time the

bottom of a large lake from which the waters
have receded, leaving a deep deposit of silt and
clay of great agricultural value and the ancient
mark of its shores on the table-land to the west.
On the western boundary of this distinct for-
mation the country rises to a plateau of about
eight or nine hundred feet, so that, while the
City of Winnipeg is only 700 feet above the
level of the sea, Neepawa and lirantlon, not far
distant, are from fifteen to s xteen hundred feet
above the same level.

The resources of Manitoba are agricultural,
the Province being situated in what is known as
the wheat belt of tiie continent. It is a recog-
nized fact that the nearer wheat is grown to the
frost line the better the quality, and, although
wheat is grown successfully several hundred
miles north of Manitoba, the sample of wheat
that is raised within the Province has a world-
wide reputation for its excellent quality. The
first efforts of settlers on the virgin soil over
which tbey spread themselves were disappointing,
and the rich growth that followed seeding was
at first continually frozen in the berry. While it
was useful for the food of the population, it was
not fit for export except at a very low price.
The reason for the frost thus attacking the grain
in its ripening process arose from the radiating
effect of the prairie vegetation, through which
the sun could not penetrate. I may here quote
from Mr. Taylor, Uniteil States Consul for Mani-
toba, and a life-long resilient of our northern
latitudes, who points out that "there are only
two divides Ix'twcen the month of the Mackenzie,
which empties into the Arctic Oceaii, and the
Mississipj)!, which empties into the Gi.lf of
Mexico. The head waters of the Mississippi are
close to the southern boundary of Manitoba,
where they are separated from the waters that
flow into the Hud'^r>n's Bay, notably the two
great Saskalchewai>-., whose head waters are
separated from the head waters of the Mackenzie
River noril- of Edmonton." Therefore the
cont' ... oi the earth represents a valley of 6,000
miles in length through which the winds blow
backwards and forwards. Similarly the hot
winds of the Gulf of California and the Arctic
air of the Klondike exchange compliments with
one another through the valleys which run

?■' )

CANADA: AN ENCYCI,OIM<:i)IA.

55

^'•tl

between the Selkirks and the Rockies' on the
west coast.

As to the climatic eirccts of cultivation in
Manitoba, we have evidence of its effect apparent,
for when the soil is first turned up to the sun it
is very cold, but, after it h:is been exposed by tlie
breaking ^.p of the prairie with the plough, the
black soil soon warms up and radiates hi-at
where before it radiated cold. For the first crop
or two the rich but cold soil keeps the plant
growing late into the autumn, when the frost of
the north bee ines too strong and nips the berry
in its soft stage and stops growth. After the
orairie is broken up and the sub-soil loosened to
the rays of the sun to the depth of six inches, the
danger from frost disappears. That, with the
cultivation of an extended area, creates a general
modification of temperature during the growing
season. The prairie which is thus turned up for
cultivation now amounts to a million and a half
acres, not a large proportion of the seventeen
million acres of prairie, land contained in the
bounds of Manitoba, but sufficient to change the
character of the temperature in the autumn, ^nd
to such an extent that last year (1897) twenty-
five million bushels of wheat, all of which was of
unrivalled sample, was produced in Manitoba
and the Territories beyond, some leS.ooo.ooo
bushels being exported through eastern channels
to distant niarKets.

The grain is graded by official inspectors at the
City of Winnipeg and at the elevators at Fort
William, and the reports of the grades published
by car lots show the great change in the places
on the list of" No. i hard" and "No. i frosted,"
the latter grade having nearly disappeared.
There are some differences of opinion as to the
value of grading. The grading is a convenience
to large buyers, but many farmers would prefer
to sell on sample. The opportunity for buyers,
who are interested in gettmg the crop as cheaply
as possible to manipulate it to their own advan-
tage, is greater than any measure of protection
tlie farmers can institute for themselves. This
is evident by the fact that the upward tendency
for prices is generally after the grain has passed
into the hands of the middleman. In fact when
the demand is brisk with an upward tendency
grades aie lost sight of. The general effect

of this system is gradually causing farmers
to build gri .laries on their farms, as their means
permit, so that they can wait on the demaml
instead of being obliged to deliver their crop
from the thresher to an overflowing market
for want of granaries. A system of elevators
in the hands of private individuals or companies
furnishes the storage at the railway stations and
terminal points, and a storage capacity of this
nature is capable of storing several million
bushels and handling for export the whole crop.
There are two large milling companies in Mani-
toba who require about six million bushels
to conduct their operations amuially and a por-
tion of our wheat is purchased for eastern Can-
adian millers to grade up the quality of their
soft wheats. There are also a number of buyers
in the City of WinnipeL' who purchase for the
export trade. The buyers for export work
together as a syndicate, consequently there
are practically only three buyers: the Ogilvie
Milling Company with steam mills at several
points; the Lake of the Woods Milling Company
at Keewatin, which has dammed back the Lake
of the Woods at its outlet into the Wiiinii)eg
River 120 miles east of the City of Winnipeg,
(thus creating a magnificent water power
with which to drive their machinery) and the
Syndicate of buyers for export. Each of these
three units has at local points a local represen-
tative to purchase from the farmers. They
are instructed daily from Winnipeg as to the
price they are allowed to offer for the wheat.
Farmers have the privilege of shipping their
wheat to the elevators at Fort William and
getting an advance from the banks on the ship-
ping bill, hilt that has not been found a satis-
factory way, for anything like a competitive
price ceases with its shipment. Grades and
weights at Fort William and storage expenses
leave the farmer at the mercy of buyers.

Manitoba is essentially an agricultural Prov-
ince. There is some forest wealth, but not
sufficient for local requirements, while lake fish-
eries are a limited source of wealth which may
easily become exhausted by a too heavy export
drain. Mining for the baser metals can only be
prosecuteil when population becomes sufficiently
dense to establish a local market to insure a prof-

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56

CANADA : AN KNCVCLOl'/KDIA.

itable sale to warrant their operation. Tiie
Laurentian range of roci<s, wnicli runs nearly
across the continent in Canada, passes through
Manitoba on the eastern side of Lake Winnipeg,
and contains various minerals which will no doubt
play an important part in the future industrial
life of the Province, whe. economic conditions
warrant their development. Gold mining,' is pros-
ecuted in the Lake of the Woods district, IJO
miles east of WiiiiiipcK, and is likely to become a
permanent industry, owing to the economy with
which the mines can be worked. So many arter-
ies of navigable waters cheapen the transpcMt of
ores to smelters, wliile the Canadian Pacific Rail-
way also passes through the centre of the dis-
trict. Economy of production will, therefore,
compensate for the low grade of ore which in other
districts would not pay.

The real mine, however, in Manitoba is the
farm. Its soil will undoubtedly make it a rich
agricultural Province in the future. It has not
yet got buyond the pioneer stage. In most cases
homesteads have still to be niaile complete with
all the accessories that are necessary to a properly
equipped farm. Primitive structures are still
in the asceiulant, though many comfortable
homes ha\e been built out of the proceeds of the
soil througiiout tiie Province. The Assiiiiboine
River cuts the prairie section of the Province into
two equal parts, respectively called Southern
.Manitoba and Northern Manitoba. Southern
Manitoba has a light, l^iitty soil on the open
prairie, and is par excellence the wheat-growing
section of the Province. Northern Manitoba,
■IS a rule, has a heavier sod and is better adapteil
for coaise grains and stock of all kinds. Mani-
toba will always have a;i average crop as a Prov-
ince, there being so many different soils. The
western half is i,5oo feet above the level of the
sea, with a sandy loam. The bottom lands of
the eastern half are clayey and are only 700 feet
above the level of the sea. The southern half
has a light, gritty soil and the northern half has
black loam. Mixed farming is therefore more
generally pursued north of the Assiniboine, while
wheat is more generally the product of the Prov-
ince south of the broad valley through which
the Assiniboine River winds. The fall from the
head waters of this river to its mouth at Winni-

peg is about 1,600 to 1,800 feet, so that it crosses
and re-crosses the valley in a tortuous manner
bearing alluvial deposits. Otherwise the waters
would run off too rapidly.

There are in the Province several elevations
called mountains, as they only gradually rise a
few himdred feet from the level of the country,
and are all covered with growing timber which
alone distinguishes them from the treekss prai-
rie. They are the Turtle Mountains, which the
boimdary line between the United States and
Canada divides into two equal parts; tiie Pem-
bina Mountains, a few miles north-east of them;
and the Moose Mountains, just beyond the
western boundary of the Province in tlie south.
The largest range of hills is the Riding Moun-
tains in Northern Manitoba. A valley through
which runs the Valley River separates them from
the Duck Mountains and the PorcuiHiie Hills to
the north. The Province of Manitoba is, as a
general rule, fortunate in its water sui)j)Iy, apart
from the rivers and streams, which are fairly
numerous. Water can generally be got by dig-
ging at a depth of 25 to 50 feet. This underground
supply of water comes down from the Rocky
Mountains through the lower strata of gravel and
comes to the surface in Lakes Manitoba, Winni-
pegosis and Winnipeg, large sheets of navigable
water which empty into Hudson's 15ay, after
being fed by the watershed of the Red River
from the south, the Assiniboine from the west,
and the Winnipeg River on the east. There are in
parts of Manitoba and the North-West Territo-
ries large beds of blue clay in the sub-strata,
through which the underground drainage cannot
penetrate. Consequently it has to go below them.
Where these e.xist, well waters are not easily
traceable and a system of Artesian wells will have
to be resorted to. These beds of blue clay do
n(jt exist to a large extent in Manitoba, but where
they are found they are a cause of inconvenience.
Coal has not been discovered in Manitoba, but a
few miles west of the boundary on the Souris
River coal beds have been opened, and the Territo-
ries adjacent to the Rocky Mountains are under-
laid with a vast sub-stratum of coal so that the
consumption of this mineral is only limited by
population and the freight charges of the Cana-
dian Pacific Railway.

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CANADA: AN liNCYCLOl'/KDIA.

57

The railway transportatiun of the Province
centres in the City of \Vinnipc{^ and it is virtually
a monopoly in the hands of the Canadian Pacific
Railway Company. The main arteries are the
main line of the C.P.K., which is transcontim n-
tal from the Atlantic to the Pacific ; the South
Western, which runs south and west within fifteen
miles parallel to the boundary of the United
States, and is a link in a loop-line to Kcfjina;
the Manitoba and South Western, which paral-
lels the C. P. K. about twenty-five miles south
of it; the Manitoba ai:d North Western, whichruns
north-westerly to the County of Russell in the
Shell River district ; and the Lake Dauphin
Railway, which runs north skirting the western
shore of Lakes Manitoba and Winnipegosis.
There are three lines in the Red River Valley
running from the Amorican boundary line to
Winnipeg — the St. Pi.jl, Minneapolis and Mani-
toba Railway; the Northern Pacific, with branches
to Portage la Prairie and Brandcm; and the
Pembina branch built by the Government on the
east side of the Red River and now the property
of the C.P.R. The South Eastern Railway runs
to the American boundary south of the Lake of
the Woods. Tiiese lines of railway cover fairly
well the agricultural districts and bring nearly
all farms to within twenty miles of railway trans-
portation.

The minds of western people are intent upon
opening out a new route to the ocean by way of
Hudson's Bay, This is a great inland sea, sepa-
rated from the Atlantic Ocean bv Hudson's
Strait, which is loo miles wide and 5(0 miles
long, and serves as the outlet for the waters of
the Hudson's Bay and also for the Arctic
waters which tlow through Fox's Channel. There
is little practical knowledge of the navigation of
this ocfiin route in possession of the public. It
has been navigated annually by the vessels of the
Hudson's Bay Company, under sail, for a century
and it has been navigated more or less ever since
its discovery by Hudson. French and English
fleets have in turn caiiturcd the forts erected at
Churchill, and other points, from one another in
their striiggleforthesupremacyofthissilent ocean.
After the treaty which ceded Canada to British
rule the Bay was left to its loneliness so far as the
adventurous spirits of that age were concerned.

Since the transfer of the territory to Canada,
the interest the people of Manitoba and the
Western Territories took in the opening of this
route for competitive transportation caused suc-
cessive Administrations to send up three explor-
ing expeditions to make a report upon its capa-
city for navigation and the difficulties incidental
to it. The influence of eastern interests in west-
ern trade and transportation is such that no
practical result has arisen from these expeditions.
They have so far shown the practicability of suc-
cessful navigation for three or four months in the
year. The chief difficulty lies in the Straits,
which become blocked by Arctic ice from Fox's
Channel. This ice takes a month or six weeks
to clear in June and July. Another difficulty is
the ice in Baffin's Bay which the summer sun
breaks oft' and the ice current drives south past
the mouth of the Straits and thus blocks the
entrance in the early season. The Arctic ice
from the north of Europe also comes down the
east coast of Greenland to melt in the warmer
currents which come up from the south and are
to be met with off the coast of Newfoundland.
Another difficulty is the Bay itself when the shore
ice breaks off in the spring and congregates in the
centre of the Bay. It floats about, driven hither
and thither by the winds, and forms an impene-
trable mass of loose ice one or two hundred miles
in extent, until gradually absorbed by the r ys
of the sun. With these exceptions, which oiil\
exist during a portion of the summer, navigation
is perfect.

That Hudson's Bay is destined to become an
outlet for an ever- increasing commerce no one
acquainted with the resources of the vast territory
to which it is an adjunct will for a moment
doubt. The prairie fields of Manitoba and the
North-West Territories beyond are the nearest
source of food supply to the British Isles. It
therefore becomes an Imperial question how to
connect the ocean ports on the Bay with the
agricultural products of the interior. The five
hundred miles between the mouth of the Great
Saskatchewan at the head of Lake Winnipeg is
practically terra incognita, and has never been
traversed except along the rivers which empty
into the Bay. Though they have been utilized
for upwards of a century no one was disposed to

hi

5«

CANADA; AN ENCYCLOP/KDIA.

inquire what the character of tiie country was as
a whole. There are two methods which can be
adoptoil. One is to still utilize these water
courses by ini|)rovinfj their channels aiul by the
construction of locks to connect Lake WinuipeR
with York Factory by way of the Nelson. The
cost of this public work is estimated by Lieut. -
Colonel Scoble, who surveyed the channels for
canallinj,' pur|)i)ses, at $4,000,000 for a seven-foot
draft. The other is by the construction of a rail-
way from the Saskatchewan River to Port
Churcliill, a fine deep-water harbour on the Bay.
The cost of constructing this r.iilway with its
terminal facilities would be about §20,000,000
and it slunild be, in the interests of economy, a
public work.

.•\ railway operated under Government man-
agement to the Bay, with all the experience of
the p;ist, IS not an alarming charge at this figure.
The Biitish Government is eiiually interested
with Canada in the opening of this new route,
because it means a safe outlet for what thev
most require, our excellent sample of grain and
(juality of cattle, and in fact live stock of all
kinds. With the more extensive settlement of
the country, the single line of transportation fur-
nished b\' the»C.P.R. would bo totally inade-
quate, and to tie up a great inland territory
subject to tiie s )le will of an irresponsible cor-
poration, would only breed trouble. The people
of Canada are not yet prepared to undertake the
wholesale management of oiir transcontinental
system, but there are two public works in the
interest of national development which will no
doubt engage the attention of the Government
of Canada. One is the construction of a railway
to the Bay, and the other is the construction of
a railway to the Yukon Territory from lulmonton,
to develop the internal resources of the country,
both mineral and agricultur.l, and bring supply
and dein uid together by the shortest route. The
outlet by the Hudson's Bay is limited to four
months. Modern api)lran.;es may extend it a
little, but there is not a shadow of doubt tliat
the opening to the Bay will stimulate the growth
of tlie fertile district drained by the North Sas-
katchewan, and Manitoba will benefit by the
competition tlms developed.

The climate of Manitoba is dreaded by many.

It is a northern latitude, and the temperature
falls very low in the winter at times, but what is
called a "cold snap" seldom lasts long. The
mean temperature stands about ten or fifteen
below zero, and, as the frost absorbs all the
dampness from the snow, the climate is dry and
is not so severely felt as the <iamp cold of eastern
climates, even though the tem|)erature may be
much lower in Manitoba. When the snow falls
in November it stays till the end of March, and
during that period sleighing for work or merry,
making can nearly always be relied upon. In
January a warm wind sometimes passes over the
face of the prairie, and creates a partial though
not lengthened thaw. It is a western wind called
the Chinook, which at the foot of the Rocky
Mountains forces a range of sixty degrees in
twenty-four hours. After it has passed over
600 miles of snow it has lost its greatest effect,
but in Manitoba it creates for a week or so an
agreeable cessation of tlie steady cold. No one
finds the cold disagreeable so long as moderate
protection in the construction of the houses is
provided, but badly-built houses which allow the
wind to penetrate make existence uncomfortable
and fuel expensive.

A >oung family brought to Manitoba and
settled on a farm soon becomes practical and
informed in all that pertains to economic man-
agement and successful production. The change
of life for the senior members of a family is not
so agrecai)ie, especi dly when they not only come
as pioneer settlers but as primitive farmers.
There are two things as necessary in Manitoba
as elsewhere for successful production — no over-
cropping and careful cultivation. The man
who overcrops his land and cultivates carelessly
will land in tlie poor-house. The man who takes
off two crops and then summer fallows well will
create a good farm and an independent home
with an income proportioned to the amount
of land he cultivates. The dairy, live stock and
wheat should go hand in hand as a general rule.
The Province of Manitoba is populated with
a good class of settlers, mainly Canadians, Eng-
lish, Scotch and Irish. Bringing their experience
with them and intermingling their fortunes, all
start on the same foundation, though farm life
may not, of course, be equally congenial to all.

IW.

in

Pi

U

U

C/3

y<

IIV

JOHN .1. YOUNG, liJIinr ..f /;'/,• //,(.//./, CiUaiy, N W. T,

TIII'2 fact tlint between Manitoba aii<i tlu-
Kui k\' Moiiiitaiiis tlieie are haifa iiiilli'>ll
scuiare miles of land— ;i country live
times tlie size of Ontario — admirably
aiUipted by naturo to the indiistrieii of ranching'
and farming,', leaves no (,'roMnd for piissiniistic
predictions ri'f,'arding the future of tiie Duiiin-
ion. It is no disparagement of otlicr parts to
say that in this vast re^'itJii, linked with the af,'n-
ciiltiiral n.'soiirces of Manitoba on tin; east, and
the enormous mint;ral wealth of Hi itish Columbia
on the west, lies the hope of Canada. It is a
heritaf^e di;stinecl not onl)' to support a popula-
tion of many millions, but to provide nii.it and
bread and butter to niany more millions in oMer
lands.

The 5o7,i..'7 square miles comprised within
the borders of Alberta, Assiniboia, Saskatchewan
and Athabasca may be rouf^lily classified into
mixed farmiii}^ and ranching lands. The regions
peculiarly suited to cattle ranchinfj are those
which, prior to the advent of the railway and
settlement, were the favourite haunts of innum-
erable herds of buffalo, extending from the base
of the Rockies eastward some 500 miles and
northward from the international boundary
about 200 miles, with Calvary, Meilicine Hat,
Macleocl, Lethbridge and Maple Creek as the
principal centres of trade and popu'ation.

The pastoral requisites natural to this section
— abundant grass which is available both in
summer and winter, a pure and plentiful water
supply, light snowfall and a mdd temperature —
are also found in scattered portions of Saskatche-
wan and the Peace River Country, which,
though 600 miles north of Calgary, is no further
south than Glasgow.

While the mainstay of the pastoral industry
is Southern Alberta and the adjoining portion

of Western Assiniboia, there are largo and sue-
ct'ssfiii heids of cattle aroiiiKl llatlleford on the
Saskateiiewun Kiver, and also on a smaller
thou;^li no less promising scale in the fertile
prairie sections watered by the Peace. The
history of ranching in Western Canada dates back
twenty \ears. The fust stait was made in the
neighbourhood of Macleod and Pincher's Creek
ill 1N78. The Indians, who were not then
on their Reserves, killed a large niim!)(;r of the
cattle. The rest were only saved by being driven
away. The year l88l saw the first ranching
on any considerable scale. Tlie Cochrane Com-
pany brought in a large number of cattle from
the south and placeil them on the J^ow Kiver,
near Calgary, following these with a still larger
number in 18S2. Like most great enterprises
ranciiing was iu)t successful at the outset. Its
pioneers had the difticiiltiesof an unknown coun-
try to contend with. In the first few years the
losses from exceptional climatic conditions and
from mistakes born of inexperience were heavy
enough to discourage even the boKlest optimist.
Hut time, study, and large capital in later years
overcame the early difficulties of winter losses
and the lack of profitable markets., until to-day
it is universally acknowledgeil thit there are few
safer, more profitable, healthier and pleasanter
occupations anywhere than cattle ranching
in the Canadian West.

The native grass is amazingly nourishing,
the purest water from the perennial snow of the
Rockies courses through the country in numer-
ous broad rivers and smaller streams, and both
water and pasture are free as air. The cost,
therefore, of producing beef on the prairies
is jiractically limited to simple items of labour,
such as the semi-annual " round up," branding, and
the putting up of a certain quantity of hay as an

la

i

I

RANCHINCi l\ THK CANADIAN NORTII-WRST

f

02

CANADA; AN KNCVCI.OI'.KDIA.

i , ..

in«uriinc2 njjainst » xt t'ptioii.il mlil ami Hloriiifl,
tur l>e it iiiiilerstocui tliat in an urilinaty niilil
winli;r both cat llu nnd horses thrive unshiltorcd
on tlio open pasture, ricjuirinfj only to bu fed
in tiio severest weather. Two iin|)nrtant cle-
nients in thu situation in tlic main raix iiin^' sec-
tion of Alberta and itsai'joinin;! territory are tho
fortunate distribution of the waler supply nnd
the frecpiency in winter of iho mellow Chinook
winds, which coniu to us through thu moimtain
passes laden with the u arm iireath of the
Parific.

The question of markets was settled with
eminent satisfaction by tho development of the
Mritish Columbian and Yukon mineral fields and
by the estalilishment of cheap trans|)ortatioii
to (jreat Hritaiii. The avera»,'o price of market-
able steirs during lSi/)-y-8 was jj cents per
pound, live W(i},'lit at Winnipcf,', which netted
from $J7 to $.}5 per head for three or ' ur year
olds — leaving the rancher a profit 'vi which
he seldom quarrelled. In lie absence of any
oflicial statistics it is impossible to give with
absolute accmacy the number of cattle, :dieep
and horses now on the range, but a fair estimate,
based on interviews with prominent ranch-men
and shipp<is, places the figuns at 250,000 for
cattle, 120,000 for slieep, and 25,000 for horses.
This does net include live-stock owned by small
farmeis in Assiniboia, Saskatchewan and North-
ern Alberta. The value of tho cattle exported
from the rangi country during i8(j8 was in the
neighbourho' a of §1,250,000.

Both tlio nutnber of stock on the range and
the number exported increases at a rapid rate
each year. The quality is also improving, the
result of frequent importations of thoroughbred
animals from Ontario. An interesting factor in
the development of ranching in Alberta is arti-
ficial irrigation, for, great as is the natural water
tiupply, the annual rainfall is comparatively
meagre, and there exist largi; tracts of land lying
back from the rivers, and eastward from the more
favoured district, which with a more equal dis-
tribution of water will become — in fact, ari.'
already becoming — capable of maintaining many
additional thousands of cattle and of producing
immense quantities of cultivated fodder. Accord-
ing to the official figures, there are in the south-

weitcrn portion of the Territories 6 j,ooo,ooo
acres of heim-arid gia/ing country, which under
irrigation would become excellent farming lands.

In tho opinion of those who have studied the
Hituation, the interests of the <'ountry would be
lust served bv giving to each fifty thousand iicres
a live thousand acre patch of irrigated land upon
whidi intense cultivation could be carried on.
.Mieady, private enterprise, unassisted by cither
the I'ederal or Local Governments, except in the
case of the laigo canal between St. Mary's River
and Lethbridge now being constructed by the
Albi rta Construction Company, has brought
wide tracts under irrigation, the resalt proving
the vastness of the possibilities ahead of the West
in this dire( tioii.

One of the |)eculiar advantages of cattle ranch-
ing is that to both the rich man and the poor it
(Filers an eipially inviting field. " In theCana<lian
North- West," as Miss Shaw says in her excellent
article in The Tunes of October 21st, 1898, "any
man having earned enough money to buy a cow
may till n her loose upon the public range. Upon
branding her calf in the follow ing spring, he will
be the possessor of two animals instead of one,
and may continue while ho works for wages to
add to the number of his herd, until such time
as he sees a chance of making profit enough to
justify the establishment of a separate homestead.
This is the poorest kind of rancher, and in this
way beginnings are often made. The richest of
Canadian ranchers own herds ranging up to
about 15,000 head, and some of them have already
established themselves in charming hf)inestead3,
surrounded by the same kind of comfort and
refinement which Englishmen associate with the
life of an English country house. IJetsvecn the
two there is every stage and grade of develop-
ment. Homesteads, ranging in importance from
the little lumber shack, which may have cost less
than §100 to build, to the stone house spreading
its red roofed verandahs in the midst of well-kept
lawns and fiower gardens, are scattered in sparse
groups throughout the prairies. To them all the
ranges are open. For all alike the creeks are
rimm'ng. In any one of the wooded hollows
where the swrlling hills shelve down to a fold of
timber, low-grow ing at the water's edge, which
fri)m a reminiscence of early settlers is known in

■WWWWI

IH^

CANADA: AN KNCYCI.OIM'.DIA.

"3

this toiiiUiy iiH a 'coulee,' tliu tMttlo of tlio
■hack, or uf the f;roat ranch, may bo foiiiul."

'Iliu f;cneral affair!! of thu ranching; coininiinity
nro ill thohaiulsof the Wistcin StiM k Associatimi,
whi( h nuiiibi iH tlio chief cattle iinii uiiioii;^ its
members. Thu Association is one for tliu mutual
protuction of Ht<i(k owners. It watclies ami sii^;-
Ijests le^'islation on such ([iiestioiis as thu destruc-
tion of wolves, thu iiispcctiiii) ul hiilos, thu braiul
onlinancu, and detects and prosecutes cattlu
thi(!ves. The Association has existed since i.H(/),
Kanchiiif^ in Western ('aiiaiJa is still in its
infancy but the infant is now a very robust mem-
ber of tho family, and shows every promise of
<ventually fakiiiK a pl.icu very near thu top of thu
industries of the nation. While Southern Alberta
is hero treated more particularly as a stock-
raisini; district, it is important not to lose si^'ht
of thu fact that it is ca|)ablu of ^rowii j,' thu finest
crops of wheat, barley and oats, as well as roi)ts
and garden produce. In this respect, with thu
possible exception of t liability in certain parts
to summer frosts, Southern Alberta is the peer of
any section of Canada.

The portions of the great West suited to grain
and " mixed " farming, and already more or less
dotted by a;,'riciiltural homesteads, are Eastern
and part of Western Assiniboia, Northern Alberta,
and a largu part of Saskatchewan. These again
may be sub-(li\ idetl according to their piculiar-
ities and variat ions of climate, soil and topd^'rajibj .
Eastern Assinilioia in no very materiitl degree
differs from Manitoba. We find there, as in
Manitoba, the same alternation of poplar groves
and open praiiie, with here and there an occa-
sional creek, wooded valley or couUe. The soil is
rich, varying from sandy loam to heavy clay, and
capable under proper conditions of ciillivation
and moisture, of producing phenomenal crops of
wheat, oats, llax, barley, peas, roots, vegetables
and small fruits. The natural water su[)ply is
not largu. That furnished by the Ql^.^ppelle,
Suuris, Pipestone and other streams has to be
supi)lementcd by wells, which arc a necessity of
every hon-.estcad. Water is found throughout
tho district at depths varying from ten \o fifty
feet — occasionally very much deeper.

The winter climate, like that of Manitoba, is
much colder than that of Alberta, tempered as

the latter is by the I'acific brec/es, but not as
severe as that of Dakota, U.S., with its terrilyiiig
blizzards. Having spent ten years in Assiniboia
I hivu no hesitation in saving that, given a well-
built house and waiin clothing, as far as climate
is concerned, life may bo made as pleasant on
thu ciiitral prairies us in Ontario and (Juebec,
over whi( h Provinces the West has tho advan-
tage of almost unbroken siiii->hiiie. livery var-
iety of farming is carried on, from straight wheat
growing on thu Indian Head plains, which for
continuous productiveness aru not excelled any-
where in thu world, to the small stock farms of
the Yorkton and Saltcoats districtr, in tho north,
b'urther west aru the strong soiled plains of
Kegiiia and Moose Jaw, upon which settlers who
came in fifteen years ago with litllu but their
clothes have grown sufficiently prosperous to
erict comfortable homesaiul surround themselves
with the conveniences of civilization.

In Northern Alberta and along thu Saskatche-
wan Kiver, one of the mighty streams of the
Dominion, an entirely different country is found.
A lirst visit to this region is a revelation. If thu
title were not so universally claimed this section
might be justly called thu garden of Canada. It
bears comparison, both in landscape and fertility,
with tho iiu)st favoured S|)ots in England or
Ontario. It is a succession of stream, lake,
forest, hill, fertile valley and roiling prairie. In
comp.-irison with that of the more southern
prairies, its climate is mild and suit, and the
n.itural rain-fall is greater by reason of thu
abundant timber and proximity to the ir.ountains.
While its rank grasses do not carry tho high
nutritive properties of the shorter prairie herbage,
its soil is capable of producing the heaviest crops.
Near Ediiionlon yields of 40 and 50 bushels of
wheat and of >So to lOO bushels of oats to thu
acre are not uncommon. But this is essentially
a mixed farming region, where the settler who
produces grain, cattle, pigs, poultry and butter is
sure of an easy and comfortable existence, with
comparative affluence to look forward to.

The difficulties of pioneering on thu prairie are
not to be coni[)ared to those of early Ontario.
The land here on a huge scale is atimirably pre-
pared by nature for farming. "The snowfall
every winter," quoting ngain from Miss Shaw,

> ^ i

11

64

CAN'ADA : AX rXCV'^I.Or.KDl A.

" irrigates it with uniailing regularity. Tliero is
iiotliinfj to interfere with the wild sweet sweep of
the winu which dries tlu; gromiil iii due season for
M.ediiig. Fruni end to end of the country sun-
shine falls unhrokrn upon :iil f,'iowth. Um'ir
snch conditions tiie far:.ier ca. a'^k on!y for K^^^d
soil, and here for tiiousands of s-iinaic !ni!>js there
spreads a soil vhiih in its nat.e condition will
carry crops, nnniing readily to .\o hiisiicls of
wiieat and U) 70 bushels of oats per acre' The
avcrae;e yield of wheat, however, is about 20
bushels, land heini,' s > plentiful that the rarnier's

object is to cultivate large areas, rather than to
secure the highest results from small fields. In
conclusion, sjuaking as a pioneer of fifteen years'
res 'ciice on the prairies, and as one \\ ho owes
all he has in life to the illimitable opportunities
of the West, ♦he writer will place on record his
coiuiction that the next two decacK s will see an
a;;riciiltural and commercial expansion on these
pr.iiries tiiat will hiing the centre of wealth and
IHipulatioii and political influence in Canada west
of the Great Lakes, and assure the material
prosperity of our Western people.

NOKTH'WHSl RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT

WILLIAM IKANT, ot Ketjina, N.W T.

■« "1 Tlll'.'S the N'orth-Wtst Territories
% /% / became a part of the l>ominion
\/ \/ of C'iiiKula, the \ast area w:is
retrardeil as a icna iitco^^nila. 1^
was believed to be an inhospitable rei,'i jii, the
iiaimtofthe Indian and the bnff.do and useful
only as a uir-prodiKing country. No sooner,
however, was it biirveyed for settlement than
it was r':ngni;?cd as a country admirably hlted
for agricultural and pastoral pursuits. The
topography and climatical condition.; of tlie
region arc not so viriod as miL;ht be imagined
hoin its vastness and consequent differences
in both lati:ude and longittuie. It is true that
away to tlie north to tlu; limit of tree growth
the landsc; pe consists tjf a monf)touous stony
or mossy waste of frore soil, resembling that
of the Siberian Tniidra'^ and known astlie Harrcn
Ground ; but fiirtlier south, fo>.es, wolves, beav ers,
Dears, and otiier fur bearers are in abip. dance
as: well as moose and deer and an immer'-e
variety of wild fowl, r.ll ffuind in the pine forests
that are the cI .iracieristic covt:ring of the hind
— as well, thougii to a less extent, on the grass-
clad plains still further south r.nd now so well
known all over the world.

The North-West Teriitorics are eminently
characterised by great rivers, lakes and swamps.
The greatest river is the Mackenzie, whose chii f
tributaries, the Athabasca, Peace and Great
.Slave flow down to it from the Rocky Mountains
after having gathered strength from many tribii-
tariis of their own. The chaniul of the M;ic-
keiiicie also « xpaiids into the large lakes of Atha-
basca, Great Slave, Great Bear and others.
The Grer.t I'lsh Kiver drains the north-eastern
country to the Arctic Ocean but the southern
portion of the rou itry lies in the has; of rivers
falling into tlie Ilm son's 15ay — the largest oftheni
the Nelson, the head streams of winch are Xhv
S. 'atclK wan Rivers, which flown doun from
the Rocky Moiintnins tofoim La! i Winnipeg.
Frfiin the litter tl '■ Nelson issues. Thus the
wiiole count rv is a net-v.ork c f streams and
livers. Of mountain'" there are none properly
speaking, exi:ept the Rockies on the western
boundary. In Eas -rn Assiniboia and near the
interr.ntional boundary there is a range of hills
that rise very gradually from the surrounding
plains and reach a considerable height. Tiie
range 's K.iown ..s Moose Mountain and is about
thirty miles from east to west and half that dis-

vfMSMmmmt99m^m»i0th^*rtmvm<i»\mmw9i^n!'?'

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOP.I-'.DIA.

<JS

tance from north to south. In Western Assini-
boia, too, and also near the international buund-
atj', the prairie is broken in two places by ranges
of hills. One of these is Wood Mountain, which,
although a splemlid cattle country, is as yet but
sparsely settled in consequence of the tlilTicuUy
of access to markets. The seoinl ranf,'e of hi^a
lands is called the Cvi>res3 Hills, stretching
eighty miles east to west and twenty miles north
to south and reaching a height of i,ooo feet.
In other parts of the plains there are similar
breaks in the jirairie thou;^h not of sucli formid-
able dimensions, such as the Dirt Hills, the
Touchwood Hills and some others. Streams
and creeks descend from these high lands to the
plains around them, along the valleys of which
settlement is rapidly proceeding. Timber
is found in the ravines and cfiiiUrs that intersect
the hills and at many places, especially in the
Cypress Hills, the water is used for irrigation.

The greater portion of the North- West Ter-
ritories consists of prairie lands with occasional
scattered groves and belts of trees along the
rivers. There is also a large tract, consisting
chiefly of timbered land but interspersed with
open prairie. Beyond these regions there is a
further belt of land which, though lying in a colder
zone, is timbered, clothed with good natural
grasses and as well fitted for the growth of barley
and oats as are many of the less genial regions
of rortliern liurope which support a considerable
agricultural population.

At the eastern tnd of the Territories is the
organi;^ed District of Assiniboia (450 miles long,
250 miles wide", called after the River Assini-
boine. It is virtually a continuation of the grain-
growing area of Manitoba, though the soil is
lighter when compared with that of the Red River
Valley. The District is devoted chiefly to mixed
farming. Here farmers own small bunches of
cattle, which in the aggregate produce a consid-
erable quantity of butter, some cheese, and also
supply a very fair amount of beeves. Here and
there, too, are flocks of sheep, thcnigh this indus-
try has not yet become fashionable among prairie
farmers. In Western Assiniboia the prairie is
more open. The soil is exceptionally good as a
rule, and there is wheat-growing on a large
scale. Beyond Monse Jaw the sub-arid region is

reached, where water is scarce and irrigation
difiicult. The winters, however, are milder, the
snow-fall is light, and cattle and sheep graze
outside n( arly the whole of the winter. In some
places, as for instance along the creeks that flow
from the Cypress Hills, beautiful crops have been
grown by irrigation, and owing to the .ibsence of
frosts and the sub-tropical character of the sum-
mer, corn, tomatoes, and melons do well. A
natural feature of Assiniboia is the ^u'Appelle
Valley, which has a world-wide reputation. It
ends at Fort FJlice, at the juncture of the
Qu'Appelle and Assiniboine Rivers, its starting
point being Long Lake, near Regina, the capital
of the Territories, 150 miles to the west as the
crow flies. At various points the River Qu'Ap-
pelle expands into beautiful lakes, the principal
ones being Round Lake, Crooked Lake and the
Qu'Appelle Lakes.

The District of Alberta (named after the Mar-
chioness of Lome, having been formed during
the Governorship of the Marquess of Lome) is
immediately to the west. It is 430 miles long,
the average width 250 miles. Calgary is the
capital. Southern Alberta is composed of lux-
uriant open plains, broken by the valleys of
numerous life-giving streams that flow in pro-
fusion from the heights of the Rocky Mountains.
It is well within the Chinook {i.e., southwest
wind) belt, so that the winters are mild. North-
ern Alberta is very much the same as Assiniboia,
though here different sources of wealth come into
view, such as coal, which is found in abundance,
and golii, which is washed from the Saskatchewan
River, realizing about $50,000 a year. Coal is
also found at Lethbridge, in Southern Alberta,
west of Calgary. Alberta extends into the
Rocky Mountains as far as Banff, where are the
celebrated medicinal springs, and where also
land is reserved for a National Park.

The District of Saskatchewan (called after the
river of that name, which means " swift current ")
lies to the north of Manitoba and Assiniboia.
A cor.siderable portion of the area is wooded, and
the natural beauties of the scenery in many
places an: superb. Owing to remoteness from
markets, the country has settled up but slowly.
There is now, however, railway communication
between Prince Albert and Regina, with the result

it

II -

6(1

CANADA; AN K.VCYCLOr.l'inA.

thnt during the past two j-eais several thousands
of immigrants liave established largo st.'ttK;ineiits
in many places, especially near Prince Albert, the
capital. 13attleford, tiiu original c:ij)ital of all
the Territories, is situated in this District, but
owing to its remoteness from railway communi-
cation it has been deprived of that distinction
which now belongs to Kegiua.

Athabasca and the other Districts are but little
known. Settlement has not yet affecteii them,
and all that needs to be said about these wastes
is that as jet they are prof'^able only to the hun-
ter, thougii not without wealth for the woodsman
and the miner. The climite of the Territories
is marked by the striking contrast of two seasons
only — summer and winter — bringing with them
alternations of fruitful labour and of an enforced
repose that is divided between profitable industry
and pleasure. Spring opens at nearly the same
time all over the country. Early in Aiiril the
alder and the willows of the Saskatchewan coun-
try are in leaf, and the Easter anemone covers
the southern exposures to the very verge of the
snows near the Arctic Circle. There is more
sunnner heat in May than in the Eastern Prov-
inces. The nights, however, are cool, and
throughout the period of greatest heat, in July,
the cool night breezes beget a welcome and
refreshing change, often accompanied by heavy
dews. This protects the cereals from the effects
of drought even in dry seasons and proiluces a
rich growth of prairie grass. As to the winters,
undoubtedly they are cold and long, but on the
whole they are health-giving, agreeable and
singularly steady. The atmosphere and the snow
are alike dr\. The snow-flake is hud and
gritty and can he brushed off the clothing like
dust. No thaw strictly speaking, takes p'.ice
nntil spring except on the raic occasions of a
Chinook. Generally speaking tlu fur • . vest
the milder the winter, the greater' frequency of
Chill' "ks and the more shallow the snow. This
holds good right up to the Rocky Mountains.
Taking the Territories as a whole the r;iiiif,ill
varies from six to twelve inches; and the snow-
fall from 31 inches to 60 inches.

The North-West Territories are bisected by the
Canadian Pacific Railway, running from east to
west a distance of about 720 miler. Other lines

are those from Regina to Prince Albert; fron)
Moose Jaw to the international boundary at North
I'ortal ; from Metlicine Hat to Lethbridge and
tlienci' to the international boundary; from Cal-
gar> to South Edmonton on the Saskatchewan;
from Calgary to Macleod and thence by the
Crow's Nest Pass to the Kootenay. Altogether
there are 1,780 miles of railway in the Territories,
or :j JJ.7 square miles of area to each mile of track.
Taken according to population, the North-West
has population 1.4 per cent.; railway miles, 10.7
percent. Manufactures are but slowly entering
the Territories. According to the last census the
number of factory operatives was returned as only
one, a woman. There is a foundry at Moosomin,
a felt factory recently started at Qu'.Appelle, a
brewery at Prince Albert ana Calgary respective-
ly, brick-making at Regina and Moose Jaw and
grist mills at several places, but no manufactur-
ing districts have yet been started. As yet there is
no statistical bureau in the Territories and it is
therefore impossible to arrive with any degree of
exactness at data to show the development of the
resources of the country. A lignite coal is being
worked in the Souris district in Assiniboia ; a
bituminous coal at Lethbridge, Canmore, I-dmon-
ton and the wide area indicated by these pli'ces.
as well as at the Crow's No it Pass; and an
anthracite coal on the slopes of the Rocky
Mountains. The only idea that can be formed as
to the quantity is from the fact that last year
(1S97) 45,511 tons of coal of all kinds were
exported from the Territories. Any figures relat-
ing to gold would be misleading, as those given
include the Yukon District, which is not now
within the Territories. The gold production of
the Territories before the opening up of the
Yukon had reached (in 2895) $150,000.

In rt;gard to agricultural produce the best
criterion available is, that from the crop of i''^y7
four millions of bushels of wheat were carried by
the Canadian Pacilic Railway eastward and
westward [rom the Territories. How much was
h.ft behind for food and seeding it is impossible
to say. During the same year the railway also
carried from th.e Territories i'^t horses, 23,444
head of cattle, 583 hogs and 3,913 sheep. In re-
gard to dairy produce the quantity of cheese
made is so small as to be inappreciable. The

CANADA : AN ENCYCLOI'^:i)IA.

67

butter industry, however, is rapidly developing.
This is due to the establisliiiicut of sixteen
creameries scattered over the Territories, worked
by the Dominion Government on money advanced
by the Government for a period of five years (of
which two have still to run), alter which it
is expected the North-West Government will
continue the plan and establish other creameries.
The sixteen at present in existence made last
year 473,903 pounds of butter, which found ready
markets in Europe, in the Kootenay, in the Yukon
and in the distant Orient — the bulk of the home
market being supplied by the domestic rlairies.

It is difficult to obtain data to show the pro-
gress of the country as regards settlement. The
following statement shows approximately the
Government lands disposed of to date in Assiiii-
boia. Alberta, Saskatchewan and Athabasca, and
are from official dafa furnished by the Dominion
Department of the Interior :

Slalement showing appruximately the area reser\ . <1, disposed of
and availal)le fur settlement, sale or otherwise in the Pro-
visional Districts of AssinilK>ia, Albert", Saskatchewan and

Athabasca.

Acres.

Approximate area 345,000,000

Acrei,

Area reserved for railways- 55,234,880

" i>r Indian Reserves 2,jJ7,roS

" (if School Endowment I9,.ico,o0)

" of Timber Reserves 575 440

" of Hudson's Bay Companv's, one-
twentieth within Fertile Hcit 5,800,010

" dii|)osc(l of as Homesteads, Salu.>,

etc 4.45J.77^

87,600,000

Leaving area yet available (or set.lement, sale or

otherwise of 257,400,000

Approximate area of the Mackenzie District, in which

no lands have been disposed of 313,600,000

Approximate area of t' Keewalin District, in which

no lands have beeii .aposed ol 294,400,000

The amount of land sold by the Hudson's Bay
Company in Manitoba and the North-West Ter-
ritories is, approximately, 360,000 acres.

'i

A Manitoba lloiiiestead.

AGRICULTURE IN BRITISH COLUMBIA

BY

R E. GOSNELL, Ute Provincial Librarian, Victoria. B.C.

:if

THERE was a iiiiie ulieii the people of
British Columbia took umbrage at the
expression, "A sea of inoumains," as
applicable to ti.eir Province, and the
Hvjn. Edward ISlakc once got intovers' hot water
for introducing it in a speech in the House
of Comm 'is of Canada. They do not now,
however, feel so sensitive upon the subject and
rather glory in its application than otherwise. I,
for one, am prepared to accept the description as
literally accurate and wholly adequate. The
eyes of the world have been much turned to these
mountains of late, which afford not only the
grandest scenery in the worM, but contam the
greatest mine of wealth. Of course it is not
necessary to explain that British Columbia is not
all mountains, nor that its wealth is all in miner-
als. The existence of mountains suggests as a
corollary the existence of valleys, as well, which
are fruitful and healthful as abodes of men. Its
sea-girt shores are cc vered with a wonderful
growth of timber that casts in the shade the fin-
est and most densely forested limits in Eastern
Canada or in Michigan, U.S.A. The waters sur-
rounding it and within it are filled with fish of
the greatest economical value. And its geograph-
ical situation opens up through its ocean ports
sheeted and funnelled vistas of trade and com-
merce away far to the East and to the South.
We have, therefore, a combination of resources
and a position of vantage on the ocean which
are unique on the Continent of North America;
and to adopt a Scriptural metaphor it illustrates
once more in a remarkable way how a stone that
was rejected by the builders has become the head
of the corner.

First in order of importance is minings but, as
that is specifically excluded from treatment by
me amongst our material resources owing to

exp'.rt consideration elsewhere in this work *
at tile hands of scientifically equipped and prac-
tically trained men, I shall not pursue that phase
of the subject.

The place of agriculture among the industries
arising out of the natural resources of the Prov-
ince, is by no means yet determined. There are
two e.v^remes to avoid : One is the hastily formed
conclusion of new coiners, who, judging by the
standards of older and more settled fanning com-
munities, attach no importance at all to the pros-
pects in British Columbia, and either go away
wholly disappointed or settle down to some other
calling, satisfied with the futility of making farm-
ing pay in a country like this. The other is the
too enthusiastic anticipation of those who have
not a very clear or practical knowledge of the
conditions of successful fanning in any country,
and who, judging from exceptional results under
favourable conditions, have an exaggerated notion
of what is possible in an average way. The tak-
ing of both extremes is of common occurrence,
and it is, therefore, somewhat difiicuit for any
but a practical and ^experienced farmer to give a
fairly accurate estimate of the agricultural capa-
bilities of the Province.

I may here refer to the different local conditions
which exist, and this is a phase tt)o apt to be
overlooked in any consideration of the subject.
There are many variations of soil and climate
within limited areas, materially modifying the
theories wliich experiences in one locality alone
would suggest as ppplicable to some other locality.
This is accounted for by geological formation
and physical environments generally, which, as
we all know, are greatly differentiated. It may
be remarked here that one of the difiicu'hes with

•Editor's NoTK. See Vulnme III., Section V., " Onada t
an Kncycloijusdii ol the Counlry."

^•^,'"

CANADA : AN KNCYCl.OIVKDIA.

69

which farmers are confronted in British Columbia
is in the acquiring of local experience, which is
often boutjht dearly, not because of ignorance in
farming or incompetence, it may be added, but
from lack of that special knowledge to which
there is no guide but experiment.

Coming back to the possibilities of the iiulustry,
though still largely in the experimental stages,
sufficient has been tlemonstrated to place it on a
permanent basis as an important factor of Pro-
vincial wealth. There are manyobstaclcs besetting
the path of the fanner here, but there are also
Some compensating advantages, which will
eventually turn the balance in his favour. The
difficulties and advantages I wish to refer to are
those in a sense peculiar to British Columbia.
To take soils, the characteristic and predominant
soil, except on bottom lands, is a brown loam,
varying in quality and texture from a fine friable
mould to a coarse granitic wash. The subsoil
also greatly varies, being in places clay, hardpan,
sand and gravel, and the value of the land is
determined in a great measure accordingly.
Many conditions, however, govern the latter. It
depends largely in the first place on the amount
of timber to be disposed of. Land that requires
from $50 to $150 or more per acre to clear,
though it may be made cultivatable and fertile
tiiereafter, involves an expenditure of capital that
renders the investment a doubtful one. The
quality of the lanil itself, nearness to market and
means o( communication must be taken into
account in that connection.

Bottom lands such as meadows, alder bottoms,
"hardack" and swamps are the most fertile and
easily made available ; but, unless in the case of
prairie or peat bugs, are usually covered wiih a
very heavy second undergrowth, and reiiuire
almost invariably ditching and draining, and in
some cases dyking, so that in all but the most
favourable instances clearing or making ready for
cultivation is expensive andlaboinimis. Vancou-
ver's Island, is supplied with good roads, but, as a
rule throughout the Province, comnuinication
away from a line of railway or steamboats is, as
in all new countries, usually not of the best.
Then we have o h.er obstacles to deal with. A
Provmce blessed with fertility of soil and a mild,
equable clinnate, i? also fertile in weeds, described

as plants out of place, and is favourable to the
development of disease and insect pests. That
is to say, plant and insect life is prolific, and the
careful farmer is ever on the alert to keep his farm
clean, and in preventing and exterminating the
enemies of his crops. There are also in some
localities animal pests, such as destructive birds,
coyotes, etc.

Competition with imported farm products is
another thing the farmer has to contend with. In
former years, in fact untd very recently, mer-
chants imported all kinds of farmproiluce from the
neighbouring Slates and from the East, and dealt
very little in home farm products, for the reason
that the supply was fur a long time insufficient,
very irregular and uncertain, and badly marketed.
This was a condition very hard to overcome,
because the farmer could not deal with the
merchant and was obliged to find private cus-
tomers. This is being continually more and more
overcome by the establishment by the farmers
thetnselves of local markets, and home products
now largely supply the market in a number of
lines. The advantages which the British Colum-
bia farmers possess are the active local demand ;
the rapidly growing market, as a result of increas-
ing population and mining activity; the distance
from competitors, and a protective tariff, which
tend to keep up prices; the mildness of the
climate ; and, as a rule, the extraordinary fertility
of the soil and the largeness of the yield.

Referring again tothesupplyingofthelocal mar-
ket, home protliiction is increasing so satisfactorily
as to have wholly displaced in some lines imported
articles, and to such an extent as in a few years
to form a surplus for export. Indeed, an export
trade has already been opened up with the North-
West in fruit — -small fruit, plums and apples.
The department of agriculture that his made the
greatest advance in the last two or three years is
dairying, and from practically no local supply, ex-
cept from a few iudiviiluai farmers, there are about
half a dozen co-operative creameries, producing
an article of good quality and finding a large
sale.

Owing to the contiguity of the Oriental mark-
ets, and tiie openings afforded in the North-
West, there is likely to be developed a large
amount of trade and industry in several special

'i::9|'y

7°

CANADA: AM KNCVCI.OP.KDIA.

lines. Thu North- West, inchuliiig Manitoba,
will take groat quantities of fresh fruit, probably
all that can be grown ; while dairy products will
be shipped to Cliina and Japan, where a good
market, among the European population, exists
for butter and cheese of extra quality. British
Columbia, it may be reasonably anticipated, will
yet produce an industry of great magnitude in
canned fruits and vegetables, and it is not unrea-
sonable to predict that firms comparable with
Cross & Blackwell ami Lee & Perrin will yet
come to the front in gtxxls similar in character
to those manufactured by them, and of world-
wide fame. This is suggested by the prolificncss
with which small fruits, plums, pears, apples and
all kinds of vegetables are grown, and the facili-
ties there are for export.

Hrietly, it may be stated that the special prod-
ucts whicli the adaptabilities of the Province
suggest are : Condensed milk, hams and bacon,
preserved meats, tobacco, leather, canned goods,
paper, flax and sugar beet. In regard to the
latter two named, while there can be no reasona-
ble doubt as to their being successfully grown,
yet as capable of creating industries on a large
scale the}' may be regarded as problematical.
Tobacco is grown and manufactured in the Okau-
agan Valley, and results are claimed to be
satisfactor\- so far as oper;itioiis have gone. Such
fruits as peaches, apricots, tomatoes and melons
(the latter two being usually classed as fruits)
ripen and do particularly well in i>arts of the
interior, but, generally speaking, are only cultiv-
ated in favoured localities on the Coast. The
possible future large industry belongs to the
interior in the way of cold-stored meats. Live
stock has not heretofore been notable as a success,
and from a variety of reasons ; but with improved
methoils should become very profitable. This
applies to cattle, pigs and poultry especially.
Sheep are regarded as objectionable to breeJ on
the interior ranges on account of their effect on
the pasturage, and the Coast climate is too wet
in fall and winter for them without proper shelter.
On Vancouver's Island and some of the contiguous
islands, however, they do well. No doubt, in
time, many of the islands and side hills as well,
now waste, will be utilized for running them.
Poultry and pigs should be extensively bred.

With the exception of the Delta prairie land of
the iMaser and the valleys of the interior, where
farming is and can be carried on on a large scale
in hay, cereals and stock, the future of British
Columbia in agriculture lies in small holdings
and intensive methods. Cheaper and better
methods of clearing and draining are being
empkned, and will greatly increase the area
under cultivation. The areas suitable for farm-
ing are to a considerable degree detached and
irregular; but careful investigation will show
that nuich more good laiul is available than is
generally supposed ; and much good land is in
the hands of private parties that has for a long
time lain unproductive. The taking up of land
for speculative purjioses accounts for this condi-
tion of affairs, which will gradually be remedied.
At the present time there is not much demand
for farm lands, and as security for loans, they are
not in the great majority of casjs accepted by
the Loan Companies at all. It may be assumed
that so long as the stronger inducements afforded
by mining and speculation exist, agriculture will
not receive that attention it deserves. Specula-
tion has ever been unfavourable to the cultiva-
tion of the soil, which requires steady and
persistent energy in one direction, and intelli-
gent industry ; but sooner or later the other
influence-; at work will react on it, and it will be-
come more prominent amongst the wealth-
begetting agencies of the Province. Practically
speaking, the inception of agriculture dates back
to only ab(jiit fifteen years ago, and is therefore
making rapiil progress. Those who have entered
seriously into farming in British Columbia and
exercised good judgment in selection, worked
intelligently and industriously, eschewed outside
speculations, and kept the goal of success steadily
in view, have prospered.

In a general way the agricultural districts may
be referred to as the Fraser V.iUey in the West-
minster District, in which there are about 350,000
acres of arable land — 150,000 acres being alluvial
deposit ; the southwestern portion of Vancouver's
Island, which is comparatively well settled and
contains some excellent land ; and the Okanagan
District, in which there are numerous fertile
valleys, comprising in all about 500,000 acres
suitable for general agricultural purposes. In the

CANADA: AN ENCVCI,OP/KDIA

7«

latter, in addition to tlie areas referred to, there
are still ]ar(,'er areas uf pastoral land Siiiitable,
and used for jjrazing only. The three foregoiii^
districts have been referred to first because they
are distinctly ai^ric-uitiiral and are the localities in
which the principal farming settlements are to
be found. There are, however, extrnsive tracts
of open country in the North and South Thomp-
son River Valleys, in the Nicola Valleys, in the
Similkameen, in Lillooet, Cariboo and East
Kootenay, in which, thoiij^'h princii>ally pastoral
and requiring irrigation for crojis, are to be
found at intervals good farms, or, as they are
usually design itcd," ranches," and these detached
areas constitute in the aggregate many tliousands
of acres, which either do produce, or aic capnble
of producing, any crops within the possibilities
of the temperate zone — cereals, fruits and vege-
tables.

And, added to these, the capabilities of which
with intelligent and intensive methods of farm-
ing, are very great, are still more extensive,
though remoter, tracts to be found in the Colum-
bia Valley, East Kootenay; in the Canoe River
Valley, opening the way to the northern interior
from Kootenay; in the Chilcotin country, in-
cluding the Nechaco and Blackwatcr Viillevs; on
the nothern end (}f Vancouver's Island and on the
islands and coast of the Mainland, which, witli
increased f.icilities of communication and the
demand created by the almost certain immense
development about to take place and the conse-
quent rapid augmentation of population, will
provide homes for thousands of settlers. As
yet these hunls are mainly in the hands of the
Government, and until communication is
afforded and development takes place they are
not recommentled for settlement ; because
without facilities for reaching a market, f.irming
life in isolated communities presents many
obvious obstacles to success. Although suitable
land in the already settled districts has all been
taken up and is in the hands of private parties,
farms partially improved or in favourable local-

ities may be obtain.ed from $io to $50 an acre,
according to situation and character of land,
improvement, etc., and it may Le remarked here
that a small fartn of from forty to one hundr.d
acres in extent is sufficient in British (Olumbia
for the average farmer. A good many farms in
gooil localities may now be obtained, and
the average price for 100 to 160 acres, with from
ten to twe'-.ty-five acres cleared, and buildings,
is from $15 to 1520 an acre on easy terms. How-
ever, it is difficult to give exact prices, which, as
has already been stated, range all the way from
$10 t I .750 per acre. Farms with excellent pos-
sibilities may be obtained for the latter figure.
In most cases, however, a settler who h is im-
proved farming in view may count on having a
good deal of extra fencing, clearing, under-
draining and building to tlo after he has acquired
any land, in older to obtain the best results.
Many of the farms have young orchards, but
here, too, improvements of varieties and further
planting will be desirable. Plenty of good water
and good timber are almost always available.

The Province is entering on a new agricultural
era, and a large number of farmers are making
earnest and diligent efforts, under many difficul-
ties, to re-create the industry on a sound, eco-
nomic and healthy basis. Progress so far is not
measured by many or conspicuous mile-posts ;
but, looking back over ten years, a decided ad-
vance has been made, and in ten years hence
the change will have been marvellous. The time
may reasonably be anticipated when the adjacent
forests will be cleared away, the valle\s fertile
with waving grain, the hillsides vine-clad, and
the landscape dotted with farm houses nestling
among orchards and clusters of home- born trees
and shrubbery, with long vistas of heilge lines
and roadwa\ s to guide the eye — a pleasing,' pic-
ture to which the mountain background of native
grandeur and the reflection of summer skies will
impart a rare charm of scenic beauty and an air
of pastoral and picturesque repose. BritishColum-
bia agriculture has a distinct future of its own.

I:

DHVHLOPMHN r OF CANADIAN LIVH STOCK

BY

DAVID McGRAi;', Uirector of the Doiiiinioti Cattle Hreeders' Association, Guelpli.

Tllli breeding aiul rearing' of domestic
animals has long been a promini-nt
fiMliiic ofCanailian farmin-,'. So will
is the soil and climate of Canada adapted
to the needs of live stock that in the Province of
Ontario and in the Eastern Townships of
ynebec it is tiiu niuHt prominent branch of farm-
ing. In the other Provinces remarkable advances
have been inatle in recent years in the qnality
of the stock kept and the value of the products
of domestic animals. In 1665 there came from
France under the direction of tlie Marquess de
Tracy the first considerable shipment of hor.ses,
cattle and sluep for the use of the colonists in
Canada. These were from Normandy and
Brittany, whence many of the settlers came, and
thus formed the basis of the hve stock of the
Province of Quebec. In after years other im-
portations were made from time to time before the
conquest of Canada by the British in 17.59. The
live stock of the Maritime Provinces came partly
from P'rance and partly from New Ens^land.
Nova Scotia had first French stock and afterwards
sotne from the New Enf,dand Colonics. New
lirnnswick stock was almost wholly from the
latter, while Prince Edward Isl.ind had some
direct from Great Britain. Upper Canada, now
Ontario, was made a Separate Province in 1791.
The first settlers had a cow granteil by the Gov-
ernment to every two families. Then they had
to get a yoke of oxen to assist in the pioneer
work. In the eastern part of the Province these
were puichased from their P'rcm h ni'ij^hbours
and in tli>e western part either fmin the same
source or from the settlers in New Yoik State.

As the country prospered the land was cleared
of stumps, the ox-'.cams gave place to horses;
sheep, swine ami poultry were introduceil ami
became plentiful and profitable. Then a desire

arose for a better quality of stock, and it was but
natural that as 15ritisij llocks and herds were the
best in the woiKl they should be looked to as
suited to improve Canadian stock. In these
importations there was no regular plan. Often,
to the particular section of the old land from
which the settler came he returned for a visit
and usually bought the breed he had been
accustomed to in his boyhood. Thus it was that
in Canada different breeds of stock were scattered
up and down the land. Some have done well and
spread. Others have disappeared. No section
of Canada is devoted to one particular breed.
Thus it comes that many of the most successful
breeders of pure-bred stock are handling the
breeds which their forefathers tended in the old
homes beyond the seas. Canada has proved a
remarkably healthy home for European stock of
all kiiiils. The bracing northern air, the clear
crisp days of winter and tlie sunshine all the year
round, help to give that rugged health enjoyed by
Canadian stock.

Horses. In dealing with the horses of Canada
I shall confme my remarks to those breeds which
are used for the labours of the farm. The
breeding and handling of thoroughbred trotting
and racing stock is a business by itself and out-
side the sphere of the ordinary farmer. Saddle
and harness horses are somewhat different. They
are usually bred on the farm and the bulk of the
best are soM to the dealer to be handled and
schooled for the market. Those not taken for
this purpose are retained for the owner's use.
Many Canadian farmers prefer the ni(jderate
sized, handy horse fi)r farm u ork and think thein
all the better if they have a dash of the warm
blooil of the thoroughbred. Others prefer the
heavy draught horse, and this feeling is growing
amongst the belter class of farmers, who find

CANADA : AN KNCVCLOIMCDIA.

73

heavy horses most useful in the farm and most
souglit after for the export trade. The Do-
minion Government issues statistics with each
decennial census. The followintj are the figures
for the stock on farms :

HuKsus ON 1'"akms in Canada.

Provincf. 1881. 1S91. Increase.

Ontario SO^.-'J-'^ /7'.''<.{''< 181,540

Quebec ^73.^5-i .i-H.-'J^' 7<'.-US

Nova Scotia 57,^^7 (>5>o-\7 7.88o

New Brunswick... 5-.<J75 5<).77i ^'7')^

Princelulwardl'd .',1,3.55 .W>V)" ^'•"57

Manitoba i(J.7J',' -'^./J5 <"J.9'J^

The Territories... lo.cSjo 60,976 50,106

British Cohimbia. 26,1.2^ 44.521 i^^-.^go

i.u59.J5^ 1.470.572 4".-ii4
The Provincial statistics of Ontario show a
steady decrease in the number of horses since
1891. It may be ncHiced that for the past two
years there is an increase in the mimber of breed-
ing mares. Tlie figures are as follows :

Working lireeding Other

Morses. .Mares. Horses, Total.

i8(j.j 338,688 109,865 ^.io.^Si 688,834

1893 37.5.^15 io".55.5 ^11,019 685,187

1894 395,f)86 88, 96^ 190,129 674 777

1895 423,673 72.156 i5i,''^67 f'47.^")*'

1896 434,384 66,883 1-23.4^'^- ^>-4.749
i^')7 43^'. 9- 1 69,940 108,809 615,670
1898 430,504 77,886 102,851 611,241

The e.\port trade in horses, the produce of
Canada, is herewith given in four-year periods
and their appro.ximate values as stated by the
returns to the Customs I)epartmi;nt :

Number. V.ilue. Average value.

1S74-77 2Z.i2b $2,252,776 $100

1878-81 74.194 6,624,938 89

18S2-85 57,512 7,1^2, i^6 124

1886-89 7^.■\(i^ 9,045-37*^ I -.5

1890-93 5-i.49<^^ 6,168,501 117

1894-97 i^\],S^S 6,082,353 96

The revival in horse breeding is now begin-
ning. The past few years have been hard ones
on the owners and breeders of valuable horses.
Now there is a turn and the prices paid for good
horses are increasing. The best demand is for
heavy draught horses of the Clydesdale type

and for high stepping harness horses. Of the
breeds in Canada there is one that deserves
mention, namely, the old French-Canadian.
This horse is descended from the early importa-
tions from Normandy and proved a most
useful type for the Canadian farmer. In the
early part of the century and up till about 1850
many of this breed went to Upper Canada, where
they were great favourites. They were short-
legged, thick, chunky animals, many of them
black in colour, round-ribbed, deep at the heart
and with a quality of bone which could not
he excelled in its freedom from disease of every
kind. Accustomed to bush work, good pullers,
tractable and kindly they were very valuable
to the settlers. They did much of the rough
work for the farmers and did it well and could
often show a good burst of speed. This is the
breed which formed the basis of the " Morgan "
horses so favourably known in the New England
States. The breed has been crossed with trotting
stock and it is now difficult to get the type of
horse and the weight so useful half a century ago.
Recently a stud book has been begun in Que-
bec and an attempt made to improve the breed
by judicious selection. It is to be hoped tliatthe
old type may be restored by this method.
In Quebec the French coach horse has been
tried with good results, but the bulk of the horses
of the Province are light, handy horses. In On-
tario specially, and in some of the other Prov-
inces also, the English Hackney is being used
to produce a high class of harness horses. This
is one of the most popular crosses at present
and on a good foundation of half-bred or other
high-class mares seems to do very well. In heavy
horses, Percherons have been tried both in On-
tario and Quebec with only partial surce?s.
Many years ago numbers of that useful horse,
the Suffolk Punch, were imported and used
but they are now rarely seen. Shires have been
tried, and have still 1 few admirers, and three
or four exhibitors, but are not gaining in popular-
ity or numbers. The Clydesdale is the draught
horse most pojuilar in Canada and the one most
widely distributed. The first importation of which
there is any record in Ontario is that of " Grey
Clyde " imported in 1841 by the late Archibald
Ward, of Markham. Since then there have been

< 1;

y

1

r

74 CANADA: AN KNCVCI.OIMiniA.

many iniportatiuns and nmny very lii^li-dass ranches have been tried to a limited extent near

animals liave cume to CanatUi. These some- Calvary in Alberta both for the breeding; of hf;ht

times loimd their way to the United States and and heavy horses. Tlie farmer who keeps a mare

many »)f tlie best horses in America were handled or two ami breeds carefully is the one that raises

first on this side of tiie ocean by the Canailian tin: best horses. The colts are easily handledi

importer. are accnstomcd to li^dit work, well cared for and

In 18S5 the Clydesdale Horse Association was make nseliil and very tractable liorsis.
forniitl with headipiarters in Toronto and already Cattle. As has been said the cow and the ox
nine volumes of the Clydesdale Sliul Hook of were the first animals used on a Canadian back-
Canada have been |)iiblislicd. This Assoi i.ition woods farm. The cow supplied milk for the
was also instrumental in establishini,' a Sprinjj household and the yoke of steers, or o.\en, did the
Stallion Show in Toronto, which has been a heavy labour — the lo;,'^'injj of the hind and the
success since its start and has recently been work of the widening,' acres as the inroads were
exteniled to incUule all the pojiular bietids of yearly made into the forest. These cattle were
horses in Canada, and now the Canadian Horse fed on the foicst plants in the summer and on
Show is one of the popular events of the season, meadow hay and browse in the winter, lirowse
The best classes of Clyde horses in Canada are was composed of the small twigs of tiie forest
found in the Townships of Markham ami I'icker- trees felled by the settler in clearing the land,
ing.the adjoining; townships l)ing east of Toronto, For yv'ars the farmer of the early days had no
and about Gnelph in the County of Wellington other stock. Horses were not adapted for work
and Seaforth in the County of Huron. The amou'^jst the stumps and needed better winter
Kastern Townships 111 ^}uel)(C Province have also food than was available. The wolves took the
a lot of well-breil ("lydis, and they are found in sheep and the bears the pips when an ambitious
all the Provinces of the Dominion. The Clyde farmer brought these in from " the front " as the
is therefore peculiarly the draught horse of Can- older settlements werecalled. Cattle werethe first
ada, and is the most ^:)rofUablu animal to raise for hel|)ers on the faun and still lead in the quantity
the export trade. When of good type and over and value of their products. The Dominion
1,600 lbs. in weight they are eagerly bought by C'ensus gives the following figures regarding cat-
exporters at paying prices to the breeder. Horse tie in Canada :

Oxen. Milch Cows. Total Callle. Increase or

1881. |8<M. 1881. 1S91. 1S81. 1891. Decreaie.

Ontario 2.5,^65 iz,^Ji.\ j>i^,^^_i, 876,167 1,70^,167 i,(m),<>y\ + 258,506

Qi'cbec 4«J-2.57 fS.^)/"^* 4<)0,997 54'J.-I5 1 'H<»..5.{,? u6<j..5i^ + 19.<)7')

Nova Scotia 33.-75 -J'^^.-l- 1 i37-f>3'J i4i.()N.| 3-i5-^'"3 3-24.773-- ^3'

New Brunswick 8,8ij 7.510 105,965 106,649 211, ^(m 204,692 -- 7. 868

Manitoba 12.269 19,199 20,355 82,712 6o._'8i 250,696 -f 170,415

British Columbia -,3") •!,63i 10,878 17,504 80,451 i_'6,()i9 4- 46,468

P.E.Island 8.| it6 45.''^95 45.^49 ((0,722 9i.<'39 + 973

The Territories 3,5.54 7,583 3,848 37.005 12,872 231,827 4- 218.955

132,593 123,563 1,595,820 1,857,022 3.433.9''^9 4.I-0.550 + (>'''f>.597
Another census will probably show an increase profits than exclusive wheat growing. In Quebec
in all the Provinces, notably in the Maritime there is also an increase in dairying, and there-
Provinces, where the last census showed a de- fore in cows kept. Ontario has now close on a
crease of 7,726. There has in recent years been million milking cows — a steady increase since
a marked increase in dairying, which has largely 1892 — and her cattle number, in i8g8, 2,215,943,
increased the number of milch cows. Manitoba an increase over the figures of 1891, of 275,270.
is also steadily growing in the number of cattle This is a larger percentage of increase than was
kept, farmers finding that mixed farming has surer made during the previous decade. The exports

^SSSSi'vm

CANADA: AN KNCVCI.OI'.KDIA

H

uf live cuttle fruii) Cunudu liuve been us fuUuws,
taking; periods of four years :

Ymn.

1875 7H..
187V Si..
l8Si,S6..
i.S,S7-i>c), .
1891 <)\.
18<;S.98..

To Cicki llritain.

Ni'. Value.

i>i.5i.J #i,ii8,6S"

144.19s '),7i(>Ai»

To Uniteil SlaUi.

No. Value.

8(i,i|(>8 |i,(i75,j30

00 S'i7 i.ioS.su

331,851 i8,5>>i,5i8 1.(11, i»(.,) .),4S5,i)«o

344 '^^iS 3l,uji,.734 Ijl.oli 3,u8,8jj

j8<»,s5o jgoJS.VJo ,i>)7i 6i,i(<s

438,073 37,55»."J3 ii6,4Ji i,77'>.''7-'

From i8(j2 till 1N96 there were (juiirantiiie
regulations wliicli pieveiUeil any larj,'e trade with
the United Slates. Tiuse were renioveil in
i8(j6, and the export trade in slorkers the uv\t
year increased by over jj.ono h(;a<l. The trade
with Great Hritain is alto},'ether in fat cattle;
that with the United States is in pure-bred
animals for breeilinj; purposes and clieapstockers,
young, thin, and of such a (juality as can be
bought at u low price. .Many thousands are thus
bought.

Ontario has long been celebrated for the ex-
cellence of her beef cattle, and Guelph, with
the section of country abnut that city, has long
been the centre of beef trade. The Guelph Fat
Stock Show has been called the "Smithlield"
of Canaila, and it is the only place in ("anaila
where year after year a first-class fat stock show
has been held. Guelph's start came in this wise.
In iNji there came to the town, then but four
years founded, a )i)ung English cmi.L;rant named
Rowlaml Win^lield. He purchased a farm a few
miles fron) Guelph in the neighboiuing Township
of Pusliniii, cleaied a few acres, built a log
shanty aiul went back again to England to buy
stock. In iSjj he came with some of the best
Shorthorns he could buy in England, splendid
representatives of the red, white and roan.
Their route was up the St. Lawrence to Mon-
treal, where they were disembarked and driven
on foot to Lachine, thence by boat to Bytouii,
now Ottawa, down tlie Rideau Canal to King-
ston and thence up Lake Ontario to Hamilton,
from which place they had to walk through the
woods 30 miles to the Puslinch I'arm. There
were two bulls and six heifers in this lot. One
of the bulls was bred by the Rev. H. T. Berry,
one of the best Shorthorn judges in England.
Mr. Wingfield did not keep them long but sold
out farm and stock to John Huwitt, of Guelph,

The dcacunduntii of these cattle are scuttered far
and wide over the continent of America. Tiiey
established (iuel|>h as the best stock centre in
Canada, a position which it still retains.

The Shoitiiorns ate the beef breed of Canada,
and are known and appreciated in every Province.
New Hrutiswii'k made one of the fust importa-
tions, biiiiging out four bulls in 1^^.43, but no
cows, and the results were thereiore not perman-
ent. At the present time there are a few good
Sliorlhiiins in the Maritime Provinces, but the
trend there al |)ieseiit is towards dairy cattle.
Manitoba his recently shown as good Shoit-
iiorns as can be got in Caiiida. All through
the Noi til-West there is more or h ss of this
blood, and it is also being tried on the western
ranches. Of the other beef breeds, Abertleen-
Angus, Ilerefonls and Galloways, there is a fair
nunibir. The Northern Polls have not obtained
general recognition and are, perhaps, fewer than
the white-facetl Herefords. There are some line
herds of both breeds. Galloways are somewhat
numerous in Ontario and are doing well on the
North-West ranches.where there are some excel-
lent herds. In Ontario they are popular with
some, and are very hardy, but they have not be-
come so nunieioiis there as upon the foot-hills of
the Rocky Mountains. Ontario is the breeding
ground of young bulls of all the beef breeds, not
only for the other Provinces but more esjjecially
for the United Stales, where largo sales are
made at good prices. Canadian breeders are
noted for the excellence of their stock and their
care in scU'ction, and are well situated to do an
increasing trade in high-class animals.

There are many dairy breeds in Canaila, but
no outstandingone takingtlieplaceand holdingthe
vaiilagegroundocciipied by the Shorthorns among
the beef breeds. Ayrshircs are the most numer-
ous and arc increasing most rapidly, and we may
therefore conclude they are the most popular.
Montreal has been for many years the centre for
the Ayrshires. They are an old breed there. It
is nianj' years since the first importation came
from Scotlantl and they have been well cared for
and have done well for their owners. The East-
ern Townships are also well supplied with
Ayrshires, and now all through the cheese-making
districts of Ontario Ayrshires are known and

i[

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

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Sciences

Corporation

23 WBT MAIN STRKT

WIUTER,N.Y. I45M

(71*) •72-4303

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76

CANADA: AN ENCVCLOl'.KDIA.

valued. It is hard to say whether the next place
should be given to the butter-making Jerseys or
to the big milkin}^ Holsteins. Both breeds are
quite numerous and of good quality. Guernseys
have not been as popular as their smaller cousins,
the Jerseys, but are doing well. There a* j good
herds in the Eastern Townships, in Ontario and
in Prince Edward Island. The native breed of
Lower Canada, one descended from the early
importations from Brittany, is a popular one in
that Province. They are a small dark breed, a
good deal like the Jersey in figure, and are hardy
cows and good butter-makers. As dairy farming
has spread in Canada, stimulated by Government
assistance, the dairy breeds have increased
rapidly. Whole sections that formerly had good
grade Shorthorns and fat steers have now dairy
cattle, and feed only a few half fat for local
butchers. As the trade changes so does the live
stock of a district, and where a few years ago
beef was the staple product it is now butter.cheese
and pork.

Since the days of bush runs and browse for
cattle, which still have to be resorted to in new
parts where forest kind is being cleared, the treat-
ment of cattle has undergone a great change. In
thespiing in Ontario the cattle are fed in the
byres till grass •• far enough advanced to give a
full bite. This varies in different seasons, but in
central Ontario will be about the loth of May.
Soiling all the year round is rarely tried, but
many farmers have some winter rye sown near
the barn for supplemental food and to give an
early green bite to bulls oi other animals kept in
the buildings. After this conies the first early
sown soiling crop, usually a mixture of oats, peas
and vetches — cut and fed in the buildings to the
cows brought in for milking. This is followed by
a patch of early corn or sorghum, which lasts
till the roots are ready in the autumn. These
extra feed crops are helpful always, and indis-
pensable when a dry summer comes, if the flow of
milk is to be maintained by the herd. Indian
corn or maize is coming into favour as a forage
crop for cattle and is now very largely grown in
Ontario and fed either dry or as silage. Cattle
are housed early in November and during the
winter months are fed cut straw, chaff, clover
hay, or cut corn as bulky food, with roots or

silage. The best farmers feed their grain crops,
exchanging wheat for bran for the stock and flour
for the home, and chopping the coarse grains,
peas, barley and oats, and feeding this to the
stock. If these grains are selling well and Indian
corn is cheap, then an exchange is made and the
corn ground and fed instead of the more vduable
grains, which are then marketed.

Ranching in Alberta and other sections of the
great North-Wcst is a profitable occupation.
There the cattle graze all the year. In the sum-
mer hay is cut oi. the marshes and put up for
severe winter weather. The ranch grass is very
nutritious, and the Chinook winds keep the pas-
tures bare of snow and allow the cattle to feed
most of the winter on the wild herbage. When
storms of snow and ice come, the hay from the
• marshes is used. Calgary is the centre of the
ranching trade, which is increasuig, and has been
very remunerative in good years.

Canada has a bright future in the cattle trade.
Her farmers are the best stock-men on the con-
tinent, and have a climate specially suited for
stock raising. Ontario excels in the growing of
roots, because of greater skill in their cultivation
more than from any other advantage. Nova
Scotia and New Hrunswick, the Provinces by the
sea, are well suited for the growth of roots and
hay, and might be made great nurseries for the
best breeds of live stock. There is very little loss
from disease among cattle in any part of Canada,
So far as statistics are obtainable from herds
tested with tuberculosis, only from five to seven
per cent, of animals have re-acted. This shows
a small percentage of tuberculosis when it is
considered that the herds thus tested were sus-
pected ones. Pleuro-pneumonia, rinder-pest,
Texas fever, and such like diseases, are quite
unknown in any part of Canada. There have
been cases of anthrax and black quarter, but
these are rare, isolated cases. Altogether, Canada
is specially well adapted for raising healthy cattle
of the best quality.

Sheep. This stock is valuable on any farm,
and yet is slowly decreasing in Canada. One
reason is the low price of wool compared with
former years, and another is the need of house
room for the flock throughout the winter. Yet
another reason is the dog nuisance, and then

J.

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOlVliDIA. 77

again the spread of the dairy industry, which local market in Ontario is very steady, averaging

favours pigs to use the bye- products rather than in value for sheep and lambs slaughtered about

sheep. The great bulk of the sheep in Canada two and a half millions of dollars, and a wool

are long-wooled. Perhaps over three-fourths of clip slightly over one million dollars. The fol-

the clip will class as long wool, and the price of lowing are the Census statistics by Provinces :

wool is less than one-half what it was thirty ,

1 88 1 1 8a I Increase or

years ago. Even at this reduced price for fleece ' ^ Decrease.

the sheep is one of the most profitable animals Ontario r. 359 178 1,021,709 -3371409

that can be kept on a farm. Housed all winter (Jiiebec ^'^9...., 3 730,286 -159.547

as sheep are in Canada, one of the problems that Nova Scotia j7'/,j>. 33Ii49-? - 46.309

the flockmaster has to solve is how to give his New Brunswick 221,163 182,941 - 38,222

sheep, and especially his breeding ewes, enough Manitoba 6,073 35.838 + 29,765

daily exercise. At all times of deep snow ibis is British Coluiii-

difficult. In very stormy weather it is almost bia 27,788 49.163 + 21,375

impossible. They must have ventilation at all Prince Edward

times, and plenty of it They do not need any Island 166,496 147,372 - 19,124

elaborate house fixings, and will not do well in a The Territories.. 3^6 64,920 + 64.574

basement, but do need a tight roof over them in

bad weather. All the breeds favoured in Canada 3,048,178 2,563,781 -484,897
are British ones. Swine. In no department of Canadian live
Merinos, ao much handled in the United stock has there been such a marked advance
States, have never found favour in Canada, made in recent years as in the quality of the
The mountain black-faced sheep of Scotland herds of swine. So great has been the advance
were tried and pined all winter for lack of exer- that to-day the breeders of Canada are handling
cise. Cheviots also were not successful ; it may hogs that for the turning out of an excellent
have been for the same reason. The Cotswold quality of bacon cannot be excelled anywhere
has done well, and, with the Leicester and Lin- in the world. The decrease in the number
coin, shares the honours of the long-wooled of sheep has been more than made up by the
breeds. Shrops are the favourites in the short- increase in the number of hogs. The pea- fed
wooled class, with Southdownsnext> and Oxfords pork of Canada is equal in quality to that made
have some admirers. A few years ago the anywhere else in the world. The trade is a grow-
Dorset Horn was introduced and is still here and ing one and likely to be very valuable to the
may help to fill a want for early spring lamb. Canadian feeder in the future. Two litters
The great bulk of the sheep in Canada have either are turned off by the breeder in the year. At,
Cotswold or Leicester blood. There are many or under, six months the ybung pigs are made
pure bred flocks, carefully kept and well handled, weights from 170 lb. to 190 lb., rarely up to 200
breeding pure bred sires. The ordinary Ontaiio lb. live weight. The long side with mixed
farmer breeds for mutton and sells his lambs fat and lean meat is preferred. The breeds
in the autumn for the Buffilo (U.S.) market most in favour are the red Tamworth, the white
or holds them over to the spring for shipment improved Yorkshire and the longsided improved
to Britain. Our largest exports were to Great Berkshire. For quick feeding many prefer a cross-
Britain in 1896, when they reached $1,721,250 — bred hog between any two of these breeds,
exceeding 1895 by nearly $460,000. Only thrice The other breeds now coming quickly up to che
in the past twenty-four years have our shipments type desired are the Duroc Jersey, Poland China,
to the United States been over a million dollars, and the Chester White. These have all been
viz. — in 1888, 1892 and 1893. The year 1894 developing animals along the lines demanded
was an off one, our total shipments being only by the modern market. Even the Essex has
$832,666 — thesmallestof any year since 1878. In shown specimens of excellent form and meeting
i8g6 they were the largest, viz., $2,151,283. The in eve v way the demand for a long-sided quick

fcl

11

r

1

78

CANADA : AN ENCYCLOP.KDIA.

feeding hog. Tho statistics for Ontario put the
vahie of tlie hoys slaughtered annually in the
Province at over $10,000,000. This has been
the average for the last five years but has been
increased during the past two years.

Swine.

1881.

Ontario 700,922

ytitibec 3-'J.i99

Nova Scotia 47.-56

New Brunswick 5,^087

Manitoba '^7<.\5^

British Colum-
bia 16,841

Prince Edwara

Island 4(),:8r

The Territories. 2 775

1891.

1, 1 2 1, 396
369,61)8
' 48,048

5«.945
54.177

.^".764

4^.629
16,283

Increase or
Decrease.

+ 420,474

+ 40,409

+ 79-2
- 2,142
+ 36,819

+ 1.^923

2,448
IJ.508

1,207,619 1,733,850 +526,23;

Poultry. Tiiis is a growing industry and one
that has already assumed very large proportions.
At one time our export of eggs exceeded two
million dollars per annum in value, but because
of restrictive duties in the United States it was
last year only $978,479, while poultry and game,
dressed and undressed, amounted to $168,620.
The trade in eggs has been slowly making its

way into the British market, while in that of
dressed poultry an opening has been made and
with good prospects of a very large trade. The
statistics for Ontario for the year 1897 were as
follows :

Turkeys 890,228

Geese 409,7 1 5

Other fowl 7> 135,398

while those sold or killed were givtii at 2,965,-
221. The turkeys are mostly of the Bronze
variety. Of otlier fowls a few are ducks and
guinea fowl, but the great bulk are comprised
of the many varieties of th(; domestic hen. Per-
haps the most widely spread and popular are
the Plymouth Rocks, and following them the
Wyandottes. Formerly the various varieties of
Asiatics were popular, and then came a time in
which the Mediterranean breeds had a great
run because of their large egg production; but
it was foand that the first breeds named had
more winter eggs to their credit when prices
were high and that besides they made an excel-
lent table fowl. In many sections of Canada
poultry form a good deal of the summer food for
the farmer's family, and in addition contribute
a handsome amount towards the revenue of the
farm.

1^

DOMINION EXPERIMENTAL FARMS

BY

WILLIAM SAUNDERS, I.L.D., F.K.S.C, Dominion Director of Experimental Farm'.

THE estiiblisliiiiciit of the Kxperiiiieiital
Farms of tlie Dominion of Canada was
authorized by Act of Parliament in
1886. They are five in number and
contain in all about 3,200 acres of land. There
is a Central Experimental Farm located at the
capital, Ottawa, and there are four branch Farms
ia the other Provinces. The Central Farm has
been established near the boundary line between
Ontario and Quebec and serves tiie purposes of
both of these important Provinces. One of the
branch farms is located at Nappan, Nova Scotia,
near the dividing line between Nova Scotia and
New Brunswick, and serves for the three Mari-
time Provinces. Another has been established
at Brandon, Manitoba, for the Province of Man-
itoba ; a third is at Indian Head in the District
of Assiniboia, as an aid to agriculture in the
North-West Territories ; while the fourth is
located at Agassiz, British Columbia, where it
serves a like purpose for that Province.

At all these F'arms many experiments are in
progress in all branches of agriculture, horticul-
ture and arboriculture, and many problems cf
great importance to farmers have already been
solved. In selecting the sites for these institu-
tions due regard has been had to the great vari-
ations of climate indifferent parts of the Domin-
ion, and they have been so placed as to render
efficient help to the farmers in the more thickly
settled districts, and at the same time to cover
the most varied conditions which influence agri-
culture in Canada. The Central Farm has
about 500 acres of land and an outfit of buildings
suitable for carrying on experimental work, with
residences for the chief officers. There are
buildings for cattle, horses, swine and poultry.
There is also a dairy with all modern appliances
for experimental tests, a seed testing and propa-

gating house with a building attached which
affords facilities for the distribution of lt;.rge
quantities of promising varieties of seed grain
for test by farmers in different parts of the
country.

Theprincipalofficersofthe Farms are the Direc-
tor, Agriculturist, Horticulturist, Chemist, Ento-
mologist and Botanist. The Director, Chemist,
Entomologist and Botanist are provided with as-
sistants. There is also a poultry manager, a fore-
man of forestry who acts also as assistant to the
Director, a Farm foreman and an accountant.
A suitable office staff is provided for the conduct-
ing of the large correspondence, both in English
and French, which is carried on with farmers
in all parts of the Dominion, who are encouraged
to write to the officers of the Farm for informa-
tion and advice whenever required. The Director
has his head-quarters at Ottawa, and supervises
all branches of the work on all the Experimental
Farms, making personal inspections of the Farms
at least once a year. During these annual in-
spections the progress of all divisions of the work
is enquired into, and in conference with the
Superintendents of these Farms future courses of
experimental work are planned.

During six years more than 700 new var-
ieties of cereals have been produced at the
Experimental Farms by cross-fertilizing and
hybridizing, most of them at the Central Farm.
Some assistance in this work has been had from
experts especially employed for this purpose,
and also from some of the Superintendents of the
branch Farms. These new varieties are carefully
watched, and those of less promise are from time
to time rejected. A large number of new fruits
have been similarly produced, especially of hardy
varieties likely to be useful in the Canadian
North- West. About goo varieties of trees and

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CANADA : AN ENCYCLOP.^^DIA.

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m

shrubs arc being tested in the ornamental clumps
and groups in different parts of tiie grounds.
These include species and varieties from all parts
of the world where similar climatic conditions
prevail. They are placed in carefully arranged
groups with the object of producing good effects,
and, to make this partof the work more instruct-
ive to the visiting public, the specimens are plainly
labelled with their common and botanical names.
In this connection there are also large collections
of flowering plants, as roses, irises, lilies, and
beds of other attractive perennial and annual
plants mixed. A new feature in this division
of the work was begun in 1893 by the preparation
of a number of large beds for the grouping of the
most attractive wild flowers of the Dommion,
one each for those of the Maritime Provinces,
Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, the North-West
Territories and British Columbia.

About twenty aci.es of land are now occupied
by forest belts which extend the whole length
of the north and west boundaries of the Farm
and contain about 20,000 trees, including the
more valuable economic woods which can be
grown in this country either for timber or fuel.
Annual measurements are taken of the growth
of the many varieties under trial, and useful data
is thus being accumulated. The other objects
in view in undertaking this i ranch of the work
were to determine by experiment with a number
of different species the comparative growth and
development to be had by planting at different
distances apart ; also to ascertain the relative
growth which these trees would attain when
planted in blocks of single species as compared
with oti)ers planted in mixed clumps where
a number of different species are asso-
ciated together. The value of these tree belts
for shelter is being investigated, as well as the
usefulness of hedge planting for the same purpose.
To ascertain the most suitable trees and shrubs
for hedges, 66 trial hedges have been planted
in 50-feet lengths, and these now form a very
attractive feature in connection with this work
of tree planting.

The other branches of the work at the Central
Farm in charge of the Director are the per-
manent test plots for determining the action of
fertilizers on important crops, the seed testing

houses and conservatory, and the distribution of
seed grain. Experiments were begun in 1888 with
the object of gaining information as to the effects
of certain fertilizers on the 'more important
crops. During that year the experiments were
confined to plots of wheat and Indian corn, but
in 1889 the work was enlarged so as to include
oats, barley and roots, and the experiments have
been repeated every year since. The area devoted
to these tests includes 105 one-tenth acre plots,
and the results obtained are given each year in
the Annual Report of the Experimental Farms.
Special arrangements are made each year to test,
for the farmers in all parts of Canada, samples of
grain of all sorts held for seed, the vitality of
wMch niay be doubtful. Those varieties of grain
grown on the sever tl Farms which prove to be
the best and most p.-oductive are annually dis-
tributed by mail free, in small bags containing
three pounds each, to farmers in all parts of the
Dominion who ask for them. These sample
bags of grain, when sown and properly cared
for, usually produce from one to three bushels,
and at the end of the second year the crop
will generally furnish the farmer with a sufficient
quantity of seed to sow a considerable acreage.
This distribution is carried on at all the Farms,
but the larger part is sent out from the Central
Farm. During five years more than 100,000
of such samples have been sent out for test to
about 70,000 applicants. In many districts the
new varieties which have been thus introduced
are finding much favour and are rapidly replac-
ing in general cultivation the less productive sorts
formerly grown. The surplus stock of promising
varieties of grain grown at all the Experimental
Farms, beyond what is required for the free
distribution of sample bags, is sold in larger
quantities to farmers for seed.

The Agriculturist takes charge of the experi-
ments with field crops of cereals, roots, Indian
corn, hay and other fodder crops ; the testing of
varieties as to their relative productiveness on
different soils and also regarding the effects of
the application of manures on field crops, and
the ploughing under of clover and other green
crops as fertilizers. Much experimental work
has been carried on with ensilage, with the
object of determining the relative feeding value

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CANADA; AN ENCYCLOl'/KDIA.

8i

of different fodder plants and combinations of
fodder plants, and their general usefulness as
food for cattle. Experiments have also been
conducted for several years to ascertain how
many cows can be fed throughout the year from
the crops raised on forty acres of land. The
Agriculturist also conducts the feeding experi-
ments with cattle, the main object of which has
been to show the most economical rations for
production of milk or beef. These tests have
been made chiefly with various combinations
of ensilage, roots, hay and straw with, or without,
certain quantities of grain in the ration. The
results hpve shown the great economy of using
ensilage of Indian corn for the winter feeding of
cattle. Many experiments have also been car-
ried on in the fattening of swine, and much
information has been gained as to the relative
value of the different sorts of cereals for this pur-
pose aijd the best methods of preparing them
for feeding, also the usefulness of skim milk,
buckwheat, potatoes and roots as food for some.
This officer also takes charge of the dairy
department, and conducts the experiments in
butter-making.

The work of the Horticultural division, which
is in charge of the Horticulturist, may be classi-
fied in the following manner :

1. That carried on with plants growing on the
Central Farm, (a) Testing varieties of fruits and
vegetables, (b) Producing new varieties of fruits,
(c) Cultural experiments with fruits and vege-
tables.

The above lines cover a wide field and embrace
investigations conducted in the domain of origi-
nal research, as well as those carriei on by
observing and recording results obtained by the
effect and operation of natural laws, in connection
with temperature, soils, ai^d so forth.

2. That carried on with the assistance of inte-
rested fruit growers residing in different portions
of the Dominion, (a) Treatment and prevention
of fungous pests, (b) Effect of soil and climate
upon fruit and fruit trees, (c) Adaptability of
varieties to varying soils and climates.

The Horticulturist offers his experience and
knowledge to fruit growers throughout Canada,
who are free to make use of his services by cor-
responding with him, and by sending him
c

specimens for examination ind report. He also
attends, by invitation, and delivers addresses at
the meetings of the Provincial Fruit Growers*
Associations of Canada. Specimens of fruits, new
or old, healthy or diseased, are received and
examined with interest and duly acknowledged.
In this way originators and introducers of new
fruits may obtain an authoritative opinion of their
value, before offering them to the public. The
collections of hardy fruits now in the orchards
and small fruit plantations at the Central Farm
are large and instructive ; each year brings
additions and increases their value.

The Entomologist and Botanist to the Domin-
ion Experimental Farms, with the help of one
assistant, carries on careful investigations in the
life-histories of injurious and beneficial insects, on
the value of various native and imported grasses
for hay or pasture, as well as on many other
fodder plants. Particular attention has also
been paid to the important subject of noxious
weeds and their eradication. The Department is
also made use of largely by those interested in
the scientific aspect of entomology and botany,
many collections of plants and insects being sent
in every year for identification. In addition to
the annuaj reports, which treat of the work done
in the Department during the preceding year,
several useful publications have been issued upon
entomological and botanical subjects, e.g.. Smut
in Wheat, Recommendations for the Preveniion
of Damage by Insect Pests, The Horn Fly,
Potato Blight, Grasses and their Uses, Spraying
for the Destruction of Injurious Insects, &c.,
&c. Successful efforts have been made to get
into touch with the best practical farmers and
fruit growers in all parts of the Dominion, so as
to be apprised of the fact promptly whenever any
outbrealc of an agricultural enemy might occur,
in order that the best remedy may be applied
without delay. By a prompt attention to the
many correspondents who write the Entomologist
and Botanist, and by the publication of timely
articles in the agricultural and daily press, the
importance of this department has been made
widely known among the farmers of Canada as a
source of trustworthy information upon all sub-
jects which come within its scope.

The Chemical division of the Dominion Ex-

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CANADA: .v\ KXCVCLOI'.KDIA.

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periineiitul Farms, under tlic direction of the
Chemist, comprises a branch of the wori< that is
becoming rec()f,'mzcd by the i;irmcrs of Canada as
one of great importance. Tiie intimate rehition-
sliip between chemistry ami agricuUure, and the
value of chemical knowledjje as applied to the
economic and profitable carrying on of farming
work, are facts now generally admitted by all
who are obtaining (or tlicmselvesa position in the
front rank of modern and progressive agriculture.
Like the other divisions of the Farm work, this
branch has a large correspondence, numerous
enquiries being received daily from all over the
Dominion from farmers wishful to obtain advice
and information re&pectmg the treatment of soils,
the composition and application of fertilizers —
natural and artificial — , the relative value of cattle
foods, &c., &c. As far as time permits analyses
are made for the farmers of matters pertaining to
agriculture, when the results would be of interest
and of value to a large portion of the community.
In this connection it may be stated that most
useful work has been done by the examination of
farmers' water supplies and in calling attention
to the drinking of water polluted by drainage from
the barn-yard. For the health of the farmer's
family, for thrifty stock and wholesome dairy
products, pure water is indispensable. The
naturally occurring fertilizers of Canada, peat,
mucks, marsh, mud, marl, &c., have been exam-
ined in large numbers during the past few years,
so that now a large amount of data has accumu-
lated on this important question. These data go
to show that in many districts of Canada mater-
ials (easily and cheaply obtainable) occur that con-
tain notable quantities of the essential elements of
plant food. The knowledge of the composition
and value of these deposits will allow farmers in
many parts to enrich their fields at small cost.

Original investigations have been pursued to
learn the feeding value of various Canadian fod-
der crops. To this end a large number of native
grasses have been analyzed at several stages of
growth, and extensive chemical examinations of
the corn fodder crop have also been made.
Chief among the results are the following: That
of our native grasses, Poapratensis, or June
Grass, stands pre-eminent as a pasture grass ;
that Awnless Brome Grass (Bromus Inermis), an

introduced perennial, has shown itself to be a
very nutritious grass, as well as a heavy cropper ;
that red top fur low lands and orchard grars for
shady places are both excellent in composition
and worthy of cultivation. The chemical data
in this investigation go to prove that a large loss
in the feeding qualities of the grass results when
it is allowed to ri[)i.n before being cut fi;r hay.
Cutting should be at or shortly after the flower-
ing period. The composition of the corn crop
at several periods of growth has been ascertained,
and practical deductions made which will prove
of great value in the cultivation of this excellent
and cheap fodder. The virgin soils, representing
large areas in the Dominion, have been under
examination for some years past, and the reports
of this division give the analytical and physical
data obtained, with deductions therefrom and
suggestions as to profitable treatment of the soil.
It has been shown that Canada possesses many
soils of equal fertility to the most productive in
the world, these remarks having special reference
to the prairie soils of Manitoba and the North-
West Territories and the alluvial soi's of both
the Pacific and Atlantic Coasts.

In the Poultry department of the Central
Experimental Farm, which is in charge of the
poultry manager, there are fourteen of the most
serviceable standard breeds of fowls with which
experimental work — with a view of finding out
the best egg-layers and flesh formers — is carried
on. Particular effort is made to find out the
breeds which give the best egg yield in the winter
season at the least cost. It is in the winter
season that high prices are given for the new-laid
article, and it should be the aim of the farmer to
make his hens lay at that time rather than in the
late spring, or early summer, when prices are
low. Crosses of the different thoroughbreds are
made with the same object in view. Particular
care is also given to the hatching and rearing of
chickens and the treatment and foods best cal-
culated to cause vigorous and rapid growth; and
record is kept of the weight development of the
offspring per month, so as to show which thor-
oughbreds, or crosses, give the most satisfactory
results as rapid flesh formers for market in the
shortest time. Attention is also given to the
behaviour of the different breeds during the long

CANADA; AN KNCIYCLOI'.KDIA.

winter term of artificiul existoncc, .-uul ovciry
effort is iii.uiu to hiivo tlie conditions of tiiat
period ns liku the natural as possibk.-. Sotni;
valuable liafa have been secured winch will be
found in tliu reports issued from yc^ar to year.

When the Central ICxperiiiuiilal I'arm w.1s
nc(]uired sixty-five acres of land were set apart
for an Aborotinn and Botanic (lardin. Duriuf,'
several years past the planting,' of this section of
the Farm with trees, shrubs and pereiniial plants
has made much progress, special attention hav-
ing been given to the obtaining of as many of the
trees and shrubs native to Canada as possible,
and such species and varieties from other
countries as were likely to prove hardy enough
to endine the climate here. A large proportion
of the native trees have now been secured, and
many of the shrubs and perennial plants, most of
which are doing well. A large number of
species and varieties have also been introduced
from other countries, such as the United States,
the colder parts of South America, Great Britain,
Russia, Germany, I'rance, and other parts of
Europe, also from Siberia, Japan, China, the moun-
tain districts of India and from Asia Minor. Of
these many have proved hardy, and the collection
already formed is a source of much interest to
botanists, as well as to the general public.

At all the branch Farms much of the work is
so arranged as to provide for the investigation of
those questions which are of the most immediate
importance to the farmers residing in the several
Provinces. Each Farm is furnished with suit-
able buildmgs and supplied with some of the
best breeds of dairy cattle, also with some of
those best suited for beef. Useful tests are
made in all branches of farm and horticultural
work, also with regard to the most practical
methods of mantaining the fertility of the
soil.

At the Experimental Farm for the Maritime
Provinces at Nappan, N.S., which comprises
310 acres, a large number of instructive tests
have been made during the past eight years,
particularly in the growing of oats and barley,
and the large crops obtained there of the most
productive sorts have awakened much interest in
this subject among farmers generally. Much
attention has also been given to the growing

of roots and potatoes, for which llie climate
is viMy favourable. Tinriips and mangels have
given large crops. Where these roots succeed so
well tliey form an important clement in stock*
fi.'ediiig, and it is very desirable that information
should be available as to the varieties which suc-
ceed best. This is now obtainable from the
results of the tests made at Nappan. Very use-
ful experiments are in progress in the draining of
land, both uplands and marsh, and the results in
crops are showing marked advantage as the out-
come of this treatment. Many tests are also being
made with promising varieties of grasses and
clovers. Experiments have also been conducted
in feeding cattle for the production of milk and
beef, and in fattening swine. Large orchards of
fruit trees have been establisheil, and plantations
made of ornamental trees and shrubs.

The Experimental Farm for Manitoba at Bran-
don, Man., contains about 670 acres. Part
of this land lies in the valley of the Assiniboine
and part is on the bluffs. Here much has been
done in testing the best methods of treatment
of land to prepare it for crop. The results
obtained show the great advantage of summer
fallowed land, and that better crops are obtained
from land ploughed in the spring than in tiie
autumn. Different methods of sowing seed grain
have also been tested, and the advantages of the
drill over the broad casts machine demonstrated.
Grain has also been sown at different depths
to determine the best practice in that climate.
Experiments have been conducted for the pre-
vention of smut in wheat, a disease which has
been very prevalent in many sections, and which
depreciates the value of the grain wherever
it occurs.' The results of these tests, which
have been continued for several years, show
that, when the seed is properly treated, smut
may be almost entirely prevented. Experiments
have been conducted in the cultivation of flax,
also with Indian corn, roots, millets, and other
fodder crops. In view of the large increase
in stock in Manitoba, and the scarcity of native
hay in some districts, crops of mixed grain have
been grown and cured green for hay with much
success. Instructive experiments have also been
carried on in cultivating native grasses, and
their usefulness in the production of hay has

■ t\

S4

CANADA : AN KNCYC:LOP.KniA.

been duinonstrateil. Good bulls are kept at this
farm for the improvement of stock in that district.
The broods thus ropresented are Durham, Ayr-
shire, Holstein and Polled Angus. Tests have
been made in the feeding of milch cows and
steers, for tiie purpose of ascertainiug ilie most
economical methods of producing milk and
beef from those fodder materials which are most
generally available in that Province. Since this
F"arm was established, a large number of the
hardiest varieties of fruit have been tested there.
While small fruits succeed well, very little suc-
ces has been had as yet with large fruits.
Further experiments are being conducted all
along this line. A large measure of success
has attended the planting of forest trees for shel-
ter, and of ornamental trees and shrubs. The
e.xperiments show that there is an abundance
of material sufficiently hardy to make successful
plantations for the ornamentation of homes
in towns and cities as well as those on the prairie
farms in Manitoba.

The Experimental Farm for the North-West
Territories, which has been located at Indian
Head, in Eastern Aasiniboia, contains 6.S0 acres.
At the time of its selection this was all bare
prairie land. The soil is very fertile and produces
excellent crops of grain, but there is a great need
of shelter from prevailing winds. Tree planting
on a fairly large scale was begun as soon as pos-
sible after the Farm was occupied, and, although
at first it was but partially successful, the trees first
put out formed more or less shelter for each other
and for those subsequently planted, and now
they are nearly all doing well. In shelter belts,
blocks, avenues, and hedges there are now
growing on this Farm over 100,000 trees. Experi-
ments in the treatment of the land to prepare
it for crop, in methods of sowing and depth
of sowing, also in the treatment of seed grain
for smut have been carried on here, the results
confirming the conclusions which have been
reached at Brandon. Many tests have also been
made with fodder crops, such as Indian corn,
mixed grain crops and spring rye, grasses, etc.
Experiments have been also conducted in the
feeding of stock, the fattening of swine and the
management of poultry. In this relatively dryer
climate, where unlimited pasture is found, the

value of good grass for pasture and hay can
scarcely be over-estimated, and probably among
the most important of all the results gained
by tests on this Farm are those which have
established the value of Awnless Brome Grass
(Bromns inermis) in the North-Wcst. This
grass is very hardy, is a strong grower, endures
drought, produces a very early growth in the
spring and yields fine crops of excellent hay,
much relished by cattle. Large quantities
of seed of this useful grass have been saved
at Indian Head and hundreds of sample bags
have been sent to farmers in different parts
of the North-West Territories for tests, and the
reports received regarding its usefulness are most
satisfactory. Small fruits have been grown
successfully at Indian Head, but of the larger
fruits tried none have yet been foimd hardy
enough to endure the climate. A large number
of different species and varieties of economic
and ornamental trees and shrubs have been
tested here, and about ninety have proved
hardy.

The branch Experimental ,Farm at Agassiz is
situated in the coast climate of British Columbia,
seventy miles east of Vancouver, and contains
about 1,100 acres of land, 300 of which is valley
land and 800 acres mountain. The climate here
is admirably adapted to fruit culture, and most
fruits thrive wonderfully well. Since the fruit
industry promises to become one of great im-
portance to this Province, large experimental
orchards have been planted on this Farm for the
purpose of testinj^, side by side, the products of
similar climates from all parts of the world, so
that information as to the most promising and
useful sorts may be available to guide the settlers
in that country. Already 1,600 varieties of fruits
are under test, and additional sorts since planted
will swell this number to over 2,200. Orchards
have been established not only on the valley
lands, but also upon the sides of the mount-
ains, at different heights, varying from 150 to
1,050 feet. On the mountain sides have also
been planted a large number of timber trees,
especially those representing the more valu-
able hardwoods of the east. Many other
useful and ornamental trees and shrubs are
also under test. At the other Experimental

CANADA: AN KNCYCLOI'/KDIA.

W

Farms useful lines of work aru carried
on in connection with the cultivation of
n)any different sorts of cereals, roots and fodder
crops, also with cattle and swine. At all these
Farms many experiments are conducted every year
with very many sorts of vegetables and flowers,
and thus useful help is beinggiven to every branch
of agriculture, horticulture and arboriculture.

During five past years more than 7,000 pack-
ages of seeding forest trees and cuttings and more
than five tons of tree seeds have been sent out in
small bags by mail, free of charge, to farmers in
different parts of the Dominion who have applied
for them, and thus a general interest in tree-
growing has been awakened. An annual report
is published containing particulars of the most
important work done at each Farm, and this
report is sent to every farmer in the Dominion
who asks for it. A very large number is dis-
tributed annually. Occasional bulletins on special
subjects of importance are also issued from time
to time, all of which are read with interest by a
large proportion of the most intelligent farmers
in the country. The officers of all the Farms
attend most of the more important gatherings of
farmers in different parts of the Doniinion, where

opportunities are offered for giving further ex-
planations regarding the work conducted and the
results achieved from year to year.

The dairying service of the Department of
Agriculture was begun in 1890, when a Dairy
Comtnissioner was appointed to act in affiliation
with the Central Experimental I'arm. The good
work of developing the agricultural resources of
Canada through the dairymg branch of farming
has made steady and rapid progress since then.
The extension of dairy farmin,j is particularly
gratifying, in view of the fact that by means of it
the coarse grains and fodders are consumed large-
ly upon the farms on which they are gro.vn. The
elements of fertility, which are necessary to the
continued growth of good crops, are thus left on
the farms in the form of manure. A continuous
and general selling of the crude, bulky and primi-
tive products of agriculture tends to deplete the
soil of the substances which are recjuired to
enable it to carry on profitable crops. The pro-
duction of fine food products of concentrated
quality and value, such as butter, cheese, pork
and beef, affords scope for the exercise of intelli-
gent labour with profit, and at the same time
protects the land against exhaustion.

AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES IN THE PROVINCES

■V

C. C, JAMbS, M,A., Deputy Minister of AKnculture for Dntarlo.

11

1

N(WA Scptiii. Ill its sliapc ami sitiuitiuii
this I'roviiice sii^ij^'L-sts tlio homo of a
siii-farinf,' latlitT than u laiul-uoikiiin
people. Its coast hue is very broken,
including coiititlcss deep bays and land-locked
harbours, around and into which the f;reat tides
of the Atlantic sweep with extraordinary swell.
Near by arc extensive fisheries, the most produc-
tive in the world. These two facts have had
their iiilhience in ilevelopiii),' a race of (isiiermen
and sailors. The interior of the country is in-
clined to be hill), mountainous in fact, over a
large part. These hills have been covered with
dense forist, and are filled with minerals — coal,
iron, copjjcr and gold. \\'e look, then, to Nova
Scotia as a producer mainly of fish, timber and
minerals rather than of cattle and of grain. Hut
the a^'riculture of this Maritime Province has not
been neglected, and the growth of this industry
forms an interesting chapter in the history of the
hardy Nova Scotians, or " Hlue Noses," as they
have been called because of their success in pro-
ducing a potato of that name.

The colonization of Nova Scotia tiates from
1604, when De Monts began the settlement of
Port Koyal, now Annapolis. This was at the
entrance of a beautiful and fertile valley. He-
tween 16 jj and if).jH a small colony came from
the vicinity of LaRochellc, in Old France, and
settled along this valley. They did not cut into
the primeval forest, but reclaimed the rich marsh
lands by dykes. They also jjlanted orchards, of
which remnants are still to be found. Here they
formed the Acadian settlement, with Grand Pre
as one of the principal centres. In 1713, Acadia
passed into the hands of the British, and soon
after English-speaking settlers began to arrive
and take possession. In ry^rj Cornwallis br()u;,dit
over 2,576 English settlers, and founded the City

of Halifa.y. There were a|)[)arently few, if any,
farmers among their number, and they wert
obliged to depend for a time upon the Acadians
for cattle and grain. In 1753 came the much
tliscussed " I-xpidsion " of the Acadians and the
turning over of their farms to English occupants.
Thirty-four years after, in i;-^^, the English
farmers of (irand Pre formetl the first .\gricultural
Society of Nova Scotia. It should be noted here,
however, that a " Fair" had been established at
Windsor since about 1765. At this I'air, horse
races were held and prizes were offered for various
agricultural products. It is worthy of note that
the King's County Society at Grand Pre has had
an unbroken existence s'lice i7iS() to the present
time. In the same year there was formed another
Society at Windsor (Hants Co.), and a third Soci-
ety at Halifax, which livtid a couple of years and
jMiblishfd at liMst one volume or report of pro-
ceedings. The three Societies had the patronage
of Governor Parr. Wiiulsor, Grand Pre and
Halifax a century ago were the three agricultural
centresof the Province. Agricultural mattersmov-
ed slowly, however, until 18 18, when a series of let-
ters signed by " Agricola" began to appear in the
Acadian RccKi-dcr ; stirring the people out of their
lethargy by suggesting the format ion of Agricultural
Societies and the entering upon a new agricultural
life. The effect was marvellous. The Governor,
Lord Dalhousie, took ..p the question and the
result was that on December 15th, 1818, a
Provincial Agricultural Society was formed
with His ICxcellency the Governor as President,
Chief Justice Haliburton as Vice-President,
and " Agricola" as Secretary. Soon aftei',
"Agricola" accepted, and declared himself
to be Mr. John Young of Halifax. Branch
Societies sprang up in all parts of the Province
and the Legislature voted ;(^i,50o to assist in the

CANADA: AN KNCYCI.UP.KDIA.

»7

work — £1,000 for the Central Society and /,'5oo to
be divided amon^ the fourteen branches.

Friiin that day the agriculture of Nova Scotia
moved forward year by year The Societies have
been the means of introducing; large numbers of
pure-bred stock, cattle, sheep and swine, and are
at present in a vigourous condition. In i8(/) they
numbered eighty-five with a total membership of
4,f<88, and received $8,000 as grants from the
Legislature, I'ruit growing is the most protnising
part of the agricultine of this Province — the rich
valleys, such as the Annapolis and Cias|)ercaiix,

.iiii>.-Ji..

r.onb DACHOOitiiC <^I'ioin'|>tlnt ntM 0. RkiliDHtiid.

K-^-. ''O.

George Ramsay, 9lh Earl of Dalliuusic.

producing curtain varietits of apples unexcelled
by any other country. There is a Provincial Fruit
Growers' Association which, in addition to other
work, maintains a School of Horticulture at
Wolfville. Next to fruit growing comes dairy-
ing, and special attention is devoted to the
encouragement of this industry. There is an
Agricultural School at Truro and short courses
in dairying are there given. Special provision
is made for public school teachers. All classes
of farmers meet in one common Association

known as the Nova Scotia Farmeis' Asso-
ciation. The task of supervising tin; whole of the
agricultural work is entrusted to an oHiccr of the
Government, known as Secretary of Agriculture,
who collects the reports and statistics of the vari-
ous societies and associations and publishes an
animal report.

New Uruimcick. The settlement of New Bruns-
wick was later than that of Nova Scotia, F^^nglish-
s|)eaking people began to come in about 1762.
Hy 17H4 its population was sufficient to warrant
its separation from Nova Scotia, and in 1786 its
first Legislature was called together. " Agricola,"
in one of his letters, tells us that in 1790 an
Agricultural Society was formed at St. John
umler the patronage of Lieutenant-Governor
("arleton. All record of it has disappeared, and
we are at present in ignorance of its work,
although at least one report was published. F'rom
time to time, however, local Societies have been
established, F-airs held and live stock imported.
The Legislature makes grants to tlu-sc Societies.
During the past two years special help has been
^iven to dairying, a Provincial Superintendent
appointed, a travelling daily sent throughout the
Province, and a short dairy course provided for
at Sussex, The leading farmers' organization is
known as "The Farmers' and Dairymen's Asso-
ciation of New Hrunswick," which publishes an
annual report. The supervision of the agricul-
tural work of tlil's Province, as in Nova Scotia, is
entrusted to an official of the Provincial Govern-
ment known as the Secretary of Agriculture. A
late Report gives the dairy products for 1895 as
follows: Nine creameries, with 548 patrons, pro-
duced 113,892 lbs. butter; lifty-three cheese fac-
tories with 2,292 patrons produced 1,263,266
lbs. cheese.

Prince Edward Island. This green isle, in the
Gulf of St. Lawrence, has an area of 1,200,000
acres and a population of 110,000, of which over
eighty per cent, is rural. Over one-third of the
Province is still in forest. The country is rolling
and very attractive in appearance; the soil is
excellent and the climate most healthfid to man
and beneficial to agricultural growth. For many
years it has been noted for the excellence of its
agricultural products, potatoes and horses espe-
cially. Of late years the Dominion Government

.H8

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOP/l'UMA.

i:

has bcLMi givinjj special attention to the develop-
ment of dairying on the Island, and there are
now a niuiibcr of cheese factories in operation.
There are three counties, each of which holds an
annual Fair. The Local T egislature gives an
annual grant of $3,000 to the Fair at Charlotte-
town, and $1,500 to each of the two held in the
other counties.

Manitoba. This is essentially an agricultural
Province, having an area of 64,000 square miles
with a population of about 200,000 at the present
time, of which about three-fourths live upon
farms. In the Provincial Government of Mani-
toba the interests of agriculture and immigration
are associated under one Minister. At the
present time this Minister is also Leader of the
Government. The Department collects and pub-
lishes full statistical returns of the crops, live-
stock and dairy products of the Province. There
are fifty Agricultural Societies for holding annual
fairs and exhibitions, with one large central As-
sociation at Winnipeg. There are Farmers'
Institutes in the various districts for the discus-
sion of questions relating to farming. The
Central Farmers' Institute, with headquarters at
Brandon, is made up of delegates from all the
local Institutes. There are three other Provin-
cial Associations interested in poultry, dairying,
and stock breeding. The Government has a
Superintendent of Dairying under whose direction
a Dairy School is operated. Special efforts are
being made to increase the number of cheese and
butter factories. Other matters under the direc-
tion of the Department are the suppression of
noxious weeds, and the inspection of live animals
with a view to checking and preventing disease.
A beginning has been made by the Educational
Department in teaching agriculture in the public
schools. The Legislative appropriations for the
year i8g6 were as follows :

Agricultural Societies, rural $14,000

Winnipeg Industrial Exhibition 3.500

Farmers' Institutes i ,000

Central Institute 1,000

Poultry Association 300

Breeders' Association 300

Dairy Association 400

Dairy School and Instruction 6,500

Noxious weed inspection 2,000

Diseases of animals, inspection $ 3.500

LoanstoCreamerics and Cheese Factories 2,000
Agricultural statistics i.ooo

Total *35.50o

Sorth-Wcst Territories. This almost boundless
region of the great North-West country is but
little occupied. Here and there are to be found
settlements of farmers grouped about such centres
as Kegina, Calgary, Edmonton, McLeod, Prince
Albert. Large tracts are given over to immense
cattle ranches. But settlement is increasing, and
irrigation works are adding large areas of valuable
farming lands to the hitherto available millions of
acres of virgin prairie soil. The revenue of the
Government of the North-West Territories -is
derived almost entirely from the subsidy of the
Dominion Government and in specifying the
purposes for which that grant is made, agriculture
is not included. Appropriations for aiding this
industry, therefore, came largely from the Do-
minion. Along this line may be mentioned the
maintenance of an Experimental Farm at Indian
Head; the subsidizing of creameries ($20,000);
the providing of cold storage transportation, and
the granting of assistance to Agricultural Societies
($7,000). The Local Government, however,
makes some appropriations, as may be seen from
the following statement of i8g6 :

Grants to Agricultural Societies $3,500

Destruction of wolves and coyotes 2,400

Destruction of gophers 1,700

Destruction of noxious weeds 460

Grants to Creameries and Cheese Fact's. 2,.S5o

Total $10,910

British Columbia. The enormous resources of
this Province in lumber, minerals and fish have
so completely overshadowed the agricultural re-
sources that but comparatively little has been
thought of the latter. The climate of the Pacific
Province is, however, so salubrious, and the val-
leys and the lowlands, " the gift of the hdls," are
so fertile, that we may look for a rapid develop-
ment of agricultural wealth. There is a Depart-
ment of Agriculture at Victoria, presided over by
a Minister of Agriculture, who is a member of
the Government. Beginning with 1891, an annual
Report has been issued. This contains reports

m

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOIMiDIA.

of crops and live stock Irom all parts of the
Province. Some statistics of the industry are
collected and published. The Legislature makes
annual grants to Associations and Societies in
the various districts. Dairying, fruit growing
and stock raising receive special attention.
There is a Provincial Fruit Growers' Associa-
tion, and the Department employs a Provincial
Inspector of Fruit Trees. The scope of the agri-
cultural work may be seen from the following
appropriations of the Provincial Legislature for
the year 1896:

Salaries of Government Officials Sj.XG^

Grants to Agricultural Societies .i.ooo

Fruit Growers' Association 1,000

Flockmasters' Association 250

Dairymen's Association. 250

Destruction of wild animals 3,000

Royal Agricultural Association 1,000

B.C. Agricultural Association 1,000

Bcnrd of Agriculture 1.200

Poultry Shows .500

Total 51 1 4 ,sr)4

Quebec. In i888-8g, under the patronage of
Lord Dorchester, two Agricultural Societies were
formed in the Province of Quebec, one at Mon-
treal and the other at the City of Quebec. Long
before that, however, during the French n'^imc,
the farmers of Quebec were engaged in methods
of agriculture that were economical and self-sus-
taining. These characteristics are still peculiar
to the industry in the Province. The work is
directed by the Commissioner of Agriculture and
Immigration, who is a member of the Govern-
ment, assisted by a Council of Agriculture. There
is an Agricultural Society in every county. The
Act under which they are organized requires them
to hold exhibitions and competitions for farms or
standing crops in alternate years. The annual
grant to these Societies is $50,000. Then there
are what are known as Farmers' Clubs for the
discussion of agricultural subjects, one for each
parish. There are 550 Farmers' Clubs, and the
annual grant to them is $50,000. There is issued
by the Council of Agriculture the " Illustrated
Journal of Agriculture " which appears twice a
month, once in English and once in French. It

is distributed to members of the Societies and
Clubs, and its circulation is at present 10,000 in
English and 45,500 i" French. The Department
sends out lecturers to attend the meetings of the
Clubs, each Club being entitled to at least two
lectures a year. $6,000 is appropriated for this
purpose. General agricultural instruction is
given at five schools located at Oka, L'Assomp-
tion, Cotnpton, Ste. Anne de la Pocatiere and
Roberval— the last being to instruct farmers'
daughters in honsc-keepiiig. The annual grant
to tlic schools IS $25,000.

The Hon. Charles Drury.

Two veterinary schools are assisted by an
annual grant of $5,000, both located in Montreal
— the French Schoc' attached to Laval Univer-
sity, and the English School to McGill University.
Two Societies for the improvement of Horticul-
ture are encouraged, viz.: the Pomological and
Fruit Growing Society of the Province of Quebec
($500 grant) and the Horticultural Society of
Quebec ($250 grant). In addition to this $500 is
voted to encourage the culture of fruit trees.
Dairying is especially encouraged in Quebec,

S .' 1

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CANADA: AN ENCVrLOPi^DIA.

\l..

•i s'i

i-/v

U'

which is noted for its high-class butter. The
Dairy School at St. Hyacinthe receives an annual
grant of $15,000 and $10,000 additional is voted
to the Dairy Association of the Province, and for
the inspection of butter and cheese syndicates.
Three hundred pupils attended the School in
1896. There were, in i8g6, 400 creameries and
1,400 cheese factories. The Dairy Association,
with headquarters at St. Hyacinthe, publishes
annually an interesting and valuable report.
Other grants of the Legislature that may be men-
tioned are the following: $200 for the Poultry
Association at Montreal; $1,000 for the Official
Agricultural Laboratory at Quebec ; $5,000 for
the Three Rivers' Exhibition ; $4,000 for the
improvement of rural roads; and $2,500 for
" agricultural merit," this last being awarded in
prize competition for farm management.

Ontario. When the final separation took place
between the American Colonies and the Mother
Land in 1783, after seven years of disputing and
struggle, the problem was presented as to what
would become of, or be done with, the thousands
upon thousands of Loyalists who preferred British
rule to the uncertain possibilities of the new
Republic. Some re-crossed the Atlantic. But
very many turned their faces northward to the
Colonies still remaining loyal. The wilds of
New Brunswick and of Nova Scotia became the
home of some and Quebec received others, but
the great exodus was north-westward beyond the
frontiers of New York State. Their journey was
difficult and perilous, for their course was
through an unknown wilderness, and, in addition
to the uncertainty of safety ahead, they had to
urge them from behind all the discomforts and
annoyances that unsympathizing and even bitter
foes could devise. It was a mixed crowd which
turned their backs upon the United States, rich
and poor, master and servant, old and young,
but they were all moving towards new homes.
The British Government promised them new
lands beyond the St. Lawrence and the Lakes, aud
they settled down mainly in the three sections of
Ontario ; along the St. Lawrence above Montreal,
around the Bay of Quii^te, and in the Niagara
District. They necessarily took up the cultiva-
tion of the soil, as soon as they had hewed out
clearings in the woods and constructed simple

but sufficient log homes. These were the first
farmers of Ontario, and to the expulsion of the
U.E. LoyaUsts is due the beginning of agriculture
in the Province.

By 1792 the population of Upper Canada had
become large enough to warrant the formation of
a separate Province and Colonel John Graves
Simcoe was sent out to govern it. He called the
first Legislature together at Newark in the au-
tumn of 1792, and it is worthy of mention
here that either in that same year or in 1793
there was formed an Agricultural Society, with
headquarters at the capital (Newark, now Ni-
agara). The agriculture of that day was, of
course, crude and in many respects labourious.
But the settlements throve, and year by year
were increased by arrivals from the neighbouring
States. Tor many years these farmers were com-
pelled to produce everything necessary for their
own sustenance. Gradually, as roads were im-
proved and boat communication was established,
their condition brightened and life became en-
larged. At first timber and potashes were the
principal exports, followed later by wheat, as the
forest gave place to increasing fields. The War
of 1812-14 was a set-back to the industry, but it
was only temporary. Soon settlers from England,
Scotland and Ireland began to find their way into
the country in large numbers and the Province
grew at a very rapid pace.

In 1830 the Legislature recognized the great
benefits of Agricultural Societies and passed a law
for their encouragement — giving liberal money
grants. In 1846 the first Provincial Fair was held
in Toronto, then the capital city of the Province,
with a population of 20,565. As yet not a mile of
railway had been built in Ontario. Progress was
made year by year until in 1867 the Confederation
of the Provinces was brought about and the
Dominion of Canada started on its career. At
this time the Legislative grants of Upper Canada
were limited as follows :

Agricultural Societies $54,074

Fruit Growers' Association 350

Agriculture and Arts Association 10,000

The Agriculture and Arts Association was the
organization which conducted the Provincial Fair
and which for many years thereafter did the work
of a Department of Agriculture for the Province,

It
cu

i8t

US(

anc
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CANADA: AN KNCYCLOIVKDIA.

y

It grew out of the Upper Canada Board of Agri-
culture of 1846, and passed out of existence in
1896, thus rounding out a half century of very
useful work. In 1874 the Agricultural College
and Experimental Farm was established at
Guelph, and to-day, after nearly a quarter of a
century, this has developed into what is undoubt-
edly the best all-round and most successful purely
agricultural teaching institution in America. Its
attendance in 1896 was as follows : 168 in the
general course and 69 in the dairy course — tot^xl
237 — of whom 202 were from Ontario, 13 from
the other Canadian Provinces, 18 from British
countries outside of Canada, two from the United
States, and one from France.

Meanwhile the number of Agricultural Soci.^ties
had been gradually increasing. The Farmers'
Institutes, begun in 1885, had been developing
even beyond expectation. Various associations
had applied for recognition. The Dairy, Live
Stock and Fruit interests of the Province were
demanding greater attention. In 1882 the new
statistical branch, the Bureau of Industries, was
established and was convincing the people of the
great extent and importance of the various agri-
cultural interests. As a consequence of all this,
the Ontario Government felt that a forward step
should be taken, tmd in 1888 there was established
the office of Minister of Agriculture, with the Hon.
Charles Drury as the first Head of the Depart-
ment. He was succeeded by the Hon. John Dry-
den as Minister in 1888. Mr. Dryden has admin-
istered the Department since that time. A Deputy
Minister of Agriculture, together with the Secre-
tary and the additional staff of the Bureau of
Industries (created six years before) had also
been appointed. The work of the Depart-
ment is to supervise the many Societies of the
Province, devise necessary legislation, oversee
the Agricultural College, collect and pub-
lish statistics, and print and publish the reports,
nearly twenty in all, of the various Societies,
together with bulletins which from time to time
may appear necessary or timely for improving the
industry. As to the general Agricultural and
Horticultural Societies the following statement
will be interesting. It is for the year 1895, when
there were ninety-six district Societies and 361
branch Societies (Township and Horticultural) :

Total Legislative Grants ; $74,871

Municipal Grants 19.723

Members' fees and donations 89,440

Admission fees, etc 118,337

Money paid in prizes 189,421

Erection of buildings, etc 38,363

Working expenses 79,890

Value of lands and buildings owned 379,068

$989,113

Then there are the Farmers' Institutes which

are conducted for the purpose of instructing th^

The Hon. John Drvden.

farmers by addresses and discussions at meetings
held specially fur that purpose. The statement
for the year ending June 30th, 1896, was as fol-
lows: Total number of members, 12,384 in 94
Institutes; 666 meetings held with a total at-
tendance of 102,461 persons; 2,637 addresses
given or papers read. The Legislative grant is
$25 to each Institute, conditional upon 50 mem-
bers at least and a municipal grant of $25. The
total cost of this work to the Government in
1896 was $10,522. In addition to these there are

111

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CANADA : AN ENCYCLOIMiDlA.

m'>

Societies concerned in the various sub-divisions
of agriculture as follows :

Year I.'kUUiive

Society. recugnitnl. ('"ni.

Ontario Fruit (^rowers' Associa'iun 1867 $1,800

Untario Entomoiogical Society 1871 i,oc»

Cheese and Butter Association, East 1877 Ji^jo

Cheese and Butter Association, West 1877 3i25o

Ontario I'oullry Association 1879 900

East Ontario I'uultry Association 503

Canadian Horse Breeders' Association 1895 3,000

Dominion Sheep Breedisrs' Association 1890 1.500

Dominion Swine Breeders' Association 1890 1,200

Dominion Cattle Breeders' Association 189') 1,500

Ontario Experimental Union 1885 1,200

Ontario Bee Keepers' Association it>86 1,100

In addition to the old established Horticultural
Societies and the Fruit Growers' Society with its
membership of 3,000, the fruit-growing industry
is assisted by twelve branch fruit experiment
stations (grant $2,800) and by practical instruc-
tion in the spraying of fruit trees given at 30
orchards of the Province (grant $1,800). Road
improvement is looked after by an official known
as the " Provincial Instructor in Road-making."
A Pioneer P'arm is established in Western Al-
goma to prove the adaptability of that section to
farming. The Agricultural College has been
referred to. Full courses are given leading up
to a diploma at the end of a two years' course
and a degree (Bachelor in the Science of Agri-
culture) at the end of a three years' course.
Connected., with it is a Dairy School. Both
courses are now attended to their fullest capacity.
The Government also maintains a well-equipped
Dairy School at Kingston, and a third one, with
3hort courses, has lately been started at Strathroy.

For several years past there has also been sent out
one or more travelling dairies to give instruc-
tion in butter-making. The extent of the dairy
production will be understood when it is stated
that the Province produces annually over 100,-
ooo.ooolbs. of factory cheese (cheddar), 5,000,000
lbs. creamery butter, and over 50,000,000 lbs. of
dairy butter, and the total value of all the dairy
products amounts to over $25,000,000.

The Reports of all the Associations and move-
ments here enumerated are printed and distrib-
uted by the Department. The same Department
collects and publishes statistics including those
relating to the farm and dairy, municipal finances,
labour matters, etc. The appropriation for print-
ing is $20,500. The total grant in 1897 for the
expenses of the Department, the grants to the
various Associations, the maintenance of the
Agricultural College and Dairy Schools and the
various work coming under the general head of
agriculture, amounted to $230,897, The steady
and gradual development of work in agriculture,
done under the direction of the Provincial Gov-
ernment, may be seen from the following state-
ment of the total expenditures for all agricultural
purposes :

1868 $65,224

187^ 70.577

1877 "7.598

1882 163,941

1887 149.679

1892 $221,083

1893 212,660

1894 218,842

1895 -;4377i

1896 ^45.752

The total expenditure in Ontario for the thirty
years from Confederation in 1867 to the end of
1896 amounted to over four miillion dollars.

lii

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN ONTARIO

BV

JAMES MILLS, M.A., LL.D,, President of the Ontario AKricultural College.

AGRICULTURAL education in the Do-
minion of Canada, as elFCwhere, has
been a plant of slow growth. General
education had from the first, and still
has, the chief claim on the attention and resourc»;s
of the body politic. The people of Canada long
ago decided that it was in their interest to open
and maintain, within a convenient distance of
every family in the country, a school to teach the
elements of a general educktion, without charge,
to all who might wish to avail themselves of it.
Hence the excellent public school system in nearly
every Province of the Dominion. In due time,
schools were established to teach medicine, law,
dentistry, pharmacy, engineering, and one or two
technical courses of study ; and those who were
specially interested in these schools secured for
them a fair attendance of students by inducing
the Legislature to make it illegal for anyone to
practise law, medicine, dentistry, or pharmacy
until he had taken a course m and obtained a
degree or certificate from the school or college
which barred the ei.. ranee to that profession.
And, because of legal enactments, many inferior
technical schools have been well patronised in
spite of the most obvious defects in teaching and
equipments, till at length they have developed
into strong and useful institutions.

With regard to agricultural education, the case
was different. No educational bar vas ever
placed at the entrance to the professioi, of agri-
culture. All who wished became farmers ; and,
with a fine virgin soil and favourable climatic
conditions, the farmers of Canada were so suc-
cessful, without preparation for their work, that
they were slow to admit that any sort of study or
apprenticeship was necessary, or even beneficial,
to those who intended to engage in agricultural
pursuits. Hence there was no public or properly

organized school for teaching agriculture in the
Dominion of Canada till the year 1874. In 1869,
the Hon. (now Sir) John Carling, then Commis-
sioner of Agriculture for the Province of Ontario,
appointed a special Commissioner to collect infor-
mation and make suggestions or recommendations
for the founding of a School of Agriculture in
Ontario. The outcome of this appointment was
the establishment of the Ontario Agricultural
College and Experimental Farm at Guelph,
Ontario. At a much earlier date a number of
agencies, apart from Schools and Colleges, con-
tributed indirectly, and still contribute, towards
the work of agricultural education — agricultural
papers and periodicals. Agricultural Societies,
Live Stock and Dairy Associations, Horticultural
Societies, Farmers' Institutes, and similar organi-
sations.

In the Province of Ontario, the county and
township Agricultural Societies, 432 in number,
and fifty-one district Horticultural Societies, hold
annual Shows, which exhibit very clearly the
results of the best practice of each locality in
grain growing, root cultivation, stock raising and
fruit culture ; a Provincial Fat Stock Show, held
annually in December, furnishes striking illustra-
tions of what can be done by skill in the breeding,
selection and feeding of animals; the Live Stock
and Dairy Associations have meetings from year
to year for the discussion of questions relating to
farm animals and their products ; the latter also
send specialists throughout the Province to in-
struct the makers of butter and cheese while at
work in the factories ; and the travelling dairy,
under the control of the Agricultural College,
goes from neighbourhood to neighbourhood, lec-
turing and giving practical demonstrations in
milk-testing and butter-making. The Fruit
Growers' Association publishes a monthly jour-

'? *

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CANADA : AN ENCYCLOIMCDIA.

Tr

nal and holds annual meetings at different points
ill tile Province for tlie dilivury of addicsses and
the reading and discussion of papers on fruits and
fruit culture; the iMuit ICxperinient Stations
lioard, represent inj,' the Af,M icultural Collej^e and
the I'rnit Growers' Assoeialioii, conducts experi-
ments in fruit growing on ;in extensive scale at
ten or twelve different places in the Province,
exhibits samples from the different stations and
publishes an annual report giving the results of
these experiments ; and two or three men, sent
out by the Minister of Agriculture for a short time

The Hon. Sir John Carling.

in the spring, go from county to county, lecturing
and giving object lessonr. in spraying fruit trees
for the destruction of insects and fungus diseases.
The Poultry Associations (east and west), the
Bee- Keepers' Association and the Entomological
Society prepare papers and issue annual reports
for distribution among the farmers; and the
Bureau of Industries, in connection with the
Department of Agriculture in Toronto, collects
and publishes from year to year much valuable
information about crops, live stock, wages, im-

ports, exports, etc., all contributing more or less
to the education of the people in the theory and
pract.ce of agriculture. Farmers' Institutes are
a more im[)i)rtaiit factor than any of the ftire-
gojiig ill the education of the farmers, old and
young, in matters pertaining to their occupation.
The organization consists of deputations of two
or three each, sent from place to place to read
papers and deliver addresses on topics relating
directly to the work and life of the farming com-
munity— the cultivation of the soil, the growing
of crops, the feeding and management of live
stock, poultry raising, bee-keeping, agricultural
chemistry, geology, botany, entomology, farm
accounts, practical economics and many other
subjects. The most important Institute meetings
in Ontario are held during the winter vacation of
the Guelph Gollege; and the deputations sent
out at that time are usually composed of members
of the College staff and a few of the most prom-
inent and successful farmers, stock raisers, fruit
growers, etc. Twenty-one deputations were sent
out in i8(/), and the number of meetings held,
from one to one and a-half days each, was 666.

In this way, every part of the Province is
visited at least once a year by the leaders in agri-
cultural thought and practice — the men who teach
the principles of agriculture and the sciences re-
lated thereto, and those who are most successful
in the application of the.se principles on the farms
of the Province. Thus, much valuable informa-
tion is imparted, and farmers are stirred up to
observe, read, and think for themselves. The
work is a great benefit to the country and may
not inappropriately be compared with that done
by University extension lecturers in Europe and
America. It is generally admitted, however, that
the most direct and valuable work in the line of
agricultural education in the Province of Ontario
is done by the Ontario Agricultural College at
Guelph. This institution was founded in 1874,
but, on account of political opposition and some
mistakes in the management, its progress for the
first few years of its history was slower than
might have been expected. Gradually, however,
it overcame all obstacles, and of late it has gone
ahead very rapidly. The equipment of the insti-
tution at the present time is ample in all depart-
ments— lecture-rooms and laboratories (chemical.

h

CANADA: A.N I^NCYCLOI'.KDIA.

95

physical, biological, iiorticulturai, iiiid bucturio-
lofjical) ; a farm and dairy supplied with suitable
buildin{,'s, iinplciiieuts, and a|)plianccs, and well
stocked with cattle, sheep, swine, and poultry; a
large fjarden and a conii)lete set of f^reenhouses,
with ilowers, shrubs, orchards, and arboretum ;
and a carpenter shop with benches and tools for
plain work and {j^-'neral repairs.

The course of study is liberal and very practical,
specially adapted to the wants of young men who
intend to be farmers. It embraces general agri-
culture, arboriculture, live stock, dairying, poultry,
bee-keeping, chemistry, geology, botany, zoology,
'entomology, bacteriology, horticulture, veterinary
science, English literature and composition, arith-
metic, mensuration, drawing, mechanics, electric-

the early part of i,S88 the College was admitted
to affiliation with the Provincial University; and
since that timaall third year work and the final
examinations for the degree of liachelor of the
Science of Agriciiltmc (is.s.a.) have been con-
trolletl by the Senate of tiie University.

A large amount of experimental work, of more
or less educational value, is now done at the Col-
lege. A field of fifty acres, divided into about i,8oo
mall plots, is used for testing varieties of cereals,
roots, corn and potatoes, the selection of seed,
dates of seeding, kinds of manure, methods of
cultivation, etc.; and experiments in horticulture,
butter-making, cheese-making, and the feeding of
stock are constantly in progress. A distinctive
feature of the institution is the fact that all

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The Ontario Agricultural ColleKC at Gueiph.

ity, book-keeping, political economy, and German.
The ordinary short course, which is intended as
a preparation for life on the farm, extends over
two years. Those who complete this course
receive diplomas admitting them to the status of
associates of the College. Nothing further was
attempted for the first thirteen years in the history
of the institution ; but, in 1887, a third year was
added for those who should reach a certain stand
dard at the end of the second year, and might wish
to prepare themselves, not only for life on the
farm, but for original work and teaching in agri-
culture, horticulture, live stock, dairying, and
those branches of science which have a more or
less direct bearing on agricultural pursuits. In

students are required to do a certain amount of
manual labour while they are getting their educa-
tion. They are at lectures from 8.30 to la a.m.;
and for work in the outside departments, they
are divided into two divisions which work alter-
nately in the afternoon, taking their turn at field
work, looking after the live stock, and all other
kinds of work which may be required in the
different departments of the institution. For this
work they are paid a certain amount, not exceed-
ing nine cents per hour, which is credited on their
bills for board and washing. The object of this
practical work is twofold : first, to assist students
in meetingtheir expenses at the College ; secondly,
and chiefly, to keep them in touch with the farm

fu

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CANADA ! AN ENCYCLOP^.UIA.

1.^ s;

and prevent thctii during; the progress of their
education, from acquiring n. distaste to farm work
and farm life — such a distaste as the great
majority of students acquire in the high schools
and universities of the country. It tnay bo added
that the College has grown steadily in public
estimation, till at length ithas won the confidence
of the farming commnity. Very large numbers
of farmers visit it from year to year (over 19,000
last June), and those who do so, generally speak
in the warmest praiso of the institution and the
work done by it. The number of students in
attendance in 1896 was 168 in the general course
and 69 in the dairy course, or a total of 237.

The Dairy Schools of Ontario are also doing
good work on the line of agricultural education. At
the present time (October, 1897), there are three
of these schools in the Province— one in connec-

tion with the College at Guelph and the other
two under the control of the President of the
College, one at Kingston in the east and the other
at Strathroy in the west. The School at Guelph
gives a twelve weeks' course, commencing on the
4th of January, and the other two, a succession of
shorter courses throughout the autumn and
winter. These schools, being maintained by the
Provincial Government, are well-equipped and
well-manned, and furnish very thorough courses
in the theory and practice of cheese-making,
butter-making, milk-testing, the running of cream
separators, and the pasteurization oi milk and
cream. In these courses, farmers' sons and
daughters, factorymen and others, get in a short
time and at small cost such instruction and
practice as they desire in any branch of dairy
husbandry.

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Dr. William Saunders. .'

9(

THE GRANGE IN CANADA

IIV

HENKY GLENDINNING, of Manilla, Ont

AT llie close of the civil war in the United
States the slaves had been freed and
the whites of the South did not take
kindly to work in the fields, hence
much land was untitled and agriculture in general
was in a state of collapse. Early in January,
1866, Mr. O. H. Kelley was appointed by Presi-
dent Johnson as agent of the Department of
Ai^riculture in the South to collect statistical and
other information for publication. Mr. Kelley
says of his mission, " The general aim of my
visit was to get a good knowledge of the agricul-
tural and mineral resources of the South." When
on this mission he conceived the idea of an
Association among the gatherers of the fruits of
the soil, and for their benefit, extending alike
through all sections of the country and uniting
all in one great brotherhood. And he says it was
in his mind at this time that such an Association
might be a power to restore unity and good
feeling between the people of the North and
South.

When Mr. Kelley returned to Washington in the
autumn of 1866 he introduced the subject to a few
of his friends and it was discussed by them and
they decided to organize a secret society on Mas-
onic lines. For nearly two years these men
laboured with great energy and a faith amounting
almost to inspiration until they completed a well-
devised scheme of organization, based upon a
ritual of four degrees for men and four for women
in subordinate Granges. Ontlie 15th of Novem-
ber, 1867, a meeting was held in the office of Mr.
William Saunders, of the U.S. Department of
Agriculture. The names "Patrons of Hus-
bandry" and "Grange" were adopted, the for-
mer as the name of the Order, and the latter as
the name of the constituent bodies. There was
another meeting held at the same place on De-

T 97

cember 4th, 1867, officers were then elected and
the National Grange formally organized with
eight officers. The order was to be non-political
and non-sectarian. The qualification for mem-
bership was good character and engagement in
agricultural pursuits. At first the growth of the
Order was very slow. Before the fifth session
of the National Grange only about 200 subordin-
ate Granges had been organized, but, by 1872,
1074 Granges had been organized, scattered over
half the States of tiie American Union, and
from that time onward the growth was phenom-
enal.

In the year 1872 the Grange was planted in
Canada by Mr. Eben Thompson, a Deputy from
the United States. It was first formed in the
Province of Quebec. On June 2nd, 1874, repre-
sentatives of a number of Granges met in the
City of London, Ontario, and organized the
Dominion Grange. Mr. S. W. Hill, of Ridge-
ville, was elected Master and Mr. Thomas Dyas,
of London, Secretary. The following preamble
to the Declaration of Principles was adopted and
is here given with the Declaration itself:

" Human happiness is the acme of earthly
ambition. Individual happiness depends upon
general prosperity and the adoption of right prin-
ciples. The prosperity of a nation is in propor-
tion to the value of its productions. The soil is
the source from whence we derive all that con-
stitutes wealth; without it we would have no
agriculture, no manufactures, no commerce. Of
all the material gifts of the Creator the various
productions of the vegetable world are of the first
importance. The art of agriculture is the parent
and precursor of all arts, and its products the
foundation of all wealth. The productions of the
earth are subject to the influence of natural laws,
invariable and indisputable; the amount produced
will consequently be in proportion to the intelli-
gence of the producer, and success will depend
upon his knowledge of the action of these laws.

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CANADA: AN KNCYCLOP.KDIA.

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nnd tliu proper upplicatioii of tlieir nrinciples.
ilt'Dce knowlcdgo is the foiuidution of hiippiiiusii.
Thu ultimate object of this organiisatiuii is for
mutual instruction and protection, to lij^hten
labour by diffusing ii knowledge of its uims and
purposes, expand tliu mind by tracing tlie beauti-
fill laws the Great Creator lias established in thu
Universe and to enlarge our views of crcativo
wisdom and power. To those vvlio read aright,
history proves that in all ayes society is fragmen-
tary, nnd successful ri'sults of genei il welfiic can
be secured only by general tffoit. Unity of action
cannot be acquired without discipline and discip-
line cannot be enforced without significant
organization ; iience we ha\u a ceremony of
initiation wlii-h binds us in mutual fraternity as
with a. band ot iron ; but, although its influence is
so powerful, its application is as gentle as that of
tlie silken threads that bind a wreath ol llowers.

DiXLAKATION ol- PlilNClPUKS.

I. Motto. Wo heartily endorse the motto:
* In essentials, Unity; in non-essentials, Liberty;
in all things. Charity.'

II. Objects. We shall endeavour to advance
our cause by labouring to accomplish the follow-
ing objects:

To develop a better and higher manhood and
womanhood among ourselves.

To enhance the comforts and attractions of
our homes; and strengthen our attachment to our
pursuits.

To foster iiiutuil understanding and co-ope-
ration.

To reduce our expenses both individual and
corporate.

To buy less and produce more, in ordt-r to
make our farms self-sustainin;^.

To diversify our crops, and crop no more than
we can properly cultivate.

To condense the weight of our exports, selling
less in the bushel, and more on hoof and in
fleece.

To systematize our work, and calculate intelli-
gently on probabilities.

To discountenance the credit system, the
mortgage system, the fashion system and
every other system tending to prodigality and
bankruptcy.

We propose meeting together, talking to-
gether, working together, buying together, selling
together, and, in general, acting together for our

mutual protection and advancement, at occasion
may require.

We shall avoid litigation us much as possible
by arbitration in the Grange.

We shall earnestly endeavour to suppress per-
sonal, local, sectional and national prejudices,
all unhealthy rivaiiy, all selfish ambition.

We s!jall constantly strive to secure entire
harmon\', good will, vital brotherhood among
ourselves, and to m;ike our Order perpetual.

III. business Relations. For our business inter-
ests we desire to bring producers and consumers,
fanners and manufacturers, into the most direct
and friendly relations possible. Hence we must
ilispense with a surplus of middlemen ; not that
we are unfriendly to them, but we do not need
them. Their surplus and their exactions dimin-
ish our profits.

We wage no aggressive warfare against any
other interest whatever. On the contrary, all
our acts and all our efforts, as far as busiru.ss is
concerneil, are not only for the benefit of the
producer and consumer, but also for all other in-
terests that tend to bring these two parties into
speedy and economical contact. Hence we hold
that transportation companies of every kind are
necessary to our success; that their interests are
intimately connected with our interest, and
harmonious action is mutually advantageous, up-
on the principle that individual happiness depends
upon general prosperity.

We are opposed to such spirit and manage-
ment of any corporation or enterprise as tend to
oppress the people and rob them of their just
profit.

We are not enemies to capital : but we oppose
the tyranny of monopolies.

We long to see the antagonism between capi-
tal and labour removed by common consent and
by enlightened statesmanship.

Ws are opposed to excessive salaries, high
r.ites of interest, and exorbitant ]>er cent, profits
in trade. They greatly increase our burdens and
do not bear a proper proportion to the profit of
producers.

We desire only self-protection ami the protec-
tion of every true interest of our land by legiti-
mate transactions, legitimate trade and legitimate
profits.

CANADA: AN KNCYCLOIMiniA.

T

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IV. Education. We shall advuncu tlu; cause
of education iiinoi)){ oiirsulvcs, and for our chil-
dren, by all just luuans within our power. We
especiully advocate for our agricultural and
industrial colleges and public schools that prac-
tical agriculture, domestic science, and all the
arts which adorn the home, be taught in their
courses of study.

V. Volilical Relatiom, We emphatically and
sincerely assert the olt-repealcd tnilii tau^fht
in our organic law, that the Grange is not a poli-
tical or party organization. No Grangi-, if true
to its obligations, can discuss partisan or sec-
tarian (piestions, nor call political conventions,
nor nominate candidates, nor even discuss their
merits in its meetings, nor permit any discussion
upon questions on which we stand divided
by party lines. Yet the principles wo teach
underlie all true politics, all tr>ie statesmanship,
and if properly carried out will tend to purify the
whole political atmosphere of our country.
For we seek the greatest good to the greatest
number. Hut we must always bear in mind
that no one, by becoming a Patron, gives
up that malienable right and duty which
belongs to every citizen to take a proper
interest in the politics of his country. On the
contrary, it is the right of every member
to do all in his power, legitimately, to influence
for good the action of any political party to which
he belongs.

It is his duty to do all that he can to put down
bribery, corruption and trickery ; and to see that
none but competent, faithful and honest men,
who will unflinchingly stand by our industrial
interests, are nominated for all positions of trust ;
and to have carried out the principle which
should always characterize every Patron, that
the office should seek the man, and not the man
the office. We acknowledge the broad principle
that difference of opinion is no crime, and hold
that progress towards truth is made by difference
of opinion, while the fault lies in the bitterness
of controversy. We desire proper equality,
equity and fairness, protection for the weak,
restraint upon the strong, in short, justly dis-
tributed burdens and justly distribiitod power.
It is reserved by every Patron, as his right
as a freeman, to affiliate with any party that

will best carry out his pi-inciplcs. Ours being
peculiarly a farmers' institution, we cannot admit
all to our ranks. Many are excluded by the
nature of our organization, not because they
are professional men, or labourers, or artizans,
but because they have not a sufficient direct
interest in tilling the soil, or may have some
interest in conflict with our purposes. Hut
we appeal to all good citizens for their cordial
Co-operation to assist in our efforts towards
reform.

VI. Condiniun. It shall be an abiding prin<
ciple with us to relieve any of our oppressed and
sufFeriM^ bri)tlurliood by any means at our com-
mand. La.-,l, but not least, we proclaim it
among our purposes to inculcate a projier appre-
ciation of the abilities and sphere of woman, ns
is indicated by admitting her to membership and
position in our Order."

For a number of years after the introduction
of the Order into Cainula the increase was very
rapid, and in 1879 there were 31,000 members
scattered over the Dominion from the Atlantic
to the Pacific. In the year 1877 "The Grange
in Canada " was incorporated by Act of Parlia-
ment. There have been about 1,000 Granges
organized in the Dominion. The organization
consists of Subordinate Granges, Division or
County Granges, Provincial Granges and the
Dominion Grange, with full ritual and degree
work pertaining to each body. Many of the
Granges that were organized are now inactive,
but at the present time (i8g8) about seventy
Subordinate Granges are in good working order
in Ontario. The Order has been a great educa-
tor, and has done much to break up the isolation
of the farming class by bringing them together
for social and intellectual improvement. Several
institutions have been put in operation by the
Grange in Canada whose management is separ-
ate and distinct from the Grange itself. The
Grange Wholesale Supply Company of Toronto
and the People's Salt Company of Kincardine,
both managed on the joint stock plan by capital
subscribeil by the nierr.bers, are two of the most
successful institutions under the wing of the
Grange. Perhaps, however, the greatest good
(lone by tlie Order has been its influence upon
legislation in the interest of the farming class.

\):

THK PATRONS OF INDUSTRY ORDER

BY

C. A. MALLORY, Ghand I'kiside.it.

Till'! Patrons of Indiislry. like "The
(inirij,'!-," is an ordain/at ion of fanners,
and others \vhos«' interests are identical
with those of farmers. Its objects are
to advance the moral, intelkvttial, social, political
and financial condition of the producing! classes
in the country, and to fjeiieraliy develop a hijjher
character in those who perforin a most impor-
tant part in providinfj for the subsistence, and
advancing the prosperity of every nation. Though
completely unsectarian and non-parti/an as re-
gards e.xisting parties, it, imlikc the Grange,
seeks to accomplish these results by independent
political action.

Patrons are taught that prosperity is not so
much to be attributed to soil and climate as to
the untirmg industry of the toilin^j masses, an<l
the elevating influence of Christian education
upon youthful minds and society in general.
They are taught to exalt, not titled station, but
general humanity; to dignify not idle repose, but
arduous industry ; to elevate, not the few, but
the many.

The introduction of the organization into
Canada was intended as a protest against what
was considered class legislation and monopoly.
Heing opposed to class legislation, it asks no
special privileges for farmers, and wages war
against protection as giving special favours to
others. lieing pledged to British connection
and loyal to British institutions, it strongly favours
the fiscal policy of the Motherland as far as
conditions will permit its application to Can-
ada. It has hitherto been composed principally
of farmers, they having felt more than others the
pinch of adversity, resulting, as they believe, to
a very considerable extent, from the rule of cor-
porations and monopolies consequent upon the
class legislation which has sometimes been en-
acted by our Parliaments.

lao

Having a platform of political principles con-
sistent with its object, it aims to become u
balance between existing parties and by that
means to force (lovernments to recogni/e the
authority of the people. Its representatives offer
no factious opposition to Clovernments and sup-
port measures in the mterest of economy and
honest administration from whatever source they
spring. It was formerly confined prmcipally to
fartners and employees but has now opened it»
doors to all who sympathize with its objects and
are willing to subscribe to its platform.

The Order of Patrons of Industry was first
introduced into the Dominion of Canada by
organizers who came from the State of Michigan
to the tfounty of Lambton, Ontario. It spread
very rapidly, so rapidly indeed, that in a few
months over two hundred subordinate Associ-
ations had been formed in that county. At a
meeting of delegates, held at Sarnia, a county
Association was formed and arrangements were
made to obtain incorporation under the ijeneral
Ontario Act for the incorporation of benevolent
md other societies. Organizers were commis-
sioned to introduce the order into several other
counties in the Province. Portions of these
counties were soon organized and ccMinty Associ
ations formed. On the fourth Tuesday in
February 1890, delegates from the ten county
Associations then organized assembled in the
town of Sarnia for the purpose of forming a
Grand Associati(m for the Province of Ontario.
The first Grand OfTicers elected were Fergus
Kennedy, Grand President; C. A. Mallory, Grand
Vice-President ; L. A. Welch, Secretary and
Treasurer; and a board of three trustees who
were to have the financial management of the
order. Up to this time the Patrons of Ontario
had been in affiliation with those of the United
States, but one of the first acts of the newly

CANADA: AN I;NC;Y(I,()1M.I)IA.

iOI

lormcM Grarul AHHociatioii wiih to scvur its con-
ruction cniiiplittly willi tlii! par"iit IkmIv, and
tlicn( (forward tin; Order lucanu: a (':inadian
inHtitntion. A coiinnitteu was fornud (o draft
propositions to Ix; siilunittcd to tin; siil)()idinutL'
Associations for tluir appinval, wliicli propotti.
lions, or as many o( lliuni as vvi:rc approviMl, vvcru
to form the political platform uf tliu i'atron
Order. The coniMiittc<; iiift Blmrtly afterwards
in thu town of (^liathaui and prepared a nnnd)er
of prii|)ositions iviiieli were; immediately luiit out
to all I'atron lod^'es tlimn^diout thu I'rovinec.

1

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U-'

C. A. Mallorv.

These were considered and voted npon separately
by the subordinate hjilj^es and the results re-
ported to the Grand Secretary.

A special session of the Grand Association was
held at London on September 22nd, i8yi, for
the purpose of considering the reports from
, subordinate Associations npon the proposed pol-
itical platform, and to nuike such chant;es in the
constit'ition as had become necessary in the in-
terest of the order. A committee was appointed
to draft a constitution and by-laws, with instruc-

tions to report at thu next annual convention.
It was JDiind that the following prupositioni had
ri'ceived the ap|)rc)val of over ninety penent. of
the Patrons then organi/cfl, and they were there-
fore fnially adnpte<l as the I'latform of the Patrons
of Industry for the Province of Ontario:
1st. —Maintenance of Hritish connection,
jiid. — The reservation of the Public Lands for

the actual settler,
.{rd. -Purity of administration and the ,d)^Alllute

Independence of Parliament.
4th.— Kigid economy in every department ol

the |)ublic service.
5th. — Simplilication of the laws and a general
reduction in the machinery of (Govern-
ment.
btli.--The abolition of the Canadian Senate.
7th. — A system of Civil Service Reform that will
give each County power to appoint or
elect all County oflicials paid by them
except Comity jiidges.
8tli. — Tariff for revenue only, anil so adjusted as
to fall as far as possible upon the lux-
uries and not upon the nt;cessaries of life,
gth. — Reciprocal trade on fair and equitable terms

between Canada and the world,
loth. — Lffectual legislation that will protect la-
bour, and the results of labour, from those
combinations and monopolies which un-
duly enhance the price of the articles
produced by such combinations or mon-
opolies,
nth. — Prohibition of the bonusing of Railways
by Government grants as contrary to
the public interest.
iJtli. — Preparation of the Dominion and Provin-
cial Voters* Lists by the municipal
officers.
I Jth. — Conformity of electoral districts to County
boundaries, as constituted for Municipal
purposes, as far as the principle of
representation by population will allow.
The organisation now began to spread very
rapidly, not only in the Province of Ontario, but
in Manitoba and the English speaking portion
of (.Juebec. During the latter portion of this year
petitions were circulated among the Patrons of
Ontario asking that salt, binde. -twine andiron
should be placed upon the free list. These

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CANADA : AN ENCYCLOl'^KDIA.

petitions secured over 25,000 signatures, and
were forwarded to Ottawa for the consideration
of the Dominion Government. As a result, at
the succeeding session, the duties upon salt and
binder-twine were materially reduced, though no
change was made in the tax upon iron.

A Grand Association was formeil in Manitoba
during the latter part of the year, Charles
Braithwaite having been elected President, and
Mr. Graham, Secretary-Treasurer. The adop-
tion of a platform, however, was postponed until
the time for the annual meetmg.

The annual meeting of iSqj, of the Patrons
of Oiitiirio, was held at the regular time in I*"eb-
ruary, in tlie city of Toronto, which thereafter
became the chief centre for the urgani/ation.
The new constitution and ritual were now finally
adopted. The propriety of making Prohibition
a plank of the Patron Platform was discussed,
the question having been submitted during the
preceding year. It was found, however, that
very few counties had reported upon the question,
and as a consequence it was not thought wise to
take action upon it. The officers elected were
C. A. Mallory, Grand President ; John Miller,
Grand Vice-President ; L. A. Welch, Secretary-
Treasurer; A. Gifford, T. O. Currie and A. Fos-
ter, Grand Trustees. During the year which
followed great progress was made in organising
the farmers and labourers of the Provinces — 600
lodges being formed in Ontario alone.

The Canada luiniwr's Suit, published by Geo.
Wrigiey, at London, was made the official organ,
and did much to educate the people to indepen-
dence of thought. Negotiations were entered
into with the Ontario Peoples' Salt Company,
whereby the Patrons agreed to take from that
companv <Soo car loads of salt per year for three
years, on condition that they should withdraw
from the Canada Salt Association, and furnish
aalt at a fixed price agreed upon. The matter of
breaking the monopoly in the manufacture and
sale of binder-twine also engaged the attention of
theGrand Board. The proposition of Messrs. Strat-
ford, Hope, and others, of Brantford and vicinity,
was adopted as most likely to afford immediate
relief. The Farmers' Binder-Twine and Agri-
cultural Implement Manufacturing Company, of
Brantford, Ont. (Ltd.), with a capital of $100,000

was formed. Stock books were opened, and
in a few months $70,000 of stock was subscribed
among the farmers of Ontario. Buildings were
immediately erected and machinery obtained, and
thus the cost of binder-twine was reduced to
about one-half its former price, while a reasonable
profit accrued upon the investment made. Peti-
tions were circulated for the removal of the duty
upon agricultural implements, coal oil, wire fen-
cing, and corn. These, with 40,000 signatures,
were presented to the government at Ottawa.
Petitions also secured an equal number of signa-
tures asking the Government of Ontario for the
decentralization of the Superior courts, for the
extension of the jurisdiction of Division courts, for
the assessment at ictual value of corporation
stocks, debentures, and mortgages, and for the
election of county officers, except judges, by the
people, in accordance with the seventh plankofthe
Patron platform. During the sessions of the Par-
liaments the grand officers interviewed the Gov-
ernments, Dominion and Provincial, in further-
ance of the prayers of the several petitions.

The Grand Association meeting of Manitoba
was held in December, 1893. The officers of the
previous year were re-elected. A platform similar
to that of the Ontario Patrons was adopted, with
the addition of planks favouring the principles of
female suffrage and proliibition.

The third annual convention of Ontario Patrons
was held in T'^ronto, on February 27th, 1894.
The officers elected were: C. A. Mallory, Presi-
dent ; T. O. Currie, Vice-President ; L. A. Welch,
Secretary-Treasurer ; anti I'". Kentietly, A. Gifford,
and J. Lockie Wilson, Trustees. It was then
resolved that since the petitions had not received
the attention at the hands of the several govern-
ments which their importance demanded, prepar-
ation should be made for placing candidates in
the field on the Patron platform in the several
rural constituencies. The several planks of the
platform were defined and arrangements made by
which nominating conventions were to be held
v/hen thought wise during the year. Patronism
was now acknowledged to be an important factor
in Canadian politics, its membership being not
less than 150,000 in all the provinces. The great-
est enthusiasm prevailed, and requests were con-
stantly being received by members of the Grand

CANADA : AN fcNCYCL01'/I':i)IA.

'".1

Board, to speak at meetings in various parts of
the Province. To meet these demaVids at least
expense, Ontario, with the organized portions of
Quebec, was divided into three districts. Tin-
Eastern was supplied by Trustee J. Lockie Wil-
son and Lecturer Miller; the centre by Vice-
President Currie and Trustee Kennedy ; and the
Western by President Mallory and Trustee Giff-
ord. By this arrangement, two meetings were
allotted to each county. In many places these
meetings assumed the form of immense picnic
demonstrations, and in some cases many thous-
ands were in attendance. The Provincial elections
being imminent, conventions were htld in many
constituencies for the selection of candidates in
the Patron interest. Two bye-elections had al-
ready occurred. In North Bruce, where Patronism
was strong, its candidate, David McNaughton,
was elected in a three-cornered contest. For
South Lanark, with but one township organized,
the Patrons were unsuccessful, the Liberal candi-
date having been elected.

The Grand President now, by instructions,
issued a manifesto outlining the special principles
on which Patron candidates entered the Provin-
cial contest. These consisted of, ist, the election
by popular vote of all county officers, except
judges — such officers to be elected for a period
consistent with proficiency and good behaviour,
and subject to clearly defined governmental in-
spection; 2nd, the abolition of Government House,
Toronto ; 3rd, the abolition of the system of the
people's representatives receiving special favours
from railway corporations in the form of free
passes, or other favours ; 4th, the taxing of mort-
gages, stocks, and bonds at their actual value ;
and 5th, the repeal of all provincial statutes
giving special class privileges. Thirty candi-
dates were placed in the field, and about twenty-
five speakers were engaged to assist in the cam-
paign, among whom were numbers of the Rate-
payers' Association of the city of Toronto, and
members of the labour organizations throughout
the province. As a result, sixteen Patron repre-
sentatives were elected to the Legislature of
Ontario.

Very soon after the election, a meeting of
the Patron members was held i.i Toronto,
at which the new party was organized. Mr. J.

L, Haycock, of Frontenac County, was chosen as
leader, and John Senn, of Haldimand County, as
Secretary. The issues upon which they were
elected were again approved by the Patron rep-
resentatives, and a determination expressed to
urge by all means their adoption by the Legisla-
ture. Protests were afterwards entered against
the election of Mr. Senn and Mr. Tucker, Patron
metnber for Centre Wellington. Mr. Senn, hav-
ing failed to resign his position of issuer of mar-
riage licenses before the election, now resigned
his seat. Mr. Tucker was declared disqualified for
having " treated ' electors during the campaign.
In the bye-elections which followed, Mr. Senn
was defeated by Dr. Baxter, Liberal, and Mr.
Tucker, Patron, a brother of the former candidate,
was elected by a substantial majority. In the
meantime the organization was extending in
Manitoba, the North West, and Quebec. It was
thought better, owing to the difference of language
and Provincial institutions, that a separate Pro-
vincial Association should be formed for the
Province of Quebec, which had hitherto been
arTiliated with Ontario. Accordingly, on Decem-
ber nth. President Mallory met with delegates
from the several organized counties of Quebec,
in the city of Montreal, for the purpose of form-
ing a Grand Association for that Province. J. M.
Varville, of St. Philippe, was elected President,
and Albert Douth, of Coteau du Lac, Secretary-
Treasurer. The Constitution and Platform of
the Patrons cf Ontario were adopted by the Grand
Association of Quebec, and the new Provincial
organization started out with a determination to
succeed.

A call was also received from the Maritime Prov-
inces for the introduction of Patronism, and
Duncan Marshall, a young man of energy and
ability, was commissioned to organize those
Provinces, and establish one or more Grand
Associations as might be found necessary. It
was now thought that the Dominion elections
would be shortly held, and many candidates were
placed in the field in Ontario, Manitoba and Que-
bec. Delegates from the several organized Pro-
vinces met in the city of Toronto for the purpose
of forming a central Dominion executive. C. A.
Mallory was chosen President, and L. A. Welch,
Secretary. Federal issues were discussed, and

lit

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li

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104

CANADA: AN KNCYCLOIVKDIA.

the following propositions were .iKrecd upon,
as the principles upon which Patron camhciates
should enter the Federal contest :

No director or stockholder of any railroad or
other corporation askinj,' for or obtaining any
eniolnment or aiii from the Government shall be
elij,'il)le for election to the House of Connnons ;
and if such conditions shall occur in the case of a
member already elected, his seat has to be de-
clared vacant.

It shall he declared a breach of the Independ-
ence of Parliament Act for any member of the
House of Commons to accept fees or emoluments
other than his yearly salary or sessional indem-
nity for any services performed for, or on behalf
of, the (iovernment.

No member of the House of Commons shall
receive a free pass from any railroad or steamship
company; and the seat of any member so receiv-
ing a free pass shall, on proof thereof, be immedi-
ately declared vacant, and the person so offending
shall be disqualified for membership m the House
of Commons or for any position in the gift of the
Government for a space of five years.

The Government House at Ottawa shall be
abolished, and the bar-room in connection with
the House of Conmions and Senate Chamber
shall also be abolished.

The system of superannuation, gratuities and
pensions, except for military service, shall be
abolished.

The Mounted Police of the North-West Terri-
tories shall be abolished, except in unorganized
districts, in which case the expenditure shall be
reduced fifty per cent.

The Military College at Kingston shall be
abolished, and the expenditure on the militia force
in the Dominion in tunes of peace shall be limited
to $300,000.

The granting of subsidies and bonuses to
railroad and steamship companies and other cor-
porations shall be abolished. (Adopted with the
interpretation tli;it when, however, it is found
necessary to extend settlement, or to accom-
modate settlements already established, the Gov-
ernment shall in lieu of land grants capitalize said
land at Si.no per acre and assist the said railway
or railways to that extent, and said land shall be
open for settlement with the .$1.00 per acre as a ■
first charge thereon).

The number of eivil servants at Ottawa and
their salaries shall be reduced. The High Com-
missioner in Great Britain shall receive a stated
salary without any additions for assistance or
]>er(]iiisites.

The number of
reduced, and the
abolished.

Cabinet Ministers shall
Canadian Senate shall

be
be

Luxuries shall be taxed to the fullest revenue-
producing extent, and the following shall be
admitted free into Canada, viz.: — cotton, tweeds,
woollens, workmen's tools, farm implements,
fence wire, binder twine, coal oil, iron and corn.

The annual conventions were held in the
several Provinces during the winter, and the
retiring officers wen; all re-elected. The dec-
laration of principles as agreed upon by the
Dominion executive was submitted to and ap-
proved by each, and preparation was made for
the Federal contest. Prince Edward Island had
now been well organized, but concluded not to
enter the Federal contest. Portions of New
Brunswick and Nova Scotia had also been organ-
ized, and Duncan Marshall proceeded to form a
Grand Association in Prince Edward Island, and
was himself chosen president for that province.

A new issue was raised in the Federal elections
by the introduction of the Remedial Bill into the
House of Commons, for the purpose of dealing
with the question of .separate or Catholic schools
in the Province of Manitoba. The Government
having failed to secure the passage of the bill in
the special session of January, 1896, it became
the all-absorbing issue in the contest which
occurred in June. In consequence of this, Patron
candidates were compelled to declare themselves
upon this question, though entirely foreign to the
principles of Patronism. The Grand Secretary
also lent himself to the service of one of the
political parties, and for this purpose allowed to
be published the private correspondence of the
Grand Office. The funds of the organization,
being locked up in his hands, were not available
for the conduct of the campaign. The conse-
quence was that Patrons were greatly disheartened
in their attempt to secure representation in the
HoiiSc of Commons. Many candidates retired at or
befon; the nomination. Mr. David Rogers, in the
county of Frontenac, was elected by acclamation.
.After the election it was found that five Patron
representatives were returned, three from Ontario
and two from Manitoba. There is no doubt that,
under the circumstances, it would have been
better had nearly all the candidates retired from
the c(Hitest and awaited a more suitable time for
the defence of their principles. In the bve-
elections which followed, but one Patron con-
tested a constituency — Mr. Duncan Graham

CANADA: AN ENCYCL0P/1<:DIA.

.t !

being elected in a contest with Mr. McLeod,
Conservative, in North Ontario.

For several months following the election, little
was done. Patrons for the most part were com-
pletely discoiiraf,'ed. A settled determination
seemed to have possessed them to know no party
and wait developments. In the meantime a
separate Grand Association had been formed for
the Norlh-Wcst Territories, with Mr. Mclnnes as
Grand President.

The Liberals havin{( obtained a majority in the
Federal elections, a new Government had been

Joseph L. Haycock.

fomed at Ottawa. A committee of the Govern-
ment was appointed to take evidence preparatory
to a revision of the tariff. A circular was there-
fore sent out by the President for Ontario and
Chairman of the Dominion Executive, ur^injj
upon Patrons throu^'hotit the Dominion to place
their views before the Tariff Commission. This
circular was well responded to by Patrons
throup;hout the country by resolutions, petitions,
or interviews with the Tariff Commission. They

inv.nriably pressed upon the Government the
necessity of ta.xing luxuries to the fullest revenue-
producing extent, and placing upon the free list
necessaries enumerated in their demands.

The Grand Association meetings for the several
Provinces were held at the usual time. In On-
tario, W. L. Smith was elected secretary, in
room of L. A Welch, and Duncan Anderson was
elected trustee in place of Mr. Kennedy, resigned.
In Quebec, Mr. Walter Smith was made presi.
dent, otherwise few changes were made in the
executives for the several Provinces. The atten-
dance was good, and a determination was evinced
to continue the agitation until the reforms advo-
cated were incorporated in the statutes of the laud.
It was found that many of the subordinate lodges
had ceased to meet regularly, though the spirit
and principles of the order were stronger than at
any previous time. An attempt had been made
at the previous session to open the doors to all
who were in sympathy with the Patron platform.
At this Convention the attempt was renewed with
success. This action, it was hoped, would remove
the prejudices existing against the organization
among the inhabitants of the towns and cities.

The Patron representatives in the Ontario
Legislature, under the leadership of Mr. Haycock,
have consistently advocated the reforms to which
they were pledged, and, although not a balance
between the parties, have been the means of re-
ducing expenditures. Government House, though
not abolished, is costing much less than formerly.
Efforts are being made to compromise with the
railway corporations, so as to avoid what Patrons
consider a stigma in representatives receiving
personal favours from them. Class legislation is
closely watched, and the rights of the people
jealously guarded. The Local governmeut has
been constrained to discourage the active partizan-
ship of civil servants. The future of Patron-
ism dei)ends largely upon the action of the
Governments, Dominion and Provincial. If they
accede to the demands of the masses (which we
believe to be represented by the Patrons) for leg-
islation in the interests of the many, with economy
in administration, the agitation may possibly
cease. Otherwise a third party will be developed,
the iiiiluence of which cannot now be estimated.

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CANADA: AN ENCYCLOI'.KUIA.

AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES AND DEVELOPlWENr— EDITOR'S NOTES.

Dominion and Provincial Ministers of Agri-
culture. I'Voin 1849 to Confederation in X867
there was a Bureau of Agriculture and Statistics
in connection with the United Provinces of
Upper and Lower Canada. W. C. Crofton was
Secretary until March 31st, 185J, when he was
succced-d bj' W. Ilutton. J. C. Tachc assumed
charge as Deputy Minister of Agriculture on
August iitli, 1864, and was succeeded by Jolin
Lowe in tSSS, as Deputy Minister for the Do-
minion. Mr. W. B. Scarth became Deputy
Minister in 1895. Messrs. John Lowe, H. B.
Small and A. L. Jarvis were successive Secre-
taries of the Department after 1871. From 1852
until 1S62 the Presidents of the Executive Coun-
cil were ex officio Ministers of Agriculture. After
the later date up to Confederation they were as
follows :

Appointment. Ketirement.

i he )lon. Sir N. F. Belleau '.>0 Much, 1862 23 May, 1862

K. Evanturel •-•« M«v, 18(i2 15 May, 1803

I.. I.elei:icr de St. Just l)i May, 1861 29 March, 1861

T. D'Arcy Mctie< 30 March, 1864 1 July, 1867

Since the formation of the Dominion the fol-
lowing have administered this Department :

Appointment. Uetirement.

The Hon. Alexander Chapais. 1 July, 1867 LI Nov., 188it

" C. Dunkin 16 Nov., 1869 21 Oct.. 1871

John H. Pope 25 Oct., 1871 6 Nov., 1873

'• I.. Letellier de St. Ju't 7 Nov., 1873 14 Dec., 187(i

Sir C. A. P. Pelletier 28 Jan., 1877 16 Oct., 1878

J. H. Pop.! 17 Oct., 187S 21 Sept., 1885'

" Sir John Carling 25 Sept., 1885 21 Nov , 1892

" .\. R. Angers 5 Dec, Iff 2 11 July, 18!l.i

W.H.Montague 15 Jan., 1896 8 July, 1896

S. A. Fisher 13 July, 1896

In Manitoba, where agriculture is so all-
important an interest, the Ministers have been
as follows :

The Hon. Ihomai Howard Jan., 1871

Alfred Boyd Jan.— Dec, 1871

" John Norquay 1871 — 74

" Charles Nolin March— Nov.j 1875

James McKay 1875-78

" P. De Loime Jan.— June, 1879

M. A. Girard 1881-83

.M. Goulet 1880-81

A. A. C. La Riviere 188.'»— 86

D. H. Harrison 188(1 -»»

Thomas Greenway 1888-98

In Ontario the Ministers of Agriculture, after
Confederation, united that post with some other

department until 1888. Up till that year the
following were the administrators :

Hon. (Sir) John Carling, 1867-71.

Hon. Archibald McKcllar, 1871-75.

Hon. S. C. Wood, 1875-83.

Hon. James Young, June-November, 1883.

Hon. A. M. Ross, 1883-88.

The Ministers of Agriculture have been tiie
Hon. Charles Drury, 1888-90, and the Hon.
[olin Drydeii, 1890-99.

At Confederation in Quebec the Ministry of
Agriculture was combined witli that of Public
Works with the following heads :

The Hon. L. Archambault, 1867-74.

The Hon. L R. Church, 1874-76.

The Hon. C. B. de Bouchcrville, 1876-78.

The Hon. (Sii) H. G. Joly de Lotbinifere,
1878-79.

The Hon. (Sir) J, A. Chapleau, 1879-82.

The Hon. E. Dionne, 1882-84.

The Hon. J. J. Ross, 1884-87.

Since 1888 the Department has been governed
by Commissioners of Agriculture — William
Rhodes, 1888-90; Hon. H. Mercier, 1800-91;
Hon. L. Beaubien, 1891-97; Hon. F. G. M.
Dechene, 1897-99.

Farmers and Farming in Canada. Information
concerning Canadian agriculture of a very scat-
tered and somewhat technical, though useful
nature niuy be obtained by reference to the
Annual Reports of the Dominion Minister of
Agriculture and'of the various Provincial Depart-
ments. Similar Reports have been issued for
years by the Ontario Agricultural College, the
Dairynien'sAssociations, the Experimental Farms
and the old Agricultural and Arts Association of
Ontario. In the fiftieth and final Report of the
last named body (1895) there is a valuable history
of the Association and of agricultural progress in
Ontario during the preceding fifty years. The
following tables compiled from the Census re-
turns of i88i and 1891 give some useful informa-
tion regarding the number of farmers, etc., in
Canada :

CANADA : AN ENCYCI-OP^CUIA.

107

Occupation ok the People in 1891.

Clau. Number,

1. Agriculture, mining and fishing 790,210

2. Trade and transportation 186,695

3. Manufacturing and mechanical pur-

suits 320,001

4. Domestic and personal services 246,183

5. Professional vocations 63,280

6. Non-productive class 52.986

Total 1,659,355

SuB-nivisiONs (IF Class I.

(a) Agricultural 735.^07

(b) Fishing 27,079

(c) Lumbering i-.75^J

(d) Mining 15,168

Total 790, 2 1 o

Sub-division of the Acricultukai. Class.

Farmers, and farmers' sons 649.506

Farm Labourers 76,839

Apiarists, gardeners, florists, etc 6,120

Dairymen, stock-raisers, stock-breed-
ers, etc , 2,742

Total 735,207

In 1881 there were 656,713 farmers and farm-
ers' sons in the Dominion, as against 649,506 in
1891. The decrease was distinct in four Prov-
inces, the increase equally so in three out of the
other four. Manitoba had an increase of 15,517,
British Columbia of 3,493, and the Territories of
9,826. This makes an increase of nearly 29,000
in the West.

Impressions of the NorthWest. It is of

importance to note here the opinions ex-
pressed by two or three out of many promi-
nent visitors to the Canadian North-West,
who have been in a position from previous
study, travel or experience to judge of its re-
sources. The first extract which may be given
is from a letter by Colonel Sir C. E. Howard,
Vincent, C. B., M. P., which appeared in the
Sheffield Telegraph, of September 19th, 1891 :

" From Ontario we set out for the great West —
that vast region as yet comparatively unknown and
practically inaccessible until within the past few

years the Canadian Pacific Railway has opened to
the Empire its infinite resources. Twenty years
ago Winnipeg, the metropolis of the West, was but
a trading post of the Hudson's Bay Company —
a receiving house for the fur of the bear, the
beaver and the silver fox. Now it is a great
town of over 20,000 inhabitants, with every
corner lighted by electricity, tramways, tele-
phones, a main street 135 feet wide, with fine
shops on either side.* But it is from Winnipeg
westwards that one commences to appreciate the
capabilities of the gre.it Western Continent of
Britain. Englishmen do not realize them. On
cilher side for miles and miles are — not fields,
but 'seas' of golden grain. For fifty miles to
the south, for twenty miles to the north they
stretch. The full-grown ears wave gently in the
s;inlight. On every side, so early as man can see,
so late as he can keep his eyes open, works the
reaper. Not the old sickle assuredly — not the
patient wife following after slowly binding up the
sheaves. They could never do the work. Vast
though as are the cornfields — although a million
acres will have this year twenty million bushels
of Manitoba ' No. i hard' for England — it is but
a tithe of what might be produced if British men
and British money were to come here instead of
going to the United States. There are millions
of acres of virgin prairie to be had close to the
railway for from five to ten dollars an acre.
Plough in the autumn, sow in the spring, and
bear the harrow against the ice, and, without
fertiliser or manure, you ought to harvest from
30 to 35 bushels an acre. Manitcba is within
a fraction the size of Great Britain and Ireland,
but it is as nothing compared to the North-West
Territories. There you have 150,000 square
miles of ascertained wheat-laud capable of pro-
ducing, at the low average of twenty bushels to
the acre, over two hundred million quarters of
wheat for the mother country. Here, indeed,
under the flag are the golden granaries of Eng-
and, if only she will foster them, and not suffer
their wide expanse to fall into the disuetude of
so large a proportion of the arable land at home."
The following expression of opinion was
written by the late Sir George Baden-Powell,

'Editor's Note. Winnipeg in 1898 has an estimated popula-
of 40.000.

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CANADA : AN KNCYCLOI'.KDIA.

i

K.c.M.c.., M.r., in a letter to Mr. A. J. McMil-
lan, tlie Ayent of the Manitoba Government in
Liverpool, and was dated December 2otli, iS()f :

" You ask my opinion of Manitoba as a field
for the siiri>lus population of the United King-
dom. My opinion may have some value, because
not only am I an unprejudiced observer who has
recently had exceptional opportunities of seeing
and hearing much of Manitoba, but also I am
personally familiar with what has been done in
similar wikis in South Africa, Australia and the
United States. If we look to Manitoba itself
we shall find that in fertility of soil and health-
iness of climate it is far superior to the great
areas immediately to the south, in all of which,
nevertheless, great prosperity and progress have
been secured by thousands upon thousands of
settlers. Everyone knows that the soil and
climate of Manitoba produce grain crops in
greater abundance than any other equal area
of the world's surface. Without doubt it is a
country which can easily rival and surpass the
very best portions of Northern Europe, where,
with colder summers but not less rigourous win-
ters, the human race has prospered so well, both
physically and commercially.

The proof of the pudding is in the eating.
The Crofter settlements in both Northern and
Southern Manitoba have achieved startling suc-
cess, and prove conclusively how pre-eminently
suitable is Manitoba to provide new homes and
well-being even for the least hopeful class of set-
tlerij from the Old Country. This last autumn
I was in Manitoba, and was fairly astounded at
the enormous wheat crop of the year, bringing
great profit to the settlers already there and pro-
viding cheap bread fur the hard-worked millions
in our great cities. The people of the United
Kingdom, enjoying on the average a higher pros-
perity than those of any other country, inhabit a
limited area, and the natural inrrease of popula-
tion must and does seek new employment in all
the countries of the globe. I venture to say in
no country will they find better opportunities for
profitable work, investment and settlement than
in Manitoba.

This Province of Canada has already taken its
place as one of the chief granaries of the world,
and this means that for every other kind of civi-

lized employment there is a rapidly growing de-
mand. Manitoba is also situated in the centre
of the great Canadian Dominion, equally avail-
able to supply the great commercial and shipping "
centres on the St. Lawrence and the rapidly de-
veloping mining and ranching centres away to
the west in the prairies and in the mountains.
The happy, if terse, advice of the American Sen-
ator to the young man of the Eastern States,
'Go West,' may well be repeated in the Old
Country to all our surplus people who wish to
immigrate, for they will find work and energy
meet with their due reward under the old flag
in the west of Canada in general, and in Mani-
toba in particular."

Writing in the Nineteenth Century for April,
1892, Mr. Michael Davitt, M.P., made some in-
terestmg references to the emigration question
and to the North-West :

" Though the ' Great Lone Land ' is no longer
a tctra incognita to the reading public at home,
there is not -enough known about Manitoba,
Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, Alberta and British
Columbia by the people of the United Kingdom.
This is a pity; as I am persuaded, after a pretty
extensive tour through those regions during last
autumn, that if anything like full and true infor-
mation of the real extent, fruitfulness of soil, and
unequalled advantages of this immense and in-
teresting portion of the Empire were in posses-
sion of the public of Great Britain and Ireland,
the North-West would not long remain so thinly
populated. Want of fuller information is not
the only obstacle to the creation of a deeper
interest in the subject of these countries. There
is a good deal which must be unlearned about
Manitoba and its adjacent Provinces before a
true estimate of their worth and attractiveness
can be formed. The means and methods em-
ployed to colonize them have not been the
happiest in pbns or most fruitful in results. A
generally wrong impression is conveyed in the
pictorial representations of Canada, in which she
is invariably represented to Europeans as a
female, attractive-looking, of course, but always
clad in furs and living in a land of snowshoes and
ice palaces. The climate of North-Western
Canada is little, if any, colde"- than that of North
Minnesota, North Dakota, and other portions of

"

CANADA : AN ENCYCLOP/KDIA.

109

the United States; but we never find the practi-
cal Americans R'ving a figurative representation
of their country suggestive of perpetual winter
in any part of their great Republic.

Manitoba, which has been given a very bad
climatic reputation, has not an average of more
than a few degrees more cold than Western
Nebrasiva. Frosts are earlier, it is true, and the
injury with which they menace the wheat harvest
is the one real drawback and danger to the farm-
ing industry of an otherwise exceptionally fav-
oured land. But this is a danger which is certain
to decrease in proportion to the growth of the
population and the singular but sure influence
which the tillage of the soil, the erection of
dwellings, and the other necessary labours of an
inhabited country exercise upon its climate. If,
as the farmers of Ontario say, the clapping of
the rooster's wings prevents freezing within the
barn"5 the smoke of villages, the making of roads,
erection of fences, and the application of the
plough to the prairie sod will necessarily modify
the climate, as has been the case in Northern
Minnesota, and produce other variations of tem-
perature which will make the Manitoban and
Assiniboian autumn frosts less injurious to the
cultivation of wheat and other cereal products,
and the winters less preventive of active open-air
work.

I sought for the opinion of the Crofters
at Glenboro and Pelican Lake on this subject
of the Manitoban winter, and in no instance
was it complained that the cold was injurious
to health, or, except in brief intervals, prohibitive
of such out-door work as has to be done round
a farm house in that season. I also canvassed
the views of some of my own countrymen
at Calgary and other places upon this point, and
received a similar account. Thirty degrees below
zero all but freezes one's imagination where,
as in Ireland and Great Britain, the glass at thirty
above it sends those who can afford it off to sun-
nier climes, and makes those who cannot sigh
for the return of summer. The cold in northern
regions like Manitoba is, however, dry and
exhilarating in its effects, and produces none
of the chills and kindred consequences to health
associated with a winter in a damp climate
like that of the United Kingdom. People effected

with asthma, or sufferingfrom other chest dis-
eases, fare well in the North-West. That it is
intensely cold in mid-winter in Manitoba goes
without saying. But, I am convinced, the clim-
ate of that Province is no more severe upon the
human body than that of Nebraska, Wyoming,
North Minnesota or North Dakota in the United
States ; the only difference being that arising
from the more populous and more developed
condition of these localities, as compared with
Manitoba, Assiniboia and Alberta. The climate
of British Columbia, notwithstanding its latitude,
is as mild in winter as that of the United King-
dom, but far more enjoyable in summer than
ours."

Some Provincial Agrricultural Statistics.

The imports of agricultural products into British
Columbia amounted in 1895 to $1,465,860
in value. The exports in 1872 were $214,842
and in 1898 $363,984 — showing a very small
increase as yet. There is, however, a steadily
growing home market for local farm products.
A most important matter to the farmers of the
whole North-West is that of elevator capacity
for the storage of wheat. The following figures
from the Railway and Shipping World of April,
1898, will show the growth of grain elevators
and warehouses on, or adjacent to, lines
of railway, including Port Arthur, Fort William,
Keewatin and points in Manitoba and the
North-West Territories :

1891 7,628,000 bushels

1892 10,366,800 "

1893 11,467.100 "

1894 11,817,100 "

1895 12,000,000 "

1896 13,873,600 "

1897 14,999,300

1898 18,378,000

The largest elevators are the Canadian Pacific
Company's at Fort William, with the following
capacities in bushels : A and B, 1,250,000 each ;
C and D, 1,500,000 each. The others having a
capacity of over 100,000 bushels are : Keewatin,
Lake of the Woods Milling Co., 750,000 ; Winni-
peg, Ogilvie Milling Co., 320,000; Port Arthur,
C.P.R., 315,000; Winnipeg, Northern Elevator
Co., 140,000; Brandon, Alexander, Kelly & Co.,

\y

i!

M

II*

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOI'.KDIA.

125,000; Portage la Prairie, Pariiiers' Elevator
Co., 110,000; Kdinonton, Ikackman & Kerr,
104,000. In Manitoba and the Territories there
are also 59 flour mills with a daily capacity of
ii,8j5 barrels.

According to the Ontario Bureau of Statistics
for 1898 the following are the particulars of farm
lands in that Province in 1883 and 1.S07 :

Acres.

Farm Lands.

Staple field crops 8,701,705

Pasture 2,658,245

Orchard and Garden .... 337.441
Fallowland, small crops,

lanes,buildingsites,etc. 1,155,690

Total cleared land 12,853,081

Swamp, marsh or waste

land 3,213,321

Woodland 7,294,026

Total land assessed 23,360,428

1H83.
Acrca.

7,542,623

KJ.539.557

^.093,173

8.825,337

21,458,067

The cleared land had increased by 2,
acres during the fourteen years. The
value of farm property in Ontario duri
period was as follows :

Year.

Farm I^nd.

MBT aM0al,5.Vi

1886 So7,lU8,270

1893 672.938,472

1801 687 246,117

1893 602,064.361

1892 615.828,171

1831 621,245,223

1890 622,886.000

1880 632 329.433

18S8 640.480,801

1887 631.883,755

1883 648,008,828

1S85 626,122,024

1881 62J,47,S,7CO

1883 654,793,025

Buildingv
$

200,000 i:«

20.i 23,-.,429
201,148 070
204,071 .500
200,189,888
195,614,258
191.268 327
ig3,«.'»,S2a
192,164.239
188,293.226
18I,7.>3,5(I7
183,74S,2I2
182.177,9115
173,380 925
103,030,675

Implements.

51,299,093
.VP,7;t0,C.W
50,91 l,3S.5
5l,VW.172
iil.l!6,919
51,003,02<l
50,051,142
.5f),515,.VS3
51.(S.i,7lMi
49 7518.32
49.218,297
.511 .■k«),9;i6
48,.V;;i 725
47 .S.T(),710
43,522,530

Live Stock.

i

93,649 804
9fl,857,.560
I03,a5S,L.;7
lll„517.<!.j'2
116,070,902
1 17,501 ,4a5
108 721,070
101,080,026
10.5,731,2.S8
102.8,39.2,'«
101.100 a5.5
107,208,9,15

100 ono,o.S6

10.1,103,.SJ9
100,082,305

313.5-24

yearly
ng this

Total Farm
Properly.

$

905,093,013
910,291,623
931,989,.'>74
951..3a5,.507
970,301,070
979,977,244
971886,068
970,927,015
982,210,664
081 ,.368,094
975,292,214
989,497,911
a58,1.59 710
919,803,170
901,128,695

The following rates of wages t(5 farm labourers
were made up of averages derived from returns
made by farmers to the Ontario I^ureau of
Statistics :

1897.
Per year (yearly engagements) with boaril ... $lil 00

Without board 236 00

Per month (for working season) with board II 29

Withoutboard 2147

Domestic servants averaged !?5.97 per month
in 1897, as compared with $6.ii in 1896 ; $6.07
in 1895; $6.23 in 1894; and $6.47 in 1893.

The Mackenzie River Basin. Little is known
by Canadians or by other people about this vast

1S98.

1882.97.

$111 00

$1.^.8 00

213 00

251 00

It J7

10 92

21 11

2B29

region — belonging to the Dominion yet con-
stituting a veritable "great lone land." In 1888
the late Sir John Schultz, then a member of the
Senate and afterwards I^icut. -Governor of Mani-
toba, was appointed Chairman of a Select Com-
mittee to enquire into the resources and value of
this great territory. The following is a summary
by that Committee of their bulky lieport and is
duly signeil by the Chairman:

" 1st. The extent of the scope of the enquiry
covers one million two hundred and si.xty thou-
sand square statutory miles, which area includes
none of the islands of the Arctic Archipelago.

2ntl. Its coast line on the Arctic Ocean and
Huilson's Bay measures about 5,000 miles, which
estimate does not inchule tin; coast lines of inlets
or deeply indented bays.

3rd. That over one-half of this coast line is
easily accessible to whaling and sealing crafts.

4th. The navigable coast lines of the larger
lakes of the region in question amount to about
4,000 miles, while its total lacustrine area proba-
bly exceeds that of the eastern Canadian-
.\merican chain of great lakes.

5th. That there is a river navigation of about
2,750 miles, of which 1,390 miles is suitable for
stern-wheel steamers, which with their barges
may carry three hundred tons; the remaining
1,360 miles being deep enough for light draught
sea-going steamers.

6th. That there is a total of about 6,500 miles
of continuous lake, coast and river navigation,
broken only in two places.

7th. That the two breaks in question are upon
the Great Slave and ,\thabasca Rivers, the first
being now overcome by a twenty-mile waggon
road from Fort Smith southwards on the Great
Slave River, and the latter being a stretch of 70
miles on the Athabasca, of questionable naviga-
tion above Fort McMurray,down whicii fiat boats
or scows descend, but cannot ascend, and which
about fifty miles of waggon-road would over-
come; while some improvement of the rapids
might render the whole river navigable.

8th. That with suitable steam crafts this river
and lake navigation may be connected with Vic-
toria and Vancouver by way of the mouth of the
Mackenzie, the Arctic ocean and Behring Straits
and Sea, an I it is now connected on the south by

CANADA: AN KNCYCI^Ol' KDI A.

Ill

ninety miles of waggon rouil, between Athabasca
Landing and Edmonton, with navigable water in
the Saskatchewan River.

gth. That within the scope of the Committee's
enquiry there is a possible area of 656,000 square
miles fitted for the growth of potatoes, 407,000
square miles suitable for barley, and 316,000
square niilos suitable for wheat.

10th. That there is a p;istoral area of 860,000
square miles, 26,000 miles of which is o[)en
prairie with occasional groves, the rt;iiuiinder be-
ing more or less wooded ; 274,000 squire inili's,
including the prairie, may bo considered as
arable land.

nth. That about 400,000 square miles of the
total area is useless for the pasturage of domestic
animals or for cultivation — this area comprising
the Barren Grounds and a portion of the lightly
wooded region to their south and west.

I2th. That throughout this arable and pastoral
area, latitude bears no direct relation to suminer
isotherms, the spring flowers and the buds of
deciduous trees appearing as early nortii of Great
Slave Lake as at Winnipeg, St. Paul and
Minntapolis, Kingston or Ottawa, and earlier
along the Peace, Liard and some minor western
affluents of the Great Mackenzie River, where
the climate resembles that of Western Ontario.

13th. That the native grasses and vetches are
equal and in some districts superior to those of
Eastern Canada.

14th. That the prevailing southwest summer
winds of the country in question bring the
warmth and moisture which render possible the
far northern cereal growth, and sensibly affect
ihe climate of the region under consideration as
far north as the Arctic circle and as far east
as the eastern rim of the Mackenzie Basin.

15th. The immense lacustrine area of the east-
ern and northern portions of the area under consid-
eration implies,from the evidence given regarding
quantity and quality of fresh water food lishes,the
future supply of a great portion of the North
American continent ; while, though there has
been obtained less evidence regarding sea fish,
yet the following have been found on the northern
and eastern coast within the scope of the present
enquiry, viz., salmon, on four of the rivers empty-
ing into Hudson's Bay on its western shore, and

in all the rivers llosving into the Arctic ocean,
except the Mackenzie, where an entirely different
but also valuable species, the Salmo M(ukeuziei,hnv-
ing the local name of the inconnii, exists in great
numbers. The capeling is found on the coast of
the Arctic ocean and Hudson's Bay, thus imply-
ing the presence of cod upon the banks near by,
and the rock cod has been frequently taken. The
Greenland, or harp seal, and the grey scpiare
Hipper seal are common to llie eastern coasts,
while the present favourite whaling grounds of
the New England whalers are Mudsoii s Bay,
Fi).\ Channel and Boothia Bay. These aiuiiials
are ail fo iiid with the walrus and porpoi-^e (jff the
mouths and in the estuniy of the Mackenzie as
well.

i()th. The forest area has upon it a growth of
trees well suited for all purposes of house and ship-
building, for mining, railway and bridging pur-
poses, far in excess of its own needs, and of great
prospective value to the treeless regions of Can-
ada and the United States to the south, the
growth on the Laurentian formation being scant,
but the alluvial portion has upon it (on the river
of its name and elsewhere) the" Liard," a balsam
poplar, sometimes called Ba inofGilead or rough
bark poplar, 120 feet high, with a stump diameter
of five to six feet ; the white spruce, 150 feet
high, with a stump diameter of four to five feet ;
the larch, of about the same size, and the
banksian pine, whose straight stem is often 100
feet long, with only two feet of diameter at the
stump.

17th. Of the mines of this vast region little is
known of that part east of the Mackenzie River
and north of the Great Slave Lake. Of the
western affluents of the Mackenzie enough is
known to show that on the head waters of the
Peace, Liard and Peel Rivers there are from 150,-
000 to 200,000 square miles which may be
considered auriferous, while Canada possesses
west of the Rocky Mountains a metalliferous
area, principally of gold-yielding rocks, thirteen
hundred miles in length, with an average breadth
of four to five hundred miles, giving an area far
greater than that of the similar mining districts
of the neighbouring Republic.

i8th. In addition to these auriferous deposits,
gold has been found on the west shore of Ilud-

li

III

I 12

CANADA : AN KNCVCI-OIM'DIA.

\'i

«

Hoii's Itay, and li.is been sni;l to oxist in certain
portions of tliu HarriMi Ciroumls. Silver on tliu
Upper Liard anil Peace Rivers, copper «i)on tlio
Coppermine River, wliich may bo connected
with an eastern arm of Great Hear Lake by a
tramway of forty miles ; iron, k'':'P'>''^'» o<"lire,
brick and pottery clay, mica, (gypsum, lime and
sandstcne-sand for glass and moulding;, and
asphaltnm, are all known to exist, while the
petroleum aria is so extensive as to justify the
iielicf that eventually it will supply the larger
part of this continent and be shipped from
Churchill or some more northern Hudson's Hay
port to England.

Kjth. Salt and sulphur deposits are less exten-
sive, but the former is found in crystals equal in
purity to the best rock salt and m highly saline
springs, while the latter is found in the form of
pyrites ; and the fact that these petroleum and
salt deposits occur mainly near the line of division
between deep water navigation and that fitted
for ligiiter craft, give them a possible great com-
mercial value. The extensive coal and lignite
deposits of the Lower Mackenzie and elsewhere
will be found to be of great value when the
question of reducing its iron ores, and the trans-
portation of the products of this vast region have
to be solved by steam sea-going, or lighter river,
craft.

20th. The chief present commercial product of
the country is its furs, which, as the region in
question is the last great fur preserve in the
world, are of very great present and prospective
value, all the finer furs of commerce being there
found, and the sales in London yearly amounting
to several millions of dollars.

2 1st. The Indian population is sparse, and the
Indians, never having lived in large communities,
are peaceable, and their general character and
habits as given by witnesses justify a hope that
tlie development of the country, as in the case of
the Indians of British Columbia, may be aided
by them without great danger of their demorali-
zation and with a reasonable hope that, as in the
case of the Indians mentioned, their condition
may be improved.

A good deal of difficulty has been experienced
by the Committee in endeavouring to ob-
tain the exact catch of furs

under consideration, and no definite or direct
information has been obtaineil ; they have,
however, obtained lists of furs offered for sale
in if<<S7, in London, by the Hudson's Hay Com-
pany and C. M. Lampson & Co., the consignee
of many of the furs of Hritish North America,
and from these lists they find the following
to be a summary of out? year's catch :

OlUr M.m

Filhar 7,IIU

Ko«(Sil»ti) I,1HI7

Kox(Crov) (ITHl

Fo)i(R«d) HMI-.y

l;ox(Whinl lli,'.',S7

FoxOHu') l.ill'

Kux (Kill) «HI

I.yn» U.VJd

Skunk 0H.',7»I

Marian , BH,;il'i

Mink STO/i-^J

Buvtr 104,:!79

Mii«|UMh liJM.MR

l.>im llUck Muv|ua h . I»,0U

Wolf 7,IM

WLlvttlno l,Mt

ll«ar (all kind'.) . lA.DtS

Miiak 0« lUH

llulgtr . 3,7,10

Ermint <,llll

Swui 67

Kablili 114,8.1

Hair Seal (Dry) I:I.I78

Sabit 3,.'.17

Fox (Gray) ... SI,AU7

in the region

Of the fresh water food fishes of the region.
Hack's "grayling", an excellent species not
prevahn' elsewhere, seems to be found every-
where in its rivers, and even west of the Rocky
Mountains, but the staple product of its lakes
and large rivers seems to be whitefish of great
weight and excellent flavour, and trout often
reaching forty pounds in weight ; and evidence
goes to show that the farther north the greater
the yield of fish till the quantity becomes
enormous. As an illustration the folio. ving is
given from the evidence of Professor Macoun,
who quotes Sir John Richardson, to the effect
that one of the early overland Franklin expedi-
tions took fifty thousand whitefish on a north-
eastern arm of Great Bear Lake, and Sir John
Richardson also states that the great lake trout
swarm in all the northern great lakes. In regard
to the salmon fisheries, it would appear from the
evidence that salmon are abundant in the rivers
and along the coast of the north-west side of
Hudson's Bay as well as in the rivers of the
northern shores of the continent. Your Com-
mittee consider it advisable that means sliould be
adopted to ascertain more accurately the extent
and value of the s ilmon fisheries of these regions,
with a view to utilizing them for the purpose of
commerce and for the revenue v\hich they may
afford.

The seas adjoining the great territory which
your Committee has had under investigation are
frequented by whales of different species, wal-

14 :

w

CANADA: AN KN(V( lol' l.DIA.

H3

ruscA, narwhals iiriil a variety uf aciiU. All these
aniiiialii are valuable for their oil, but tho lai^'u
Bpe('i('>4 of whales havo herutofme bci;n most
8()U(;lit fur. Only a few years nj^o tlicso aiiiiiiais
had a ninch more extensive ran^'u tlian at tin:
present time. Owini^ to improvements in nivi-
t;ation nnd methods of ca|)tiire tiny have, of late
years, fallen an easier |)r(-'y to their pnrsueia ami
havo taken shelter in the less freciucntcil seas of
the northern co.ists of Canada. Now tiny are
being pursued to tlnir last retreat by foreign
whalers, and some species are tlireateneil with
complete extinction in a few years if this condi-
tion continues. It is to be borne in mind that
whales are long lived and slow breeding ammals.
The American whalers attack them with har-
poons, explosive bombs and lances, fired from
large swivel-guns carried on steam launches,
instead of the old-fashioned weapons thrown by
hand from row-boats. These methods not only
destroy the whales with greater facility, but
inspire the survivors with such terror that they
seek the most distant and inaccessible parts of
the northern seas and have entirely disappeared
from the waters in which they lived only a few
years ago.

The evidence submitted to your Committee
points to the existence in the Athabasca and
Mackenzie Valleys of the most extensive petroleum
field in America, if not in the world. The uses
of petroleum and consequently the demand for it
by all nations are increasing at such a rapid ratio
that it is probable this great petroleum field will
assutnean enormous value in the near future and
will rank among the chief assets comprised in
the Crown domain of the Dominion. For this
reason your Committee would suggest that a
tract of about 40,000 square miles be for the
pfesent reserved from sale, and that as soon as
possible its value may be more accurately ascer-
tained by exploration and practical tests."

Dominion Agrricultural Statistics. The Census
returns of 1881 and 1891 give the following in-
formation regarding agricultural matters in the
Dominion :

1881. 1891.

Acies. Acru,

Total acres occupied 45,358,141 60,287,730

Acres of improved lands 31,899,181 38,537,242

" under crop 15,112,384 19,904,826

IHMI. IMII.

3i,3So,jr><) 42,144,779

iri,.S4.(,Mi8 I7,I4'<.">'<

2,oi)7,l«o

1 3. 749. '"''"i

4.90I.I47

V,02S,l.|3

«i 515.41$
i,3jS,t 2

«5.Si4.«.l'''
4,KK6,I22

10,675,8X6

" ill i;iirilen< and orctmrds...,'. .... 401,33$ 4f>\<4^'

" ill iiuitiiro 6,3S5.50J i5,iS4,7H8

Prutlucilon.

WIicmU Imi.li.

lliirlL) "

ihin .... "

Kyo "

IViis uml 111,1114 . "

ItiickwliiMt "

Corn "

I'llllll(H.'S "

Tiiriiiiit nnd oilier roatK "

(iiass niHJ Cll'ivcr "

I'liiit, (jraiK'fi, cIC ll'->.

'I'libaccu "

Mops "

1' l;ix Seed Inisli.

The exports and imports of agricultural prod-
ucts in the first \ear after Confederation and
in i8y7 were as follows ;

KxroRT.-i,

vm. mn.

Wh.nt 2,'j.si,702 i.i,in,;i:iH

Flour 3)(:i,;it» 4ni,:i)i

Total WlKat and Flour. . 4,2ii|,l'."i 15,:iin),'.>:0

Batliy 4,ll.V'.,W72 l,8:il,ii9l

Main li),ii,-.7 T.'.-JU.HKT

All ollitr grain 3,.'ii:.,.V.« 1'.'..VI7,'.'77

Oihir UrwiUiuir* 11,677,1X11 6l,8VI,7uO

In 1S74 the Dominion exported horses to the
value of $570,544; cattle $951,269; and sheep
$702,564. In 1897 the export was: horses
$1,710,9^2; cattle $7,159,338; sheep i,oo2,ori.
The total export of these animals during the
twenty-four years was $180,514,261 in value.
The f(3llowing table illustrates the disposition and
development rf our external trade in agricultural
products — the yearly average to all countries out-
side of the United Kingdom and the United
States being only about $2,000,000 :

55,26H,227 5J.''>5.J.7"4

48,251,414 49.555. Qoi

3»4.3i7 3V>.(>S''>

45.957.45!* 6'<,.'<'''4.i8i

2,527,96a 4.^77.936

905,207 1,126,330

108,694 i37iO"S

Importh.

INOfl. 1807.

2,7:il,HIKI fi,H4;>,130buib.

•J7.',H7.1 Sl,^^!.!!!.

i.O'M.m 6,'2-.>l>.8Jl bu>l>.

l'.',8S3 bu«h.

7I,->I'.>1 9,10ii,:il0i.u»h.

inoiiiM) i,ri.>i.ii'.)2iiu»h.

0,002,828 28,213,230 Ibt.

Value of Animal
VMf and Agiicultuml

Ended Prcducis, Unmtiiic,

SOth Jun«. Exported.

Valus Kxporttd to Va'ue Exported to
Ureat Britain. United Stalei.

1 86 7

22,452,473

4.546,356

14,800,374

1868

19.341.387

6,414,695

11.S75.313

1869

20,584,452

6,674,121

12,846,097

1870

25.504.703

9,482,402

14,856,161

187 1

22,146,808

7.859.503

13.135.840

1872

25.494.393

10,169,091

13.897,594

1873

28,302,384

14,175,228

12,593.879

1874

32,635,810

17.214.535

13,968,246

1875

28,634,859

14.798,365

12,435.307

1876

32,878.281

15,395,200

15,177,128

1877

27.587.236

13.729.351

12,346,281

1878

30,802,010

18,234,943

11,071,799

1879

32.537.712

18,461,798

12,690,989

I

l.i

I

. J*-

. I-.
^'
■\-

,0

I-

i

r

VM

: i

,,-5'!

I-I

i«4

CANADA : AN

iS.So

.18,806, -{80

^J.i'«i..l7''

13,702,189

ifSSi

4"/>45.45"

2.1,180,276

i5.^jy.8f'5

lS>Si

i^.Jiii.iii

^J.540,041

24,612,216

l8«j

42.01 5. Ji<J

2i,8tj,i66

J8.j4a.970

I.SS4

S-\,i2^.U)S

19,241,281

13,616,683

I.S.S5

.j8,j^8,57i

22,050,086

M.gyj.J'!'*

iHW)

.jS,0()J,(K»S

Ji,2i8,6j7

15,189,488

l8«7

4'.J57.»7*>

-i|.4»o.«y.J

14,916,178

1888

.J8. 187,456

19.088,1 14

17.615.4j7

i88(j

.J.').4;-'.54i

18,507,162

15,828,746

l8go

35.44J-^>'8'J

2 1 ,086, 1 2 I

1j.07j.717

l8gi

.i8, 205,370

25,129,206

11,309,204

l8(j^

.f.j,i5.},oi()

.i7.<J77,^'57

8,176,968

1«<JJ

5J,j()j,(jo6

41.405.5j7

7,698,267

1894

47,802,859

40,181,644

4.599.2"

1895

4«.5.5i..H4

39,282,481

7.011,256

l8g6

48,791,344

40,694,222

6,i7J.875

1897

SS-SJi-SO-i

45,827,619

7,090,629

Dr. Parkin on North- West Production. In

a cliaptcr of his book — Our Cmut Dominion —
published in 1895, Dr. George K. Parkin, c.m.g.,
describes his impressions of the Nortli-West,
in part as follows :

" From Wiiiniptg I went over the Southern
Manitoba Road to Estevun, the point to which
It was at that time completed, and thence back
to rejoin the main line at Urandon, in all a dis-
tance of nearly 500 miles. At intervals of ten or
twelve miles over nearly all this distance prosper-
ous little towns are springinU up, each ecpiipped
with two, or three, or four elevators to deal with
the grain raised in the surrounding districts.
\Vheat was being shipped rapidly at the time,
and these elevators were usually surrounded
by teams waitinp; to deliver their loads. Huge
stacks of straw, soon to be burned for want of any
better use, showed where the grain had been
threshed in the fields where it was grown. In the
latter part of October the deliveries of wheat
at Fort William alone amounted to a thousand
car-loads per week, and the railways were finding
it difficult to deal with all that was offered.
For 1891 the whole north-western production
was estimated at between twenty-two and twenty-
three million bushels. A good deal was then
injured or lost through the difficulty of dealing

AN ENCYCLOI'^:i)IA.

with an exceptionally heavy crop in the absence
of n sufficient supply of labour. l''or 189a the
output was between fifteen and sixteen million
bushels, but thuuverago (juulity was much liighcr
than in 1891, and the crop was generally saved
in good condition. For 1893 and 1894 the
aggregate producticn showed u largo increase
over 1892. As the yield per acre has not in either
year been more than an average one, the advance
is due to increasing population and a wider
acreage. It is from considering these figures and
then remembering how short is the time since
no wheat for exportation was produced that
we get an idea of the rapid change which is pass-
ing over the country. The peculiar conditions
of cultivation on the prairies make it possible to
effect changes in five years which in most countries
would require the work of a whole generation.

It must not be thought that the rapid increase
of wheat production in the North-West has
hitherto n)eant a correspondingly large surplus
for export from Canada as a whole. As the
output of the newly opened western areas has
increased, that of the eastern Provinces, where
cereals are not produced without careful culture,
has diminished. Quebec and all the Maritime
Provinces make a heavy demand, for their own
consumption, upon the surplus product of tho
West. Ontario, as the result of the drop in wheat
prices, is gradually changing from a wheat-pro-
ducing to a dairying country. Thus, though
Manitoba and the Territories show a large
increase of production, Canada's export as a whole
does not enlarge with corresponding rapidity.
Only a large addition to population in the West
can make it do this. But, given this inflow
of population, and such a rise in price as makes
wheat growing profitable, and there is scarcely
any limit to the possibility of production in the
Dominion. The area of Manitoba and the Ter-
ritories of Assiniboia, Alberta and Saskatchewan
is 360,000 square miles, or 230,000,000 acres.
It has been estimated and, I think, not unfairly,
that one-half of this is either good or workable
wheat land. Yet of all this vast area little more
than a million acres are now under actual
cultivation for wheat."

; .<

SECTION II.

CANADIAN LITERATURE AND JOURNALISM.

*3

n

•t

, «i '••

A REVIEW OF CANADIAN LITERATURE

nv

THE EDITOR.

'■:'t

THE literature of a country should be the
expression of its heart and mind, the
embodiment of its history and develop-
ment. It is not necessary in order to
achieve this purpose that it should include a
Milton or a Shakespeare, a Homer or a Dante.
A world genius may come in time and in coming
add glory to what has gone before, but he
will not in himself constitute the literature of his
land. That will have evolved with the growth of
the country — crude at first in its expression but
gradually developing strength with the increase
of education, the material progress of the people,
and the spread of that culture which comes so
largely from the accumulation of wealth, the
possession of leisure and the maturity of national
thought.

This is in a word the record of Canadian liter-
ature. Definitions of a different nature abound,
it is true, just as criticism of the most curious
and contradictory kind has appeared at passing
intervals upon the surface of Canadian life and
thought and then sunk out of sight, unheeded or
soon forgotten. And, though such criticism may
serve a useful purpose in these later days of abun-
dant, thoughtless and careless writing, it is none
the less to be regretted that, where there has been
so much really good work done, yet, with admitted
room for higher ideals and a broader culture,
there should be such superficiality or indifference
amongst the critics of our time. I have before
me now the assertion of a Canadian writer that
" there is no Canadian literature " and the state-
ment of a Professor in one of the Toronto Coll-
eges that historical and scientific works are not
" pure literature " because they lack " the neces-
sary quality of imagination." Such a definition
would exclude from the literature of England
the names of Darwin, Macaulay, Green and

117

Lecky and a myriad of more or less eminent
names. The fact is that historical writing in the
best sense of the word has to embrace imagina-
tion and that the more a writer is able to elimin-
ate present conditions and prejudices from his
point of view and transport himself by the power
of thought and study into environments distant,
perhaps, in both time and space, the more truly
is he able to produce a picture of the past which
is not only history but one of the highest types
of literature.

Canada possesses, in fact, a literature of which
it may reasonably be proud. It has grown with
the growth of the countryand reaches its highest
point at the present time when the Dominion
also attains its greatest stature in external influ-
ence and internal unity. The beginnings of this
literature lie far back in the old French annals
of discovery, travel and adventure. The chief of
these works, reaching down to the bed-rock of
our history as a people, are the chronicles of
Cartier's voyages ; the similar narrative concern-
ing Champlain ; the histories by Marc L'Escarbot
and Gabriel Sagard of De Monts' settlements and
of the Hurons respectively ; Father Louis Henne-
pin's Canadian Discoveries and Voyages; the famous
Relations des JAuites ; the semi-religious annals of
Father Le Clerq ; La Hontan's somewhat unre-
liable work of Travels : and the foremost and best
of all these early chronicles, the tJistoire et descrip-
tion Generate de la Nouvelle France, u^y Pierre
Francois Xavier de Charlevoix. Of course, the
most abundant materials for the history of this
period are to be found in the " Jesuit Relations"
— especially in the magnificent publication now
being edited by R. G. Thwaites, of Cleveland,
U.S. — but the six volumes by Charlevoix,
first brought out in France in 1744, are the
production of a clear, able and practised

M

ii8

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOPiliDIA.

writer, and as such are of the highest value.
These volumes taken together constitute the
basis of all historical literature in Canada and are
therefore of great importance, although not writ-
ten by Canadians — in the modern sense of that
word. Equally important is the splendid series of
volumes written by Francis Parkman* and form-
ing a veritable mine of brilliantly comprehensive
history of early Canadian events and personages.
His picture of the Indian is drawn a little too
luridly, perhaps, but apart from that there is little
criticism that one may venture to offer. And,
although the author was an American by birth
and residence his works can hardly be eliminated
from any record of Canadian historical literature,
into which they throw the searching light of a
strong mind and eloquent pen.

With the fascinating fur trade period — the days
of exploration and adventure in the far North-
West — came a further succession of works by
outside pens. Sir Alexander Mackenzie's Voy-
ages, published in 1802, La France's Exploration
of the Country adjoining Hudson's Bay (1744), Sam-
uel Hearnc's Journey in the same regions (1795),
and Alexander Henry's Narrative (iSog) are
vivid reminders of the lives and labours of pion-
eers in a new country. So with The Red River
Settlement by Alexander Ross (1856), Lord Sel-
kirk's volumes and pamphlets upon the same
subject, and Sir George Simpson's Overland
Journey. Following the earlier descriptive works
of French and English writers came a series of
volumes dealing with current events or conditions
by men living for a time in British America, or
travelling through its apparently boundless reg-
ions of lake and forest and wilderness. The
most important of these from an historical as
well as descriptive standpoint were Francis
Maseres' constitutional and controversial public-
ations; Major John Richardson's War of 1^12 And
Eight Wars in Canada (1847) ; Mrs. Jameson's
Sketches in Canada (1838); Colonel Talbot's Fiz'e

*Noi K. Tney were pablished as follows :

The Oregon Trail 1847

The Conspiracy of Pontiac i8ji

Pioneers of Fiance in the New World 1865

The Jesuits in North America . . 1 867

La Salle and the Uitcovery of the Great West 1869

The Old Regime in Canada 1874

Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV 1877

Montcalm and Wolfe 1884

A Half Century of Conflict 189a

Years in the Canadas (1824) ; George Heriot's
Travels (1807) and those of Isaac Weld (1799)
and John Lambert (1810); John Howison's
Sketches of Upper Canada (1821) ; Basil Hall's
Travels (1829); ^'*" R* H. Bonnycastle's Excur-
sions (1841) and Canada and the Canadians (1846);
Major G. h. Warburton's Conquest of Canada
(1849) ; Gait's Autobiography and his descriptive
work upon The Canadas ; Sir George Head's
Forest Scenes in North A)ncrica; Captain W.
Moorsom's Letters from Nova Scotia (1830) and
Lieut.-Colonel Strickland's Twenty Seven Years in
Canada ]Ves\ The following list gives the names
of a number of writers of less important volumes
upon Canada which were nevertheless useful in
their day and are now valuable from an historical
point of view :

Name of Author. Date.

Joseph Robson . 1752

Thomas Anbury 1789

P. Cam pbell 1 793

Captain George Cartwright 1892

J.C.Ogden 1797

Captain George Vancouver 1798

Sir D. W. Smyth, Bart 1799

Due de la RochefoucauU-Liancourt 1800

Hugh Gray 1809

John Mills Jackson 1809

J. Melish 1812

David Anderson 1814

M. Smith 1814

Joseph Sansom 1817

Lieut. Edward Chappel! 1817

Francis Hall 1818

John Palmer 1818

E. Mackenzie 1819

Benjamin Silliman 1820

Gabriel Franchero 1620

C. Stuart 1820

Daniel W. Harmon 1820

J. M. Duncan 1823

Walter Johnstone 1823

John MacTaggert 1829

Alfred Hawkins 1834

John Gait 1836

T. R. Preston 1840

J. S. Buckingham 1843

Rev. William Haw 1850

Sirjohn Richardson 1851

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOI'.KDIA.

119

W. H. G. Kingston 1855

Captain Palliser 1863

Hon. A. H. Gordon (Lord Stunmortj) 1864

Commander R. C. Ma3ne 1863

Hugh Murray '.: 1829

Ross Cox 1831

John McGref,'or 1832

Sir James E. Alexamier 1833

Edward Gibbon WaJvcFieid 1S37

Succeeding volumes of ^rea^. interest to Cana-
dians are tiiose in which Sir W. H. Russell,
Charles Mackay, Anthony Troliope, Captain Mar-
ryatt, Sir Charles Lyell, Sir Charles Dilke and
Lady Vincent refer largely to the Dominion in
describing their experiences and impressions of
American travel, etc. R. Montgomery Martin
in his work upon the British Empire (1843) and
Sir Charles Dilke in his well-known Problems of
Greater Britain have written authoritatively upon
Canada. J. W. Kaye's Life of Lord Metcalfe,
Scrope's Life of Lord Sydenham, Walrond's Life
and Letters of Lord Elgin and Wright's Life of
Major-General Wolfe are connected with our
literature in much the sami way as the names
mentioned are connected with our national an-
nals. And, while these varied volumes cannot be
technically claimed as a part of Canadian litera-
ture— if by that term we understand works writ-
ten by Canadians — yet many of them were writ-
ten in Canada, some were publistied here, and
taken together they constitute a basis of informa-
tion and description which any Canadian who
desires to study or write of the early history of
his country must be more or less familiar with.

For three decades following the period of war
with the United States Canadian distinctive liter-
ary ambitions (apart from the contributions of
French or English writers) slumbered amid sur-
roundings of pioneer activity in field and forest, on
lake and river. The axe of the settler, the river
rafts of the lumberman, the canoe of the voyageur,
the musket of the hunter, embodied the practical
and necessary aim of the people. With the prog-
ress of settlement, the growth of the press, and
the development of an easier life in cities or
towns came, howevfr,the gradual production of a
strictly native literature. One of the earliest
native works and perhaps the most important of
all French-Canadian historical volumes was the

Histoire du Canada by Francois-Xavier Garneau.
Published in the years 1845-8, translated in 1866,
and re-published in 1882, this work is the accepted
national history of the French-Canadian section
of our population. It holds the place in their
minds and hearts which Kingsford's greater and
more elaborate work will take amongst English-
speak'ng Canadians. Subsidiary to tlii-s in im-
portance, but of much value, were Michel
Hibaud's Histoire du Canada under the French
regime (1843); Coiirs d' Histoire du Canada by
Abb6 J. B. A. Ferland (1861-5); Hi'^toirc de la

Michel Bibaud.

Colonic Francaise by I'Abbd Etienne M. Faillon
(1865-6); Histoire des Canadiens-Francais by Ben-
jamin Suite ; Le Canada Sous I' Union by Louis
P. Turcotte ; Histoire de la Rebellion de 1837-8 by
L. O. David and various works by T ^bb6 R. H,
Casgrain and F. ^L U. M. Bibuud.

Meanwhile literary progress m English-speak-
ing Canada hail been much slower and less
productive. The competition of other interests
and pursuits was keener and the characteristic
physical activity of the race greater. The natu-

pp

130

CANADA : AN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

5' ,1

ral result was comparative indifference to any-
thing except political controversy, through the
ineiliuin of popular journals, or the ever present
charm of English standard works. Hence, the
History of Lower Canada, by Robert Christie,
published in Quebec in six volumes in 1849-55, is
one of the few workj of importance written by
English-Canadians during all these years. It is
valuable for its statistical and documentary data
as well as for the personal experience in the poli-
tical struggles of the time which the author
brought to bear upon his subject. Another
notable product ion was Gilbert Auchinleclc's
History of the War of 1812, published in 1855.
Works upon the same subject were also written
by David Thompson, of Niagara, and Lieut. -
Colonel W. F. Coffin, of Montreal. Dr. Henry
H. Miles' History of Lower Canada must also be
mentioned with appreciation. Bouchette's Brit.
ish Dominions in North America (1831) was a most
valuable topographical and statistical work, as
were similar volumes published twenty years
later by W. H. Smith. Wiiliam Smith's History
of Canada up to 1791 was a useful but somewhat
one-sided work. D'Arcy Boulton, Q.c, published
in 1805 a Sketch of Upper Canada, which is now of
historical interest, while Bishop Strachan's
Visit to Upper Canada (1820), Robert Fleming
Gourlay's Statistical Account of Upper Canada
(1822), and William Lyon Mackenzie's Sketches,
published in 1833, possess similar value and
interest. Mrs. Catherine Parr Traill commenced
her prolonged Canadian career of literary activity
by a volume published in 1835, entitled The
Backwoods of Canada, and since then has written
much upon the natural histor / and characteristics
of the country. Her sister, Mrs. Susanna Moodie,
is equally well known by Roughing it in the Bush
and similar works. The Rev. Dr. Adam Lillie
published in 1846 a valuable work entitled " Can.
ada: Physical, Economical and Social."

With the coming of Confederation commenced
a most distinct development of literary activity in
Upper Canada and the Maritime Provinces —
almost the creation of a new literature. The
Hon. Joseph Howe's " Speeches and Public Let-
ters " and D'Arcy McGee's " Speeches and
Addresses " were natural and early products of
this period and illustrate that eloquence which in

all countries takes its place in the permanent
literature of the land. The chief historical work
done in the ensuing decade was certainly that of
John Charles Dent. In his Last Forty Years
(1841-81) and his Rebellion of 1837 he produced
most carefully written volumes of great value.
They are marred by the i.iability of nearly all our
Canadian writers to do historical justice to the
Tories of earlier days, but, aside from that fault
deserve to take a high place in Canadian litera-
ture. Following or immediately preceding these
works came John Mercicr MacMuUeu's History
of Canada (Editions 1855, 1867, 1892) ; Dr. W.
H. Withrow's History of the Dominion of Canada
(1878), and Dr. George Bryce' a Short History of
the Canadian People (18S7). Beamish Murdoch,
Duncan Campbell, Abraham Gesner, Andrew
Archer, Alexander Mumo and James Haiinay
meanwhile surrounded Haliburton's brilliant pen
by historical productions of standard value con-
cerning New Brunswick or Nova Scotia. Dr.
William Canniff issued his work upon Settlement
of Upper Canada, in 1869, and Dr. Egerton Ryer-
son published The Loyalists of America, in i88r.

Meanwhile the great North-West had been
coming into prominence, and with its union to
Canada in 1871 there grew up a mass of descrip-
tive and historical literature. Not exactly native
of the soil, but still instinct with the life and
progress of the prairies were a number of works
published by travellers — some a short time prior
to the above date. Chief of these latter was The
North-West Passage by Land, \vritten by Lord
Milton and Mr. Cheadle. Others of an after-
time were Captain (now General Sir) W. F.
Butler's Great Lone Land; Stuart Cumberland's
Highway from Ocean to Ocean ; W. Eraser Rae's
Columbia and Canada; Captain Huyshe's Red
River Rebellion and Charles Marshall's The Cana-
dian Dominion. But the promising field was soon
occupied by Canadians. Paul Kane wrote his
Wanderings of an A rtist in 1859. Archbishop Tachd,
in 1870, published a volume entitled A Sketch of
the North-West of America, anA Principal Grant
soon after issued his fascinating little book. From
Ocean to Ocean. The Prairie Province, by J. C.
Hamilton ; The Creation of Manitoba, by Alexander
Begg ; England and Canada, a volume of travels
across the continent, by Mr. (now Sir) Sandford

T^mr

CANADA : AN ENCYCLOP.I^DIA.

121

r

Fleming ; Canada on the Pacific, by Charles Hor-
etzky, C.K.; the Hon Alexander McmtIs's work
upon Indian Treaties ; From Ontario to the Pacific,
by Mrs. Spragge, and Mountain and Prairie, by the
Rev. Dr. I). M. Gon'on ; Our North Land, by
C. R. Tuttle ; The History of Manitoba, bj- Messrs.
Gunnand Tuttle; and — most important of all to
the seeker after general information — Professor
Macoun's Manitoba and the North-West (1882)
followed. Four narratives of the second North-
West Rebellion have also been written by G.
Mercer Adam, the Rev. C. P. Mulvaney, m.a.,
Colonel the Hon. C. A. Boulton and the Rev.
R. G. MacBetli respectively. In 1894-5 appear-
ed an elaborate and valuable, though not well
arranged work in three volumes by Alexander
Hegg, F.s.s, of Winnipeg, upon the History of
the North-West. At the same time there was
published the History of British Columbia, by Alex-
ander IJcgg of Victoria, B.C. — the pioneer work
upon this 'general subject. The Selkirk Settlement,
by the Rev. R. G. MaclJcth of Winnipeg, a work
upon the Indians of the North-West by Dr. John
MacLean, and narratives of pioneer missionary
life by the Rev. E. R. Young and the Rev. George
Young, must also be mentioned as of sterling in-
terest and value. To return to Ontario, W. J.
Rattray's Sco^ in British North America showed
great ability, and Nicholas Flood Davin's />ts/{-
»fC»i»Ca»(i(/(Twasaworkof unusual brilliancy and
interest. J. Edmund Collins wrote a history of the
Administration of Lord Lome which was marred
by the constant intrnsionofviews peculiar to him-
self and fatal in their expression to any impar-
tial presentation of current annals, while Dr.
George Stewart published in 1878 a well-written
and standard work upon Lord Dufferin's Admin-
istration. William Leggo, of Winnipeg, was also
author of a volume, full of valuable documents,
upon the same subject.

From this time on new life was infused into
Canadian literature by the gradual growth of a
Canadian market, and of readers from the Atlan-
tic to the Pacific into whose minds had filtered
the slow but certain consciousness of a Can-
adian national sentiment and an appreciation of
Canadian history, scenery, achievements and
leaders. Within the last few years several his-
tories of Canada have appeared. First and fore-

most is the groat work of Dr. William Kingsford,
a monument of reseurch, honest effort and patri-
otic principle. Inspired by the desire to ;;ive a
broad view of Canadian historic life, unmarred
by race or religious prejudice, he commenctid the
work in 1887, at the age of sixty-eight, and
issued a volume a year until the ten volumes
were completed in i8(j8. The author gave a dis-
tinctly new view of early struggles in Canada,
based upon deep study of its documentary annals.
The work is not an eloquent one nor can the
writer be compared in this respect with Macaulay,

Chas. G. D. Roberts.

Green or other great authors. But with his limi-
tations in this direction and his undoubted faults
of style and arrangement admitted, the work
remains, and must continue to be for an indefinite
period to come, the standard history of the
country up to the Union of 1841. Two single
volume histories of great interest and value are
those of Charles G. D. Roberts and Sir John
George Bourinot. The latter was written for the
" Story of the Nations " series. The Rev. W. P.
Greswell, m.a., of Cambridge, England, pub-

V

ll

I2J

CANADA : AN ENCYCLOP.IiDIA.

lishcd a History of Canada some yearsago which
affords a useful suiiiinary. Scliool histories of
Canada were written in the early sixties by Dr.
J. George Hodgins, and Mr. (now Chancellor) J.
.\ Boyd. Later, Messrs. W. J. Robertson and
G. Mercer Adam published a small volume, and
very recently those written by \V. H. P. Clenient,
n.A., of Toronto, and J. 13. Calkin, M.A., of Truro,
N.S., have been issued. D. H. Read, Q.c,
besides some serious biographical work, pub-
lished in iSg7 a history of that fruitful theme —
the Rebellion of iSj;. Of g.eat value in an his-
torical sense and of importance also as indicating
the growth of a strong and permanent interest in
Canadian annals are the local histories which
have been issued within the last few years. The
following are the most important :

Title. Author.

Toronto of Old Rev.Dr.H.Scadtling.

Landmarks of Toronto J. Ross Robertson.

The Roman CatholicChurch

in the Niagara Peninsula Very Rev. Dean Har-
ris.
Pioneer Sketches of Long

Point Settlement E.A.Owen.

Sketches of Upper Canada. Thonias Conant.
The Eastern Townships.... Mrs. C. M. Day.
Counties of Leedsaml Gren-

ville T. W. H. Leavitt.

History of Compton County L. S. Channell.

History of Scarborough David Boyle.

Lake St. Louis, Old and

New Hon. D. Girouard.

History of Pictou, N.S Rev. Dr. G.Patterson

History of Annapolis County W. A. Calnek and

Judge Suvary.
History of Glengarry County. J. A. Macdoneli.y.c.
History of Huntingdon

Countv Robert Sellar.

HistoricalSketch of Dundas James Croil.
History of Gait and Dum-
fries Hon. James Young.

Quebec, Past and Present... Sir J. M. LeMoine.

Picturesque Quebec " "

La Seigneurie de Lauzon... J. Edmoml Ro^-.
Historical Account of Cape

Breton Sir J. G. Hourinot.

The Parish of Sault au Re-

coliit Rev.C. P. Beaubien.

History of Halifax City T. B. Akins, d.c.l.

The County of Lunenbourg,

New Brunswick M. D. DesBrisay.

The Sagueiiayand Lake St.

John Arthur Bnies.

Montreal, Past and Present Alfred Sandham.
History of Aigentciiil and

Prescott C. Thomas.

Peterborough and Victoria Hon. Thos. White.

Annals of Niagara W. Kirby.

L'lled' Orleans Abb<5 L. E. Bois.

History of Northern New

Brunswick R. Cooney.

Louisbourg in 1745 (Edited) Prof. G.M.

Wrong.

Ten Years in Winnipeg Alexander Begg and

W. R. Nursey.

Handbook of Montreal Dr. S. E. Dawson.

Toronto Called Back C. C. Taylor.

Toronto, Past and Present.. G. Mercer Adam.
History of the County of

Brant C. P. Mulvaney, m.a.

Ottawa, Past and Present.. C. Roger.
History of the Iroquois

High School Adam Ilarkness.

History of the Ontario Par-
liament Buildings Frank Yeigh.

ChroniqueduRimouski L. Abb«5 C. Guay.

Easily first of Canadian writers upon specific
localities is the veteran author. Sir James Mac-
pherson Le Moine, whose busy pen has made
his name a household word in the Province of
Quebec and who so well merited his recent
honour of knighthood. M. Fancher de St.
Maurice in his day contributed some fascinating
pages to the local annals of the same Province.
Picturesque Canada, edited by Principal Grant,
was a notable work in this connection. Minor
books of interest upon descriptive subjects were
L'Abbe V. A. Huard's work on Labrador et Anti-
costi ; the Hon. Thomas White's Chronicles by the
Way \n Manitoba and the North-West (1879);
Alexander Munro's volume on the resources, etc.,
of the Dominion, published in 1879 ; the Rev.
Dr. A. Sutherland's A Summer in Prairie Land
(1881); and Miss Mary V\\.zg\hhons Trip to Man-
itoba. Turning to recent volumes upon special
periods or events in Canadian history reference
must be made to Lady Edgar's Ten Yearsof Upper

CANADA : AN ENCYCLOP^.UIA.

"3

Canada, 1805-15; M. Eilouard Richard's //j's^oyy
of the Acadians ; and especially to the numerous
valuable pamphlets written by Major Ernest
Cruikshank, of Niapara. Alexander MacArthur's
volume on the Causes of the M aniluba Rising in i^iny
70; C. R. Tuttlo's Illustrated History of Canada
(i87(j); the two works by Robina and Katiileen
Lizars, entitled Humors of '37 and In the Days of
the Canada Company ; Stories from Canadian His-
tory, by T. G. Marquis, and a similar volume
in collaboration with Miss Aijnes Maule Machar
entitled Stories of New France; and the Rev. R.
G. MacHeth's Farm Life in the Selkirk Colony,
must also be mentioned with appreciation.

For many years past Dr. Douglas Brymner,
the Keeper of the Canadian Archives, has been
doing quiet work o*" a value almost beyond esti-
mate to future Canadian historianb, authors and
statesmen. His annually published volume, or
Report, contains a mass of documentary data
upon our early history of unique interest. George
Johnson, as Dominion Statistician and Editor of
the Government Year Book, and by such valu-
able little publications as First Things in Canada
has done as much to extend knowledge of the
Canada of to-day as Dr. Brymner has of the
Canada of long ago. In this connection another
writer deserves attention, though he would be
the last to claim any particular brilliancy of style
or beauty of language — Henry J. Morgan. In
days when Canadian literature was popularly
supposed to be non-existent ; when Canadian
books were looked upon with indifference and
often witii suspicion or contempt ; when Canadian
sentiment was a somewhat intangible quantity
and was certainly not applied to the purchase of
the product of Canadian pens — Mr. Morgan
wrote and published a continuous succession of
books, calculated to preserve important historical
and biographical details and promote public
knowledge of matters Canadian. The following
list of his works may be given here :

Tour of H.K.H. the Prince of Wales i860

Sketches of Celebrated Canadians iM6^

Buchanan on Industrial Politics (Edited) 1864

Speechesof Hon. T. D'Arcy McGee

(Edited) 1865

The Place of British Americans in His-
tory 1865

The Biblioth6ca Canadensis.... 1867

The Canadian Legal Directory 1878

Canadian Men and Women of the Time.. 1898

Canadian Parliamentary Companion 1802-76

Dominion Annual Register (Editcil) 1878-86

Another author who has written much about
Canada which deserves appreciation is Mr. G.
Mercer Adam. His editorial work in connection
with the Canadian Monthly and the Canadian
Educational Monthly ; his history of the Canadian
North- West and the Canadian novel written in
conjunction with Miss Wetherald ; his Outline of
Canadian Literature and many hand-books of
Canadian cities or districts; his continuous con-
tributions in papers, periodicals and works of
local history did good service to the country.
His unfortunate connection with the Commercial
Union, however, injured his popularity in later
years. Of great and permanent value in Cana-
dian historical work is Dr. J. George Hodgins'
Documentary History of Education in Upper Can-
ada, and a volume made up of various authorit-
ative contributions and entitled " Eighty Years'
Progress of British North America," which was
published in 1864. Special reference must also
be made here to a most exhaustive work upon
British Columbia by Mr. R. E. Gosnell — Year
Book for 1897. Of a different nature "but still
none the less valuable is the work upon '" Politi-
cal Appointments and Elections in United Can-
ada from 1841 to 1865," published by the late
J. O. Cote and continued for the whole Dominion
up to 1895 by his son, N. Oiner Cotd. Mention
may also be made of Mr. A. T. McCord's Cana-
dian Dictionary of Dates; Mr. James Kirby's
B.N. A. Almanac (1864); and Mr. Arthur Har-
vey's Year Book, which he edited from 1867 to
1870.

In this connection a word must be said of the
valuable literature of specified and special
subjects which is contained in the publica-
tions or annual Proceedings of the Nova Scotia
Historical Society, the Manitoba Historical
Society, the Quebec Historical and Liter-
ary Society, the Royal Society of Canada,
the Canadian Institute, the Niagara Histori-
cal Society, the New Brunswick Historical
Society, the Numismatic and Antiquarian So-
ciety of Montreal, and other similar organiza-

■!«L

i^

i\

M

"♦

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOIVKDIA.

I:

tions. Within the hist year the New Brunswick
Magazine has been founded and in the hn 's of
such contributors as Dr. W. F. Gano.; id
W. K. Reynolds is doing a splendid wc . .or
local history. Tlie same thing must be said for
the Canadian History Supplements to the Educa-
tional Review of St. ]oht\, N.IJ., which are being
issued by Mr. G. U. liay. It is also interesting
to note thii copious historical literature evoked
by the Cabot controversy and the accepted Cana-
dian belief that Cabot, and not Columbus, first
discovered the American continent. Outside
writers such as Lord Dufferin, Sir Clements Mark-
ham, H. Harrisse, G. E. Weare, Bishop Howley,
of Newfoundlantl, Judge Prowse and Dr. Moses
Harvey, of the same Island, have dealt with it, as
have Archbishop O'Brien, Sir J. G. Bourinot and
Dr. S. E. Dawson, of Canada. The Monograph
written by the last-named is probably the most
thorough and valuable contribution to the whole
discussion.

Biography is an important adjunct of history,
and in many cases furnishes the most faithful
and interesting form of historic writing. It is
only in recent years that Canadian development
has reached the stage of appreciating this par-
ticular phase of literary labour, and it now seems
to have taken a strong hold upon popular opinion.
Condensed and short biographies comprise the
earlier form of this branch of our literature, and
Dent's Canadian Portrait Gallery; Fennings
Taylor's British Americans; Morgan's Celebrated
Canadians and Rose's Cyclopa:dia of Canadian
Biography are standard works along the lines
and up to the periods treated. The Canadian Bio-
graphical Dictionary, Dr. Cochrane's Men of Can-
ada, and Louis H. Tach^'s Men of To-Day are
useful volumes for purposes of biographical refer-
ence, though the first two works are marred by
the intrusion of names which should never have
been given space. A. J. Magurn's recently pub-
lished Parliamentary Guide; F. R. E. Campeau'ii
" Illustrated Guide to the Senate and Commons "
(1879), and C. H. Mackintosh's Parliamentary
Companion, continued to date by J. A. Gemmill,
must also be mentioned. D. B. Read's Lives of
the Judges, Dr. Mockridge's work upon the
Bishops of the Church of England in Canada,
Fennings Taylor's Last Three Bishops appointed

by the Crown in Canada, are of importance.
In Quebec, the valuable work upon its Roman
Catholic Bishops — Les Et'^quh de Quebec — by
Mgr. Henri TOtu and the historical supplement
in six volumes entitloil Les Mandeinents des Ev^qui'i
must be mentioned. L.O.David has published
a couple of volumes of miscellaneous French-
Canadian biography. Les Canadiens de L' Quest,
by the Hon. Jt)seph Tasse, and La Genealogie les
Families Canadienues, by Mgr. Cyprian Taiiguay,
are both of standard value. The earliest bi-
ographical works of an individual character, and
of any note, included Hon. W. Annaud's Letters
and Speeches of Joseph Howe (185.S), and Edward
Ermatiiiger's Life of Colonel Talbot (1859.)* Other
works are as follows :
MemoirofSirBrenton Hall-

burton Rev. George W. Hill.

Life of Sir Williiiiii Logan. Prof. B. J. Haniiig-

ton.
Life of Bishop Richardson. Rev. Dr. Tliomas

Webster.
Life of Egerton Ryerson. Dr. J. George Hod-
gins.
Life of Hon. George Brown. Hon. A.Mackenzie.
Life of Archbishop Lynch. H. C. McKeown.
Life of Bishop Strachan.... Right Rev. Dr. A.

N. Bethune.

, r f ,1 i_f At I fHon. G. W. Ross.

Life of the Hon. Alexander

,, , -1 William Bucking-
Mackenzie "

I ham.

Life of Hon. W. H. Merritt. J. P. Merritt.

Life of Letellier de St. Just. P. B. Casgrain.

Life of Hon. Joseph Howe. George E. Fenety.

Vie de P. C. de Maisson-

neu ve Rev. P. Roussea u.

Life of the Rev. Dr. Fyfe... Dr. J. E. Wells.

Vie de M. Faillon L'Abb^ Desmazures.

Life of Bishop Medley Rev.W.F". Ketchuni.

Memoir of Bishop G. J.

Mountain Rev. A. W. Moun-
tain.

Memoir of Rev. Dr. J. Mc-
Gregor Rev. G. Patterson.

Memoirof Rev.Dr. J.Bayne. Rev. G. Smellie.

*NoTB. Though not written by Canadians reference must \>*
made here to W. L. Stone's Biographies of Thayendanegea and
Sir William Johnson as well as to F. B. Tupper's Life of Sir
Isaac Brock.

1

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOl'.liDIA.

«»5

Biography of tlic Hon. H.

Mcrcit:r J. O. Pollimd.

Vie dc C. l'". Puiuchaiid N. K. Dioiiiio.

Life of Mgr. Provenclic'i.... L'Abbc G. Diif^as.

Life of r. X. Garneau Hon. P. J. O. C'liau-

veau.
Life of Sir Jolin Macdonald. J. Edmund Collins.
Lifeof Sir Jcjlin Macdonald. J. P. McPiierson.
Life of Sir John Macdonald. Joseph Pope.

Life of Sir Isaac Brock D. H. Read, y.c.

Life of Lieut. -Governor

J. Graves Simcoe do.

Life of Sir Leonard Tilley. James Hannay.
Life of Sir John Thompson. J. Castell Hopkins.
Memoirs of Bishop Burke. Archbishop O'Brien.
Life of Rev. Robert Burns. Rev.Dr. R.F. Hums.
Life of Colonel FitzGibbon. ^L A. FitzGibbon.
Life of Hon. R. Cartwright. Rev. E. C. Cart-
wright.

Vie de Mgr. de Laval L'Abbe A. H. Gos-

selin.
Life of Senator Macdonald. Rev. Dr. H.Johnston.
Life of Rev. D. J. Macdon-

nell Prof.J.H.McCurdy.

Life of Rev. Dr. Mathieion. Rev. Dr. Jenkins.
Memoir of Rev. Dr. Wilkes. Rev. John Wood.
Life of Samuel de Ciiam-

plain N. E. Dionne.

The most import int of these works, from an
histcrica.! standpoint, is Mr. Pope's Biography of
Sir John Macdonald. Taken in connection with
the same writer's volume of Confederation Docu-
ments it throws much valuable light upon the
growth of the Canadian constitution and the
political records ofthe last half century. In Lower
Canada a number of historical vohin.es of import-
ance have been produced in the form of what may
be termed religious biographies. Amongst these
works — anonymous in their nature or compiled
by the combined labours of the inmates of some
religious establishment — are the Liies of Mdle
Mance, La Soeur Bourgeois, Mde. D'Youville,
Mtire Marie Rose, and Bishop de St. Vallier.
There has not been much of autobiography in
Canadian literature. The strain of private and
public labours upon the prominent men of the
country has been too great to permit of it. Sir
Francis Hincks' Reminiscences, Dr. Egerton Ryer-
son's Story of my Li/«, the Memoirs of P. A. de Gasp6

and .Samuel Thompson's Reminiscences of a Cana-
dian Pioneer luc the chief cxixptiuns. In consti-
tutional literature CaiKiiJa holds adislinctive place.
The names of Totld and Bouriiiot rank with the
best of EM;L,'lish writers iipuu this great subject.
Two works by Dr. Alpliciis Todd, CM. G., entitled,
respectisi-ly, ParliainenUiry Government in Kn^land
and Parliiintcntiuy Go:'crn)nent in the British Colonics,
are standard volumes of reference in all En^ilish-
speaking communities. Some of Sir John George
Bourinot's constitutional works arc of a similarly
high character. Others are more intended for
popular use. Amongst them are the followmg:

Parliamentary Procedure and Practice 1884

A Manual of the Constitutional History of

Canada 1888

Local Government in (^uiada 1888

Federal Government in Canada l8Sg

Canadian Studies in Comparative Politics. ..1890

How Canada is Governed 1897

Other works upon tiie Constitution of Canada
in different phases of its development have been
written by Chief Justice Sewell, of Quebec (1814),
Fennings Taylor, the Hon. T. J. J. Loranger,
the Hon.J.S.C.Wurtele, the Hon. C. C. Colby,
Samuel J. Watson, Dr. D. A. O'SuUivan, g.c.;^
Joseph Doutre, Q.c; Edmond Lareau, J. R.
Cartwright, Q.c; W. H. P. Clement and A. H. F.
Lefroy. Before leaving this serious, solid and
sometimes dull branch of our general literature a
word must be said regarding the influence and
work of Dr. Goldwin Smith. His books have
always been brilliant and nearly always contro-
versial. During three decades they have been
mainly written in Canada, often published here,
and always widely read in other countries. Yet
it is difficult to term them a part of Canadian
literature, while it is equally impossible to elimi-
nate the reputation ofthe writer from its historic
record. Unlike Parkman, who was yet an alien
in birth and residence and death. Dr. Goldwin
Smith has not in his works or in his countless
contributions to the press and contemporary
magazines embodied in any sense the spirit of
Canadian history. Nor has he ever grasped the
springs which move the minds and direct the
policy of the Canadian people. Since coming to
Canada in 1871 he has published the following
volumes :

•.v.i

,»Jh,

ia6

CANADA; AN KNCYCI-OIMIDI A.

I ^'

li!

.',j',

Life of William Cowper 1880

Lectures and Essays i88t

Cuiuluct of Kngland to Ireland i88i

I'alse Hopes i88j

Canada and the Canadian ^hiestion i8(ji

A Trip to England iS(j2

History of the United States i8(jj

Oxford and her Collet;cs i8(j4

Essays on Questions of the Day i8(j6

Guesses at the Riddle of Existence 1896

Turning to a lighter and brighter side of the
general subject it will be found that romance has
not held the plaCv! in our literature which it
should have done. Instinct as Canadian history
is with a myriad themes of romantic interest, it
has yet remained to the last few years for Can-
adian novels and novelists to find their way into
the liearts of the reading public. The French-
Canadians were the first to realize the brilliant
possibilities of fiction lying in the gloomy aisles
of our primeval forests ; amid the sun-lit expanses
of our rolling prairies or towering mountains ; in
the stirring and vivid pages of our national annals.
Eugene L'Ecuyer, Patrice Lacombe, Joseph
Marinette, P. A. de Gasp^, G^rin-Lajoie, P. J.
O. Chauveau, Napoleon Uourassa, John Taloii-
Lesp^rance, Real Angers, each in turn contri-
buted to the evolution of a romantic literature.
But the public was limited, the appreciation not
as pronounced as might have been desired. Per-
haps the best of these volumes was The Bastonnais
(1877), by Talon-Lespt^rance, and jfcan Rivard,
by Gdrin-Lajoie. In Upper Canada amongst the
earliest efforts in this direction was Mrs. Moodie's
Flora Lindsay. In 1886 appeared the Canadian
story, A71 Al((oiiquin Maiden, by G. Mercer Adam
and Ethelwyn Wetherald. In Nova Scotia
Professor James De Mille published a number of
stories which had a wide popularity in their
day*.

Professor Conant by the Hon. L. S. Huntingdon
and For Kinff and Country by Miss Machar, of
Kingston, followed, together with sundry novels
and tales of Canadian life by Mrs. Leprohon,

•NoTB. Mrs. lirooke's Emilj/ Mon/a^ne vias the first. Major
John Kichardton, a liritish officer of Canadian birth, bad also written
a couple of Canadian stories. Julia Catharine Hart, of Fredeiiclon,
N.B., published St Ursula's Convtnt'm 1824. The Rev. Joseph
Abbott published a very popular Canadian tale in 1843 called
Philip Mutgravt.

Miss Louisa Murray, Mrs. J. V. Noel, Mrs. Annie
RothwcU Christie, Watson Gritlin, Mrs. S.
Frances Harrison, W. 1). Lighthall and others,
which were usually publislieil in the magazines or
journals of the time. In more recent years
clever short stories have been written by the
Rev. Arthur Wentworth Eaton, Marjory Mac-
Muichy, Maud Ogiivy, C. L. Hetts, tlie Rev. F.
(1. Scott, Stuart Livingston, Mrs. John E.
Logan, Grace Dean McLeod Rogers, the Rev.
Dr. W. H. Withrow, Miss F. G. Gwilt and F.
HIake Crofton. W . A. Eraser has very lately

William Kirby.

won considerable reputation in this direction,
while li. W. Thompson has made a distinct mark
by his Old Man SaTarin and similar stories. But
the central work of Canadian romance up to a
very few years ago and one which will hold a
permanent place, despite admitted faults of style,
was William Kirby's Le CItien D'Or (1877). This
novel brings before the reader much of the early
stirring life of French Canada and has made Mr.
Kirby the founder of a school of which Gilbert
Parker is the most famous exponent. Of the

CANADA: AN ENCVCI.OI'.KOIA,

»»7

story in<Ic't;(I the latter has spoken :is bcinp " a
veritable mine of iiirorinatioii and reseau li, a
powerful ami ndinirabh! piece of rotnaiice."

It was Sara |eaiHiette Diincun (Mrs. L^veranl
Cotes), however.wlioin i.Sgo first came really before
the readinjj world as a Canadian novelist, with her
churiniiiK volmno entitled A Social Dcpaiturc.
Other more or less popular works from her pen
have since been steadily issui^d. Iler cxani|)le was
followed in i8(ji by Miss Lily l)ouj,'all, of Mon-
treal, with Bcf^f^ars A II. A number of well-received
volumes have since been written by Miss Douj,'all
and been widely read far from the shores of her
native land. Edmund K. She|>pard had mean-
while written three novels -notable for their
clever character and dialect sketches — Dolly ;
Wiilower Jonca; and A Hid Man's Swcetheayl.
Grant Allen, a Canadian by birth, has made him-
self generally popular by a number of novels, but
as they in no sense touch Canada or Canadian
life and history and were neither written nor
published here they can hardly be included in
Canadian literature. So in a great measure with
the works of Robert Barr — " Luke Siiarpe"; and
those of Mar{,'aret M. Robinson, authoress of
Christie Rcilfcrn's Troubles and other popular
stories. Very different has it been with Gilbert
I'arker. Intensely proud of his country and
inspired to the point of enthusiasm by its
picturesque and peculiar annals he has proiluced
a Series of novels which have not only made him
famous in English-speaking countries but have
illustrated Canadian history and adorned our
native literature. The following is a complete
list of his works to the end of iSyS :

A Lover's Diary (Poetry).

Around the Compass in Australia.

The Wedding Day (A Drama).

Pierre and His People.

An Adventurer of the North.

The Translation of a Savage.

The Chief Factor.

A Trespasser. Mrs. Falchion.

The Trail of the Sword.

When Valmond came to Pontiac.

The Seats of the Mighty.

The Pomp of the Lavillettes.

The Battle of the Strong.

It is safe to say that the Canadian novel has now

come to stay, and that out; of the most brilliant
pages in our national literature has opened up to
view. Charles (i. I). Rrjberis' /•"o*'/,'« in : w I mcst
is a striking illustration of this fact. J. Macdoiiald
Oxiey has won a higli and deserved reputation as
the " Menty " of Canada. Mi-iS Joanna E. Wood,
in her yiiilitit Moore and The Uniempercd Wind, has
written a pair of very creditaljle Canadian stories.
Mrs. S. I'rances Harrison, in The Vurcst of Ili>iir^
Marie, has produced a woik which shows
dramatic power and much descriptive skill, while
W. 1). Lighthall in bis recently published novel,
The False Chevalier, William McLennan in Sf>anish
John, Edgar Maurice Smith in /I Hc'nfv/frs (licCaiil,
Miss Blanche Lucille Macdonell in Diane of Ville
A/.im*, and Ralph Connor (Rev. Charles Gordon, of
Winnipeg) in lUaik Rock, have written stories
which are a credit to the literature of our country.
Mrs. Henshaw — "Julian Durham" — of Victoria,
B.C., and Miss Marshall Saunders, of Halifa.\,
N.S., have also, from t!ie ends of the Dominion,
and three thousand miles apart, lately produced
novels of considerable merit.

In poetry Canada has always deserved, though
it has not always received, a high place. 1 must
pass over the brilliant F"rench school, which is
elsewhere dealt with, and which has conferred
such honour upon Canadian literature. One
word must, however, be said of Louis Honore
I'rcchelte, who has received the lauieated
approval of the I'"rcnc:h Academy ; who has been
honoured by tiie ^uecn with a c.M.r,. ; and was
lately described by Professor Leigh Gregor, of
McGill U niversity, Montreal, as the acknowledged
chief of I'Vench-Canadian litterateurs. A passion-
ate admirer of Victor Hugo, a champion of senti-
mental relations with France, an adherent of the
modern school of liberal thought, an assailant of
the British historical record in this country, yet
a believer in the stability and advantages of Brit-
ish rule, and a most eloquent poet of his people,
he has certainly reached a high and secure place
in the hearts of his fellow-countrymen. Charles
Heavysege, Charles Sangster, Alexander Mc-
Lachlan, William Kirby, John Reade and Isabella
Valancey Crawford hold the highest place
amongst the earlier poets of English-speaking
Canada. Others of the middle of the century
who must be mentioned are J. J. Procter, Isidore

IJ.H

CANADA: AN KNCVl.'Lur.KDI A.

(i. Asriier, llcKii M. Jolmsnn, Jcniiio I). II;ii^hl
Harriot Aiimu Wilkm.s, I'.uinli.i S. N'liiiiij;, W'll-
liatn Wyo Smith, Aunio L. Walker, Kl-v. JMward
il.iitluy Dcwart, I'rnf. IC, J. Cliajxiiaii, Mvaii
McCdII, GroiK'i-' Maitiii, Min. Susanna Mooclio,
JdIih 1'". MiDoiiiicll, Khola Aim I'ajjc (Mrs.
KiUilkncr), William I'ittmaii Lett. New liruns-
wick poets of an eailur day were the IIoii.
Jonathan O'Dill and William Mnrduch. Magnus
Sabiston, ol St. John, also wrote some cKvir
verse, and Jami-s De MiIU: foimd time amidst ins
novel writing for tlu publislnn^ of some excellent
poetry. So in Nova Scotia, with Oliver Gold-
smith, James Hu>j<,', John McPherson, Thomas
Kni^jht antl C. M. DesHrisay. I cannot resist
quoting here the foUowinj,' tribute to Sangster and
McLachlan, written in iiS64 by the Rev. Dr. K.
H. Dewart as a Preface to his volume of SeUc-
tioits — a work in which he rendered a truly
pioneer service to Canadian literature;

" Among those who have most courageously
appealed to the reading |)iil)lic, and most largely
enriched the poetic literature of Canada, the first
place is due to Charles Sangster. The richness
an<l extent of his contributions, the originality
and descriptive power he displays, the variety of
Canadian tluines on which he has written with
force and elegance, his passionate sympathy with
the beautiful in nature, and the chivalrous and
manly patriotism which finds an utterance in his
poems, fully vindicate his claim to a higher place
m the regard of his countrymen than he has yet
obtained. Alexander McLachlan has also evinced
that he possesses in a high degree the gift of
song. In the opinion of many, he is the sweetest
and most intensely human of all our Canadian
bards. As Sangster and McLachlan are quite
unlike, and each possesses a strongly marked
individuality of his own, any comparison between
them is inappropriate, and might be unfair to
both. In elaborate elegance and wealth of
descriptive power, in the success with which he
has treated Canadian themes, and in something
of Miltonic stateliness and originality of style,
Sangster has certainly no equal in this country.
But in strong human sympathy, in subtle appre-
ciation of character, in deep, natural pathos, and
in those gushes of noble and manly feeling which
awaken the responsive echoesof every true heart,
McLachlan is equally peerless."

Of Heavysege's Saul the North British Review
of August, 1858, declared that it was " Indubita-
bly one of the most remarkable English poems
ever written outside of Great Britain." Amongst

lCii|;ti«h-Rpeaking pofts of the present day in
Can.ida, Koheits, Cam[)b('ll and Lampman are
canily first in popular esteem." It would be a
diflicult task tu anywhere lind more eloquently
patriotic verso than some of Roberts' produc-
tions; more beautiful descriptive poetry than in
Campbell's Lake Lyria ; or a more delicate witrh-
erv than there is in iiianv of Lampman's fugitive
pi(!ces. Tiikc, for instaiuf, tins from the I. tike
L\rus :

Charles Sangster.

" Domed with the azure of heaven,
Floored with a pavement of pearl,
Clothed all about with a brightness,
Soft as the eyes of a girl.

Girt with a magical girdle.
Rimmed with a vapour of rest, —
These are the inland waters,
These are the I.akes of the West."

* Note. See article by Mr. A. K. De Mille elsewhere in this
Section.

CANADA: AN KNCYCI.OIM'.DIA.

i>9

A woni may bu said here regarding; titu (Intin-
atic work of William Wilfrul Caiiiplicll. Tlio
public knows little of thuiii, but his two traKfdius,
"Mordred" and " Ilildcbrand ", show markcil
power. Of his treatment, Tlionias Wentworth
Ili^^'inson has spoken as boin^f "i^'rim and
uiitlincliini; but very stronj,'." To return to the
(general subject uf poetry, tlie following; little verse
of Lampman's upon "Autumn" illustrates his
beautiful touch :*

" Tlio wizard has woven his ancient Hcheme,

A day and u stur-lit night ;

And tilt; world is a shadowy pencilled dream,

Of colour, liu/e unil light."
Apart from these poets in the sense of popular-
ity, but rankin{{ with them in the power and bril-
liancy of his vt'rse, is Charles Mair. The day
will surely come when his drama of Tccuinsch will
rank amon^' the great literary productions of our
country, not only in the library of the student or
the opinion of isolated critics, but in the minds of
the people as well. The other Canadian poets of
the last thirty years arc very numerous and their
poetry of most unecjual merit. John Keade, of
Montreal, must be placed amon^^st the highest
and best. The "special qualities of his verse have
been described as sweetness and culture. For
popularity and j, "^p of poetic dialect Dr. W. H.
Drummond also . Ids a hi(:h place. Amongst
those not referred i / by Mr. De Mille or Dr.
O'Haf^'an elsewhere in this volume, Dr. Theodore
H. Rand, W. D. Dighthall, A. H. Chandler and
the Rev. C. P. Mulvaney, Kate Seymour Maclean,
Arthur G. Doughty, Thomas O'liagan, Rev.
A. W. H. Eaton, John Henry Brown, J. A.
Logan (Harry Dane), Mrs. IJlewett, Bernard Mc-
Evoy, Hereward K. Cockin and Mrs. S. A. Cur-
zon, have published volumes of verse which de-
serve high commendation. Bliss Carman, a most
charming and brilliant poet, has long since made
his home in the States and his verse has lost the
Canadian colour which it once possessed in Low
Tide on Grand Pre (1893).

Among politicians the late Hon. Joseph Howe,
Sir J. D. Edgar, the Hon. David Mills, Nicholas
Flood Davin and, especially, the late T. D'Arcy
McGee have written some excellent poetry.

*i\OTK. The death of Archiluld Lampman, as these pajjes are
goiiiK thri)iit;h the press, is a distinct loss to the Ijesi elements in
Canadian hurary life.
0

FuctM of this nature affcird a pleasant indication
of growing national culture. R. 1'. Kermghan i«
well known by his noin dc pltime of " The Khan"
and some of his pocii .s are so redolent of the
farm and country life of the people and so in-
stinct with the spirit of the soil as to have not
only met a \vid<! popularity but merited a perma-
nent pla 2 in Canadian literature. Arthur J.
Stringer is another Canadian who, in isolated
poems of great merit, has shown the poasossion
of distinct power. Othe.s who must be mention-
ed are T. Arnold Haultain, J. W. Bengoiigh,
Walter A. Ratcliffe, John Stuart Thomson,
Helen M. Merrill, Arthur Wnir, Fhilli|)S Stewart,
J. A. Richey, J. E. G. Roberts, Mary Barry
Smith, H. L. Spencer, Robert Reed, John Iinrie,
T. G. Marquis, A. M. Taylor, Francis Rye, John
Lowry Stuart, H. R. A. Pocock, Mary Morgan
(Gowan Lea), Annie Campbell Hucstis, A. R.
Garvie, George T. Lanigan, Barry Stratton, W.

A. Sherwood, C. L. Barnes, C. D. Shanly, C. E.
Jukeway, K. L. Jones, T. R. Ramsay, J. R. New-
ell, George Gerrard, E. W. Thomson, Mrs.
J. C. Yule, Mrs. W. H. Clarke, J. E. Pollock,
Stuart Livingston and Clara Mountcastle.

It is a far call from poetry to science and
kindred subjects but in the latter department of
literature Canada has e-Kcelled even many older
countries. Sir William Dawson, Sir Daniel
Wilson, Dr. A. R. C. Selwyn, Dr. George M.
Dawson, Sir William Logan, Dr. H. Youle
Hind and Dr. T. Sterry Hunt rank high in the
scientific world. Elkanah Billings, Prof. Henry
How, Henry Poole, Prof. J. B. Cherriman, Wil-
liam Cowper, Prof. Henry H. Croft, George and
James Barnston, the Rev. William Hincks and
Prof. Charles Smallwood were voluminous writers
in their day on subjects ranging from geology to
meteorology. Professors John Watson and J.
Clark Murray in philosophy; Mrs. Catherine
Parr Traill, Professor John Macoun and Dr.
Alexander Milton Ross in natural history; the
late Professor George Lawson, James Fletcher
and G. U. Hay, in botany, &c., have won a dis-
tinct place. Horatio Hale, Dr. G. F. Mathew,
Dr. R. M. Bucke, Prof. E. J. Chapman, Prof.

B. J. Harrington, Prof. R. W. Ellis, Prof. R.
Ramsay Wright, Dr. Robert Bell, G. C. Hoffman,
Dr. William Saunders, F. D. Adams, Prof. D. P.

5

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CANADA: AN ENCYCLOI'.'KDIA.

Penliallow, Dr. E. Gilpin, Jr., Prof. W. H. Pii<o,
Rev. Dr. C. J. S. Hetliiiiie, K. G. McCoiineil,
Principal Loudon, of Toionto University ; Prof.
H. T. Hovey, Prof. L W. Bailey, H. M. Ami,
iiobert Grant Halibnrt^n.y.c; Edward E. Prince,
Dr. Neil MacNish and Prof. John Campbell liaveali
earned high reputations for sciiolarsliip or origin;- 1
research and for publications connected with
some branch or other of the Held of science. A
most important subject in Canada which may be
referred to here is Forestry and the general
question of preserving the forests of the country.
It has been dealt with most fully and autiiorita-
tively over a long term of years and in many
publications by the late R. W. Phipps, and by
A. T. Drummond, Edward Jack, J. C. Chap lis,
H. B. Small and Sir Henri Joly de LotbinitTe.
In the interesting subject of numismatics Stanley
Clark Bagg and R. W. McLachlan have written
inncli.

In legal literature some good work has been
done in Canada. The late Sir J. J. C. Abbott on
Insolvency and Railway law; Sir J. D. Edgar
and F. H. Cryslec on Insolvency law; CO.
Ermatinger, (,}.€., and Thomas Hodgins, Q.C., on
Franchise law; J. A. Barron, *,}.€., on Conditional
Sales ; E. Douglas Armor, y.c, on Titles ; Hon.
D. Girouard and Dr. J. J. Maclaren, Q.c, on
Bills and Notes; W. D. McPherson and J. M.
Clark on Mining laws; Hon. R. A. Harrison on
Municipal law; C. M. Holt on Insurance law;
Harry Abbott, y.c.,on Railway law; and the Hon.
II. E. Taschereau on Criminal law ; have written
authoritatively. Francois Joseph Cugnet, P. G.
Mignault, y.c, J. R. Cartwright, John Crank-
shaw, L. A. Audette, E. Lareau, G. S. Holmstead,
C. H. Stephens, S. Pagnuelo, y.c, S. R. Clarke,
Alfred Howell, A. i. Hurler, W. Howard Hun-
ter, G. W. Wickstead, Q.c, Hon. J. R. Gowan,
C.M.G., R. E. Kingsford, A. H. Marsh, q.c, Hon.
Archer Martin, Hon. Michel Mathieu, Chief
JuEtic;; Sir T. W. Taylor, Alexander Leith, y.c;
Joseph Doutre, g.c. Judge M..clennan, Chris-
topher Robinson, y.c, and F. J. Joseph, R.
Vashon Rogers, Jr., Henry O'Brien, Q.c, Hon.
T. K. Ramsay, Sir James Lukin Robinson, J. P.
Foran, Q.c, County Court Judges J. S. Sinclair
and J. G. Stevens, have publislred volumes upon
special branches of Canadian law or practice.

Others who have written much, tliough in a less
ilefinite form, are Edward Carter, q.c, and Dr.
James Kirby, of Montreal; John King, n.c, C. K.
W. Biggar, q.c, and D. E. Thompson, q.c, of
Toronto; Benjamin Russell, q.c, M. p., of Halifax;
and R. Stanley Weir, n.c.L., of Montreal.

To ecclesiastical history and literature much
has been contributed by Canadians, but only a
few volumes of really first rank. Principal Grant
in his Relif^ions of thi' World; L'Abbe Auguste
Gosselin in his L'E{,'lisc Dii Canada ; Prof. Wil-
liam Clark in his "Life of Savonarola"; Dr.
William Gregg in a History of the Presbyterian
Church in Canada; M. Faillon in his great work
upon the annals of Canadian Roman Calholicism,
L'Histoire de la Colonie Francaise ; have occupied
high ground in a distinctly able manner. The
foremost Methodist writer of the past has been
Dr. Egerton Ryerson,and perhaps the best known
one of the present is the Rev. Dr. Albert Carman.
The most valuable historical work done in that
Denomination has been by the Rev. Dr. George
'I. Cornish, the Rev. George Playter,the Rev. Dr.
John Carroll and the Rev. Dr. T. Watson Smith.
The latter's History of his Church in the Maritime
Provinces is of much value. The Rev. Dr. Mathew
Richey wrote voluminously. The Church of
England in Canada iias produced many able
writers, but few great literary works. Bishop
Strachan and Bishop Bethune of Toronto, Bishop
G. J. Mountain of Quebec, Bishop Hellmuth of
London, Bishop Oxenden and Bishop Fulford of
Montreal, Bishop Medley and Bishop Kingdon of
Fredericton and Bishop Charles Inglis of Halifax,
have in their time written upon various ecclesi-
astical topics — the first named being one of the
strongest controversialists in Canadian annals.
Volumes of so.-ne value upon Church history have
appeared, from time to tim-j, by the Rev. H. C.
Stuart, Dr. T. B. Akins, the Rev. A. Wentworth
Eaton, F. C. Wurtele, Archdeacon Roe, Rev. Dr.
John Langtry and S. Herbert Lee. The Rev. Dr.
John McCaul wrote upon religious as well as
classical subjects. The Rev. J. de Soyres has
written several interesting religious books. Pres-
byterianism has not been very productive inaliter-
arj' sense, and its best known names are those of
the Rev. Dr. James McGregor, Dr. Robert Burns,
Dr. R. F. Burns, Dr. Alexander Mathieson, Dr.

(^r- i»yiX(((A

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CANADA : AN ENCYCLOPi^DIA.

'3'

John Jenkins, Principal Grant and Dr. Gregg.
Dr. William Cochrane wrote some' interesting
religious works, as did Dr. William Ormiston.
Dr. George Patterson and Professor John Camp-
bell are known in connection with various his-
torical subjects, while Dr. John Laing has written
much on controversial topics of current impor-
tance. Tiie Rev. Dr. Robert Campbell wrote a
useful History of St. Gabriel St. Church in Mon-
treal.

The literary productions of Roman Catholicism
include the works of M. Faillon and L'Abbe
Gosselin in particular, and much of the historical
and poetic literature of French Canada in general.
Its influence upon the development of Canadian
culture has been upon the whole distinctly bene-
ficial. Bishop Jean Langevin, Archbishop
O'Brien, Mgr. C. Tanguay, Mgr. Tetu, Dean
Harris, Mrs. Mary A. Sadlicr, Rev. J. M. Coffee,
J.K. Foran.Rev. /Eneas McDonell Dawson, Rev.
Dr. J. R. Teefy, Rev. J. B. Doilard and Tliomas
O'Hagan have largely contributed to the pages of
Canadian Catholic literature. Miscellaneous
writers who may be mentioned in connection with
religious literature in Canada are the Rev. Dr.
Joseph Wild, the Rev. Dr. Chiniquy, the Rev.
Dr. John Carry, the Rev. Dr. T. E. BiW— The
Baptists in Canada — the Rev. Dr. J. M. Cramp,
^ Dr. R. A. Fyfe, Dr. Henry Wilkes, Dr. Abraham

de Sola, the Rev. Dr. J. M. King. Professor
--• iWiifiiA- J^^'"'^'" Clark, already mentioned, in many pub-
' ^ lislied lectures and essays has proved himself one

of the most cultured and scholarly of Canadian
authors. Charles Lindsay in his Rome in Canada
(1878), and in an earlier work upon the Clergy
Reserves, assumes a strongly controversial posi-
tion, but admitting this, the volumes are still of
distinct interest and value.*

In bibliograhy G. B. Faribault, Phileas Gag-
non, William Kingsford, H. J. Morgan, and W.
R. Haight have done good work. I have referred
elsewhere to the volume of Selections from Cana-
dian poetry made in 1864 by Dr. Dewart. This
was supplemented in Quebec in 1874 by Edmund

*NoiK. For more dct.iilod ditii rc(;iir<lin(; books boarini; on
Denominntioml matters in C&nada see the followi:)^ portions of
this Work :

Anglic in Pa[;e 439, Vo'ume 11.

Methodist " 322 " IF.

Catholic " 551 " n.

Tresbyterian " 102 " IV.

Lareau with his Ilistoirede la Littiralure Canadi-
ennc ; in 188 1, by Dr. L. P. Bender's JAtcrary
Leaves, and in iSbo by W. D. Ligl.thall's Son^s
of the Great Dominion. In this connection Sir J.
G. Bourinot's work upon Canadian Intellectual
Development ; Miss J. E. Wetherell's Later Cana-
dian I'ucls ; Mrs. Frences Harrison's " Biuhday
Book"; L. H. Tache's La Poesie Francaise ;
William McLennan's volume of translations enti-
tled iSow^'s 0/ Old Canada; Prof. George M.
Wrong's two annual volumes reviewing Canadian
historical publications ; and the Patriotic Selec-
tions by the Hon. G. W. Ross, are of value and
interest. And, turning to another line of literary
work, reference must be made to a volume of
great value written by Mr. J. H. Bartlett and
dealing with the coal, iron and steel development
of Canada. George E. Drummond and B. T. A.
Bell have written largely on the same subject,
while Prof. A. B. Wilmott has recently pub-
lished a useful work on the Mineral WealtJi of Can-
ada. The late Charles F. Smithers, the late James
Stevenson, George Hague, Byron E. Walker and
Professor Adam Shortt, of Kingston, have written
large'y upon eitlier the practice or history of
banking in Canada.

In controversial or political literature the
names of Bishop Strachan and Dr. Ryerson
stand pre-eminent. Associated with them in the
old days of pamphleteering activity were William
Lyon Mackenzie, the late Chief Justice W. H.
Draper, c.d., Sir John Beverley Robinson, Dr.
William Dunlon, the Hon. R. B. Sullivan and the
Hon. William Morris. A little later came Sir
Francis Hincks, the Hon. Isaac Buchanan, Ogle
R. Gowan, T. D'Arcy McGee, the Hon. William
McDougall, the Hon. W. H. Merritt, Sir A.
T. Gait, John Sheridan Hogan, and the
Hon. Alexander Morris. In Lower Canada were
L. J. Papineau, II. S. Chapman, D. B. \'iger,
Andrew Stuart, and later on, Joseph Royal. In
the Maritime Provinces the Hon, John G. Mar-
shall, George and G. R. Young and Pierce Stev-
ens Hamilton wrote largely. In more recent
years the late Sir John Schultz, the late Hon.
Thomas White, the Hon. C. H. Mackintosh, L.
G. Desjardins, the late John Maclean, the Hon.
C. C. Colby, Sir David Macpherson, W. A.
Foster, y.c, the Hon. James Young and J. S.

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CANADA; AN KNCVCLOP.KDIA.

4<,

Ewart, o-c, have written largely upon politiciil
subjcctg. In medicine, Dr. Henry Howard, Dr.
A. T, Holmes, Sir James Grant, m.d.. Sir W. II.
Kingston, m.d., Dr .James Bovell and Dr. Anthony
Von Ilfland have written much, while Dr. William
Canniffs History of the Medical Profession in
Upper Canada is of importance for reference.

There is a very large and increasing mass of
general literature in Canada — of books which
can hardly be placed under distinct heads and
yet which ought to be mentioned in such a
review as this. E. T. D. Chambers, by his
descriptive works upon the sports and scenery of
Quebec ; F. Barlow Cumberland, by his History
of the Union Jack, and J. W. Tyrrell, in his popu-
lar/!c;'oss the Sub- Arctics of Canada, have earned
a place in Canadian literature. J. Hampden
Burnham has published a useful book entitled
Canadians in the Imperial Service. The Hon. J.
H. Gray wrote one interesting volume of a pro-
posed History of Confederation but never com-
pleted the work. Tlie Hon. T. D'Arcy McGee
wrote upon " Federal Governments ", and, like
everything which he treated, the result was
attractive and valuable. During this year (189S)
there has appeared a most useful work upon
"Steam Navigation in Canada", by James
Croil. Jehu Matthews, in his Colonist and the
Colonial Question (1872), published one of the
earliest works of importance upon Imperial
Federation. Oliver A. Howland, in his New
Empire, affords a most interesting review of the
growth of existing Imperial conditions. Sir
Sandford Fleming and Thomas C. Keefer, c.m.g.,
have written much upon questions connected with
the material development of the country. So
with Dr. George R. Parkin, c.m.g., in his elo-
quent volume upon Imperial Federation. His
Life and Letters cf Edward Thring, published late
in iSqS, is, however, the most important of his
literary works. Amongst miscellaneous Cana-
dian authors dealing with subjects not exclu-
sively, or mainly, Canadian, perhaps the highest
place should be given to Lieut. -Colonel George
T. Denison, whose History of Cavalry (1877), in
competition with the works of officers from many
countries, won a prize offered by the Emperor
of Russia for the best work upon the subject.
His Modern Cavalry {186S) had previously earned

for him a distinct reputation. Upon general
military matters in Canada Lieut.-Colonel L. T.
Suzor wrote much in the early sixties. A word
must be said for the work of the Hon. J. \V.
Longley, of Halifax, in the region of Belles Lettres.
His little volume of essays entitled Love, pub-
lished at the end of i8g8, reaches a notable level
of cultured expression. The various educational
works of the Hon. G. W. Ross, of Toronto, are
also of a high order; while his lectures on public
topics have done much to promote a better tone
in political life and discussion.

Outside of Canada many Canadians have of
late years distinguished themselves. Sir George
Duncan Gibb, Bart., M.n., was a great medical
writer ; Dr. William Osier is to-day one of the
chief medical authorities of the United States;
Dr. Beattie Crozier has won a -ligh place in Eng-
lish science and literature; Montague Chamber-
lain is an American authority in the realm of
natural history ; the late Bishop Gillis, of Edin-
burgh, was a voluminous writer on Roman Cath-
olic polemics; Robert Barr, Grant Allen, May
Agnes FlemingaudStinson Jarvis are well known
in the world of novels; Ernest Seton Thompson
has become widely popular '■•^ the United States
by his work Wild Animals I have Known; the
Hon, Charles Wentworth Upham has written
some standard works on local American history ;
John Foster Kirk has won eminence in the United
States as an historian ; Dr. George McCall
Theal's is the most eminent name in the histori-
cal literature of Cape Colony.

In this review of our literature it has been, of
course, impossible to go into critical details. In
any such summary there must also be omis-
sions, but I think nearly all works of importance
published or written in Canada, together with
many written about Canada, have been referred
to within this article, or in the Section of which
it forms a part; There is amongst such a num-
ber of works necessarily much chaff with the
corn. One volume is perhaps dull, another con-
tains grammatical errors, another is poorly bound
and printed, another is undeniably badly written.
But in all of them there is something which
speaks of, or for Canada, almost inarticulately in
some cases, briiliaiitly in others. Yet in its pur-
pose the least of the writers named and the most

.■ill

(IILBERT PARKER.

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CANADA AN ENCYCLOIM':i)IA.

tSB

inferior of the works referred to have in some way
holped to build a brick into the edifice of Can-
adian literature. And this is true in the main
whether the volume be critical, or laudatory of
matters Canadian, so lung as the intention of the
writer is honest and his effort reasonably fair.

Literature is not the product of an hour nor
does its existence depend upon popularity, The
personality of Homer is hard indeed to trace, yet
he lives forever in his writings. So in the case
of many Canadian autliors, unknown by name
to the masses of our people, who yet will live in
history as part and parcel of the development of
public thought through the perhaps impercep-
tible influence which their works have had upon
other minds better able to express their senti-
ments or historical views. Let me repeat that
Canadian literature is, and must be, a fact to all
who look back of the ever-increasing volume of
English-speaking books and ephemeral journals
to the substantial sum total of Canadian works
wrought out of the pioneer thoughts and lives
and manners of our people — the natural products
in their defects and in their virtues of the envir-
onment of the times. The literature of a
country comes from within itself and must par-
take of the char.icteristics of the period. To

meet this fact a writer docs not require to have
lived continuously in Canada, but he must embody
Canadian ideas or accurately describe Canadian
conditions. And, whether we look at Canada
from the days of Charlevoix to those of Garneau
and Kirby, or of Frechette and Parker, we can-
not but see that there was always a growing
literature, evolving gradually from an almost un-
noticed condition into the fihal and full sun-light
of national recognition. To-day the note of
nationality — whether it be English-Canadian or
French-Canadian in its local application and
language does not matter so long as it rings true
to the soil of our common country — is being
struck, and with it comes a literature adequate
to the whole range of Canadian progress and
aspirations. For this as for every branch of our
development we can truly say with Roberts :

" A deep voice stirs, vibrating in men's ears
As if their own hearts throbbed that thunder forth,
A sound wheruin who hearkens wisely hears
The voice of the desire of this strong North —
This North whose heart of fire
Yet knows not its desire

Clearly, but dreams, and murmurs in the dream.
The hour of dreams is done. Lo ! on the hills the
gleam !"

I

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FRENCH-CANADIAN LITERATURE AND JOURNALISM

av

BENJAMIN SUITE, F.R.S.C.

THE literature of all nations beRins with
poetry, or, at least, witii versification, and
the form of song is generally the first
to appear. Such was the case amongst
the French-Canadian people. Their settlement
on this side of the ocean is altogether confined
to the period, 1633-16S0, when books were rather
scarce throughout Europe, especially in country
places, and it is well known that Canada received
only a few families from the towns and cities of
that time. Curiously enough, though, most of
the women who came during those fifty years
could read and write, and before thirty of them
were here they had a school open for girls. The
men, as a rule, were indifferent in that connec-
tion.

The literary knowledge imported by this little
group of toilers of the soil was composed of the
popular current songs of the northern and
north-western parts of France. They all
loved to sing and play some kind of mu-
sical instruments. The fur trade started
about the same date as colonization, and the
habitant, or actual settler, soon got interested in
that new life. The songs of old France were
carried to the Great Lakes; they passed after-
wards to the Mississippi and the North-West
plains ; and are still to be found wherever the
French-Canadians have penetrated through this
continent. Their number is immense. One
would think that, if ho knew of all that had been
printed in book form* or in other publications,
he had nothing more to learn in that direction,
but every week will bring to his knowledge a fresh
supplement of a seemingly inexhaustible stock.

A people given to such culture may be expected
to produce many works of merit, and to stamp

'Ernest Gagnon, Quebec, has published the best collection of
these songs.

13C

them with its own peculiar mark, as, for instance,
the characteristic traits belonging to a Colony.
I could here mention what several high critics in
modern France have said about the literary
capacities of the French-Canadians, but these
compliments only reflect on the present writers,
and the critics referred to have never read any of
our productions previous to 1850. I wish to
draw attention first to the older period, that of
1764-1S30, in the very infancy of the small literary
world of Quebec. The germs that existed in the
domain of the song-makers of the 17th and i8th
centuries have only recently developed them-
selves into large-sized trees, notwithstanding that
shrubs were observed here and there on the field
soon after the conquest.

Even before the conquest there was a pre-
pared ground for studies and literary displays.
Beauharnois, Hocquart, La Galissonni^re, from
1725 to 1750, kept the ^/;7e of the Colony well post-
ed upon certain contemporary works. Poems were
wri; len which circulated in manuscript for want
of a printing office, and most of them were, no
doubt, lost for the same reason. I may mention
the composition of Jean Tach6 relative to his
trip across the Atlantic, and the one from the
able pen of Abbe Etienpe Marcliand, both of 1736
or thereabouts. Marchand's Troubles de VE^lise
is well worth reading, inasmuch as it deals with
a purely Canadian subject.

The first printing establishment in Lower
Canada was that of The Gazette, Quebec, 1764,
but neither the English nor the French popula-
tion made use of it at first in a literary sense.
Their early publications bore strictly on topics of
immediate interest, such as the following : " Case
of Canadians at Montreal, distressed by fire on
the 18th of May, 1765 " ; Catechisme du Dioces de
5cHS, Quebec, 1765 ; prayer-books and alphabets

CANADA: AN KNCYCLOIVKDIA.

'37

priiittid for Father Labrosse, Jesuit, I'jdd-'Gj ;
" Trial of Daniel Disney," 1767 ; " A Compend-
ium of laws concerning the Religious Communi-
ties," 1768; " Observations of J. V. Cugnet on
the proposed plan of F. Mas(ire3 for a new Con-
stitution," 1771 ; l.ctlre snr la villede Quebec, 1774.
L' Adoration Perpettielle, Montreal, by Fleury
Mesplet, 1776, was the first book printed in that
town. Mesplet had procured a press and sonie
type from Philadelphia during the winter of
1775-76, and immediately issued several small
volumes from Ciiateau Ramezay, Montreal.where
he had settled for that purpose. A compilation
of sacred songs, in French, 1776, is the second
known work out of his press. Most of these poems
are paraphrases and imitations of obsolete
operatic compositions, with very pretty tunes
and rather poor verses. These canticles became
so generally known by heart that every indi-
vidual could sing one or more of them a short
time after they were introduced.

Mesplet published in 1778 the narrative of St.
Luc de Lacorne concerning the wreck of L'Aug-
uste in the Gulf of St. Lawrence in 1761. In the
same year (1778) he founded The Gazette of Mon-
treal, half English, half French — still in existence
in English. Quebec had a Cercle Litteraire, so
called, but it must have been a reading-room.
Anyway, it was a beginning of something. Mes-
plet started in 1779 a satirical paper styled Taut
Pis, tant Mienx, which lived about twelve months
and got into difficulty with Governor Haldiinand,
who put the Editor under lock and key. The
name of the latter was Valentin Jotard, an advo-
cate by profession. The almanac issued by
Mesplet in 17S3 was styled by him, Curieux et
intercessant. In 1784 he calls himself a printer and
bookseller in a pamphlet, L'eCHdesixFranai,^vii\iG(\
in Montreal. Two years later there was pub-
lished in Montreal a description of a certain
disease prevailing at Baie Saint Paul. A volume
devoted to La Sainte Famille came out of the press
of Mesplet in 1787.

A large book printed in London in 1784, but
written by a Canadian, had a special history in
the events of those days. The author, Pierre
Ducalvet, was just out of the hands of Governor
Haldimand when he issued his Appel a la jfusiice,
which is a criticism of the administration of the

Colony, rather personal, somewhat excessive also,
but an invaluable record of certain facts con-
nected with the state of Canada during the
American Revolution. In 1788 Mesplet launched
La Gazette Litteraire at the request of a certain
number of Montreal gentlemen. The same year,
James Tanswell started Le Courrier de Quebec but
only issued two numbers of that publication.

A public library was opened at Quebec in 1785,
and was a far more serious undertaking, as it
maintained itself for a long period of years.
Dramatic associations also existed in Montreal
and Quebec. They played Moliere and some
light comedies of the time of Louis XV. The
man who seems to have principally inspired these
efforts was Joseph Quesnel, a poet, a musician,
and a person of good society. His comedy, Colas
et Colinette, became the great attraction of the
day in Montreal (1790), whilst the people of Que-
bec boasted of a troop of amateurs who could not
be surpassed in any Colony, as they believed.
His Royal Highness the Duke of Kent, accom-
panied by Lieutenant-Governors Clark and Sim-
coe, attended the performance oi LaComtesse de-
Escarbagua and Le Medecin vtalgre bid in Quebec,
on the 18th February, 179.J. The Prince had
arrived there during the previous summer and
felt quite at home amongst the lively Quebecers.
He was present at the banquet given on the 29th
December, 1791, to celebrate the granting of a
new political constitution to Canada, and, as a
matter of course, he heard several songs com-
posed for the occasion, including two specially
prepared to welcome him, and which M. Baby
and M. Amiot rendered in a most happy manner.

There was a spirit of hterature in the air.
Canadian pamphlets could be seen in the hands
of many who had never experienced that sort of
pleasure before. Papicrs sur I' A nglclcrrc referred
to the administration of the United Kingdom,
and such reading was apropos of the new consti-
tution. A long letter from Bishop Bailly upon
the necessity of a university gave rise to discus-
sion and meditation. L'aucicttne et la nouvcUe
Constitution du Canada was another commentary
of political importance, and indicating also
that the French-Canadians were able to express
their ideas before the world. La Nouvelle Consti-
tution du France followed the above, and the

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'3«

CANADA: AN KNCYCLOIMCDIA.

whole Province roused to listen to this display
of opinions. To crown the whole ciinie I.c Mdf:;-
asm lie Quebec, a repertoire of literature and sci-
ence. The Quebec Gazette also modified its old
ilull system and opciud the door to several com-
nuinications concerning the questions of the
day. This coincided with the creation of the
I'ppcr Canada Gazette published at Newark in
17CJO.

Contrary to what is fjeneraily believed, books
were not unknown to the French population of
the Colony during the second half of the 18th
century. It is stated that there were at least
60,000 volumes in the private libraries about the
year 1765, and many others were received after
that date ; so that it may be fairly said that
there was one volume for every soul of the popu-
lation in the Province. Anyone conversant with
the habits of the best families of the period in
question understand readily that these people
were educated, not only in manners and outside
politeness, but equally by reading and by that
practice of conversation and causerie de salon
which is so thoroughly French — so great a
school for learning what you have not gathered
from books. The literature of the reigns of
Louis XIV. and Louis XV. (1660 to 17C0) com-
posed the main elements of a Canadian library
at the end of the i8th century. Its influence is
visible on every page written in those days, either
for the public press or in private letters. We
know, besides, nearly all the books then to bw
found in Canada, because a great many of them
have been preserved by the descendants of the
ovv^ners and handed down to our time.

At the outbreak of the French Revolution a
movement was noticeable amongst tiie politicians
in France to favour " the English system of
governtiicnt " ; in other words, the constitutional
administration, but this could not be made clear
to the masses, unless some written explanation
were furnished. A lawyer by the name of Del-
olme seems to have sounded the correct note,
and his work became classical at its first edition.*

No sooner had a cojiy of it been received in
Canada than the members of the Legislative

•Jean-Raptiste Delolnie, Irrn at (Icneva, 1740, pul)lishc(l Con-
stilulifii lie t' Aiii^hterrc, Ain>tL'rdani, 1771, a work which uccjuired
(or hiiii a ICuriipcan icputaiiun.

Assembly, who were forty-two French-speaking
men out of a total of lifty, turned their attention
to that Alcoran ; but, as the session was draw-
ing near to its end, it was thought better to
arrange for a series of meetings in Quebec, Three
Rivers, Sorel, Chambly and Montreal, v.here the
members could be gathered by small detach-
ments and examine the "book of revelations "
at case. This was done, and it produced a good
effect, inasmuch as it allowed some practical in-
formation to make its way into the heads of our
representative men. The spirit of the times is
indicated by the insertion in the Quebec Gazette
of several articles clipped from Parisian news-
jiapers, and all necessarily of a " high tone," at
an hour when the Convention reigned supreme
in Paris. I dare say no French-Canadian publi-
cation would have been allowed to do the same
thing. Such again was the spirit of the times.

The Duo de la Rochefoucauld, who visited
Upper Canada in 1795, says that the people
there were not so eager for news as the inhabi-
tants of the United States. " The only paper
in the Province is printed at Newark, and
the Government covers three-quarters of its ex.
penses for want of subscription from the public.
It is a weekly paper containing very short ex-
tracts from the New York and Albany publica-
tions, and all the viewsof Governor Si mcoe. In
brief, its usefulness is that of an official gazette."
La Rochefoucauld adds that the V/^pcr Canada
Gazette had no subscriber in Kingston, but that
the Quebec Gazette had two there ! From 176410
17(J5 no less than thirty works were printed in
the Province, and about ten others in London,
written by Canadians. For the moment these
figures may be considered meagre; I wonder if
it is any better in our own days, comparing the
increase of the population. Sciences proper
were much neglecteil, and continued to be so for
fifty years afterwaids.

William Smith, who lived at Quebec in 1785,
says that a public library was established there
in that year, and that the books came from
London. La Rochefoucauld (1795) observes that
the only library of that kind in Lower Canada
was at Quebec. " It is a small gathering of
books and nearly all French, sustained by sub-
scription. We are rather puzzled at the choice

CANADA. AN ENCYCLOIMCDIA.

^y)

I

of sonic of them, knowing, as we do, tlio politi-
cal dispositions of tiie directors of the i.nstitution,
for it contains the printed papers of the National
Assembly of France." As late as 1824, Vassal
de Moiiviel speaks of interesting stiidirs made
by him in the Quebec Library, which issiipi)osed
to be either that of 1785 or the one belonging to
the Legislature. By that time, 1S24, schools
had been opened in several localities, and the
Nicolet College was in a fust-class state of activ-
ity, as well as the Quebec and Montreal Colleges.
The Rev. Dr. Jacob Mountain wrote soiiio re-
markable letters (i 798-1801), in which he pro-
posed a plan of public education for all classes.
The agitation which followed the discovery of
the Geiiest scheme to drag tho United States
into a war against Great Britain was marked by
various publications, it seems, but two only are
known to mc : " Extracts from Minutes of Coun-
cil containing Her Majesty's late regulations,
etc.," Quebec, 1798 ; Avis an Canada a I'vccusion
de III crise iniportante aduclle, Quebec, 1798.

Joseph Francois Perreault was the champion
of elementary sc'iools at the end of the last cen-
tury. In 1803 ho published a treatise on Parlia-
mentary practice; in 1803 a dictionary of the
same nature; in 1813 a hand-book for bailiffs;
in i8.i2 a course of elementary education ; in
1824, extracts from the judgments of the Pre-vo-
tal Court from 1727 to 1759 ; in 1830 a work on
large and small agricultural pursuits; in 1831 a
plan of general education ; then closed his cart;er
by a history of Canada from the discovery. Fran-
cois Joseph Cugnet, the best French legist from
1760 to 1789, published five or six treatises con-
cerning law matters ; Justin McCarthy, an Irish
lawyer who wrote in French, prepared an excel-
lent dictionary of the old civil code of Canada
(1809) ; William Vondenvelden, a French engin-
eer, and Louis Charland, alsa issued a compila-
tion, being a sequel to Cugnet, and Jean Aiitoine
Boulhillier published an arithmetic for the
schools.

The Quebec Gazette as a rule, refrained from
attacking tiie French-Canadians, and this was
considered a lack of patriotic energy on the part
of that paper by parties who wished to keep up a
livelv skirmishing against that population. The
Mercury came to light in January, 1805, ready to

open fire along the whole line. It soon found an
occasion to satisfy its desire. Pierre Bedard, the
leader of the French-Canadian party in the
Legislative Assembly, laid a motion before the
Speaker to iiujuire as to the aiitlior, printer, etc.,
of the Montreal Gazetle who had published, April
1st, 1805, a " false, scandalous and malicious
libel, higlily and unjustly retlecting upon His
Majesty's representatives in this Proviiu;e." The
Editor and the printer were accordingly ordered
to be taken into the custody of the Srrgeant-at-
Arms, but, not being found by those who went to
Montreal in quest of them, the matter was
dropped. The Mercury then came to the front
trying to turn upside-down the party forming the
majority of the Legislative Assembly, but, the
Sergeant-at-Arms being sent to tl,3 Eilitor, that
gentleman apologized and was released. Later
on the House objected to another article from
the same source, and Mr. Thomas Carey could
not be found, because he had concealed himself
in a secret room in his own house, from whence
he continued the fight in each number of the
Mercury. M. Bedard finally saw that his action
was against the liberty of the pi ess, and abandoned
his proceedings.

A new political organ was launched at Quebec
in November, 1806, under the \\\.\o Lc Canadien,
with a full programme of constitutional goverii-
nent. This paper contained a series of histori-
cal documents referring to Canada, which was a
new phase in the journalism of the Province, and
also numerous original literary productions. The
Mercury attacked its neighbour and they had a
long spell of cross-firing on the administration of
public affairs. In literature Le Canadien did very
well. It is clear that its contributors were men
of knowledge and gifted with talent. From that
time the French writers of Canada have always
formed a group in regular activity, and their
development has been a constant fact until the
present day. Two or three of the contributors to
Le Canadien were rather witty, " Light-headed
men," said the Mercury :

" With goose-quill armed, instead of spear."
Epigrams Hashed in all sorts of ways on both
sides for many months. It was a literary exer-
cise that must have afforded the young writers of
the period a chance to test their natural resources.

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140

CANADA: AN KNCYC'LOlMiDlA.

i

Songs weiu put ill ciiciilalioii, some of tliciii rc-
flccliiij; on the attitiidu of tlio Amcricaiift in
rc^jard to Cunaiia, for there was a b<:liLf all
round that the liiploniatic clilTiculty then existing
could not 1)0 sittlcd except by war. Let nie
mention here a txiuk puhlisluul in (Juehcc at the
bcgiiuiiiig of the War of iSu, eiitillcil: "Re-
sources of the Canadas, or Sketches of the Phy-
sical and Moral Mi-ans which Gnat Uritain and
her Colonial Authoi itics will Successfully I-inploy
in Secininfj These Valuable Provinces from Open
Invasion jmkI Invidious Aggression on thejiart of
the Gijvernment of the United States of America,
by A gn. list."

But there was also a French-Canadian party,
called by their opponents "the office seekers"
(les Hureaucrates), which wished also to partici-
pate in the Government patronage. They started
a paper, Le Cuiiiricr dc (.Quebec, in January, 1807,
with Dr. Jacijues Labrie as chief Editor. Labrie
had been educated in Canada ; afterwards he had
studied medicine in ICdiiilxirgh, Scotland, and he
was greatly interested in matters concerning the
history of Canada. His paper opposed Le Cttiui-
iUcn firmly in politics, and also published several
ilocumcMts relating to the previous thirty years,
in connection with our country. Labrie made
liis mark in the circle of those who were given
to literary and historical pursuits, I-'roin the
conflict of interest between the Mercury, (\iiiadicn
and Coiirricr sprang the practice of advertising
the merchants' g'lOils which the (^[w.hvc Cni.:cltc
had always ne^'K ctcd. This is another form of
literature not likely to perish, although quite un-
known to our foretathers. When Le Cotirricr died,
in June, i.'^07, Lc CtUUhUcn expressed nuich regret
at its departure, stating, in a sarcastic manner,
that the best enemy it could have had was a
badly written paper. The Mercury was delighted ;
it said the defunct looked like a parent of
Le Canadien. In all this squabble many young-
men handled the pen and acquired a practical
understanding of the art of putting their thoughts
in black and white. This was really the first
school of the sort in Canada.

Some debating clubs existed in the meantime,
where such personalities as Louis J. Papineau,
Debartczh and Bourdages gained some fame
before coming out openly as public men. Dr.

Labrie gave an impulsion towards the stuily of
the histxry of Canada. So did George lleriut,
in his Works published during these years. Tiie
Montreal press helped a great deal in that direc-
tion by the writings of Viger, Bibaud, Mcrmet,
Saint Geoige and O'Sullivan. The literature of
Canada was born by this time. Lambert, who
visited the country in l8oG-8, does not say much
about it, for he only saw the incipient state of
things and could not be expected to foresee the
future. Here are his observations; " The state
of literature and the arts did not improve very
rapidly after the conquest. The traders and
settlers who took up their abode amongst the
Prench were ill-(iualificd to diffuse a taste for the
arts and sciences, unless, indeed, it was the
science of barter and the art of gaining cent per
cent uj)on their '^oods. Por many years no
other work was printed in the Colony than an
almanac. . . . Of late years the Canadians have
appeared desirous of establishing some claim to
a literary character. . . . The publishing of six
newspapers weekly is a proof of the progressive
improvement and prosperity of the country,
though it may be but a f-illacious system of lit-
erary improvement. P'our of the newspapers are
published in Quebec and two in Montreal.
These, with an alinannc, and the Acts of the
Provincial Parliament, are all the works that arc
printed in Lower Canada."

It is obvious that Lambert was unaware of
other publications, such as school-books, song-
books, treatises upon the seigneurial tenure,
comiiieiitaries on laws, discussions of political
and historical matters, and amateur theatricals,
which, in a Colony, are always a form of intel-
lectual development worth mentioning. Sir James
Craig having suppressed Le Canadien (iSio), an-
other periodical was started in Montreal. At
this time political feelings were set aside and
Le Spcctateur, L'Aurore, Le Cuurrier, La Diblio-
tltequc,LcMaga::inLilteraire, L' Obscrrateur ,L' Ency-
clopcvdic, 'A\ published in Montreal (1S13-1830),
were historical and literary reviews, with a touch
of science in them. To complete this statement
up to 1830, I must mention a large history of
Canada and the "Voyages of Franchere " by
Michel Bibaud; the valuable works of Jacques
Viger, the archjEologist ; the poetry of the same
Bibaud and of J. J. D. Mermet ; the classical
books of Joseph Bouchette on- Canada ; the
pamphlets of Dr. E. P. Tach^ on various sub-

w

CANADA: AN KNCYCLOIMDIA.

«4»

•:vf

jccts; tlio Quebec ami Montreal Literary
Socictifs, flourisliiiig frotn 1X17 to i<Sjo, ami up
to tiic pnsiiit ilati!. A I'luix lj critic of note,
oil visiting tliu Province in iS^i, says (AuititUs
MitiitiincsCoUmiaU's) "lint tin: risiiijj of its |)i'oi)le
in tliu fU'iiis of iiitclli{{cm:c id must riMiiurkublu,
aiul txci'cilin(,'ly pror..isiiig for tiic fiitiirt.'." Tiio
nion wlio first studied thu history of tliis country,
coiiiiiu'iiti'd on the hiws and ParlianiLiitaiy prac-
tices, composed works for tl)o schools, cultivated
poi try and the current art of writing for the
public, deserve more (,'ratitudc frotn us than those
who came after tlutn and accoinplished marvels,
no doubt, but found the way open and new means
of development already prepared.

The period of 18JO-1850 must now be exam-
ined as formihf^ the second age of French-
Canailian literature.** The intensity of the
polemics in the public press of France which
l)roiight to light so many able writers under the
reign of Charles X. (1824-18 5(>) attracted the
attention of the French-Canadian students more
than any of the books published in the " old
mother country", even during the great revolu-
tion, and tiiis was due principally to the renova-
tion of letters so striking at that time in the
French literary world. Political ideas had noth-
ing to do with this rapproachemcnt of our people
towards the voice of France, because the n.iiid of
the Canadians was fairly settled as to the mode
of government best suited to this country and
they did not feel the desire to take lessons on that
line of aff. iis from outsiders. It is the same
thing nowadays. But the community of lan-
guage imposes itself when you come to literature
and necessarily the progress of France in that
direction is dictatorial to us. The old writers
already mentioned here shook their heads at the
novelties in style brought forward by Lamartine,
Gautier, Delairgue, Courrier, Thiers, Hugo, De
Vigny and others, whilst the young n)en stood
attentively as the words of the Renaissance school
spread through the whole of Europe and were
listened to by the leading English writers. It
was a revolution comparable to that of Ronsard
in the iGth Century, that of Roileau, Corneille,

•liom iSjo the English Literature of the Province of Quebec
is alio maiUed by a start which Mr. John Reade is more than any-
ore in a position to deicribe, and I know that be is at present
writini; a paper on the lubject (or this Work.

Moliero and thu ICncyclopiedists before 17H9,
ICtienne P.trent, as early as i8ji, in reviving
Le CanadicH, gave tin: sound of the new foi inula,
with a certain touch of timidity, and he met with
no encouragement at fust. His [)aper disap-
peared in i8j2. But two years later Atigustin
Norbeit Morin came to thu front and was
followed Ijy others, especially Charles and Uom-
ini(ine Mondelet, F, X, Garneau, M.irc- \iirele
PlaiiKjndoii, Ainablo lierthelot, Isidore IJcdartI,
Jactpics Labrie, Augusto ChaboiUez, I'rancois
Noiseux, George-MartheK'iiiy I'anbaiilt.

La Miiicire wa;-} foiiiulcd in i8j6 by A. N.
Morin and iminediat.ly took a high position
before the public. The paper kept its iuMuence
during more than seventy years and proved a
constant nursery for the intelligent development
of tlitj peoj>le. La Gazelle dcs trois Rivirres, 1817,
i8jo, i8j.», contained many good contributions
from Canadian writers. Le Conslitutiuiuul, 1823,
L' Amide la Religion, 1820, L'Ai>^'its, iHjty^G, all
of the same locality, adiled their share to the
literature of the day. In l8jo Michel Hibaud
published a volume of verses eutitle<l : Ef>itres,
Salins, Cliansuiis, Lpi^rammcs, in which the legis-
lators of the new Parnassus and th-ir tioctrines
were totally ignored. However, this selection
was the first of its kind issued by a French-
Canadian rhymer. For the third time y.c CrtHrt-
dien entered the field in 1831, under more
favourable auspices thun in the past ami acted in
the City of (.)uebec the same part as La Miiierve
in Montreal. M. Etienne Parent had the satis-
faction to see his paper flourishing during forty
years and this success has continued until lately.
Dr. Pierre de Sales Laterriere published in
Loiuloii in i8jo a work of great value, consider-
ing the circumstances of the hour. It was "A
Political Account of Lower Canada," giving a fair
and iuttlligible explanation of matters concerning
the situation of the people, their manners,
character, religion, etc., SO as to facilitate the
settlement of the then impending difficulties
which attained their climax in the troubles of

1837-38-

After the conquest it may be said that immi-
gration from France had ceased entirely, never-
theless I must note, for the purpose of this paper,
that on three occasions a sniall number of indi-

r^

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Mt

CANADA AS KNCYCLOl'.KlJlA.

^r

viilii.-il.s came to Caiiaila and iii.xlu tlioir prcineiicc
ft'll ratlur heavily im tliu iiiniiuiit. I iifer
to 1770, iH.jj, 1871. The lirst l».itcli, altinit
ten inon in all, was ct)inposf(| of tradusiufn who
took side with tin: AnioriraiiH in 1775 and were
afterwards (i77«)) |'"t in ^aol hy (invernor
Ilaliliniand. It servrd tlu'iii rif^iit, altlioiiKli
they had been unsuccessful inraisinp the popula-
tion a;,Minst the British fl i),'. The second
lot belongeil to the cl iss of JDurnalista ; they
published paniphli'ts and newspapers everysvhere
from iSji to i'S.57. Thrie of them pcrisheil
miserably durin)^ the Kebcllioii of iS ;;, whilst
three or four otlurs pulkd safely through the
crisis. Another small migration of I'Vcnchmcn
was noticeable after the I'ranco-l'russian War,
but it seenis that ni)no of them wire of the
stamp of aj^ilators. Those of 18 5^-57 C()ntril)uted
towanls the spreading of literature and science
to a certain extent, especially Napoleon Aubin,
Leblanc de Marconnay and Amiiry Ciirod, the
latter devoting his talents to agriculture prin-
cipally.

FroMi 1852 to iSj7 we have four young poels:
F. X. Garncau, Joseph-Guillaume Hirtlio, Gode-
froy Laviolctte, Joseph-lidouard Turcotte, all
writing songs after the manner of lieranger.
Hartlie indul^jed also in composing verses for the
Church, without jMitting too large a share of his
own ima;,Mnalion in lines mostiy imitated from
old obsolete subjects and forms. However, the
whole of these efforts contributed to a certain
extent in iliffusing the taste for re lined literature
amongst onlinary readers. Garncau was a gen-
uine poet full of national spirit. Turcotte had
a political colour in his strophes, and so he turM(,'d
to be a politician. Lavi(jlette piuduced some
agrestical compositions and a few coiiu'dies.
Sir George Etienne Cartier has left his m.nk
in the literary pleia.i of 1S34 by his song:
O CiVuidii ! vion pays, incs amours !

]. H. Mcillenr during a long life published sev-
eral works of importance, especially on su!)jects
of education. He was the first Superintendent
of Education for Lower Canada, and during his
occupation of that office established forty-five
superior educational institutions. Pierre Petit-
clair was the author of several brief poetical
effusions agreeably rendered. He is better known

by threu or four comedies, one of which has stood
the tent of agi! (I'uc p.utie de campa^uc'). Real
Angers luwl u brilli.mt career as a l.isvvir ; hid
contributions to the legal press mado for him a
Listing reputation. In 185.} he wrote a novel
after the manner adopted Liter on by (laboriaii,
and which is still lead by many. Piriro J. O.
Chauveau nuide his debut by st^veral eotitributions
inserteil by I.c Caitiiiliin in 18 jS. He r.i|)id!y
gained the admiration of the public, by his correct,
lively ami (haste style. I'Voin that time Ins
name became synonymous with that of a perfect
sidiolar. l\e was the best expression of the new
mode of literature inaugurated in 18^7 by the
phalanx of the romantics in IVance, and, without
renouncing the classical schot)), drew abundant
resources from the lield recently o[)ened to
writers and thinkers. His genial, kintll\ , hearty
manners mado him loved anct respected by every
one.

Journalism, from 1840 to 1850, proiluced seven
rem irkable Editors : ('aiichon, IJellemaic, Mac-
donald, Uoiitre, Gtirin-Lajoie, Langevin, Donon.
Joseph Cauchon was at first and while still a
school boy coiiti ibutor to At" Z.jiinj/; in iSji he
publisheil a treatise on physics and in the loUow-
ing year founded Le Journal de Quebec, destined
to have a brilli ,ut (ireer. "He is one of the
most clear and nervous of our public writers,"
said Eennings Taylor in 1867, " and to his other
high merits unites a well stored and cultivated
mind on almost every branch of knowledge." For
more than forty jears we find M. Cauchon in
several positions of life, but he remained a mili-
tant journalist all the time and kept his connec-
tion with the political press when member of
Parliament, Mayor of Quebec, Minister of the
Crown, President of the North Shore F-' Uvay,

.&

&c. Last of all he was Lien'
Manitoba. His pamphL u nl
the then projected I
be overlooked and , desei

more than tiiirty year:, .i(f'!r th
our Confederation. The Spi
commenting on these works in 1865, said :
" There is no man in Lower Canada to whom
the duty of laying before his countrymen a bold,
vigourous defence of the Resolutions of the Con-
ference (Quebec, 1864) could be better entrusted

lor tif

upon

vin> inno!:

reau ig now,

iStabiishment of

'^'^* (Hamilton),

"^

i

CANADA AN I.NCVCl.t »IM DIA.

1 4.^

than to Ml. Cauchon. • * * . If the sclifiiie
shall bu HiKiu'Ssliil, ii l.it>(c portioi) of tliu iiiciit
iif hi iii^'iii^ il to a happy tuniiiiiatioii will ho dtu!
to tluj cariiL'st and p.itriotic elTort of Mr. (amhon
to iiiiliicc its (icct'ptiinco lit tho hands of Lower
C'aiiiidi.ins."

Konuld Macdoiiald was hoiii in lj()ii. In I-^.Ji
liu was cntiustud by the Govurnnicnt of tlu;
I'rovhice of Lower Canada with tlio niana>,'t:inent
of a school for tin! cdination of deaf nintcs, which
ho C(jndnctud for soinu yrara. He enttiicl tin;
aruna of journalism as Mditor of tim Ga.:clte
de Quebec, 1856, nndcr tho lion. J<din Ncilson,
and from thoro went to I.e Caiuhliin, in iH.}7,
whcTu ho remained to the time of his death in 1S5 (.

110 left the reputation of an cncyctnpiL-dist and
a man of agreeable intercourse. Hi) l:inj,'uaf,'e
as a I'Vench writer was all that couhl bo expected
from u scholar sucti as ho was.

Joseph Doutre commenced his connection
with the press when ei^'hteen years old, us a con-
tributor to Lcs MilnH^cs Rdi'^iciix, Montreal,
1843, by a pointed attack upon the administration
of Sir Charles Metcalfe. Soon after, he wrote
for L'Aiirom du Cuitadas and became known
throughout the Province as a forcible polemist.

111 1844 he published Les Franccsde l8iz, a novel
dealing with Canadian characteristics. Le I'rcre
cl la Stciir, in 1848, and Lcs Sauvaf:;cs du Cauadti,
in 1852, are apparently all his productions outside
of tho political field, but he was a hard worker
and devoted much time in connection with the
VAiont o{ Vhisiitut Ciimidicn and literary circles
in general. When //.Irtv./V was founded in 1S48,
he joined Louis Joseph Papineau and J. H. L.
Dorion in support of the Liberal party. He also
took part in the establishment of the powerful
oryan, Le Pays. In 1852 he was elected President
of L'lnslitut Canadien, a very flourishing concern,
which he developed in an extraordinary manner
for a young country. As a lawyer he enjoyed
a well deserved reputation as a clever and learned
practician. We meet him throughout the history
of his time in the capacity of counsel in many
celebrated cases.

Antoine Gerin-Lajoie had the singular good
fortune of acijuiring a universal celebrity in the
Province before leaving College. A tragedy and
a song — especially the song — made him famous

at once. Thin wai in 1842. Tho tragedy was
based on the iulventiiHn of l..a Tour and Ins son
in Nova Scotia tluinig tiie early part of the 17th
Century ; the soiiu was merely an expiessioii
of hoine-sickness placed in tho mouth of a Can-
adian cxilid to a foreign land aftt r tlio events
of l8j7-j8, but it contained no word alluding
to that particular fact, so that it was found
to be applicable to all classes of Canadians away
for any cauj*e and at any time from the f.itlni land.
So popular tlid these strophs become amon;;st tho
I'rench-speaking population that th«;y are now-
adays heard wherever tho I'rench-Caii.idianshave
wandered on the face of thi;i continent. A good
translation of tlniii was made more than thiitv
years ago by George T. Lanigan, a gifted poet
and a critic of high merit. The following is the
first verse :

" From Canada a'"ar

Ami biiiiislied from his home,

Weeiiiiiy tluo' slrannir laiuli
Did a lone exile roam. '

From 1845 to 1847 Gerin-Lajoie edited La
Minervc,i\wn was admitted to tho Hai ; subse-
quently ho was appointed Joint Librarian of tho
Legislature, with Mr. Alpheus Todd (1856). Ho
took an active part in cstablisliing L'Instit"'
Canadien of Montreal, was elected three times i.
President of that body, and delivered there several
interesting lectures. His contributions were to Les
Soirees Canadicnnes and Le Foyer Canadien (1861-
6()), in which he published the biography of
I'erland the historian, and Jean Rivard, a tale of
a pioneer of the forest which is not likely to be
forgotten as long as all the lands of Canada have
not been settled. The last work of Gerin-Lajoie's
pen is a large volume on the history of Respon-
sible Government in Canada from 1S40 to 1850.

Raphael Bellemare succeeded G(5riii Lajoie on
La Mincrve in 1847, where he remained until
1835, but it may be said that he never severed
his connection with that paper, at least in the
line of historical publications. Henry J. Morgan,
in his Bihliotheca Canadensis, 1867, mentions his
principal writings, but the list must be now three
times longer. Hector Louis Langevin (after-
wards Sir Hector) was twenty-one years old
when he accepted the Editorship of Lfs Melanges
Religieux, Montreal, 1847, whore he made his mark,

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CANADA : AN ENCYCLOIVKDIA.

and, altho'ish he afterwards kept himself mainly
occupied with the exercise of his profession as a
lawyer and in political life, he always manifested
a deep interest in matters concerning literature.
Me was a great reader and a well-informed man.
Jeaii-Ilaptiste-Eric Dorion, born in iS.j6, fonixknl
L'Avciiii' m 1S4S, which, while it lasted, was held
as the most uncompromising organ of the Roiif:;e
party. He was one of the nu)st redoutabie
polemists of his day in Lower Canada. He held
the Presidency of L'liistitut Caiunlicn for three
years.and sat in the Legislative Assembly, 1854-57,
1S61-66. He was an e.xcellent stump orator.
Le Dcfricheur was published by him in L'Avenir,
County of Drummond, a village which he had
founded and settled for the purpose of promoting
colonization among the French-Canadian rural
population from the south shore of the Saint
Lawrence.

Three periodicals not yet specially mentioned
here c'jservc to be noted on account of their lit-
erary merit. Lcs Mclaui^cs Rclif^icux 1S40-42
(revived in 1847), L' Album de la Minervc, 1848,
L' Album dnCiinadicu, 1S49. La Rcvtie Caiiadicniic
was established in 1S46, and L'Albiimdc la Revue
Caiiadieniie, 1S47, by M. O. Letonneu.x, a very
able writer who abandoned them in 1849 in order
to devote all his attention to La Revue dc Legisla-
tion et de yurispnidctice, which was subsequently
conducted by Messrs. Lelierre and Angers of
Quebec. Angers has already been mentioned.
Simeon Lelierre was also the Editor of the
Loicer Canada Law Reports, Of all these publica-
tions none equal the four volumes of Le Reper-
toire National compiled by J. Huston and printed
in 1848-50. It contains a choice collection of
all the writings of the French- Canadians, in
prose and verses, from 1777 to 1S50. An elegant
edition of this work has bt.'en made in 1895.

Literary Institutes were during this period in
full activity at Quebec, Three Rivers, Smel and
Montreal. Public lectures attracted very large
audiences as a rule. Papineau, Doutre, Dorion,
Gcrin-Lajoie, Chauveau, Parent, the latter by
far the most learned, contributed the main share
of such intellectual recreations. I must not
omit also, for the period of 1840-50, Soulard,
Lenoir, i acombe, Gingras, Painchaiid, Olivier,
De Bourb jrville, who stood in the second rank

it is true, but influenced considerably the literary
movement amongst all classes of the population.
Augiiste Soulard edited in 1840 Le Journal de
Families (one single number), delivered lectures,
wrote verses and contributed several witty
articles to Le Fautasquc, but he died so young
that he had not the time to develop his brilliant
faculties. Joseph Lenoir was a constant con-
tributor in verse to the French-Canadian press
from 1847 to 1859. His poetical genius, which
was of the highest order, manifested itself while
he was still at College. Many of his detached
pieces appeared in L'Az'enir and Le Repertoire
National, Patrice Lacombe, a notary public, was
the auther of La Terre Paternelle, a romance of
manners and habits of the people of Lower Can-
ada. In this particular line of literature, which
involves a close knowledge of all that character-
izes a nation, I may note here six or seven re-
markable attempts that presented faithful pictures
of the French-Canadian race : De Gasp^ "^^ijt
Doutre 1844, Lacombe 1848, Chauveau 1852,
L'Escuyer 1854, Gerin-Lajoie 1862, De Gasp<5
1863.* The success of Ge-rin-Lajoie seems to
justify me in saying that his Jean Rivard carries
the palm of the " roman de moeurs " in the
Province of Quebec.

The principal event of the next decade is, in the
field of literature, Histoire du Canada, by F. X.
Garneau, three volumes, 1845-48. It created a deep
sensation because of the superiority of the work
over precedent efforts of the same kind. Garneau
has not been surpassed for his discernment of
the causes of the many intricate facts recorded
with more or less accuracy in the papers of old
concerning this Colony, He is less passionate or
partial than historians who have dealt with the
subject before him ; for instance, he never hides
the good doings of the British people on this con-
tinent, whilst he had under his eyes the work of
other writers who constantly conceal the actions
favourable to the P'rench element. Taking his
views on the whole from an elevated standpoint,
he knew he could raise the tone of history to a
high, philosophical and fruitful level. So he did,
and was thanked for it by the mass of the readers.

The only objection he mot with came from a few

. ■ J, —

•Kor further particulars of thene names see Morgan's JUbHo-
Ihtca Canadensis and Ciagnun's Catalojjue.

CANADA: AN ENCYCI.OI'.KDIA.

'45

members of tlie Catholic clergy, .wlio were in-
trinsif^caitts on matters connected with the Church,
especially during tho Trench rt'^imc. A fifth
edition is now (11S9S) beiiisj; prepared by his son,
Allred Garnean, who is tiie chief I'rencli transla-
tor in the Senate.

It mast not be for;,'otten that from 1S17 to
1850 tiie Province was aj,Mtati'd by political feel-
ings of intense acuteness, iiiid that amateurs in
literature and studies generally could not expect
to secure much of the attintion of the public.
Neverthi less, we can appreciate what they accoin-

Francuis Xavier Gaineau.

plished under the circumstances and how far
they realized their programme for the extension
of the art of thinking and writing. With the
comparatively quiet period of 1850-1880, a greater
activity is noticeable. The enumeration of vol-
umes, pamphlets and review articles printed
during those thirty years is out of the question
here because of their great number; it would
form a large catalogue. Let me give the names
of the authors only :

1850-G0: Barthe, Boucher, Bourassa, Casgrain,

Cremazie, Bellefeuille, Fcnouillet, DessauUes,
Fabre, Fiset, Frechette, Carneau, Drapeau,
Hugnet-Latour, Laberge, Langevm, Larme,
La/erdiere, Provancher, Royal, Sempc, Stevens,
Tache, Verreau.

1S60-70 : Anger, Baillairge, Baudry, Bedard,
Beausoleil, Begin, Belanger, Blain, Blanchet,
Bois, Buies, Cassegrain, Chaudonnet, Dansereaa
Darveau, David, De Cazes, De Celles, De Gaspe,
De la Bruyere, De Montigny, Desmazures, Dionne,
Desjardir.s, Donnelly, Doutre, Dunn, Faucher,
b'ortin, Frechette, Faillon, Gagnon, Gelinas,
Genand, Gerin, Gladu, Gingras, Labelle,Lafleche,
Langelier, Legeudre, Lema\', Le Moine, Lesage,
Lusignan, IMarchand, Malouin, Marmette, Maur-
ault, Montpetit, Moreau, Mousseau, Nante),
Ouellet, Ouimet, Provencher, Pelletier, Prud-
homme, Racine, Raymond, Renault, Routhier,
Tache, Taiiguay, Tasse, Trudelle.Trudcl, Turcotte.

1870-80 : Barnard, Beauchemin, Beaugrand,
Caouette, Caron, Carrier, Chapman, Chouinard,
Deguise, Desrosiers, Dick, Dionne, Evanturel,
Fontaine, Gagnon, Gelinas, Genest,GmL'ras,Guay,
Honde, Huot, Jolicaur, Lallamme, Lareau,
Levasseur, Marsil, Poirier, Pagiuielo, Poisson,
Prendergast, Tardivel, Tarte, Tremblay.

Some families have produced two or three
writers, viz.: Barthe, Boucher, Doutre, I'rechette,
Gagnon, Garneau, Gelinas, Provancher. The
last twenty years have given such an entensive
development to historical studies and other
branches of literature, including sciences, that the
whole of what had been done during a century
before 1880 is overwhelmed by the mass of the
new material brought to light. Altogether I
have mentioned one hundred and seventy-five
writers, from 1820 to 1880 — sixty-seven of whom
have published verses and prose. Some have not
exceeded fifty or one hundred pages, but these
productionsare valuable, and, as they are inserted
in magazines and books made accessible to the
public, their inlluence is still active amongst the
young people who read them for the first time.
Amongst those who have occasionally made use
of the English language through the press may
be mentioned especially Bender, Chauveau,
Dionne, Frechette, LeMoine, Marchand, Tachti.

The principal magazines from 1S60 to 1880
were: Soiree Canadiennes, 1S61 ; Foyer Cmtadian,

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CANADA: AN' KXCVCLOl'.KDI A.

1863; Revue Caiuuiienne, 1864; Opinio}'. Pnbliqiie,
I1S7J; Re7ue fie Montreal, 1X77. Tlie language
fince i860 has improvtd iinnieiisely, iiiulcr three
different aspects — the writings, the speecli and the
conversation. This wonderful progress made by
people who thought at first they possessed the per-
fection of their tongue, but who found out that
they were behind the age, is a clear indication of
the natural resources they can bring into action
when made aware of a diflicuUy. It is certain
that the mainspring is not now broken or weak-
ened in them. As regards erudition, iis merit is
diversely distributed, nevertheless the variety of
subjects treated by French-Canadian writers is
astonishing. M. Edme Rameau, visiting Canada
a few years ago, made the remark that our
amateurs, as they style themselves, seem to ex-
plore every possible field of learning, and they
must necessarily succeed in some of them. New
editions of old works of standard value arc now
quite fashionable in the Province of Quebec.

Many fine private libraries exist there that ct)m-
prise also the best productions of Englisli-Cana-
dian authors.

Before closing this paper it must be stated that
not three, if indeed even any, French-Canadian
writers are living out of the income derived from
their literary works. They are all amateurs —
and probably the more happy on that account,
for they are never disappointed in the financial
side of the business, and whatever little glory
they reap by an occasional good hit of the pen
they pocket with deligiit. Those, like Frechette,
Casgrain and two or three others whose produc-
tions have been couronnies by th . French
Academy, and twenty besides who are decorated
with the ptilines academiques by the Minister of
Public Instruction of France, are the best paid.
The remainder are satisfied with a few compli-
ments dispensed to them from time to time at a
banquet or through the pages of a review cf
books recently published.

Ui. licorge Siewari.

Trr*

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HNGLISH LITERATURE AND JOURNALISM IN QUEBEC

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BY

JOHN READK, F.R.S.L., FR.S.C. Associate Editor of the Montreal Ca=eite.

AHOUT a quarter of a century ago the
late Hon. P. J. O. Chauveau said
that the population of Quebec remind-
ed him of the famous staircase in
the Castle of Chambord, which was so con-
structed that two persons could ascend it at the
same time without meeting save at rare intervals.
" And so," said M. Chauveau, " we in this Prov-
ince of Quebec, French and English, move on-
ward to the destinies that await us, without
knowing, without meeting each other, and only
seeing each other on the landing place of poli-
tics. As to society and literature, we are greater
strangers than the French and English in Eur-
ope." And at one time the comparison was only
too well founded. But it was not in the nature
of things that such estrangement between
neighbours and fellow-citizens should last for
ever, and, for some years before his lamented
death, M. Chauveau had the satisfaction of ob-
serving that mutual knowledge and kindly reci-
procity had bej;un to bear fruit. The evidences
of the welcome change are manifold,, not the
least noteworthy being the growing tendency, of
which the present enterprise may be cited as an
e.xample, towards co-operation in scientific and
historical research.

I have been asked to contribute to this volume
of the Canadian Encyclopjedia a brief outline
of the origin and progress of English journalism
and literature in the Province of Quebec. In
dealing, in the first volume, with some of the con-
ditions of business and social life in Canada
(luring the period between the conquest and the
close of the last century, I had occasion to men-
tion the foundation of the Quebec Gazette, and
also gave some samples of its quality during its
infant years. Like its younger namesake of
Montreal, this pioneer of Canadian journalism

derives some interest from its associations with
Benjamin Franklin. According to Dr. H. Neil-
son, who possesses the papers of the Brown and
Neilson families, William Brown was born, about
"^7^7 or 173S, in Scotland, of well-to-do parents.
Among his connections were the Rainsays, of
whose stock the Earl of Dalhousie, one of our
Governors, was a distinguished member. At the
age of fifteen he was sent to relatives of his
mother in Virginia to seek his fortune. After
trying several occupations, he was apprenticed to
William Dunlop, printer and bookseller of Phil-
adelphia, and brother-in-law of Benjamin Frank-
lin. In 1760 Dunlop put him in charge of a
printing concern at Bridgetown, Barbadoes; but,
in 1763, he abandoned this position on account
of his health and resolved to betake himself to
Quebec, which had just fallen into the hands of
the British. In this resolve he had the encour-
agement of Dunlop, who furnished him with the
means to purchase a complete printing plant in
England. Brown reached Quebec towards the
close of September, 1763, with a prospectus of
his journal printed in advance in oider to collect
subscriptions anent the arrival of his press and
type in the following spring. On the 21st of
June, 1764, the first number of the Quebec Gazette
made its appearance. Shortly afterwards Brown
added to his press a book store and did a good
business. He never married and, as he was both
energetic and economical, he had amassed a for-
tune of more than -iTis.ooo sterling, when death
suddenly overtook hmi on the 2jnd of March,
1789. His remains were interred in the little
English Cemetery on St. John Street, Quebec*
William Smith, the historian, gives a slightly
different account of the enterprise, and there is

NOTK. See E<sai Je Bibliographie Canadienne, by Phileas
(lasnon, page 556.

117

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n^,

still another in a small volume publislied in iNOj
anil entitled liiisiiwss Sketches :

" Tile premises of Mid.lleton and Dawson are
situated at tlie foot of Mountain Street, yuebec.
The two f,'eutlemon who com[)ose the In in may
be rej,'arded as the direct successors in tlie first
printm^ and Enf,'lish bookselhiif,' busmess estab-
lished in Canaiia. They own, edit and publish
the {hiebec ihizett:, so loiif,' under the niauaj^e-
ment of the lion. John Neilson, a name well
known in tiic political annals of the Province.
These f^entleinen also carry on the stationery and
bookselling business which was suspended from
tin; demise of the late lion. Mr. Neilson, from
wlu>=e legatees Mr. Middleton (who had been in
his service nearly a cpiartir of a century) pur-
chased the Gii'^ette, now approaching the coniple-
tum of its liuuilredth year.

The Moiitical (ra~ette, coming next on the list,
was first published on the 2ist of June, 1764, just
five years after Wolfe's landmg. The paper was
issued weekly, each alternate column l)eing in
English and French. Tlie Gacf //^ was published
by Messrs. Brown and Gilmour, who brought
their type and presses from Philadelphia. The
paper flourished in every respect and in 1790
became the property of Mr. Samuel Neilson, who
also performed the duties of E<Iitor and was suc-
cessor to his uncle, Mr. W. Brown, one of the
founders of the Gazette. This gentleman died m
1793, and Mr. John Neilson, his brother, being
then a minor, the publication of the paper was
conducted by the late Rev. Dr. Sparks, his
guardian, until 1796, when Mr. Neilson, having
attained his majority, assumed control. The
journal under his management continued to
prosper and to exercise a strong influence on
public measures of every kind. In 1848 Hon.
John Neilson died, and the Gazette, as stated
above, passed into the hands of Mr. Middleton."

M. Phileas Gagnon, of Quebec, a distinguished
bibliophile, has maintained that Mr. Brown's
press was not the first introduced into the Prov-
ince of Quebec. Those who are interested in
his argument will find it in his Essai de Biblio-
<:;yapliic Canadiennc (pp. 381, 385). The press in
question was, he affirms, in possession of Bis! p
de Pontbriand,and was used for printing his man-
dements in the year 1759. As my r- aders are
aware, Halifax had at that *\—' ..een using a
printing press for at least seven yei^rs, the first
issue of the Halifax Gazette having taken place
on the 23rd of March, 1752. It is M. Gagnon's
conviction that Mgi". Pontbriand's press was the
Bishop's personal or official property and was

taken with him for Diocesan purposes on his
episcopal tours. Thus he claims that, of the
two niandements of 1759, the eailier (that of May)
was promulgated at Quebec, the second (that of
October) at Montreal, after the Bishop's with-
drawal to that city. But even if we admit M.
Gagnon's contention, and it certainly is probable
enough, we know that for general objects there
was no printing press in Lower Canada under
the Old Regime, which, indeed, furnishes the
curious anomaly of a fairly copious literature,
without a single printer. It may even be said
that, if the conquest introduced the printing
press, it caused a teaiporary paralysis of that
literary production which from the foundation of
New France had never ceased until the Bourbon
flag was lowered on the Citadel. If it be objected
against so comprehensive a view of French-
Canadian letters that the v.iluable histories,
chronicles and treatises of all kinds written by
Frenchmen in Canada under the Bourbon Kings
are not indigenous, it maybe replied that neither
are a great mar.y works that are always classed
under the head of British-Canadian literature.
If we admit any departure from the rule that all
who write in French are French writers and all
who write ill English, English writers, it is
difticult to draw the line in any way but one, and
that is to give Canada, French or English, the
benefit of the credit due to her adopted children
and champions, wherever they may have been
born or their works may have greeted the light.
Even from the purely literary standpoint, one
i.iight discern a certain promise of ^ood things
to come in the fact that the very beginnings of
our colonization, both French and English, were
strangely linked with the cult of the muses.
When Lescarbot gave to his lucubrations the
title of Les Muses de la Noiivelle France, may he
not have unconsciously foretold in the 17th the
triumphs of Canadian inspiration in the 19th
century ? And when, on the other hand, that
almost forgotten Viscount of Canada, Sir William
Alexander, combined the ambition of a poet with
that of a colonizer, may he not have furnished
one of those unconscious forecasts which some-
times prove men to be wiser than they seem ?

But not for many years were these felicitous
forecasts to be fulfilled. Ceitainly during tiie

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M')

i8th century the new R<Sf^'me broutjlit success
neitlier to English literature nor to Frencli, and
for journalism tiie age had not yet dawned.
All that can be averred is tliiit the printing press
had become a fixture both in Quebec and
Montreal. There is a bibliography of the
forty years that followed the capitulation of Mon-
treal, but there is no literature. Those who
had leisure sometimes rhymed and more often
prosed. Even the choice of subject was restricted.
The picture presented by Governor Haldimand
supervising the advertisement of the Reverend
John Stuart for his private school gives a fair
notion of the paternal system by which any
intellectual effort that appealed to the public
was controlled. At a still later stage the editors
of papers were put under arrest for reporting the
proceedings of the Assembly, and it may be as-
serted without fear of contradiction that anything
approaching to what we understand to-day
by liberty of the press did not exist in this
Province during the i8lh century. In a measure,
this restriction of newspaper discussion within
a narrow range might be deemed favourable
to literary invention. But, if so, its fruits are still
to seek. Le Repertoire National, first published
in 1848, and re-printed five years ago by an enter-
prising Montreal firm, contains a more than
representative collection of Canadian literature
up to tl'e date of publication.

Two writers, Joseph Quesnel and Foucher Fils,
are set down as belonging to the period in ques-
tion. M. Quesnel, after a changeful life, spent
partly in the east, partly in South America, was
brought to Halifax in an English frigate and,
subsequently coming to Quebec, with introduc-
tions to Governor Haldimand, resolved to settle
permanently in this Province. His gifts as a
musical composer and writer of comedies made
him quite an acquisition to Canadian society and
some of his plays were acted, ^vllile his sacred
music was used in the Ciunch of Notre Dame,
Montreal. He is virtually the only littcratctif of
the forty years in question. Dr. Bender, under
the title of Old and Nav Canada, has given the
biography of his ancestor, M. Joseph Francois
Perrault, a fine type of public-spirited French-
Canadian of the years of transition. Dr. Bender
has made his personality the centre in a succes-

sion of excellent pictures of the private ami pub-
lic life of the time. M. Perrault came of age in
the year of the Quebec Act and lived till the 3rd
year oi the Union regime, and, as liis whole adult
life was devoted to educational reform, he was
associated with the intellectual movement of his
native country for three score years and ten.
This movement is largely identified with the prog-
ress of literary production and M. Perrault him-
self was a writer of books on many themes.
Now, in contemplating the educational agitation
in which M. Perrault was a valiant pioneer, we
cannot trace a very deep line of division between
the French and the English section of the popu-
lation. The best men of both sections were
earnest in desiring a sound system of public in-
struction, however they might differ as to methods.
The Hon. James McG'll maybe mentioned as a
parallel type of public-spirited citizen in the
English community. That men of these types,
French and English, did not always work apart
we find interesting evidence in a document be-
longing to M. Phileas Gagnon and reproduced by
M. R. Renault in his Courier da Li^'re (Vol. i, 2,
3, 4,), entitled " Stance de la Societe Litteraire
de Quebec tene le 3 de Juin 1809." The object
of the special session thus reported, and pub-
lished by J. Neilson, printer and bookseller, 3
Mountain Street, Quebec, was to examine p)oems,
both French and English, written in honour of
King George III. 's Jubilee, in order to adjudge
the prizes offered by the Society. In presence
of an audience composed of the intellectual elite
of Quebec, M. Romain, the President, announced
that, having examined the pieces submitted to it
with the most scrupulous attention, the Literary
Society considered that Mr. John Fleming, of
Montreal, had written the best English puem and
the person who signed himself " Canadensis,"
the best French poem. Now a prize poem of the
year of grace i8og ought to supply the key to the
position of literature in Lower Canada in the
(lays of the Regency. Here, therefore, is a brief
portion of Mr. Fleming's ode on " The Biitiiday
of His Majesty King George HI.":

" Hail, joyful morn, ordained for .ocial mirth,
Auspicious nvirn that gave our Sovereign birth !
'i'lie Muse of Canada thee humbly hails,
Thy [iraise resounds through lier sweet smiling vales.

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CANADA: AN' KN'CVCI.OI'.KDIA.

As licavenly Plujubus cherislius tlie soil
With ripening fruits rewarding mortals' toil,
So (Ii'orgc's foslcring and jjatcriial hand
Dispenses blessings o'er our happy land. "
Such was tli« advaiicu atlaiiiej by Eiit,'lish
literature in tlio Province of Quebec in tliu lillietli
year after the death of Wolfe. Not viiy much,
.t may be said, but still a be^innin^. iMr. Flem-
ing, who was from Aberdeen, was at this time in
his 251 !i year. He was a man of considerable
taste and literary aspiration and, though an active
man of business, amassed a libr.uy of 11,000
volumes which it was his avowed intention to
becjueath to McGill College. The cholera carried
him off in 1832 before he had put his intention
in writing and in 1843 his fine collection was
sold by auction.* Mr. Fleming was the author
of a work entitled I'lic Political Annals of Lower
Canada.

In the year before Mr. h'leming won his prize
medal from the Literary Society of Quebec, that
city was visited by John Lambert, who has
something to say of the state of science, letters
and the arts at that time. He expresses the
opinion that " the publishing of six newspapers
weekly is a proof of the progressive imjjrovement
and prosperity of the country, though it may be
but a fallacious symptom of literary improve-
ment." He then proceeds to enumerate and
characteriiie the newspapers of the Province.
Four are published in Ouebec and two in Mon-
treal, and "these, with an almanac and the Acts
of the Provincial Parliament, are all the works
that are printed in Lower Canada." He men-
tions first the Ga::eltes which, he says, " seldom
interfere with the morals or manners of societ}' ;
these subjects are left to the other weekly papers
which are published on Saturdays and Mondays."
These are "the Quebec Mercury, published en-
tirely in Fnglish by C^arey on Monday afternoon,"
and "the Canadian Courant, also published in
English at Montreal every Monday by Nahum
Mower, an American from the States." The
other papcMS in Mr. Lambert's list are i\\cCana-
dicn and the Courier de Quebec.

*NOTE. His fine copy of Abbe (jedoyii's annotalid \eislon
of Patisanias in two crown quarto volumes (Patis, 1731) came
into my possession after first passing througii tlie hands of another
bibliophile, M. Bibaud. The name of "John Fleming" is written
on the title page and a note signc 1 " liibauil " states that the work
once Ijelonged to Mr. Fleming.

Of tile latter Mr. Lambert says: " This little
paper is conducted by two or three young
French-Canadians for tlie purpose of inserting
their fugitive pieces. These gentlemen have
recently established a Litetary Society which
though it may not contain the talent.s of a national
institute or a Royal Society is, notwithstanding,
deserving of all the encouragement that can be
given to it by the Canadian Government. The
first dawn of genius in such a country should be
hailed with pleasure." Mr. Lambert describes
the warfare of the press in that early day in terms
that are still applicable to portion j of the Domin-
ion. He knows (jf but one public library in Can-
ada, which is kept in one of tli' apartments
of the Bishop's palace at Quebec. After some
remarks on the general taste for novel reading
among Canadian ladies he goes on to say that
happily their temptations are few, as few
new publications, good or bad, appear in Canada
and the bookstores contain chiefly " school-books
and a few old histories."

Mr. Lambert is not always correct and what
he says of libraries is not true of either (Quebec
or Montreal. In the latter a Library was
founded in 1796 which, after passing through
the hands of the Mercantile Library Association,
forms at present part of the collection in the
I'raser Institute. In Quebec a Public Library
was opened as early as 1785. In the year fol-
lowing Mr. Lambert's departure (1809) an impor-
tant addition was made to the newspaper
press of Montreal. The following obituary notice,
which appeared in the Montreal Gazette of Sep-
tember 9, 1818, sheds some light on the circum-
stances of its foundation : " Wearescjrry toliave
to perform the nielanchdly duty of announcing
to our n aders the death of Mr. Mungo Kay,
Editor of the Montreal Herald. He departed
this life on Sunday last (6lh September) at the
age of forty-three years, regretted by all his
acquaintances. His funeral was attended by a
numerous concourse of the most respectable
citizens. Mr. Kay had long been a respectable
merchant of this city. It is now nearly seven
years since he became Editor of the Herald.
To him ill a great degree the paper owes its birth ;
and it is but doing justice to his memory to say
that his talents and indefatigable industry have

CANADA: AN KNCYCLOP.KDIA.

ISI

made it at least one of tho most entertaining
journals of tlio two Provinces. His judicious
selections, his unwearied research and his efforts
to obtain the earliest intelligence liave more
than justilied his choice of motto — 'Animos
novitate tenebo.' " *

In the year iSz^ R. V. Sparhawk, of Montreal,
published a modest little volume entitled The
Widow vf lite Rock and other I'ocms. On the
title page it bears the following lines:
Ne cherchez point dans ce rec;it
L'esprit, le brillant, rcl()([iKn(L',
Je sens bien plus que jc le [joiise

(Deinouslier.)

A pathetic interest is attached to this little
book, now sought after by collectors in the States
as well as Canada. For the authoress of it was
the wife of that Harman lilennerhassett whom
Burr, in his ambition and jealousy, allured to his
ruin. The story is told in a bulky volume, pub-
lished by Clarke, of Cincinnati, under the title
of The Blcnneihiissctt Papers. In a letter to her
husband, then in England, Mrs. Blennerhassett
refers (i)age 6iy) to the little book which has
long been among the poetical incunabula of our
Canadian press. Blennerhassett wis attracted
to Montreal by a kind letter from h s old school-
fellow, the Duke of Richmond. He hoped to
obtain a Jud;;eship, but the Duke's melancholy
death upset his plans, and, after attempting to
win a practice in company with a Mi. Rossiter,
and meeting with but slight success, he left his
wife and family in Canada and (iSjj) started for
En;,'land. His wife followed him in 1825 and in
i8jl his death in Guernsey K f t her, like her
heroine, a widow. She subsequently returned
to New York, where she died in 1842 in the care
of tho Sisters of Charity. Of her poems TIte
Desert hlc (pp. 116-124) is a lament omt the
destruction, owing to Burr's treuson, of the
beautiful home of the Blenneihassetts near Mari-
etta, Ohio. Another is in memory of her grand-
father, General Agnew. Another is, "To a
Humming-bird (the fust seen by the author in
Canada)".

Another little book which is not without inter-
esting associations is the Odds and Ends of Robert
Sweeny, published in 1826. The author was a

•NoiK. 0\id : Mfi , 1.1). IV , vs. 284.

native of Ireland, of good family, who crossed the
Atlantic in i8i9,and, having settled in Montreal,
was for several years a prominent figure in legal
and social circles. He married a laily. Miss
Temple, of the circle with which ttie Blenner-
hasselts were intimate. While she was still in the
pride of her beaut\', Mr. Sweeny unhappily took
offence at the attentions of an officer of the
Montreal Garrison, challenged him and killed
him. The tragic result of the duel weighed on
his spirits, and his comparatively early death
left Mrs. Sweeny a widow while her charms were
still fresh. She took for second husband a young
lawyer named John Rose, who ultimately rose
to position, wealth and fame in Canada and
England, and was made a baronet. Lady Rose
died at Queen's Gate, Kensington, some years
before Sir John, regretted by a large circle of
friends. Sweeny's Udds and Ends is among the
prizes of the collector, but cannot be said to rank
very high as poetry.

The publication of The Huron Chief and other
Poems, by Adam Kidd, marks some advance
towards Canadian feeling. The author was
honoured by the recognition of the Literary and
Historical Society of Quebec, the foundation of
which, under the auspices of the Earl of Dal-
housie, was an event of importance in our
intellectual history. According to the late Hon.
William Vli'^jpard, who was President of the
Societ) .n -J4, 1S41, 1843 and 1847, it owed its
origin to .1 difference of opinion on political
matters between Lord Dalhousie and the Hon.
John Neiison. The Quebec Gazette, which was
owned by the latter, had the privilege by Act of
Legislature of publishing all official documents.
Ill order to have a paper of his own that he could
control, His Excellency invited to Quebec Dr.
John Charlton Fisher, at tiiat time co-editor of
the New York Albion, to take charge of his Gov-
ernment organ. Dr. Fislur had been a leading
member of the Literary and Historical Society
of New York, and, according to Mr. Sheppard,
he induced Lord Dalhousie to establish in Que-
bec a similar organization. Another President
gives a different account of the circumstances
under which the Society had its beginning. It
fell to Mr. .\hdrew Stuart, during his Presidency
in iN.^S, to ref^r to the then recent death of the

» ■• i»

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•''■ti

M

I'l,' T

:f

H'

15^

CANADA : AN* KXCYri.OP.V.niA.

noble fouiidc'r, anil ho saiil that, from the Jay of
his arrival in the country, the project hau occu-
pied His Excellency's thoughts. Relieving that
the time hud come when such an institution
might begin its career with some prospeit of
success, he concluded that the oldest of the
Colonies should h ive the distinction of giving it
a home. Accordingly, in the year i82j, he called
togethiT at the Caslle of St. Louis a number of
persons favourable to his design. In a short
address Kis Excellency set forth the advantages
likely to result from its formation, mentioning as
special topics of inquiry, the early history of
Canada and the languages and customs of the
aborigines.

The first meeting of the Society was held on
the 6th of January, 1824, when the election of
officers took place. The Earl of Dalhousie was
nominated Founder and Patron. The Hon. Sir
Francis ^. Burton, Lieutenant-Governor, was
elected President. Chief Justice the Hon.
Jonathan Sewell and M. Vallieres de Saint Real
were chosen Vice-Presidents. Mr. William
Green was elected Secretary and Dr. John
Charlton Fisher, Treasurer. From that day to
this the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec
has never ceased to labour for the promotion of
liie objects implied by its name. Iiideeil, from
the first, its aims and operations were more com-
prehensive than its name gave reason to expect,
and some of the members objected to the use of
the funds for oi)jic;3 not contemplated in its
oiganization. Others were dissatisfied with its
somewhat exclusive character and with the high
subscription. The result was the establishment
of the Society for Encouraging the Arts and
Sciences, of which Colonel Joseph Bouchette
was chosen President. This Society, while it
included a good many Enj^'lish members, was
largely patronized by the French-speaking citi-
zens, and, when in 1829 Sir James Kempt
brought about the amalgamation of the two
bodies, some of the French members withdrew.
Yet that the Literary and Historical Society was
intended to comprehend all worthy elements of
the population is evident, as Sir James LeMoine
p(jinted out from its charter as granted in 1831.
" It is the glory and privilege of the institution,"
says Sir James, himself fnr ninny yoars ont; of

its most active Presidents, " in acconlaiue with
the object of its Koyal charter, to offer to citizens
of all creeds and nationalities a neutral ground
sacred to intelhetual pursuits." This is fuither
proved by the nanus in that now veiieiable
document — a most interesting list. Mr. W. G.
Wicksteed, who liied some months ago at Ottawa,
in his g(jth year, was the last survivor. It is
woith mentioning that the rival .Society, during
its brief existence, offered prizes for poetry, the
English winner being William Fitz-Hawley. The
age of true poetry had not yet dawned for
Canada, but there were writers during the period
covered by the competitions of the Societies who
might have contributed essays on the condition
and prospects of the country equal perhaps to
those of the Hon. A. Morris and the unfortunate
Sheridan Hogan. That there was literary talent
in the Province at that time was proved by the
meteoric appearance of two noteworthy periodi-
cals— the Ciutadian Magazine and the Canadian
Review. The former was started in 1823 and was
discontinued in 1825 after the issue of the 24th
number. Each number contained ninety-six
pages, and they comprised some good reading.
The Review, which was issued at intervals from
July, 1824, till September, 1826, was more ambi-
tious. Following the pattern of its Eiij^iish
namesakes, it gave its readers, every time it
appeared, 240 paf,'es of multifarious and mostly
solid copy. The fate of these ventures was
destined to be the fate of most of their suc-
cessors.

The Literary and Historical Society was the
means of bringing into co-operation a large num-
ber of persons interested in science, literature,
history, education and, in a word, in the intellec-
tual progress of Canatla as a whole, and csfieci-
ally of the Province of Quebec. Its Transiutions
and Memoirs, now hard to find complete, affort! —
especially in the earlier volumes — a fair indication
of the intellectual Ci ndition and aspirations of
the Province. It was to be expected that, not-
withstanding the Society's name, the pursuits of
science should take precedence of literary criti-
cism and production, or historic research.
Among those who contributed papers on subjects
of scientific and economic interest during the
first gmeration of its existence may be mentioned

CANADA: AN KNCYCLOP.KDIA.

'5.5

Commainler (iiftcrwarcls Admiral) Ijajficld, h.n.;
Lieutenant (afterwards General) Haddeicy, the
Hon. W. Slicppard tiiid Mrs, Slieppard, tlie Hon.
("liief Justice Sevvcll, Dr. Kelley, U.S.; Major
Meiccr, K.A.; Mr. A. Stuart, Captain (afterwards
Sir) Richard Honnycastle, the Hon. A. \V. Coch-
rane, Lieutenant Ashe, K.N., f.k.a.s., and Mr. F.
N. Hoxer, c.ii. The pap.rs of tliese members
may, for the most part, be still read with protit,
as, even where the advance of scientific discovery
and invention has rendered their conclusions
rather obsolete, their data are mostly of value, if
for nothing else, as marking a stage in our
progress. If in the contributions — in which the
officers of Her Majesty's Army and Navy evi-
dently did their share — the purpose of the Society
as implied in its name was sometimes forgotten,
the memoirs or historical manuscripts made up
for the amission. These are still among the
most important documents of their kind bearing
upon our history to the close of the War of 1812-

15.*
A new class of contributors was addeil during

the middle years of the Union rc-gime when
literary subjects began to assume a certain
prominence. Before the end of that regime
we notice that Canadian literature had attracted
attention through both French and English
members. One of the ablest of these as a con-
tribution was that of the Hon. Hector Fabre, for
many years Canada's rei)icsentative at [hi-
I'rench capital. It was written on the eve
of Confederation and was of a piulosopbic tone
of reflection and forecast in keeping with sucii
a crisis. He spoiie of the influence on each
other of the two races ; of French verve and Brit-
ish calm, French impetuosity and British good
sense, so mutually inter-acting as to generate
a society not French nor English, nor yet Amer-
ican, but Canadian. He spoke of the ineradi-
cable influence of race in his fellow-coMntrymen,
modified by long separation from French litera-

*\OTR. Amoiit; the writers of rrilii-al or historiral pafiers may
be iiiontionL(l Dr. W. |. Aiiduisipii, Dr. William-, Hi hop
of (Quebec, Mr. (mow Sir) ). M. l.cMoiiio, Or. K .\. .MiTcditli,
Mr. K. T. Hclchcr, D.. Ilcnry II. Miles, Ur. Cicoryc .Siiwarl,
I'roles.sor Douglas, Mr. John Laii(;ton, Dr. John HariK'r, .Mr.
William Clint, Mr. [ames Stevenson, Mr. Arthur Harvey and
several others. In a letter dated November 17, 1S7S, to Mr.
(now Sir) |. .\1. LeMoine, the late l-'rancis I'aritman expressed
a high opinion ol the work of the Soc ety in colltcling and
printing hi.stoiical nie.iioirs.

ture, by a stronger than oldl'rtnch adhesion
to the religion of their fathers and by British
institutions and balanced freedom. The British
had so far been re-enforced by immigration,
but as the influx from the old countries declined,
native influences would grow, and the literature
of Canada, when it came, would have a note
of its own, whether French or English. ^L Fabre's
remarks on the I'rench language as spoken
in Quebec are woith reading from the Anglo-
Canadian as well as the Franco-Canadian point
(if view.

The Hon. Thoinas White.

Whin the Society was celebrating its fiftieth
anniversary, Mr. James Douglas, Jr , the Tresi-
dent, gave a smvcy of the intellectual progress
of Canada during the preceding half century.
In 1824 (according to the Canadian Rcvicic) there
were twelve newspapers published in Lower
Canada ; four in Quebec, seven in Montreal and
one in Stanstcad. In 1874 there was a total
of eighty-eight newspapers and peric;dicals of all
kinds published in the Province. These were
classed as daily (u), tri-weekly (li), semi-

..I

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■ • ,'

111

%

. I

>5

CANADA: AN I'.NCVCl.OIM.ltlA.

«•■ '

^1

\vc(.kly( J), weekly (41), scini- monthly (i), moiitlily
(171, (luaitcily (.{). 'I'll, it till! ^mwtli iiiduatt'd
iliiiing the {Ktiuil tii (|iicstK)n \v:i!4 diiu in suuiu
MK-asiirc t(j tliu iinpiilso givi-n by Coiifuileration
iii.iy bo inroticil from the I'DSt-OHico ri'tiiriis for
ibiUj anil 1N73 ii siK'ctivcly. In tlio former yiar
the ro:U-(.)liico distribiitiil 14,000,000, in llu,'
latter, 25,480,000, ncwspape: s. In comnuntiiiK
on these fi.i,Mire3 in the year l^J^, Mr. l)oi:),'!a3
said: "Newspaper literature is, tlurefoie, tin;
chief ujental pabulum of our people. What,
then IS its character?" lie tlun instituteil
a Comparison brtwcen the i)ress of the United
States and th.it of (lieat Ihitain, in which
he {(ave the former the credit for generous enter-
prise in secuiini; news though, in his opinion,
most of it was of little interest or importance.
" l)Ut the editorial pa^e," he continued, " instead
of being occupied with calm and dignilied dis-
cussions on leading questions, contains, besides
some l.irj^er articles, a number ofisol.ited para-
graphs criticizing current events and prominent
men with a fierce party bias and an utter disregard
I'or the feelings of individuals, not to say of truth.
These comments, though striking, often startling,
are too tlippant in tone to bo consistent with the
responsibilities of journalism."

Ml. Douglas used tiie foregoing comparison to
rebuke the excesses aiul defects of the C'anailian
press. " It is to be regretted," he said, "that
our own papers have imitated the American
rallier liian the English tyiie. When we con-
sider the position of a newspaper in a small
community, we really see that it labours under
peculiar disadvantages. It can with difiiculty be
independent. Therefore, too geiurally our news-
papers, out of fear or friendship, lavish piaise
wliere n-) praise is (hie, and refrain from censure
and e.Nposiire where gtave abuses call for blame."
I\Ii. Douglas then surviyed the attempts that had
been made from time to time to establish a peri-
odical which would represent the higher culture
of the English-speaking community. A short
sketch of one of these which had a certain po|)u-
larit\- in its day may lulp to illustrate the literary
aspiration, and to some extent the achievement,
of an important transition period in the intellec-
'lovince of Oucbec.

tual history of the 1'

Towards the close of the half ceiiturv of c

on-

llirt wliieh furtned the regime of tho Constitu-
tional Ai t, Mr. John Lovell established a peiioil-
ical wliK h, though not as aml>itious as the Ctiiui-
diiin M<if;ii::iiie or Canadian Review, already nun-
tioneii, had greater vitality and attracted seme
noteworthy contrilnitors. It was naimd the
l.iLiciiy (iailiiiid. Mr. John (iibson, who was
connected by marriage with Mr. Lovcll, undertook
tlie I'.ilitordiip and ct)ntinued in charge of it
until his (KmiIi. He was also a prominent writer
for the Ciatland. The first issue appeared in
December, i>S.i8, and the last in December, 1851,
iho period (if duration being ilivided into two
series. The hist of these consisted of four v-'irb'
volumes ending with the year 184^ ; tho secoml
comprised the nine succeedii.g years. There are
thus thirteen volumes in all. During the final
)ear Mr. Gibson was assisted in his editorial
task by Mrs. Cushing, a lady of maii^- gifts and
virtues, daughter of Dr. Foster, of Hrighton,
Mass., and wife of Dr. b'rederiek Cushing. This
lady died in .Montreal at the age of ninety-one in
May, 1SS6. She had been from the first a steady
contributor to the Garland, a.'^ was also her sister,
Mrs. Cheney, afterwards for many years joint
Editor with Mrs. Cushing of the Suowdrop, a
well-conducted child's niaga/ine. Among the
other contributors to the Literary Garland iiuiy be
mentioned Mr. \V. J. Fennings Taylor, whose
imposing figure is not forgotten in circles that he
frequented. Ho wrote under the ituin dc f^ucrrc
of " Erasmus Old Style." Other writers for the
magazine were Mr. Hugh E. Montgomerie, Agent
for the Allan Line, whose pseudonym was " Ed-
wartl Hngomont " ; Mr. Andrew Robertson, lon_g
a respected member of the business community
of Montreal, and his brother, Mr, George Robert-
son ; Mr. James Holmes, brother of Dr. Andrew
Holiiiis for many years Dean of the Medical
Faculty of McGill University ; Dr. William Dun-
lop, well known as a contributor to Blackicood's
and Frasd's Ma^^azinc, and of whose eventful and
erratic caieer much might be said ; Mr. William
Spink, an official of tiie Legislature; Mr. Andrew
L. I'icken, uncle of Mr. E. Picken, a respected
Montreal bookseller ; Mr. George Macrae, a
Montreal advocate, who wrote under the name of
"Sylvio"; the Rev. Henry Gilesand his talented
wife, another sister of Mrs. Chenev ; Mr. Charles

CANADA: AN KNCYCI.OI'.KDIA.

i^SS

Saii(,'ater,* tlie poet ; Mr. (afterwanls Sii) 1'. d.
Johnson ; Mrs. McLadilan, wife of Colonel Mc.
Lailil.in, K.A., a l.idy adiiiiicd iid less fur lur pci-
sunal ciiatnis tlia'i for litirary ability and cntliii-
siasni ; Dr. Von Iflland ; Mrs. J. K. Spooncr ;
Colonel J. \V. D.and Mrs. Moodie and her sister,
Mrs. Traillt —both these lailiis beiiifj sistera of
Allies Strieklaiul, aiitiior of The (Jmcns of Hu^-
/<i>ii/ and other well-known works; Miss K. E.
Mnllins, aflcrwaids well-known as Mrs. Lepro-
hoii, wife of Dr. J. I.iikin Leprtihon, for many
years \'ice-Consid for Spain at Montreal; tlu;
Kev. Josei)h Abbott, fatiier of Sir J. J. C. Abbott,
Sir Jf)hii Maedon.ild's successor as Pritne Minis-
ter of Canada; the Kev. A. II. liiirwell aiitl
several others. No Knfjlish-speakin},' Iliistonl:
has had the happy thoiif,'ht of ransacknig our
earlj' nia^a^ines ami newspapirs so ;is to roinpiie
a representative collection of the writiufjs in
prose and verse of the pioneer perioil of our liter-
ature. Doubtless, it would be feasible to KathiT
material of sufficient quantity and value to form
four volumes correspondiuf^ to those of the Ri'f-
erioire. Such a collection would be pri/ed for
other reasons than literary merit and if the close
of the Union perioil, instead of 1S4S, were made
the terminus ad quern, such merit mifjht not be
entirely abpent, and we should also find S(jme of
our work aireaily done for us.

Three years before we began to keep Dominion
Day, the Kev. Dr. Dcwart published his Sclcciiuns
from Canadiiin Poets. In 1863 was biouj^ht out
the largo volume entitled Geolo'^y of Canada, giving
the ri'Siilts of twenty years' woikof the Geologi-
cal Survey, established in 184J. In 1827 the
Natural History Society was founded in Montreal.

•NoTK. Mr. Lovell afterwards piinted Jli/'fnts and olh<>
Poems for Mr. Sangsler. I'oels are rarely rich and a l>alancc
remained unpaid which Mr Lovell had entirely forgotten, when
one day he rectived a remittance from Sanijster with the full
amount. The poet had been appointed to a Tost OlVice Depart-
ment clerkship at Ottawa, and one of his first thoughts on this
accession of good fortune was to pay the printer. He had more
than the reward of a good conscience, A |>rinter, the I Inn.
Thomas White, helpel Sangster, though he was not in his Depart-
ment, to secure what he acknowledged to be a (air pension on his
retirement.

tNoTE. Mrs. Catherine Parr Traill, who is the oldest living
author in Her Majesty's dominions, having been born in London
on the 9th of January, 1802, resides at Likefield, Ontario. Sh-;
began her literary career at ihe age of lifieen.

tl( Ki'l'trtoire National, oit Kecueilde I.itthaliiie Canaiiienne,
Compile par J. Huston, appeared in iS.jS. A new edition ably
edited by the Hon. Judge Kiuthier, I'.R.s.c, was published in
1893 by J. M. Valois \ Co.

Not till thirty years later dill the Canadian Xat-
iiralist and Geologist begin its career with Mr. E.
Millings as l'".ditor. In the following year it be-
came the oigan of the Natural History Society.
Although old science, however good in its day,
is not as precious as the best old literature of its
kind, thtiK; is a good dial that is of interest and
value in the early Voliiiins of the iWitiinilist and
the ptiblicatimi of the Cteoloj^y of Canada marked
a fresh stage in otir seieiitilic and eeunomic prog-
ress. It is also noteworthy that the year in
whieli Dr. Dewart's Selections saw the light was
the centennial year of Quebec journalism. It
saw moreover the beginning of that eventful
Confederation movement of which tin; Hon. Col-
onel (}ray has in part written the history, deem-
ing It wise, perha|)s, to leave incomplete the
record of a system that is still developing. The
press had been at work for a htiiidred years.
What were its fruits? Certainly Messrs. Hrown
and Gilmore had planted well. Their experiment
thrived ami endured. Hut one would like to
know whether something exceptionally conserva-
tive in the f:;ciiitis loci had not combined with
Scottish and otiur thrift and foresight in endow-
ing Qtubec Province with so many long-lived
journals. Even so, the older press of the Prov-
ince has done a work that might have been worse
d.)ne, though in that centennial year there was
doubtless cousiiierable room for improvement.

Apart from journalism, the offspring of the
Qtii bee press during that changeful century com-
prised in literature very little of permanent in-
terest. Its earliest issues have come to have
considerable value for the collector of Canadiana.
My mandate confines my attention to those writ-
ten in English by Anglo-Canadians. Of works
of a political, constitutional or economical char-
acter, like those of Francis Mastires, of books of
travel and exploration, like those of Long, Henry,
Mackenzie, the Simpsons and others ; of the
writings o{ earlv tourists, like Weld, Lambert,
the Due de Kochefoucault-Liancourt, and others
who have taken Canada in their rotites ; of the
large number of pamphlets — some of them highly
interesting — dealing with controversies of the
day; of geographical and descriptive works, like
Bouchette's; of papers written to be read before
societies and clubs; of scientific treatises, writ-

>

'51

I

IS6

CANADA: AN KNCVClA)!'.! Dl A.

i

ten fur the (general reader — of nil these Classen of
IiodUs it '\A ailvisaMu to take note in a review
of this kiiiil, wlicu they an; dircjclly or imhrectiy
the |)ro(hict of Canadian tlioiij;ht, observation or
iiiiiiistry. Tlu-y an; to liiat extent in tlio line of
Canada's fjener d intellei tiial development. It is
at the same time necessary to discriniinato be-
tween what is merely of utility nnd that which
has claims npon onr approval for its merits of
style. Mxainples of litcruitire in the tcsthetic or
critical, as distinguished from the technical,
sense, cannot be said to abound in the product
of the Canadian press or of Canadian thought
or fancy during the tiist century of its operation.
Nor is this greatly to be wondered at when it is
recalled that at the outset there was no English
speaking society at all, and that when such a
comtnunity w.is formed, it was necessarily at
(irst of alien birth and education; that its pur-
suits were for a long time essentially industrial
and comi cial, anil that it was only by slow
decrees l"<a ''erary aspiration and the spirit of
devotion to Canada bec.ime so happily allied as to
promise the best fruits of intellectual culture. A
hasty survey of the century indicated (1764-
iN64) will prepare us for the developments of
tiie more hopeful a;,'i! on which we have now
entered.

Let us begin hcie with the field of history.
.Mtliough George Heriot's Hhtory of Caiuulu,
based on that of Charlevoix, has some right to
be regarded as a work of Canadian origin, its
author having hell for some years the position
of Deputy Postmaster-General of Hritisli Noiih
America, it is to William Smith that the credit
ipf having written the first English History ol
Canada is generally assigned. The work was
not published until 1826, a fact which is strangily
inconsistent witii the date on the title page.
Tliat of the first volume reads as follows: " His-
tory of Canada from its I'irst Discovery to the
Peace of 1763, By William vSmith, Esquire;
Clerk of the Parliament and Master in Chancery
of tlie Pn/vime of Lower Canada. Vol. i, Qne-
l)ec; Printed for the Author by John Neilson."
Ilie secuiid Volume brings the record down to
the year 1791. In a le'ter which is in the pos-
session of Mr. Henry Mott, assistant Librarian
of the Kcdpatli Library, McGill University,

Montreid, the author of the history writes
to Mr. Stipheii S<\\ell at Montreal, under
d.ite of l)e(end)er jj, iHii, stating that his
lonfj delayed history would ap|iear about the
5tli of January following. I'mm the dctaiU
that III! gives of its si/e, it is more than lli;ely
that ho refers to the first volume only. A
memorandum on the letter says that the book
was not printed until 1M15 and " then from some
unknown cause was not allowed to make its
appearance in the world for many years after,
viz , 111 iSj()." In a note on page ^Cyj of his

Philippe Aiilvrt i1e Ga^prf.

J^\sai lie Biblioj^raphic Canadicuuc, M. Pliilcas
Ciagnon cites liiUaii.i's Jlililictlu-ijiic Cmiitdieunc
vn Aiinalfs }iiblli'f;ra/)liujius (Montreal, 1.^51^), as
stating that there was a third volume winch
brought the history down to the year 1M15. He
also reprodiires an announcement that a|i|>eart.d
in the Monlnuil IhiaU of August 9th, iMjO, in
which tlie work is said to be " now first publisheil
and for sale by Neilson and Cowan, No. _j Moun-
tain Street, in two volumes Royal .S vo., in iioards,
price iGs." The edition consisted of only 300

I

CAN'AKA; AN KNCVCI.Ol'.KDI A.

<S7

copiuii — which uccoiintH, M. Gu^ikjii says, Im tliu
■carcity of tlio work.

In his prcfiicu, biiiith itayA that hu began thu
naiiativu (lur wliic li lit* modestly ilicliiieH to
claiiu till! i.ink oi iiistni \) nolcly for his piivatu
usu. IIu is not coinplnneiitary to hid siiUjuct,
however. "I well kiicsv," ho writes, " (thai) the
del, lit of the oecurniices uf an in. misiileiahtu
Colon), su loni; stiii^^liii),' in its biilli, (ouKI
afford but htllu anuiHuinent to K^'»tlt^'><i' >> of
taste." iWit the solicitation uf his fiieiids at
len;;th pK v.tded, and he consented to |Miiit what
hu li.id written, in thu hope that it would Iju setv-
iceable to thu public. Me assure.s his reailurs
that he collecti'd Ins ni.itt-rials fiuui the MioKt
authentic documents an<l h.is nairaletl the simple
truth without partiality or prejudice. In closing
the second vuhiino he says that when or wheru a
historian has been led into errors, the oiilv atone-
ment hti can inaku is, upon correction, to retract
them. Notwithstaiiilin^ thcsu profus-siona uf a
desire to be fair, Mr. Smith did not always give
satisfaction. His history is valuable, neverthe-
less, fur the important documents, not generally
accessible elsewhere, a'rantjod in an appeiuli.x in
the first, and less conveniently rele^'ateil to page
after page of foot notes in the second, volume.

The History by Ileriot was published in 1804
and, though mainly a condensed version uf Char-
levoix (later translated by Shea), must have been
welcome to English readers at that time. (Can-
adians put a higher price to-day on his Tnnels
(1807), in which hu has preserved some precious
facts concerning the pioneer conditions of the
newer Canada of that time. An English reviesv
of the work furnishes an example of thu qualities
which, though they cause a book to be slighted
by the author's contemporaries, m;iy considerably
enhance its value for posterity. The review
in question connnends, though not very warndy,
the first part of the book, but pronounces the
second half absolutely useless. On what ground,
it may be asked, does the English reviewer thus
condemn Mr. Ileriot's labourious chapters?
Because therein "we h;ive a detail of the lakes,
rivers and cataracts, the villages, farmhouses and
townships of Canada, considerably more minute
(need we say how much less interesting ?) than
we possess of the County of Northumberland."

There couhl bo no more emphatic recommenda-
tion to a Canadian in search of inlormatioii
regarding thu cradle time of his beloved rountiy
th.m this disdainliil rejection of .Mr. lleriut'ii
topogr.iphical ri:duiidancies.

Thu works of Joseph lluuchettu have a recog-
nized Value which time does not diminiHh.
I'or, althoiiLdi more recent Jjooks contain a gie.it
deal of the geo^iaphii.il and st.itisla.il iufnima-
tion that Mr. Houchettu collected in the course
of his (irofissional piii suits, there are features
in these stately volumes that cannot well be repro-
diiceil and no Canadian library is complete with-
out a lull set of his writings and his maps.
Joseph Koiicliette, whose name was mentioned
in comiection with the foiimlation and early years
of the Literary iind Historical Society of ( Juebec,
was the son (if that Commodore Uouchette who
rendered such good service to Sir (iuy Catleton
(Lord Dorchester) diuiiig thu " li.istounais "
invasion of 1775. In his seventeenth year he was
placed with his m;iternal uncle, Major Holland,
one of Wolfe's oliiccrs and dear friends, and
so proliteil by the training and example of his
kinsman that, after the hitter's reliremtnt,
he was soon able to take his place as Surveyor^
General of liritish North America. He reiulereil
excellent service during the War of 1812-15 "'i^'
was, apart from his career as an engineer and
a soliliiT, a public-spirited and patri(jtic citizen.
His loyalty to thu Crown of England was beyoml
(piestion and it is noteworthy that, in dedicating
his Tiipof^raphical Dictionary of Lower Caitada
to King William IV. in l8}2, he describes the
Province as " onu of Great Britain's most happy
and most flourishing Colonies." When it is borne
in niinil that the agitation which had so deplor-
able an issue a lustrum later was then nearing
its culmination, it would seem as though Mr.
Bouchette considered the complaints of grievances
then prevalent to be greail^ cviggerated.

Thu writings of Francis Masereb, fi^r some time
{lyGG-iyGij) Attorney-C^ieneral of the Province of
^}uel)ec and later Cursitor Baron of he Exche-
quer in England, threw a good deal of light on
the contlict of opinion during a most critical
period of thu development of British institutions
in the Colony. Dr. Kingsford thus sums up his
contributions to the controversies of his day :

!(

n

11

158

CANADA ; AN ENCYCLOl'-KDIA.

" He publislied a volume containing many uf the
Acts and Reports of the time, includint; his own
Report presented to Carleton and liis remarks
following,' Carleton's rejjc on of it, stj leil by him,
* Collection of Several Commissions, 1772.' Two
\ 'omes fjlloweil : 'An account of the I'roceed-
in{,ijOi' t!iR Diili-ih and other Protestants of the
Pr. .incp of Quebec to obtain a House of Assem-
bly in that Province,' 1775. TlicCuniulian I'lee-
huldcr appeared in three volumes in 1777, in
which he discussed the influence of the Quebec
Act and its provisions, upon Canada. Tliere is
also a volume of occasional Ess; . ', published in
1S05, twelv. of which relate to the American con-
test and to Canadian afl'airs. Maseres' great
ability and honesty of purpose are clearly estiib-
lished by his writings ; but his strong prejudices
obscured his judgment and his sense of justice.
He failed to see any question without the warp
which his Huguenot lineage and his strong
Protestant sentiment imparted to it."

There is a consiiierable number of works that
come more or less correctly under the head of
history, and which are at least worthy of mention
in a review of this kind. Dr. Kingsforti, in his
Canadian ArcJuEulo^y, has a curious note about the
borrowing and failure to return certain manu-
scripts by Willam Smith, the historian, from
Mr. William Lindsay, formerly Collector of
Customs at St. John's, P.Q. The same Mr.
Lindsay contributed to the Canadian AVv(Vu-'(i8-4)
a ''Narrative of the Invasion of Canada by 'he
Americans in 1773." The records of travel and
discovery by Sir Alexander Mackenzie, John Long
^the interpreter), Alexander Henry, Gabriel Fran-
chere, may nil, for one reason or another, be
comprised in Oueb.- :'s bibli ^raphy. Long learned
at Montreal and Cauglinaw.^uga the rucli.nents
of his training as trader and Indian dragon • ,,
Sir Alexander set out on tl.c great quest that has
iininortalized his nr-nefrom the City of Montren'.
He iry ((jf v horn there is a full biogr;;i)hy in th-
C inadian Maij;a::i"C and F.itcraiy h\p..>sit(»y, 1 ■ >,-
:5) w;is a i.Iontreal merchant after he hail found
rot for the sole of his foot. iJooks like Weld's
Travel's and those of Lambert, aheady referred
to, arecf interest to the stiuiei'.t of L. .verC.irn'a's
(jevelopiiient, but they do not belong exclusively
to the Province of Quebec, nor cvlH to Canada.

Isaac Weld visited Quebec and Montreal in 1797,
and he has left interesting accounts of the scenes
and people that came under his observation.
More than half a cerlury later, his half brother,
Charles Richard Weld, visited the same scenes,
and dedicated his Vacation Tciir in the United
States and Canada to his still surviving kinsman.
He tells us in his opening chapter that Isaac
Weld's Travels became for many years the chief
authority in the old world for matters in the new
and had been translated into the various
languages of Kurope.

A little bt)ok which, though printed in Upper
Canada, belongs to Lower Canada both by the
residence of the author and the subjects of which
it treats is The f^oicer Canada Watchman, pub-
lished at Kingston, U.C. The writer signs him-
self simply "T.L.C.W.," which are evidently the
initials of the book. It consists of a series of
letters on questions of the day — mainly tiie Ad-
ministration of Lord Dalhousie — in some copies
numbering ten, in others twelve. The letters, at
least the ten letters of the first edition, appeared
in the K' gston Chronicle, and, in his preface, the
author spates that it was at the request of the
Editor of the Chronicle that he had them pub-
lished in book form. He gives that gentleman
much credit for his courage and independence.
" At a time when every other press was mute ; at
a time when the natural timidity of office shrank
from the scowl of authority, this man alone,"
says T.L.C.W'., "had the intrepidity to brave
popular vengeance and public obloquy." The
auliior has some claim to a like character. He
has certainly the courage of liis convictions,
writes with vigour and lucidity and was plainl}-
a man of education wiio had gi>'en much study
to consti'i-.tional history and practice and took an
increasing interest in the controversies of his
time. Ml. H. J. Morgan ^'Jibtiotheca Canadensis)
assigns the authorship of the volume t<j Mr.
David Ciiishcjlme, a native of Rosshire, Scotland,
who died in Montrea) in 1S42 in his 47th year,
having spent twenty yi ars in Canada. He was
for a time iCditor of the Montreal (urwitc and was
esteemed (and this little bo-^k conhrms the esti-
mate) an able jonrnnlist.*

"N'oTB. I am inilelited foe luy copy ul llie I.fl-uicr Ciiiunia
Wall lii.iiinXo Mr. F. Jnhnston, Secretary of ihe Queliec Exchange.
A vulume uf papers by David Chisholme was purchased Iroiii iiis

■ "'t

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOIMsDIA.

To the same writer is attributed an incom-
plete account of tiie events of the risinf,'s of ihjj
and i8j8 entitled " The Annals of Canada." It
must not be confounded with " The Political
Annals of Lower Canada, being a Review of
the Pohtica' and Legislative History of that
Province," by a " Hritish Settler." This book,
published in Montreal in 1828 (the year before
the publication in book form of the Lower Ciiniula
Watchman), was written by Mr. John Fleiiiiug,
author of the Jubilee Oile, to which reference has
already been nuule. There are a good many such
Manoirh pour Servir that might be mentioned.
The pamphlet literature of the period is also
worthy of nu;ntion. The letters of " Veritas,"
first published in the Herald (Montreal, 1815),
and then brought out separately in both Montreal
and Glasgow, are still of disputed authorship.
They were written by a man who was well-
informed as to the matters on which he ventured
to express an opinion. As a rule adverse criticism
by anonymous writers of persons who hold or
have held authority and who possess influence
with the sources of power and honour is rejected,
as evidence, both by public and historian. But
Veritas justified his assumed name with many
unprejudiced readers and the impression that the
Letters imparted to many on their first appear-
ance in April-June, 1815, is still the impression
that they convey to the impartial historian.
And, although his family found friends at Court,
the reputation of Sir George Prevost, as Governor
and soldier, never wholly recovered from the
charges of his nameless assailant. The printer
of the above, William Gray, in the same year,
1815, brought out ''Nerva: or a Collection of
papers published in the Montreal Herald." This
collection, ascribed to Mr. Justice Gale, was " re-
printed by particular desire." Boih these pamph-
lets have become extremely rare.

For a tentative list of the pamphlets of all
kinds dealing with Can;ulian questions during
the first century of the Canadian press the
reader may consult ihe second volume of the
Catalogue of the Library of Parlianicut. published

widow by the Government. These documents — proclamations,
commissions, inslructions, etc , — hud been collected by Mr. Chis-
holme with the intention of writing a History of Lower Canada,
a purpose which his comparatively early death prevented him car-
rying out.

by order of the Legislature in 1857 ami 1858.
There are in all fifty volumes of pamphlets and
brochures. Some of them are of extreme impor-
tance to the student of history ami of these a good
many relate to the affairs of this Province
exclusively. Others again are of a divided piuport
affecting Upper Canada, the Old Land or, in some
instances, the Maritime Provinces, the United
States or other for'.'ign countries, as much
as the Lower Province. One of them is Lord
Durham's Report—of which two copies, one
French and one English, are within reach of my
hand — and there around them is a battle of the
brochures. To us of to-day it is a battle more
than Patroclean, for all the issues are dead, and
yet it is surprising what a store of dormant
vitality some of those dead issues keep some-
where in reserve. Save to the histo'-ian, or now
and then to the politician, this mass of pamphlet
literature is of little interest. Yet for vigourous
writing, sound principles, and learning often
most comprehensive, some of the old dust-
covered, forgotten pamphlets surpass many
a more ambitious and longer-winded work.*

Robert Christie is best known by his History
0/ the Province of Lou'er Canada, his latest work,
which only reached completion in the year before
his death. His career as a historian dates from
the year 1818, when he published his Memoirs
of the Craig aiul Prevost Administrations (1S07-
1815), which he subsetiiieiitly extended so as to
embrace the whole period from the Conquest
to the close of the Sherbrooke Administration.
In iS.ig he published a monograph on Lord
Dalhousie's Governorship, including that of
Lieutenant-Governor Sir Francis N. Burton
(;.c.H. But his History of the Province, begun
in 1848 and finished in 1855, comprises tlie
events related in the preceding monographs and
brings the record down to the end of the Con-
stitutional Act regime. It is embraced in five
volumes and a volume of Pieces jnsti/icaiircs.
The title of the first volume gives a very good
notion of the scope and character of the work:

*For the punplilct, as fur the other lileramrc of the amo-
Confcdcraiion pcrinl, Mort^an's /UhliotinuaCanatUKsis isa treasury
of l<no>\li'i|(;c. Uf the vaIuo of M. I'hiioas i.',."^\\o\\^ Jisiai dc-
JiMioi^ tif/iii- Caitiuiicnue it is noodloss to speak. \\ hat he has
compr.sed under the head of bibli' i;raphy is of yrcat importance
10 colleclors. Vm\ IJiK'bec I'rovmce the Catalogiici ol the
l.ej;is;alivc Library are, ol cour>e, instructive.

. '::^'

■ -M

irH

,1'

i. ,- >
1 )>

, I

>us

i6o

CANADA: AN ENCVCLOIVKDIA.

" A Ilistoij' of tlio late Province of Lower
Canada, Parliamentary ami Political, fioiu the
coiiuiiencenicnt to tlie close of its existence
as a sepaiate Province; einbracinj^ a period
of fifty years, that is to say, from the erection
of the Prt)vince in 1797 to tlio e.\tiii,L;iiir.hineiit
thereof in i^-fi, ami as 'vc-iinion with Upjier
Canada, by Act of the Imperial Parlianunt, in
consequence of the pret<:nsions of the liepie-
seiitatne Assembl)' of the Province and its
repudiation in 1.^,57 of the Constitution as by law
established, and of the Rebellion to whicii these
gave rise in that and the lollosving year; with
a variety of inleresliiij,' notices, tiiiancial, statis-
tical, hist;'nc;d, etc., available to the future
historian of North America, inchidiiiga prefatory
sketch of the Province of yuebec, from the
Comiuest to the passing of the Quebec Act
in 1774, and thence to its division in 1791
into the Provinces of Upper ami Lower Canada ;
with details of the militaiy and naval operations
therein during the late war with the United
States; liilly explaining also tiie difficulties with
respect to the Civil List and other matters;
tracing from origin to outbreak the disturbances
which led to the re-union of the two Provinces.
By Robert Christie. In three volumes. Vol.
I. piiclnc: printed and published by T. Cary
cS: Co., Booksellers and Stationers, 1848."

It will be seen that the author, in his forecast,
contemplated a work of three volumes. The
second volume begins with the Administration
of Sir G. Prevost in 181 1. Before he had fin-
ished the second, Mr. Christie found that his
three-volume scheme was impracticable unless
he forewent the opportunity of inchuiing in his
history documents of which he became aware
during his researches, and the publication of
which would materially enhance its value. A
" Notice "' published at the beginning of the third
vc'ume explains this. From the bulk of that
voiume it looks as if an attempt had been nuule
to complete the wor'v therewith. But, although
It ce'itains over 150 pages more than volui..e two,
theapp^-iidix ' p';r to it had to be assigned to
the ensuii.gvolunic. In that voliime(I\'.)another
" Notice " was found necessary. " It was origi-
nally my intention ", savs the author, " that tins
compilation should consist of only three volumes,
but here, however, is the fourth, which, notwith-
standing every desire to compress the whole
matter into the smallest possible spa-.e, and to
closi- the undertaking, only reaches to the auiumii

of i8j7, including the affairs of St. Denis, .St.
Charles and Moore's Corners, extinguishing the
Rebellion of that year, soutii of the St. Lawrence.
That of St. Eiistache, with its incidents, and the
events of the three following 3'(;ars, with a copi-
ous appendix of very interesting papers, for the
most part not hitherto published, will constitute
the fifth and final volume."

The " Nt)tice " of the tilth volume shows that
Mr. Christie was not yet assured that the goal
was in sight ami he did not venture to aftix his
fi)iis at tlie close of either text or appendix. Still
he clearly considered it the end of the work so
far as he had himself any relation or comment to
make. " This volume", he writes, " terminates
an undertaking which, whatever critics and the
fastidious in liteiature may think of it, has cost
considerable labour and time, without any expec-
tation, or indeed desire, of a pecuniary return. It
is, and from the commencement was intended as,
a votive offering by a native colonist of a different
Province from that of his adoption, and will be
found a faithful record of the principal political
matters in Lower Canada during the fifty years
of its existence as a separate Province ami Gov-
ernment." After a word about the authent' 'ty
of the sources of information, Mr. Christie pays
the following tribute of honour to his printers:
" I I lust not, however, while proclaiming my own
disinterestedness in a pecuniary sense, in this
publication, forget to acknowledge the obli^ati(jns
under which I am towards my friends and {)ub-
lishers; in the first place, Mr. Thomas Cary, for
the impression of the first throe volumes, and in
the next to Mr. John Luvell, for this and thepre-
ceeding volume. It is entirely to the puMic
spirit and liberality of these gentlemen that I owe
the impression of the work, which I should not,
indeed, could not, have undertaken at my own
expense, and nhich, at no inconsiilerable risk to
themselves, they generously assumed, and whicli
I beg them to be assured I am very sensible of
and justly ajipreciate." He then speaks some-
what vaguely of a supplemental voluuie of public
documents. The delay tlul not, however, prove
so long as he seemed to ap|)reheiid that it would,
for ill the loUowing jear (1-^5 ^^ lie had the happi-
ness of dedicating that extremely valuable volume
of Lower ( inadian archives to the members ol

if

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOIMIDIA.

i6t

the Joint Committee of the Library of Parliament
in token of the readiness and hberality with
which they met iiis puipose. Utterly unadorn^id
as it is, Robert Christie's History of tlic Ptjvince
of Quebec, during its fifty years of isolation with-
out tranquillity, has a value that every student of
his country's development must recopjnize. Gar-
neau and Bibaud cover the same ground but they
do not supersede it.

" The Rise of Canada from Barbarism to
Wealth and Civilization " is tlie ambitious title
of a work of which the first and only volume
appeared in the very year that saw the completion
of Mr. Christie's undertaking. The author,
Charles Rof^er, a native of Scotland, had settled
in Otuhcc in 1842 and had bect)me well-known
as a journalist. In the preface e sets forth at
some leiif^th his ideas of what a History of Can-
ada ouylit to be. But before the book was
printed Mr. John M. McMullen, of Brockville,
had produced a History of this country from its
discovery to the present time, almost as if he had
been iniluenceil by motives simil'. uoihose which
influenced Mr. Rof,'er. The latter compares his
History with Mr. McMuUeii's. "His pictures,"
he savs, "are not my pictures, nor his sentiments
my sentiiiKnts. The bcxjks, although the farts
are the same and necessarily derived from the
same sources, are essentially different. He is
most elaborate in the be^'inning and becomes
more and more particular with regard to details
toward the close; I expand with the expansion of
the counti}-."* In four chapters Mr. Roger
brings the record of Canada's "Rise from Bar-
barism to Wealth and Civilization " down to the
departure of Lord Ualhonsie, and then he ceased
expanding, leaving the count' y to exjiand without
his assistance. He has a ilueni style and, when
he understood what he was writing about, his
pages are readable. But the history of Canatia

•NoTR. Mr. McMullen's l)Ook, as it issiail licmi l\is own
press ill 1855, lii's tieforc me .ind ntiir it a sniiuwliat dilipiilaied
copy ot Mr. Kiii;er's " Kise." Tlie (ornior it ildis riMt conn.- witliin
my splicre 111 iiilicize, lilt as tlie wonis (|iuite(l Inin Koi;er's pr. !"•
ace h.ive iiuroduceil Mr. McMullen's iniuo and work, I wouUl
like to fay thai I consider iiis History a most credil,il>lo produclion.
When til-' cireiimst. lines under wliiciiit waswriilen -cireiimslinccs
desorilic<l liy himsoll thirty six years lalei in the prelaco to liis third
edition — arc considered, the wonder is i hat he should lia\e made ii
at once so readahle, so comprehensive and so generally trust-
wotihv. His motives also are admiral le. As the first History of
Canadii, coverinj; ihe wliolc period from the di.scovtry ul the
country, it imisl always have a s-pve alintertst.
II

v.'is clearly a new study to him. He is generally
shallow ; is often flippant and is frequently
inaccurate. Indeed, he does not put a high
value on historical accuracy, though he takes
credit f()r honesty of purpose and freedom from
deliberate disregard of truth. " I have creamed
Gourlay," he writes, "Christie, Murray, Alison,
Wells and Henry, and taken whatever I deemed
essential from a history of the United States
without a title page, and from Jared Sparks and
other authors ; but for the history of Lower Can-
ada my chief reliance has been upon the valuable
volumes compiled with so nuch care by V.r.
Christie, and I have put the essence of his sixth
volume of revelations in its fitting place." Mr.
Roger was not wanting in ability, but in his
" Rise of Canada," he did justice neither to his
subject nor to himself.

There is a large niniibcr of works (like Major
Richardson's Hisluiy of tlic IWir of 1812) which
treat of events that occurred only in part in this
Province and in which all Canada — the whole
Empire in fact — is concerned. Ag;iin, some of
Major Richardson's works — for instance his
Righl Years in Canada, covering the Durham,
Sydenham, IMctcalfe and Bagot period — were
published in Montreal. During the period of
LeL'isIative rotation, the Goveriiinent and its
official and unofficial environment transferred
their penates front Montreal to Kingston, thence
to (,3uebec, and so on, so that an author might
write his book in one place and have it printed
in another. A. good many wtjrks that came in a
general way uiuler the head of history cannot
therefore be assigned to one Province more than
another, and the richest har\est of the ^)iiebec
press during this and every periotl — that is, the
French- is to me forbidden fruit. One little
book I must mention, both as the first of its kind,
and because it opened a vein in which others
have prolitably worked — Mrs. C. M. Day's
Pioneers of the Eastern Townships (Lovell, 1863).
During the centennial celebration last year (i8(j8)
this latter volume and Mrs. Dav's later and larger
work were in high request. Mr. C. Thomas, Mr.
E. R. Smith, Mr. Thomas Sellar and others fol-
lowed Mrs. Day's lead, but their work does not
come within my century.

The literary career of Sir James Le Moine, who

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C.WADA: W I'.XCVr'I.Ol'.KDIA.

lias ciiriclied tlic Province ami tlic world witli so
iiKiiiy worlds of historical iiUeri^st, had l)c;,'im
before Confederation, but his most siuxcssfiil
work was done in the I'fdcral rci^'iinc. I'or that
period are rescrvrd a good many oihcr rcconls
which it would be useless to divide. A little bonk
that has done good service in tlie historical
cihication of t!ie Province of (,>ucl)ec is the History
tif Cau'ida, for schools, of Mrs. Jennet Ray, the
7th edition of which a|>|icared in the very year at
which this retrospect ends. It was thi 11 funiliar
to at least two {generations of pupils, for Mr.
David Deune, of Montreal, has a copy of the work
printed in 1S47 — {Cunadiana i, loG). It was
tianslateil into FrMich and used as a text book
in some of the I'rench seiiooh: of the Province.
The translation of Garneau's History of Canada
by Andrew Bell has a ri,i;ht to grateful remem-
brance, as, apart from the school text books, it
was for some years the chief, if not only, source
of knowled,<,'e on the general history of tlie'r
country to a good many En{;lish-speaking Can-
adians. Mr. Bell's notes (marked "B") are
generally of interest. Sometimes they indicate
a difference of opin'-)n as to the policy or character
of a statesman or (lovenunent ; sometimes tiiey
deal v.'ith the possible inaccuracy of a statement;
again, in a few instances, they compare (iarn?au's
later views with those of the original (and now
rare) edition of his work. In one case for
example (i, ilo,^nd edition,}. Lovell, Montreal),
where Garneau treats adversely of the admission
of lluguentjts to the benefits of colonists, Beil
cites in a foot-note a passage from the first etlition
in which the author highly commends Coligny's
scheme, condemns its enemies and mentions with
reprobation the massacre of St. Bartholomew.
Even those (French or English) who prefer read-
ing Garneau in the original will find it of
advantage occasionally to consult Mr. Bell's ver-
sion and foot-notes.

Hawkins's Picture of Quebec (1834) and Newton
Bosworth's Hochcla^a Depicta (1839) deserve
mention if only for the estimate tint collectors
form of them. The A iiuals of the iJtoccse if Quebec
by the Rever'^nd Ernest Hawkins was tiie best
source of authority on the early history of the
Church of England in the Provi.Tce before the
publication a few jears ago of the admirable

monograph of t!ie Rev. .Mr. Stuart, of Three
Rive- •-. How far such works as the Lives
of l.ords Sydenham, Metcalfe and Elgin shoukl
come into such a retrospect as this we need not
discuss. Reference has been made to the papers
and memons published by learned societies and
to the early reports of the Geological Survey.
Some of the Sessional Papers and Special Reports
issued by the Governments during the Consti-
tution il .Vet and succeeding regimes are of great
historical value and a few of them have the
impress of literary taste as wed. Tlie prize
essays of Messrs. Hogan and Morris are still
of value to the in([uirer. The author of the
first met with a melancliolv fate, his life of prom-
ise being brutally cut short ; that of tiie second
rose to distinction, became one of the prophets
and founders of Confeder.ition and wasoneof the
earliest of North- West Governors. The excellent
series of Constitutional handbooks written by the
late Alpheus Todd, c.M.r.., had been begun in the
early years of the Union. Before his death in 1883
Dr. Todd had been recognized as one of the
first authorities of the day on his chosen subjects.
What '.vas Canada's output in fiction dui iiig the
first century of our printing press, or up to the
eve of the greater Canada's foundation ? To
answer this question we should recpiire first
a definition of fiction and then ascertain what
it is that constitutes fiction Canadian. It is,
moreover, to a single Province of Canada
that I am consigned and confined. It has been
usual to be'-;in the record in this Province
of such works of imagination as come inuler the
head of the novel or '"omance with The History
ef Emily Montaigne, '-y Mrs. Frances Brooke.
Whatever may be its bterary qualities, tlic story
as describing social conditions that prevailed
at the very dawn of the British ri^gime, cannot
fail to have some importance to the student of our
development. Mr. W. D. L-'f^iithali, of Mon-
treal, made the novel the subject jf an interesting
paper read before the Society of Canadian
Literature, whudi h.; had led the way in organ-
izing. He called it " The first Canadian Novel "
and it has foiiu: right to the title. Sir James
Le.Moine rnal-es frequent refeten ,e co Emily
M(i)it(i;^ue and the scenes in which she figure.;
in his Miiple Lejx'es and other books about

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CAN ^DA : AN ENCYCLOl'.KDIA.

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yiicbec and its environs. Mrs. Hcookc was the
daiif^'htcr of the Ruv. Mr. Moore, and wife of the
Rev. John Brooi<e, sometime Rector of Colnez,
Siiffolit.

Major John Richardson, a son of Dr. Rohort
Ricliardson, of the Indian Department, was born
near tlie I'^alls of Niagara, and spent liis early
years at Andicrstbiirg. Haviiifj entered the 41st
Regiment as a vohmteer, on the outbreiik of hos-
tilities in 1812 he obtained a commission and in
the comse of the war and under Sir De Lary
Evans in Spain he saw a good deal of active ser-
vice and aciitiired some skdl in the description of
military movements. The romance of war always
had a strong fascination for him and he wrote of
it with enthusiasm. His work as a historian has
been mentioned elsewhere. His novels, Wacoiista
and The Canadian Brothers, have received praise
from experts in literary criticism, while Jack Bra'^
in Spain attracted the attention of Theodore
Hook, who recognized in the author a kindred
spirit. His quarrel with his commander (Evans)
we have nothing to do with and the journalism
that brought hmi mto conflict witii the Govern-
ment of tiie Union belongs to another Provmce.
But part of his life was spent, some of his best
work was done and some of his most important
books were published in the Province of Ouebec.
Reference has already been made to novels pub-
lished in periodicals, but I need not recapitulate
them here save to say that some of them bring
Mrs. M(jodie and Mrs. Traill into temporary re-
lations with the literature of this Province. It
is, however, with Ontario that the Canadian
career of the Strickland family is mainly associ-
iited.

A lady who ranks both as poet and novelist
is Miss Rosanua Eleanor MuUins, better known
by her marital name of Mrs. Leprohon. She
was born and educated in Montreal and early gave
indication of a literary gift above the average.
She was only fourteen years old when she began
to send contributions to the Literary Garland. In
1851 she became the wife of Dr. Leprohon, for
many years Consul for Spain in Mcmtreal. Many
of Mrs. Leprohon's works have been translated
into French. Among these may be mentioned
Ida Beresford, The Manor House of De Villcrai,
■AwA Antoinette Dc Miretoiirt. Some of her novels

uppe-ired lirst in magazines or newspapers. This
last story was pronounced in the Saturday Reader
(Montreal), then edited by Mr. Edgiir Judge,
as "the best Canadian novel en attendant niienx."

Mrs. James Sadlier, like Mrs. Leprohon, of
Irish (jrigin, has made the destiny of the Irish
race — of the Irish Catholic especially — in the
United States and Canada the theme of some
widely popular stories. Mrs. Sadlier (whose gift
is inherited by her daughter) is not of those who
look upon the "novel with a pmpose," as inferior
in inspiration or execution to the novel that i)uts
art lirst, humanity second and morality third.
Her purpose, which she never forgets, is the ser-
vice of her beloved kindred in blood and faith,
cast homeless on the shores of this western con-
tinent and exposed to a danger which to the
Catholic is worse than that of poverty, sickness
or even death itself — the loss of that cherished
faith and moral purity which their forefathers
saved out of the wreck of their fortunes. Even
those who hold fast to different ideals have ac-
knowledged the beauty of Mrs. Sadlior's stories—
their true patriotism, their deep devotion, their
kindly spirit and touching pathos. Mr. J. King
Barton, a Canadian by birth, and for sometime
Clerk to the Legislative Assembly of the Union
period, wrote a romance entitled lo, a Tale of
the Olden Fane, the scene of which was laid in
Ephesus in the days of its pride and before the
Temple of tiie great Diana lay a heap of fallen
and broken colutnns. Tlie Advocate, of Charles
Heavysege, is a strange, in some respects, a char-
acteristic, production. The scene is laid in Mon-
treal and the plot is mainly concerned with a ter-
rible and ultimately fatal antipathy conceived by
the handsome father for his deformed and un-
gainly son. The book never achieved popularity.
On the whole nothing in the native fiction of
the century under review justified a forecast of
the rich harvest of novels and romances of the
last few years. In that harvest the Province of
Quebec has well won its share.

Of the poetry of the century under review we
can have no better criterion, perhaps, than the
Selections from Canadian Poels, published by the
Rev. Dr. Dewart in its closing year. The book
was issued in Montreal, near which city Dr,
Dewart at that time resiiled, so that both as

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CANADA; AX KNCVCI.OIM.DIA.

Editor and contributor he belongs to Quebec.
So did Heavysege, D'Arcy McGee's gifted friend,
J. l'. McDonnell, and McGee himself, Mrs. Lep-
rolion. Miss Jennie E. Haiglit, Miss Helen M.
Johnson, of Magog, P.Q., Miss Annie Walker,
the Rev. H. F. Darnell, J. J. Proctor, Miss
Augusta Baldwin, Isidore; G. Ascher, and George
Martin, happily still with us. I have already
mentioned some of the earlier vf)linnes from
which Dr. Dewart gleaned his century and half
of selections. Robert Sweeny, to whose Oilils
and Ends reference has bjen made, is represented
by a rotnantic ballad, " Toujours Eiilele 1 "
"The Lady of the Rock" had hardly a right to
a place in this anthohjgy f<Jr she was a mere binl
uf passage. Nor have any of the three prize-
winners mentioned earlier in this article won
recoi^iiition in his pages. Mrs. Ethelind Sawtell,
whose Mdurncr's Tribute was published in Mon-
treal in 1840, is also absent, but the anonymous
Leaves from the Bachi'oods found admission. Of
the living jioets of that time who were accessible
tlnauigli the printing press there are few of whose
(juality Dr. Dewart does not give a sample.
There were some doubtless whose re])utation
was then maturing and who were soon to pass
from merely local into national celebrity by the
publication of their works in book form ; and
there aie always men and wijmeii of gifts above
the average who, sometimes from choice, some-
times from pccidiar circumstances, remain in
comparative obscurity. It must also be borne in
mind that Dr. Dewart's Selections are limited to
the Canada of the period before Confederation —
to the Canada of the Union of 1841.

It is noteworthy that, although several of the
most deserving of the jjoets of that day were not
of Canadian birth, it is to a son of the soil that
the Editor awards the first place and that place
of pre-eminence Canatla still maintains. Ileav)-
sege had for si.\ yea s been enjoying the triumph
of British and American recogr.ition and had
given up an occupation that left his niind free to
range among the sublimities, to learn in middle
life the exacting and harassing mystery of jour-
nalism. Tlic halcyon time of dreaming by day,
while thehandslost nothing of their cunning, and
of inditing by night with imordered pen had been
exchanged for an endless drudgery that was the

sworn foe of inspiration. Mr. Heavyscge was
altogether about sixteen years a member of the
Montreal press. He was universally respected
and his employers never forgot that he was a man
of rare gifts. He took immense pains with every
task that he undertook and thus worked out a
problem in the correlation of forces of which the
solution arrived in July, 1S76. For years his
claim to be a poet of high rank was denied by
those to whom ho submitted it. Hawthorne's
chance discovery of Saul turneil the tables; but
still few read the poem and the poet would not

John Reade.

reduce it to palatable dimensions. Even the
revised Boston edition did not become jiopular,
and to-day, so far as Heavysege's reputation
depends on actual knowledge of his writings, it
is on his shorter poems — JephthaWs Dauf^hter and
some of the irregular sonnets — that it may be said
to rest.

A young lawyer and journalist of Quebec, J.
F". McDonnell, is largely represented in Dr.
Dew.ut's book. He was a friend of the Hon.
Thomas D'.\rcy McGee and a writer of poetry

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOIMCDIA.

"'•S

of more tlum common worth — liiiin:uic, pathetic,
a lover of nature and a man of hi^li ideals. He
died about tiic year i^jo without even piihlishing
a vohimu. Another writer of promi.se to whonj
Dr. Dewart gave attention was Miss Helen M.
Johnson. Her poetry, suys the Editor, is " char-
acterized 1)V unaffected simplicity, pciuiine sen-
sibility, often tingeil by sadness, a lietp sense of
the insufficiency of earthly Rooil, and ardent
aspirations after the thinj^s that are unseen and
eternal. She was a native of Lower Canada and
died at Magog, P.Q., in March, 1S63, after a long
and painful illness, in me 29lh year of her age ".
Miss Johnson's memory is still cherished in the
Kasteru Townships. A volume of her poems
was, I believe, published in IJoston some years
after her death. Jt was probably a second edi-
tion of the volume to which Ur. Dewart refers as
having been brought out in the same city in the
year 1856, and was, I think, edited by her
brother-in-law, a clergyman. Another of Dr.
Dewart's lady poets was Rhoda Ann Page (Mrs.
Faulkner). While he was preparing his bjok,
he heard of a slight vohnne that had been pub-
lished in Cobourg in 1850 entitled Wild Notes
from the Backwoods, by R. A. P. He wrote to R.
A. P. asking for some contributions and received
a reply from her husband, explaining that she was
too ill to write. A few weeks later Dr. Powell,
of Cobourg, sent him Wild Notes, and informed
hiin that Mrs. Faulkner had died the week before.
But I have wandered from my beat and must
be n.indful of my limitations. The tragedy that
darkened the later years of Robert Sweeny's life
cast no shade in his little book, which was pub-
lished as already mentioned in 1826. Miss
Haight, who is represented by some fine poems,
was well known and highly esteemed as an edu-
cationist. Many a Canadian matron learned
from her that enthusiasm for the higlit;r life
which it is the glory and reward of the true
poet to impart. Mrs. Lejirolion will always
have admirers in Montreal, in which so many

lamous sites and homes of beneficence are asso-
ciated with her song. McGee'sCiiH<i(/j<i» Ballads
give him a permanent i.chc in our temple of fime.
Mrs. Sadlier tilited his poems in what, thirty
years ago, bom'f of the poet's friends considered
a too bulky volume. Perhaps some of the early
effusions in!;;ht liavebeeii spared; but to-day the
men of reseaich spend much time and ink in try-
ing to atone for the very sins of omission which
Mrs. Sadlier was blamed for not committing.

I have been taking a retrospect of a century
of which the Quebec Gazette and the Rev. Dr.
Dewart's Selections suggested the termini. It is
the century of British rule that preceded the
inauguration of the Federal movement in this
Province. It begins with the arrival of Messrs.
Brown and (iilmour and the instalment of the
printing press in the Ancient Capital. Messrs.
Brown and Gilmour laid a good foundation.
Their work survived thein long and the kinclred
of William Brown has still its place in the coun-
try of his choice. The firm of Brown and
Gilmour was succeeded by Samuel Neilson,
by John Neilson, by Neilson and Cowan, by the
Nouvelle Imprancrie of M. Clery and others;
by P. E. Desbarats, by F. Roy aiul J. V. Delorine,
by Thomas Carey & Co. and D. E. J. Smilie, and
ever so many more in Quebec; while in Mon-
treal Flenry Mesplet, after setting up his press,
took C. lieiger into partnership, and became the
first in along and honourable line of printers and
publishers — W. Gray, James Lane, R. \ . Spar-
hawk, T. A. Turner, E. R. F'abre, James Brown,
William Greig, Armour and Ramsay, John Lovell,
Campbell and Beckett, and so on, down to our
own day. With some of them were associated
able writers, the pioneers of the press of to-
day— Ray, Carey, Chisholme, Abraham, H nicks,
Campbell, Bristow, Clerk, Kinnear, McDonnell,
Penny, Parsen, Chamberlin, Dougalls, all of
whom have done their work and gone their w ay,
leaving to us the heritage which some of them
so strenuously toiled to win and to preserve.

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A SKETCH OF CANADIAN POETRY

BV

A. H. 1)K M1I.LE, W.A., Cnifessor of English Lilerature in King's Cdllese. Windsor, N.S.

CANADA occupies a unique position.
After ICiighuui, she is the most fully
ilevel()j)ed State in the great British
federation. She has reclaimed thuu-
saiuls of scjuare miles from the wilderness, and
has united under one Government a territory
stretching across a continent. And she has
achieved more than this. Side by side within
her borders are two distinct races living in har-
mony, possessing etpial rights, administered by
the same huvs, owning allegiance to the same
rule and loyal to the same national idea — and
this though speaking different tongues, ^[ore-
over, in her origin, Canada is unique. She is the
work of two great civilizations; her possession
was the jewel which caused half a century of
conflict.

It has been said that no colony can have a
distinctive literature because of its dependent
status. A distinctive literature must have a
national life behind it, else there will be no vital-
izing spirit. Hut what of Canada's position as
outlined above ? With us there is so much of
national life that the colonial status is lost sight
of. Our history, too, is a mine of the richest
literary material. In reason, then, we may look
for a distinctive Canadian literature. There is
reason, also, that our literature should be gooii.
To infuse it there is the best tradition, and to
produce it there is excellent stock. The Cana-
dian nationality is made up of three powerful
elements — French, English and Scotch. The
original settlers — both English and P'rench —
were strong men and women ; for weaklings
would not choose a home among the rugged
forests of the West. Only the strongest came
across the wide ocean, and only the most hardy
survived the rigours of that harsh life. But the
pioneers possessed more than endurance. They

were scholars and gentlemen many of them ;
they had mental as well as physical strengtii.
And this strength was increased by the Loyalist
immigration of 178J. Thus we find that the
position of Canada and the composition of the
Canadian people render probable the development
of a national literature — in both prose and poetry.
Such literature should reflect the national
mind. Then there will b-; patriotism, but not
blatant, and there will he a breadth of view
and utterance as wide as the nation's life. At
this our Canadian poetry must aim, and to this
it is slowly approximating. The difficulty of
judging contemporary poetry is evident. The
figures have not yet gained sufficient perspective ;
we are too near to speak impartially. And it is
very unsatisfactory to mix estimates of finished
and unfinished work. The majority of our poets
are living ; the "personal estimate" enters into
the question. Thus no final judgment of Cana-
dian poetry can be given. The most that can be
done is to outline briefly the work of each, with
but the most obvious criticism. It is only of
comparatively recent years that there has been
a distinctive Canadian poetry — though some
exception must be made in the case of early
I'rench writers in Quebec. Very little English
verse of any merit was written in Canada before
Heavysege brought out Said in 1857. Nearly all
was crude, imitative, unformed — for the most part
a mere overflow from the dead elements of the
eighteenth century literature in England. Our
writers achieved success in prr " before any
adequate poetic utterance was mad . This was
natural enough for two reasons. In the first
place, Upper Canadians were fully engrossed with
the struggle for existence and the work of nation-
making; in the second, they had the best litera-
ture ill the world to satisfy their needs.

CANADA. AN' r.\(V( l.c )l".i;i)IA.

167

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III iLiiliiy, it is only since 18O7 Ciiimdii liiis
possess<!ci sucli unity us woiikl lie likely to favour
national literature. Our best Kntjlish poetry has
therefore been written iliiiing tiie past thirty
years. Heforc that time it was UKajjre ami frail.
After Confederation, however, when Canada be-
came a united nation, when before her was seen
a great ideal of national {growth and all about lu r
the heartening si},Mis of expansion and consulida-
tion, a distinctive pt)etry came into existence as
a factor to be reckoned with. It naturally devel-
oped lirst amoni,' the French Canadians; the
reason bein^j that their civilization was older
than that of their fellow-subjects. Their earlier
work, too, was superior in quality and quantity ;
but as years went on this difference disappeared
until, at the present day, the preponderance of
merit is on the other side.

The earlier: known French-Canadian poeni
was written by Jean Tachc in 17J2. It was
called Tableau de Mer. Then followed an interval
of over a century. In i8jo was born Pierre J.
O. Chaiivcau, a prominent author and poet. His
best known poem is perhaps his /^o«/(iico«rt, which
appeared in 1S61. He died in iSgo. Octave
Crema/ie is generally given a high place. He
was born at Quebec in 18,50, and died in France
in 187S. His poems appeared between 1852 and
i86_'. Among them may be mentioned Le Drap-
eau de Carillon and Le Vicitx Soldat. Louis
Honor6 Frechette, born iSjy, is the most famous
of French-Canadian poets. In 1880 two collec-
tions of his poems — Les Flcurs Borcales and
Oiscaitx dc Kci^cs — were crowned by the French
Academy, an honour which at once brought the
little books into popular favour. His other books
of verse are : Mcsoiscrs, 1865; La ]'oix D'nn Exile,
1869; Pile MHc, 1877; Les Oitblies and Voix
d'outre Mer, 1886; Fcuilles Volantes, 1891. The
work of M. Frechette is, according to Sir J. G.
Hourinot, admitted to be "the most finished
illustration of French poetic ait yet produced in
the Dominion." Pamphile Le May is another
well-known name. He has done some important
poetical work. His first volume — Rssais Poetiqiies
— was issued in 1865. Poemes Couronncs appeared
in 1870, and Une Gerbe, a collection of short
poems, in 1879. Benjamin Suite has published
two books of verse — Les Laurcntieuiies in 1S70

(liis most ambitions work), and Les Cliaitt\ Sun-
veaiix in 1880.

The poetical production of I*'renrh Canada
has been very larj^e. In iNMo there Weie counted
175 names of minor poets. Of tlii i minibei, by
far the greater part was known only to the col-
umns of the newspaper. Hut there have been
more than a few poets of merit, while some have
attained a notable place. As John Talon- Lesper-
aiice has well s;iid : " .Ml the elements have been
touched on in their pv)etry — their history, enliv-
ened by romance and consecrated by aflliction ;
their nationality, preserved in spite of all the
disintegrating influence of conquest ; their relig-
ion, homely and primitive as in the Hrittany and
Normandy of the middle ages; their social life,
adorned by courtesy, inspirited by cheerfulness
and stamped with a simple old-fashioned sense
of honour."

Perhaps a word should be said here with regard
to tlie chanson, 1l'\\c chanson is par excellence \.\\a
property of lumbermen and canoeists on all the
lakes and rivers of ^)iiebec. It is the rough anil
genuine product of free life. In some ways it
resembles the "chanty" of salt water — the deep-
sea song. Compare these two, for example :

" Via I'bon vent, v'la I'joli vent.

\"la I'bon vent, ma mie m'appelle.

V'la I'bon vent, v'la I'joli vent.

V'la I'bon vent, ma mie m'attcnu."

"We'll blow him right down and we'll blow him
right over,

Waych ! blow the man down ;

We'll blow him right down and we'll blou him
right over.

Give me some time to blow the man down."

There is in most of the chansons the real inspir-
ation of opun-air life. They are to the mass of
French Canadians I'lmost what the ballads were
to the English people of the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries. They are of various beginnings,
some inherited from old FiCnch days and others
belonging to the peculiar type which originated
among the couriers des bois and voyagcurs in early
Canadian annals. Many of them breathe some
quaint atmosphere of the past, of "old forgotten
things, and battles ended long ago." Such a one
is the well-known chanson commencing:

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CANADA: AV FA'CVCIDIM'.DIA.

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M.iis (|ii;ui<l lovicndra-l-il ?
" M.ill)riiii( k", of course, has iiolliiiif; to do
with Mailhuidii^'h, as tliu poem is of a imu h
taihcr ilatu than tlio (iiiieMal- probably of llio
timo of thu CriisadtMS. 'l'\m cluuison htL-ratiiti; is
of pitat interest, i)iit, strictly spe.ikin^', does not
liclon^j to Frincli-Canadian poetry. M. Ernest
(ia^jnon has collected into a vohiine the Chniisons
I'optthiires dti Cimulii.

The fust Cinailian poet ulio wrott; in i.n^jlish
was Charles San^ster. Horn at Kin;,'ston in 1822,

Louis Hoiiorc Fiichjtte.

he led a life whitli was not without variety,
dying in 1893. The hrst volume of HiiRlish
poems issued in Canada was his The St. Lawrence
aud the Saguciiay, and other I'ocvis. It appeared in
1S56. Ilcspniis and other J'neins and Lyrics was
published in i860. A stionjj tii^ure is that of
Charles Heavysege. He was born in Enf,dandin
1816, and did not come to Canada until he was
57 yars old. After publishing some tentative
'.vork, he issued his drama, Saul, in 1S57, This
possessed great power, and was warmly praised in

\]\cS'orth IWitish Review in iSyS. The poel Lonj;-
fellow, too, f^.ive it hifjh coiiiuiendation. Heavy-
se|,M; brought out S( me other works of minor
interest, llu died in 1876. Geor^o Martin is
another Canadian poet born out of Canad.i. Mis
native country was Ireland, and i8jj thu year of
his birth. A book of poeius from his pen appeared
in 1887 — Marguerite and other Poems. The chief
woik of John Hunter Dnvar — boin 1850 -is an
historical drama, De l\obcr7\il. Thu period is tho
hrst colonization of C in.iila by the I'rench. Mr.
Dnvar had already (i87()) published Hi Enoram-
ada, a closet di ima of the Spanish school. Jolui
Kiadu is well-known to Canadians. He has done
a great deal of essay-work. In 1870 he published
a scholarly book of verse, The Trophecy of Merlin
and other Paenis. Like Martin, Kiade is an
Irishman by bnth. He came to Canada in 185O,
at the age of nineteen, and has had a good influ-
ence on Canadian letters. Charles Mair was born
in 1840. His work has been chielly of a dramatic
nature. In 1868 he issued a small volutnu of
poems, called Dreamland, and in 18.S6 a more
important book, Tecumsch, a drama.

Aud now 1 come to a remarkable group of
poets. The acconiplishment of Confederation
had given us national unity, and national unity
has broiijjiit into existence our best j)oetieal liter-
ature. Diflicult indeed it is to write of men who
are still in the prime of Ife and woik. A brief
outline, however, may be traced of lire new
Canadian school and its members. The wiiters
are f^iven in chronological order. Aithnr John
Lockhart was born in NcA'a Scotia in 1850. He
has produced two voiimies of pcjeins, The Mask of
Minstrels in 1S87, and liesidc the Narra/^iia}:;iis in
l8q6. George Frederick Cameron published one
book — Lyrics. His lifa was a short one — from
1854 to 18S5 — but full of promise. William Donw
Lighthall (1859) has written prose as well as
I)oetr). His lirst volume of verse, Thoiif^hts,
Moods and L/crt/s, appeared in 1887. In 1.SS() he
pu:)lished Soii^^s of the Great Dominion, whic h is a
good anthology of C:inadis.n verse up to the tiate
of its issue. The four poets who come next p^-r-
haps most adequately represent the finest elements
of our poetry. They have created a school of
verso which is founded upon the best principles.
They have felt the full flo<jd of the spirit which

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CANADA : AN KNCYCLOI'.F.DIA.

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mtkei iiieii louk witli liopo to thuir cuuiitry'it
future. Tliu four poctn in (|iiustion aru: C. G. D,
KoliLits, \V. W. C":iiM|)lnll, Hliss C'arinan, and
Arcliil)al(l l.aiiipriian.

Cliiirlc-3 GoorKo Dou^'las Kol)crts is widely
known not otily in C'nada but in En^^land uiid
tlic Unileil Slates. Ili; was borri at Westcott,
New IWunswick, in i^(m. In iNHi lie became
Editor of the Toronto \]'eek. In iH>S5 ho was
appointed to the Cliair of English Literature at
Kind's College, Wnxlsor, Nova Scotia. lie
resigtied this position in iH(j5, in order to ^'ain
more freedom for purely literary woik. He has
published five books of verse : Orion, and other
I'ucniK, 181S0; In Divers Toiu-s, 1SS7 ; Soiii^s of the
Common Day, I'^tjj; The lUmkofthc S'iitue, i8()f);
aii(LVfW York \'oclnrnes, 1898. liesides his verse,
Mr. Roberts has written much prose of a hi^jh
onler, while his intUiencu and critical advice
have always been on the side of the sane and the
strong in literature. In fact, he has been a
libi.rator and an influent ial leader, and Canadian
poetry owes much to his example. I lis work has
been valuable throughout and evinces high art
with vigour and di pth of thought.

William Wilfrid Campbell was born in iSf)o.
His hrst book was issued in 1888 — Snowjlaliesuiid
Siinbciiiiis. It was followed in i88gby Lake Lyrics,
and other Pnems, and in i8()3 by T>.e Dead Voyaf^e.
Mr. Campliell's poetry has virility and human
interest. He is tlie autiior of some stroiif^
dramatic work. His drama Modred treats of the
Arthurian lej,'t.nd.

Hliss Carman is a cousin of Roberts. He was
born in 1861 and studieil in Canuila, England
and the United States. His first volume of verse
— Loiv Tide on the (hand Pri — appeared in 1893.
Mr. Carman has published live other collections
of poetry: Behind the Arras, 1896; Ballads of
Lost Haven, iSqj ] By the Aurclian Wall, 1898;
Son^^s from Va>^abondia, 1894; and More Souths
from Wi^abondia, 1896. The last tsvo were
written in collaboration with Mr. Richard Hovey,
an American poet. Mr. Carman has held several
important positions in connection with larjje
publisliin<j firms and is at present livinjj in Bos-
ton, Mass. His work possesses fine lytic
quality. •

.Archibald Lampman's first book was called

Amon^ the Millet, and appeared in the same year
at Campbell's, liesides many contributions to
the li'adiii;^ Amrrieaii ma^a/ines, Mr. Lam|)maii
published a second volume — Lyrics of Earth — in

1895. His work IS sim|)le, stroiit,' and pure,
showinf;, with the later volume, a threat advance
in power ami scope.

These four p(jets, as I have said, occu[)y a
position of importance. It is impossible as yet
to determine their absolute standing, but there
is no doubt they have established Cmadian
poetry upon an adeipiate basis aiul ^iveii it move-
ment in the right direction, 'i he most hopeful
fact is that they are all in the prime of life, and
the good woik tiny have done argues more good
work in the future. A glance may now be taken
at some other of the poets of Canada. Fred-
crick George Scot t published The Soul's Quest in
1888 ami My Lattice Window in 1896. Duncan
Campbell Scott issued a book of poems in 1895
— The Ma^^ic House. Miss IC. Pauline Johnson
issued The White Wampum in i8()5. Arthur
Weir, L'leurs dc Lys, in 1887; The Sno-ajLike,

1896. Miss Wetherald, The House of the Trees,
1896. Francis Sherman, Matins, 1896. W. H.
Drummond, The Habitant, 1897. The last is a
work dealing with I'rench-Canadian life in a
manner which has not before been attempted.

Canadian poetry has its faults, ami they are
not few. It is too often imitative ; too often it
lacks culture ; too often there is bail techniqu:. In
a word, far too much is written without thought
or care. Many persons are afflicted with the
cacoelhes scribendi antl desire above all thiiii;s to
appear in print. Unfortunatelv, during the last
decade or so, there have always been magazines
which publish work that never ought to see the
light. Sadly little discrimination was shown,
ami the result was the raising of a false standard
of criticism. There has been in the past, ami
there is still, too much written in praise of Can-
adian p(jetry. Praise is a pleasant thing, but it
may be disastrously applied. These faults, how-
ever, are not at all hopeless. There is much
that is excellent in the work of our singers.
Some of their books have been welcomed by
the highest critical authority and the outlook
is certainly good, while the proiiiict is steadily
improving.

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CANADIAN WOMEN WRITERS

BY

THOMAS O'HAGAN, M.A., IMi.D.

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A REMARKABLE feature of the Canadian
literature of to-day is the strength
of its women writers. Especially is this
notable within the domain of poetry.
Sonic uf the sweetest and truest notes heard
in the academic groves of Canadian song come
from our full throated sopranos. Nor does the
general literature of our country lacl. enrichment
from the female pen. History, biography,
fiction, science and art — all these testify to the
gift and grace of Canadian women writers,
and the widening possibilities of literary culture
in the hearts and home of the Canadian people.
The Bourbon lilies had scarcely been snatched
from the brow of New France when the hand
and heart of woman were «t work in Canadian
literature. Twenty years before Maria Edge-
\v- Tth and Jane Austen had written Castle
Rackrent and Pride and Prejudice, Mrs. Frances
Brooke, wife of the chaplain of the garrison
at Quebec during the Vice-regal rt^gime of Sir
Guy Carlton, published in London, England,
the first Canadian novel. This book, which
was dedicated to the GovernoV of Canada,
was issued from the press in 1784.

Two names there are of women writers who
deserve special and honourable mention in con-
nection with the early literature of Canada.
These are Susanna Moodie, one of the gifted
Strickland sisters, and Rosanna Eleanor Lepro-
hon. Mrs. Moodie's four sisters — Elizabeth,
Agnes, Jane, and Mrs. Trail! — the latter yet
living as the doyenne oi Canadian literature — have
all made worthy contributions to the literature of
the day ; the Lives of the Queens of England, by
Agnes Strickland, being regarded as one of the
ablest and most exhaustive works of the kind ever
published. Mrs. Moodie lived chiefly near the
Town of Peterborough, Ontario, and may be

justly regarded as the chief poet and chronicler
of pioneer days in Ontario. Her best known
works are her volume of poems and Roughing it
in the Bush. In her verse beats the strong pulse
of nature aglow with the wild and fragrant gifts
of glen and glade. Mrs. Moodie published aiso a
number of novels, chief among them being Flora
Lindsay, Mark Hurdlestonc, The Gold Worshipper,
Geofjrey Monckton and Dorothy Chance.

Mrs. Leprohon was, like Mrs Moodie, both poet
and novelist. She did perhaps more than any
other Canadian writer to foster and promote the
growth of a national literature. In her novels
sne aimed at depicting society in Canada prior
to and immediately after the conquest. One of
the latter, A ntoinette de Mirecourt, is regarded by
many as one of the best Canadian novels yet
written. Simplicity and grace mark her produc-
tions in verse. Mrs. Leprohon lived in Montreal
and did her best work in the " fifties ". A woman
writer of' great merit was Isabella Valancey
Crawford. Her death, which occurred some ten
years ago, was a distinct loss to Canadian litera-
ture. Miss Crawford's poetic gift was eminently
lyrical, full of music, colour and originality. She
published but one volume. Old Spook's Pass and
other Poems, which is royal throughout with the
purple touch of genius. No Canadian woman
has yet appeared quite equal to Miss Crawford in
poetic endowment.

Down by the sea, where the versatile and
gifted pen of Joseph Howe and the quaint
humour of " Sam Slick " stirred and charmed
as with a wizard's wand the people's hearts, the
voice of woman was also heard in the very dawn
of Canadian life and letters. Miss Clotilda
Jennings and the two sisters, Mary E. and Sarah
Herbert, glorified their country in poems worthy
of the literary promise which their young and

CANADA; AN ENCYCLOI'.KDIA.

ardent hearts were striigKling to fulfil. Another
whose name will be long cherished in the literary
annals of Nova Scotia is Mary Jane Katzmann
Lawson, who died in Halifax, March, 1890.
On her mother's side Mrs. Lawson was a kins-
woman of Prescott, the American historian.
She was a vohiminoijs contributor to the period-
icals of the day and was herself Editor for t"'"
years of the Halifax Monthly Ma<;azinc. H .'
poems, written too hurriedly, are uneven and
in some instances lack wholly the fasiiioning
power of true inspiration. When her lips were
touched, however, with the genuine honey
of Hymettus she sang well, as in such poems
as " Some Day," " Song of the Morning," and
"Song of the Night." In the opinion of many
the work of Mrs. Lawson as an historian is super-
ior to her work as a poet. Considering, how-
ever, the industry of her pen and the general
quality of its output, Mrs. Lawson deserves
a place amongst the foremost women writers
of her native Province.

There passed away in 1895 near Niagara Falls,
Ontario, a gifted woman who did not a little
in the days of her strength for the fostering
of Canadian letters. Miss Louisa Murray, author
of a poem of genuine merit, il/<rr/i«'s Cave, and
two novels. The died Curate, and The Settlers
0/ Long Arrow, will not soon be forgotten as one
of the pioneer Vifomen writers of Canada. The
venerable and kindly form of Catherine Parr
Traill happily remains with us yet as a link be-
tween the past and present in Canadian literature.
Nor has her intellect become dimmed or childish.
Although ninety-seven years nestle in the bene-
diction of her silvery hair her gifts of head and
heart remain still vigourous, as is evidenced in the
two works, Pearls and Pebbles, and Cvt and Cradle
Stories, which have come from her pen within the
past few years. For nearly seventy years this
clever and scholarly woman, worthy indeed of the
genius of the Strickland family, has been making
contributions to Canadian literature from the
wealth of her richly stored and cultivated mind.
Now a tale, now a study of the wild flowers
and shrubs in the Canadian forest, occupies
her busy pen. Mrs. Traill is indeed great in
the versatility of her gifts, the measure of her
achievements, the crowning length o." her years,

and the sweetness of her life niul character.

Like Dcstlemona in the play of " Othello,"
Mrs. Mary Anne Sadlier, the veteran novelist,
now a resident of Canada, owes a double alKgi-
ancc — to the City of Montreal and the City of
New York. The author of The Blakes and Flani-
gans and many other charming Irish stories has
been, however, living for some years past in
thi country, and, while a resident of the Cana-
(j.ai. metiopolis, has helped to enrich the litera-
ture of Canada with the product of her richly
dowered pen. Last year Notre Dame University,
Indiana, conferred on Mrs. Sadlier the La;tare
Medal, as a recognition of her gifts and services
as a Catholic writer. Two of the strongest
women writers in Ontario have been Agnes
Maule Machar and Sarah Anne Curzon. Miss
Machar possesses a strong subjective faculty,
joined to a keen sense of the artistic. The gift
of her pen is both critical and creative, and her
womanly and sympathetic mind is found in the
van of e"ery movement among Canadian women
that has for its purpose a deeper and broader
enlightenment based upon principles of wisdom,
charity and love. Miss Machar is both a versa-
tile and productive writer; novel, poem and crit-
ique flowing from her pen in L ight succession,
and with a grace and ease that betokens the life-
long student and artist. An undertone of intense
Canadian patriotism is found running through
her work. Under the nom de plume of " Fidelis "
she has contributed to nearly all the leading
Canadian and American magazines. Her two
best novels are entitl.-d For King and Coiintiy
and Lost and Won.

Mrs. Curzon, who has recently passed away,
had a virility of style and security of touch in-
dicative of a clear and robuit mind. Her best
and longest poem, Laura Secord — dramatic in
spirit and form — has about it a masculinity and
energy found in the work of no other Canadian
woman. Mrs. Curzon was a woman of strong
character and principles, and her writings share
in the strength of her judgments. Perhaps she
may be best described as one who had the intel-
lecfof a man wedded to the heart of a woman.
Quite a unique writer among Canadian women is
S. Frances Harrison, better known in literary
circles by her pen-name of " Seranus." Mrs.

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CANADA: AN ENCYCLOP/KDIA

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Harrison lias a dainty and distinct style all licr
own, and her gift of sonjj ia both original and
true. She has made a close study of themes
which have their root in tiie French life of Can-
ada, and her "half-French heart" eminently
qualifies her for the delicacy of her task. Indeed,
it i.-5 doubtfid if any other woman writer of to-day
can handle so successfully that form of poetry
kp.own as the villaiiclle. Her book of poems,
Pine, Rose and Flcar de Lis, has n\ct with much
favour at the hands of critics, while her prose
sketches and magazine critiques prove her to be
a woman of exquisite tasteand judgment in all
things literary. Mrs. Harrison's latest work is a
novel, entitled The Forest of Bourj^-Marie, with
its root in the village and woodland of French
Canada. It is marked by some very fine charac-
ter delineation, its atmosphere is true to French-
Canadian life and scene, while its story is of
marked interest.

There are two women writers in Nova Scotia
who deserve more than a mere conventional
notice. By the gift and grace of their pens
.Marshall Saunders and Grace Dean MacLeod
Rt)gers have won a large audience far beyond
their native land. Miss Saunders is best known
as the author of Beautiful Joe, a story wliich won
a two-hundred-dollar prize offered by the Ameri-
can Humane Society. So popular has I een this
humane tale that when published by a Phila-
delphia fi;.ii it reached the tnormous sale of fifty
thousand in eighteen months. Bcuntijul Joe has
already been translated into Swedish, German,
and Japanese. Tho work is full of {,enins, heart
and insight. The latest effort of Miss Saunders
has been a work of fiction based upon the sad
epic of the Acadian deportation and entitled
Rose d Charlitte. Ic is a story well conceived and
well told, full of sympathetic touches, true to the
genius of the Acadian people and true to the
idealized facts of history. Other works by Miss
Saunders are The Kin^ of the Park, The House of
A rmonr. For the other Ba}''s Sake, and My Spanish
Sailor.

Mrs. Rogers, while widely different from Miss
Saunders in her gifts as a writer, has been equally
successful in her chosen field. She has made the
legends and folk lore of the old Acadian regime
her special study. With a patience and gift of

earnest research worthy of a true historian, Mrs.
Rogers has visited every nook and corner of old
.Vcadia where could be found stories linked to the
life and labours of these interesting but ill-fated
people. Side by side with LongTellow's sweet,
sad story of Evangeline will now be read Stories
of the Land of Evangeline, by this clever Nova
Scotia woman. Mrs. Rogers has an easy, grace-
ful style which lends to the produce of her pen an
additional charm. She is unquestionably one of
the most gifted amongst the women writers of
Canada.

Connected with the Toronto press are two
women writers who have achieved u distinct
success. Kathleen Blake Coleman, better known
by her pen-name of " Kit ", is indeed a woman
of rare endowments and a writer of remarkable
power and indiviuuality. It may be truly said
of her, Nihil quod tetigit von ornavit. As a critic
she has sympathy, insight, judgment anil taste.
It is doubtful if any other woman in America
wields so secure and versatile a pen as " Kit " of
the Toronto Mail-Empire. During the recent
Spanish-.Vmerican war siie won a practically
continental reputation as a newspaper corres-
pondent. Miss Freeman, better known as
" Faith. Fenton," till l.itely Editor of a vvoi.ian's
journal in Toronto, and for a number of years
connected with the Toronto Empire, is also a
writer of much strength and promise. Her work
is marked by a sympatiiy and depth of sincerity
tliat bespeak a noble, womanly mind and nature.
She .j equally felicitous as a writer of prose and
verse. E very move nr en t that has for its purpose
the wise advancement of woman fii.ds a ready
espousal in "Faith Fenton."

As a writer of strong and vigourous articles in
support of the demands of women for a wider
enfranctiijement, Mary Russell Chesley, of Lun-
enburg, Nova Scotia, stands at the head of the
Canadian women of to-day. Mrs. Chesley is of
Quaker descent, and possesses all a true Quaker's
unbending resolve and high senr.e of freedom and
equality. This clever controversialist, in defence
of her views, has broken a lance with some of the
leading minds of the United States and Canada,
and in every instance has done credit to her sex
and the cause she has espoused. In Moncton,
New Brunswick, lives Grace Campbell, another

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOP.'KOIA.

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Maritime woman writer of note and merit. Miss
Campbell holds views quite opposed to those of
Mrs. Chesley on the woman question. They are
best set forth by the author herself where she
says : " The best way for woman to win her
rigiits is to be as true and charming a woman as
possible, rather thin an imitation man". As a
writer Miss Campbell's gifts are versatile, and
she has touched with equal success poem, story
and review. She possesses a gift rare among
women — the gift of humour.

Tliere is an advantage in being descended
from literary greatness provided the shadow of
this greatness comes not too near. Anna T.
Sadlier is the daughter of a gifted mother whose
literary work has already been referred to. Miss
Sadlier has done particularly good work in her
translations from French and Italian, as well as
in her biographical sketches and short stories.
As a writer she is both strong and artistic. A
writer who possesses singular richness of style is
Kate Seymour McLean, of Kingston, Ontario.
Mrs. McLean has not done much literary work
during the past few years, but whenever the
product of her pen graces our periodicals it
bears the stamp of a richly cultivated mind.

Kate Madeleine Barry, the novelist and essay-
ist, resides in Ottawa, the capital of the Domin-
ion. This clever yonng writer has essayed two
noveh, Honor Edgewoyth and The Doctor's Daughter^
both intended to depict certain phases of social
life and character at the Canadian capital.
Miss Barry has a bright and cultivated mind,
philosophical in its grasp and insight and ex-
ceedingly discriminating in its critical bearings.
Margaret Poison Murray, Maud Ogilvy and
Blanche Lucille Macdonell are three Montreal
women who have done good work with their
pens. Mrs. Murray is the wife of Professor J.
Clark Murray, of McGill University, and is one
of tlie leading musical and literary factors in the
commercial metropolis of Canada. She was for
some time Editor of the Young Canadian, a mag-
azine which during its short-lived days was true
to Canadian aspirations and thought. Mrs.
Murray busies herself in such manifold ways
that it is difficult to record her activities. Her
best literary work has been done as Montreal,
Ottawa and Washington correspondent of the

Toronto Week. She has a versatile mind, great
industry, and the very worthiest of ideals.

Miss Ogilvy is a very promising young writer
whose work during the past five or six years has
attracted much attention among Canadian read-
ers. She is best known as a novelist, being par-
ticularly successful in depicting life among the
French habitants of ^hiebec. Two well-written
though brief biographies — one of Hon. Sir J. J.
C. Abbott, late Premier of Canada, and the
other of Sir Donald Smith (Lord Strathcona) —
are also the work of her pen. Miss Ogilvy is a
thorough Canadian in every letter and line of her
life-work. Miss Macdonell is of English and
French extraction. On her mother's side she
holds kinship with Abbo Ferland, late Professor
in Laval University, Quebec, and author of the
well-known iiistorical work Conrs d' Histoire dii
Canada. Like Miss Ogilvy, Miss Macdonell has
essayed novel-writing with success, making the
old French regime in Canada the chief field of
her exploration and study. Two of her most
successful novels are Tlic World's Great A I tar Stairs
and For Faith and King. Her latest work is a
romance of French Canada entitled Z)jVi«e o/T'i7/i'
Marie. Miss Macdonell has written fur many of
the leading American perioilicals and has gained
an entrance into several journals in England.
Her work is full-blooded and instinct with Can-
adian life and thought.

A patriotic and busy pen in Canadian letters
is that of Janet Carnochan, of Niagara, Ontario.
Miss Carnochan has made a thorough study of
the Niagara frontier, and many of her themes in
prose and verse have their root in its historic
soil. She has been for years a valued contributor
to Canadian magazines, and has become so
associated in tlie public mind with the life and
history of the old Town of Niagara that the
Canadian people have grown to recognize her as
the special poet and historian of this quaint and
eventful spot. Among the younger Canadian
women writers few have done better and stronger
work than Mary Agnes FitzGibbon. Miss Fitz-
Gibbon is a grand-daughter of Mrs. Moodie.
Her best work is A Veteran of 1S12. This book
contains the stirring story of the life of Lieu-
tenant-Colonel FitzGibbon — grandfather of the
authoress — a gallant British officer who nobly

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CAXADA: AN' 1;N(V( l-OIM'.DIA.

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upheld the military honour of Canada and Eng-
land in the Niagara peninsula during the War of
lUlz. Every incident is charmingly told, and
Aliss FitzGibbon has shown in a marked degree
the gift of a clear and graphic narrato.-. Latterly,
in concert with Miss Mickle, of Toronto, she has
published two valuable historic Calendars with
Canadian events and characters as the subjects.
A writer who has accomplished a good deal in
Canadian letters is Amy M. Berlinguet, of Three
Rivers, yuebec. Mis. Berlinguet is a sister to
Joseph Pupe, Private Secretary of the late Sir
Sir John A. Macdonald, and author of a Life of
that eminent Canadian statesman. Mrs. Berlin-
gutt's strength lies in her descriptive powers and
the clearness and readiness with which she can
sketch a pen-picture. She has written for some
of the best magazines of the day. In Truro,
Nova Scotia, has lately risen a novelist whose
work has met with mucn favour. Emma Wells
Dickson, whose pen-name is " Stanford Eveleth,''
has many of the gifts of a true novelist. Her
work, Mias Dexie, which is a romance of the
Provinces, is a bright tale told in a pleasant and
captivating manner. In the City of Vancouver,
British Columbia, lives Lily Alice Lefevrc, whose
beautiful poem, "The Spirit of the Carnival ",
won a hundred lollar pri^e offered by the Mon-
treal lVit)ii:ss. Few of our Canadian women poets
have a truer note of inspiration than Mrs.
Lefevre. She writes little, but her work bears
the mark of real merit. Her volume of poems.
The Lion's Gate, published some years ago, is full
of good things from cover to cover. Under the
pen-name of " Fleurange " Mrs. Lefevre has
contributed to many of the Canadian and Amer-
ican magazines.

Another writer on the Pacific coast is Mrs.
Alfred J. Watt, best known in literary circles by
her maiden name of Madge Robertson. Mrs.
Watt has a facile pen in story-writing, and has
done some good work for several society and
comic papers. She was for some time connected
with the press of New York and Toronto. Her
b^st work is done in a light and racy vein.
Another authoress who has lately come to the
front in British Columbia is Mrs. Henshaw —
"Julian Durham." As a journalist and as the
writer of the novel Hypnotized, she is making a

distinct mark. I'ar i>ut on the prairie from the
Town of Regina, the capital of the Canadian
North-West Territories, has recently come a
voice fresh and strong. Kate Hayes knows well
how to embody in poem and in prose something
of the rough life and atmosphere found in the
prairie settlements of the West. Her poem, Rou^h
Ben, is certainly unique of its kind. Miss Hayes
has also in collaboration composed a number of
excellent songs.

It is not often that the poetic gift is duplicated
in its bestowal in a family. The English world
is well acquainted with the work of Charles G.
D. Roberts, the foremost of Canadian singers;
but it is not generally known that all his brothers,
and e pecially his sister, Elizabeth Gostwycke
McDoi aid, share w'th him in the divine endow-
ment of song. The work of Mrs. McDonald is
both strong and artistic. True to that special
attribute of feminine genius, she writes best in
the subjective mood. Under the guidance and
kindly criticism of her elder brother, Mrs.
McDonald has had set before her high literary
ideals, and has acquired a style which has gained
for her an entrance into some of the leading
magazines of the day.

Perhaps the best-known woman writer to-day
in Canada is E. Pauline Johnson. Miss Johnson
possesses a dual gift — that of poet and reciter.
She has a true genius for verse and, apart from
the novelty attached to her origin in being the
daughter of a Mohawk chief, possesses the most
original voice heard to-day in the groves of Can-
adian song. She has great insight, an artistic
touch and truth of impression. Her voice
is far more than aboriginal — it is a voice which
interprets, not alone the hopes, joys and sorrows
of her race, but also the beauty and glory of nature
around. Miss Johnson is on her mother's side
a kinswoman of W. D. Howells, the American
novelist. Her volume of poems, The White
Wampum, is indeed a valuable contribution
to Canadian poetry. A young writer whose
work has attracted much attention lately is M.
Amelia Fitche, of Halifax, Nova Scotia. Her
novel. Kerchiefs to Hunt Souls, has been very favour-
ably noticed in many of the magazine reviews
of the day. Constance Fairbanks i.i another
Halifax woman who has done some creditable

CANADA: AN KNCVCLOI'.r.DIA.

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literary work. Miss I'^airbaiiiis was for soiiu;
years Assistant Editor of the Halifax Critic.
In prose Miss Fairbanks has a well-balanced
style, simple and smooth.

Helen M. Merrill, of Picton, Ontario, is an
impressionist. She can transcribe to paper,
in prose or verse, a mood of mind or nature with
a fidelity truly remarkable. Her work in poetry
is singularly vital and wholesome, and has
in it in abundance the promise and element
of growth. She is equally happy in prose
or verse, and is so conscientious in her work
that little coming from her pen has about it any-
thing weak or inartistic. A poem recently from
her pen, bearing the title " When the Gulls Come
Home," is full of true inspiration and gives evi-
dence of her growing powers. Miss Merrill
is a descendant of Jonathan Edwards, well-known
in the Colonial literature of America. A name
which hears merit in Canadian literature is that
of Helen Fairbairn, of Montreal. Miss Fairbairn
has not a large literary output, but the quality
of her work is in every instance good. She
is happiest and best in her prose sketches.

For some years past Canadian journals and
magazines have contained sonnets from the pen
of Ethelwyn Wetherald. These poems had a
strength and finish about them which at once
attracted the attention of critics and scholars.
Miss Wetherald has lately collected her verse ia
book form, the volume bearing the title of The
House of the Trees, and it is safe to say that a col-
lection of poems of such merit has never before
been published by any Canadian woman. In
subject matter and technique Miss Wetherald is
equally felicitous, she is always poetic, always
artis'.ic. Jean Blewett resides in the little Town
of Blenheim, Ontario, but her genius ranges
abroad. Mrs. Blewett has the truest and most
sympathetic touch of any Canadian woman
writer of to-day. I never read the product of her
pen but I feel that she has all the endowments
requisite for a first-rate novelist. Her verse,
wh'ch has recently appeared in book form, is
exquisite — possessing a subtle glow and depth of
tenderness all its own. Mrs. Blewett's first
book, Out of the Depth, was published at the age of
nineteen, and its merit was such as to gain for
her a place among the brightest of our Canadian

writers. Emily McManus, of Kingston, Ontario,
is a name not unknown to Canadian readers. Her
work in prose and verse is marked by naturalness
and strength. Though busily engaged in her
profession as a teacher, Miss McManus finds
time to write some cliartiiiiig bits of verse for
Canadian journals and iiiiigaziiies.

There are three Canadian womciu now residing
out of Canada who properly belong to tlic land
of the Maple Leaf by reason of tiieir birth,
education and literary beginnings. Tlii^se are :
Mrs. Everard Coles, of Calcutta, India, better
known by her maiden name of Sara Jcannette
Duncan ; Helen Gregory-Flesher, of Faribault,
Minn., and Sophie Almon Hensley, of New York.
Mrs. Coles is one of the cleverest women Canada
has yet produced. She flashed across the literary
sky of her native land with a splendour almost
dazzling in its brightness and strength. Her
first work entitled, A Social Departure, gained for
her immediate fame, and this was soon followed
by a second book. An American Girl in London.
Mrs. Cotes has a happy element of humour
which counts for much in writing. Since kar
residence in the Orient the authoress of ^ Social
Departure has devoted herself chiefly to the writ-
ing of stories descriptive of Anglo-Indian life.
One of these. The Story of Sonny Sahib, is a charm-
ing little tale. It will be a long time indeed
before the bright name of Sara Jeannette Duncan
is forgotten in the literary circles of Canada.

Mrs. Flesher is perhaps one of the brightest
all-round women writers that Canada has yet
produced. She has had a most scholarly career.
Her University courses in music and arts have
placed her upon a vantage ground which she has
strengthened by her own unceasing labour and
industry. Mrs. Flesher is a clever critic, a
clever story-writer, a clever sketcher and a clever
musician. She was for some time Editor of the
Search Li^ht, a San Francisco monthly publica-
tion devoted to the advancement of woman.
At present she is doing work for a number of
leading American magazines. Mrs. Hensley,
who resides in New York, is both poet and nov-
elist, and is regarded by competent critics as
one of Canada's best sonneteers. Sincerity and
truth mark all her work. When quite young
Mrs. Hensley, who was then residing in the col-

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Ifgiatetown of Windsor, Novn Scotia, submitted
lier productions to tliu criticism and approbation
of her friend, Charles G. D. Roberts, and this
in some measure explains the high iileai of her
work. Mrs. Hensley holds kinsiiip with Cotton
Mather, the Colonial writer and author. At
present she is giving her time chiefly to story-
writing, and is meeting with much success.

In Chicago, U.S., there lives and toils a bright
little woman who, though living under an alien
sky, is proud to consider Canada her home.
Eve Broadlique is justly regarded as one of the
clovcnst women writers in the West. Since
her coniieclion with the Chicago press some
live 4ir six years ago she has achieved a reputa-
tion which adds lustre to the work accomplished
by woman in journalism. Her latest literary
production is a one-act play entitled "A Training
Sclidul for Lovers," which has met with much
success on the stage.

No estimate of Canadian women writers would
be complete with the name of Lily Dougall
(iinitted. Miss Dougall is a Canadian girl, who
n few years ago chose Edinburgh, Scotland, as
her home. As a writer, she is both strong and
miginal. Her best work will be found in Beg<^ais
A II, The Mermaid and The Madonna of a Day.
Her other chief works are : What Ncicssily Knows,
A Question of Faith a::.! Tlie Zeit Geist. Canada
usually furnishes Miss Dougall the background
for her tales. Another Canadian woman writer
who has done very creditable work is Jane New-
ton Mcllwraitli, of Hamilton, Ontario. Miss
McHwraith has contributed to many of the lead-

ing America.i magazines. She writes under the
nomde plume of "Jean Forsyth." In 1897 she com-
pleted in collaboration with William McLennan
an historical romance, the scene of which is laid
in New France, for the Harper's, New York. In
1895 her novelette The Making of Mary, was pub-
lished in London, England.

Mrs. Emily Cummings, ofToronto, Ontario, is
a name well-known among the women writers of
Canada. Mrs. Cummings has done a good deal
of clever journalistic work in connection with the
Toronto Globe and Empire. She generally writes
under the«o;;i deplume of "Sama." During her con-
nection with the Empire s\ni wrote for that paper
a series of papers entitled " Our Indian Wards."
Another Toronto woman whose pen is busy and
graceful is Mrs. Grace Elizabeth Denison. Mrs.
Denison is the authoress of a volume bearing the
i\i\ti A Happy Holiday ; A Tour Through Europe,
and is a generous contributor to the periodical
press.

Robina and Kathleen Macfarlane Lizars and
Lady Edgar have made worthy contributions
to Canadian literature. Nor should the names
of Mrs. E. Jeffers Graham, Annie G. Savigny,
Mrs. E. Mason, Maria Elise Lauder, Mrs. Virna
Slieard, Mrs. Emma O'SuUivan, Maud Regan
and Rose Ferguson be omitted from the roll of
Canadian women writers. All have contributed
poems, sketches and stories of considerable merit.
Mrs. Giiihsim's Etchings from a Parsonage Verandah
possesses a flavour of humour at once genial
and quaint, while some of Miss Ferguson's
poems give evidence of true inspiration.

THOMAS CHANDLER HALIBURTCN

BY

F. BLAKE CROProN, B A,, Provincial Librarian of Nova Scotit.

THOMAS Chandler Haliburtoii, until re-
cently tiie most noted writer burn in
British North America, was the son of
William Hersey Otis Haliburton, Chief
Justice of the Inferior Court of Common Pleas,
as his office was ponderously styled, and of Lucy,
daughter of Major Alexander Grant, one of
Wolfe's officers. He was born in Windsor, N.S.,
on the 17th of December, 1796. He was edu-
cated in his native town at the Grammar School,
and subsequently at King's College, graduating
(b.a.) in 1815. In 1820 he was called to the Bar,
and practised his profession for some years in
Annapolis, which he represented in the Nova
Scotia House of Assembly from 1826 to 1829.
One of the most notable incidents of his career
in the Provincial Legislature was his warm,
eloquent and successful pleading in 1827 for the
abolition of the test oath, containing a declara-
tion against transubstantiation which debarred
devout Catholics from holding public office. His
persistent efforts to obtain a grant for the Pictou
Academy, which was more than once voted by
the House of Assembly and thrown out by the
Council, led to his characterizing the latter body
in a newspaper as "twelve dignified, deep-read,
pensioned old ladies, but filled with prejudices
and whims like all other antiquated spinsters."
For this the Council demanded an apology from
the House, which was at first refused ; but, on
Council's more peremptorily repeating its de-
mand, the House passed a resolution of censure,
which is thus recorded in its Journals, April 4,
1827:

" Thomas C. Haliburton, Esq., one of the
Members for the County of Annapolis, being
called upon, and having admitted that he did in
this House speak the words complained of by
His Majesty's Council, and afterwards publish
the same :

Resolved, therefore, unanimously : That the
House do consider the conduct of the said
Thomas C. Haliburton on that occasion as
highly reprehensible, and that Mr. Speaker do
pass the censure of this House upon the said
Thomas C. Halil)mton by publicly reprimanding
him therefor at the bar of this House."

Haliburton duly appeared at the bar and re-
ceived the reprimand. But he felt the snub so
much, or thought the back-down of the House so
disheartening, that he finally abandoned his
efforts on behalf of the Pictou Academy and by
so doing provoked much bitter criticism which
has not ended with his life. This apparent
desertion of a cause which he had so vigourously
championed was doubtless one of the reasons
which led the Government to resist his claim for
a pension, until some years after his retirement
from the Bench the Judicial Committee of the
Privy Council decided in his favour. In 1829
he succeeded to his father's Judgeship and soon
afterwards removed to Windsor, N.S., where he
occupied a pretty villa named "Clifton," whose
grounds adjoined those of King's College. In
1841 he was appointed Judge of the Supreme
Court. He retired from the Bench in 1856 and
took up his residence in England, intending to
devote himself exclusively to literature. The
University of Oxford gave him the honourary
degree of D c.L. in 1858, and he was elected a
member of the Athenaeum Club.

From 1859 to 1865 he represented Launceston
in the Imperial House of Commons. In Parlia-
ment Haliburton acted as the representative
rather of British North America than of his
English constituency, and he several times com-
bated the then disposition of many statesmen to
get rid of the Colonies. But he did not make
the mark in the House which the admirers of his
writings expected. The truth is that, even in

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CANADA; AN KNCVCI.OI'.KDIA.

I)is prime, liis urdinary speeches were little
above the average, tlu)u^;h parts of his set
orations were powerful and impressive in the
extreme. But none of his bc-st speeches were
made in the House of Commons. In 1859 wlien
he was elected for Laiinceston he was over sixty-
two years old — an a^o at whiih most eminent
men, having regard to tiieir reputation only,
would be wise to rest upon their laurels. And
Haliljurton had been too self-indulgent a liver to
be exceptionally vi^ourous at the beginnings of
his oKI age. Besides, by this time, his success
had probably made him too self-complacent to
think it needful to give much thought or labour
to his speeches. His tendency to wander from
the subject had increased. Commenting on a
speech of his made in Committee of Ways and
Means, April 25, 1861, Mr. Bernal Osborne
observed that he had " touched upon nearly
every topic except the issue which is immediately
under our consideration. The honourable and
learned gentleman is a man famous for his literary
ability," continued Mr. Osborne, " and as the
author of works of fiction which are universally
read ; but I must say that, after the exhibition
which he has made to-night, he had, in my
opinion, better undertake another edition of
' The Rambler.' " Haliburton's last years were
spent m Gordon House, Isleworth, a beautiful
and historic villa on the Thames, a mile or two
from Richmond. There he died on the 27th of
August, 1865, and was buried in the neighbouring
churchyard.*

The four books by Haliburton which narrate
the sayings and doings of the celebrated Samuel
Slick, of Slickville, are, in their chronological
order ; The Clockmaker, The A ttaclu', Wise Saws,
and Nature and Human Nature. Two others,
The Letter-Dag of the Great Western, and The
Bubblds 0/ Canada, are expressly attributed to Mr.

•Note. ITaliburtnn married (l) Louisa, daughter of Captain
Neville, late iglh Light Dr.igoons, and (2) Sarah Harriet, daugh-
ter of W. M. Owen, Esq, (of WocKlhouse, Shropshire), and widow
of E. IL Williims, Esq. (of Eaton MhscoU, Shrewsbury).
He left no issue by his second wife. His children, besides
two or ihree who died young, include Robert Grant Haliburton,
<j.c., the litterateur; Sir Arthur L., lately created Lord HaliburUin
of Uirlton, for some years Permanent Under-Secretary for War ;
Susan, niariied to the lute Judge Weldon of New Brunswick;
Augusta, married to a cousin ; Laura, married William Cunard ;
Etunia, married Reverend Bainbridpe Smith ; Amelia, married
Very Reverend Edwin Gilpin, Dean of Nova Scotia.

Slick as their author, as may be gathered from
the last letter in the ionner and from the dedica-
tion of the latter work; and publishers have
placed the name of Sam Slick on the covers
of The Old Judj^e, The Season Ticket, American
Ilninour, and .1 mericans at Home.

The First Series of The Clockmaker, which
appeared first in The Nova Scolian in 1835 and
1836, was published in book form in Ilalifa.x
and Loiulon in 1837. The Second Series was
issued in i8j8; the Third in 1840. In most
later editions the three series make one volume.
The cute doilges of the Clockmaker in pushing
his traile are said to have been reminiscences
of suits tried by Haliburton, and brought by an
itinerant vendor of clocks for the payment
of notes given him for his time-pieces. In the
first chapter of The Attachi-its ostensible writer
speaks of The Clockmaker as an accidental hit,
a success which he did not purpose to imperil
by experimenting in other literary lines. "When
Sam Slick," he says, "ceases to speak, I shall
cease to write." But Haliburton's self-confidence
grew with his fame, and he failed to keep this
modest resolution. The Attache, the two series
of which appeared respectively in 1843-1844,
was probably suggested by Dickens' American
Notes, which had been published early in 1842.
After deprecating Slick's lively indignation at the
latter book, " The Squire' observes, in 7/»^/l//«c/i^:
" If the English have beerj amus'id by the
sketches //jcjVtoijiists have drawn of the Yankees,
perhaps the Americans may laugh at our sketches
of the English." The sub-title of this book,
" Sam Slick in England," has been made the
only title in some editions. This last remark
may be made alsoof II'iw Saws and Modern Instan-
ces, which has been given to the public, at least
once, under its second title of " Sam Slick
in Search of a Wife." The first edition of Wise
Saws, published in London in 1853, and its con-
tinuation, Nature and Human Nature, in 1855, con-
cluded the record of the sayings and doings
of the redoubtable Sam Slick.

Haliburton's first work was his Historical and
Statistical Account of Nova Scotia, published in
Halifax in 1829, for which he received a vote of
thanks from the House of Assembly. There is
now no doubt that the author's History tinctured

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Longftllow's picture of the Acadian expulsion.
" The poet," says his brother rind biof^rupher,
"read such books as were attainable ; Ilahbur-
ton, for instance, with his quotations from Abbt^
Kaynal." liut may not the publication uf
Haliburton's History have been a link in the
chain of incidents that led to the inception of
" Evangeline ?" The tale of the separated Aca-
dian lovers, it is well known, was told to
Longfellow by Hawthorne, who had heard it
from his friend, the Rev. H. L. ConoUy, at one
time Rector of a church in South liost'>n. "The
iucitlent had been related to hiui by a parishioner
of his, Mrs. Haliburton ", writes the Rev. Samuel
Longfellow. This was Mrs. George Haliburton,
an aunt by marriage of the author. Is it not
likely thai her attention was iirst drawn to the
Acadians by the touching description of their
virtues and their woes in the History written by
her nephew ?

Our author's second historical work was The
Bubbles of Canada, a series of letters on the
Imperial Colonial policy, published in 1837, while
his third and last was Rule and Misrule of the
English in A merica, which appeared in 1851. The
Letter-Dag of the Great Western, or Life in a
Steamer, first published in 1839, is a collection of
letters supposed to be written by various passen-
gers from England to America in the famous
steamship of that name. These letters contain,
not only comments upon life at sea, but the
writers' reflections on the country they are leav-
ing or the country they are going to— ja plan
which enables the author to present us with some
lively studies in his favourite subject, human
nature. In 1846 and 1847 Haliburton contributed
to Fraser's Magazine a series of papers, which in
1849 were collected in the book entitled The Old
Judge, or Life in a Colony. This work depicts
various phases of life in Acadia in the earlier part
of this century. As in the " Sam Slick" series,
the plot is a mere thread on which to stringfacts,
jests and opinions. The Old Judge's opinions,
by the way, seem to march pretty closely with
Haliburton's own. Traits of A merican Humour and
Americans at Home (also published under the title
of " Yankee Stories ") are merely collections of
tales, mirthful or marvellous, edited by Haliburton,
but culled from American books and periodicals.

His latest work was The Season Ticket, a series of
miscellaneous ikHcs made and conversations re-
ported by Mr.Shcgoj;, the holder of a season ticket
on an English railway. The papers which com-
prise this work were fust published anonymously in
the Dublin L'liiversity Marasinc, in 1.S58 and 1859.
J'he Season Ticket is important to thestiuient of
Haliburton, showing, as it does, that hisCons(,rva-
tivB and Imperialistic views, and his opinions of
the resources and needs of Nova Scotia and
Canada, were not materially chaiigeil in his old
age. In this book, too, we may be sure that the
author expresses himself absolutely without fear
or favour, for it was evidently designed to rem;iiu
anonymous. Otherwise he would hardly have
been bold enough to make a gentleman (p. 123)
group him with Dickens and Thackeray. Halibur-
ton loved fun and showed his love of it even on
the Bench. His tastes and instincts were both
conservative and aristocratic. He disliked inno-
vations unless they were unquestionable improve-
ments. He disapproved of voting by ballot and
universal suffrage. To the latter he makes Mr.
Hopewell trace the repudiation of their debts by
certain otatcs of the Union. In his historical
works he even opposed the granting of responsible
government to the Colonies. He held that the
tyranny of mobs and majorities may be quite as
bad and unbearable as that of despots.

Politics, thought Haliburton, is a poor and
overcrowded business, especially in the Colonies.
He lamented that his countrymen devoted too
much attention to this petty game, and exhausted
his stores of epigram and ridicule to open their
eyes to the fact. Space forbids an adequate
account of his famous criticisms, chiefly by the
mouth of " Sam Slick," upon the remediable
weaknesses of Nova Scotians. He found many
of them surrounded by industrial openings and
yet waiting inertly for governmental panaceas or
wasting their energies in clamouring for them.
But, though he freely criticized his countrymen's
faults with a view to their reform, he also recoe-
nized and handsomely advertised the many
advantages of his native Province. To attain
the prosperity which nature seemed to have
destined for them, he thought Nova Scotians
only wanted more industry and more confidence
in domestic enterprises, with less devotion to

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politics, li'ss {nUc. prl(l<! (which set some people
against a^'ricultiiro uiul otliur honour il)le iiulus-
tries) and suK-coinplacency, that tlicy niiijht
recogni/e thuir faults urul rofurtn them.

IIo seems to havo fnttcil under tlio subordinato
status of the Colonii-s, aiul to have yearned for
a fuller Imperial citizensnip. " No, don't uso
the word 'our' till yon are entitled toil," says
the Clockmaker. " lie formal and everlastin'
polite. Say 'your' empire, 'your' army, etc.,
and never strut under borrowed plumes." Else-
where he has compared the Colonies to ponds,
which rear frogs, but want only inlets and out-
lets to become lakes and produce fine fish. He
thought the main cause of discontent among
gifted and self-reliant colonists was the lack of
opeirngs for genius and ambition. He argued
that the representation of the Colonies in the
Imperial Parliament would also serve to prevent
dangerous disaffection — their representatives
would be "safety-valves to let off steam." He
thought the North American Colonies had already
reached a period in their growth " when the treat-
ment of adults should supersede that of chil-
dren " ; but ho was not one of those who wished
to accept the full privileges of manhood and
shirk its obligations and responsibilities.

Sam Slick, his most notud creation, is in most
respects a typical, wide-awake Yankee. He is
versatile and shifty. He loves to best a body in
a trade — especially when the other party thinks
himself knowing. He wants to turn everything
to practical use, and at Niagara is struck first by
the water-power, and secondly by the grandeur
of the Falls I He flatters, wheedles and "soft-
sawders " everlastingly ; but he never cringes to
anyone. He is a past master of slang, and is
quoted widely, in illustration of colloquialism, in
Bartlett's Didicnary of American Slang. He is
flippant sometimes to the verge of irreverence
and indelicacy. He is a shrewd and close
observer of character as well as of externals, of
classes as well as of individuals. Proud and
boastful of his country, he sees some of its faults
and dangers, and criticizes it freely himself.
But he resents the criticisms of foreigners, espe-
cially of superficial observers who think they
know everything in a few weeks. These gentry
he sometimes "bams" with such shocking tales

as "The Ciouging School" or "The lUuck
Stole." He is so sublimely self-conceited us to
be unconscious of tlio failing; but his boastful-
ncss is not wholly due to his conceit. Ha some-
times brags because " it saves ailvertising." " I
always do it," he confesses, " for, as the Nova
Scotia .Magistrate said, who sued his debtor before
himself, ' what's the use of being a Justice if you
can't do yourself justice ? ' "

In some of his opinions, however, Mr. Slick is
certainly not the typical Yankee of his time. He
poms riili( ule on the mock modesty and sugges-
tive S(jueamishnes8 of New Ehglanders. " Fas-
tidiousness," he says, ** is the envelope of
indelicacy." Hu detests cant and distrusts those
who use it. Hypocrisy, he thinks, " has enlisted
more folks for Old Scratch than any recruitin'
Serjeant he has." Ho is opposed to Prohibition
and notes some of the humbugs then as now con-
nected with it. " Puritans," he says, " whether in
or out of church tnake more sinners than they
save by a long chalk. They ain't content with
real sin. Their eyes are like the great magnifier
at the Polytechnic, that shows you awful
monsters in a drop of water, which were never
intended for us to see, or Providence would
have made our eyes like Lord Rossc's telescope."

To believe that any human being, much less
one who starts life under considerable disadvant-
ages, could know all that Mr. Slick soys he knows
would tax one's credulity overmuch. He is
equally at home in the politics of England, Can-
ada and the United States. He paints, he plays
the piano and the bugle, he dances, he is skilled
in wood-craft and angling, he rows and paddles
neatly, he shoots like Leather Stocking or Dr,
Carver. He can speculate in any line with equal
success. He has a fair smattering of medicine
and chemistry. He offers a hawker of cement a
much better receipt of his own invention. He
has been in almost every countiy, including
Poland, South America and Persia. In the latter
country he has learned the art of stupifying
fishes and making tliem floal on the surface. He
dyes a drunken hypocrite's face with a dye
which he got from Indians in " the great lone
land " ; and when the hypocrite repents ho has a
drastic wash ready to efface the stain. " I actilly
lamed French in a voyage to Calcutta," he

CANADA: AN KNCYCLUI'.l'DlA.

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•nys, "nnd German on mv way hotnc." lie;
knew n little (jaclic too, wliich hn learned <i\\ a
Ut.'W and a(,'rueal)li! systuni that, unfurtunatuly,
woiiKl nevi.T duin tliu I'ublic Schools.

AittMiins Ward wan not without warrant in
terniiii)4 Ilalibiutun tliu founder of tlio American
scliool j)f huinuur, for nidst of its phases, from
the affected simplicity of Mark Twain to the
nialapropism of Mrs. I*artin},'lon, are illustrated
in his works. About fifteen years before the
publication of Uncle Tom's Cabin, Topsy's famous
phrase was anticipated in The Clockmakcr (c. 12),
where a country girl, being asked w here she was
broufjht up, answered : " Why, I {,'ues3 I wasn't
brought up at all, I growed up." Not only phrases
but anecdotes and tales have been borrowed from
Ilahburton by modern humourists. One might
even argue, spitefully, that he furnished the
model for " Peck's Bad Boy," for there is in The
Le//<r>'-/Jrt^'' an epistle from a youth who plays a
series of tricks almost as nefarious as those of
Peck's monstrosity.

Haliburton pointed the shafts of his sarcasm
usually at types and classes, seldom at individ-
uals. Flu saw an unoccupied field for a satirist
at home and he proceeded to occupy it. " The
absurd importance attached in this country to
trifles," observes one of his characters, "the
grandiloquent language of rural politicians, the
flimsy veil of patriotism under which selfishness
strives to hide * * present many objects for
ridicule and satire." He used dialogue copiously,
as a means to make his writings popular. " Why
is It," asked Sam Slick, " if you read a book to a
man you set him to sleep ? Just because the
language ain't common. Why is it if you talk
to him he will sit up all night with you? Just
because it's talk, the language of natur'." And
written chat, he evidently thought, was the most
effective medicine next to oral chat for holding
the attention of all classes. Haliburton had a

great gift for aphorism and quaint conceits and
was never at a loss for an apt or grotesque
sinide.

To what additional eminence he might have
attained, had his earlier efforts been addressed to
a more criticid circle, must remain a iii;i'.ti.r of
conjecture. But it is not unlikely that he niiglit
have taken rank among the very greatest literary
names of the century if he had been a little less
genial and self-indulgent or if he had had lii;;lier
educational advantages and a mote stiiiiulating
literary environment at the outbetofhis career.
As it was, Haliburton generally wrote forcibly,
and often smoothly and classically, while in
detached passages he could be terse and even
brilliant. But the attractions of his style are
not sustained, and he is sometimes a little slip-
shod or diffuse, tie is accordingly mure to be
admired as a humourist than as a stylist, and
still more, perhaps, as a thorough student and
acute judge of human nature. He noted with
almost equal keenness and accuracy the idiosyn-
crasies of individuals, of classes and of nations.
He Intuitively recognized the tendencies of the
age; he observed the currents of public opinion,
and gauged their volume and their force with
appro.ximate correctness. He foretold some im-
portant events that have happened already and
others that seem extremely probable to-day.

A literary society was organized in 1884 in
connection with King's College, Windsor, N. S.,
and named the Haliburton Club. It has pub-
lished two volumes: the first, a pamphlet by the
present writer, entitled Haliburton : the Man and
the Writer ; the sccoml, Haliburton : A Centenary
Chdplct, The latter is illustrated and contains,
with four otlier papers, a complete bibliography
compiled by J. P. Anderson of the British Mu-
seum, giving a list of magazine articles refening
to the author and of English and foreign editions
of liis works.

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HISTORICAL SKETCH OF CANADIAN JOURNALISM

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ARTHUR F. WALLIS, Editor of the /onw/o M,ii! ami l-.iiipin:

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IN IK) branch of effort has Canadian profjress
been nioie marked than in journahsin.
As the Canadian settler commenced with
his rinle implements to cultivate the soil,
so the pioneers of jonrnalisin embarked upon
their various enterprises, full of energy and hope,
to be sure, but in mechanical contrivances and
in all tlie means necessary for the prosecution of
their undertakings poorly equipped. As with
the advancement of the country industry and
invention have made easier the lot of the farmer,
so have these two agencies afforded the press
the means for an extension of its usefulness un-
looked for and unsuspected in the early days.
Canada has travelled rapidly from that period,
when the Editor, after passing his compositions
to his other self, committed them by his own
hand to type and concluded by working off the
little edition of his little paper by main force on
the hand press. Something more in keeping
with the requirements of a great, a growing and
an educated public has been achieved. The del-
icate and intricate type-casting machine, the
powerful and speedy steam press, now combine
to turn out the complete and carefully prepared
weeklies or the largely circulated daily issues,
laden not merely with the thoujjhts of the edi-
torial mind but with discussions on all possible
subjects — literary, artistic, scientific, theological,
social, commercial and political — and with the
news of the entire world cabled promptly and
directly into the office of publication. Nor in
the tone and char;ictcr of the press are there
wanting signs of change. From the fierce and
rugged disputations, the strong and bitter denun-
ciations of a particularperioil in Canadian history,
we have passed to the calmer discussion, the
appeal to reasjii, which alone should iiifluenr<;aii
inlellij^'eiit community.

It is unquestionably of interest to know some-
thing of tile begmnings of journulism in Canada,
of the work wiiich the pioneers accomplished,
of the circumstances under whicii they began and
of the difliculties with which they met. At one
time it was supposed that th: first paper to ap-
pear in tlie British North America of to-day was
the Quebec Gazeilc, in 1764. This was a mistake.
Nova Scotia has the honour of the parentage of
Canadian journalism. Three years after the
founding of Halifax by Edward Cornwallis; three
years before the expulsion of the Acadians from
the blissful retreat carved out of the forest prim-
eval ; eight years before the transfer of Quebec
to the British ; fourteen years before the Declar-
ation of IndepenJence by the thirteen colonies ;
or in 1752, on the 28th of March, the Halifax
Gazette presented itself for the purpose of afford-
ing the inhabitants of the new Colony a weekly
resumifol the more important events. It seems
clear that high anticipations touching the future
of the then opening Province led the printer to
its capital so soon after its foundation. At all
events the projector of the enterprise belonged
to a printing and publishing family. His grand-
father had conducted a printing establisiimeiit at
Boston, Mass., his father was the publisher of
the Huston News-Letter, the first newspaper issued
in America, and it was not unnatural tliat Bar-
tholomew Green should woo fortune in the oc-
cui)ation of his forefathers and in a new and
promising fieUl.

Green tiled before ho could bring out his paper ;
but he had taken to Halifax along with his types
and his press a Boston printer, John Biishell by
name. Busiiell tt)oU up the undertaking where
Green drop[)ed it, a.id we have as the result of
Ins efforts the two double-column oblong pages
named and dated as already mentioned. There

CANADA: AN KNCVCI.OP.KDIA.

'83

is one copy of this paper in existence, tiie Mas-
sachusels Historical Society at Hoston being its
custodian. Certainly it was an excellent pro-
duction from all points of view — for that early
period of nearly a century and a half ago. Hut,
as with the pioneer press the world over, owing
of course to the difliculties of comnuinication,
the news that it presented was somewhat belated.
For example we have in March Parliamentary
information of the preceding September and gen-
eral European intelligence of November, Decem-
ber and January. The paper, however, throws
light upon the condition of the period. Naval
battles are reported from the Spanish Main and
the flight of the Dons is recorded. The death
at Quebec of Le Jonquifere, the Intendant of New
France, is announced and the prevalence of
small-pox on both sides of the Atlantic is de-
clared to be so serious a matter that masters of
vessels have been cautioned to carefully inspect
their passengers. An Act is said to have been
passed by the Imperial Parliament correcting the
calendar by omitting all the days between the
2nd and the 14th of September, 1752; and Lord
Bolingbroke is reported to have died. The
Queen of Denmark had also passed away. As
a tribute to her memory it had been ordered that
for a whole year there should be no "plays,
balls, operas, concertos, etc." " Heavens pre-
serve us," exclaims the Editor, " from such
mourning, which would send at least one half of
our gay, polite gentry to the grave."

The Gazette appears to have been delayed in
publication, for the publisher informs those who
had subscribed and who wished to know the
cause of the delay that "the gentleman who is
possessed of the original subscriptions, whenever
desired, will give them a satisfactory account."
The suliscription was twenty siiillings a year;
the niiiuber of subscribers was seventy-two; and
it was announced that ailvertisements, of wliich
three appeared in the initial number, would be
"taken in." There was a liberal advertising
patrnnage but some of the amionnccmeuts made
in later editions read queerly iu these days. Mr.
E. B. Biggar in his " Sketch of Canadian Journal-
ism "* mentions one pointing to the prosecution

•KnnoR's Note.
Dittctory," 1892.

See McKim's " Canadian New.'paper

of an industry now happily extinct: "To be
sold by Joshua Mauger at Major l^ockman's store
in Halifax several negro slaves. As follows : A
v.'iiman aged 35, two boys aged 12 and 13 respect-
ively, two of eighteen and a man aged 30."
Bushell incurred debts while publishing his paper
and in 1760 took in as a partner Anthony Henry,
who, four months later, on Bushell's death, suc-
ceeded to the business. Henry did well until
on one unfortunate day his apprentice, Isaiah
Thomas, cut the stamps required by the Stamp
Act from his stock of paper and necessitated
the bringing out of an edition — in violation of
the law — unstamped. This led to the withdrawal
of the official patronage and the importation from
London in 1766 of another printer, Robert
I'letcher, to publis i a rival paper. The new-
comer designated his journal the Nova Scotia
Gazette, and at once Henry's Halifax Gazette
stopped. But, two years later, Henry re-entered
the journalistic arena with a more attractive
paper, the Nova Scotia Chronicle and Weekly Adver-
tiser. Ultimately, through the bankruptcy of his
rival, he became the controller of the Gazette
once more. Incorporating it with the Chronicle,
and calling the united papers the Nova Scotia
Gazette and Weekly Chronicle he was able to publish
until the day of his death. Mi . John J. Stewart,
of Halifax, in an able article on Nova Scotia
Journalism tells us that the Gazette still lives in
the Royal Gazette, the official publication of Nova
Scotia.

The first journalistic enterprise in Canada —
the Nova Scotia Gazette — was the child — the pos-
thumous child as it turned out — of a Boston
printer. Of the next it can also be said that it
came from Boston. Reference has been made
to the Boston News-Letter which, was established
by the father of Bartholomew Green. That
paper during the troublous time of the Revo-
lution was owned by Mrs. Draper, who inherited
it from her husband. Mrs. Draper stood by the
Loyalists from the first, and when on March 17,
1776, the British troops evacuated Boston, she
left the city also, taking with her the types and
her press — a machine formerly owned by Frank-
lin— and a young man who was destined to
become famous on his own account, and on that
of his son, in Canadian history. The young man

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CANADA; AN ENCYCLOP.KDIA.

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was foil II Howe, father of the great Canadian
statesman, the Hon. Joseph Howe. John Howe
came of a celebrated Enj^lish family that had
given Britain seamen, soldiers f nd peers. Wlien
the American difficulties arose some members of
the Howe fimily who liail been long settled in
New England espoused the revohitionary cause.
But John looked for freedom under the flag for
which liis forefathers had fought; and it was
with a clear conscience that in company with his
bride, Mrs. Draper, a young man by the name of
McKinstry, who afterwards became his business
partner, and Nathaniel Mills — grand uncle of the
Hon. David Mills — he left the place of his birth
to live on British soil. Mr. Howe managed Mrs.
Draper's business for some years, but it was not
until 17S1 that he published his paper, the /frt/j/aA:
Journal. Taking a prominent part in public
affairs he enjoyed the high esteem of his fellow-
citizens and in the end settled down as Post-
master of the Province. His son John subse-
quently conducted the paper. This member of
the Howe family was not, however, destined to
rise to eminence. His half brother, Joseph, at
the age of thirteen was apprenticed to the print-
ing business. Having learned the trade, Joseph,
in 1827, joined with James Spike in the purchase
of the Weekly Chronicle, the name of which they
changed to Tlie Acadian. It was a literary paper
and in all probability failed to afford Joseph
Howe the scope for which he looked. At all
events he disposed of his interest to his partner
and established the Nui'a Scotian in 1828. In
this journal he entered upon political discussions,
assailing the ruling powers with vehemence and
demanding what at that time had been conceded
to none of the Colonies, responsible govern-
ment.

Howe laboured in the same field as that occu-
pied by William Lyon Mackenzie in the west.
But he objected to any form of agitation other
than such as was constitutional. It was with
regret that he heard of the Upper Canadian
revolt and of the like proceedings in Lower Can-
ada. But before he could make progress with
his movement he had to assert tlie liberty of the
press. This was accomplished in the course of a
discussion on the subject of the municipal govern-
ment of Halifax. The city rulers were irrespon-

sible and Howe's paper charged them with cor-
ruption. Mr. Howe was at once arrested for
libel. The lawyers to whom he appealed for
assistance in his defence unanimously declared he
had no case and that he had to select either
abject apology or the gaol. He determineil, how-
ever, to defend himself and with borrowed law
books he studied the law of libel and prepared
for the trial an argument which he hoped would
result in his acquittal. His speech in Court in
his own behalf was his first public aildress. It
occupied six and a half hours in delivery and was
a masterpiece of eloquence and elegance. It cast
asiile the defensive position and was distinctly
aggressive in that it renewed the assaults upon
tlie civic administration and appealed to the jury
to stand by liberty pf discussion in the public
interests. An able Attorney-General replied and
a Judge, not enamoured of the press, made a
charge distinctly against the accused. But, after
deliberating just ten minutes, the jury acquitted
Mr. Howe and the verdict was received with pop-
ular rejoicings.

Joseph Howe had won the freedom of the
press. Mr. Howe in his paper then turned his
attention to the freedom of self-government, in
which he also scored a victory. In later years he
opposed Confederation ; but subsequently ac-
cepted it. At the same time he was a Feder-
ationist on a larger scale. Looking far ahead
and over wider fields he became imbued with the
idea of Imperial Federation and was one of the
first statesmen to propose and advocate that
principle. \Vhen Mr. Howe entered formally
into politics he parted with his paper, and William
Annand, another famous Nova Scotian, became
its owner. Mr. Annand subsequently changed
the name iotho Morning Chronicle and it is still
published in Halifax. It, with a multitude of
contemporaries, notably the Halifax Herald, is
forming and leading public opinion in that Prov-
ince.

The first Canadian paper was published in
Halifax ; the second in Quebec, Prior to the
cession there had been no regular journals in the
Lower Province. But after the cession, or on
June 21, 1764, the first number of the Quebec
Gazette appeared. It is believed that Murray,
the first British Governor after the Treaty of

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CANADA: AN ENCYCLOIVKDIA.

185

Peace iiiitiatdi tlie enterprise. But, whatever
truth there may be in this, twb Philadelphia
printers, William Brown and Thomas Giiinour,
were the first proprietors. Gihnour went to
England and bought tjpe, press and paper.
Brown took up his residence in Quebec and pre-
pared to commence publication. All was arranged
indue time and the paper wa3 issued from the
first printing office established in the Province.
The style of the sheet suggested the mixed cha-
racter of the population for it was printed half in
English and half in French, the languages occu-
pying alternate columns. A prospectus circulated
in advance of the initial num'^er told what the
Gazette would do. It was to be representative of
the two languages so as to "afford a weekly
lesson for improvement to any inhabitant willing
to attain to a thorough knowledge in the lan-
guage of the place different from that of his mother
tongue — whether French or English." But as
that feature of the paper, together with other
important departments comprehended in the
collection and publication of the news of the
world — which was of a particularly boisterous
description owing to the prevalence of wars on
both land and sea — would necessitate much
greater expense than the printers in their cir-
cumstances could stand, it was thought well to
require that at least three hundred subscribers at
$3.00 each should be on the books before opera-
tions were commenced. It is clear that the three
hundred were secured for " The Genteel Printing
Office", as h was termed, was duly opened.

The editorial programme was pitched in a high
key. "Our intention to please the tf/jo/e without
offence to any individual will be better evinced by
our practice than by writing volumts on this
subject. This one thing we beg may be believed,
that party prejudice or private scandal will never
find a place in this paper." The allusion to
party prejudice illustrates- the political peaceful-
ness of the period. We had not reached the
days of turmoil when men took sides strongly
and bitterly and resortetl to the regular press as
a nieans of advancing their views. It was sum-
mer when the Gazette appeared, the English news
was therefore not more than two months old,
while the intelligence from New York was but a
month behind the time. But some of the news

was frauglit with great consequences. The
Gazette announced for instance that in London
there had been prepared a scheme of taxation for
our American Colonies. This sclienie was the
beginning of the trouble which in a few years
altered the colouring of the world's map. Varied
and interesting were the announcements from
time to time made through the columns of the
Gazette: The advertisements enumerating the
wares for sale pointed to the existence of embryo
departmental stores, while the notifications of
fetes, concerts and balls about to take ulace
stamped Quebec as decidedly a gay capit^.l. The
GazettelWed for more than a century under various
publishers; but in the changes that took place it
was forced to discard that part of its programme
having reference to politics. It began to criticize
with freedom and was ultimately very outspoken.
In 1806 it censured the Legislature for laying an
import tax on merchandize, for which censure its
Editor was corrected by order of the House and
was given the choice of the prison or an apology
— the latter being accepted.

Montreal soon grew to a position of impor-
tance. It received the next paper under somewhat
peculiar circumstances. The first journalistic
venture in Lower Canada came before the Declar-
ation of Independence. The second was one of
the results of that instrument. The new Ameri-
can Congress thought it could easily convert
Canada from its allegiance. With this end in
view it voted, in 1776, $100,000 for missionary
work, and deputed BenjaYnin Franklin, Samuel
Chase and the Rev. Charles Carroll to proceed
to Montreal and establish a paper which should
appeal to the French-Canadians. To their task
the Commissioners applied themselves with the
necessaiy zeal. They gathered all their appli-
ances— paper, press and type; they eiij^aged a
Frenchman named Joseph Fleury de Mcsplet to
edit the paper for them ; and they set out for
their expected peaceful conquest. Their primary
work consisted of the distribution of the mani-
festoes calling upon Quebec to join the Union.
These Franklin wrote; and Mesplet translated
and printed them. It soon became apparent to
the former that he could not strike a responsive
chord. The people preferred Great Britain.
Under these circumstances the Commissioners

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CANADA : AN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

returned and left Mesplet with their outfit.
Mespiet continued the printing office and on
June 3rd, 177S, issued the intended paper under
the name of the Montreal Gazette, fvotn the cele-
brated Chateau de Ramesay. The paper con-
sistetl of four pages, eight columns to the page,
and was piinted in French. The publisher in his
salutatory address mentioned the possible advan-
tages of the paper for advertising purposes and
then proceeded to guard himself against any mis-
intorpietation that might be placed upon his
motives. Thus: "I will insert in the above
paper or gazette everything that one or more
gentlemen will be pleased to communicate to me,
provivled always, no mention be made of religion,
government or news concerning the present affairs
unless I w;is authorized from Government for so
doing, my intention being only to confine myself
to what concerns advertisements, commercial
and literary affairs." But the programme was
departed from and Mesplet, besides being cen-
sured from the Bench, was ordered on one
occasion to leave the Province, which order was
subsequently revoked ; and on another to refrain
from attacking the clergy or inserting anything in
hissheetwhich wculdshockgood moralsor foment
discord. The Gazette was printed partly in Eng-
lish ten years after its first issue and ultimately
became exclusively English.

Another old Quebec paper, stil! published, is the
Quebec Mercury , founded by Thomas Gary in 1805
as an organ of the English people. Gary was a
clever and outspoken writer. He frequently
came into conflict with the Legislature and it is
recorded of him that in one of his conflicts with
that body he fed his press with assaults upon
it from a concealed chamber in his house while
the sergeant, armed with a warrant for his arrest,
sought hirn in vain. The next paper issued in
Quebec was Le Cauadien in November, 1S06.
This journal was entirely French and until its
demise in 1896 it was the oldest French paper in
the Province. LeCanadienii-m'^ht for theFrench-
Can:i(ii:in int<'iests in a period of groat difficulty
and was strong in its language and decisive in its
comments. Its first Editor, the Hun. Pierre
3edai.l, was imprisoned without trial, and, for a
long period, for itsassaults uyam the Government.
Francois Blancliet, a later Editor, passed througli

a like experience. Lieut. -Colonel Panet, the
President of the Assembly, was one of the share-
holders and he was dismissed from the Militia
by Sir James Graig because, as Sir James ex-
plained, he could place " no confidence in the
services of a person whom he has good grounds for
considering as one of the proprietors of a sediti-
ous and libellous publication that is disseminated
through the Province with great industry and
which is expressly calculated to vilify His
Majesty's Government and to create a spirit of
dissatisfaction and discontent among his subjects,
as well as of disunion and animosity between the
two parts of which they are composed." But
Le Cauadien continued to advocate its views until
new conditions arose which rendered the situa-
tion more satisfactory.

The succeeding history of the earlier journalism
in Quebec is a history of new enterprises com-
menced with much energy only to sink during
some political convulsion a few years later. But
Montreal journalism has two distinct points for
which it properly claims credit. It produced the
first daily paper in the Dominion — the Montreal
Daily Advertiser, established by H. S. Chapman
in 1833 ; and it produced the first penny paper
in the Province — the Montreal Transcript. These
papers were short-lived, but still they were the
first of their character. The passage from the
weekly to the daily issue was in most cases
gradual. The Gazette, established as a weekly in
1778, was in 1847 a daily in summer and a tri-
weekly, published on Monday, Wednesday and
Friday, in winter. The Herald, founded in 1808
as a weekly, was in 1847 a summer daily or
a winter tri-weekly. But the winter issues
were published on days other than those upon
which the Ga.xtte was issued, namely, on Tues-
days, Thursdays and Saturdays. La Minerve,
established in 1826, was published before it
became a daily on Mondays and Thursiiays ;
while the Witness, established in 1845, was origi-
nally a Monday paper.

The first C-inadian paper was issued at Hali-
fax; the second at Quebec; (he third at Mon-
treal ; and the fourth at St. John, New Brunswick.
They were all " Gazettes," but the last of the
(juartette had the added title " and Nova Scotia
Intelli^rencer." It was on December 17, 1783,

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that the A'cy*?/ St. John's Gazette first appeared.
At that time, what is now New Brunswick was
a part of Nova Scotia. A year later New Brun-
swick bccaii.e a separate Colony and as a con-
sequence the paper was named the Royal New
Brunawick Gazette and General Advertiser, The
publishers, Lewis and Ryan, appear to have
been succeeded in 1785 by Christopher Sower,
who came out as Jving's Printer and published a
paper under the title of The Royal Gazette and
Weekly Advertiser, Sower's career was much
like that of Howe's in Nova Scotia. He was
born in the recently revolted colonies. Remain-
ing throughout the rebellion his property Wcis
confiscated. After the war he proceeded to Lon-
don, made the facts known and was rewarded with
the offices of Deputy Post master and King's Printer
at St. John. His first issue was published in 1785:
and in 1786 he printed what is believed to have
been the first almanac published in Canada.

The early New Brunswick papers resembled
those of Nova Scotia. They contained long
and ancient summaries of British and foreign
news; very slight allusions to home news; re-
j>orts of the movement of vessels and a few
advertisements. Mr. E. B. Biggar mentions the
curious fact in relation to these eastern journals
that the first marriage announcement which ap-
peared in them was that of Captain Moodie to
Frances, third daughter of Hon. George Sproule,
Provincial Surveyor-General, in April 1811.
Captain Moodie was afterwards the Colonel
iVloodie who fought in the War of 1812 and was
shot near Toronto in the Rebellion of 1837.
New Brunswick has been a great journalistic
battle ground and has produced men famous in
their art, both in and out of the Dominion.
George E. Penety, T. W. Anglin, William Elder,
John Livingston — among those who have gone —
are names known and respected far beyond the
limits of the Provjice in which the chief work
of these gentlemen had been done. To Mr.
Fenety has been awarded the credit of bringing
out in the Morning News of 1839 tlie first penny
paper in the British Empire and the third in
America. What its circulation must have been
it is impossible to say ; but when it is mentioned
that the press upon whicli it was printed turned
out 120 copies per hour it will be assumed that

the sales were limited'. However, the paper grew
in popularity and as it improved its appliances
with its growth it was soon a splendid property.
This journal was one of the chief advocates of
the responsible government which was won in
New Brunswick without bloodshed. The New
Brunswick press has indeed stood for progress
from the first. One of the famous struggles for
liberty of the press was made in Fredericton by
The Loyalist, published by Messrs. Hill and Doak,
in 1844. The paper having assailed ccitain mem-
bers of the Legislature, the House caused the
arrest of the proprietors and detained them in
gaol. Mr. Hill entered suit against the Speaker
for damages and recovered. This put an end to
the theory that the Legislative Assembly could
in any way regulate the press. Passing from
New Brunswick to Prince Edward Island it is
found that the first paper issued there was an-
other " Gazette," which was founded in 1791. It
was an official paper. The first unofficial paper
was The Register, which came out under James
D. Hazard, the son of a Loyalist.

Upper Canada, the Ontario of to-day, saw its
first paper on April 13, 1793. It was another
" Gazette " — The Upper Canada Gazette and Ameri-
can Oracle. The Quebec Act had separated
Upper from Lower Canada ; Governor Simcoe
had been appointed to rule over the new Province
and had selected Newark, now Niagara, as his
capital. There he established his court and there
Lewis Roy, a Frenchman from Quebec, estab-
lished two years later his paper which, as he
announced in the prospectus, was to become " the
vehicle of intelligence in this growing Province
of whatever may tend to its interest, benefit and
common advantage." Roy's paper was placed
at three dollars per annum with four shillings,
Quebec currency, as the rate for advertisements of
not more than twelve lines in depth. The sheet
was well printed and the paper used was coarse
but good. Roy withdrew from the Gazette after
one year's experience and left for Montreal, where
he took charge of the Montreal Gazette in succes-
sion to Fleury de Mesplot, Benjamin Franklin's
protege. Mr. Gideon Tiffany continued the publi-
cation until 1799, when the scat of Government
having been transferred to York, now Toronto,
the Gazette followed it.

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The sea of journalism liencefortli became
stormy. It appears that tlie (}iizctte as publisheii in
York was tiie property of Messrs. Waters a al
Simons and that in 1801 they .vere succeeded by
Mr. J. 13ennett as printer and pul)li.sher. Mr.
Bennett liad troubles of liis own, not tiie least of
which was a scarcity of paper. This famine
necessitated the occasional printing of editions
either on wrapping paper or on the blue paper
used for the covers of official reports. Like
experiences have been met more recently by tlie
pioneers of far Western journalism who have in
more instances than one printed their issues on
wallpaper. A second difliculty was the inability
to get news. For its British and Foreign intel-
ligence the Gazette was dependent upon the New
York papers, the arrival of which, particularly in
winter, was very irregular. Dr. Scadiling in
Toronto of Old adds that in this paper, as m all
the other early prints, there was absolute indiffer-
(.nee to local news. The papers would make
announcements of meetings to be held and of
movements in progress, but they never related
what w;'.s said or what was done at any gathering.
Still we derive from them fair ideas of the practices
of the period — the whipping and branding of
offenders and other like punishments not inflicted
in these later days.

When the Gazette migrated to York with the
Governor, Tiffany and his brother having con-
fidence in Niagara, remained behind and pub-
lished a paper called the Canada Constellation, the
first number bearing date July 20, 1799. The
Messrs. Tiffany intended to serve the people well.
They spoke in their introductory address of the
influence and the usefulness of the press; they
depreciated the "political printer"; and they
pointed out that printers who were just could do
much towards rendering the community united
and prosperous, wliercas the reverse did harm.
There ensued a policy of local loyalty. The
printers worked for their own town and ridiculed
the pretensions of York, its rival across the lake.
But the Constellation did not live. After the run
of a year it made way for tiie Nia'^ara Herald.
The Herald explained that its predecessor had
died of starvation. In other words its publish-
ers had failed to insist upon that great safeguard,
payment in advance, and had suffered in con-

sequence. It seems probable that the same thing
brought the Herald to an end for it continued
only two years, giving place to another enter-
prise, which in turn was followed by a fourth. In
the Nia;j;ara Herald as in the old NoJ'a Scotia
Gazette are t(j be seen traces of the existence of
slavery. Here is one of its advertisements from
its issue of January 2, 1S02 : " I-'or Sale, a negro
man slave, 18 years of age, stout and healthy;
has had the small-pox and is capable of work
either in the house or outdoors. The terms will
be made easy to the purchaser and cash or new
lands received in payment. Enquire of the
Printer." The York paper also has its similar
column. For instance: " To be sold, a healthy
strong negro woman, about thirty years of age;
understands cooking and laundry. N.B. She
can dress ladies' hair. Enquire of the Printer,
York, Dec. 20, 1800." The harbouring of runa-
way slaves must have been a serious offence for
we read over the signature of Charles Field of
Niagara that " All persons are forbidden from
harbouring my slave ' Sal' and will be prosecuted
if they keep her half an hour." It ought to be
said in explanation of these notices that, while
the few slaves brought to the Province in the
early days could be legally held, no additions to
the holdings of that nature were permitted. The
Legislature at its first session at Niagara pro-
claimed the introduction of slaves illegal and
slavery died an early and natural death.

The Gazette was continued at York until 1813,
when the invaders from the United States scat-
tered the type and broke up the press. But it
had a rival in 1807 in the Upper Canada Guardian
or Freeman's Journal. This assailed the Govern-
ment, and its Editor, Joseph Wilcocks, who was
a member of the House, was imprisoned for
breach of privilege. In 1812 Wilcocks deserted to
the Americans and was killed at the siege of
Fort Erie. Thus ended his paper and his life.
In 1817 Dr. Home, an army surgeon, revived the
Upper Canada Gazette, and, in 1820, John Carey,
who had reported the debates in the Legislature
for its pages and was the first Canadian Parlia-
mentary reporter, established The Observer, which
he conducted until 1830. A year after Carey's
paper appeared Mr. Charles Fothergill took over
the Gazette and named it the Weekly Register. A

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CANADA; AN KNCVCI.OI'.KDIA.

189

variety of papers was issued at this period, lint
possibly tiiat of the {j'''''''t'ist historic value was
the Colonial Advocate, at first dated from ^)ueeiis-
ton, printed in Lewiston and circulated in York,
under the editorship ofWiiliain Lyon MacKenzic.
This paper appeared in May, 18.24, ^^^ continued
until the rebellion, its oilice being removed to
York, where it was once sacked. It struggled, as
did its Editor, against the ruling Dowers. Much
as the outbreak may be regretted and much as
we may deplore what was said as well as what
was done, there can be no dcnibt that the system
of responsibility which came in part from that
but which in New Brunswick, ns we
seen, was acquired by peaceful means.

strugglr
have

brought with it a larger degree of political tree
dom. Mackenzie was a tremendous worker
and a keen and incisive writer, honest in his
purposes, but impetuous in the ardour with
which he pursued them. He is the most notable
character in mid-century Canadian journalism.
After the Rebellion of 1837, his flight and the
altered Governmental system, we come to the
more moderate journals of modern times. Here
we meet with Mr. (afterwards Sir Francis)
Hincks, who established the Examiner in i8j8 ;
George Gurnett, who edited the Courier from
1831; William Macdougall, statesman and jour-
nalist, who established the North American as an
advocate of new reforms ; Peter Brown, the
founder of the Banner in i8.;.3 ; George Brown,
.his son and the great political leader and editor
who conducted the Toronto Globe, which was first
issued in 1844 ; Gordon Brown, the brother and
co-adjutor of George ; James Beaty, of the Leader
and Patriot, and Charles Lindsay of the same
papers.

The journaUsm of recent years in Canada has
produced many able writers. As education and
culture in the community have progressed so has
a higher form of newspaper work developed. In
Montreal, the late Hon. Thomas White, Mr. R. S.
White, ex-M.r., the late John Talon-Lesperance,
and John Reade of the Gazette; Mr. Hugh Graham
and Mr. Henry Dalby of the Star; the late John
Dougall and Mr. J. R. Dougall of the Witness;
and the late Hon. E. Goff Penny of the Herald
have been foremost in the development of English-
speaking daily journalism. In Toronto there have

been many reprcseraatiVe and able journalists in
recent years. Tiie Mail has had Mr. T. C. Pat-
teson, now Postmastrr of Toronto, the late
Charles Belford and Christopher W. Bunting, and
Martin j. Griffin, now Parliamentary Librarian
at Ottawa. Mr. Ednnmd Farrer has been con-
nected with it also as well as with the Globe. The
latterjournalhasliad the H(m. George Brown, first
and foremost and the late J. Gordon Brown, Mr.
A. H, Dymond, Mr. E. W. Thomson, Mr. John
Cameron, Mr. John Lewis, Mr. J. A. Ewan and
last but not least, Mr. J. S. Willison. The
central figure of the World has been Mr. W. F.
Maclean, M.p. The Empire during its career of
nine years, and up to tlie time of amalgamation
in 1895 with thepresent Mail and Empire, included
amongst its Editors Mr. David Creighton, the
late John Livingston, Mr. A. H. U. Cokpihoun,
the late Louis P. Kribs, Mr. J. Castell Hopkins
and Mr. P. F. Cronin, Mr. |. Ross Robertson,
M.P., Mr. E. F. Clarke, m.i>., and Mr. E. E. Shep-
pard must also be mentioned in connection with
other Toronto papers. Hamilton has had Mr. A.
T. Freed, Mr. J. Robson Cameron and Mr. H. F.
Gardiner; London has had the Hon. David^ Mills,
Mr. John Cameron, Mr. Josiah Blackburn and Mr.
M. G. Breinner. Halifax journalism has had Mr.
J. J. Stewart of the Herald for many years ; St.
John has had Mr. J. V. Ellis ex-M.p. for a long
period and Mr. S. D. Scott of the S//« since 1885 ;
Winnipeg had Mr. W. F. Luxton and Mr. William
Coldwell from its pioneer days and later Mr.
R. L. Richardson, M.P. ; British Columbia the
Hon. D. W. Higgins and Mr. R. E. Gosnell.
Many others might be mentioned but these are
sufficiently representative names in recent years.
But the great and powerful Provincial press
must not be overlooked. Kingston had its first
paper — another " Gazette " — in 1801, the first
number being issued on September 25, by Messrs.
Miles & Kendall, formerly of Montreal. The
War of 1S12 suspended that publication but it
was resumed under the title of the Gazette and
Relii^ious Advocate. It is supposed to have been
the first religious weekly on the continent. East
of Kingston the first paper was the Recorder of
Brockville, established by Colonel D. Wylie.
The Recorder has battled for sixty-five years and
is still hale and hearty. About the date of the

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Recorder's appearance the British W'hii; of Kiiigs-
tuu was first issii»:tl by Dr. E.J. ISarkur. It was
a successful paper aiul is now owned by Mr. E.
J. B. Pense, tlie grandson of the founder. Hut
before it came out the Chronicle was issued in the
san)e city by A. Prinyle and Jolin Macaulay. In
1851 it became tlic News and is a prosperous
daily at this moment. Picton, formerly knosvn
as Ilallowell, saw its first paper in the Vice Press
in l8jo and liellcville had the Intelligencer in
18J4. The first proprietor of the latter was Mr.
George IJeiijaiiiin. An apprentice in his office
subsequently owned the paper and lived to
become Premier of Canada. This lad is now Sir
Mackenzie Bowcll, K.c.M.G.

The history of the western press in Upper
Canada, or Ontario, is of more recent date, settle-
ment in that district having been much later than
settlement in the east. In the middle of the
century papers appeared in every new settlement
until it was said that they were more numerous
than in any other country similarly situated.
Into the far North-West journalism early found
its way and was represented by Messrs. William
Buckingham and William Coldwell, who issued
on December 28th, 1859, the first number of the
Nor' -Wester at Fort Garry, which was subse-
quently edited by Mr. (afterwards Sir) John
Schultz. It battled for Canadian interests
in the new West. British Columbia's first paper,
the Gazette of Victoria, was issued during the gold
excitement of 1858. In the autumn of the same
year the British Colonist appeared under Mr.
Amor de Cosmos and it still flourishes. While
the Gazette and the Colonist were the first English
papers, one in the French language preceded
them. The Editor was a French nobleman.
Count Paul de Guro, who left France during the

crisis precipitated l)y Napoleon III. He was
afterwards lost at sea.

From necessarily small beginnings the various
branches of the press of Canada have grown
until to-day the country is second to none in
journalistic equipment. Every village of impor-
tance has its local paper ; every metropolitan centre
its two, three or four great dailies ; every Denom-
ination its religious organ ; every trade its trade
journal. The output is enormous. In i8(j5 it
was reported that there were then (j.j ilailies, 3 tri-
weeklies, .J5semi-wceklies, 596 weeklies, 6 bi-wcek-
ies, 25 semi-monthlies, 168 monthlies and two
quarterlies — 9i9inall published inthe country. In
their respective spheres all are serving tlse public
with a careful regard for the general welfare.
The weeklies are powerful instruments in the
shaping of an opinion soundly Canadian ; while
some of the dailies, owing to tho great improve-
ments in the art of collecting news and the cheap-
ening of production, are monumental issues lay-
ing before the public current information as
complete as can be found in many of the metro-
politan newspapers of the neighbouring country
or of Britain. In tone they are essentially Brit-
ish, while in appearance or "get up " they more
nearly approach the United States style. This
latter feature is attributable to the close proxim-
ity of the country to the United States and the
demand of the public, not for the loose and
vicious journalism found in exceptional cases in
that Republic, but for the peculiar distribution
and display of the news that is adopted there.
Canada's newspaper service has in fact kept
pace with the progress of the land in all the arts
and is constantly advancing under that great
principle of liberty — a free press and a free
people.

CHARACTER AND POSITION OF THE CANADIAN PRESS

HV

EDWARD I. B. I'ENSE, Editor of The Kiiisislon Il7ii,i,'.

ijj.

ANEW YORK publication, liuvotcd to
journali.sin as a profession, recently
(iisscctt-d Canadian reailcis as a class,
and brought into prominence two facts
— that comparatively few British or United
States papers are habitually read in the Domin-
ion, and that the circulation of newspiipers there
is greater, in proportion to population, than in
the Republic itself. These conditions could not
fail to be creditable to the press of Canada, nor
could the acknowledgment, coming from without
our borders, be otherwise than complimentary.
As the facilities for becoming acquainted with
the periodicals of other countries are manifold,
through liberal mailing arrangements, it is clear
that the people liiid the press of their own coun-
try equal to their needs, and also it is reasonable
to infer that it is abreast of the times. The
success of Canadians abroad proves their intel-
lect and knowledge as a class ; they might, as
well, be accounted fair judges of daily literature
at home. It is proclaimed that those who cross
the sea do not change their minds, but the people
from the British Isles, who have filled Canada
with a thrifty and studious population, have not
clung to their old associations in journalism ;
rarely, indeed, is an old country paper regularly
received here. The cherished love of the land
of birth exists, as intense loyalty and prosperous
national societies attest. The papers of this
country differ in character materially from those
of the Mother Land. The natural expectation
would be a slow liking for the new journalism,
but the spirit of assimilation, so marked in the
United States, is abroad here also, and strangers
emerge as Canadians in a short time, our breth-
ren in local thought and feeling, as well as in
allegiance.

Despite the great enterprise and brightness of

the United Stales press, its restricted circulation
in Canada is not to be womlered at. That press
has been hostile, denunciatory and unjust ; read-
ers here shrink from it. American jniyo jt)urnal-
ism, rightly termed yellow for its semblance to a
plague, has no abiding place here. Its sensa-
tionalism has kept alive the remembrances of
two unmerited invasions and has so consolidated
Canadians for British connection that the name
of annexationist has become odious ; not a dozen
men in five millionsof population would willingly
bear it. It required a great movement, the war
with Spain, to recall the Republic to a sense of its
long course of injustice to Great Britair^ and
still worse to Canada, but the revolution has
been so signal that there will now, apparently, be
two happier nations, who should fraternize cord-
ially in many ways, not least agreeably and effect-
ively through the press of both lands. Great
cities in the United States, like Chicago, New
York and Philadelphia, make great newspapers
and great circulations, increasing the average of
readers for the periodicals of the whole country.
As compared with rural folk, urban householders
are receivers of papers in the proportion of nine
to one. It is therefore surprising that Canada
should present so large a proportion of readers,
since she has no great cities, and suffers the dis-
advantage of a widely scattered population. May
it not be due in some measure to the character
and position of the press, particularly to the ab-
sence of repellant features ? Credit, too, should
be given to the Post Office Department, whose
well-managed system reaches out to every set-
tlement, with communication prompt and regu-
lar, a triumph of government in a young country
of continental proportions, yet with population
and wealth only equal to that of one great State
in the Union to the south.

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CANADA; AN ENCVCI.OI'.KDIA.

L.

The Domitiioii supports 910 newspapers aiul
periodicals, of which 104 are issiieil daily. On-
tario claims a majority of the whole number,
having 533 regular publications ami yet less
than half of the p(i|)iilation — a proof that the
ilenser the settlement the more numerous the
journals. The vast North West presents 21
papers, many of thcin thriviufj in a "splendid
isolation " with a vim tiiat reflects the rlimatic
vigour. (.Jiicbec Province, with 119 distinct
issues, has not the appearance of a shiniiif,' force
in jouni.dism, and yet I. a I'icssc, of Montreal,
liaimstlie largest daily circulation in Canada.
The Montreal Star, too, at this moment is pre-
paring to celebrate its arrival at two great figures
of issue, 50,000 daily and 100,000 weekly.
Whetlier Lu Pnsse or the Star leads, there surely
is a land of promise, if the best two of one
hundred Dominion dailies are Quebecers, anil
one a French-Canadian.

In the light of numbers, the position of the
Canadian press is assured. While susceptible of
improvement — as witness the steady march in
that direction for over a quarter of a century —
it is in as close touch with the people as the
advance of the times dictates, and is therefore
fulfilling its mission of leadership. It has
emerged from the baby clothes' period, when it
had to be spoon-fed by political, religious or class
interests, and has settled down into an alert
business institution. No large section exists be-
cause a man or a fraction of a party want a
personal mouth-piece ; the public will have none
of that in this day, and, without their good-will,
success is impossible. Even journals founded on
large party subscriptions, to be faithful to a lead-
er under all conditions, cannot be made to pre-
vail against private enterprise through the force
of money or influence, as a costly Toronto
experiment testilied, though The Empire was so
earnestly and ably conducted as to be in all wa\s
a credit to the craft. The press in Canada is an
aggregation of units', each working out a self-
dependent existence, and gathering energy in
proportion to increasing difficulties. As a class
it is freed from the threats and influences of the
capitalist or local "boss" ; he no longer holds
its life at his caprice. Party patronage is not
sought after as a necessary pabulum. The

commercial side of journalism is a very necessary
consideration, the casual advantage of (lov-
eriinunt p.itronage a nute incident. The busi-
ness office is the centre, the backbone, of a
journal's life ; if it docs not sustain the editorial
and news dcpaitmcnts, partial |)aral> sis sets in,
and llie end is not far aua\. It is a happy con-
dition, this, to which the increased cost of news-
papering (a rising tide viewed with dread) has
brougiit the craft ; since the margin betwciii
success and failure is now so close that there is a
constant spur to exertion and an equally neces-
sary ambition for reputable joiirii disin. In Can-
ada the press is truly the fourth estate of the
realm in credit and influence. Fine buiUlings
are gr(nviiig in number; newspaper houses areas
valuable aiiil as imposing as the best of other
mercantile and professional houses, and taste is
supreme where once it was almost a stranger.

Toronto may safely be accorded the first place
in Dominion journalistn ; it is a soil upon which
enterprise thrives. The Globe, whose fyles spread
over Canada's great political struggles and best
years, is issued from an elegant building, and
leads the Liberal party with a tact that falls little
short of generalship. The Mail and Empire, its
immediate rival, the leader of the Conservative
press, has risen from two sources — the Mail,
whose sturdy party battles and siibseiiuent inde-
pendence under trying conditions were a record
feature, and the Empire, founded by the party
leader on generous subscriptions to replace the
Afail, only at last to coalesce with it. The build-
ing from which the paper is issued, one of the
most imposing in Toronto, is uncommonly fam-
iliar to the public eye. The World, unlike its
two morning contemporaries, has not a great party
organization to sustain it, but for general news,
vigourous expression and brightness, it ranks
very near them. These three dailies fitly repre-
sent the country's journalism. They cover the
whole field of Canadian intelligence by telegrams,
the efforts of the Associated Press being seconded
by permanent correspondents in cities and large
towns, and by a corps of travelling reporters for
important functions. The Parliamentary reports
are so full and prompt as to distinguish the
Toronto papers above those of United States
cities; the nearest parallel is to be found in

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EnK'ii'nl. Tl>c Toronto cvctiiii^'' press liuit thrcu
viiJouKtiis cotiipclitors — tliu Ti'lcj^ram (wliicli has
biouglit its proprietor a fortune), the News and
the Stiif.

Tlio Sunday paper is unknown in Ontario,
bcinn forbic'don by statute as well as l)y tin: tastes
of tlio people, so the best efforts of the great
dailies arc devoted to the Satunlay issues, the
publisiicrs often qiiadrui'linj,' t hoei(,'iit-patju form,
and providinjj each week linely illust rated supple-
ments. Hamilton has thne evening papers — the
Spectator, the Times and the Ilcrahi, issued from
handsome buildings of their own, and so credit-
able typogra|)liically and so energetically con-
ducted as to give the city a distincMon. While
even in Hamilton the morning paper passed
away, as the failure it usually is in cities of less
than 60,000 population (unless isolated), London
has long maintained two creditable morning
journals — the Free Press and the Advertiser —
though they are helped out financially by evening
editions, to which latter a stirring rivalry has
been lately created by the Eveiiiiiff News. Ottawa
shows signs at last of giving the old established
morning Citizen adecpiate support in return for
new life and enterprise. It has been encouraged
to enter the evening field against the Free Press
and the Joiirital, two of the most industrious
newspapers (especially in respect to local news)
upon the continent. Opposition of independent
papers, stepping between party journals, has been
growing in the lesser cities and the towns. The
venerable Whig (with an elegant building of its
own) and the News have been supplemented by
the Times in Kingston ; the Intelligencer and the
Ontario, at Belleville, have the Sun to shine
against them ; at Woodstock the Scntinel-Reznew
has two new-born rivals — the Times and the Ex-
press; St. Catharines sustains the Journal, Stan-
dard and Star ; and Peterborough gives life to the
Examiner, the Review and the Times. The cities
or towns issuing two daily papers only, and
voicing the two political creeds, arc Brantford,
with the Expositor (in a handsome home) and the
Courier; Brockville, with the Recorder and the
Times; St. Thomas, with the Journal and the
Times ; Chatham, with the Planet and the Banner ;
Stratford, with the Deacon and the Herald ; Port
Hope, with the Times and the Guide ; Guelph,

18

with the Mercury and the Herald; Gait, with the
Rifiirmcr and the Reporter; Met lin, with the News
and the Record. O'.tawa possesses two I'reni h
dailies — Le Canada and Le Temps. Dadies which
have the local field to theuisolves are tlie Ingi^r-
soll Chronicle, the Winilsor Record, Lindsay Post,
i^nnna. Obserrcr uiu\ I'mt Arthur Sentinel, With
such an array, and such advantages of keen
opposition, Ontario should be conteiitrd with its
daily press. With vrry few exceptions, the
papers sustain eigiit-page issues.

The Province of Quebec dailies are only seven-
teen in number, but in the Star, Montreal
possesses a journal of the highest enterprise in
collecting news, both home and foreign, and in
presenting it intelligently and promptly it is
doubtful if it is surpassed on the continent in
covering completely an especial licld. La Presse
has had remarkable success in the news line and
in spread of circulation rivalling tiie Star, though
in a distinct constituency. The Gazette, while
others have fallen by the way, has prospered as
a morning journal, and become as solid as the
rock of Gibraltar ; its old-time associate, the
Herald, is taking on new life and climbing the
ladder of success as an evening issue. The
Witness still flourishes as a paper of good morals
and unllagging industry should ; while La Minerve
and La Patrie continue to serve up politics with
practised skill. Quebec City has given the
Morning Chronicle an adequate support for a quiet
life, while the Courrier, Ei>enfmciit, Telegraph,
Quotidien, Mercury and Solid have found the re-
sources of the quaint old town ample for their
needs. St. Hyacinthe has two dailies, the
A rtisan and the Union.

Since age is honourable, all but the Quebec
Mercury will bow to Nova Scotia. The Halifax
Recorder bears the honours of nearly a hundred
years, but rivals equally strong and prosperous
surround it in the Chronicle and the Herald
and the Echo. These journals have a great
influence in their own Province, and are secured
by distance from competition with dailies of
bigger places. Amherst has two dailies, the
News and the Press, and Truro has the News..
New Brunswick, from the prosperous city of St.
John, presents five sturdy journals, the Telegraph,
the Sun, the Globe, the Gazette, the Record.

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CANADA: AN KNCVt IA)IM;I»1A,

MonctuM senilsforth tlu; 7*r(iH<ifn/>/ aiiil tlio Times,
while Fri'tlcrictoii follDWS with thts (llttiiifr.
riiiu'u lulwatd Island han tliici* dailies, tiu!
lixaiiiiiur, the Guardian and the I'altiot of
Charlottcliiwn.

Manitoba has shown sitMlin^ rnturpiisc in the
Wiuiiiptf' I-'fic /Vtvss. It has fur at least tsvcnty
live years ke|>tthu Nortii-Wcst promptly infornieil
of ail that was intiri'Stin^ in the world outside.
The expense would have staijijeri'd Eastern
jciirnalists, but the Publishers persevered und
the people responded to the call forsnjiport. The
piiisc for news is felt by two younjjer practitioners,
the Tribiiiii; ami the Xof' Wester, of Winnipeg
also. CalRarv has two dailies, the Herald and the
iribune. Hritish Cohnnbia rises to creditable
jonrnalistic heii,'hts on the shoulders of ten daily
journals, the A't'trv, the Province and the World,
of Vancouver; the Colonist and the Times, of
\'irtoria; the /•"»'« /Vfs.s, the Mail and the Tele-
j^'rain, of Nanaiino ; the Columbian, of New West-
minster, and the Miner of Rossland, in the heart
of the gold region.

To deal with the weekly press would recjuire
the proportions of a Directory. Kach county
town IS provided with a local champion, general-
ly with two of them, to keep the balance of
j)olitical activity. They have grown from an
aggregation of clippers and copyists into a band
of home and foreig.i news-gatherers and con-
densers. In atldition to industrious reporting of
home events, a s\ stem of correspomlence is in
vogue from villages and hamlets, and, as a con-
sequence, from ten to twenty columnr of an issue
are required for local news, where a score of
years back a column was deemed generous allow-
ance. The competition of the weekly issuing
from the city daily offices has created a healthful
emulation in the Provincial press.

Unquestionably, the most prosperous section
of the Canadian press is trade journalistn. The
trades are represented by weekly or monthly
issues to the number of twenty-three, and each
one is highly presentable. They have found in
typography a place between the ordinary news-
paper and the magazine. The specializing of
journalism and advertising has a peculiar value,
and this is recognized. The religious press has
attained a greater distinction than any other

special department of journalistic life, though
not by any means attractivt in a business lii^ht.
It ia seldom such strong papers are encountered
as the Christian Guardian (Methodist) and the
I'resliyterian Nemrd, or one so superior in man>'
wayH as the Westminster. Of the twenty-one well-
established Church journals, tivu arc Roman
Catholic, emanating fiom Montreal, Ottawa,
Kingston, Toronto an<l Lundoii ; three ate Ang-
lican and three are Presbyterian. The farming
community is ecpially well cared for with fifteen
journals, headed by the Farmers' Advocate, of
Lonilon ; I'arminfj, <>( Toronto; Journal of Agri-
culture, u( Montre.il; \or' West Farmer, of Win-
nipeg, and The Sun, the organ of the Patrons of
Industry, the late ambitii-us third party. The
bee, the insect, live stock, the dog, the garden,
and poultry, have their special organs; and Farm
and Fireside, Toronto, combines practical know-
leilge and entertainment. The professions are
well catered to by seven medical and one phar-
maceutii al paper, and seven law journals, besides
the Canada Journal of Health, Each of the lead-
ing Colleges has a pretentious students' journal;
two mining and two engineering issues take up
subjects of natural wealth and material progress;
the sporting element finds expression in five pub-
lications, the Canadian Wheelman being especially
creditable. Finance and bnsmess have able
guitlance in the Monetary Times, of Toronto, the
Chronicle and the Journal of Commerce, of Mon-
treal Fashion and society have a representative
in Tcronto Saturday Ni^ht, of which no country
need L>e ashamed; the restraining hand in social
gossip is well supported by able department
writers. The Metropolitan, of Montreal, the De-
lineator, of Toronto, and Progres:, of St. John,
have a prtnninent place in this class.

Each of the secret societies has an organ that
is but an expanded circular of its doings and
recommendations. Temperance has leading
advocates in the Templar, of Hamilton, and
Woman's Journal, of Ottawa. For a quarter of a
century the Oran;^e Sentinel has proclaimed " No
Surrender." The Municipal World, of St. Thomas,
is filhng a useful purpose in keeping the elective
Councils in the straight and narrow path. Truth
and the Canadian Home Journal, of Toronto, are
family journals of merit. The only Sunday paper

CANADA: ,\\ KNCVCI.OIM l»IA,

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tolcratud in Ciiii.ichi is tin* Sun,, of Montreal.
SfVi'nil piiptT!) ai(! piililislicil for tlic ( km iii.iiih,
Norvvt'^iaiis ami Mciiiionitts ; tliu di-af ami diiinl)
spi'ak out tiii'iiiph llii; A////i, ami Dr. Hariianio's
f^ruat ami often iiii^iiiulerstood cli:uital)lc wmk
has ail itii|>i>HiiK loeal advocatu and friond ni
Vps ami Ihium, Tlio country in sunieiently broad-
niiiidi'd for all claHs<'H to live and move and liavi;
their bein^ in thu life and pulsations ot tin; prnit-
in},' prcHS.

The student of Can.ulirii newspaperinj,' must
be gratihcd at the steady advance in di;,'nily of
discussion. Fersonalily .and tlio bitterne.-scs that
warp men's natures and betray the nborif,'inal
savage have alnxjst disappeired ; Clanatlahas not
advanced as a nation more (|iii( kly than tin: press
has done ill realizing its mi sion. Its loyalty is
uncpiestioned, nay, uiiinaried ; its moral tone is
excellent ; its sensational side much more repros-
r.ed than in the great Republic, de>j)ite many
examples of sjiicy journalism hiring piii)lishers
on to ragged endeavour. It is so law-abiding
that a prosecution by the Crown oi'liix-rs is a.
rarity. Canuilian journals are houselKdd jour-
nals, free visitors by right of existence to homes
and firesides. This confidence increases their
value to the public reader and advertiser, when
linkeil with nuxKration in politics. No longer is
the average i.ewspaper so rancourous and preju-
diced that only one party reads it. It reacheiiall
classes, and the people hear both sides of a ques-
tion, leading to a modified p,irty:sm .lud to a
leavening, in some measure, of the great political
mass.

The appreciation of tliis spirit is seen in the
rapid growth of independent papers, alongside of
which may be named several p.ipcrs of a party
character conspicuous for courageous disciplining
of their own friends. Juurnalisin is a greater

force, in local centnis, than ever before, becausic
lis opinions aie respected, and i veti dreaded,
more than when the lash was frecpieiit and war
was the rule. ICditors and Publishers are loeal
leaders ; out of niiietysix representatives recently
elected to tiiti Ontaiio Legislature, eight from
one par's , the Liberals, were active Editors and
I'ublisliers -- Messrs. Aiild, ("raig, Evanturcl,
(iraham, I'allullo, I'ettypiece, Kiisst;ll, Stratton.
Several newspapers «>f the leading cities of
Canada compare more than favour.ibly with New
York, Philadelphia and Chicago journals, con-
sidering ilifferences of mercantile wealtli and of
population; while, in appearance, energy and
popular characteristics, the press of the smaller
places excels, without a doubt, its own class in
other Countries.

In Magazine production alone has there been
conspicuous weakness. Several meritorious efforts
to establish Canadian monthlies have failed for
lack of an ade(p:ate literary circle of readers, and
inability to command business sympathy and
encoiiiagenient. Put the CtuuiiUtin Maf^,i::!He, of
Toronto, has passed the critical stage', is on a
firm basis, with strong mercantile support, and
is month by month showing still more clearly the
strength of Canada's literature, the inteiest of
its history and traditions, and the inspiration of
its natural beauties. The lengthening life of tb'!
Methodist Ma^d-^iiie is another evidence that the
people are appreciating superior endeavour.
While mainly religious in motive, its literary
departments are well sustained and deservedly
appreciated. The solidity, perseverance and
modest ambition of the Canadian tells in jour-
nalism fully as efftctively as in other ranks of
life. A profession demanding so much trial and
patience deserves all the success and honours
that a well-served country can offer.

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GEORGE BROWN AND THE GLOBE.

I'.Y

WILLIAM BUCKINGHAM.

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IN the person of Georpe Rrown, :i busy and
agitated life was shortened by a tragic death.
But though it was a death that came from vio-
lence,he had not thesatisfaction.poorthoiigh
that might be, of feeling in his long resulting ill-
ness that it was occasioned by bis services to the
country. The assassins of McGee, Lincoln, and
Garfield, made the pretence of public motives for
their action, but the miserable misguided man
who shot George Brown did it merely to avenge an
imaginary and petty personal wrong. Mr. Brown
had passed the meridian span of life with the tur-
moil and strife of his earlier years, and there are
good grounds for believing that he had gladly
sought to obtain a measure of retirement and re-
pose amidst scenes and influences more congenial
to his chastened and subdued spirit, perhaps also
to his better nature, when in this wretcj^ed man-
ner his death came. Those of his own generation,
then stUl largely to the fore, but since that time
mostly passed away, who attended his funeral to
pay the last tribute of respect to his memory, and
who had been stirred by him in their younger
days as few men could stir a people, while think-
ing again of his exploits, heard once more the
trumpet notes of his calls to battle high sounding
above the solemn dirges that followed him to the
grave. There had been in Canada before his
time, there has been in the broader Canada he
helped to make, no political warrior with equal
power to sound those notes so loud and clear.

In 1857, when the writer of this sketch first
came to know him, and an acquaintance was
formed in his service which continued to the close,
Mr. Brown was in the heyday of his prodigious
strength and influence. He had reached the
zenith of his physical and mental power, and was
being borne on by the elasticity of his mini and
character, and the buoyant spirit of the young and

fast developing an<1 resourceful western counties
of the Province at his back, towards political
heights he clearly saw, though he- was enabled to
scale them but once, and then for a mere moment
to retain his precarious foothold.

At that period he was the uncrowned king — the
self-constituted champion of the rights of Upper
Canada — a championship which very few in his
own party ever dreamt of questioning. One
there was who in an unguarded moment at the
Toronto Convention of 1867 hinted at the fear of
a dictatorship. The mere suggestion was enough .
The mutinous member went no further. Mr.
Brown was down upon him with his disciplinary
lash at once. He siid : " I scorn the imputation.
I stand here at the end of twenty-five years' ser-
vice to the Reform party, and I defy any man to
show the first act of selfishness of which I have
ever buen guilty with reference to that party. 1
defy any man to point to one word that has ever
crossed »:!y lips, as the representative of the peo-
ple— one motion I ever made — one speech I ever
delivered — one vote I ever gave — which is not in
harmony with the principles of the Reforn. party
of Upper Canada." The emeute, if any were in-
tended, stopped right there. It had previously
been manifested in the disobedience to orders of
Mr. Brown's colleagues in the coalition Govern-
ment, Mr. McDougall and Mr. Howland, who re-
fused to retire with their leader when he gave the
signal, and who faced him on the platform on the
occasion of that great gathering. But their in-
citement to rebellion was brought at the outset to
an inglorious end. Mr. Brown was supreme in
command of his own forces, and it is probably
because he was so well able at that time to keep
them in hand that after a long struggle, he forced
upon Mr. John A. Macdonald — a greater leader
than himself, success in leadership being the

THE HON. GEORGE BROWN.

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CANADA: AN ENCVCLOF.KDIA.

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criterion — the temporary peace which was the
preUule to Confederation.

But to return to the earlier period. Towards
the close of the 'fifties Mr. Brown was in the full
vigour of his manhood, verging upon forty years
of age, with no marriage ties to bind him to the
family circle ; in stature, inches above the average
of his fellow-men, broad in proportion, tall and
straight, and strong, as in the Miltonic metaphor,
" the mast of some great ammiral," a notable
figiue on King Street, where he was so often seen
swinging and striding along that wull-known
Toronto thorou^'^hfare :

"The front of Jove himself ;
An eye like Mnrs, to threaten and command."

Those words "to threaten and command" are
very exact in their description of George Brown.
From the great frame came forth a voice mighty
and unfailing, like the never-ending and over-
bearing roar and rush of Niagara. He had, too,
the .strength of a Hercules, enabling the powerful
machinery to be kept incessantly at work, so that
it nevor needed to succumb to that weakness of
feeling tired, which he so heartily despised in
others. He was, in very truth, the incarnation of
energy. " Put plenty of work on me," he wrote
during an election, campaign in 1851. "lean
speak six or eight hours a day easily." Yes, all
of that, and a great deal more, not only then, but
onwards for twenty-five years, as his weary
reporters, whose fate it was to follow him up and
down the country, to their sorrow knew.

Some of his best work he had already done.
Coming to Canada, in 1843, to extend in these
provinces the circulation of the British Chronicle,
a paper his father and himself had established in
New York, in advocacy of the principles of the
Free Church of Scotland, he saw here opened to
them a promising political as well as religious
field, and of this he was not slow to induce his
father to join him in taking possession. The
Chronicle in New York ceased to be published,
and Peter and George Brown in place of it started
The Banner in Toronto. At that time the Bald-
win-Lafontaine Government was in existence, but
not really in power, and was tottering to its fall.
The statesmanlike proposals of Lord Durham,
following the rebellion of 1837, with Ministerial
responsibility to the people as the cardinal

principle of administration, were for still a further
period impeded by the inlluence of what is known
as the Family Compact. It has been happily
said by Mr. Brown's biographer, Mr. Alexander
Mackenzie, that " the battle had been fought, and
in a manner won, but the enemy had not been
followed up." George Brown's aim was to secure
its fruits — to wrest from unwilling hands, by con-
stitutional measures, that which William Lyon
Mackenzie had failed to accomplish by force of
arms. He became the ally of the Liberal Minis-
ters. They had beaten the Tory Cabinet at the
polls, but had not yet gained the victory. They
were now in conflict with their titular chief. Lord
Metcalfe, the Governor-General of the Canadas,
and the struggle reached its height concurrently
with the issue of the initial number of The Banner.
The Ministers, successful with the people, were
beaten by the representative of the Crown. Lord
Metcalfe declined to take the advice of his minis-
ters on a question ot patronage, and they promptly
resigned.

Then the necessity was presented for a journal
more pronouncedly political than the publishers
of a primarily religious paper like The Banner were
free to make it, and George Brown took a step
which was pregnant with results to Canada; he
foundeS The Globe. Apt and forceful in all things,
he selected for its motto a sentence from Junius,
singularly suitable to the occasion : " The subject
who is truly loyal to the Chief Magistrate will
neither advise nor submit to arbitrary measures."
And let the question here be asked, did Mr.
Brown ever fail to assert this principle ? Did
either he or The Globe ever make submission ?
The answer is, never I The Globe and Mr. Brown
have each in turn been accused of the fault they
imputed to others, of being arbitrary. But whether
this be true or not, it is quite safe to say they
have never at any time been known to coierate
the like failing in any other person or paper.

From the moment of its inception The Globe
became a power in the land, and by its aid
the servant quickly rose to the position of master.
Ordinarily •

" We build the ladder by which we rise
From the lowly earth to the vaulted skies ;
And we mount the summit round by round."

Mr. Brown built the ladder, truly enough, but by

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CANADA: AN ENCYCLOP^I'.DIA.

it he leapt with his lonp legs to the vaulted skies
from the lowly earth, many rungs at a time,
without waiting to get there by any such plodding
process as " round by round." Almost at a bound
he became the leading figure in Liberal or
" Reform " politics. It is not proposed here
to enter upon an academic discussion of the
oft-asked question, whetlier Mr. Hrown was
greater with the pen than on the platform, but
if the question really needed an answer, what
better could be given than that of my Uncle
Toby : " There is much to be said on both sides."
In Mr. Brown each side was strongly developed.
And they were each self-developed. He had not
recovered from the feeling he inspired of wonder
at his power as a writer when he created a new
source of wonderment at his power as a speaker.
The one operated with the other, acting and
re-acting in urging him rapidly onward to the
climax in his career.

A clear and just distinction was lately drawn by
the present editor of the Globe betsveen the Can-
adian journals of past days and those of the pres-
ent time, when he said the earlier newspapers were
" political rather than national." It must be con-
fessed that his distinguished predecessor helped
to make them so. Mr. Brown was to the very
core loyal and national in sentiment ; but he was,
over and above all, a politician. The press of
Upper Canada was in every way feeble at the time
of the Brown invasion. Strong language was
heard on the stump and in the forum, but there
was a too plentiful lack of strength in the language
of the press. George Brown changed this at
once. From the moment he took up the editorial
pen, it became instinct with energy. He breathed
into its nostrils the breath of life. Of course he
roused opposition, and notably in the person
of the Rev. Dr. Egerton Ryerson. A couple of
amusing letters passed between the two men in
1868, when, on the sixty-fifth anniversary of his
birth, the Christian minister, in the tone of meek-
ness pertaining to his sacred calling raised anew
the spirit of the old Adam in the breast of his
antagonist by the offer of hearty forgiveness for
the personal wrongs he assumed George Brown
had done him in years gone by. George Brown,
from whom the offence was supposed to have come,
spurned the offer, and carried the war back into

Africa. The messenger who bore the peaceful
missive returned with a terrible answer, quite
opposed to Dr. Ryerson's hope in the enjoyment
of a full measure of happiness on that glad day.
" As to your personal attacks upon myself," said
Brown, "those who pursue the fearless course of
a public journalist and politician, as I have done
for a quarter of a century, cannot expect to es-
cape abuse and misrepresentation. . . . Your
dragging my name into your controversy . . .
in a matter in which I had no concern whatever,
was one of those devices unhappily too often
resorted to in political squabbles to be capable of
more than momentary indignation." That suf-
ficed for the political parson. The. dove with the
olive branch went forth no more.

Politics ought not to be everything to a news-
paper, but politics were everything to the Globe.
Signed articles were not then used, and of signed
articles to denote the personality of this writer
there was no need whatever. His individuality
was constantly being revealed in paragraphs con-
densed and forceful in language, emphatic with
black lettering, pointed with index fingers, abound-
ing with dashes, and bristling and pungent with
marks of exclamation. Sometimes the style of
attack was extravagant, and, if the phrase be per-
missible, the conclusions were inconclusive. In
point, let the curious case be cited of the puzzled
reader who one day was told by the Globe that
" the cup of the iniquity of the Government is
running over," and on the following day that "the
cup of the iniquity of the Government is nearly
full." But if he thought the writer himself to have
been in his cups, he would be quite mistaken, for
the Browns were the most abstemious of men, as
they were purest in mind. It was not often that
such a slip of the pen occurred, and when it did
happen, it was attributable entirely to the desire
to make the case strong. Strong, to be sure, it
always was. There was little of exposition ; of
denunciation a very great deal. The work was not
donebyproxy, but by Mr. Brown himself, by hisown
pen, never by the " abhorred shears," for which
he had no use. There was no place in the edit-
orial columns of the Globe in Mr. Brown's day for
scissors, except to give them to the Government.
A bad pun? Why so? It has good company.
What said the distraught son, in the person of the

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CANADA : AN ENCYCLOPifiDIA.

Prince of Denmark, of his puilty mother? "I
will speak dafjKers to her, but use none." I3ag-
fjers weie the implements of Hamlet's warfare ;
scissors, thonph he preferred to stab with the
pointed pen, those of George Brown. News had
not then become the feature that it is in our own
time. It did not therefore form a counter attrac-
tion to the phillipics of the editor. Invariably the
reader's first impulse, on receiving the Globe,
damp from the press, when George Hrown was
editor, was to turn to the inside page for the tonic,
to keep him braced up, which was invariably to be
got there — a new stimulant compounded " every
lawful day " from the same prescription.

It is quite true the medicine had not the sweet-
ness which is associated with pleasantry, and con-
tained but few of the agreeable ingredients which
are derivable from books, for Mr. Brown was not
a wide reader or a jocular writer. His reliance
was solely upon his intense earnestness and
sledge-hammer force, and these never failed of
themselves to carry him successfully through.
His articles were the talk of the country side, and
the pabulum as well of the country press, for
when the great dog barked, all the little dogs
barked in chorus. In our own age we are some-
times confronted with the proposition, whether
with the attractions offered by a constant supply
of so many different kinds of news fresh from all
quarters of the universe, editorial writing is des-
tined to maintain its supremacy. But this was a
proposition never thought of in George Brown's
office or by the readers of his paper, for the supre-
macy of what he wrote over all other kinds of
matter then obtainable was unquestionable and
unquestioned. He had no patience with long
arguments, nice distinctions, subtle disquisitions.
His delight was in rough vigour and terse expres-
sion. Writers have been said to be like teeth,
divided into incisors and molars. Mr. Brown
was powerful with both. He could tear a fallacy
to rags, and grind it into pulp. Elegance, fine
flavour, beauty of illustration, were not of his
nature. The questions with him were, " Can the
statement be made forceful ? " " Can it be made
to tell ? " He was the god of the Scandinavian
mythology — the god with the hammer. With a
fyle of the Globe before him, Carlyle would have
found it an easy thing, had he liked to do so, to

add to his heroes and his worship of heroes,
" The hero as journalist," for George Brown was
a strong man after his own heart.

Brown's personality was intense, and he im-
pressed it upon his paper with all the force of his
masculine and ardent nature. He never followed,
but always led. He never stood on the defensive,
but was always the aggressor. He was a Napo-
leon, rapidly moving and constantly forming his
columns for attack. Rarely in office, he had no
need of explanations of policy. If denied the
sense of power in the councils of the country, he
felt he possessed it at the lever of the printing
press. He was the shaper and creator of public
opinion, not its creature. His was the directing
mind, setting in motion the whole Liberal jour-
nalistic machinery of the Province. F'iom every
centre of influence in the West, the tempests
which had their origin in the office of the Toronto
Globe were wafted back with the same certainty
as the storms we see nowadays starting forth in
obedience to the call of the deus ex machina of the
meterological observatory.

It must, however, be admitted that father and
son alike were on other lines than poliiics most
rigid. They were as apostolic as Paul in advo-
cacy of " whatsoever things are true, whatsoever
things are honest, whatsoever things are just,
whatsoever things are pure, whatsoever things are
lovely, whatsoever things are of good report."
With frigid and prudish minds they guarded the
columns of their paper against the intrusion of
reports of sports, whether in their nature healthy
or unhealthy, or gambling in stocks, or the clean
or unclean produi;tions of the stage. Their pleas-
ures and those of their readers were taken sadly
in the disturbed pool of party politics ; for both
there was the constant heartsickness which springs
from hope deferred. Politics was the standing
puddle of those days, through which was dragged
the inner and outward belongings of public men,
while clothing of other kinds was cleanly washed
and bleached and very stiffly starched.

The debate in the British House of Commons
in 1851, when Lord John Russell passed the
Ecclesiastical Titles Bill to meet the Bull of the
Pope giving territorial designations in England to
Cardinal Wiseman and the bishops of his Church,
was a great occasion for the Globe. It attacked

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CANADA : AN ENCYCLOI'ifiDIA.

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tlie Pope and his institutions with a vigour of
expression which had no counterpart in the lan-
guage, intemperate as it was, of the P-nglish coun-
trj' gentlemen themselves. Mr. Hrown's extreme
course in the early part of his life, when Popery
was to him as the red flag to the bovine, caused
him a f;reat deal of uneasiness in after days, and
was for \ears a serious stumbling block in the
path of the Liberal party. It had much to do in
causing his defeat when he ran against William
Lyon Mackenzie in Haldimand in 1851, and it
was in itself enough to justify the expression Mr.
Hrown more than once applied to himself of being
a " governmental impossibility." It is natural in
a country with the mixed races and diverse religi-
ous beliefs of Canada that this should be so.
Intolerance of opinion on cherished subjects is a
powerful weapon in pulling down, but weak in
building up, and there was little statesmanship in
Mr. Hrown's uncompromising hostility, during all
the years of his more active political life, to the
church and language of Lower Canada. In 1871,
twenty years after the Haldimand defeat, when
Confederation was supposed finally to have com-
posed the religious differences of the community,
Mr. Brown wrote a memorable letter of explana-
tion and defence, intended to reunite with the
Liberal party the many members of the Roman
Catholic Church who had been in unison with it
until 1850, but had since that time assumed an
attitude of estrangement. But it must be
admitted that Catholics and Protestants of the
Liberal party did not act again together with the
old cordiality and the old conTidence in each other
until Mr. Brown had ceased to take a dominant
part in public affairs.

" They stood aloof, the scars remaining,
Like cliffs which had l)een rent asunder ;
A dreary sea now flowed between."

From the issue of the Banner in 1843, down to
Confederation in 1867, when Mr. Brown left the
popular arena and the Liberal leadership was
placed in commission, to so remain until, with the
concurrence of his Parliamentary colleagues, it
was tacitly taken up by Mr. Mackenzie, and
formally conferred upon him in 1872; there was
here as there was during the long anti-slavery
agitation in the United States, " an irrepressible
conflict between opposing and enduring forces."

The purpose of biographical writing being to
proclaim the man, the way to proclaim George
Brown is through his style — the way in which
he proclaimed himself — I.e style c'est I'hninme.
Mr. Brown's style has been dwelt upon with
some degree of fulness because it explained so
much that there was about him, and because
it made him the powerful factor everybody ad-
mitted him to be in the politics of Canada, thirty,
forty, and fifty years ago. It was by means of
his style more than anything else that he com-
manded the obedience of his fellowmen from
the first, and retained it to the last. A master of
sentences, he was slow to forsake their construe
tion in the sanctum of the Globe for the acclam-
ations which awaited him on the stump, on the
platform, and in Parliament. With rare reticence
in a man like him, he resisted the overtures to
contest a seat in the Legislative Assembly until
April, 1851, when he met with failure in Haldi-
mand, but he was returned at the general election
later in the same year for Kent, which he repre-
sented until 1854. From that time until the elec-
tions of 1857, he sat for Lambton. He then had
the unusual honour of a double return: for North
Oxford and for the city of Toronto — largely
through the prancings on the streets of that good
old Tory city of" the Protestant horse." Elect-
ing to sit for Toronto, he continued its member
until 1863, when once more he tried a change of
saddle, and became member for South Oxford.
As the representative of South Oxford he took a
foremost part in the measures for Confederation,
which accomplished, he offered in the consequent
elections in 1867 for still another seat, that of
South Ontario, and suffering a reverse, he devoted
himself exclusively to the combination on a large
scale of journalism with practical farming, until
his call to the Senate in 1873.

The great political movements of his time be-
long to the domain of history. In each of these
movements Mr. Brown's towering person was
invariably seen rising high amongst his fellows.
He came in, like Lord Elgin, for a share of Tory
vengeance for his defence of the Rebellion Losses
Bill. Lord Elgin was assailed in Montreal, and
an attack was made upon the house of George
Brown in Toronto. While supporting the Re-
form Government in 1851 he gave a summary ot

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what Liberalism had accomplished, in iiis address
to the electors of Haldimand : (i) control over
the executive government ; {2) religions ecjuality ;
(3) a national system of education free from sec-
tarian bias ; (4) municipal institutions ; (5) f,'reat
public works; (6) an amended jury law; (7) an
improved assessment system ; (8) cheap postage.

A staunch advocate of free trade, he was san-
guine enouj,di to look forward to tin; time wiioti tiio
entire Customs tiepartment should be abolished,
and the ports of Canada be thrown wide open to
the world — a vision in statesmanship not yet
reali;red.

Under the inspiration of the (ilohc, a consider-
able section of the Liberal party became impatient
of the tardiness of the Baldwin- Lafontaine Gov-
ernment, which came into power in 1847, in
giving effect to their professed policy, especially
in the direction of what Mr. Brown called state
churchism. With the Reformers of Upper Can-
ada nearly a unit against the bulk of clie Tories
in that Province in the demand for the abolition
of the Clergy Reserves, and with the members of
both parties from Lower Canada solidly knit to
oppose it, the position of the Liberal Government
was one of extreme difficulty. Mr. Lafontaine
held to thesacrednessof the religious endowments,
not as the entire belongings of the Church of
England and the Church of Scotland, but as tiie
heritage of all denominations of Protestants ;
while Mr. Brown and his followers — about that
time dubbed by Mr. Malcolm Cameron, because
of their tenacity, "clear Grits" — were clamorous
for their complete removal through the agency
of secularization. Finding the position at length
intolerable, Mr. Baldwin and Mr. Lafontaine
retired, and Mr. Hincks succeeded to the Liberal
leadership. Mr. Hincks declared that the con-
tinuance of the agitation was calculated to
endanger the Provincial Union, and that, in order
to maintain the Union, if the necessary support
for carrying on the Government was not to be had
from the Liberals, he was prepared to join hands
with the Tories. Then the Globe went squarely
into opposition, and it continued onwards for
many years to shake the foundation of govern-
ments, until the tension was relieved in 1867 by
the Imperial Act of Union of the Provinces of
British North America. During that period Mr.

Brown saw the Clergy Reserves secularized by the
Ministry of Sir Allan McNab without the reali/a-
tion of the fear of Mr. Hincks as to disruption of
the bond between the two Provinces ; and Mr.
Brown was himself successful in the next great
movement to which he gave his attention by
securing representation on the basis of population,
and along with it the ultimate union of the Prov-
inces of British North America.

But before passing from the Clergy Reserves
question, it will be well to quote a sentence or two
from the speech Mr. Brown delivered on that sub-
ject in Toronto in 1851, as illustrative of his mode
of platform warfare. "I hold," he said "the
principle and practice of Establishments to be
alike bad. I view the payment of religious teach-
ers by the State injurious to the cause of Christ,
injurious to the pastors, injurious to the people, and
injurious to the State. I hold that that church
which cannot be maintained by the voluntary
contributions of the Christian people is not worth
supporting. It is true," he went on to say, "that
learned ecclesiastics have shown from Holy Writ
that Kings were to be nursing fathers, and Queens
nursing mothers to the church, and that by the
nicest arguments they have attempted to establish
on this foundation a whole fabric of priestcraft " —
a fabric whicli he proceeded at once to raze to
the ground. " Let us vow " so concluded his
peroration, " that we shall never give up the battle
until victory has been fully accomplished ; and let
us keep ever before us the goal we must reach^
no reserves ! no rectories 1 no sectarian education !
no ecclesiastical corporations ! no sectarian money
grants ! no sectarian preferences whatever ! " No
one would be bold enough to say that this was the
ipsissima verba of the speech, as it was actually
delivered, or that any of his other speeches ap-
peared in The Globe in the precise language of the
platform, for Mr. Brown used few notes, and if a
most powerful speaker, he was far from being an
exact speaker, and his printed orations were sub-
jected by him, wit'., the aid of short stumps of
black-lead pencils, to a considerable degree of
added force and editorial embellishment.

The struggle on the representation question
was much the same sort of battle as that on the
Clergy Reserves had been. The movement, strong
among the people in the western part of Upper

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CANADA; AN ENCVCI.OIVKDIA.

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Canada, made little arlvanro at first in Parliament.
It was resisted l)v the solid impact of Lower
Canada, and by Liberals and Conservatives alike
in the easterly constituencies of the Western
Province, whose population had become station-
ary, and who watched the growth of counties like
Huron and Hruce with ajealous eye. In the few
lines on this question in the hifjh school history
for Ontario there is a stranjje misconception, the
writer placing at the head of the impelling forces
George Brown, William McDougall, and Antoine
A. Dorion, and at the head of the resisting forces
John A. Macdonald ami George Ktienne Cartier.
To the latter should be added John Sandfield
Macdonald and his brother Donald A. Macdonald,
both at that period, in all else but this, very ad-
vanced Liberals, as well as Mr. Dorion himself,
who, instead of being in the movement as a co-
leader with Mr. Brown, with whom he agreed on
most other measures of prime importance, joined
with the enemy in opposing with all his power
the swelling hordes which finally swept him, the
three Macdonalds, and Cartier and all else before
them. Even in the Confederation debates, after
the battle had gone fairly against him, Mr. Dorion
spoke in words of bitterness of his former col-
leagues ; and in a previous stage of the history of
the movement, Mr. Sandfield Macdonald quite
rivalled Cartier m denunciation. Cartier set off
against the bone and sinew of the west, the cod-
lish in Gasp^ Basin, but Sandfield Macdonald
with equal if not greater contempt spoke of his
newly-arrived Scottish kinsmen in Huron and
Bruce as Paisley weavers who were still wearing
the coat of whitewash that was given them when
they were taken into quarantine at Grosse Isle.
John A. Macdonald certainly never said anything
worse than that of George Brown's contingent,
and George Brown was never more bitter towards
Sandfield Macdonald in retort. Brown cared
little for what John A. Macdonald might say, but
a great deal for what was said by Sandfield Mac-
donald and Dorion ; the fire within the ranks
being always hottest and most destructive. Yet
he acted towards Dorion and Sandfield Macdon-
ald with a degree of forbearance scarcely to be
expected from one of his warlike and impulsive
temperament. He was very different in his treat-
ment of William Lyon Mackenzie, the '* little

rebel " as he once called him ; a Liberal indeed
of all Radicals the most pronounced.

Mr. Brown never conquered the counties of his
Province which verged upon Lower Canada,
but the rest of U pper Canada he hammered into line.
Not all at once,but by ropeated blows.during which
many Governments rose and fell, among the num-
ber his own short-lived Ministry which he formed
with the aid of Mr. Dorion, in 1H58, and that of Mr.
Sandfield Macdonald, which succumbed in 1864,
after a feeble and fitful existence. Mr. Sandfield
Macdonald wanted to substitute for the increased
representation of Upper Canada according to its
population the unworkable project of the two
majorities. This meant that the Government of
the day must command a majority from each Pro-
vince. His scheme of course failed, and he had
in turn to hand over to the Governor-General the
seals of office.

It is not proposed here to more than touch
upon the topic so familiar to the past generation
by the natne of the " double shuffle." This event
was the defeat of the sometimes Macdonald-
Cartier, at other times Cartier-Macdonald, Gov-
ernment, through the reiterated demands from the
west for representation according to its increasing
population ; the call by Sir Edmund Head to his
counsels of Mr. Brown and Mr. Dorion ; their
immediate defeat on a resolution of non-confi-
dence in the House, where they had vacated their
seats by acceptance of office ; the refusal by the
Governor-General of a dissolution ; and the tak-
ing by the previous Ministers of double sets of
oiths and offices, so as to evade the necessity of
returning to their constituents for re-election.
Such was the "double shuffle." But the discus-
sion of the subject is too long and too controver-
sial for the pages of this work. Perhaps not less
so is the controversy on the fatherhood of Con-
federation, presenting quite as much difficulty as
that involved in the answer to the question)
" Who was the father of Zebedee's children ? "
But as the writer has expressed in other ways his
opinion on the tenability of Mr. Brown's claim to
this national distinction he may be allowed to
state, as he proposes to do in a paragraph, the
grounds upon which the claim is based, as an end-
ing to the brief outline he has given of the princi-
pal agitations of Mr. Brown's most active life.

CANADA: AN ENCYCI.OIMiDIA.

••$

So far back as the early part of 185S Mr. Urown
BUKgested to Mr. Holton of Montreal, as the
remedy for the increasing; (iifficnlties of j^overn-
ment, a comprehensive union. " A federal union,
it appears to me," he said, " cannot be enter-
tained for Canada (Upper and Lower Canada, as
Canada then was) alone, but when n^jitated must
include all British AnnTica." It is true he de-
spaired in his time of its accomplislimcnt, think-
ing, as he added, that " we will be past carinp
for politics when that measure is finally achieved";
but in this respect undcr-cstimatinj,' the potency
of the demands for representation by population,
throufjh whose agency it was not loiifj altciwards
brought about. In i85f) Mr. Hrown called a con-
vention in Toronto, and advocated in lieu of the
existing legislative union the adoption of the fed-
eral principle. He moved in the same sense at
the ensuing session of Parliament. The policy
thus outlined was, it is true, limited in its appli-
cation to Upper and Lower Canada. For its
further extension the country was not yet pre-
pared. But events were moving with great
rapidity. In the session of 1864, Mr. Brown took
advantage of the weakness of the Taclni Govern-
ment, which had succeeded the Government of
Sandfield Macdonald, to obtain a Committee on
constitutional changes, and as Chairman of the
Committee, on the 14th June of that year, he re-
ported in favour of the federative system to be
applied either to Upper and Lower Canada alone
or to the whole of British North .Vmerica. The
report was adopted with only three dissentients,
one of the three being Mr. John A. Macdonald.
Next day the Tach6 Government, with Mr. Mac-
donald as its leading spirit, was defeated on a
direct vote of want of confidence. Mr. Brown's
time had now come. He might have taken ad-
vantage of his triumph to try to form a Govern-
ment, but had he succeeded in doing so, no degree
of permanency was possible in the state of parties
then existing, and he took the patriotic and wiser
course of asking his opponents to confer upon the
basis of Confederation. Meetings between the
hitherto hostile leaders were arranged for ; a coali-
tion Government was formed, with Mr. Brown,
Mr. Mowat, and Mr. McDougall as Liberal mem-
bers ; and on July i, 1867, Greater Canada sprang
into existence as a confederated country. Mr.

Brown remained sufiirinntly long with his strange
associates to see the enterprise far enough on the
pathway to ensure its idtimatt; success, but his
dislike of restraint induced him to quit the ship
before ii was fairly launched, and towards the
close of 1865 he chatigc-d the close and stifling at-
mosphere of the Cabinet for the open air of free-
dom so necessary to him. Mr. Goldwin Smith
once said in the liystamlcr, " The parent of Con-
federation was Dead Lock." Yes, but who pro-
duced Dead Lock? Who but George Brown?
George lirwwn brought the disease to its crisis,
and George Brown, I claim, prescribed the cure.

In the general elections of 1867, following Con-
federation, Mr. Brown was defeated in South
Oxford, so that he was excluded from the first
Parliament of united Canada, and from that time
onward he showed but little disposition to re-
enter public life. He accepted nomination to the
Upper Chamber in December, 1873, but allowed a
whole session to pass without taking his seat. In
1874 he negotiated for Canada a treaty of com-
merce with the United States, but like the meas-
ures of amity between England and the United
States of later times, it met its grave in the Ameri-
can Senate. On the death of Mr. Crawford in
1875, Mr. Brown was offered the appointment of
Lieutenant-Governor of Ontario, but declined it,
rightly concluding that it was a position incom-
patible with the editorial direction of the Globe,
and declaring again, as he had often declared
before, that he would rather have that position
than any dignity or office in the gift of either the
Crown or the people. In 1879 a knighthood was
a second time pressed upon him, and it was
thought that he would at last bend his stiff form
and take it, for he went to Montreal to meet the
Governor-General, who was charged with the duty
of investiture. But he surprised His Excellency
and all who were not in the secret, by putting it
from him with an expression of his thanks. With
change of sky he had changed his mind; rather
let it be said that he had never been sufficiently
imbued with the notion of acceptance, and, con-
vinced against his will, his opinion had remained
the same.

Had he accepted the honour, he would not have
lived long to enjoy it. A few months afterwards,
in his sixty-second year, in March, 1880, a man

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CANADA: AN ENCYCLOP.EDIA.

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naincil liciiiiult.whu had been ilischarRcd for mis-
conduct from the service of tl)i3 Globe, slmt him
with a pistol. No one thoiiglit that tin; woiiinl
thus iuilicted was likely to pruvo fatal ii) its con-
sequences ; least of all Mr. Hrown liimsulf. Hut
the ocrurrence aroused him to preternatural activ-
ity, and in this frame of mind, rd'usini; to take- the
needed bodily and mental repose, on a bright
Sunday in the ensuing May he died. IIo ha I
insisted on continuing to {.\o business in hi h cham-
ber, where he held meetings and declared divi-
dends. Perhaps not so much his hurt as his
characteristic disregard of it as being a mere trifle
prevented his recovery. In scenes of excitement
he had passed the many years of his toilsome life ;
in disquiet he spent the weeks of weary sickness
that had brought it to a close ; and not till death

was tlio pcrturhcil spirit to find repose. After his
constant buffet ings with the world ; of achieve-
ments which brought with them so few of the fruits
of victory; of strifes and disappointments ; of the
sense of possession of gnat powers, and of their
use to the accninplishment of such poor personal
results; who shall .say that the restful ending of it
all, when it came to him, was unwelcome ? His
had been the stormy life of Lear, and at the going
out of the disquiet s;)irit the sympathetic car might
have caught the wailing tones of Kent s refrain s

" Vex not hit ghost. O, let him put I he hatei him,
That would upon the rack of this tough world itretch him out
InngL-r. "

Edgar reflectively responds, " He is gone, in-
deed." And Kent rejoins :

" The wonder is lie hath endured %o lung."

J), ^

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J. S. Willisoii.

THE PUBLIC LIBRARIES OF CANADA

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JAMES BAIN, JR., Librarian uf the loiontu I'ubllc Library.

TIIIv art of printing was iiitroilticcd into
tliu infant Colonic!) of Hritisli Aniunca
at a very early period. In Halifax the
Gazelle was published in 1756, the first-
born of a numerous profjeny, and was followed
by the Quebec Gazette in 1764. In 1779 a nuni-

books referring to the early history of the coun-
try ; and it was resolved, in consequence, by the
Canadian Govoriinient, to reprint tiio entire
series of the Relations des Jesuites in three 8vo
voluines, a book for which Librarians have
always been grateful. This was supplemented

ber of the officers stationed at Quebec and of the in 1S71 by the Jounial des Jesuites \i\ one yol-

leading merciiants undertook the formation of a umo 410.

subscription library. The Governor, General Naturally, on the organization of each of the

Haldimand, took an active part in the work, and Provinces, libraries were established in connec-

ordered, on behalf of the subscribers, ;^5oo worth tion with the Legislatures. In Upper Canada

of books from London. The selection was en- the small library in the Parliament Building was

trusted to Richard Cumberland, dramatist, and destroyed by the Americans, and the one by

an interesting letter from the Governor, addressed which it was replaced, by the fire of 1824, so that,

to him, describing the literary wants of the town when the two Libraries of Upper and Lower

and the class of books to be sent, is now in the
public archives, Ottawa. The books arrived in
due course, and, while no catalogue survives, I
think it would not be difBcult to name a large

Canada were united in 1841, there appears to
have been little left of the early fu^'itive literature
of the Province. At the end of 1897 the Legis-
lative Libraries of the Dominion numbered nine,

proportion of them. The book world in which and contained 48,834 pamphlets and 309,395

Ui". Johnson moved was yet a small one. A volumes. By far the most important of these is

room for their reception was granted in the the Library of the House at Ottawa. Originally

Bishop's palace, and as late as 1806 we learn established on the union of the Provinces of

froin LambtTt's Travels that it was the only Upper and Lower Canada in 1841, it was sue-

library in Canada. Removed several times, it cessively removed with the seat of Government

slowly increased, until in 1822 it numbered 4,000 from Kingston to Montreal, to Quebec, to To-

volumes. The list of subscribers having become ronto, again to Quebec, and finally to Ottawa —

very much reduced, it was leased to the Quebec a wandering life, which effectually prevented its

Literary Association in 1843. In 1854 ^ portion attaining large proportions.

of it was burned with the Parliament Building, The unfortunate fires in Montreal and Quebec

where it was then quartered; and finally, in still further injured it, robbing it of much that

1866, the entire library, consisting of 6,999 vol- was very valuable and which could not be

umes, was sold, subject to conditions, to the replaced. On the federation of the different

Literary and Historical Society of Quebec, for Provinces, in 1867, the Library of the two Prov-

the nominal sum of $500. The fire was not, inces, only, passed into the hands of the

however, an unmixed evil, for the partial destruc- Federal Government. The beautiful building in

tion of the library, together with the Parliamen- which it is placed behind the House of Parlia-

tary Library, called attention to the danger ment presents a prominent feature in the mag-

wbich existed of the total loss of manv valuable nificent pile of buildings which crown

many

heights

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uvuiloDkiiii; tlio Ollawa KivLT, ami fi'oin tliu
wiihIows tlio sjn'ilatDr f;a/< s arross tlic rm ky
i;or^'u ami tliu (.. Iiamliiiu l-'alln toNvard tliu I.aiir-
unti.iii iiills, forniiiig onu of thu most |ii(-tiiri;»<|ii(!
scciu'S oil tho continent. In tlio eyes of iIk;
Librarian tlio Library has only one serious ilcfeit
— it is coinplite ami no urraiif,'eineiit lias bieij
iiKule for extension. On, the confeileration, in
1S67, of tliu Provinces which now form tlu;
I)i)minioii, tho union which existed between
I'pixr aiitl Lower Canada w.is dissolveil, and, as
we havo seen, tho Lilirary passed into the hands
of tho Fidrr il Government. Each of these
I'rovinces, now known as Ontario ami (Jik bee,
established new Libraries in Toronto i'liil Oiiebec
cities.

In tlie Province of Manitoba, Mr. J. P. Kobert-
son, tho Librarian of the Le^'islalivo Library,
says that "the Red River Library was foiiiulcd
in the spring of 1S47, the year after tho arrival
of the Sixth Re^'inient, in tlu; then young Colony
of the Red River Settlement. Tho oflicers
in char^o of the troops were mainly instrumental
in startmg this pioneer public library. Their
efforts in this direction were nobly seconded
by a number of leading settlers. Previous
to the year 1847 there was a subscription library
of 200 volumes, belonf,'iiig to private gentleinen,
some of them officers in the service of the
Hudson's Bay Company, under the charge
of the late Robert Lof;an, father of ex-Mayor
Logan of Winnipeg. The first books for the
Red River Library arrived from England in the
summer of 1848, Tia the Hudson's Hay route,
and were placed in charge of Roderick Suther-
land, as Librarian, with the late W. R. Smith
as his assistant. It is n(jt stated how many
volumes were in the consignment but old settlers
say that there must have been at least 1,000
books. The outlay was covered by a grant from
the Council of Assiniboia, and a subscription
taken up among the settlers. The subscription
library before referred to was now merged with
the General Library, the members of which
were given the gratuitous privileges of the new
institution for a term of six years. The Library
received a still further accession to its shelves,
through a bequest from the late Peter Fidler,
a survey officer of the Hudson's Bay Company,

who beipieudied the colonists his private library
of 500 volumes, his mips, two nets ofi.i-iiich
globes, a largo ui hroinatic telesco,)e, ti Wilson
microscope, a brass sextant by Blunt, a barometer
and all his thermometers. Tho Libiary Wius
on tho circulating principle and contaimil a large
and varied assortment of works in general lilera-
liiru besides many valuable works of reference.

The institution conferred an inestimable boon
on the early settlers. Members |)aying j 6 per
amiiiin were entitled to one bonk, those paying
7/. got two. Any contributing 15/. were entitled
to four volumes at one time. (^tluT additions
were made from time to time, which must have
increased the number of books in the Library
to at l(Mst 2,000 volumes. The Librarian left for
Oregon, U.S., in iSji, after which date the man-
agers became careKss ami the l.ist meeting was
held in November, 1857. The siibse(|iieiit his-
tory of the Libiary is ddticiilt to trace but, shortly
after 1S60, the institution was divided into two
sections, one portion being left at Lower I''ort
Garry for the benefit of settlers in that vicinity
and the other removed to the residence of Mag-
nus Brown for the use of the comn.iinity around
Winnipeg. It was from the latter that the books
in the present Provincial Library, belonging
to the old institution, were obtained." On tho •
establishment of the Province in 1870, Lieut. -
Governor Archibald arranged for the purchase
of about 2,000 volumes; thus raising the Library
to 4,000 volumes, but, owing to the fire in 1873
and the want of proper supervision, it only con-
tained 500 volumes when Mr. Robertson was
appointed in 1S84, Under his careful librarian-
ship it has grown largely.

In 1S72 the Canadian Government instituted
an Archives Department for the preservation and
calendaring of MS. documents relating to Can-
ada. Large numbers of these have been copied
at the Public Reccjrds Office, the British Museum
and other national repositories in England. A
partial examination of others in the Colonial
Department de la Marine, Paris, has been made,
and many valuable records and papers have been
secured in the country. The Archivist, Mr.
Douglas Brymner, to whose devotion and energy
Canadians owe much, has issued seventeen vol-
umes of reports and calendars, commencing with

CANADA: AN KNCVCI.OI'.KDIA.

J0.»

'ii

iS8i, but nn initncriHe ni.iHi^ of muNTial trm.iiiH
yet to 1)0 cxaiiiiiiud. Tliu ('aiiailiaii Mililmy
cori»'f<i>oiii|ciwu for iiuaily loo years, amnunlinj,'
to upw.irilH of 200,000 (lortitncntM, forms only one
itiMii.

Tin; sixty-two collo^'cs ami uiiivt;isilits of tlic
Doiniiiioii arc provided vvilli lilirarics ( niitaiiiini^
0^7,626 vnlunu:s und 2.|,.S()4 pamphlets, un nvcr-
iiyo of io,i J3 voliiines and .(oj pamphlets. It is
scarc( ly fair, however, to ili |n:iid on an avera^je
of thu whole nntnber, as some half do/en nnivir-
sitics possess ut least half of thu total nund)er.
The senior of there, Kaval University, Oiu Inr, i^
famoinasl)ein(,',after Harvard (U.S.), the oldest on
the continent, bein^ fonnded by Hishop Laval in
l6f).5. Durin;,' the «lark days which witnessed the
lonij St rn},'i;le, fust with the Inxpiois and after-
wards with the l'2nj,'lish and Americans, little
prof,'res3 was made in the collection of books, and
it was not nntil it was converted into a nniversity
in 1S5J that its libr.iry commenced to increase
r.ipidly, On the suppression of the Jesuit Order
and Seminary their books were transferred to it.
It numbers considerably over 100,000 vohiin(s,
and is unrivalled for the extent and character of
its French collection and its many scarce books
in early French-Canadian literature and history.
Their collection of the Kelations of the early
Jesuit missionaries is only surpassed by the Lenox
Libiar}-, New York.

McGill University, Montreal, has been the
recipient of many gifts from the rich merchants
of Montreal, and to one, the late Mr. Molson, it
is especially iiulebted for its beautiful Library
building. The fire which destroyed a large por-
tion of Toronto University annihilated the excel-
lent collection of books which formed its Library.
An appeal was made by the P'aculty and grad-
uates for assistance in replacing it, and the
generous response with which it was met from
the learned societies throughout the wcrld and
from private individuals of all ranks enabled
them to start again with 30,000 volumes. These
are now housed in a capacious and attractive
fire-proof building. I learn from McGregor's
British America that there was in Montreal in
1824 a subscription library known as the Montreal
Library, which containeii a voluminous collection
of books and prints illustrating the costumes and

scenery of different countries. Thetu was at-

t.-K lietl to it an excellent teading room, round thu
wails of which weru hung maps of all countries.
There was " also a judiciously selected garrison
library and an advocates' library." In Kiii;^ston,
a subscription libtary known as the Kamsay
Library existed in l8j0, and containe<l then about
.foo volumes. Similar liiiraries were to bu found
in Toronto, Hamilton and Windsor, and indeeil,
wherever n small colons' of intelli|;i:iit nun were
clustered together, a library became almost u
necessity.

Miss Carnoclian, of Niagara, has given an in-
teresting account, in the Triinsiicttons of tin; Can-
adi:in Institute for 1895, of the formation and
history of the fust circulating library in Upper
Canada (i8(jo-iSjo), established by some enter-
prising citizens of the Town of Niagara for the
supply of their own immediate wants and of
those who cc- -will pay the small annual fee. It
was successful '1 the destruction of the town
by the America 1 troops in 1.S13 wasted its vol-
umes and imp( lied its subscribers, so that it
shortly after quietly passed out of existence.
The Province of Ontario was, in fact, the first
which attempted to grapple with the question of
public libraries.

In 1848 the late Dr. Ryerson drafted a School
Hill which contained provisions for school and
township libraries, and succeeded in awakening
a deep interest ill the subject. Ever anxious to
impress on his hearers the importance of libraries
as the keystone to a free educational system, he
urged it at every opportunity. Lord Elgin, at
that time Governor-General, was so strongly
impressed with the importance of the movement
that he styled it the " Crown and glory of the
institutions of the Province." In 1854 Parlia-
ment pa-^sed the requisite Act, and granted him
the necessary funds to carry out his views in the
matter. The reL'ulations of the Department
authorized each County Council to establish four
classes of libraries:

1. An ordinary common school library in each
school-house for the use of the children and rate-
payers.

2. A general public lending library, available
to all the ratepayers in the municipality.

3. A professional library of books on teaching.

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CANADA: AN KNCYCLDl'.KDIA.

school organization, language ami kindred sub-
jects, available for teachers only.

4. A library in any public institution under
the control of the municipality for the use of the
inmates, or in any county gaol for-the use of the
prisoners.

To aid this work a book depository was estab-
lished in the Education Office to enable the
smaller libraries to obtain readily good literature.
The books were supplied at cost, and a giant of
100 per cent, on tlie amount remi ted was added
in books by the Department. During tiie thirty
.years of its existence 1,407,140 vohnnes were so
supplied.

The proposal to establish the second class was,
however, premature, and accordingly, findmg
that Mechanics* Institutes, supported by mem-
bers'fees, were being developed throughout the
many towns and villages, tiie Educational De-
partment wisely aided the movement by giving a
small grant, proportionate to the amount con-
tributed by the members, for the purchase of
books and reaching a maximum of $200, after-
wards increased under altered conditions to $400
annually. In 1869 these had grown to number
26, in 1880,74, ^"'J '" 1896 to 292. The number
of books possessed by th se 292 Libraries was
404,605, or an average of 1,385 each, with a total
membership of 32,603. The issue of books for
home reading was 700,958, or an averaj^e of 2.^ 6
for each member, which is a very creditable re-
turn, considering that only thirty per cent, of
the books were fiction.

In 1S95 the Minister i f Education in Ontario
brought in a bill, which came into force in May,
changing the name " Meciianics* Institute" into
" Public Library." By this Act the Directors of
any Mechanics' Institute were empowered to
transfer the property of the Institute to the
municipal corporation on condition that the
Library be free. This can be done without pass-
ing a by-law or requiring a vote from the people.
A large number have already availed themselves
of it. In the cities and larger towns previously
the Mechanics' Institute, with its limited num-
ber of subscribers, was found unequal to the task
assigned it, and aocordingly, 1882, the Free
Libraries Act was passed, based upon similar
enactments in Britain and the United States.

The first Free Library established under the Act
was in 18S3, ami in the period between tliat date
and 1897 seventy-eigl't have successfully come
into operation. They contain 308,326 volumes
and circulated, during 1896, 1,465,341. Two of
them, Toronto and Hamilton, take rank, both in
the number and character of their books, among
the best libraries of the Dominion. Unitedly the
323 Public and Free Libraries of the Province of
Ontario, which reported in 1897, have on their
shelves 727,812 volumes, and supplied in 1896
2,157,965 books to their readers. The revenue
was $183,688, of which $42,741 was contributed
by the Province, and they spent of this in books
$49,417.

The Province of Quebec has not yet introduced
a Free Library Act, but tlie generosity of the
late Mr. Eraser and a number of gentlemen
in Montreal has provided a fund for the estab-
lishment of a Free Library in that city, which
wis opened in October, 1885, under the title
of the Eraser Institute. The Mercantile Library
Association transferred to it 5,500 English books
and L'histitiit Canadien 7,000 French. In St.
John, N.B., a Free Library was foimded in June,
1883, to commemorate the landing of the Loyal-
ists a century previous, and in Halifax a Free
Library owes its origin to the generosity of the
late Chief Justice Young. Both of these have
been very successful. A sister society, the
Literary and Historical Society of Manitoba, has
been the means of introducing a Public Library,
ami, with the assistance of the municipal author-
ities of Winnipeg, has laid the foundation of an
extensive and valuable library. In the lack
of trustworthy information I have not attempted
to give any particulars of the Law, Medical,
Scientific, Collegiate Institute and Young Men's
Christian Association Libraries, further than
they ate summed up in the following condensed
tables, showing the character, and the Province
in which they are placed, of the 480 Libraries
of a more or less public character in Canada
to the end of 1807 :

Kind. Na Pamphlets. Books.

Law 21 i,92q 105,788

'■e«'slalion 9 48,834 309.395

I'uWic 325 17,535 663,125

Collegiate, etc 62 24,894 627,246

Others 29 15,224 96,918

CANADA: AN KNCYCLOIVKDIA.

31 I

Kind. No.

-Special 2

Y. M C. Associations J2

I'AMrill.HTS.

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llOOKfl
18,500

2j,66o

Totals /So 122,746 1,844,632

By Provinces the 480 Libraries are thus dis-
tributed :

Provikcf. No. rAMi'iii.trs. Uduks,

Ontario 374 32,922 942.'*'7

(Quebec 39 3'. 841 S3'.3S6

Nova Scotia 2'J 17.7S<> 97.521

PlIOVINCK.

New lirunswick

I^riiicc Kdward Ijland

Maiiilo'.ia

Pritisli Columbia

North West Tcrritcrics.

Dominion.

No.

I'AMPMl.KTH

HCKIKS.

•5

2,689

5*.787

3

500

8,528

8

5.o'4

34 730

10

'.554

0,303

I

140

2,150

476

92,416

1,682,562

4

29330

192,060

Totals 480 121,746 1,874,622

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THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA : ITS HISTORY AND WORK

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SIR J. G. BOURINOT, K.C.M.G., I.L.D., D.C.L., LiT.D.. Moiiourary Secretary and Ex President of the Society.

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NliARLY seventeen years liave passed botanist, Hun. Mr. Cliauveau, a notable French-

away since a few gentlemen, engaged Canadian, were called by death from their active

in educational, literary and scicDtific and successful labours in education, science and

pursuits, assembled in a small room at letters. The result of the efforts of the men just

McGill College, in Montreal, on the invitation of named was the establishment of a Society which

the Marquess of Lome, then Governor-General met for the first time at Ottawa in the month of

of Canada, to consider the advisability of estab-
lishing a Society which would bring together
representatives of both the French and English
Canadian elements of the population of Canada,
for purposes of common study and the discussion
of sucli subjects as might be profitable to the
Dominion, and at the same time develop the
literature of learning and science as far as prac-

May, i88i, with a membership of eighty Fellows,
under the Presidency of Sir J. W., then Dr.,
Dawson. The Vice-President was Mr. Chauveau,
who had won a meritorious place, not only in
Canadian literature, but also in the political
arena, where he was for years a conspicuous
figure, noted for his eloquence, his culture, and
his courtesy of demeanor. The objects of the

ticable. The Society was to have a Dominion Society were set forth in its Dominion Act of

character — to be a union of leading representa- Incorporation, as follows :

lives of all those engaged in literature and science " First, to encourage studies and investigations

in the several Provinces, with the principal of in literature and science ; secondly, to publish

federation observed in so far as it asked each
Society of note in every section of the country to
send delegates to the annual meetings for the
purpose of reporting on the work of the year
within Its particular line of study and investiga-
tion.

Of the gentlemen who assembled at this not-
able meeting at the close of 1881, bene.-'.th the
roof of the learned Principal of Montreals well-
known University, only the following continue in
i8g8 as active members of the Society which
they aided Lord Lome to establish; Sir J. W.
Dawson, the eminent geologist and teacher ; Sir J.
M. LeMoine, the Quebec antiquarian. Dr. Sel-

Transactions, annually or semi-annually, contain-
ing the minutes of proceedings at meetings,
records of the work performed, original papers
and memoirs of merit, and such other documents
as may be deemed worthy of publication ; thirdly,
to offer prizes or other inducements for valu-
able papers on subjects relating to Canada, and
to aid researches already begun and carried so
far as to render their ultimate value probable;
fourthly, to assist in the collection of specimens
with a view to the formation of a Canadian
museum of archives, ethnology, archaeology and
natural history." The membership of the So-
ciety at that time was composed of the following

wyn, then Director of the Geological Survey of gentlemen whose names are duly set forth in the

Canada, and Sir J. G. Bourinot, Clerk of the
Canadian House of Commons. Within a few
years after the foundation of the Society, Dr.
Thomas Sterry Hunt, the eminent chemist, Sir
Daniel Wilson, the learned President of Toronto
University, Professor Lawson, the distinguished

Slit

Dominion charter: j. W. Dawson, c.m.g., ll.d.,
F.R.S., President; the Hon. P. J. O. Chauveau,
LL.D., Docteur ^s Lettres, Vice-President; J. M.
LeMoine, Daniel Wilson, LL.u., f.r.s.e., T.
Sterry Hunt, i.L.D.,F.R.S., A. R. C. Selwyn, LL.D.,
F.R.S., Presidents of Sections; Faucher de St.
Maurice, Charles Carpmael, m.a., George Lawson,

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOP.EDIA.

ai3

ph. I)., LL.D, Vice-Presidents of Sections; J. G.
liourinot, F.s.s., Hon. Secretary'; J. A. Grant,
M.i)., F.G.S., Hon. Treasurer; Goldwin Smith,
D.C.L.; the Rev. AbL«i liegin, D.u.; The Rev.
Ahbe Hois, Napoleon lioiirassa, the Rev. Abbd
Casgrain, Docteur i:.s Lettres, Paul DeCazes,
Oscar Dunn, the Hon. Hectcjr Fabre, Louis H.
Frechette, LLU., Napoldon Le;;entire, Paniphile
Le May, the Hon. F. G. Marchand, Joseph Mar-
niette, the Hon. Mr. Justice Routhirr, Docteur
es i^ettres, Benjamin Suite, the Rtv. Abbti Tan-
guav, Joseph Tass^, the Rev. Abb6 Vcrieau,
Doceur ha Lettres, R. Maurice Bucke, m.d.,
the Rev. i^neas McDonell Dawson, Lieutenant-
Colonel G. T. Denison, b.c.l., the Very Rev.
G. M. Grant, D.D., William Kirbv, John Lesper-
ance, Charles Lindsej', the Rev. W. Lyall, ll.d.,
George Murray, ba., the Rev. J. Clark Murray,
LL.u., F.van McColl, John Reade, Charles Sang-
ster, George Stewart (the younger), Alpheus
Todd, C.M.G., LL.u., J. Watson, m.a., ll.d., G.
Paxton Young, m.a., C. Baillargi^, c.ii., Herbert
A. Bayne, E. J. Chapman, ph.u., li. o., J. B.
Cherriman, m.a., E. Deville, c.e., N. ]•". Dupuis,
M.A., F.R.S.E., Sandford Fleming, c.m.c. , c.e., P.
Fortin, m.d., G. P. Girdwood, m.d., F. N. Gis-
borne, M. Inst., c.e., E. Haanel, Ph. D., the Very
Rev. T. E. Hamel, m.a., B. J. Harrington, B.A.,
Ph.D., G. C. Hoffman, F.i.c, A. Johnson, ll.d.,
James Loudon, m.a., T. Macfarlane, M.E., J. G.
McGregor, m.a., d.?c., f.k.s.e., L. W. Bailey,
M.A., Ph.D., Robert Bell, m.d., c.e., f.g.s., G. M.
Dawson, D.sc, a.r.s.m., f.g.s., Edwin Gilpin,
M.A., f.g.s., J. Bernard Gilpin, m.d., m.r.c.s., the
Rev. D. Honeyman, D.c.L., J. M. Jones, f.l.s.,
the Rev. Professor J. C. K. Laflainme, d.d., J.
Macoun, M.A., f.l.s., G. F. Matthew, m.a., Alex-
ander Murray, c.m.g., f.g.s., W. Osier, m.d., \V.
Saunders, D. N. St. Cyr, J. F. Whiteaves, f.g.s.,
and R. Ramsay Wright, m.a., b.sc.

It must not be assumed that the Society was
founded in a spirit of isolation from other literary
and scientific men because its membership was
confined at the outset to eighty Fellows who had
written- to quote the constitution — " memoirs
of merit or rendered eminent services to litera-
ture or science" — a number subsequently
increased to a hundred, or twenty-five each to
the four sections of:

1. French Literature and History.

2. English Literature, History and Arche-
ology.

3. Mathematical, Physical and Chemical Sci-
ences.

4. Geological and Biological Sciences.

Ou the contrary the Society asks for, and is
constantly printing, contributions from all work-
ers ill the same fields of effort, with the simple
and proper proviso that such essays must be
presented with the endorsation of an active
member, though they may be read bcfoie any
section by the author himself. Every Canadian
association, whether historical, literary or scien-
tific, as I have already intimated, h.is been asked
to as.sist in the work of the Society, and its
representatives are given at the meetings every
advantage possessed by the Fellows themselves,
except voting and discussing the purely internal
affairs of the Royal Society.

Some misapprehension appears to have existed
p.t first in the public mind that, because the body
was named " The Royal Society of Canada ", an
exclusive and even aristocratic institution was in
contemplation. It seems a little perplexing now
to understand why any possible objection could
ever have been taken to such a designation when
the Queen is the head of our system of Govern-
ment, and her name necessarily appears in the
first clauses of the Act of Federal Union, and in
every document requiring the e.xercise of the
Royal prerogative in this loyal dependency of the
Crown. The objection is a good deal on a par
with that which has been sometimes ignorantly
urged in certain democratic quarters against the
conferring of Knighthoods and other Imperial
distinctions, t;) wliich Canadians have a legitimate
right to aspire as long as they are citizens of the
Empire and subjects of one Queen, and which are
intended, and ought to be always, as Imperial
recognitions of special service and merit in the
dependencies of the Crown. As a fact, in naming
the National Society of Canada, the laudable
desire was to follow the example of similar bodies
in Australasia, and also to recall that famous
Society in England, whose fellowship is a title
of nobility in the world of Science. Certain fea-
tures were copies from the Institute of France,
inasmuch as there is a division into sections with
the idea of bringing together into each for the
jHirposes of common study and discussion those
Mien who have devoted themselves to special
branches of th<e literature of learning and science.

In this country, and, indeed, in America gen-
erally, a notable condition is what might be

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CANADA: AN KNCYCLOMCDIA.

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called the la>eUiii}^ tendency — a tendency to
deprecate the idea that any man should be niticii
better than another; and in order to prevent
that result it is necessary to assad or sneer at
him as soon as he sliv;ws any political, intellectn.d
or other special merit, and to stop him, if pos-
sible, from attaining that mental superiority
above his fellows which ha^! been shown by such
men as L unicr, Tupper, Dawson, Frechette,
Parker or Lampman, and many other generally
recofjnized names in politics, literature and
science. The Roval Society suffjred a little at

.J>

Sir John George Bourinot,

first from this spirit of colonial depreciation.
The claims of some of its members were dis-
puted by literary aspirants who did not happen
for the moment to bo enrolled in its ranks, and
the Society was charpjed with exclusiveness when,
as a fact, it simply limited its membership, and
demanded certain qualifications, like its famous
English prototype, with the desire to make that
membership an evidence of some intellectual
effort, and consequently more prized by those
who are ;illowed sonni r or later to enter.

I''rom the very commencement, the Royal
Society lias been composed of n)en who have
devoted themselves with ability and industry to
the pursuit of literature, science and education
in Canada — men chielly drawn from the colleges,
universities, ofi'icial and professional classes. A
few years after the establishment of the Society,
it was deemed expedient to enlarge the member-
ship to one hundred in all, or twenty-five for
each section. At the present time, as the follow-
ing list for 1898 shows, the Society comprises
the large majority of Canadians most distin-
guished as poets, historians, archaeologists, eth-
nologists, geologists, naturalists, mathematicians,
engineers, and other scientists, drawn from every
Province of the Domiiiion :

List or Memueks, 1898-9.
I. — Litteraturc I'rancaise,luotoire, Arcluologie, Etc.

Ndr^c Beanchemin, M.n., Yamachiche, P.Q.;
Mgr. L.-N. r)egin, Archeveque de Cyr^ne, Que-
bec ; L'abbti H.R Casgrain, Docteur 6s
Lettres, Quebec; L'abb6 Cuoq, Oka,
P.O.; L.O. David, Montreal; Paul DeCazes,
Dt)cteur es Lettres, Quebec ; A.-D. DeCelles,
Dcjcteur is Lettres, Ottawa; N.-E. Dionne,
Quebec ; Hector Fabre, Compagnon de I'Drdre
des SS. Michel et George, Paris, France; Louis
Frechette, Docteur en Droit, Docteur <5; Lettres,
Compagnon de I'ordre des SS. Michel et George,
Chevalier de la Ldgion d'Honneur, Montreal;
Lton G(5rin, Ottawa ; L'abb^ Augusta Gos-
selin, Docteur is Lettres, St. Charles de
Hellechasse, P. Q. ; Napoleon Legendre,
Docteur is Lettres, Quebec ; Pamphile LeMay,
Docteur is Lettres, Quebec; Sir J.-M. LeMoine,
Ouebec; Hon. F.-G. Marchand, Docteur is
Lettres, Saint Jean, P.Q.; Adolphe Poisson,
Arthabaskaville, P.Q.; Edouard Richaid, Artha-
baskaville, P.O. ; A.-B. Routhier, Docteur en
Droit et is Lettres, Quebec ; Joseph-Edmond
Roy, Levis, P.Q.; Joseph Royal, rue St. Denis,
Montreal; Benjamin Suite, Ottawa; Mgr.
Cyprien Tanguay, Docteur is Lettres, Ottawa ;
L'abbd Hospice Verreau, Docteur is Lettres,
Montreal.
II. — Eni^lhh Literature, History, Arclicvology, Etc.

Sir John George Bourinot, k.c.m.g., ll.d.,
n.c.L., D.L., Ottawa; Douglas Brymner, ll.d..

i^

CANADA: AN KNCYCLOr.KDIA.

Doininiuii Aicliivist, Ottawa ; Rev. John Camp-
bell, LL.u., Prosbyteriaii Colk'f^e, Montreal; W.
Wilfnid Campbell, Ottawa; Rev. W. Clark,
O.C.L., LL.D., Trinity University, Toronto;
Samuel E. Dawson, Lit. D., Ottawa ; Lt.-Col.
G. T. Denison, n.c.i.., Toronto; Hon. Sir J. D.
Edgar, K.c.M.G., vj.c, M.I'., Li. . I)., Toronto ; Very
Rev. G. M. Grant, D.D., Principal of Queen's
University, Kingston ; Arthur Harvey, Toronto;
Rev. Moses Harvey, f.r.g.s., ll.d., St. John's,
Newfoundland ; Hon. J. W. Longley, m.l.a.,
LL.D., Halifax, N. S.; Archibald Lampman,
Ottawa; J. A. MacCabe, ll.o.. Principal of Nor-
mal School, Ottawa: Charles Mair, Kelowna,
B.C.; George Murray, B.A., Montreal ; Rev. J.
Clark Murray, ll.d., McGill University, Mon-
treal; Most Rev. Dr. O'Brien, Archbishop of
Halifax, Halifax, N.S.; G. R. Parkin, c.m.g.,
LL.D., Toronto ; John Reade, F.R.S.L., Montreal ;
Hon. Geo. W. Ross, ll.d.. Minister of Educa-
tion, Toronto ; George Stewart, d.c.l., ll.d.,
D.L., F.R.G.S., Quebec;). Watson, m.a. ll.d.,
Queen's University, Kingston ; Rev. W. H.
Wilhrow, D.D., Toronto.

III. — Mathematical, Physical and Chemical
Sciences.
C. Bdillarge, c.ii., Quebec; II. T. Bovey, m.a.,
C.K., McGill University, Montreal; Hugh L.
Callendar, m.a., k.r.s., McGill University, Mon-
treal; John Cox, M.A., McGill University, Mon-
treal; W. Bell Dawson, M.A., MA.E., Ass. M. inst.
C.E., Ottawa ; E. Deville, Surveyor-General,
Ottawa; N. F. Dupuis, m.a., f.r.s.e.. Queen's
University, Kingston; W. H. Ellis, M.D., To-
ronto University, Toronto; Sir Sandford Fleming,
K.c.M.G., LL.D., C.E., Ottawa; G. P. Girdwood,
M.D., McGill University, Montreal ; W. L.
Goodwin, D.sc, Queen's University, Kingston;
Monsigneur Haniel, M.A., Laval University,
Quebec; B. J. Harrington, B.A., Ph.D., McGill
University, Montreal ; G. C. Hoffmann, F. Inst.
Chcin., LL.D., Geological Survey, Ottawa; A.
Johnson, ll.d., McGill University, Montreal;
T. C. Keefer, C.M.G. , c.e., Ottawa; James Lou-
don, M.A., LL.D., President of University of To-
ronto, Toronto; T. MacFarlane, m.e., Chief
Analyst, Ottawa; J. G. MacGregor, m.a., d.sc,
F.R.S.L., Dalhonsie University, Halifax; C. H.
McLeod, M.E., McGill University, Montreal;

R. F. Ruttan, ^^D., cm., McGill University,
Montreal.

IV. — Geological and Biological Sciences,
Frank Adams, m.e., ph.D., McGill University,
Montreal; L. W. Bailey, m.a., ph.D., University
of New Brunswick, Fredericton ; Robert Bell,
B.Ap.sc, M.D., LL.D., F.G.S., F.R.S., Geological
Survey, Ottawa; Rev. C. J. S. Bethune, m.a.,
D.C.L., Port Hope, O.; T. J. W. Burgess, M.D.,
Montreal; G. M. Dawson, c.m.g., d.sc, f.k.s.,
F.G.S., Director of Geological Survey, Ottawa ;
Sir J. William Dawson, Kut., c.m.g., ll.d., F.R.s.,
Montreal ; R. W. Ells, ll.d., f.g.s.a.. Geological
Survey, Ottawa; James Fletcher, ll.d., f.l.s..
Dominion Entomologist, Ottawa, Honourary
Treasurer; James Fowler, M.A., Queen's Univer-
sity, Kingston ; Edwin Gilpin, m.a., f.g.s.. In-
spector of Mines, Halifax; Sir J. A. Grant,
K.c.NLG., M.D., F.G.S., Ottawa; G. U. Hay, M.A.,
ph.H., St. John, N.B.; W. Hague Harrington,
P.O. Department, Ottawa; Abbi^ J. C. K. La-
flamme, D.D., M.A., Laval University, Quebec ; J.
Macoun, M.A., F.L.s., Geological Survey, Ottawa;
A. H. McKay, ll.d., b.sc, Halifax; G. F. Mat-
thew, M.A., D.SC, St. John, N.B.; T. Wesley
Mills, M.A., M.D., McGill University, Montreal;
D. P. Penhallow, B.sc, McGill University, Mon-
treal; W. Saunders, ll.d.. Director Dominion
Experimental Farms, Ottawa; A. R. C. Selwyn,
C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S. , F.G.S., Ottawa ; Rev. G. W.
Taylor, Nanaimo, B.C.; J. F. Whiteaves, f.g.s..
Geological Survey, Oltawa; R. Ramsay Wright,
M.A., B.sc, University of Toronto, Toronto.

Corresponding Members.
The Marquess of Lome ; T. G. Bonney, D.sc,
LL.D., F.R.s., London, England ; Rt. Hon. James
Bryce, M.P., d.c.l., London, England; Jules
Clar^tie, de la Academic Francaise, Paris, France ;
Gabriel Gravier, Rouen, France; Sir James Hec-
tor, k. c.m.g. , f.r.s., Wellington, New Zealand;
Alphonse LeRoy, Professor de Philosophie a
rUniversite de Liege; Gilbert Parker, London,
England; Edme Ranieau de Saint Pere, d.l.,
Adon, Loiret, France; Dr. S. H. Scudder, Cam-
bridge, Mass., U.S.A.

Retired Members.
Napoleon Bourassa, St. Hyacinthe, P.O.; E.J.
Chapman, I'h.n., LL.D., England; J. B. C'herri-

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CANADA: AN ENCVCLOI'.KDIA.

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man, M.A., Rydo, Isle of Wi^lit ; E. Haaiiel, ph.
D., Syracuse University, Syracuse, N.V.; W.
Kirb} , Niafjara, Out.; W. Osier, M.D., Johns Hop-
kins University, Baltimore, Md.; C. G. 1). Rob-
erts, M.A., New York.

Hy comjiarinp; the present list of members
with the ori{,'inal roll of 1.SS2, it will be seen
that death has been busy in the ranks of the
Society since its formation. Of the ci^^hty I'el-
lowsofi8S2-3 only forty-four can now answer
to their names when the roll is called, l-'or
seventeen years the Royal Society has continued
to persevere in its work, and, thanks to the
encouraf,'ement given to it by the Canadian
Government, it has been able, year by year,
to publish a large and handsomely printed and
illustrated volume of the proceedings and tran-
sactions of its members. No other country
in the world can exhibit volumes more creditable
on the whole in point of workmanship and
varied interest than those of the Canadian
National Society. The papers and monographs
embrace a wide field of literary effort — the
whole range of archaeological, ethnological, his-
torical, geographical, biological, geological, math-
ematical and physical sciences. The fifteen
volumes already published have been very widely
distributed throughout Canada among the edu-
cated and thinking classes, and are sent to every
lil)rary, society, university ami learned institu-
tion of note throijgtiout the world, with the
object of making the Dominion better known.
So well appreciated are these Transactions now
in every country that, when it happens some
1 brary or institution has not received them from
the beginning or been forgotten in the annual
distribution, the officers of the Society very soon
receive an intimation of the fact. This is gratify-
ing, since it shows that the world of higher
literature and of special research — the world
of scholars and scientists engaged in important
observation and investigation — is interested in the
work that is being done in the same branches
in this relatively new country. It is also neces-
sary to mention here that the Society not oidy
publishes a large volume every year, but also
gives to each author a hundred or more copies
of his essay in pamphlets. In this way several
thousands of valuable papers are circulated

in addition to the Transactions. All the reports
of the associated Societies also appear in the
volume, which consequently gives to the world
a resumd of all the important scientific and
historical labours of the year in Canada.

It would be impossible for me, witiiin the com-
pass of this article, to give anything like an
accurate ideaof tiie numerous papers, the subject
ar.d treatment of which, even fmui a largely
pr.ictical and utilitarian point of view, have been
of decided value to C.mada, and I can only say
here that the members of the Society have
endeavoured to bring to the consideration of the
questions they have discussed a spirit of consci-
entious study and research, and that, too, with-
out any fee or reward except that stimulating
pleasure which work of an intellectual character
always brings to the mind. In these days of
critical comparative science, when the study of
the aboriginal or native languages of this contin-
ent has engaged the attention of students, the
Royal Society has endeavoured to give encour-
agement and currency to those studies by
publishing grammars, vocabularies, and other
monographs relating to Indian tongues and antiq-
uities. The venerable Ahh6 Cuoq, one of the
most erudite scholars of this continent in this
special branch of knowledge, has printed in the
Transactions what is a nionumental work o;i the
Algonquin language. A grammar of the Ilaiila
language — one of the tongues of the Pacific coast
— has already been published at considerable
expense under the careful editorship of Professor
Chamberlain, of Clark University — one of those
learned Canadians who have found in the neigh-
bouring republic that encouragement for their
special accomplishments which is wanting in a
limited Canadian field.

A great deal of light has been thrown on Car-
tier's and Champlain's voyages and discoveries
in the Gulf of St. Lawrence by Professor Gan-
ong, a native of New Brunswick, but now a
teacher in an educational institution of New
England, and bythe Abb6 Verreau, and of those
learned gentlemen who reflect so much honour
on the Roman Catholic Church in French Can-
ada. The excellent work of the Geological
Survey has been supplemented by contributions
from its staff, and consequently there is to be

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CANADA : AN ENCYCLOl'.KOIA.

217

, %f. ■

found ill the Transactions a large aiuoiint of
information, both abstract and practical, on tliu
economic and other minerals of the Dominion.
Chiefly owin^; t(} the efforts of tlie Society, the
Government of Canaila some years ago cotn-
menced to take tidal observations on the !\tlantic
coasts — an enterprise of great value to the
maritime and commercial interests of Can;i<ia.
The Society has also co-operated in the deter-
mination of the true longitude of Montreal un<!er
the supervision of one of its Fellows, Professor
McLcod, of McGill University, The contribu-
tions of Sir Daniel Wilson on " The Artistic
Faculty in the Aboriginal Races," "The Pie-
Aryan American Man," " The Trade and
Commerce of the Stone Age," and " The Huron-
Iroquois Race in Canada " (that typical family
of American Intlians), were all intended to sup-
plement in a measure that scholarly work,
" Prehistoric Man," which had brought him fame
many years before.

One of the most distinguished entomologists of
America, and, indeed, of the world, Mr. Horatio
Hale, was one of its Fellows until his decease a
few months ago, and a contributor to its pages.
The Rev. Dr. Patterson, of Nova Scotia, a most
careful student of Acadian annals, made valuable
contributions during the closing years of his use-
ful life to the history of Portuguese exploration
in North American waters, and of that remark-
able lost tribe known as Beothiks, or Red Indians
of Newfoundland. The rfo>»(?« of Canadian science,
Sir William Dawson, has contributed to almost
every volume from his stores of geological lore,
while his equally distinguished son, the Director
of the Geological Survey, has followed closely in
his footsteps, and has made valuable additions to
our knowledge, not only of the geology of the
North- West, but also of the antiquities, languages
and customs of the Indian tribes of British
Columbia and the adjacent Ishnds. The opin-
ions of Dr. Thomas S'terry Hunt on the " Rela-
tions of the Taconic series to the later crystalline
and the Cambrian Rocks" were given at length
in the earlier volumes.

Dr. G. F. Matthew, of St. John, New Bruns-
wick, who is a very industrious geologist, has
elaborated a work on the " Fauna of the St. John
Group." Not only have our geological conditions

been more fully explained, but our flora, ferns
and botany generally have been clearly set forth
by Messrs. Lawsoii, MacKay, Macoun and Hay.
Dr. Jills, Dr. Bell, Mr. Lambe, Mr. Whiteaves
and Dr. Hoffmann, of the Geological Survey;
Professor McGregor, of Dalliousie University;
Professors Bovey, Gird wood, Callendar, B. Har-
rington, Wesley Mills, McLeod, Penhallow,
Johnson and Cox, of McGill ; Professor Ramsay
Wright, of Toronto; Professor Dupuis and
Principal Grant, of Queen's; Professor Bailey,
of New Brunswick University; Drs. Saiiiulers
and Fletcher, of the Experimental Farms of
Canada, are among the men who have made
valuable contributions to the departments of
science in which they are engaged, and illustrate
the wide range of scientific thought and stuiiy
over which the work of tlie Royal Society
extends. Very many papers, chiefly in the scien-
tific sections, have be.^n illustrated by expensive
plates, generally executed by Canadian artists.
The majority of the names I have just given
happen to be English-Canadian, but the French
language has be on represented in science by such
eminent men as Hamel, Laflamme and Deville
— the first two illustrating the learning and cul-
ture of Laval University, so long associated with
the best scholarship of the Province of Quebec.
It is not the practice of the Society to give
much space to Poetry in Transactions, which
are more properly devoted to learned treatises in
prose, but on several occasions the French liter-
ary section has admitted poems of Frechette,
Pamphile LeMay, and also of Premier Marchand,
who is a man of fine culture, which softens and
brightens tlip more rugged qualities which are
characteristic of the practical Canadian politician.
One recent feature of the Transactions is the
publication of books of great rarity, with histori-
cal and biographical notes. In the second vol-
ume of the New Series — now printed in a con-
venient octavo form — is the useful history of Can-
ada, written by Pierre Boucher, a Governor of
Three Rivers, as far back as 1674. Mr. Benjamin
Suite, a most industrious student of French-Can-
adian history, has edited the work with much
ability and added to its value to the student.
The next book of the same class, in course of
preparation, is the rare work by Nicholas Denys

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CANADA; AN KNCYCI-Ol'.KDIA.

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— one of the French pioneers of AcaJia and Cape
Hreton — ot. tho history, geof^rnphy and natural
productions of North Arncric ^o\v only to be
purchaseil for tlircu hundred i 3, as there are

not more than six perfect copi. s .vuown to collec-
tors. The papers of Dr. SainuL-l Dawson on the
Cabot \'oyat;es are justly considered anmn^ the
ablest that have yet appeared on a subject which,
of laie years, has attracted much attention
among students of the discovery of America.
The Royal Society was the first to make a prac-
tical move to do honour to the great Italian nav-
igator, who showed England the way to maritime
and colonial enterprise. The Society has placed
in the handsome Legislative Council chamber at
Halifax a tablet in commemoration of the fam-
ous voya!,'es and discoveries of 1497 .ind 1498,
and the Transactions for the past year contain
the Presidential address by Archbishop O'Brien,
author and divine ; essays by ex-Mayors Davies
and Barker, of Bristol, as well as other matter
bearing on historic questions of no ordinary
interest to Englishmen and their descendants the
world over. In the French section Mr. B. Suite,
Abbe Gosselin, Mr. Edmond Roy, Mr. Dionne,
Abbii Casgrain, have contributed notable papers
on historical events of their interesting Province.
In the English section of literature monographs
have appeared on Cape Breton and its memorials
of the French regime, and on constitutional ques-
tions.

Such monographs, as I have mentioned above,
represent the practical value of the Society, and
show what an important sphere of usefulness is
open to its members. The object is not to pub-
lish ephemeral newspaper or magazine articles —
that is to say, articles intended for merely popu-
lar information, or treating of some topic of
temporary interest — but always those essays and
works of modern compass which sl>ow original
and thorough research, experiment and investi-
gation in any branch of historical, archaeological,
ethnological and scientific study, and which will
form a permanent and instructive library of
reference for scholars and students all over the
world. Indeed, at the present time, professors
and teachers in our Colleges and High Schools
are constantly making demands on the Society
for sets of its Transactions or copies of special

papers. The essays must necessarily, in the
majority of cases, be such as cannot be well pub-
lished except through aid granted by a Govern-
ment, or by the liberality of private individuals.
The Society, in fact, is in its way attemptingjust
such work as is done by the Smithsonian Institu-
tion and the National Museum on a large scale
at Washington, so far as the publication of
important transactions is concerned. The main
object, of course, is to perpetuate and give
currency to the labours of students and scholars
in special lines of investigation, and not the
efforts of the mere literary amateur or Iritler in
hellcs-lcttns.

But, while there must be necessarily such
limitations to the scope of the Transactions,
room will be always made for papers on any
economic, social or ethical subject, vvhich, by
their acute reasoning, keen analysis, sound
philosophy and originality of thought and treat-
ment, demand the attention of students every-
where. Such literary criticism as finds place in
the dignified old Quarterlies or English month-
lies of the Contempoi-ary type, will be printed
whenever it is written by any Canadian with the
same power of judicious appreciation of the
thought and motif of an author that we find
notably in that charming study of Tennyson's
Princess by Dr. Samuel Dawson, who is a Cana-
dian by birth, education and feeling, yet whose
essay is specially mentioned in the Memoirs of
the great poet recently published in England.

As the Society was founded by a Governor.
General who is himself a literary worker, so his
successors in the same high office have equally
sympathized with its objects and given it many
words of earnest encouragement. Both the Earl
and Countess of Aberdeen have never failed to
attend its most important meetings, and His
Excellency, at much inconvenience to himself
during the busy Jubilee week, visited Halifax for
the special purpose of unveiling the Cabot tablet.
His immediate predecessor, the present Earl of
Derby, was a thoughtful observer of the develop-
ment of the Society, and, just before his depart-
ture from the country whose affairs he adminis-
tered with so much discretion, he gave his
impartial testimony to the usefulness of the
body :

CANADA: AN KNCVt I.OI'.KDI A.

2H)

" Then; WLTo sf)nic persons wlio considered
that ill a comparatively new country like Canada
it was ambitious on her part when the founda-
tions of the Royal Society were lai<l, l)iit tliere
must be a beginning of all things, and I can
appeal to the work wliich has been and is btinR
done by the different briiiiclies r>f tlie Society
as evidence that its estabhshinent was in no sense
premature, but that it was fittinjjiy determined
that tlie prof^ress of science and literature should
take place coincidently with that of the country.
In a new country like this there is a tendency
to further ones material wants, to promot :
trade and commerce, and to put aside, as it were,
literature and the sciences; but here the Royal
Society has stepped in and done good work,
especially by uniting those who are scattered
by distance, and who find in the meetings of the
Society a convenient opportunity of coming
together for the exchanging of ideas. If we look
back we shall best see what good work is now
being done. . . In literature, history and
science the Society will from the first have had
its influence, as we trust, on the future of the
Canaiiian people."

To these sympathetic remarks of Lord Derby,
to which Lord Aberdeen specially referred in an
answer to the farewell address of the Society,
the present writer need add only a few words
in conclusion. The friends of the Royal Sociity
are confident that, by showing even greater zeal
and earnestness in the work for which it was
founded, by continuing to co-operate with schol-
ars and students throughout the Dominion,
by giving every possible aid to all those engaged
in art, culture and education, it has a most suc-
cessful future before it ; and all it asks from the
Canadian public at large is confidence in its
labours anc' objects, which are in no sense selfish
or exclusive, but are influenced solely by a sin-
cere desire to do what it can to promote historic
truth and scientific research, and give a stimulus
. in this way to the intellectual development
of this Dominion — still in the infancy of its
Hferarv work, as it is of its material progress and
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A REVIEW or CANADIAN JOURNALISM

II V

THE EDITOK.

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r~r*MllC iicwspaiKTS aiul journals ol' llii'
I Dominion uiiibuily in a ciuar und cun-

I ccntratoj foi in the general progress and

* position of Us people. In eiiily days
liuy partook of the limitations of pioneer life,
and were nut able to do much more ih in afforl a
certain amount of literary pabulum copied from
English or American papers. Then came the
period of keen political controversy, when able
or progressive men sought the widening intlaence
of the press in order to advance their views,
especially those of reform, or change, or disaffec-
tion. Hence it is that during morethan the first
half of this closing century the intellectual
supremacy in Canadian journalism seems to have
beenlarLjely with the Liberals. After Confedera-
tion broader views — less sectional and sectarian
— commenced to control the press. Party prin-
ciples, however, continued to firmly divide the
people as well as the papers until within the last
decade, when a distinct loosening in this direc-
tion occurred for a time.

Meanwhile, a curious conflict within the lines
of this journalistic development maybe traced by
those who look under the surface. It was a
struggle between the influence of distant British
newspaper standards — high-principled, imper-
sonal, independent of petty monetary consider-
ations— and the ever-present American newspaper
ideal summed up in the words alertness, brevity,
sensation, money. Had it not been for inter-
national forces operating over a long term of
years against closer relations with the United
States the influence of the press of that country
must have been finally paramount. Mrs. Jameson,
writing in 1838,* says that in the previous year in
Upper Canada there were 178,065 local papers
circulated in the Province which paid postage.

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tit

and i4(j,;o.i from other countries. Of the latter
the majority were probably Anjerican, owing
partly to contiguity, and partly to the high ocean
postage. The evolution which resulted from
this rivalry — one of which the people can hardly
be said to have been themselves conscious — was
a press which is neither British nor American, but
piinlya product of Canadian conditions and an
embodiment of the peculiar national life of the
Dominion.

Canadian newspapers are by no means perfect.
Yet the press as a whole is far broader in view
and has a wider knowledge of world politics than
has that of the United States. This is a natural
result of our Imperial position. It is also fully
equal in the larger city dailies of the country to
the great Provincial press of England — in some
respects, perhaps, is superior to the newspapers
of s ich cities as Liverpool, Manchester or Shef-
field. But the press of Canada is sometimes
sadly lacking in dignity. Cable news controlled
by American Press Agencies in London and
catering to the less cultured classes of the great
Republic help to promote this result. Far more
space as a consequence is often given to the
follies of some alleged " noble organ grinder " or
the marital troubles of an aristocrat — compiled
perhaps at second-hand by an irresponsible
and alien news agent from some gutter journal
of tlie world's metropolis — than to the popular
and editorial opinion in Great Britain of some
important Canadian and Imperial event ; such
for instance as the announcement of preferential
tariff arrangements or of a proposed Imperial
postal policy. In minor matters an Englishman
would be justified in sometimes calling our
papers Provincial or petty. Ths otherwise ably
edited press of the Maritime Provinces uses
hardly any capital letters in its columns, while

CANADA: AN KNCYCI.OI'.VDIA.

ttl

tlicclcverly-cotuluctird papers oriiritisli Coliiiiibia
niu personal, and at tiiiu-H ubusivu, to a dc^rcu
wliicit brings buck to nicinory tliu da)s of Mac-
kenzie and hia opponents in Upper Canada.
Tlie system of im|)orting plates from tiiu United
States to till the inside pa(,'('3 of certain iDiintry
wecUlii.'S and smaller dailies is also a dislnict and
unpleasant exception to tlio Canailiani <ni wliicli
now 8o largely characterizes the press as a whole.
lUit with these and other niiiior faults the Can-
adian press is none the less an honour to the
country, well woithy of the pioneers who created
it and of the great country from whose news-
papers many of its founders came, or have drawn
their truest inspirations.

The lust paper published in I'.iitish North
America was the Halifax Grtz*//i', in 1752. It is
now an olfxial organ called the Royal Gazette.
It was followed in the Maritime I'lovmces by
the Acatlian Recorder (1813) and the Chronicle
(1.S20). In New Brunswick the " Royal Gazette
and New Brunswick Advertiser " was established
by Christopher Sower, King's Printer, in 1785.
In Prince Edward Island the first i)aper was the
Royal Ga::ette (1791). In Lower Canada the
Quebec Gazette was first issued in 1764, the
Montreal Gazette in 1778, the Quebec Mercury in
1805, Le Canadien of Montreal in 1S08, the
Montreal Herald in the same year and La Minerve
in iSi6. In Upper Canada, or Ontario, the first
paper was the Upper Canada Gazette, issued at
Niagara in 1793. and this was followed by the
Xcws of Kingston in 1810, the Recorder of Brock-
ville in 1820, the Journal of St. Catharines in
18^6. All the papers mentioned were weeklies
ami many of them arc still living as dailies. In
the old North-West Territories (including Mani-
toba) the first paper was the Nor'-Wester, launched
in 1859, andlhe first one permanently established
in Manitoba after Confederation with Canada was
the Tree Press (iSyz). In British Columbia the
British Colonist was the first paper of any per-
manence and was issued in 1858. The first
Boys' paper published in Canada was issued
(1857) at Upper Canada College, Toronto, by J.
Ross Robertson.

The earliest newspaper published entirely in
French was Taut pis taut Mictix, Montreal, 1778,
with Valentine Jotard as Editor, and the cele-

brated I'leury Mesplet itH |>i inter. Tlie first daily
paper in Canada was the .Montreal Daily Adver-
tiser* (i8j }), and the hi I in Ontario was the Royal
Standard (i8j6). This Litter paper started ashoit-
lived course on the verge of the Mackenzie and
Papineau troul>les with the announcement that
it commenced its career "at a crisis big with
unborn events, and instinct with the spirit of
change." The first religious newspaper was the
Christian (7i((«n/iiiH, established uiulertlie lighting
Editorship of I)r. Egerton Ryerson in iSjy. The
first penny paper issued in British .Aiiieiica was
the Morning News, published at St. John, N.B.,
from 1S38 to i86j, by George E. li net) .

The progress of the press as regards numbers
was sufHiciently rapid when once fairly "11 tered upon.
In 1S24 there were in Upper and Lower Canada
some nineteen newspapers, which increased until
in iSj6, according to Montgomery Martin's
" History of the British Colonies," there were
fifty journals altogether, of which thirty were
publishetl in Upper Canada. A Quebec daily
called Neihon's Quebec Gazette was issued on the
peculiar plan of appearing for three days of the
v>eek in I'rench, and three in English. Accordinsj
to Munro's "History of New Brunswick" there
were in 1855 two daily papers and twenty week-
lies in that Province, in Nova Scotia three dailies
and eighteen weeklies, and in Prince Edward
Island five weeklies. At this period there seem
to have been nearly 300 papers, all told, in the
Provinces then constituting British North
America. In 1864, according to statistics com-
piled for McKim's "Canadian Newspaper Direc-
tory" (i8;j2) by Mr. E. B. Biggar, there were 22
dailies, 2Jo weeklies, 26 tri-weeklies, 12 semi-
weeklies, I bi-weekly, 5 semi-monthlies, and 27
monthlies in the Provinces of the present Domin-
ion. In 1874 — seven years after Confederation —
there were46dailics, 325 weeklies aiul4i monthlies.
In 1S81, according to Rowell's " American News-
paper Directory," there were in Canada 567
journals, of which 61 were dailies, 407 weeklies,
58 monthlies, and the rest scattering. Ten years
later McKim's Directory gives a detailed list of
Canadian newspapers numbering 1,033, of which
97 were dailies, 653 weeklies and 217 monthlies.
The feature of the development during the last
* George Johnson's first Things in Canada.

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CANADA: AN KNCYCLOPitUlA.

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two (lecadea tnciitioiied wuh, therefore, evidently
in tlio weeklies — the source of local news in the
growing sinall towns and larger villages of the
country.

An analysis < f the press in 1891 shows that
tlure were twenty-six papers devoted exclusiveiy
to agricultural and rur.d interests; 34 devoted
to the interests of societies and l>rotlierhoods *
10 to law; \i to literature; 13 to medicine,
pharniaiy, dentistry and hygiene; 15 to teniper-
nnce and prohibition ; 43 to trade, finance and
manufacturing' ; 7 to education, with 29 published
as ColU'j,'e papers. There were 144 papers pub-
lished in other languages than English. Of these
126 were in French, distributed as follows : 115
in Oiicbec, 6 in Ontario, 2 in Manitoba, 2 in New
Brunswick and one in Nova Scotia. There were
also 13 German papers, all but one being in
Ontario ; four Icelandic papers and one Swedish.
There were loo religious publications of which
24 were classed as Roman Catholic, 15 asChurch
of Enj.;land, 13 as Methodist, 10 as Presbyterian,
6 as Lutheran, 6 as Baptist, and 26 as belonging
to other Denominations or else classed as " nn-
sectarian." The table which follows gives a
summarized view of the chief Canadian newspa-
pers at the present time with the date and in the
order of their foundation. They are nearly all
<lailics (morning chiefly) with the exception of
about a d<jzen :

•Dttie
Name. Loculioii, uf

t'tntrutalion.

Royal Gazette Halifax 1752

Gazette Montreal 1778

Mercury Quebec 1805

Herald Montreal 1808

News Kingston 18 10

Acadian Recorder ...Halifax 1813

Morning Chronicle ...Halifax 1820

Recorder Brockville 1S20

Journal St. Catharines i8?6

La Minerve Montreal 1826

Ontario Belleville 1 830

Intelligencer Belleville 1834

Courier Brantford 1834

British Whig Kingston 1834

• NoTR. Th". dales of organization are, with some few excep-
tions, talien from McKim's Newspaper Directory. Thev were
supplied to that publication by the papers cimcerned ami may,
ihiTcfore, be assumed to Im: correct.

Citi/cn Ottawa

(ilobc Toronto

Witness Montreal

Spectator Hamilton

Reporter Gait

("hronitic Quebec

Free Fress London

Herald Guelph

Examiner Charlottetown

Presbyterian Wit ncss.. Halifax

Huron Signal '"toderich

Dumfries Reforinet t

True Witness lontreal

Planet Chatham

Expositor Brantford .. .,

Review Peterborough..

Casket Aiitigonish

Mercury Guelph

Times Woodstock

Beacon Stratford

Soiitinel-Review Woodstock

lixaminer Peterborough . .

Courrierdu Canada. ..Quebec

Canadian Post Lindsay

Guardian Richmond

Times ''amilton

Colonist ':toria

True Banner .idas

Norfolk Reformer Simcoe

Globe St. John

Journal St. Thomas

Patriot Charlottetown

Advertiser London

Herald Stratford

Canadian Gleaner ....Huntingdon ..

St. Croix Courier St. Stephen

Banner Chatham

Le Monde Montreal

Star Goderich

L'Evenement Quebec

Ti mes Fredcrict on

Star Montreal

Free Press Ottawa

Telegraph St. John

Telegraph Quebec

Mail and Em^jire Toronto

Free Press Winnipeg

Times St. Thomas

Morning Herald Halifax

1844
1844

'843
1846

1 840
1847
[849
[847

,48
1848

|S.,S

1850

1851

[852

'854
1854
:855
t857
■857
■857
1858
1858
1858
[858

t85<J
'85<J

'S59
18G3

t8f)3

1863

1865

1865

1866

iSff)

^>h^

1868

[869

[8G9

[869

[870

[872

1872

1873

'875

f:.\NAl)A: AN KMCVCI.OIMniA.

••»

Sun St. Jolin 1877

Times llroi:kvillc ..^ ., li^J^

La I'litrie Moiitiual 167*)

LoC.inada Ottawa iH7(j

Le Solcil Quebec 1880

L'lCltictuur Quebec 1880

Woilil Toronto 1880

Gli;uner I'mdcricton 188 1

C'ourriur (III C"imadii...Oiicbec J88i

Transcript I'rt:! Icricton 1882

L'Etunclanl Montreal i8hj

HeraKI Calgary l88j

Leader Retina 188 j

La Prcsso Montreal 1884

Times Victoria 1884

Journal Ottawa 1885

Morniii{I Giiunliaii C'liarluttetown 1885

Tribune Calgary 1886

News- Advertiser Vancouver 1886

Columbian New West minster t880

Standard Reyina l88f)

Star St. Catharines 1887

Gazette St. John 1888

World Vancouver 1888

Herald Hamilton 1889

Standard St. Catharines i8(jo

The Miner Nelson 1890

Tribune Winnipeg i8(jo

•ilegram Vancouver i8go

K ord St. John i8(j j

Daily Province Vancouver i8qj

Morning Telegram ...Winnipeg i8(j|

The Miner Rossland i8g6

News London i89()

Canadian journalism has had a chequered
career and the work of Canadian newspaper men
has not always been upon the sunny side of life's
great highway. The list of papers given above,
however, with the length of time during which
most of them have lived, affords ample evidence of
the present existence of a substantial and paying
business interest in all parts of the Dominion.
But in the stormy days of our early journalism
writers of skill and cleverness rose and fell with
facility upon the waves of political unrest. Many
a young man of ability struggled to make his way
in journalism only to meet financial failure with
his paper and perhaps with repeated papers. The
well-known career of William Lyon Mackenzie is

ail illiiMtixtion of these, conditions. His Colomal
Advocate (i8^4.f8.j.j) was the stnrniy pitnl of
Canadian jouriialisiii. Its political policy and
iiinilcncc need not be <lealt with here, but the
ruckU;98, ruthless style of personal writing which
Mackeii/io affected give il-i tone tn niiii li of the
newspaper work of that period.

ihe MitvitiiHC Pnt^'iiucs. A singularly vigourous
and much more able man than M.k keii/io was
his .Nova Scotia contemporary — the Hun. Joseph
Howe, His name ranks as perhaps the greatest
in Canadian journalism. The period in which
he edited the A'ova Smlian, 18.^7-41, 1S44-5O, was
the most stirring in the history of the Maritime
Provinces. Largely through his writings in his
famous paper, Howe procured and assureil the
liberty of the press in that part of Jiritish America
and obtained without civil strife the Provincial
rights of si ir-goveriinicnt which are now the pos-
session of all Canadians. Associated with him
either in New Hiunswick or in Nova Scotia in
the great journalistic struggles of the time were
men like John Sparrow Thompson of the Xova
Scutiiin (father of the late Canadian Premier) ;
George Edward I'Yuety, founder of the Morning
•Vrtt's of St. John, N.li. ; Hugh W. IJlackader,
Lditor and proprietor of the Acadian Recorder
from 1837 until his death in i8(j5; the Hon.
Willi.Tin Annaiid, a journalist of iinicli and varies
experience. Jotham IJlanchard was also a most
energetic Reform journalist of this e.iriy period in
Nova Scotia. He established the Colonial Patriot
in i8j7, was a Member of the Legislature and
such a keen fighter that he wore himself out and
(lied prematurely in 1S38. Other press names of
power in the Maritime Provinces, of that and a
slightly later time, were those of J. II. Crosskill
(1810-1855), William Garvie, Angus M. Gidney,
Edward Willis, John Young (the famous '* Agric-
ola") and his son G. R. Young, G. J. Chubband
the Hon. Edward Whelan of the Charlottetown
Examiner. Sir J. G. Bourinot was at one time
connected with the Halifax Reporter. The Hon.
Jonathan McCully, a Father of Confederation,
was long connected with the Halifax Chronicle.

Several names stand out prominently in these
Provinces during the period between the fifties
a;ul the eighties. The Hon. Simon Hugh
Holmes, Premier of Nova Scotia for a time, was

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CANADA. AN KNCVCLOIMCDIA.

proprietor iiiid ulitor of tlic Colonial Standard of
Pictoii fioin its L'staljlisliinent in 1857 until 1878.
The Hon. Tiniotliy Waircn Aiifjlin, afterwards
SpeukiT of tlie Dominion lions'? of Commons,
established the will-known St. John Freeman in
1S49 as a Liberal antl Koinan Catholic orj^^'an,
and of this he was Editor and propriLtor until
1S77. The name of the Hon. William Eich r
stands perhaps foremost dnring this period.
Orifjinall}- a Presbj-teiian clerfjyman he nnitcd
scholarl} attainments with journalistic ability
and as E ditor succrssivi ly of the Colonial Presby-
terian, the St. Jfihn Morning Journal and the
Telegraph he ranks hij;Ii amonj^st the greater
newspaper men of Canada, John Livingston
was a contemporary of William Eider's and was
associated with him for sometime in the editorial
management of the Telegraph. Later on he
established the Watchman, edited the Moncton
Times, and from 1S78 to 1883 the St, John Sun.
For a time he also edited the Toronto Empire.
His descriptive style was especially good.

The men of to-day in Maritime journalism are
wortliy of its past record. John James Stewart
was in 1875 one of the founders of the Halifax
Herald, the leading Conservative organ of Nova
Scotia, and three years later assumed entire con-
trol of the paper. Robert McConnell, after years
of varied journalistic experience, became in 1892
Editor of the Halifax Chronicle. In St. John,
James Hannay of the Telegraph, 1863-83 and
1892-99; John Valentine Ellis, m.p., of the Globe
(1862-99); and S. D.Scott of the Sun (since 1883)
are distinctly aide writers. The Hon. W. S.
Fielding and the Hon. J. W. Longlcy were con-
nected for many years with the Halifax Chronicle,
and the latter for some time with the Recorder,
M'-. J. E. B. McCready edited the Telegraph of St.
John forsome years and i3now(i89g) Editorofthe
Charlottetown Guardian. Other names which
must be mentioned in tliis connection are John
T. Hawkeof the Moncton Transcript, J. H. Crocket
of the Frederict jn C/t'(i;;c;' and the Hon. David
Laird, of Charlottetown, P.E.L — a veteran jour-
nalist of the Island Province.

Province of Quebec. Lower Canada has been the
field of a most complex and varied journalism
Differences in leligion, language and race, to say
nothing of the most intensely personal and

political controversy have produced a ceaseless
cnange in the character and life of its press. In
only a few cases has continuity been a charac-
teristic. Lc Canadien, La Miiicrve or L'Etendard
have gone through siicli alternations of publica-
tion, politics and management as to almost defy
description. Perhaps the most piominent Editor
of Le Canadien, which ceased to appear in 1896
after one of the most checkered careers on record,
was M. ]-tienne Parent. He was a wonderfully
vigo'- lus journalist, who assumed charge in
1827, and holds a high place in the history of his
profession in Quebec. La Minerve was starred
by Messrs. A. N. Morin and Duvernay. Its pub-
lishers were exilei! after tin- Rebellion of 1837
and the paper did not re-appear until 1842.*
Other journalists connected with its pages up
to 1855 were John Phclan, Geiin-Lajoie and
Raphael Belmare.

LWvenir, started in 1848, included a brilliant
band of young men amongst its contributors. The
Chief Editor was the Radical and Republican
leader in Quebec — Jean Baptiste Eric Dorion.
Associated with him were journalists and politi-
cians such as Papin, Daoust, Laberge, Blanchet,
Doutre and Laflamme. Le I'ays, started in
1851 as a Liberal organ, was edited by Messrs.
Daous*, Dessaules and Labreche Viger. La
Patrie was first issued as a Conservative paper
by Alfred Xavier Rembeau, and was afterwards
edited by F. de la Ponterie, who in 1855 assumed
charge of La Minerve. Other papers of this
stormy political period wereLe Colonizatcur, with
M. Mousseau, Adolphe Ouimet and L. O. David
as successive Editors; La Revue Canadienne,
established by Octave Letourneaux in 1S48 ;
L'Opinion National, started as a workingman's
organ by Mederic Lanctot, and strongly opposed
to Confederation. The late Hon. Thomas
White, speaking in M(jntreal on November 5th,
1S83, stated that " in enterprise the French
papers have progressed quite as rapidly as their
English contemporaries; and, considering the
disadvantages under which they labour, the news
coming to them in English and requiring to be
t-anslated, no one who knows anything about the
work of a daily newspaper office ran do other-

*NoTK. See an able Leitwe on Newspapers in the Province
of Oiiel)e<; by Mr. Thomas White, M.r., delivcrcil in Montreal on
Novenilicr 5th, l8Sj.

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOI'.KDIA.

225

wise than wonder at the success they achieved
as nc\vs])ai)eis."

Lower Canatla has produced a great many
brilliant journalists of I-'rench orijjin and language,
and a curiously significant branch of the develop-
ment of its press has beer, the close relationjhip
maintained between journalism and politics.
Nearly all its political leaders have had a direct or
indirect connection of this kind with the press —
Sir Hector Langevin, who for a time edited Le
Courrier duCanada, and the I Ion. Thomas Chapais,
who now edits that paper; the Hon. J. M.

The Hon. Felix Gabriel Mirchand,

Cauchon, who, in 1842, established Lc Journal dc
Quebec; the Hon. Joseph Tasse of Le Canada,
Ottawa, and at a later period Editor of La Mi-
nerve, Montreal (1869-72) ; the Hon. M. A. Pla-
mondon, the Hon. J. A. N. Provencher, the Hon.
Joseph Royal, the Hon. F. X. A. Trudel, the
Hon. Hector Fabre, c.m.g , the Hon. G. A.
Nantel and the Hon. F. G. Marchand, now (1899)
Prime Minister of the Province, are cases in
point. The Hon. J. Israel Tarte still maintains
iin active journalistic connection, although a

15

Minister of the Crown at Ottawa. The rollof emi.
nent names in French-Canadian journalism, how-
ever, is too voluminous to record in full, though
so: le others must be mentioned in passing. The
Hon. Pierre Bedard, N. Aubin, Georges Isidore
Barthe, J.G.Barthe, the Hon. L. A. Dessaules, J.
P. Boucher- Belleville, Francois Magloire Derome,
Jacques Edmond Dorion, V. P. W. Dorion and
J. B. E. Dorion (the three irrepressible brothers),
Alphonse Lusignan, Joseph Papin, Louis Ricard
and Auguste Soulard are representative names in
this connection.* Others of the present time are
C. A. Dansereau, Jules P. Tardive!, Godfroy
Langlois, Editor of Z.a Patric, llonnre Beaugrand,
CharlesMarcil,A.Fi!liatreault,PaulMarcSauvalle.
The most prominent of all is perhaps the Hon.
Trefle Berthiaume, m.l.c, proprietor of Z,(iPrcs.s<!,
the great French-Canadian evenin[][ paper. Ha
served on the staff of several journals until in 1889
he acquired what was then a struggling paper of
doubtful prospects but which to-day has a
larger circulation than any of its compatriots.

Turning to English-speaking journalism in Que-
bi-i-ir.eproloiigedand influential career of the Mon-
treal Gazette first requires attention. Its earlier an-
nals are fully dealt with elsewhere in thisvolume.
In 1852 it became the property of Messrs. John
Lowe and Brown Cluiniberlin, who conducted it
with crctlit and success until I1S70. The former
became for a number of years Deputy Minister of
Agriculture at Ottawa, the latter Queen's Printer
for the Dominion prior to Dr. S. E. Dawson's
tenure of office. Other writers upon the paper
during their time were Arthur Harvey, W. L.
Tetii, Jt)hn Re;ide and George Barnum. In 1870
Messrs. Thomai and Richard White came from
Hamilton and obtained control of the Gazette.
During the years which followed and up to the
time when the former became Minister of the
Interior at Ottawa, in 1886, his name as its
Editor-in-Chief was the most prominent and re-
spected in Quebec journalism — perhaps in that
of all Canada. Through his ability, integrity of
purpose and personal popularity he became not
only a tower of strength to his paper, but also a
leader of the Conservative party in such full
measure as to make his premature death in 1888
the loss of a probable Prime Minister of the Do-
*NoTB. See M. Suite's article elsewhere in this Section.

■ ■!*!

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836

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOP.-I':i)IA.

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minion. Mr. R. S. White assumed editorial
charge of the Gazette in 1886 and held the posi-
tion with combined geniality and skill until 1S96
when he was appointed Collector of Customs at
Montreal. Mr. S. L. Kydd took his place on the
paper, with J. C. Cunliffu — a graduate and Doc-
tor of Letters of London Universitx — and Mr.
John Reade as assistants.

The latter name is one cf deserved prominence
in Quebec journalism. From the time of his
arrival in Montreal in 1856 Mr. Reade has stead-
ily contributed to the columns of the paper and
since 1S70 has been an editorial writer and book
reviewer of note. Perhaps in this special work of
his no man in Canada has done so much to pro-
mote a spirit of journalistic courtesy and fairness
and to develop that literary culture which so dis-
tinrtly marks the press of tlie Mother-land. Other
writers on the Gazette during this period were
James Kiiby, D.C.L., Georj^e Spaight, Professor
Sumichrast (now of Harvard University), and
JohnTalon-Lcsperance. The latter's pen name
o( Laclede, under which he contributed largely to
the paper, covered some of the most graceful of
Canadian newspaper literature. To Mr. Richard
\Vhite in a business capacity the Ga::etlc during
the last thirty years hasowed much.

Any detailed history of the other journals would
be impossible. The Montreal Herald has had a
fluctuating career and perhaps readied its height
of success in the days of the lion. E. Goff Penny,
ajournalist of the highest type — honourable, able
and far-seeing. For some years following 1S85 the
Hon. Peter Mitchell was in control. Under the
present-day management of Messrs. J. S. Brierley
and J. E. Atkinson it is taking a new and vigour-
ous lease of Liberal life and advocacy. The cen-
tral figure of English journalism in Quebec to-
day, however, is that of Mr. Hugh Graham, the
proprietor of the Star. Since 1869, when, in con-
junction with Marshall Scott and the late George
T. Lanigan, he started it as an evening one-cent
paper, the S/tir his grown to enormous propor-
tions in both popularity and influence and has
given the proprietor a high place in journalistic
life. For nearly two decades past Mr. Henry Dalby
has been actively associated with its editorial
management. The Montreal Witness is another
organ of public opinion which has exercised great

weight in the moral and religious field since its
establishment in 1845 by the late John Dougall.
It became a daily in i860 during the visit of the
Pri:ice of Wales, and since 1870 has been under
the editorial guidance of Mr. John Redpath Dou-
gall, a son of the founder.

In the City of Quebec Dr. George Stewart
edits with cultured skill the histouc Mercury, dind
Mr. E. T. D. Chambers the Moruiivj; Chronicle —
since 1896, when he succeeded Dr. Stewart, who
had previously edited the paper from 1879.
Scattered through the pages of Lower Canadian
history are the names of many other men who
have with more or less success edited or written
for the newspapers of the passing seasons. The
Vindicator, established in Montnal by Daniel
Tracey, M.n., and edited by him for some years
until his djath ir» 1832, was the fir-LC Liberal
English-speakiiig paper in that city. It had only
a few years of ti)ubled life. Sir Francis Hincks
established the Pilot in Montreal in 1S44 and did
much during the four succeeding years to restore
Baldwin and Lafontaine to power. William
Bristow and Mathew Ryan were well-known
contributors to its columns. The Courier was at
this period a fighting journalistic force under the
editorship of John Turner. The Commercial Ad-
vertiser, guided by a journalist named Parsons, was
also an influential paper, while the Gazette, under
the editorship of Robert Abraham (184J-8), and
then of James Moir Ferris, and the Herald, edited
by David Kinnear, kept up a vigouroiis political
and journalistic rivalry. Mr. Abraham after-
wards edited the Montreal Transcript from 1849
until his death in 1854. D'.\rcy McGee estab-
lished the New Era in 1857 for a brief lifetime of
conflict. John Henry Willan did much good
journalistic work in both Montreal and Quebec,
as (lid George Sheppard, during the same period.
Adam Thorn appeared upon the surface at the
time of the Rebellion and then like many another
promising writer of that time subsided from
view. William Amlrew, Thomas Storrow Brown,
Rollo Campbell, Robert Weir, Jr., Daniel Carey,
Joselyn Walter, Thomas Cary, John Gibson,
Thomas Andrew Turner, Thomas Sellar, Robert
Middleton, J. F. McDonnell, David Chisholme
were well known in their day. Names of a latter
time are those of Carroll Ryan, F. Clifford Smith,

»

'>^VV:

CANADA; AN ENCYCLOI'.KDIA.

aay

J. K. Foran, Frank Carrel and J, A. Chicoync.
Province of Ontario. Contemporary witli the rise
of William Lyon Mackenzie into journalistic
notoriety in Upper Canada was tlie scattered
establishment of many papers for the advocacy
of, or opposition to, his Radical views — chiefly
the former. Toronto was, of course, tlie centre
of experiment and change in this connection.
The Uf>per Canada Gazette (i/Qj), for some years
under the control of Dr. Ilorne, was Mackenzie's
chief journalistic critic in earlier days. For
sometime also it was the mtdiuin of ofiicial or

Hunli Gialiam.

Government announcements, but in June, 1826,
the administration decided to publish an organ
which should mould public opinion from its own
standpoint, and with this aim issued for a couple
of years the Loyalist in connection with the ofiicial
paper. In May, 1828, however, the experi-
ment was abandoned, and for a few years the
latter organ struggled on alone. The Upper
Canada Guardian, edited for a few years by the
traitor Wilcocks, collapsed with his death in
the War of 1812. The Tory Observer was first

published in Toronto in 1820. In 1825 Francis
Collins established for a time a Radical organ
called the Canadian Freeman which had a stormy
existence. The Patriot, a strong Conservative
paper, was established in Toronto in 1833, and,
until his death in 1840, was edited by Thomas
Daiton. It was merged in the Leader about
1854. Chief Justice Sir John Hagarty was in
his younger days editorially connected wit!' this
paper. In 1829 the Courier, a paper stron^^ly
,T(jry in politics and extremely loyal to British
Connection, was founded by George Gurnett,
afterwards Mayor and Police Magistrate of the
City. The Editor for some years was Cliarles
iothergill. In 1S38 Sir Francis Hincks started
the Examiner as a Liberal organ, but in a few
\cars left for Montreal and it was put in charge
I f James Lesslie and afterwards absorbed by the
(Hole. Tlie North American, started by the Hon.
William Macdougall in 1N50 as a Liberal paper,
lasted until 1857. By 1858 all these and other
less important papers had ceased to appear.
The Weekly Messenger, edited from 1853 to 1S60
by William Lyon Mackenzie, had a somewhat
precarious career.

The British Colonist was established b}' Hugh
Scobie in 1838 and edited by him until his death
in 1853 — two years after he had turned the paper
into a daily. It then came under the control of
Samuel Thompson, until that time publisher of
the Patriot, and also, for a season, of the Toronto
Herald. From Mr. Thompson's editorial and
financial control it passed, in 1S58, into those of
George Slieppard and Daniel Morrison — alwaj-s
remaining Conservative in politics, William
Kingsford, afterwards celebrated as an historian,
was for some time connected with its editorial
columns. About 1865 the paper was absorbed by
the Leader. The Globe came in 1844 and the
Leader was established in 1852 by James Beaty
as a moderate Reform paper. It was edited until
1867 by Charles Lindsey — formerly of the Exam-
iner. In 1858 Samuel Thompson started the
Atlas, aided by the Rev. Mr. Roaf, as a Tory
organ, and controlled it for a short time. And
then came the distinctly modern era of Toronto
journalism. Mr. J. Ross Robertson, in 1866,
was chiefly instrumental in founding the Daily
Telegraph, which lasted for five years. In 1876

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228

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOP.KDIA.

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he established the Eveniuf^ Telcf^ram — one of the
most successful papers in Canada. The Mail
was founded in 187^ and i\\c Evening News in
1S80. The central fitjuie of this latter journal
during the following seven ye.,rs\vas Mr. Edmund
E. Sheppard, who as its Chief Editor, soon won
a wide reputation for clever writing and radical
sentiments — even to the point of favouring Cana-
dian independence for a time. In 1887 he
established Saturday Night, a weekly paper, which
became very popular from his editorial contribu-
tions and those of a subsequent Editor — Joseph
T. Clark — now well-known under the nom-de-
plume of " Mack." In December, 1895, Mr.
Sheppard purchased the Ez>ening Star, then a
two years' old paper, and held possession for a
time.

Of the Glube under George Brown, J. Gordon
Brown, Mr. John Cameron and Mr. J. S. Willi-
son it is hardly necessary to speak here. Mr.
Wilhson is probably the ablest all-round political
journalist in Canada at the present time. His
career commenced in the office of the London
Adx'crtiscr in 1882. During the next year he
joined the Globe staff, and in 1890 became its
Chief Editor. The editorial management of the
paper has, of course, varied greatly in point of
ability and sometimes, perhaps, in consistency
during its half century of life. But its policy is a
part of the history of the country, and n ed not
be discussed here. As a newspaper it stands
to-daj- at the height of its influence, and with a
reputation which is steadily growing. The^Vif//,
from its establishment in 1872 as a Conservative
organ, has had a somewhat fluctuating career.
Its first Editor and proprietor, Mr. T. C. Patte-
son, was a brilliant journalist, and made the
paper a political power. But in 1877 it passed
out of his hands into those of Messrs. John
Riordan and Christopher W. Bunting. The
latter was in control of tiie paper until his death
in 1896, and his policy and career constitute an
important but unwritten page in the history of
Canada. The assumption of independence about
the year 1886 ; the establishment of the Empire
in 1887 by Sir John Macdonald, David Creighton
and others as a Government organ, and its gal-
lant fight for Conservative principles in the
general elections of 1891; the final financial victory

of the Mail in the rivalry which followed, and the
amalgamation of the two papers in 1895 as a
single Conservative organ ; are interesting events
in the record of Canadian journalism and politics.
From 1880 to 1885 Martin J. Griffin was the
vigourous Chief Editor of the paper. Edward
Farrer then for a second time became connected
with its columns, to which Dr. Goldwin Smith also
contributed, and in 1890 Arthur F. Wallis became
Chief Editor, assisted in later years by W. H.
Bunting and W. Sanford Evans.

A word must be said here as to the connection
of Dr. Goldwin Smith with Canadian journalism.
When he came to Canada in 1871 much was
expected from his great literary reputation, and
he at once plunged into the field of political and
personal controversy. As a contributor to the
Canadian Monthly ; as the chief support, if not
founder of the Nation — a literary journal which
did not last very long; as the writer of a little maga-
zine called the Bystander for a couple of years ; as
the founder of the Toronto Week in 1884, and a
voluminous contributor to its pages during some
three years; as a constant writer in Canadian,
American and English magazines; as an edi-
torial contributor in later years to the Mail, and
for some years past to the Farmer's Sun ; he has
been exceedingly prominent in Canadian journal-
ism. But all the enterprises witii which he was
closely connected have failed toinflucncethe popu-
lar mind in any appreciable degree. Unfortunately,
also, the strength of his personal prejudices
from the time of George Brown to the later days
of Sir John A. Macdonald, have contributed to give
his pen a degree of vitriolic intensity which has
had a distinctly detrimental effect upon the
amenities of Canadian journalism. And, despite
his own wide culture, this same cause has
helped to retard rather than aid the development
of Canadian literary culture. The example of
moderation in treatment combined with brilliance
of thought and expression, which he could have
given Canada, would have been an untold benefit
to its press. As it is, the bitterness of view and
expression which he brought with him only
intensified an evil already sufficiently prevalent.

The weekly papers of Toronto have been and
are too numerous to review. They run from the
Christian Guurdian established in iSjg; the

'i * I

:

CANADA; AN KNCVCI.OI'.KDIA,

!jy

■Orange Sentinel founded in 1870 and edited by a
representative journalist — Edward F. Clarke,
M.P.; the Catholic Register started in 1893 as a
priictica) continuation of the celebrated Irish
Canadian ; the Monetary Times founded in 1866;
to the Westminster, established in 1896 as an
exponent of literary Presbyterianisrn. Meanwhile
a Provincial press was slowly evolving out of the
political chaos of Rebellion days and through the
stormy period of the struggle for responsible
government. The eastern part of the Province
was first in this respect. The earliest Kingston
newspaper, the Gazette, was published in 1801
and lasted until 1818, when it died. In 1810
the Kingston Chronicle made its appearance and
was afterwards merged with a paper called the
Xews, which had been previously started. The
united paper has been published as a daily since
1851. About the same time (1819) the Upper
Canada Herald appeared and lasted till 1851.
In 1823 a paper was started called the Watchman,
but it lived only one year. In 1829 the Patriot
was established, but the subscription list and
good will were soon transferred to Toronto. In
1830 the Spectator was started, and after a pre-
carious existence of four or five years was dis-
continued. In 1834 the British Whi^^' came into
life, and is still vigourousand enterprising. The
Argus, the Advertiser, the Frontenac Gazette, the
British American and the Statesman also made
their bow to the public during this period, and
then, meteor-like, disappeared. According to a
statement in the anniversary number of the Brit-
ish Whig (1895) — and to which I am also indebted
for the above facts — the Editors or proprietors of
these papers from 1810 onwards were : Stephen
Miles, Charles Kendall, John Pringle, John
Macaulay, Hugh C. Thompson, Ezra S. Ely,
Walter Macfarlane, J. Dalton, John Vincent, Dr.
Barker, Roy, Derbyshire, Hill, Cull, Bentley,
Ogle R. Gowan, Samuel and John Rowlands,
Waudby, Merrill, A. H. St. Germain, Greene,
M. L. Pense, of the Argus (father of E.J. B.
Pense, the present Editor of the Whig), Armit-
age, Armstrong and Ca man.

Turning to the Western i^art of Ontario we
find that the Hamilton Spectator was established
in 1846 by Robert Reid Smiley. In 1864
Thomas and Richard White bought the pape-

and published it for si.\ years, when they went to
Montreal and a new Company was formed.
David McCuUoch was its well-known Editor for
many years. In 1880 A. T. Freed succeeded to
the post and in 1894 J. Robson Cameron took
his place. The Times started twelve years later
(1858) and the Herald — edited since 1896 by J. L.
Lewis — was established as late as 1889. Some
eminent journalists of an earlier day in Upper
Canada were connected with the Hamilton press
— Ale.xander Somerville, William Gillespy, George
Siieppard, Dr. M. H. Oliver, James Ross, Hugh
Bowlby Willson, Ale.xander Robertson, the Hon.
C. H. Mackintosh and others. In London the
Free Press was established in 1849 by W. Suther-
land. Messrs. Josiah and Stephen Blackburn
took it over in 1852 and the former edited the
paper with satisfaction to a large Conservative
constituency in Western Canada until his deatii
in 1890. He was succeeded by Mr. Malcolm G.
Bremner, the present able Editor, who had been
connected with the paper in various capacities
from 1865. The London Advertiser was estab-
lished by one of the veterans of Canadian jour-
nalism— John Cameron — in 1863. In 1875 Mr.
Cameron founded the Liberal in Toronto as an
organ of the Blake wing of the Reform party, but
it lasted only a year. He was connected with
the Globe from 1882 to 1890, when he returned
to the Advertiser. The Hon. David Mills was
also connected with this journal as Editor-in-
Chief from iS77to 1882. A well-known London
paper in earlier days was the Prototype (1861),
and its successor the Herald and Prototype, started
as an evening paper in 1870, and lasting for about
a decade. They were edited from time to time
by journalists such as Daniel Morrison, Marcus
Talbot, and Morgan Caldwell. The London Sun
had been issued as far back as 1831, by E. A.
Talbot, who, in 1839, published for a time the
London Freeman's Journal. The London Times
had also a struggling existence in 1844-53.
The Daily News of London, a comparatively new
paper, has been edited since 1895 by Mr. C. B.
Keenleyside.

Others notably connected with the Provincial
press of Ontario were i^ieut.-Colonel David Wylie
of the Brockville Recorder; George Benjamin,
founder of the Belleville Intelligencer; Rufus

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CANADA : AN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

Stephenson, founder of the Chatham Planet;
Thomas McQueen, who established the Huron
Signal; the Hon. James Young, Editor of the
Dumfries Reform'.r horn 1853 to 186,}; Sir Mac-
kenzie Bowell, Editor ami proprietor of the Heile-
vilie Intelligencer from 1S53 to 1875 and again
since 1896; tiie Hon. Michael Hamilton Foley
ofBranlford; the Hon. Tiiomas White, founder
in 1853 of the Peterborough Review ; W. H. Hig-
gins, the founder of the Whitby Chronicle ; the
Hon. C. H. Mackintosh of the Ottawa Citizen ;
William Benjimin Wells, who wrote for many of
our papers between 1834 and 1850; Robert
Davis t)f the Ott.iwa DrtiVy Times; Charles Roger
of Port Hope, Millbrook and otherplaces; J. D.
Murray of Thorold, St. Catharines, etc. ; James
Innes of tlie Guelph Mercury ; C. 1). Barr of the
Lindsay Post. Others well-known in their day
were William Armstrong, David Beach, Robert
Cooper, C. W. Cooper, Thomas Dalton, William
Buckingham, J. W. Carman, H. J. Friel, William
Harris, M. J. Hickey, the Hon. Charles Clarke,
John Sheridan Hogan — whose brief but brilliant
career was closed ill 1859 by his violent death
near Toronto, George Meiizies, James McCar-
roll, C. P. Mulvaiiy, James Foley, James John-
son, the Rev, J. Iiiglis, Avern Pardee, Rev. W.
F. Clarke, T. P. Gorman, G. R. PaltiiUo, Nicholas
Flood Divin, Douglas Brymner, George John-
son, Will. Houston and L. P. Kiibs.

Outside of Toronto, Hamilton and London,
the most representative and able journalists of
to-day in Ontario are perhaps A. F. Pirie of the
Dundas True Banner, P. D. Ross of the Ottawa
Journal, L. A. Magenis-Lovekin of the Ottawa
Free Prc^s, Andrew Pattullo, m.p.p., of the Wood-
stock Sentinel-Review, E. J. B. Pense of the
Kingston Wliig, T. H. Preston of the Brantford
Expositor, ],imes S. Brierley of the St. Thomas
Journal, J. R. Strattoii, M.P.P. of the Peter-
boicus^h Examiner dii\il\^ . S. Dingman of the
Stratford Ilerald. Journalism is, however, a
wandering profession and Ontario has produced
many otli(;r bright mintls and pens now scattered
througiiout the Dominion. R. W. Slianiion, J, A.
Garvin, Horace Wallis, Fred Cook, J. A. Boyd,
J. W. Dafoe, L. W. Shannon, Arch. Bremner,
J. A. Phillips, J. D. Clarke, A. J. Magurn, Archi-
bald McNee, J. limes Mcintosh are some almost

random names in this connection. The following
list of Presidents of the Canadian Press Associa-
tion since its organization in 1859 is also largely
representative of Ontario journalism :

Dale. Pre>id«n(. Plue of Me«iln(.

1859 W. Gillespy Kingston

i860 W. Gillespy Toronto

1 861 W. Gillespy London

i86.i D. McDougall Toronto

1863 D. Wylie Toronto

1S64 Thomas White Belleville

1865 Mackenzie Bo well Brockville

1866 Thomas Sellar Montreal

18G7 J. A. Campbell Goderich

1868 William Biickiiigham..Collingwood

1 86:; D. W) lie Cobourg

187 J E. Jackson Brantford

187 1 James Somervillo Toronto

1872 John Cameron Bracebridge

1S73 Rev. W. F. Clarke London

1874 H. Hough Toronto

1875 John Cameron Hamilton

1876 C. D. Barr Toronto

1877 James Innes Toronto

1878 James Shannon G uelph

1 879 A. Matheson Ki ngston

1 880 J . B. Traycs Toronto

1881 E. J. B. Pense Port Hope

1 882 George Tye Toronto

18S3 C. B. Robinson Montreal

1884 G. R. Pattullo Toronto

1885 J. A. Davidson Toronto

1886 William Watt, Jr Toronto

18S7 ..J. J. Crabbe Toronto

iSSd E. H. Dewart. D.D Toronto

i88y Roy V. Somerviile Toronto

1890-91 .\ndrew Pattullo Toronto

1892 H. P. Moore Ottawa

1893 A. F. Pirie Toronto

1894 T. H. Preston Toronto

1895 L. W. Shannon Toronto

iSq6 J. S. Brierley Toronto

1S97 J. B, MacLean Toronto

Manitoba and the North-West. On the 28lh of
December, 1859, William Buckingham, an Eng-
lish and Ontario journalist of experience, and
William Coldwell of the Toronto Leader, estab-
lished at the Red River Settlement the pioneer
newspaper in all the vast region between Lake

i '

CANADA; AN ENCYCLOP/F.DIA.

aji

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Superior ami the Pacific — The So/ -Wester. That
country was then in the early stages of its colon-
ization and the difficulties were very great, liut
the little paper began with spirit. T. D'Arcy
McGee. though it was not known at the time,
acted as its Ottawa correspondent ; George Shep-
pard, who then had a very high reputation as a
journalist, was a contributor, and F. W. Chesson
was its English correspondent. Conflicts arose,
however, with the Hudson's Bf>y Company and
the paper soon found itself at war with the rulers
though supported by the people — the latter a
slight factor in that region and at that time. In
1862 Mr. Buckingham returned to Ontario and
soon after Mr. Coldwell gave up his share in the
enterprise to Dr. (afterwards Sir John) Scluiltz
who, with James Ross, carried it on for a couple
of years. From 1864 and through the stormy
days of 1869-70 Dr. Schultz continued to issue it
himself at intervals. For a short time afterwards
it was in the hands of Dr. Bown. The New
Nation, edited by an American named fl. M.
Robinson, was a Fort Garry product of the first
Riel Rebellion and the organ of that movement.
Thomas Spcnce, of Portage La Prairie, afterwards
edited it for some years. The Manituban was a
weekly paper published in 1872 by Messrs. Cold-
well and Cunningham, and Le Metis was an organ
of the Half-breeds, established in 1S70 by Joseph
Royal, afterwards Lieut. -Governor of the Terri-
tories and edited by him for some years. In
1872 it became Le Manitoba, and still exists
edited by E. Trudel. The first daily in Winni-
peg was the Herald, but it lasted for only a few
months of the year 1877. A similar fate befell
the Manitoba Tele^^iaph, also a journalistic venture
by Walter R. Nursey.

The Free Press (1872) is the only survival of
those stirring days, but its influence is consider-
able in the Province and its position solid.
Through his establishment of this paper and his
position as its Chief Editor during twenty-one
years, William Fisher Luxton stands out as the
most prominent personality in Manitoban jour-
nalistic history. In February 1894 he founded
the Daily Nor'-Wester — now known as the Ti;/c-
graiii and a'^i the Conservative organ in the Prov-
ince— but only remained in charge a few months.
In 1890 Mr. Robert Lome Riclianlst)ii, after

being connected with the Winnipeg Sun for some
eight years, established the Daily Tribune, which
has since become the special organ of Manitoba
Liberalism and the champion of "National"
schools. Various other papers have been started
from time to time and many changes have
occurrcil in Winnipeg journalism as in that of
every large city. The naiiu s of David K. Brown,
F. E. Molyueux St. John, F. C. Wade, George
H. Ham, Arch. McNee, Acton Burrows, T, H.
Preston, Amos Rowe, C. R. Tiittle, A. J. Mc-
Gurn and Thomas A. Bell may be mentioned.
In the Province generally there are a number of
excellent weeklies growing steadily with the
growth of the towns and villages.

In what is now the North-West Territories the
first paper established seems to have been the
Saskatchewan Herald, of Battleford, by P. G,
Laurie, in 1878. John Livingston was for some
years Editor of the Calgary Herald, But the
chief name in the journalism of these great
regions and one of the brightest in the press of
all Canada is that of Nicholas Flood Davin. An
orator in the highest sense, a writer of beautiful
and vigourous English, an author of established
reputation, and a well-known politician, his has
indeed been a most interesting career. Founder
of the Regina Leader in 1883 he was its Editor
and proprietor until very lately. John J. Young
of the Calgary Herald, and John K. Mclnnis, of
the Regina Standard, must also be mentioned.

British Columbia. Although possessing even
now a very small population in comparison with
its area British Columbia, has, probably, in pro-
portion to its inhabitants more newspapers than
any other Province of the Dominion. Isolated as
the Pacific Coast was until the completion of the
Canadian Pacific Railway, there was but a scanty
population to be found then within its borders,
and that was located chiefly on the seaboard, the
greater portion being in Victoria and New West-
minster. From the rush of miners in the fifties
into the Cariboo district, and until the completion
of the Canadian Pacific Railway and the founda-
tion of the City of Vancouver, the people of Brit-
ish Columbia dipeiulcd to a great extent for their
news of tlie outer world — at least for more com-
plete details than could be obtained from brief
piLSS despatches — upon the newspapers of San

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CANADA: AN KNCVCLOP.KDIA.

!■«•

1

t'i

Francisco, U.S.A., with which place there was
regular aiul fretiiicnt communication by steamer.
Tiiis dependence on aiul close intimacy with San
Francisco had results which remain apparent in
many ways, iuthou^jh new conditiotis brought
about by the completion of the Railway and by
the influx of people from Eastern Canada, are
rapiilly obliterating these indications of the old
order. In no field, perhaps, is this change more
marked tiian in that of journalism.

The first newspaper published on ti.e British
Pacific coast was one at Victoria in 1857. It was
printed from a French font of type on an old-
fashioned I-'rench hand-press. The Hisiiop of
the Catholic Diocese, a French-Canadian, was
the promoter of the enterprise, and Comte Paul
de Garro, who left I'rance after the coup d'etat of
1851, was the Editor, It was printed in the
French language, and lived for only two or three
months. The next publication was in May, 1858,
when Messrs. Whitton and Towne, two Ameri-
cans, started the Victoria (razelte. This was fol-
lowed a month later by the Vancouver Island
Gazette, published by Fretierick Marriott which,
however, only existed for a month, being followed
to the journalistic graveyard by its predecessor
in December, 1858. The next newspaper to ap-
pear (Dec, 1S58) was the British Colonist which,
under the latter part of the name, has remained
in the field until the present time. It was origin-
ally edited and managed by the late Hon. Amor de
Cosmos— a noted pioneer politician and journalist
of the Province. Me remained in harnessuntil 1S66,
when he was succeeded by Mr. D. W. Higgins,
who conducted the paper during the next twenty
years. Some of those associated with this
veteran journalist of British Columbia, or succeed-
ing him in editorial control of the journal, were
the late Hon. John Robson (1869-75), afterwards
Premier of the Province, Leonard McClure, the
Hon. Rocke Robertson, Walford Harris, A. Bell,
William Mitchell, J. M. O'Brien and Henry
Lawson — for periods varying from some years to
several months. Mr. Charles H. Lugrin is the
present Editor.

Between 1858 and the present time many other
newspapers have been established in Victoria but
have passed away after a brief existence. Among
them maybe mentioned the Pos/ (William McDou-

gall 1880-2), l'elif^ra/>h, Express, TeUf^ram, Herald,
and Globe. The Standard was an exce{)tion and
lasted twenty years. The Times wiis establisiied in
1884, is still in existence, and gives eviileiice of
prosperity and iidluence. In 1859 Joim Robson
started the Ihitish Columbian on the Mainland.
It still survives in New Westminster as the Co/-
«H»i/rt;»(i886). It was followed inthat town by the
Herald and the Times ixniXm the nineties by the
Guardian, the Truth and {\\^lLcdl;cr, all of which
lasted a short time and then collapsed. At Mark-
erville the famous Cariboo Sentinel was published
by George Wallace and paid well during the
years of tiie placer mining excitement. The In-
land Sentinel, started in 1880, is now the oKlestof
these Interior newspapers. In Vancouver the
Ti'lei^'ram, 1890-3, was for some time a formidable
evening competitor with other journals but ulti-
mately had to succumb. On the Island the Tree
Press, established at Nanaimo in 1874, has had a
prosperous career. At Rossiand and other places
creditable mining journals have sprung up in late
years.

The /)fno««c/ of British Columbian journalism
is interesting. Senator William Templeman, in
the Province of to-day, has combined politics with
journalism. Coming from Ontario in 1SS4 hi
became connected with the Victoria Times, of
which he has been Editor and is now chief pro-
prietor. The present Editor is Thomas L. Gra-
hame — a rising young journalist. The Hon. F.
Carter-Cotton, M.p.p., is the only Canadian editor
holding a Cabinet position. He helped in 1887
to found the News-Advertiser of Vancouver by
the amalgamation of the two papers bearing these
names, with the //<rniW, and has since then edited
the paper with much success. John Campbell
McLagan, after being Editor of the Victoria
Times for four years, founded in 1888 the Van-
couver M'orW, which to-day is a large and pros-
perous paper. Arthur H. Scaife, founder of the
Province (1894) in Vancouver — a high class liter-
ary weekly ; Walter C. Nichol, now Editor of
ihe Daily Province mWcioudi; and R. E. Gos-
nell, a well known writer upon Provincial topics ;
are the remaining principal names in British
Columbian journalism.

Canadian Magazines. The monthly and
weekly journals of Canada, as distinguished

'i.

CANADA : AN ENCYCL0Pi1i:i)IA.

233

from newspapers, liave been as many a3 the
sands on tliu sea-shure. They haye been of all
kinds — literary, prufcssional, comic, scientitic,
reiifjioiis and educational. They have come and
gone like snow-llakes m the early spring-time.
Some have been interesting, some important,
some authoritative, some only of use as indicat-
ing to the historian the passing follies of an hour
or the honourable weakness of some ambitious
publisher. Yet the most of them have done good
in their way and nearly all have emlxKlied —
though sometimes feebly — an effort at the incul-
cation of Canadian sentiment or the promotion
of some Canadian interest. In the Maritime
Provinces the first one of which I can obtain
any trace was tUu Nova Scotia Magazine, published
at Halifax in 1789. The Quebec Ma^^aziue in
1791-3 was followed by L'Abeile Canadicuiie in
1S1S-19. Then came the Canadian Ma^a~ine,
published in Montreal in 1S23 and of which some
four volumes were issued ; the Canadian Review,
edited by Dr. A. J. Christie and issuing some-
what at random during 1824-6 ; the Bibliotlu'que
Canadiennc, first published at Montreal in 1S25;
and the Canadian Ma<;azine, issued at York (To-
ronto) in 1833 ^"d of which only a few raimbers
seem to have appeared. The following table
gives a list of most of the important magazines or
journals of a literary character which have
appeared since that period in British America,
with the date of establishment :

Name.

Bibliotheque Canadienne

Continued as :
L'Observateur

Continued as :

Magazin du Bas Canada

Acadian Magazine or Literary

Mirror

Canadian Literary Magazme...

Canadian Magazine

Literary Garland

Monthly Review

Encyclopaidie Canadienne

Revue Canadienne :

Journal Scientifique et LittcS-
raire

Place
of
Publicalion.

Date
of Halab-
lishiiient

Montreal 1825

Montreal 1830

Montreal 1832

Halifax 1826

York 1833

York 1833

Montreal 1838

Montreal 1841

Montreal 1842

Montreal 1845

Album Litteraircet Musicalede

la Revue Canadienne Montreal 1846

Barker's Canadian Magazine.. Kingston 184G

Snow Drop Montreal 1.S47

Victoria Magazine Belleville 1847

Repertoire National Montreal 1848

Maple Leaf. Montreal 1852

Upper Canada Journal Toronto 1852

The Provincial or Halifax

Monthly Magazine Halifax 1852

British Colonial Magazine Toronto iiS53

La Ruche Litteraire et Pol-
itique Montreal 1853

British American Journal Montreal i860

Soirees Canadiennes Ouebec r>S6i

Continued as :

Nouvelles S irces Cana-
diennes Quebec 1 882

British Canadian Review 1862

British American Magazine. ...Toronto 1863

British American Toronto 1S63

Foyer Canadien Ouebec 1863

Canadian Quarterly Review. ..Toronto 1863

Canadian Patriot Montreal 1864

Revue Canadienne Montreal 1S64

L'Echo de la France Montreal 1865

L'Echo du Cabinet de Lecture

Paroissial Montreal r S65

Saturday Reader Montreal 18O5

New Dominion Monthly Montreal 1867

Canadian Illustrated News Montreal 1S69

Canadian Literary Journal Toronto 1870

Canadian Magazine Toronto 187 1

Canadian Monthly and Na-
tional Review Toronto 1872

Continued as :

Belford's Monthly Magazine. ..Toronto 1877

Continued as :
Rose- Belford's Canadian and

National Review Toronto i S78

Maritime Monthly St. John 1873

Nation Toronto 1 874

Foyer Domestique Ottawa 1876

Revue de Montreal Montreal 1877

Canadian Independent Maga-
zine Toronto 1S79

Album des Families Ottawa 1880

Canadien Illustre Montreal 1881

Grand Annuaire de Ouebec. ..Quebec 1S81

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«34

CANADA: AN ENCYCl,0P.1<:i>IA.

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Week Toronto 1 88.}

Lu Luiitci'itu Montreal i88.|

Arcliinis Toronto 1887

Canaila Francais Quebec 1888

Land We Live In Sherbronkt; ..,1888

Dominion Illustrated Montreal i>S88

Hystander Toront( 1 1 88g

Canadiana Montreal 1 88(j

Canada licnton l8(ji

YoiiiiR Canadian Montreal i.S()r

Dominion IllustratedMonthly. Montreal i.S(jj

Lake MaRazine Toronto 1892

The Manitoban Winnipi-j; i.S()j

Canadian Magazine Toronto iS(){

Tlie Province Victoria iSt)-|

Bulletin dcs Kcclierclies His-

toriques Levis i^US

Revue Nationale Montreal iS((5

Courrier dn Livre Quebec iNijO

Dominion Review Toronto i8()6

Massey's Maj^azine Toronto iS(/)

With certain exceptions these periodicals ave-
ra^'ed one, two, or three volumes. The I.ileiary
Garland was an exceptionally able journal and
lived at least thirteen years. The Kcvuc Caiia-
dieiiuc was published diiriup the years 18G4-87.
The Canadian Illnslraled News was a weekly
illustrated paper of considerable excellence which
lasted until 1S83 ami proniisrd at one time to
permanently overcome the difticulties of Cana-
dian publishing in this connection. The Canadian
Monthly, under its different names and Editors —
amonj,'st the latter bciiij^ G. Mercer Adam and
Geor^'e Stewart — lasted a decade and did splen-
did service to Canadian literature. Of the Week
it is difficult to speak without re<^ret. A literary
paper of hij;h character under its various Editors
— diaries G. D. Roberts, Philip Robinson, J. 11.
Menzies, John G. Robinson, Mis. J. W. I'. Har-
rison, R. W. Arnot, T. E. Mobeily and J. G.
Carter Troop — it died at last from want of popu-
lar support after fourteen yeais of strujjgle and
at a time when public opinion and development
had readied the stafje when such a journal mif,dit
have been expected to meet with assiirc'd success.

Of the present Canadian .\[a^a::ine—{heic have
been at least three others of the same name — its
eleven volumes show what can be done in Canada
to promote a healthy, independent public tone, to

encourage native literature, and to help the
study of Canadian history by the publication of
a magazine which aitns at a national character
and success. Its founder and first ICditor, Mr.
|. Gordon Mowat, deserves therefore to be held
in remembrance, while his successor, Mr. John
A. Cooper, has proved himself able to greatly
increase the value of the niaf^a/ine and the pros-
perity of the undertaking. Ami this despite the
intense competition of cheaper American maga-
zines. Amongst other modern joinnals s|)ecial
reference must be made to two — Steuail's Quar-
terly and the Maritime Monthly. The former was
established at St. John, N.H., in April, iSf);, and
was founded and edited by Dr. George Stijwart.
It commenced with the birth of the Dominion
but lasted only until January, 1872. The chief
contributors besides Dr. Stewart were James
Hannay, Dr. Mos( s Harvey, W. P. Dole, H. L.
Spencer, the poets McLauhlan, McColl and Mur-
doch, A. A. Stockton, Hon. William Elder and
J. M. LeMoine. D'Arcy McGee wrote his last
artido for this magazine. It was succeeded,
practically, by the Maritime Month'y, first issued
on January i, 187J. This magazine was edited
by the Rev. James liennet until March, 1874
when it passed into the hands of the *' Maritime
Monthly Club," consisting of the late Lieutenant-
Governor John Hoyd, Hiram Ladd Spencer, John
McMillan, A. A. Stockton, LI..I)., Judge Ezekiel
McLeod, the Rev. J. Bennet, J. N. Wilson and
T. M. Robinson. Mr. Spencer was appointed
Editor. Its publication was suspended in Feb-
ruary, 187G, the patronage being inadequate.
Among its principal contributors wore Dr. Daniel
Clark, of Ontario, Hunter Duvar, of Prince Ed-
ward Island, Dr. Moses Harvey, of Newfound-
land, Dr. A. A. Stockton and Miss Mary Barry
Smith. The New Brunswick Magazine, now
(i8c)(j) in Its second volume, is a high-class histo-
rical journal edited by Mr. W. K. Reynolds.

Of magazines or weekly journals devoted to
special subjects something must be s:iid about
the comic papers of Canada. Canadians are a
soiiifwliat serious people — or were in earlier days
— and their literature of this nature has not been
large. Now, the wit and hiuiiour of the country
comes chiefly from New Yt)rk. Elven Punch is
neglected in favour of the peculiarities of Ameri-

CANADA : AN KNCYCLOI'.KIJlA, t||

can liiiiiiuiir. Its niitiicsaku, however, untitled Mcii^oii^'h and, iiiitd 1892, wan editcil l)y liiiii
Punch in ( aiuula, tloiirishcd in 1841^ in Montreal, with distinct altility utui succchs which, perhaps,
Tlie7'7)'sA«Mvas an ( plu'ineial protlnctionof 1.S58. would have been greater had the cartoons not
In the same year the Citumhhr was estahlisheil been so one-sided politically. In ifi')4 the paper
in Toronto by Mr. lirasiiis Winian. Its partis ceased to exist. Mr. lieiifjouKh's cartoons hive
were contributed to by W. J. Kattray, James Mc- since been a popular lealiire of the Montreal Star
Carroll, the cl.verwrittr of "The Terry l'iiinef,'an and Toronto Clnbe. Saniiu-l Hunter of the
Leiturs," Clarke TyniT and other biij,'hl join- Toronto M'fO'Whas i>f late years won a reputation
nalists of the tiiiu". In i.S6j it j)assud into the of the highest in this connttction, while K. 1*".
hands of Mr. J. Ross Kcjbertson, but only lasted Staples of the Toronto Tclcf^ram has e.xhihited a
until lS()4 when its proprietor joined the staff of certain form of hiiinoiir in his cartoons which is
the (»/ii/»«r. A lival iliniiij; about 18 months of inimitable. In 1886 the Arrow was started in
1 85(j-r)0 was /'(jAvi, edited by the late Chief Jus- Toronto as a satirical jonmal, but did not last
tice Robert A. Harrison. James MiC'arioll at a ioiif,'. The same fate overtook Tarot in the year
later period started the Latchkey, and William i8()f). The 7'' riY L<j/(c« was founded in Montreal
llalley established the I'ick, but neither outlived by (ieor^'e T. Lanijjan. It had some clever con-
the GrumhUr. tributors and listed for two or three years follow-
No distinctively and avowedly comic news- iiij; iSf)H. Diof^eiics was contemporary in part
papers have appeared in Halifax, save a few with the Free Lance, \n\t lasted loii^'er. It was
eplu'iiieral sheets devoted to electioneering lam- act ivel\' supported by William Workman, Mayor
poons. The Bullfrog (1864-5), a critical and liter- of Montreal, who wrote for it under the name of
ary weekly, controlled by sonn; oOicers of the " (iriiichuckle." Geor{,'e Murray, Alfred Uailey,
Garrison, had a number f)f caustic and witty Geor<,'e Hiirden and others also contributed to
contributions. The same may be said of The its columns. In the capital of Manitoba the
Critic in its earlier years, one of whose contribii- Wimiipeg Siftiuf^a spent its day of passing
utors (" Snarler ") afterwards transferred his brightness, and in far-away British Columbia
" Snaps and Scraps " to The Dominion Illustrated, the Scorpion and then Uie Comet had, in late years,
But the funniest paper issued in Halifax was the a brief career un<ler the initiative of Mr. John
Mayjhnter, which was started in 1871 as a speci- Fannin.

ally serious and edifying paper and two years To give lists of medical, educational, religious,

later was converted by its purchaser, F. H. scientific, and other special journals of the last

Baker, into a flippant, caustic and rather riscjur hundreil years in Canada might be interesting to

periodical. .After attaining an exceptionally a few, but would be certainly difficult and hardly

large circulation it suspended in 18S1, its down- appropriate or necessary. Some of the best

fall being largely due to Mr. Baker's printing a known of the religious journals still living in

series of argumentive articlesagainst Christianity i8g8 may, however, be mentioned here:

which disaiipointed the majority of his readers Christian Guardian Toronto.... iS^g

(who bought his paper for his (juips alone) and Presbyterian Witness Halifax 1848

which offemied all who had any belief in or ^i^^^^y""^^'^ Montreal ..1S50

r ^, ,,, . . f -.1 ' « *i IheWesleyan Halifax i,S5o

respect fur the Christian faith. Among the Canadian Baptist Toronto.... i,S54

many humourous contributors to the Halifax Congregationalist do 1N54

daily press have been David Faulkner, who wrote Canadian Methodist Magazine... do i,S;5

frequently for T/i£! //cnj/./ under the nam de plume Canadian Churchman do 1S75

of" \dain Smith"; S. \\ Scott (while Editor of Bresuyterian Record Nloiitieal... 1876

., .,, , ., ., ... Ml r 1 .. Evangelical CliiircliuKin 1 oronto.... 1S76

the .V.n/) and "Susie Kane who parodied very Catholic Record London ....1878

lau-^hably in The Echo the vanities and frivolities Canadian 1-Veeman Kingston... 1SS4

of the Halifax society writers. Catholic Register Toronto.... iSyj

In May, 1S7J, the chief of Canada's comic The Westminster do 1896

papers was founded in Toronto by Mr. J. \V. Some of the earlier religious journals were the

'• 0 IT I

•3*

CANADA: AN KNCVCIOP mi A.

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Chrisliiiii lieionlfr at York (Tiiri)nto)iii i.Siij; the
CItnstiiiii ScHliiitl ut Moiitruul in iNj; ; the
CliutJiDhOi's licmcmhraiuer at York in the saiiio
)i'iir; lite Ciilhulic, cst.iblislicil at Kiii^ston in
l8jo; the Cmiiula lUifitist Maf^azine, Htartod in
Montreal in iSj7 ; the CMUiilian Christian l'.\aiiii-
tier at Niagara in the same yvAX. The jonniiil of
I'.iUication for Uppir C".anaila,estal)hsh»'<i in iS.jS,
anil that for Lower Canada, fonniled in 1H57,
lasted for a innnber of years witli >;riat IxneCit to
that particular national interest. Similar joiunals
still exist in Toronto, Halifax, St. John and
Montreal. \n early agricultural paper wai the
(\iiuiJiiin .I/,'»;V;(//h)7s/, established at Torontr -n
iN.jij, anil wliicii lasted till l^'i.}, ;ind perhaps
later. Another was the Fanner's yotirnal, of Mont-
real, foinided in 1S47, and still in existence in
iSHi). Tiic Upper Canada J»m7 was starteil in
1S44, th(! Lower Canail.-i paper of the same name
in iNfKS. The Canada Law Journal of Toronto
was established in 1.S55, The " Canadian journal
of Medical Science" was first pul)iislied in To-
lonto in iN^O, and was continuccl as the Cii/Mi/nni
Practitioner in i^f^.j. The Dominion Medical
Miintldy was started in 'I'oronto in I'^^'jJ, and the
Montreal Medical Journal in 1S72. They are
still living,'. A mass of other journals exist, deal-
iiifj with mininfj, numismatics, architecture, elec-
tririt\', en^'ineerinj,', entomolojjy, natural history.
Masonry, anh.'eolofjy, and a myriad of other
subjects, but it would serve no useful purpose to
mention them further.

Journalists of a special subject, rather than of
the general press, have fo:nd a distinct place
m Canada as have journals of the same type.
The names of F. S. Spence and W. W. Buchan-
an in connection with the Temperance question ;
Edward Trout, James Hedley and M. S. Foley
in financial journalism ; Rev. Dr. E. II. Dewart,
Rev. |. A. Macdonald, Rev. Dr. W. H. Withrow
and m.-'.ny others in relif,Mous journalism ; E. B.
Biggar and J. J. Cassidy in the realm of indus-
trial activity ; are cases in point at the present
time. In the journalism of other communities,
as in general literature, Canadians have also been
distinguished. James Creelman, the famous war
correspondent ; Josepli Medill, one of the great
names in United States journalism — a founder,
proprietor and present Editor of the Chicago

Tribune ; Alexamler Edwin Sweet, founder of
the cclebratetl Texas Si/tin^^'i; Janie§ Jeffrey
Roche, Editor since i>Si)o of the Boston /'/7i>/ —
perhaps the chief oigan of iri^h opinion in the
Republic: the IIoii. Stephen Stockwell, one-time
I'.dilor of the Boston Journal; Daniel Logan, the
leading journalist in the lliwaiian Islands;
Joseph Albert W'heelock, foiuuler and Editor-in-
Chief of the St. I'aul I'ress since iNGi ; Alexander
Slasiin Thompson, editorially connei ted with
many American papers from time totime and one
of the ioimders of the Chicago Herald; Andrew
Miller, founder and proprietor of New York Life ;
E. W. Tiiomson, Associate-Iulitor of the Boston
Youths' Companion ; Henry Beckles Willson of
the London Daily Mail : and P. G. McArthnr of
the New York Truth, are all Canadians liy birth.
Siimm.irizing the situation it is easy to feel satis-
fied with the position and character of Canadian
journalism — cmier perhaps than to point out the
deficiencies already referred to and which may be
giiieralizid in the stiitement that there is at times
an absence ofrel'inement in style and language, of
dignity in head-lines, typography, etc, and of
strict regard for accuracy where a political point
may be made. Beginning in many cases without
satisfactory education or training the newspaper
men of pioneer days in Canada had great diffi-
culties to encounter. There is now, however, no
lack of ordinary education and the position is
steadily improving. Where the trouble does ex-
ist it probably comes from a natural inclination to
imitate certain tendencies in the American press.
Upon the whole, however, the press of Canada is a
great influence for good citizenship and higher
ideals. The leading journals are well written,
increasingly moderate in tone, surprisingly non-
sectarian for a country of divided religions, high-
ly moral in principle, fairlv free from external

sensaticmalism
material p. 181!
ing-

enabl a st.o.

LoikI

be added that the
> is steadily improv-
n I to be hoped will soon
: ex| .ise of a Canadian news
and a cable service distinct
from that of til United States. The daily aver-
age circulation jf the Toronto Globe in 1897 is
given as 31,314 and that of the Mail I Empire
as 23,020 ; while in Montreal that of ; I'resse is
stated at 54,833 and of the Star a! .1.

CANADA; AM KNCVCI.OIVKDI A.

»37

The |>.ist has bcoii ii loii^ titrii^');lo a^.iiiiut uA- iiiarkc^l by aliiioHt every ulciiiuiit nf pro^^n.'ss in a

verse ciicuiiistaiK IS aii<l diiiiiiiUii'S only P'Hsiblc; ri;^'ht ilitectioii. The riit'iiic Imlils out tlu; piuH-

in a new country Imnlcrin^' for thn-u tlnMiHainl |)i!rt of a presn wliich aUall moio uuJ nioro |)ri)ve

miles n|)i)ii tliu poHHi!!<<<ioi)<i of ii i^ruat national a lainp to lif;lit tlio way to tha lii^heHt iiiul bvHt

cumpctitur and alien iniUiencu. The present is development of national uml individual lift!.

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WiliMin Wlltriid Campbell.

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238

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOPif-DIA.

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Literature and Journalism— Editor's Note. To

Uic Marquess of Duffcrin and Ava Canada owes
Miiich, and not tlie hast of his services was the
contribution to its literature of those inimitable
orations which have become classics to every
student of Canadian development. Some of
Lord Dufferin's poems have also fcund a fitting
place in compilations of Canadian verse. The
Marquess of Lome hai written much about Can-
ada— notably his volume of poetry and remin-
iscences published shortly after he left its shores.
In conn(,'ction with our I'rench literature the
names of James Donnelly and William Chapman
may be mentioned — French despite their names.
Writers of occasional poems are, of course, innum-
I'rable. A few more might be mentioned here. M.
I'AbbeN. Canin, J. II. Uowe.-^, Mrs. W. N.Clarke,
K.J. Devlin, Imi iei ic:k.\. Dixon, Eutlore Evanturel,
Pierre Falcon, L. J. C. Fiset, Ach-lle Frechette,
W. M. FiiUi.T, Alfri'd Garneau, J. II. Garnier,
M. I'Abbe Appnlliiiaise Gingras, M. J. Griffin, A.
\V. Gundiy, Joseph Le Noir, J. K. Listun, K.
Rutland Manners, M. J. Marsilo, Mary J. McColl,
Mary Mclver, Dominiciue Mondelet, Hon. M.
A. Plamandon, Franeis Rye, K. lihun Saint
Aubin, Samuel J. Watson, G. W. Wicksteed and
Sir Daniel Wilson have all written poetry of more
or li'ss merit — some of it deserving a permanent
place in on." literature.

The recently retired Chief Justice of Ontario,
Sir John Haj^arty, wrote isolated poems in his
younger days wiiich rank with some of tlie best
in ci!ir language— notably the '' b'uneral of Napo-
leon I." and "The Sea, the Sea". W. A. Ste-
phens, of Owen Sound, is said by the Rev. W.
Wye Smith to have written the first volume of
poetry published (1S06) in Upper Canada. In
Canadian journalism a special place is held by
the late Joiiii Maclean, both as one of the origina-
tors of the National Policv idea and as being a
prominent newspaper man in Hamilton and
Toronto. James Somerville, who established

the Dundas True Banner', Patrick Boyle, who so
long edited the Irish Camulitin ; John Fraser,
who as " Cousin Sandy " was so well and wiilely
known on the Canadian press; and Ale.Nanler
W. Wriglu, who, as Fditor of the Gueljih llcraUl,
the Oraugeville Sun and the Stratford Herald
made a name for himself before he went into
politics and the labour movement — should be also
mentioned in aiu' reviewof ourjournalistichistor\-.
Canadian works of value are yearly increasing
in number. \'ery recently the Thorold and
lieaverdam's Historical Society issued a dis-
tinctly useful Jubilee History of Thoruhl. The
Rev. Dr. George 15r\ee, of Winnipeg, in 1898,
published a vohime dealing with John lilack, the
Apostle of the Red Rit'er. Mr. Edward .Marion Chad-
wick, of T.ironto, who has devoted so much tune
and study to Canadian genealogical research and
to the history of the Indians, completed in the
same year his valuable work upon Ontarian
FiUiiilies; and issued also an interesting volume
dealing with the Iroquois and entitled "The
People of the Long House." The Hon. Archer
Martin, a Juiige of the Supreme Court of lliitish
Columbia, published an elaborate treatise upon
tlie Hudson's 15ay Company's Land Tenures;
while Mr. John R. Cartwright issued the fifth
volume of his important work describing the
cases decided on the British North America
Act of 1.S67, by the Privy Council, the Supreme
Court of Canada and the Provincial Courts. Mr.
R. E. Kingsford, of Toronto, published some
)ears since an adaptation of Blackstone to
Ontario Courts, and a work upon "Evidence";
and very lately one upon the Ontario law relat-
ing to Land and Tenant. Mr. J. G. Ridout in
I1S94 published his Treatise on the Patent Luw of
Canada. Dr. S. E. Dawson, of Ottawa, has
recently issued a most valuable work upon Cana-
dian Geography ; and the Rev. Dr. T. A. Hig-
gins has very lately published a Life of J. M.
Cramp, D.D.

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SECTION III.

• ^:

THE CHIEF CITIES OF CANADA.

■I I

THE ANNALS OF QUEBEC CITY

11 y

SIK JAMES MACPHERSON Le MOINE, F.R.S.C.

i . i

I "I

AS the sent of French I'^iupirc in Anicrica
for a centnry and inoio ; as tlio subse-
quent fortalice of I'lnf,'lish Dominion in
British America ; and as the i<ey of the
St. Lawrence; Quebec must ever possess interest of
no ordmary kind. The Grande Merc of Canadian
cities, her story from litr birth, in 1608, to her
mature years, is dear to her sons, ami is alive
with thrilUng, dramatic incidents for the scroll of
the historian, the lyre of the poet, or the nia^ic
pen of the novelist. For more than one hundred
and fifty years the history of (.)uebec is tlie history
of Canada. The mere annals of her five sie;;es
— 1629 — 1690 — 1759 — 1760 — 1775 — would till sev-
eral volumes and still the secrets of her sucresses
and reverses would not be all told. Hoary-
crowned, erect on her sentinel hill, she still
guards the portal of Canada. Pointing with one
arm towards the mysterious decrees of a destiny
which has associated her struggles with the inter-
national history of a whole continent, and with
the other, towards the no less mysterious decrees
of her fiit'Tc, she looms out in picturesepie,
soleriin guise on the pages of Canadian history.
The traditional rivalry of France and England
in the New World of the past lives on every stone
of her mural crown. I have stated she had to
undergo hve sieges, and will here briefly nuiition
them. Unfortified, unprovided with a garrison, or
military and other stores, Quebec, in her infancy
was starved into submission by an English Ad-
miral, in 1629, ^"<i afterwards, handed back to
France by the English monarch, Charles the
First, in order to propitiate his beloved cousin,
the French King, and induce him to make good
the balance of his Queen, Henrietta Maria's
dowry — some 400,000 French crowns of which
he seemed much in need. We then find Cham-
plain's cherished fort struggling through endless
Indian wars and suffering under dire colonial

It!

241

misrule — denied civil and religious liberty, and a
prey to grin ling monopolitis.

In iG()0, her scanty population is again called
to arms. Soon she finds she can depend less on
her old guns and rddimeiitary fortifications than
on her chivalrous sons, lei-1 on liy an indomitable
soldier — sturdy old I'rontenac (Juebec proudly
defies her formidable New-England foes and
their thirty-four big ships of war at anchor under
her battlements. Subsequently fighting her sav-
age foes, the Redskins, New France, despite
absolutism in church and state, thrusts her
soldiers far beyond her border down the fertile
Ohio valley — to reap glory where her enemy,
England, meets with many early defeats.

Then we have the great siege of 1759 and
many yet believe that had Quebec been suitably
garrisoned and provisioned, Montcalm, the hero
of a hundred tights, could have held out until
succour came from oblivious France. In 1760,
another siege, less protracted, followed: the fierce-
ly contested second battle of the Plains of
Abraham, generally known as the battle of Ste.
Foye — a French victory. It enabled the dis-
pirited French to shake hands with the lucky
British before bidding adieu to the grand pageant
of French Dominion, thus closed so suddenly on
the shores of the St. Lawrence. What a loss it
was !

" The French " as Francis Parkman well
observes, " had claimed all America from the
Alleghanies to the Rocky Mountains and from
Mexico and Florida to the North Pole — except
only the ill-defined possessions of the English on
the border of the Hudson Bay." This illimit-
able vista of Empire suddenly collapsed. Had
not the great statesman William Pitt vowed to
eject France from the continent of North
America ? and was he not as good as his word ?
New Englanders would henceforth sleep in peace

'It:

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-'■I-'

CANADA: AN KNCNCI.OIMCDIA.

--witliotit fi-nr of niiiIniL,'lit raid iind sralnin^'
ojHTatimis ii\ni\ l"rciu:li Canada. Tin; names of
Ilcrlcli, ConrtcmaiicliL', ami l^oiinciif niifjlit }■ t
cause ni,L,'litinai('s at Schenectady, DcL-rsliild,
Salmon I'ali-^ -hat thiir d.iy of ai-tion was past.
The conquest of Canada hy ICtiijIand, as Lowell
once said, had made practicahle the American
Uepiibhc h\ removing' a powerful enemy and
ncij^lihour whom l!n;,dand alone wasahle to master.
The KuLjlish conquest was the grand crisis of
Canadian history. It was the bei^'inninj,' of a new
life. England, as I'arUman says, imposed b\' the
sword on reluctant Canada the boon of rational
and ordered liberty. Struggling, starving, de-
serted, New I'Vanre had at last been forcibly lifted
from IJourbon misrule, and corruption, and the
l>igf)t r(!gime. W'ltli the brilliant Ijiograplier of
Montcalm and Wolfe I may add " A happier cal-
I'nity never befell a people than the concpiest of
Canada by British arms."

The fierce sieges of 1759 and 17G0 were indeed
memorable epochs in the annals of ^Juebec, but
the sturdy old fortress had yet other trials and
other trium()hs before her. The year 1775, which
liie French Canadians still designate a^ I'annce
terrible dcs Bostoniuiis, had in store dark days —
moments of supreme alarm followed by the wel-
come and victorious salute of the city guns in the
streets and devious by-ways of tlie blockaded
town. Count I'rontenac, in i()()0 was proclaimed
the Saviour of New l*"r,ince. In 1775, Ciuy Carle-
ton was awarded, and rightlv so, tlir prou<l title
of Saviour of Quebec. The Hon. V. J. O.
Chauveau, past President of the Royal Society
of Canada, thus recalls the martial memories of
this historical city and its picturesque environs :
" History everywhere — around us, beneath us,
from the depths of yonder valleys, from the top
of that mountain, history rises up and presents
itself to our notice, exclaiming, "Behold me!"
Beneath us, among the caj)riciou5 meanders of
the River St. Charles, the Cahir-Coubat of
Jacques Cartier, is the very place where he first
planted the cross and hei ' "^he first conference
with the Seigneur Donnacona. Here, very near
to us, beneath a vemrable elm tree, which with
much regret we =' . cut down, tradition states that
Ciiamplain hrst r;>iscd his tent. From the very
spot on which we now stand, Count de I'^rontenac

returncMJ to Admiral Phipps, that proud answer
as he said ' from the mouth of his ca men,'
wliich will always remain recortled by history.
Under these ramparts are sjjread the plains on
which fell Wollc, and where in the following
year, the Chevalier (\r Levis and General Murray
fought that other bitlle. in memory of which the
citizens of (.hiebec are erecting (in 1M54) a men-
unient.

" Before us on the heights o. Beauport the
souvenirs of battles not less heroic, recall to our
remembrance the names of Longiieuil, St. Helene
and Juchereau Duchesney. Below us, at the
foot of that tower on which floats the British
flag, Montgomery and his soldiers fi-'', swept by
the grape-siiot of a single gun pointeil by a
Canadian artillery man. History is there every-
where around it. She rises as well from these
ramparts, replete with daring deeds, as from
these illustrious plains, ecpially celebrated for
feats of arms, and she again exclaims: 'Here
I am ! • "

Turning to the more general and detailed
annals of our historic city, we find that Quebec
stands proudly enthroned on the lofty promontory
which separates the River St. Lawrence from the
St. Charles, in latitude 46' 4.S' 30", longitude 71°
17'. It was founded on the 3rd of July, 160.S, by
Samuel de Champlain, a native of Broiiage, in
Saintoiige, I'rance. Its site had been visited bv
Europeans long before this period, nijtably in 1535,
by Jacques Cartier, an enterprising St. iMalo
mariner, who ascended the St. Law ence and
cast anchor on the 6th of September at the foot
of Cape Diamond. As yet, however, all was a
nameless barbarism, and a cluster of wigwams
held the site of the rock-built city of Quebec.
Cartier, on the 14th September, 15.55, had ascend-
ed the river with one of his ships, and landed
at a great Indian town 180 miles beyond — now the
commercial metropolis Montreal — returning later
on to Stadacona, where he spent the winter.
The wintering of the venturesome Jacques Cartier
on this spot in 1535, by its remoteness, is an inci-
dent of interest not only to Canadians, but also
to every denizen of North America. It takes us
back to an era nearly coeval with the discovery
of the continent by Columbus, and much anterior
to the foundation of Jamestown in 1O07 ; anterior

CANADA: AN ENCYCI.OI'.KDIA.

24.1

i

even to that of St. Ati{»iistine in I'lorida. (Jueboc
lias tlurufore the rij,'lit to call herself a very old
American city.

No city on this continent is more famous in its
annals than Oiiebuc, and icw on ti\e (ontini. iit of
Europe are more picturesquely located. Here
hotly contesti'd scij,'es, memorable battli rulds,
historical monuments, old monasteries, vast and
hoary educational instituti(Mis, commend her to
the attention of the tourist, and the meditation of
the historian, as well as to the inspiration of the
poet. Apart from the scenery of this most pic-
turesque city there are associations clustering
about it which would make a desert rich in in-
terest. The lofty inecipice, aloni,' whose rocky
front Wolfe and his brave comjjanions climbed to
glory ; the Plains of Abraham, where he received
his mortal wound ; the fortress so chivalrously
defended by Montcalm ; and his soldier's ^rave,
dug for him when yet alive by the bursting of a
shell, are not the least among them, or among the
gallant incidents of history. The Wolfe and
Montcalm shaft in Governor's Garden is a noble
monument too, and >vorthy of two great nations,
which perpetuates the memory of both {jreat
gener^ils, and on which their names are jointly
written. Thirst for gold had brought out the
avaricious early European explorers ; little of the
precious metal was found, but a lucrative trade
sprang up in peltries. The fur trade soon became
the absorbing attraction to the French, and for
more than a century it yielded a golden return.
Quebec, at first a trading jiost, a mart of com-
merce, and a religious centre, had soon to be
transformed into an armed fort, a stronghold to
sheltei the sparse traders, settlers, and explorers
against Intiian inroads and Indian treachery.

Its commanding position pointed it out as the
key to the Upper St. Lawrence, it became the bul-
wark of l<"rench dominion on the continent, it was
indispensable to the expansion and consolidation
of French power in this New I'rance, it was the
fulcrum which supported the grand but insecure
pageant on its eastern outlet, whilst New Orleans
was to do similar duty on its western outlet, and
the whole intervening space was to be studded
with a chain of l'"rench forts so as to effectually
exclude the English and confine them to the
Atlantic seaboard. Such was the fond dream of

the ambitious Cardinal. dc Rirheliin, Prime Mm-
ister to Louis Xlli. Such iIk; resplendent vista
conceivi'd by the great king, Louis XIV. Later
on the gorgeous fabric cf)llapse(l one murky Sep-
tember morning on Abrahain's Heights. IJut for
a century and more the history of Huebec was the
history <«f Can;ida. During nearly all Chiim-
plain's c;areer at < Jncbec tht; colony was in a
chronic state of warfare with the Iroquois Indi-
ans, who kept the sparse settlements in a painful
state of alarm for nearly a centiny.' In 1608
Champlain began the erection of a residence and
warehouses in the lower town, and in i()20 lie
began the raising of I'"ort St. Louis on the cape
above.

The leading events which occurred during the
twenty-seven years between lAoS and 16 55, were
a succession of confiicts with the aborigine's, and
the explorations by Champlain in the western
secti(Mi of ''anada, now constituting the province
of Ontario. In 1O25 the Jesuit Fathers arrived,
(ibtaiiu'd land grants on tiie shores of the St.
t'iiarles near Hare Point, where, in 1627, their
settlement took the name of I'erme des Anges.
The poorly armed and insufficiently provisioned
fort, on the appearance in port of an ILnglish
fleet commanded by Admiral David Kirke, had to
surrender on the 17th July, i6jg, when Chain-
plain and several of his followers were sorrowfully
comi)ellc:d to abandon the colony. The I'Vench
families who chose to remain were tendered pro-
tection. Champlain and some of the friars and
inhabitants took passage for England in one of
the English ships. On July 20th, 1629, the British
ensign w;is hoisteti on the bastion of the fort
amidst the roar of artillery from the Ihitish men-
of-war and the fortress. Christinas Day, 1655,
closed the career of the brave founder of Quebec —
two years after resuming sway over his cherished
foundation.

The years between 16.55 ^^^ i^^>5 might be
styled the era of religious foundation, missionary
labour, and personal suffering. The L'rsulineand
Hotel Dieu convents date from i6ji}. A stream
of colonists settled at Onebec, Three Rivers, and
Montreal, about 1660, coming from Normandy,
Brittany, le Pays, d'Aunis, Perche, Isle de
France, etc. An apalling earthquake took place
in i66j, the shocks lasting for five months — from

'. •,'y.

mttnttii

244

CANADA- AN KNCYCI.OI'.KDIA.

ill

h

FiAniniry to Aufjust. In this year a Royal gov-
ernmiMit wa.^ sulistitiitcul by tlic ImciicIi Kinp fi)r
the charter of privati: coiiipanies. Tlic fifty years
followiri};; — from iC)G] to 171 5 — was a perioil of
fruitful prof,'rt'SS. Louis the (jrcat stmt out some
very able officials (Iiiteiidaiits Talon, Ilnccvjiiart,
RauJot) cliaij;('(l willi tlu: adniiiiistratiDU of jus-
tice, police, finance, and marine. A bishopric
was created in October, 1(174. llie first titular
wasthe scholarly, proj^ressive, but rather absolute,
Monseijjneur Laval. .\bbe de Montij^'iiy, and con-
nected with the I'rench ducal house of .Montmo-
rency. The Kin^' also created, in iboj, a Council
of State, pnsided over by the Governor, and
comprisinj,' the Bishop, the Intendant, the .\ttor-
ney-(»cneral, a clerk, and five councillors. It was
styled the Sovereiijn Council.

During' I7i_i-i75()a lonj^ peace characterized
the annals (4 (Juebec. \n inipoitant evint
occured in 171 5 in the sif,Miin^' of the Treaty of
Utrecht, which ceded the Hudson Ikiy rerritorv,
Newfoundland, and Acadia (Nova Scotia) to
Britain, France retaininjj Canad.i. as N\ w Ir.uuH'
was now called. The town now breatlud in
peace. Dnrinij the year 1717 the people were
provided with a court of Vice-.Atlmiralty. .Mourn-
ing; had to lie jiut on at the end of the year, the
news of the death of the I'^rench Kin^ havini; been
wafted across the .\tlantic. The population of
the city wastlien 7,000, that of Montreal 3,000. A
brisk trade had alsosprunj,' up with the West Indies
in suf,'ar, rum, coffee, and molasses. The period
of peace ended, however, and the fate of one half
of the continent was decideil at Quebec on the
morninp; of Septcnibir 1,5th, 1759. The remains
of the conquering' British hero, Wolfe, were con-
veyed to Ln<,'lanti ; those of his chivalrous rival
rest in the vault of the Ursuiine chapel. De
Rame;jay's capitulation, Sf.-ptember iSth, 1759,
brought about a momentous clianf,'e for the city.
Quarters had to be provided for the linglish
forces of 7,313 men. The municipal government
had to be looked after, military tribunals were
organized. General James Murray became the
first English Governor of yuebec. After spend-
ing there eight dreary months, a prey to smallpox,
dysentery, and other ailments, his army, much
diminished b\- death, was again summoneil to face
the enemy led by de Levis, and on ,\pril ^8th,

1760, suffered a reverse, which had no particular

result.

The military regime, as it was st\led, lasted
until I7().^ On June 31st of that year the
first number of the Ouebec Cmzcttc was is>ue<l,
printed in luiglish an<l in I'nnch, bv Ihown A:
Gdmore. The (Juebec Ihiily Mercury u.is lounded
by Thos. C-.iry, January 3th, 1805. I.c l\iuadicH,
November J2nd, nSof) ; (juebec Star, December
5th, iSj() ; (hiebec Moritui;^ Clinmicle, .May iSth,
iS(7. Governor Murrav was succeeded in I7(j(>
by Sir Guy Carleton. In 177.J, with the object of
conciliating the I'rench population of tin; colon\',
the Imperial I'arliament passed what is known as
the CJuebec .Act of 1774, which restored the use
of the b'rench language and I'rench laws as to red
estate, and has bei n since considered the charter
of Roman Catli. iic freedom. In Novendxr,
1775, Brigadier-Cieneral Richard Montgomery and
Colonel Benedict Arnold invaiied Canada from the
.Ni!W Lngland provinces but were routed, and 4^7 of
.\rnold's men surrendered as prisoners of w;..,
while General Moiitgomer\- and thirteen of his
followers met their death at I'res-de-\'ille, just
below the city, on the shores of the St. Lawrence.

On December 17th, 1792, the first Parliament
was o|)ened by Lieutenant-Governor Sir .Mured
Clarke, and met in the apartments of the Roman
Catholic Bi^hop's I'.dace. thi-n occupying the site
where, in 1S34, was built the first House of
Assembly. The newly-fledged legisl;itf)rs, its
inmates under the constitution drafted by William
Pitt, and dividing Canada into two jirovinces in
I7()i, exhibit on their honoured roll many historic
names amongst both elements of the j)opula-
tioii ; De Salaberry, Panet, Taschereau, Duniere,
Duchesnay, De Tonnancour, De Rouville, De
Rocheblave, De Lotbiniere, De Bonne, Joseph
Papineau, father of the famous Louis Joseph
Papineau ; David Lynd, John Richardson, James
Walker, James McGill, Thomas Coffin, John
Lees, William Grant, Robert Lester, etc.

The closing years of the century were disturbed
by the news of the extraordinary success of
French arms in Lurope, Napoleon's war bulletins
reaching from time to time the " Au'^ient Capital "
and wildly raising the hopes of the I'rench in-
habitants— though never to the point of actual dis-
loyalty totheir English rulers. The capital of Lower

■ f.t

r.

CANADA; AN KNCYCI.OI'/KDIA.

'IS

Canada, wlicro its tnrbiilont, restless r;irliiimetit
met eacli year, liowever, accinired adilitioiial
iniportaiiC(! ; and the closiiij^ of ('oritiiieiital |)()rts
to ICiiKlaiid l)y tlie Im-ciicIi liinperor, especially
those of the Haltic sea, had a most beneficial
effect on (.hiebec. In i8o8 it bron;^'ht to the city
hundreds of ICnt,dish ships in quest of the wealth
of our forests, our scpiare timber, pine and spruce
deals, and masts for the Hritish navy. Thus
originated the lucrative timber trade, the im-
mediate successor tn tlie traffic in peltries. It
lasted more than half a century, and British
merchantmen of larfje tonnage continued to crowd
the port— the annual arrivals from sea reacliinj,'
some seasons to i,.J5o s(iuare-rif,'f;ed ships. Can-
adian ship-buildinj,' received a healthy impetus,
^)uebec-built ships scoured every sea, and were
souf;;ht for in l-Luropean markets.

The Constitution of ijiji, however, did not
diminish but rather increased the friction between
the two leadinj,' races. Parliamentary rejircscnta-
tion had placed the control of tiie poi)ular branch
of the Government in the hands of the discon-
tsnted iMi'nch majority. Grave dissensions
sprang up between the head of the Executive —
the Governor-General — and the restless Parlia-
mentary party led by able and patriotic French-
Canadians. Imperial ij,Miorance and nnjjlect of
colonial matters, aided by a powerful and edu-
cated but i^raspin;,' and irresp()iisil)le oli.i^archy,
which claimed all official patronai,'!', made the
breach between the representative of the Crown
and the nominci'S of the people irreparable.
Oucbec society was much distracted by tlie rai,nn^'
parliami'iitary ajiitation. Later on the aijit.itioii
ripened into an open insurrection, wliicli led nuui\
of its most ardent abettors to a premature grave,
and some to the gallows. Quebec City, by its
moderate stand, escaped this part of a painful
traf;ed\' which, liowever, amoui^st other benelits,
brouj^'ht Canada into notice before the metroiioli-
tan authorities, and gave it responsible government
a few years later.

On the iStli of June, 1S12, war was declared by
the United States against F.ngland, and the
Canadian territor\' was in\ade(J at different
points. It wa> not an unmitigated evil. It
brought out in boKl relief the patriotism and
loyalty of all classes in Quebec ; and amid the

paeans sung in the old Capital to her brave son,
Colonel de Salaberry, for bis splendid feat at
Chateaugna\, and to General iJrock — long a
(le!ii/en of Ouebec — for his dearly bought victory
at ( Juoenston Ileighis, it emphasized the people's
loyaltv and attachment to the ruling State during
the time of tiiis unprovoked contlict with a big
neighbour. In iSiN a new era in mercantile
affairs si'cms to have li.iwned, and the necessity
of providing a more e.\teiisive circidatiiig medium
for commerce led to the founding of the (Juebec
Hank, which has continuetl to flourish to this
day. War alarms had now ceased, and the
Treaty of Ghent, in 1S14, had brought us greatly
enlarged tr.ule relations. Immigration from the
United Kingdom also assumed larger proportions.

In 1824 an enlightened and progressive admin-
istrator, the I'^arl of Dalhousie, aided by cultured
residents, founded at the Chateau St. Louis a
scientific association, subsequently provided with
a Royal charter, which, umler the name of the
Literary and Historical Society, exists still in our
midst. The year following witnessed the launch-
ing, at the Island of Orleans, of two ships, con-
sidered for tlunr size leviathans at that period —
the " Columbus," ,i,oijo tons, and the "Baron
of Renfrew," 5,888 tons, both built by Scotch
companies for the lumber trade. In i8_:7, umler
th" auspices of the Governor-General, the Marl of
Dalhoiisii', there was erected the stately monument
to Willie and Mmitcalm, to which Dr. John
Charlton Fisher, one of the founders of the Liter-
ary' ami Historical Society, contributed a well-
- nown Latin inscrii)tion. A iintable incident
occurred in 18 51, of incalculable results for the
future. The jiioneer steamer of the Atlantic, the
" Royal William," was launched at Anse des
Meres, and crossed the ocean propelled by steam
alone — tonnage, 1,370 tons. The summer.^ of
1832 and 1854 were seasons of gloom and de-
spondency, when the city was cursed with the
Asiatic scourge, cholera.

Ouebec was incorporated by Act of Parliament
hi i>^,53 — its first mayor being a weil-rt'iiiembered
barrister of the Queen's Bench, Judge I'J.:ear
liedard. The city continued to be a focus of
political agitation during the annual sittings of
Parliament, the outcome of which were the
famous ninety-two resolutions embodving the

r .:■•>■ I

m

rm-

24(1

CANADA. AN KNCVCI.Ol'/KDIA.

:!'

:J

riiuiy Riicvanrps of the cnlony rind ;uIn|>fo(l by the
Mouse of Assi'iiilily in iN<(. rhrt;o y<Mrs later
the ■iriiu'd revolt, ahiMilv reftirrod to, broke out
in the Montreal district n},'ainat the Kin),''s author-
ity, but (Jiii'bec, thoii^jh in sympathy witii the
niovcMicnt, r(;fuscd ti) ii'sort to armed resistance,
and kept within the bounds of the constitution.
In May, iSjS, the Karl of Durham arrived at <.)iie-
bec, escorted l>\t\velvt; frifjafes, and rharijed witii
the mission of reporting' on colonial (grievances,
and of administerin)^ the colony, ilis luamaQc but
unconstitutional policy of deportinj,' the political
prisoners to Hci muda, instead of having them tried
by court martial and executed, having been bit-
terly assailed by the Imperial Parliament, he threw
up his commission without waiting to be relieved
bj- his Stwereij^n un.l hurried back to London to
meet with disfavour — the Oueenrefusiiifj to receive
him. The end for Canada was responsible {jov-
ernment, a reunion of Upper and Lower (Canada
into one province; and for the hif,'li-spirited, clever
Earl humiliation and an early death in 1S41.

^hiebec was visited on May jSth, 1845, with
yreat lires which left homeless i(),ooo souls an<l
provetl a crushiuf^ blow at the time, but in the
end led to a much-needed transformation in the
class of biiildinLjs. The innumerable and small
one-story wooden tenctnents disappeared, and
substantial stone and fire-brick dwellin{,'s took
their place. The ocean mail line of steamers,
subsidized by Ci(n'ermnent, was started in 1K5J.
The enter;)risin},' English railway contractors,
Jackson, Feto, lirassey, and Betts, gave us the
Grand Trunk Railway. About that time the
telej^raph and city water-works were introduceti,
as well as ^^is a few years later. In Septembif,
1864, took place, in the House of Assemby build-
ing at the head (>f Mountain Hill, the ever-mem-
orable Quebec Conference, which laid the basis
of Confederation and was presided over by Sir
E. P. Taclie. To the hostile, disunited provinces
of 1864 succeeded, in iShy, the Dominion of Can-
ada and an eiilargiMl national life. Confederation
brouf,'ht to this province its old name, and to the
.\ncient Capital its former prestif,'e as the seat of
the Provincial Government. An im|jroved and
more costly style of construction in private dwel-
lings and public buildings gradually sprang up ;
the leather and shoe industries, and others of a

lucrative! nature, took the place of shipbuilding
and the waning timber trade. I'he working
classes were; thereby greatly benefited. The re-
moval from (jnebec, in 1870-71, by the Imperial
authorities, of the two British regiments — the
Royal .\rtillery and Royal iCngineers— lelt un-
occupied several large buddings hitherto owned
by the Ordnance Department, as well as the his-
toric citadi I, which had been built at such heavy
cost with IJritish money. Provincial corps of
artillery, cavalry, and Batteries A, B, C, were
then formed and commissioned under the ( )ue(:irs
War Regulations to take the place of the British
regulars, le.iving us to do garrison duty in their
stead on the Citadel and elsewhere.

A happy incident took place in 1H72, in the arri-
val of the Earl of Duffer in, ami his sojourn during
the leafy months of summer in the lofty Citadel
erected in 1820- jo on the original plans of the
French engineer, DeLeiy, and approved of by
the Duke t)f Wellington when Commander of
the b'orces. Lord Dufferin had been struck by
the unrivalled view opening out from the King's
Bastion, and with the assistance of his own
engiiu-er, and of the city engineer, plair; of city
adornment and embellishment were prepared and
adopted under Lord Diittei in's eye. Some neces-
sary changes were made m the city's appro.iches,
without detracting from the historical character
of the fortress. Her .Majesty herself was asked
to contribute from her own private purse to the
erection of the new gate which bore the name of
her esteemed father, the Duke of Kt^nt, who was
for four years, while commanding the 7th Roval
Fusiliers, an inmate of Quebec. Thanks to our
fortilications .ind to the mlightened views of the
great statesman whose memory is perpetuated in
the noble boulevard he gave us (Dufferin Terrace)
Quebec is still styled " The Walled City of the
North."

We may now glance briefly at the more modern
[irogress of the city. The restoration, by the
Confederation Act of 1867, to the ancient capital
of its former prestige as the seat of the Provincial
Government, and the construction of its new and
stately legislative halls, where the collective wis-
dom of the province meets annually as of yore,
were noticeable events in its new era of develop-
ment. In 1852 a Royal charter had been granted

CANADA : AN K\f SCi.olM'.IH A.

-••17

by Her Majesty the (,)iiefii to tlic I^aval Univer-
sity, l>r()ii>,'iit into existence by tliu Quebec Sem-
inary, wliieli w;is founded in ibfwS. Later on a
generous citizen, tlie late Dr. James Morrin, left
a money ^rant (sii|)plementecj (piite n?cently by a
bequest of the kite Senator James Koss) which
Rave us Morrin Colle^re in its present eiihir^^cil
form. The opening by Government of the
city Normal Schools was another measure con-
ducive to the dissemination of popular education
and the improvement of Qiubec. Tiioii^di the
decay of the square timber trade was a disaster
to its port, dei)rivinR 5,000 or 6,000 able-bodied
labourers of vry remunerative employment dur-
ing; the summer months, recent chanj^cs have been
made in connection with labour orj,'ani/ationB, and
the port of Quebec, with its unrivalled facilities
for trade, may yet, as heretofore, be souj^ht by
the lar},'est ships from European ports.

Quebec is bountifully provided with churches,
hospitals, asylums, universities, and educational
and charitable institutions for every denf)i:iina-
tion of Christians. The Hotel Dieu, recently
much enlarged ; Jeffrey Hale Hospital, Le Hon
Pasteur, Hospice de la Maternite, Finlay Asylum,
Ladies' Protestant Home, St. Bridget's Asylum,
etc. It can boast of one of the most ancient
fanes on the continent, the Basilica Minor, datiiii;
back to 1647. Bishop Laval's diocese in those
earlier days extended from Acadia to the Gulf of
Mexico. The Anglican church, a handsome
temple of worship, dates back to 1S00-4 ; the St.
Andrew's church was built in 1810 ; the Congre-
gational, I'Vench Protestant, and Baptist churches,
St. Patrick's, St. John's, ami St. Matthew's
churches, and a Jewish synagogue are more
recent in construction. There seems to be a
plethora of banks an<l banking institutions, in-
cluding the Bank of British North America, the
Bank of Montreal, the Quebec l)ank, the Banqiie
Nationale, the Merchants Bank, Union Bank,
Halifax Union Bank, Jacques Cartier Bank. A
want for the Quebec trade had long been felt — a
back country settled by prosperous tillers of the
soil, and requiring the necessaries as well as the
luxuries of life. Such has recently been met by
the numerous settlements and back parishes, with
churches, in the fertile valley of Lake St. John,
to which a ready access is hatl by the Quebec

and i^ake St. Joliii kailway. This vast territory
intersected l)V more than one hundred lakes and
limi)id streams, is also invadi'd each summer i'y
myriads of sportsmen finin other parts of Canada,
the United vStates, and Liirope, eager to fill tln.ir
creels with the trout and land-locke 1 salmon whi<h
swarm in cveTy lakt; and river. More than sixteen
lish and game club houses stud the shores of the
St. jnlui Like district. In addition to the shoe
and leather trade which has heli)ed so materially
to build up the flourishing suburb of St. Koch,

I 'I

.11 "

Hope Hill. Quebec.

other industries are gradually finding their w-iy.
Cold storage premises are now being prepared
for the opening of navigation, and a capacii us
grain elevator built on the Louise embankment to
load the products of western wheat fields on
Atlantic steamers.

The most conspicuous modern buildings are
those of Parliament, the new i)ost office, the new
court house, the handsome city hall, the stately
and splendid hotel. Chateau I'rontenac, erected
at a cost of §500,000, and south of the ornate

, ''' 1

'"*««««««»«»»,

J4«

CANADA- AN KNCYCI.Ol'.KDIA.

. I

shaft tinw r«'C(!UlIy cnictLMl in honour of Chain-
plain, lliu fiiiuiilir of tiio city. Tlio total rsti-
inatcil v.iluu of tliu teal ustato in thu city (jf QiiC'
hcc is about ijjt), 300,000, whilst the city's bondiiil
tUbt is $5, }r)S,,So>S. Tho net rcvonuc of tiic
nninicipal corporation for 1X1)4-5 was $6^7,000.
The aiiti'jxution of thu suburb of St. Sauvcur
sinrc! tiic last census was taken brings the popu-
lation of tiiu city up to about tiu.uoo souls. One

foriil tireain of ( )ui;bockers .iw.iitiiiK reali/ation is
the sp.inniu;; by a briJt,'i; of the River St. Law-
renco between \.}uebi!C and Levis, which would
wi:Ku)ine the entrame into the city proper of the
Intercolonial Railw;iy, the Grand Trunk, the
Quebec Central, and other lines in process of
construction, ami would undoubtedly make the
.\iici'jnt Capital a railway centre of great impor-
tance.

I .V i

Sir Jaiiicb Macpheisuii Le Muiiie.

■\

SKKTCH OH THK CI TY OF OTTAWA

MV

I.. A. MAGHNIS LOVRKIN, Rdllur nf Ih," (Vf,,-,;! I'nr I'lrss.

TWV. City of Ottawa may l)c lookid upon
as tlio child of two hatl parents — War
and Political Faction. Its nia^niiliccnt
situation, favoured in so many \\a\s by
nature, would, liuvvevcr, in the couise of timr,
have insured the growth of a city ujion the
present site. It lies on a natural mute between
tlie St. Lawrence and tiie (Ircat Laiscs. It was
the route utilized in n^.-'i past by tiie viiri.'us
tribes of Indians in their joinneyinf,'S east and
west at a time wIkmi none but thi; al)orif,'ines and
tlie wild beasts inhabited the " forest primeval."
Over its course passt;d Ciiamplain in the early
|)art of the seventeenth century, on his way via
the Ottawa to Lake Huron — the lirst white man
It may be assumed who evur f,M;5ed uu the matcii-
less scenery wiiich for so many a day's journey
deliglitiul his eyes. Missionaries, some of them
like De Hiebeuf and L'.Mlemant passing to win
the crown of martyrdom, and traders intent on
the pursuit of Mammon followed the same course,
and today, when steam has revolutionized the
carrying trade and distance has lost much of its
aiuiciit significance, there are those who conteml
that the skill of the engineer and the capital of
the old world will in coini>ination yet make the
waterway of the I-'icuch Ris'er and the Ottawa a
route of prime Imperial and commercial impor-
tance.

The eveiUs connected with the war between
(heat Britain and the United States in 1.S12-14;
the defence of Canada and the story of hercic
deeds which will live in golden letters upon the
national escutcheon as lung as time shall last,
need not be entered into here. They arc ade-
ipiately dealt with in another place in this series
of volumes. But it was out of the movements of
the British and Canadian forces and the difficult-
ies attendant thereon that the present City of

Ottawa sprang into a, perhaps, priMiiature exis-
tence. The military and naval commanders of
the period were not slow to learn from tlie lessons
tanf,'ht by the war* that the line of communica-
tion betwei 11 the east and the west, in the event
of hostilities such as had recently ended, was not
only insufl'u:ient for tactical purposes, but unsafe
and open to the danger of being attacked in Hank
and pnjbably barred by a hostile force — so close
was it to the frontier and, for a very coiisitlerable
portion of its line, easy of access to an enemy.
An internal line of communication between the
St. Lawrence and the (ireat Lakes had therefore
to be established and the matter was made the
subject of most careful study by the military
engineers. The cartography of the country was,
at the time, necessarily defective ami the oppor-
tunities its geographical features, by land and
water, presented for the purpose sought were
not fully known or appreciated by those to whom
was committed the task of deciding what was, at
the time, a most momentous issue. Very varied
were the pl.ms sugt^esteil and the archives
show how confuscil were the ideas which pre-
vailed.

But an interior line of communication, as pro-
jected by the War Department in Biilaiii, had
to be fouiul, and in 1824, after the question had
been carefully considered in London, and the
opinions of the Duke of Wellington, Sir John
Burgoyne and others obtained, the Provincial
Government of Upper Canada was offered sub-
stantial aid by the Imperial authorities if it would
undertake the construction of a projected canal
by way of the Rideaii River and internal waters
to Kingston. It declined to do so, deeming —
and rightly from the commercial standpoint —
that the St. Lawrence route was the best, and
sufficient for existing local interests. The Imper-

' ■ \.

1'*

3 0

( AN.MtA AN i:\( \(I,()IM:1)IA.

ri'

I I

!

ial (iiivi I niiietit tluTcforu (Icteriiiiticd to (°.iity
out tilt: woik itscll, wliK li li;ul, ill f.u t, l)cii) (oiii-
incru-ol iiH a part of tlic f^i'iieral pi. in live ytarn
cailitr, iit (iiciivilli-, liclsv<;('ii MnntiiMl aiiil tlio
Kidcaii KiviT, In iNi6 tlu; (.'anal w.iiicoininencoi
and tli(! Slid (if what i4 nnw tlio politic, d cipitd
ut tliu l)i>nuni>)n snsvii. into tlu; vviudoin, or tlu*
reverse, of the incasiiro it is now niifdlciiH to
enter. Thu 8chi*inu wat purely a military under-
taking and intcndid fur miiliin^' clsti, and to-day,
without licin^' nttcrly uscii ss, it pl.iys an unim-
portant part in the commcrco and tratVic of tlic
country.

It may l)f stated at this point that In; (anal
is 12OJ iuili'9 in liiiL,'li> liclwrcn Otiawa and
Kingston, with a loc k.i^o of 44'^'i f^tt. I'roni
Ott.isva it ascends 2.Sj| feet by 34 lock><, in bj\
miles to Khlean Lake, then descends 164 feet hy
ij locks in thu rcinainin;,' \H'\ miles, which carritM
it into Laku Ontario, under tho K»ns of thu forts
at Kinf,'s(<iii. In ordiT to convey some idea of
the poiulerous character of the work, it miy In;
noted that tho lucks hjju uU of splendid construc-
tion, in solid masonry, and that there are 24
stone d.ims, two of which are 24 and 68 feet hi^h
respectively. Its cost will also convey a similar
idea. I'or land, £"14,807 wag expemled ; for
stations, /J).J5.545 ; for ^Mi-^, ^(,'23,141 ; and for
the |)aymeiit ol the cstablisliment, ;{^'i:o,J7(j — a
total in round nutnhcrs of ^(,"807, 774, or in cur-
rency about the h.iiulsoine sum of 1814,038,871.
Up to the present date (iN(j8), including the
expenditure on the Tay (,'anal, the outlay has
been §4,560,285. That the Canal has nut been
of commercial value for many years has already
been stated, and for the ye.ar i8(j6 the total
tonnage carried was only 88,000. Tlu: cost of
maintenance and staff was for tho same period
$34,052.77, and the total revenue $6,149.14,
exclusive of hydraulic rents. The ("anal was
comiiienced in iNjf) and opened in 1833. Such
in brief is the story of the Canal which, as
has been said, was the immediate cause of the
commencement of what is to-day the City of
Ottawa.

In 1826 Colonel My and his staff arrived on tlu;
scene- tip to that date a wilileiiiess, tli(jre being
but three or four scattered residences in the
vicinity. There was, we are told, one Caleb

Hellows who ha<l kept 11 small Htore anil a dock
at what w.iH known as HcIIowh' I'oint for Homo
five ye.irs previously. A tavern was also kept
by Isaac I'iith at the Slides Itridge, and Nicholas
Spaiks, n n.iinu which rutiains to this day,
lesi.led, accoiding to ti.iditior, on the site of wh.it
IS now tll<' plllicipal IIMlket pi. ice. This pimieer
had arrivcil in the vicinity some ten )ears
previously and, eng.iging ns u f.irm-hand with
I'liileiiion W'light, a pioneer of ;i yet earlier
d.iy, in what is iionv' the County ol Ottawa in the
Province of Quebec, had by dint of thrift iiiul
iiidiistiy acipiiied l.iiitl in the townshi|)of Nepean.
Tins, althoii^^ii (lesi>iseil at the time, siilisecjiiently
increased in v. due astlie accidental events bricHy
touched upon above caused first u village, then
a town and l.itterly a city to grow up. Much
might be .s.iid concerning I'hilenion Wiight, who
came here from the United Slates. His history
is most intimately associated with the vicinity
of what is now Ottawa. The curious may find
the history of his efforts as told by himself
in the Journals of the Assembly of Lower Canada
eighty years ago. This is indinctly both
interesting and important in any consideration
of Ottawa and its history.

An exlraoKJiniry change was witnessed in the
previously secluded locality within a year from
the coming of Colonel By. A vill.ige was
estalilislied in what is now known as the Lower
Town, and what was for many years in reality
" the town," and it rapidly spread its feelers
westward. Hy slow digrees little residences
began to appear upon the grounds west of Bar-
rack Hill, 0:1 which the stately Pailiaiiieiit House
now stand-;, along wliat is now Wellington Street
and reaching to the l'"lats. A sketch of " society "
as it existed in the locality at tho time would
perhaps be more interesting to the antiquarian
than to anyone else. Here and there under the
houses on the chief biisiiu^ss streets, tliere
are places which are now pointed out as the
burial places of the de.ul. But tho majority
of the earlii^r workers, it is saiti, folded their
tents and stole away when their work was doiu',
and of the names which are remembered in the
pioneer |)eriod, and some )ears after, but few can
be found to-day. An idea of the early condition
of the community under consideration may be

CANADA; AN KNCVCl.Ol'.KDIA.

>5«

''I.

gathered liy tliosu iiitcrcHted frorii hoiiu: lines ^iv-
iii^ a (It.'SciiptiDii of (Ik- village of Hytowii, wntteii
by itic i.it(! William I'itliiiai) Lett, who, iti the
year i^7\, cnlUclrij honit! ntollcciionH of tlu!
place aiul its olil iiilialtitaiits and ciiiihniuid tin in
in a most interesting hiochtitf.

Thu ('una! completed, thu locality nevniH to
have had rest for a time. Those whom tho
works had bron^'hl to the site of thu Villa^u dis-
persed, and it is said by soniu who speak from
memory that a l:;nd fever followed, thu peoplu
iuttlini^ in tiie conntry aroiiixl. The descendants
of thust! whoso brawny aims then deaied the
forests and convefk'ted thu trees iiitu himber to be
floated to ()uebec, or wero tho pioiieeis in the
tillage of thu splendid land winch stretches
thron^^huiit thu district, are yet found in tho
adjacent counties. Many of tliu names of those
who remained in tlw; infant settlement ami for
Some years tiffined in its prof;iess are yet on
record, tiiout,'h scarcely any of them arc found in
the city Directory of the da\ . Hut pluck and
industry were layiiij,' the (.iiiiulatioiis of the
" rouyli htwii bet,'miim^,' " of the city ami sowing;
where others now reap in fory;et fulness of the
pioneers. There is a ward or division named
after Colonel Hy, and that is all, :dthoii;^h visitors
have a ju'destid at tlu: end of the Sa|>p(r's l-5ridj,'e
pointed out to tliem as that upon which his
statue is to stand. Aiiunif^ the names of the
pioneers, that of Nicholas Sparks calls for further
notice. He was, the reconls sa\, a Wexford
man who came to C'aiuula in i.SiO, and, after
workiiii^for a time for IMiilemon Wrif^ht, aicpiireil
a certain plot of laud on which the principal
part of the city now staiuls. The growth of the
place chanj^t'd his position from that of a poor
labourer to one which has earneil for him tho
title of " founder of Ottawa," ami he became
one of the richest men in the vicinity. He was
a worthy and generous man, and lived until the
year 1.S62 generally respecteil in the community.
The inuiii business strict of the city — up to a
recent period — is fitly named after him. It may
be noticed that tlieie were far-sceiiig people
seventy years ago, who anticipated the growth
of the then almost unpeopled place. It is
recorded by Vigiie that riiileiuou Wright
expressed the opinion as far back as 1831 that

the new Huttlemunt would in the hitiiie l»' the
c.ipital of C'aiiaila. Ml. C'.liaileti I'ope, again, tells
UH that ill 1HJ17 there wuru not wanting thosu who
priiliitecl tint it uoiild be what it is to-day. He
names Sir John liaiiUlin and C'oloiiel My u" thu
pro|)hets, the f inner on the occasion of thu lay>
iiig of thu foundation stonu of the locks. " Sir,"
said Colonel lt\, later on, to a Mr. Mmke, who
asked for a laiger portion of land than that
officer thought proper, "this land will \m very
valuable some day ; it will be thu capital of
Canada."

Traditions a to the early settlement of the
placu obtaiiieil vei bally from "old inhabitants"
aie conllicting aiul untrustworthy, but it is
recorded by a traveller that, in i^,',i, at tho timu
of thu completion of thu canal, there weru not
fewer than 150 houses in Hytown, " mostly built
of Wood and in a st\lu of neatness ami taste
reflecting g:eat credit upon thu inhabitants."
Thu statu of thu society which then existed may
be imagined. It was decidedly " rough, raw and
demo( ratic." It is, in fact, known that it was
veiy rude indeed. There were rough, but read)',
slons supplying a coarse plenty, from a needle
to an anchor, together with forges, taverns,
clothing and provision shops. " The people,"
says a contemporary writer,* "were riulo ami
unlettered, and the cnsniuir generation weru even
worse than their fathers, who had, at least, tho
beneiit in early youth of being brought up under
the iiilliience of ail advaiiceil civilization. Neces-
sarily the young men growing up in the village
of Bytown, who could not be sent to Montreal or
(Jiiebec for means of education, became roughs.
They were being brought up, or rather were
growing up, as it were, beyond the inilueiices of
civilization, and their manners were such as
might be expected from such training. They
had but little respect for the fifth commandment."
In 185^, once more, according to the record of
a traveler, the towu had so far developed as to be
di\ided into the up[)L'i* and lower towns, some
distance apart, with a gap which he stated would
take many years to build over. There were some
sixty stores, seven lesser schools, a grammar
school, three banks, three insurance ot'tices, three

' • .'♦,

.'■■'I

> -V ff ,

.' 7.

*NnTK. l\oger : " I'lise of Canada Irom Baibarism \o Civiliza-
tion."

23-'

CANADA: AN KNCVCl.OI'.KI )1 A.

; !

newspijHMs aiiil ,1 telff^rapli ot'tici'. Tlie town
was n!|)iisfiili.'(l 111 tlu- I^i'i^iskitiuf. Alllioii^li
it appeals lliat tlie {jrowtli of tiic place was lapul,
at tlio saiiio time there seems to li.ise heeii iiituli
lliietiiiitioii, as it is stateii that in 1S45 tl\ero 'vas
>',()oo ol n poimlatioii, hut, at the time of tlie
incorporation of the town of Uytown in if^-J", the
fif^urcs ;uo };iven at 6,000. The fust piihlic cen-
sus in 1N51 showed a population of 7,000. It
was about this time that a si.'iise of isolation
seems to liave been arousetl amoii;,'st the people
of Bytown. Up to this period the only means of
communication with the outer world had hem
hy the canal, tlie river and the roati. Hut a threat
and profjressive step in breaking away from their
shut-in corulition was made, and the liytown
peojile, in 1S51, witnessed the commencement
and rapid construction of the Hytown and Pres-
<:ott Raihv.iy — afterwards the St. Lawrence and
Ottawa. This nati' rally worked a preat chaiif^e
in the status of the place, and, in 1854, the po|iu-
lation had swollen to 10,000 souls and in the
same year the City of Ottawa was incorporated.
Hut it stood on the threshold of a stdl greater
dignity.

It was said at the commencement r this
sketili tiiat one of the parents of the capital had
to be named Political Faction and to this feature
in its career I now come. It is a mntter of
<lomestic history that tlie I'arliaim'iit of Canatla
for some years followed the perambiilafory sys-
tem. After the attack upon Lord Klj,Mn,aiid the
burning; of the Parliami-nt 1 louse i.i Montreal,
the Le!.;islalure met aiteriip'elv at Quebec and
Toronto, an arran^emen; obviously inconvenient
and provocative of m!'::li s actional fecliiifr. Patri-
otic efforts failed to allay tiiis, but no underst.md-
in;4 could be arrived ;it, and at last, in 1S57, an
a.idress tv he (,)ueen was p.issed by the Legisla-
ture asking her to exercisf; her prerogative and
designate some cit}- to be s'' ;cied as the pi'rma-
nen, capital of Canada, then ronsisting of what
is now Ontario and ',hK;bec. In the I'oHowing
year it l)e(ame known tliat Her Majesty had
selected Ottawa, is the Seat '" Governmi'Ut. The
intelligence dii not cause general satisfaction. Tlie
ohier cities, not perhaps witliout reason, con-
sidered thai thev had a prior claim to tlie honour
of being named as the p^jlilical capital of United

Canaila. The experiment of years has, however,
proved that the selection was, from tlie geo-
graphical standpoint, good. Our wonderfully
developed railway facilities have made it a satis-
factory itMistering point for members who now
annually assemble from the Atl mtic and P^'ciiic
coasts as the representatives in Parlia-ren*- of
that great D(>minioij which, when the disputes
referred to were at their keenest, was to the
majority but a dream almost beyond the prospects
of realization. It became quickly evident that
the Queen's choice was going to opiMi the Hood-
gates of party and individual feeling, .and, in 1N58,
when Parliament met, a fierce contest ensued;
one that staiuls as a chapter in tiie country's
history.

A motion was made by Mr. C. Duiikin, sec-
onded by Mr. A. A. Uorion, that an address to the
Crown be passed asking for a re-consideration
of the Royal decision and that Montreal be named
instead of Ottawa. To this ^[r. George Hrown,
seconiied by Mr. Cha[)ais, moved an amcndiuent
to the effect that no action be taken towards the
er(;ction of buildings in the City of Ottawa for the
permanent accommodation of the Executive
Government and the Legislature, etc. To this
a further amendment was movetl bv Mr. E. U.
Piclie, second'.'d bv Mr. J. O. Hiireau, asserting
that the City of Ottawa sliouUI not be the per-
maii'Mt Seat of (ioveriimeiit. On the question
being taken this motion was carried by a vote
of sixty-four yeas to r.fty nays. Thereupon Mr.
Hrown asserteil that this vote was expressive
of a want of conlideiice in the Government and
n.oved the adjournment of the House. The
Premier, Mr. (Sir) John A. Macdonald, t iid Mr.
(Sir) George 1-. ("artier as the leaders of the
Government accepted the challenge aud another
contest ensiieij, this time resulting iii a victory
for the Government — Mr. Brown's motion being
defeated bv a vote of sixty-one yeas to fifty nays.
Tlu Gove' nmeiit, howevir, determined to resent
the affront the .Assembly had offered the Crown
by carrving Mr. Piclu.'s studiously offensive
mction, and forthwith resigned their portfolios.
Then followed an interesting episode but one
v.'hich, as it belonged mure to the political history
of Ca'uula than to that of Ottawa, need only be
casually referred to. Tee Governor-General,

CANADA ; AN IINCVC I.Ol'.l'DlA.

-\S.J

Sir Edmund Htad, scut for Mr. IWnwii, who
undertook the task of forniiiif; a Ministry and
the Hrown-Dorioii Administration was sworn
in on Anj,'ust and, only to be promptly assured
by a vol.; of Farlianifnt (71 yeas to ji nays)
that it did not " possess tlio confidence of tiie
House and coimtry." Tlie farce soon became
a political trat,'ed\-, lor Sir Ethniind Head refnsi'd
a dissolntion and the abortive Ministry resii^'ned
after havm^ iieid tiie seals of office for exactly
two days.

The Governor-ricneral, havini,' first sent for
Mr. (Sir) Alexander T. Gait, who decliiRvl to
accept the responsibility offornun^ a Govern-
ment, called upon Mr. Geor;,'e E. ("artier, who
formrd the Carticr-Macdonald Adminstration —
eventually and practically the sanu' as that which
had so recently resif^ned. I5y takini,' advantaf,'e
of an apparently sound interpretation of the
Independence of Parliament Act the members
of the formir Ministry did not H'^iun offer them-
selves for re-election, but, takinjj portfolios other
than those they previously held, executed what
their political foes nick-named the " ilonble
shuffle," a coursi-, however, sustained by Parha-
ment on two successive occasions and declared
to be in due and priiper order by the Courts.
Parliament, when it met in l^^n, was reminded
in the Speech from the Throne of the antecedent
circumstances and His Excellency Sir b^dmuiid
Head stated that the selection inaiie by tiie
Queen was binding and that cousequentlv
it was the duty of the Executive to carry it into
operation. Another party fi'jht ensued. Mr.
Sicotte, who had previously resi|^Mied his portfolio,
moved, seconded by Mr. (Sir) H. L. Lanij;evin,
an amendment to the effjct that the vote of the
House in the July previous was in every respict
an exercise of its constitutional privilef;;e. This
was defeated by a narrow vote of 59 yeas to 64
nays, and, after certain other motions (one hav-
ing for its object the adoption of the City
of Montreal as the capital and the others
desi};ned to expedite matters in various ways),
ilie ori{^inal acidress passed.*

Immediat- 'iv after this satisfactory termination
of the aj,'itation, the construction of the noble
pile of bnildinj^s, which are of more than rontin-
•Jouriuils of Asseml)ly 1858-9.

eiital fame, was commenced, and on September
1st, iS()o, the corner-stone was laid by il.R.H.
the Prince of Wales, who was then payinj^ his
historic visit to this continent. Messrs. Thomas
i'"uller (u.c.A.) and Chilion Jones were the archi-
tects of the Parliament House. The Eastern
ami Western Di'part mental blocks were desij^Mied
by Messrs. Stent and Lavers, and the " Lanj^e-
vin " block by Mr. T. luillcr. In i>S65 the iirst
Session of Parliament was hekl in the new
buddings. Two )ears Liter came Confetleration^
and from the year 1867 to the present the pro^j-
n-ss of the capit.d has been both inateriall\' and
socially phenomenal. In iN()7 the assessment
amoimted to §5,011.^40. In iScjiS it amounts to
'^-i'?' J>7-5' I'l l^(>7 the population was re-
turniid at 18,700, and in l8(j8 it is .Ificially
tstimated at 55,386. The expansion of the city
has been corresj)ondi:if,'ly fjrrat. Piior to 1887
it covered an area of I,8.i8i acres. Amuxatioii
and other fjrowths have exteiidetl it to over
.5'.i('5 acres. The St. Lawreni e and Ottawa
Railway was lon^ the only me;i -, of gaining
access to tlu; cit\' from the front, and not under
the most fa\ourable coiuiilions. To-day the
Canada Atlaiiiic and Arni)rior and I'nry Sound

a splendid uiniertakiiii,', which connects the
(ieorgian P>ay with the sea-board, and has made
Ottawa a commercial point of lirst-rate impor-
tance— has rt-'cently been com|>letcd. The Can-
adian l\iciric has two lines to Montreal, a new
route benifj; opened on September 5th, 1898, and
a connection with the main lines west. A new
line connects the capital with Cornwall, .and
connecting, with the New York svstem, the
Atlantic Coast. The Pontiac ami Pacific Ji'.nc-
tion, the Gatineau Valley Railway, etc., also
contribute their share in making Ottawa the
centre of a radiating system of railways which is
rapidly increasing, while a superb electric plant
and good management have made the Street
Railway of Ottawa a pattern for other cities.

Hut a very brief period has elapsed since a
solitary bridge was the only means of crossing
the river from Ottawa to Hull, in the Province of
Quebec. To-day this is changed for the better
ami a magniliceiit structure, designed to connect
the two Provinces, and known as the inter-pro-
vincial bridge, for rail.>, carriages, and pedestrians

;.;->!•

i>

254

CANADA : AN i;\(A( I.OIM;! )| A.

\n.

is niidcr construction. Ottawa is tiu; scat of a
Univi'isity, a Normal School, and possesses ail
the necessary minor pnl)lic cilucational cstalilisli-
incnls. Tiic city also ct)ntains a branch of tlu'
famous ('onj^rt'i^ation of Notre Dame, of Mont-
real, in wiiich is conducted a first-class school for
^irls. The Grev Nuns, also, and the Ladies of
the Sacred Heart have similar institutions on a
lar;;e scale, and the Ottawa Ladies' Collejje
(Presbyterian) and the Church of England
Ladies' School are also important establishments.
Ecclesiastically the Capital is well favoured. It
is the seat of a Roman Catholic Archbishop,
whose Cathedral ranks as a Uasilica. Recently
a Bishopric (jf the Church of Liii^land has been
established as an offshoot of the Archbishopric of
Ontario. Numerous hospitals, asylums and
charitable institutions prove that Citawa is not
behind hand ill "doing good." The chief hos-
pitals are tlie Carleton General Hospital, St.
Luke's Hospital and the Roman Catholic (i( ueral
Hospital. The gradual expansion of the city has
necessitated the construction of water works on
a large scale, and the adoption of everything that
modern ingenuity has devised for the improve-
ment of civic government. Commercially,
Ottawa mav be regarded as one of the chief
Canadian ports of entry. An idea of its growth
in this respect may be gathered from thi; facts
that in iHinj-'jo the duties collected alnountJ^I to
$gS,622. In 1895 they had expanded to $.295,-
166; in i8()5 to !?_m,_'77, and in i8()7-'98 to
$446,286. The exports also are large. Both in
(•xports and imports a great deal of the trade of
the port is not shown at the local custom house,
as many of the entries are made at iMontreal and
yiiebec. This is especially the case in connection
with the output of lumber.

Tlie first newspaper published in Hytown was
li.e Iitdcpciiihut, a wcekl}', >vhich made its appear-

iiuie in 18.56 under the diri'ction of Mr. Johnston.
The liytim'H Cmzcttc was presented to the i)ublic
in the same year. The Otlaiva .Idi'ocate was
established in 1841 by Messrs. Dawson & Kerr,
its Editor being Mr. W. Pittnian Lett, sub;;e-
(luently the City Clerk. The Packet, a bi-weekly,
was published by Messrs. Riel and R. liell in
1844 and in 1851 this became the Citizen, which
is the Conservative morning daily at present.
In 1869 the Ottawa Free Press made its appearance,
published by Mr. C. \V. Mitchell, its present
sole proprietor, and Mr. Carriere, who retired in
1873, The Journal, a Conservative and occasion-
all)- indeiHMident paper, was established in 1885
l)\' Mr. W'oodburn, and I.e Teiiipfi,ii French daily
paper directed by Mr. V. Moffet, completes the
list of papers now existing, though there have
been many others whose existences have been
more or less short.

It may be noted that the motto on the Civic
Arms of Ottawa is " .\dvance Ottawa." Thus
far she has lived up to it, and presents the appear-
ance to-day of a quietly progressive city. For
some years the place was little more than an en-
closure for the Government buildings a.iul employes.
Remote and iiiac cessiljle, Ottawa for years lived
a somewhat artihcial existence under very ener-
vating s(jcial, and depiHssing material conditions.
The railways have, happily, broken in upon her
solitude and the dormant life which she evidently
j)ossessed has been formed into an energetic and
progressive existence which takes advantage of
every opportunity afforded and is likely to make
Ottawa a cai)ital worthy of the great Dominion
and a first class city in every sense of the term.
Seseiity j'ears have co\ered lu!r growth from a
hamlet, accidentally called into existence, to
liytown and Ottawa, the fourth city in the
Dominion. Tlie future may be anticij .'ed with
couiidence and hope.

HISTORY AND PROGRESS OF ST. JOHN. N.B.

BY

I. ALLEN JACK, Q.C., U.C.L.

Till", beautiful river kucwu to Iiuli:uis as
W'oolaslook, but naiiuui by Do Monts
and Cliamplaiii bucausu it was dis-
coveriil by tliem on the 24ti» of June,
1O04, as Saint Jobu (after the patron saint of tiie
day), readies tlie salt water where it wasiies the
shores of the chic city of New Brunswicii.
Confined within tiie rocky bounds of a narrow
pass, the river, if the tide is low, dashes down
the gorge. If, however, the tide, wiiich in the
harb(<ur rises about thirty-five feet, is near
to its extreme lieij^dit, such is its power tliat the
down-tlowing stream 1 i.d.;s for the time before
tiie impetuous incoimiig flood. I'rom the
easterly side of tiiis fall or rapid, which is crossed
by two handsome bridges, the margin of tiie
basin of the port trends for a mile or so easterly,
past what was once the City of Portland and
then southerly, along the western shore of the
proinotory on which stands the older and most
important porti'wu of the City of St. John. The
westerly boundary of the harbour runs nearl)-
]>arnllel with the general courses indicated, the
maximum width from shore to shore being about
one half of a mile. On the easterly side of the
promontory Courtenay Bay, a narrow estuary,
which is very shallow and for some hours of each
day without water, stpaiatts the city from the
parish of Simonds. The promontory is elevated
where it is furthest from the mouth of the harbour
and it may be stated generally that the grtater
portion of the entire city is built on hills. These
elevations not only facilitate drainage and help
to render the city healthy but also serve to make
it as a whole exceedingly picturesque. There
are many points, especially in the ^dow of one
of the splendid sunsets which prevail in this
locality, when, through a tracery of masts, spars
and rigging, a view may be obtained of distant

heights crownetl with a martello tower or some
otlii^r quaint or striking structure.

'i'lie climate is einiiu ntly agreeab' ■, zero being
rarely reached in winter and seventy-five degr* ^s
of heat in the shade beingexceptional in sumn. :r,
Somctimi'S, indeed, the fogs from the bay lin',".
longer than is desired but, in view of the benei...
which they confer, the visitation is rarely the
subject of serious complaint. It is almost if not
<]ir.e certain tiiat for centuries before the coming
of Europeans the Indians, temporarily or per-
manently, usetl some i)ortion of the shores of the
Harbour of Saint John as a resting or dwelling
place. The French, almost from their discovery
of the locality, occupied one or more sites con-
tiguous to the harbour, partly for commercial
or missionary purposes, but mainly for military
reasons. Of all the Frenchmen who lived there,
the Sieur La Tour, whose noble wife once
heroically defended, and afterwards heroically
failed in the defence of, the Fort at Saint
J.ilm bearing her husbanil's name, was probably
the only one who possesseil true commercial
instincts and capacity.

In I75'S the Fort standing on the western side
of the harbour was taken, and all the French
inhabiting the locality were driven away by
Britisii forces. There are many intciesting
and romantic records of the period of occupation
by the French, but it cannot be claimed that
their rule m any way affected the subsequent
character or de\elopment of the place. During
the interval between the last mentioned event
and the landing of the Lovalists there was a
small but not inactive settlement at Saint John,
of which the principal persoi.s were Messrs.
Hazin, Simonds and Wiiite, who obtained large
grants of land in 01 near the city. As they sup-
ported the Crown, and with both judgment and

a!;6

c.WADA: .\\ i;\(Vf:i,oi'.r,i)i.A.

enersy opposed tlic itToits of tlie revolutionary
agents wlio soukIU to secure aid as well a!^
sympathy from aiUi-Hritisli settlers on the upper
parts of the river and elsewhere, tiiey certainly
fairly deserved somk; Royal reco<,'nition and rc-
\v;rd. The first .itteinpt at ship-buildinj,' w.is
made at Saint Joiui in 1775, but the cliiif indus-
try of the locality was the export of masts for the
Kinij's ships. Fishinjj and the peltry traile,
how( ver, were not nei^licted. Samt John became
a port of entry in 1 7S_>, but it can scarcely be
claimed that it at once achieved a commercial
reputatioi'. masmuch as oidy eleven vessels of 144
tons in ail were entered, and thirteen vessels,
agt,Mef;atinf,' 165 tons were clearctl, in that year.

The red history of the city may be said tJ
commence with tiie landing' of the American
Loyalists, numberiii}^ about 5,000, in 17N.5, by
what were called the spriny; and autumn fleets,
upon its shores. That part of Saint John which
has been herein described as the promontory was
orif,'inally called Parr-town, while the part lyinj^
to the west of the harbour was distinguished as
Carleton, a name still retained for sectional
descriptive purposes. In I7'^4a Royal charter,
subsequently confirmed b\' the Lei;isla;ure of the
newly rreatetl Province of New Brunswick, was
granted to the city under its present name. This
charter, which Waid Chipmaii, who was thereby
appointed Recorder and wlio probably was its
sole or principal draughtsman, claimed to have
been r:;odelled from that of the City of New
York, is very quaint and interesting. To the
Mavor, for inst'ince, is given the office of garbling
of spices and the right to appoint the bearer of-
the great beam, while the words empk)yed in
conferring most extensive rights of iishing and
fowling are such as one might expect to find in
the Letters Patent of the Hudson's Hay Com-
pany. With all its singularities, however, it has
admirably answeretl its purposes in many impor-
tant respects without legislative aid, and is treated
with peculiar reverence by the older city fathers
and officials.

The leading personages among the pioneer
citizens were largely of marked ability, distin-
guished for their mental acquirements, and also
readily admitted, when this was considered more
important than at j)resent, to be of the very bi'Si

Colonial stock. 'I"o many of them theirnew con-
ditions involved a transition from aftluencu to
something very much like penury, and to all the
closing years of the century brought many haril-
ships aii<l, only slowly and partialK', the removal
of discomforts and the supply of necessities.
There is, iiovvever, little evidence of discontent
among them, but ratlu r of persistent and gener-
ally successful efforts to make the best of their
circumstances, even to the extent of providing
amusements as a means for dissipating care.
Ward Chipman, to whom reference has been
made, although not the most distinguished, was
a typical citi/en amongst those of the highest
social position, ami, as he and his relations were
closely connected with the early civic annals,
a brief reference to a few matters with which lu;
was concerned may be considered essentially his-
torical. As Recorder he ranked next to the.
Mayor, for whom he acted as Deputy. He mar-
rieil a daughter of William lla;^i'ii, previously
mentioned as one of the earliest settleis of Kug-
lisli bU)od and an extensive local grantee. He
was concerneil as Counsel for the Crown, or
otherwise, in the Commissions appointed to <le-
termine the boundary line between the State of
Maine and New Brunswick. He was Counsel
for a negro slave on whose behalf he questioned
the validity of slavery in iSoo before the Supreme
Court of the Province, and his brief, or rather
his argument, as written in advance and used
on that occasion (in the possession of the present
writer) exhibits a degree of careful research and
accumulation of authorities, and a profundity
and extent of argument truly marvellous consid-
ering all the disadvantages under whicii he must
have laboured. Although a majority of the
Court decided against hiscontentions the reasons
uiged on behalf of the slave by counsel and the
dissenting Judges were so convincing that prac-
tically slavery ceased to exist in New Brunswick
from that time. Tiiis incident is a tnost conspic-
uous example of the true quality of a much
abused loyalty. The so called ailherents of tles-
pctism took the earlie.it opfiortunity to remove a
galling burthen from a feeble minority, but it was
not till sixty years afterwards that the people of
the United Stat;.s abolished negro si '.very.
.\mong the ties connecting \^a'-'.s of Canada with

CANADA: AN ENCVCL0P.1<:DIA.

25;

eacli other it may be tneiitioncd tliat Jt)iiatliaii
Scwell, who became Cluef Justice of- Lower Can-
ada, and liis brotlu-r StepIiiJii, tacli studied hiw
w itli Ward Chipman. The hitlcreventually bo
caiue a I'liisiie Jinl{,'e of the Siipniue Court and
his son, bearing the same name, wlio was boin
and alvvaxs lived in Saint John, btCame Chief
Justice of New Brunswick and a recofjni/cd
authority upon tlie application of Dritihh statu-
tory and Enghsh common law to the Colonies,
St. John is not wholly exceptional in h.ivinjj;
had periods of lucrative prof,'rcs3 followed by
stagnation and depression, hopes deferred or
extinguished and sources of profit destroyed or
serit)iisly affected. Living memory scarcely goes
back so far, but there certainly was a time when
there was a brisk interchange of commodities
between the city and the West Indies and when
the Saint J' 'lin grocers kcjit Jamaica rum on draft
for customers who had then scarcely learnetl to
even suspect that water would be better for them.
Again, comparative fortunes were realized from
lumber exported from Siint John to the Iiritish
Isles until the termination of t\w. Crimean War
and the exemption from duty of the products of
the forests on the Baltic. This indeed, and the
repeal of the Navigation Laws, sevcely tried the
loyalty of the people whose fore-runners fought
for the Crown, but who were not over-willing
to concede that their personal interests should
be sacrihced to a free-trade policy which they
esteemed more than sutTiciently generous to
aliens. Then there was a period when trade
under a system of reciprocity between the United
States and the British Ammican Provinces was
profitable to the people of the commercial metrop-
olis of New Brunswick until it was greatly
diminished by a change of policy on the part of
the Republic. Nor can it be forgotten that there
was once a loiv^ and happy time when numbers
of vessels, noteil everywhere for their speed and
beautv, were annually built in S;iint John, des-
tined to take a prominent part in the carrying
trade of the world and, in many instances, to
yield to local owners rich returns, till wood and
sails were supplanted by iron, machinery and
steam. Even when the Confederation of the
Provinces was accomplished the hopes that a
route favourable to the citv's interest would be

adopted for the Intercolonial Railway were not
realized, and some local manufacturing industries
were unable to contend with rival establishments
iiiorc! favourably circuinstanceil in other parts of
Canada.

Ill noting the disheartening influences encouii-
teied by its people some reierence must be made
to the serious contlagrations which have occurred
in St. John. Not including the iires which har-
assed the citizens in the second year of the city's
existence, there have been at least five of these
which may properly be classed as dire calamities
— the first in 18.24 and the last and most severe of
the series in 1S77, when 13,000 people were
deprived of their homes, and property to the
estimated value of $27,000,000 was consumed.
It is, perhaps, not a matter or surprise, under all
the circumstances, that inducements of other
places, especially to the westward, have, at times,
drawn many of its inhabitants away from Saint
John. And yet there has never been a time in
its histoiy when tiiere have not been those who
sincerely entertained an intelligent, well-grountled
and perfect confidence in its ultimate achieve-
ment of victory over all obstacles. Faith and
courage indeed and a by no means reprehensible
stubbornness liave encouraged the citizens cheer-
fully to submit to the necessary taxation to suita-
bly provide forthecity'sservices and requirements
and to properly equip tlie port for all present and
prospective requirement-^.

There is a large output of lumber and fish, and
to a less extent of manufactured cotton from
Saint John, and boilers and mill and other
machinery, carriages, and various wooden, metal
ami miscellaneous goods are manufactured there.
But it is not so much to manufacturing as to its
commercial advantages that the city looks for its
future. The aspirations of its citizens, in brief,
have been and are to make Saint John the chief
point for distribution of imported goods for
Eastern Canada, and the principal port of export
during all seasons, for the Dominion. It is inter-
estinir to follow the sequence of conditions which
have aided the gradual fulfilment of these aspira-
tions. The original and natural means of com-
munication with the city were by the River Saint
John and its aftliieuts with a small portion of
Lower Canada antl the State of Maine and the

'■■, •' I

MM

HMM

«S8

CANADA : A\ KNCVCLOI'.KDIA.

I

1

Counties of Madawaska, Victoria and Carleton
(tlii-n inciiiilinfj tliu two fornici), Yorh, Smibury,
Kinf;s and ^jiiccns in New liriinswick, and by tlic
IJay of I'nndy and its estuaries witli tlie Counties
of Westmoreland, Albert, Charlotte and Saint
John in New Brunswick and a lar{;e and impor-
tant portion of Nova Scotia, With the construc-
tion of railways these facilities were in some
instances increased, in others superseded. The
lirst sod of what was tiien known as the European
and North American Railway, but which so far
as this particular section is concerned is now a
part of the Intercolonial Railway, was turned in
185}, and within seven ycarr. railway ci)miiiimica-
tion was established between tiie city and Shediac,
thus facilitating trade with Prince Edward Island
and the Counties of Nortiinuiberland, Westmore-
land, Albert and Kiiifjs in New Brunswick.
^^'lll'n the Confederation of the Canadian Prov-
inces was accomplished, and the Intercolonial
line completed, S;iint John was brought into
communication by rail with Quebec and Halifax
and tlie intervening country along the Gulf and
River St. Lawrence. This also secured the
advantages of connection with other important
railway systems, and so great has been the activ-
ity in railway construction in New Brunswick
and Nova Scotia since then that there are now
but few places of inii^ortanre in cither Province
that do not have the use of trunk (>r branch lines.
From a Saint John point of vit;w, however, the
completion of connection between Saint John
and Montreal in 1S85 by the Canadian Pacific
Railway Company, partly by construction and
partly by the acquirement of existing lines and
rights which secured for that Company an outlet,
available at all seasons ior freight destined for
trans-.Atlantic ports, must be regarded as, in every
respect, the most important event in the local
history of Canadian railway enterprise. The
following statement of entries of arrivals and
cltnrances of vessels at the port for 1897 and
three next preceding years will give some idea
of the present cinnmercial condition :

1894.

\hkivai.h.

'I'mm,

ii

Akrivai >.

Tons.

Steam, 275 -254,614
.Sail, 1,422-258.682

Tiital, 1,697 513,296

Cl.KAKANCBS.

Tons.
Slcuni, 243-219,735
Sail, 1. 495 — 290,624

Total, l,738-S'u.J59

Slcaiii, 295—283,7(16

Sail, 1,258-226,040

Tiit.il, 1,553-509,806

SlLani, 338 -364,003

Sail, 1,348-193,848

Tiiial, 1,686-557,851

Strain, 359-39J.4S"
.Sail, 1,128-108,008

1895.

1896.

IN97.

Cl.KAHA.NCKs

luiu.

Steuiu, 256-243,175
Sail, i,30S~ai9.49J

I'Dtal, 1,561 -482,668

Steam, 21)3 -309,009
Sail, 1,216-189,567

I'Dlal, l,5J9 498 576

Steim, 3(1 355430
Sail, 1,008 182,302

loi.l, 1,487-562,058 Toial, 1,599-537. 63a

The policy of tli(; United States has Ixlii such
that Canadians largely abandoned for a time the
hope, once entertained, of establishing satisfac-
tory business relations between the neighbouring
countties. In consequence, efforts have been
and are being made, and by no means without
success, to lind new markets or increiscd demands
for Canadian products elsevvheie th.m in North
America. This being the ca-e, it can readily
be understoutl that interest in Saint John, as a
port possessing many advantages, is very general
and that its increased importance is generally
assmned. Reverting to two industries already
mentioned — the lumber trade and the tisheries —
the following statements will serve to indicate
their local values : The average yearly export
of hmiber from Saint John for the past ten years
has been 158,000,000 feet, the produce of the
Province of New Brunswick, and 53,000,000
feet, the produce of the adjoining State of Maine
floated down the River Saint John. The tisheries
of the Province have been steadily increasing
in value. The Departmental retmiis for 1895,
which aie the latest available, place their value
at !?4, 403,158 for that year. It is not possible
to follow the disposal of the annual catch
but it is sufficiently certain that a large proportion
of this product is handled by the nierciiants
of Saint John and distributed through all parts
of Canada and elsewhere. In 1889 the contiguous
City of Portland, with a population slightly
exceeding 15,000, was united to Saint John and
the census returns for 1891 gave the population
of the litter, thus enlarged, :is 40, 179.

Alt(;r the tire of 1877, thoroughly substantial
structures were erected in the burnt district and

CANADA; AN KNCYCI.OIM'.UIA.

259

»3.

lie
le
■h
1)11
Its
rts
>iis

this, combined with the formation of an effective
brigade and system for the prevention of tin s,
and tlie enactment of laws and rt ^'illations as to
the constrnction of biiildinf^'s, renders tlie recur-
rence of a hke disaster improbable. ICach of the
principal religions bodies rei)rcs(iited in Canada
has more than one and, in some instances, several
handsome stone chnrclns in Saint John. In
Trinity Church there is an intereEting nKiiiorial
of the old Colonial days in the Royal coat of arms
which was at one time in the Coniiril Cliaiiiberof
the Town Hall of Boston and removed thence by
expatriate' Loyalists. Besides the places of
worship, the Intercolonial Railway Station, the
('ustom House, the Post Office, several Hanks,
and a large number of other buildings, public and
private, possess {ficat architectural btauty. The
streets are wide and well laid out and the city
has the advantage of a tramway system, operated
by electricity, whose excellence it would be diffi-
cult to surpass. In the suburbs there are many
attractive places of residence, enclosed by gardens
and shrubberies, and a spacious park, rich in nat-
ural charms and varied but always pleasing vistas,
not indeed, abounding in trees of the largest si^e
but well supplied with such aa are graceful and
umbrageous and with very many winsome plants
growing in wonderful and spontaneous profusion.
A number of the citizens have gained distinction
in connection with Canadian affairs since the

union ot the Provinces. Without referring to
the liviii};. it is only necessary to mention Sir
Leonard 1 lUey and the Hon. Isaac Burpee, who
held important Dominion portfolios, the Hon. T.
Warren Anglin, who was Speaker of the House
of Commons, Sir William Ritchie, Chief Justice
of ilie Supreme Court of Canada, Messrs. Charles
W. Weldon and Samuel R. Thomson, members
of tlie Bar, and the Hon. William Elder, who,
hke Mr. Anglin, was a journalist. Although not
absolutely an ideal comtiiunity, Saint John, in
some respects, approaches the conception enter-
tained by many of tlie ideal. Notwillistanding
the fact that its most iiilliiential founders were
aristocrats and members of the Chinch of Eng-
land, the comuuinity is in social respects essen-
tially, but not aggressively, democratic, and
ecclesiastically is divided though not generally
polemically.

There are but few really wealthy citizens, but
there are many possessed of means sufficient to
enable them to live in comfort and but few,
except such as are incorrigibly lazy or vicious,
who are very poor. In conclusion, it certainly
speaks volumes for the self-control of the inhabi-
tants, although those in authority deserve some
credit for the fact that, while there is not one
policeman for every thousand persons, and the
port is generally filled with foreign sailors, it is
rarely that serious crime occurs in Saint John.

•V'V'Jl

V,- I I

ial
nd

t •

SKETCH ()!• IHH CITY 01' HALIFAX

MV

ALEXANDER II. MACKAY, H.A., I 1.0,. F.KA.P,.

I

r'

HA 1 ,1 l''AX, capital of tlu' I'lovinco df Nnva
Scotia, diicf Atlantic seaport of the
I)oiiiiiiion of Cuiiiula, and headijuar-
tcis of tliu liritish naval forces in North
America, is situated on a pear-shaped ptninstila
about five miles Ioul; by three broad, risin;^ in the
Citadel Hill to a hcif^ht of about 250 feet above
the waters of the investinj:; iiarbour which is one
of the lari^cst, safest, and best fortified in the
world. The harbour is situated near the middle
of the Atlantic seaboard of the Province, with
its axis runniiiL; into the land northwesterly some
fifteen or sixteen miles at rif^ht anf,des to the
southwesterly trend of the coast. For four miles
the deep channel runs to the west of CiieI)ncto
Bay, which at last contracts to a breadth of three
miles, two-tlunls of winch is closed b}- the irreg-
ular islaiul known as McNab's, between whose
li^dithouse-cappeil beach on the ri^dit, and York
Keihnibt which frowns from the crest and the
breast of the granite cliffs, rising 150 feet as a sea
wall, on the left, tiiere is the gate of the outer
harl)our, nearly a mile in width, with water
a hundred feet deep. Tsvo miles further in, the
sheet of water is diviiied by the point of the
peninsula, which here forms one of the iinest city
parks in the world, containing within its two
hiiiuired acres of labyrinthine forest drives, pictur-
esquely masketl, t he t hrec forts (Ogilvie, Cambridge
and Point Pleasant) which with Forts RIcNab
and Ives' Point on the island to the east, and
York Redoubt on the west, completely encircle
the outer harbour and cover its entrance.

The western branch, known as the Northwest
Arm, is a piicturescjue fiord about three miles
long, a quarter mile wide, and about fifty feet
in depth. Its channel is plainly seen to have
been eroded during the glacial age out of the
Cambrian slates and quart^ites which underlie

the peninsul.i ami the adjacent regions to the
east and north. This explains tin: general uni-
form depth of all parts of the harbour up to the
shore in most ])laces. The eastern branch frcjin
a l)readth of twcj miles gradually contracts,
enclosing George's Island as it skirts the five
miles of the eastern or city hont siile of the
pi'iiinsula, until at the Narrows it is only al)out
one-third of a mile wide, with a depth of about
seventy feet, when it suddenly expamls in the
rear of the peninsula into Bedford Basin, a mag-
nificent pear-shaped sheet of water of the same
si/e and general sliaj)e as the peninsula itself
but with its point directed towards the north,
five miles long, three broad, and over 200 feet
deep in the centre. It comes within two miles
of the head of the Northweit Ann at one point,
and can acjommoilate, as a third or rear harbour,
a whole navy, with room to nianceuvre.

The city proper occupies the middle three
miles of this five-mile eastern frontage on the
middle harbour, the extensive fortifications of
Citadel Hill, with its signalling paraphernalia,
rising high over its centre. Dartmouth, which is
a virtual suburb of the city, lies on the oi)posite
side, with a population of 7,000 and some impor-
tant manufacturing establishments, and the fine
Provincial Hospital for the Insane. South of
Dartmouth lies Fort Clarence on tlu; east of the
harbour, within McNab's Island, and in line
with I'"ort Charlotte on George's Island and the
Citadel, which fcjrm the inner line of fortifications,
as well as cover the outer harbour and its en-
trance, tliree miles or more distant. George's
Island, in the ■: iddle ha* hour, is surrounded by
water from sev "it^' to ninety feet deep, and the
position of its light is given as Lat. 44", 3S', 30"
N., and Long, f)}*-', j 5' , 25" E. The geological
formation has already been referred to as the

LIU)

. . i

CANADA: A\ KNCVCI.Ol' l.I )l A.

361

^1

Cambrian, wliidi extends back into tin; country
for iil)i)nt lliiity miles in liflccn or sixlciii nioro
or less faulted antii lines which, havin'^ beiii
denuded by j^coio^jical a^jeiicii'S to the extent of
several thousand feet, expose as many bells of
productive j,'old- bearing,' rock. The exposed locks
in numerous places exiubit most beautiful and
instructive iliistrations of f{lacial action. Across
the Nortiiwcst Arm, and (,'enerallv (ui the west
side of the outer harbour, the more or less ferru-
ginous Cambrian aiyillites and (juarl/ites are in
contact willi the intrusive granite which occupies
tiie western portion of the country from Chebucto
Hay to St. Margaret's Hay. The soil of the city,
which in many places fails to cover the polished
rock, is formed principally from debris of the
more northern Cambrian rocks, with occasional
pebbles from the very distinctive triassic forma-
tions in the mountain ranges on the northwestern
coast of the Province.

The history of the city dates from the arrival
of the sloop of war Sphinx, under the Hon.
Edward Cornwallis, on the 21st of June, 1749
(old style). It was in convoy of a fleet of thirteen
transports carrying 2,516 settlers, the last of
whom arrived by the first day of July. The
Hoard of Trade and Plantations, of which Lord
Halifax was the energetic President, was the
promoter of the colonization. Hence the name
of the city. The small town was at first stock-
aded as a defence against the surprises of the
Indians, who were hostile on account of the
special incitation of French emissaries. In the
fifties and sixties it was very often the scene of
special activity in connection with the concen-
trations of British and Colonial forces against
the I'rench, more particularly the French of
Louisbourg. In the seventies ami eighties the
special cause was the American Revolution.
Then into the next century it was the hostility of
the French, aided from 1812 to 1815 by the un-
generous and treacherous conduct of the United
States, when the city was often crowtled with
prisoners and the harbour with prizes of war.
Only once after was there another serious wai like
flurry, when in i8j8 an interesting debate in the
House of Assend)ly was inteirupted by the report
of the invasion of the Province of New Hrunswick
from the State of Maine, the Hritish being

involvCvl in the trouble connected with the rebel-
lion in the Upper Provinces. Within a few
hours the House, post|)oning all other considera-
tions, unanimously voted /,!, 000,000 and ordered
8,000 nnlitia to be at once mobilized to aid the
sister Province, amid tin; enthusiastic cheers of
the multitude which crowded all the avenues of
approach to the scene.

The resident population of the city appears to
have fluctuated as indicated in the following
table of contemporary estimates, or rep(jrts of
census takings :

l'opiiliili<m.
.. .|.24(J

• • 1.755

Venr.

i74<J

'75-2

175^'

I7<J.J i.joo

1 78.1 1 , 200

1791 :,^97

1800 ( Estimated) 9,000

1802 8,532

18 1 6 1 1,156

1821 (Estimated^ 15,000

1 86 1 25,026

187 1 29,582

1 88 1 .^6,100

i«')i .•.^■55'J

1895 (Estimated, including

Dartmouth) 50,000

The floating population was especially large
during the years from 1756 to 1783, so much so
as to throw serious doubts on the coirectness of
the figures in the tables which have been
repeated in Akins' History. For, m 1758, the
city appears to have accommodated 12,000 of the
land forces of General Amherst, as well as the
men of Boscawen's fleet of twenty-three ships of
the line, 18 frigates, and 120 transports. And,
in 1776, General Howe, after evacuating Bcston,
asked the city to provide acconimouation for eoo
officers, and provide 3,000 troops and 1,500 Loy-
alists and their families with fresh supplies.
Halifax was the general point of distribution of
refugees coming to settle in the Province or to
leave the continent. The division of the popula-
tion of 1891 into the principal religious Denomi-
nations was as follows :

Roman Catholic. ..13, 658. Churches 4

English Church ... 9.964. " \i

I'resbjterian \<''^77- " ^

Methodist J. 996. " 7

■ f'\

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CANAIiA : AN I'ATVCl.OI' I'DIA.

Maptists -i'^bi- ^liunlu'S h

All ntliurB 1<().W- Univornitius,,. i

Total.

.J8,j8i

38

, '?■

Ill 1758 the fust n'|iros(jiitativ(! Assembly was
cKctcd from tin; v. inoiis districts of tlu; I'loviiice
to fonii an cml)\n) Pailiainciit. It coiisisliHl of
"six isfiniii'S ami twclvo (,'iiitlLMncii " ; Imt it was
lint until tlio yiar iSjS that it lui .imo nccfssary
liir till! ('iiivciiiiiiiiit to havo I hi! c'liruIoMci! of
this bt.nu'h of tliu I.e;;i.sl.itiii'e, in wliiih at that
time Joseph Ilowt! WIS the most fiiiiiiLMit jiopular
rtforiiHT. The maiia/,'(in(iit of the city affairs
was frnin the fir>*t vt-iy liircctlj' under the control
oftlio rroviiici il (i 'VLTUincut. I'mt tin; cfl'orfs
fur the si'lf-jjovti iiiiRMit of tliu rity, which coiii-
iiR'iucd to bo made as eaiiy as 17N5, were not
siiri'cssfiil in st.'ciii iirj; a charter of iiicor|)oration
until 1.S41. Six aldrrnu'ii and twelve coinmon
councillors were tiun annii;dl\' eluctrd by the
people, and thtso represeiilatives elected the
.May<jr. In 1S50 this constitution was so chan<;ed
that both the M.i\ or and the ei^rhteen aldermen
were elected, the former by a plurality of the
votes in the city, the latter by the votes in each
of tiic six wards into which the citv' is di-
vided.

The municipal revenue for i'^o.t was estimated
at about !?32o,ooo, assessed on the valuation of
over §25,000,000 — l?j,ooo,ooo of city property,
cliurclu.s, charitable institutions, etc., beiiifj
exempt. The fiin<led debt, which is represented
in tlie various public works of the city (wafer
siippl}', Si, 000, 000; school and city buildings,
$300,000; sewerajjc, public fjardens,etc.), is about
$2,900,000. The fiist steamship to cross the
Atl.mlic by steam power was the Rayitl WiHimit.
It was built and owned entirely in Canada, and
left a No\ a Scotian port on that historic trip in
1S33. The Hon. Samuel Ciinaid, of Halifax,
shortly after became the pioneer of the present
fjreat steamship lines. The Britauuia, the first
of the " Cuiiard Line," left Liverpool, Knj,dand,
on the I'dinth of Jui\, iS.|o, for Halifax and P)os-
tou, whrie it was j,'reeted with f;reat jiiiiilic
demonstrations. Halifax has now one of the
most strongly fortified as well as one of the most
commodious harbours in the \voil<l, and the
w iter is so deep that the slight change of tide

level has never to be consiilered in the iiiove-
tneiits of shi|)ping, us a (general rule. It has
always been the chief Hritish naval station in the
North Atlantic, and the dockyard, wlm h big.in
to date from I75'S, covers fourteen acres. The
dry doik, wliich serves the piirpous of the mer-
cantile a>J well as tin; Royal navy, is tin; largest
and most costly upon the continent.

There is superior railway and water comminii-
c.itioii with the n st of the continent, so that it
is not sinjiri.'-ing that the port should st.md next
to Montreal as the secotnl in the Dominion in
the magnitiido of its exports, which in 1S94 wi:ro
returned as §f^,. 5.57, .5.51 ; and the third in the
Dominion with respect to its imports, which
Were for the s.iine year .$7, 180,940, exceeded oniy
by Moiitnal and Toronto. The number of ves-
sels arriving ami departing from the pint during
the same year was 2,i<j4, with a tonnage of
1,329,677. Its traile with the West Imlus and
other tropic, d countries is impoitaiit, lish, field
and forest products being exchanged for raw
sugar and other hot climate produce. The
mannfacttiring industries of the city, which in
iS()i iiund)ered 34N establishments, have invested
in land !?3b4, 000 ; in buildings, $1,021,000; in
machinery, $1,069,000, and in capital, $2,842,000.
Tlii'y paid $i,i6o,oo(j in wages, utilizing raw
materi il to the value of $4,412,000, and produc-
ing m.iterial to the value of $7,198,000. The
largest of these industries is that of sugar refin-
ing, which prf)din"es over $2,000,000 annually,
and " rope ami twine m.ikiii'.%" which produces
over $700,000. The school-masti.'r came out
with the fiist settlers. I'loin an early time the
("loverninent aided education, especially from the
jiar 17S(), when the city Grammar School was
established, ami more especially after the year
1N64, when the free scho(jl sjstem received the
assent of the Trovincial Legislature. The schools
are now graded aci;ording to the prescribed Pro-
vincial course of study, eight years in the common
school grades and four years in the high school
gra.les giving a free; course of education frf)m the
kimlergaitcu to the eiitiance into the UnivtasitN'.
School alteiKl.ince is compulsory niidLT certain
restrictions. The school buildings and appliances
compare favourably with thoe of other cities,
more particularly tha newer buildings. The fol-

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CANADA: AN KNCVCI.OI'.KDIA.

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lowing' I. dill! oiitliiics tliu >li!vt'l(i|)iiiunt of tliu
I'llui iiliiiii.il svstcti) (luting' tlio tliiui: (lucudug uf
itit L-xiHloiK.c :

(■'.ii|ien(lilurp. ('ii«l |irr I'upil.
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G(J,.|()3(jI 11,11

()i,j(jS.55 i.!.()u

Tin; Uiiivcrsily, lliu coiiut stoiu: of wliicli w.is
laid III iiH^u by tliu ICail of D.dliuiisiu uii tliu site
of the prt'scut City Hall — wliich Ih constructed
out of tliu orifjinal fruistoiio ol the Colic;,'!' — was
riiiiiiVL'd to it3 present sit(! in 1.S86, when the
modi III biiildiiif; was erected in brick andj^ranitc
at a cost of about sJlSo.ooo. To the ori;,'inal
I'aculty ol" Arts there have been since tiddtd those
of law, inediciiieaiid science. Tiie annu d attend-
ance of students is above three hundred. There
are also two theological colie},'es — the Presby-
terian C ()lle(,'e at Pine Hill, situated within the
pictiiresiiuu environnient of the Park; and the
Koiiiaii Catholic Colle^je of the Eudist Fathers
on (Jiiiupool Road. In addition to the County
Academy aiul the .St. Patricia's lli^'h School,
foriiiiiig the higher grades of the public schoul
system, there are also the foUowintj institutions
connected with the Provincial system : The
Ilalifiix Scho(jl for the Hliiid and the Halifax
Institution for the Deaf ainI Dumb, both efjual
in eciuiiuneiit to the bust in any country, aiul free
t(j all in the Province reciiiiriiig such instruction.
Some of the other institutions doing e lucatioiial
work are tiie Halifax Ladies' College, the Convent
of tin; Sacred Heart, the Victoria Scliool of Ait
and Desi;^!!, the Halifax Coiiiinercial Colle^'e, La
Salle Academy, and several Industrial Schools.

There aie five daily, three tri-weekly, and
seven weikly newspapers, and two or more piil)-
lislu (1 at lon;,'er intervals. There are Lilnarii s
in connection with the several Colleges, with the
Young Men's Christian Association, with some of
the scdools, and with such institutions as the
Nova Sc(;tia Institute of Science and tiie His-
torical Society. The library of the latter is
consolidated with the Parliamentary Library. In
the City Hall there is also the Clti.iens' Free
Library. Among tlie jihllanthropic and charita-
ble institutions may be mentioned the Victoria
General Hospital, the Mount Hope Hisplt'il for
the Insane (in D.n tnioiitli'), tlie County Poor-

House, the lialii.i.x Dispunsiury, and the Young
Men's (. hiistian Association. Among the
Churches St. Mary's Cathedral (KomanCatholic),
with its splemlid gothic fr<Hit in white gianite,
stands first as an architectural monument. The
i'rovince liuildmg, Doiniiu >ii ibiilding, (iovern-
inent House, and the Cily II ill represent some
of the liiiest freestone struct 111 es. Among the six
banks, the club hoii-.es and institute buildings
aro also very creditable structurus, as also
among the many newer business blocks ami pri-
vate residences.

The chmate is not subject to the extremes of
t(Miiperaturo characteristic of inland and more
southern localities. The annual rainfall (includ-
ing snow) averages 56 inches, the greatest mini-
mum and niaxmium recorded being 40 and Gd
inches approximatel)'. The mean temperalure
for the year iSSij w.is about 55^ T/di. Of each
season of three months during the year it was :
winter, 29"; spring, 52"; summer, 0.}" ; ami
autumn, 40^. Tho coldest day was on tin; 2pli
of February, 8^ bilow zero; the hottest the 3rd
of September, 87^ Fah. But in the hottest
weather the eveningsare pleasantly cool, and the
salubrious air contributes to make it one of the
most healthy of cilii s at all seasons, and sjiecially
attractive in siiminer. The well-woo<led laby-
rinthine paik of Point Pleasant, with the stilled
waters of the Atlantic bathing its three sides, has
already been alluded to. In the centre of the
l)eniiisula the Citadel Hill is tlanked on its rear to
the sniith by the Public Gardens, which have the
reputation of biiiig the finest of their kind in
America. On the rear, and to the iKirtii of the
Citadel Hill, from the ilanks of which a hundrid
thousand s[)ectators can look down upon it, lies
the " Conuiions ", now surrounded bv the citv —
the Champs de Mars of Halifax, where from
earliest times military reviews of all arms, and
sham battles with the most spectacular tlunuler
of artillery and smoke-clouils of war, tiiiu! and
again delighted the native holiday-taker as well
as the foreign visitor. Another large park is now
being laid out towards the north of the city,
while a number of smaller parks are distributetl
in many places. The water supply, drawn from
lakes in the elevated granitic region beyond tlie
Northwest Arm, is abuiulaiit and gootl. The
sewage system is Hot excelled anywhere.

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HISTORICAL SKETCH OF MONTREAL

BY

The REV. J. DOUGLAS BORTHWICK, LL.D.

■ 1

i;^ 1

BY tlie first missionaries sent out to Can-
ada from France, it was soon perceived
that the occupation of the Island
of Montreal was an object of the greatest
importance. Several persons formed themselves
into a Society, for the purpose of colonizing the
Island. The greater part of it had been granted
to Messrs. Charrier and Le Royer de la Dauver-
siere, though whether disposed of by them or
forfeited to the Crown does not appear from any
official record that has been preserved. The King,
however,, ceded the whole of it, in 1641, to this
Society, which took formal possession, and in the
following year M. de Maisonneuve, one of the
Associates, brought out several families from
France, and was appointed Governor of the
Island. The ceremony of the founding of Mon-
treal was celebrated on the 18th of August, 1642,
a number of French and Indians being present,
and nothing was omitted which could give to the
natives a lofty idea of the Christian religion.
Thus a " few houses," as Bouchette observes,
" built close together in the year 1642 on the site
of the Indian village of Hochelaga," was the
commencement of the City of Montreal, or, as it
was first named, " Ville Marie." Parkman thus
speaks of this interesting event :

" Maisonneuve sprang ashore and fell on his
knees. His followers imitated his example ; and
all joined their voices in enthusiastic songs
of thanksgiving. Tents, baggage, arms and
stores, were landed. An a.tar was raised
on a pleasant spot near the landing and Made-
moiselle Mance, with Madame de la Peltrie,
aided by her servant, Charlotte Barrd, decorated
it with a taste which was the admiration of the
beholders. Now all the company gathered before
the Shrine. Here stood Vimont in the rich
vestments of his office. Herr; were the two
ladies with their servant ; Montmagny, and
Maisonneuve, a warlike figure, erect ami tall —

his men clustering around him. They knelt
in reverent silence as the Host was raised aloft;
and, when the rite was over, the priest turned
and addressed them : 'You are a grain of mus-
tard seed that shall rise and grow till its branches
overshadow the earth. You are few, but this
work is the work of Gnd. His smile is on you,
and your children shall fill the land.' "

The Indians proved continually a source of
great trouble, anxiety and danger to these early
settlers. In the year 1644 the whole Island be-
came the property of the St. Sulpicians at Paris,
and was by them afterwards conveyed to the
Seminary ai Montreal, in whose possession much
of it still remains. The Lachine Massacre took
place in the year 1689. The Indians burned 200
persons and as many more were reserved by them
for future suffering and death. To avenge this
massacre M. de Frontenac started from Mon-
treal, July, i6g6, with 1000 men. Embarkingat
Lachine, he passed a considerable way into the
Iroquois country, but met no resistance. The
expedition was of little value or resuli, the Indians
having retired before him. He shortly after-
wards returned to Montreal and died at Quebec.
In the year 1710 Montreal was cgain in danger,
as General Nicolson, the British Commander in
the English Colonies, prepared to move on it
with a force of 4,000 Provincials anil 600 Indians.
This expedition failed, however. The year 1759
will ever be memorable in the annals of Canada.
The French, perceiving that the English were in
earnest, sent strong re-enforcements to their gar-
risons. The campaign opened with great vigour.
Canada was to be invaded at three different
points under Generals of great talent. The forces
intended to act against Quebec were under the
command of General Wolfa, who had taken Fort
Louisbourg and subdued the Island of C.ipe
Breton the preceding year. Wolfe's army,

Ml H

CANADA : AN ENCYCLOP/EDIA.

265

amounting to about 8,000 men, was conveyed to
the vicinity of Quebec by a lleet of vessels of war
and transport, commanded by Admiral Saunders,
and landed in two divisions on the Isle of
Orleans, on the 27th of June. The battle on the
Plains of Abraham was fought on the 13th of
September, 1759 ; and five days afterwards, on
the i8th, Quebec surrendered. Fightinj^ j > ;-
tinned more or less for several months till in I'le
following year hostilities finished by the surrender
of Montreal. By the terms of this capitulation,
signed by both Generals Amherst and de Vau-
dreuil, protection was promised to the inhabi-
tants. The free use of their religion, laws and
language was guaranteed them. In October of
1763 an important proclamation was issued in
the name of "George III., King of England."
Officers and men by its terms were offered free
grants of land in Canada, and " all persons resort-
ing to the said colonies might confide in His
Majesty's Royal protection for enjoying the bene-
fit of the laws of England." More than 400
Protestants of British origin now became
residents in Canada — the French population of
the Province being a little over 75,000. In
November, 1763, the military form of govern-
ment was brought to an end by the appointment
of General Murray to the office of Governor-
General. His instructions were as far as possible
to introduce tiie laws of England. Another thing
required was that the inhabitants should comply
with these conditions, viz.: '* To take the oath of
allegiance, to make a declaration of abjuration and
to give up all arms in their possession." It was
found impossible to procure compliance with
these orders, and the General modified them
as much as possible. The oath of abjuration
could not be taken by the Roman Catholics, as it
involved a fundamental principle of their religion,
and therefore no Roman Catholic was sworn in
as Justice of the Peace; that about arms was
extremely distasteful; whilst that of allegiance to
the English Throne was taken readily and cheer-
fully. It took a little over a year to regulate all
these matters, and on the nth of January, 1764,
letters patent under the Great Seal of the Prov-
ince were executed and sent to Moses Hazcn, J.
Grant, John Rowe, Francis MacUay, Thomas
Lamb, F. Knife, John Burke, Tlionias Walker

and others, making them Justices of the Peace
of Montreal and vicinity. The first general
Quarter Sessions of the Peace were held on the
27th December, 1764, and "there were present
Moses Ilazen, J. Dumas, F. Mackay, Thomas
Lamb and Francis Knife,and the Court adjourned
to January, 1765."

Among the first regulations of this period is
t. at for the bakers, in which the white loaf is
culled " a brick," and sold at eight coppers for
4 lbs. weight and the brown of 6 lbs. for ten
coppers. Another shows that there were slaves

Paul Chomedy de M:.isoiineuve.

in Montreal in those days, who were bought and
sold like other merchandize. The rule was:
" No tavern, ale house or innkeeper to receive,
harbour or entertain any bond or servant, slave
or slaves, drinking, gaming or loitering in their
houses, under a penalty of ^^.^ When the estab-
lishment of English rule was perfected by the
Treaty of Paris, in February, 1763, a strong tide
of emigration set in towards Canada, and in the
persons who arrived the bad were mixed with the
good. It is remarkable that in the records of the

- i|

•'.'ji.:

^ ■■ ■ fv

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■ I'

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2M

CANADA: AN KNCVCLOI'.KDIA.

I

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Court of yuiirtcr Sessions in Montreal, for years
after the conquest of the country, there are very
few French names before the magistrates for
those crimes for which pnnisiiinent by wiiipping,
tiie stocisS, the pillory, or branding on the hand
was n:eted out. This shows how thoroughly
they obeyed tlu:ir Curtis in respecting the laws
and being faithful in their allegiance. In 1765
a fire took place, resulting in an estimated loss of
£ii(>,773 worth of buildings, etc., and much
suffering to the people. Large subscriptions
were sent out from England, iieaded by one of
£"500 from King George III.

During the years 1775 and 1776 the inhabi-
tants of Montreal saw many changes and vicis-
situdes. No doubt to some of the French
population it had at first been galling to be under
the Union Jack instead of the Lilies of France,
but the fifteen years of British rule had greatly
cliaiiged their opinion. They had better markets,
better crojis in these days of peace, and securer
privileges every way, and now to be subjected to
the sway of the New England Puritanic Colonists
would he ten times as bad. Joy spread over the
city when the last of the invading American army
passed St. Johns on their retreat to their own
country. It had been a busy time, not only in
Montreal, but in the Fort of Chambly, which was
then the principal station of British troops and
niunitions of war during the continuance of the
struggle between the Mother Country and her
revolted Colonies. Troops were arriving and
troops were departing, and preparations were
being made to follow up the retreating Americans
imJer General Arnold. On the 24th July, 1776,
the distribution of the troops and the onler of
marching were announced in general orders.
Quite a number of recruits had joined the regu-
lars, and the volunteers and militia were daily
drilling in Montreal. All the recruits at Chambly
were drafted into the 47111 and 53rd Regiments,
and two Companies of the 21st set out on the
march to St. Johns. Thus commenced the ill-
fated Burgoyne expedition. Genera! Arnold, on
his retreat from Quebec in the spring and early
summer of 1776, did an enormous amount of harm
to the country, in breaking down bridges, burning
houses and barns, destroying fences and culverts,
and ill-treating the inhabitants generally because

of their fidelity to the British Crown. When, in
1781, rumours were rife of another attempted
invasion of Canada by the Americans, spontan-
eously, from both Quebec and Montreal, came
addresses from the French-Canadians to the
Government, expressing indignation at the re-
newed attempt and their determination to
oppose it.

Slavery was abolished in Upper Canada by an
Act of the Legislature held at Newark, May 31st,
1793. In Lower Canada a Bill for the same
purpose was brought into Parliament in 1793, but
not carried. It was again brought up in 1799 and
1800, but nothing was accomplished until 1833,
when slavery by an Act of the British Parliament,
sanctioned August 28th, 1833, was abolished
throughout the British Empire. But in 1803
Chief Justice Osgoode had already declared at
Montreal, that " slavery was incompatible with
the laws of tiie country." In 1780 Patrick Lan-
gan had sold to John Mittleberger, a negro named
N-ro, for ^60, and the last slave was publicly sold
in Montreal on the 25th August, 1797. The
name of the slave was Emanuel Allen, aged 2_i
years ; price ^36. The sale was afterwar<ls set
aside by legal proceedings.

The Quebec Act, or, as it was designated,
" An Act for making better provision for the
Government of the Province of Quebec in North
America," was passed in 1774 by the Parliament
of England, but on account of these troublous
times had never been carried into effect. Sir Guy
Carleton brought it into active effect by creating
the new Council, which held its first meeting in
the spring of 1777. Five of its members were
French Canadians. The Courts of law were re-
organized so as to conduct their business accord-
ing to the spirit of the Act, and in Montreal the
Court was opened on January 9, 1779. At the
March term I find several French names as .
Justices of the Peace, viz., Hertel de Rouville,
Joseph Longueuil, Nevue Sevestre, Pierre
Meziire, and Pierre Fortier. The first time
James McGiU appears as a Justice was in this
\ear. The merchants of Montreal must have
received permission soon after this to have a
Custom House of their own, as the first case of
seizure by the Customs is recorded on the 22nd
May, 1783, when John Beck, " Surveyor of His

. ■ . «'

CANADA : AN KNCYCLOP.KDIA.

a67

Majesty's Customs for the Port of Montreal,"
obtained " a monition admonishing all persons to
appear and show cause, if any they can, why four
cases of gin seized at Montreal on the 28th April
last should not be condemned as forfeited." No
person appearing the Court granted the moni-
tion.

Tlie principal citizens or iirins of Montreal in

1801 were Alex. Henry, H. Gibb, N. Graham,
John Dillon, Dr. Arnold!, J. Brown (stationer),
Hon. J. Richardson, Simon McTavish, T. Poitier,
J. \V. Clarke, James & A. McGill, D. Davids, H.
Symes (auctioneer). Judge Davidson, Forsyth,
Richardson & Co., G. Gauche, R. Iloyle, John
Phitt, Burton & McCuUoch, J. Brown (auction-
eer), J. Fisher, P. Barsalou, Auldjo, Maitland &
Co., Logan & Watt, Wooliich & Cupper, R.
McClemcnts, Jas. Dunlop, John Lillcy, S. P.
Lepmhon, Joiin Shutcr (crockery). Colonel de
Loiiguuuii, Henderson and Wlngheld, E. St.
Dicier, John McGill, Samuel Gerrard, Gerrard
Ogilvie, A. Scott, John A. Gray, R. Dobie.

Montreal was the great objective point of
the Americans forces in the War of 181 2-13.
To forward this aim the United States Govern-
ment collected a large force on Lake Champlain.
In the summer of iSij about 6,000 men were
collected at Burlington and Plattsbiirg. During
all this time, and for the previous year, drilling
had gone on incessantly in Montreal. Men of
all ranks and nationalities eagerly pressed for-
ward for service. To the honour of our fore-
fathers they had determined to defend their
country with their lives, leaving the rest to God.
We know the result, when Colonel Dc Salaberry
and his brave troops completely overthrew the
invaders at the memorable Battle of Chateau-
guay.

After the country had quieted down from the
War a movement was made towards getting more
light for the city. In 1801, the manner of light-
ing the city had been suggested, but no definite
conclusion had been arrived at up to the year
1815. A curious inducement for the successful
carrying out of the street lighting at the time was
"that ladies might be induced to visit their fi lends
much more frequently." In November, 1815,
entirely through the exertions of Mr. Samuel
Dawson, part of St. Paul Street was lighted by

twenty-two lamps, costing $7.00 each. Tlicy
were distant from eacii other fifiy-lour feet.
This was the west end of St. Paul Street, and by
Christmas, same year, the east end of the street
was similarly lighted. Notre Dame Street fol-
lowed, and thus began the lighting of Montreal
— now in this year, 1897, lighted by gas and
electricity. An Act passed in 1818 provided for
the erection of street lamps and also for night
watches consisting of twenty-four in number —
their duties being to trim and attend to the
lamps, and act as police guardians of the city.

On 17th July, 1817, the Lachine Canal was
begun, the first sod being removed by the Hon.
J. Richardson. During the same yea/, Citadel
Hill was turned into a Square, and as the Gover-
nor had donated it to the citizens, it received the
name of Dalhousie Scjuare. A great fire occurred
in 1825. But for the efforts of the men of the
70th Regiment the conflagration would have
been much greater. This year was also remark-
iil)',e for the exertions that the merchants of
Montreal made towards improving the navigation
between Quebec and Montreal. Very modest was
their petition to Parliament, " that steps should
be taken to deepen the channel of the river, par-
ticularly at Lake St. Peter, and thereby render it
navigable throughout the season for vessels of
two hundred and fifty tons fully huleu." The
year 1S32 will be remembered for the first
appearance of the Asiai ic cholera, by which 4,420
citizens were attacked, from which 1,904 died.
The Bill incorporating Montreal took effect in
1833, ^"<^ Jacques Viger was appointed the first
Mayor. On July 23rd, 1840, the Bill to unite
Upper and Lower Canada became law, being
then sanctioned by the Queen. It did not, how-
ever, come into operation till February loth,
1841.

In 1844 the Government was transferred from
Kingston to Montreal. In the summer of 184b
Montreal was visited by the dreadful pestilence
which has come to be known as the " Ship
Fever," and from which 6,000 persons died. In
January, 1S47, Lord Elgin arrived in Montreal
;is tlie newly-appointed Governor-General of
Canada. On the i8lh of June, 1848, the largest
bell in Canada was christened in the presence of
an immense congregation of citizens at Notre

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CANADA; AX KNCVCLOI'.KDIA

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Dame Cathedral. Among tliu public buildingserec-
ted during this year were the Koid Wing to the
General Hospital, the St. Andrew's Chnrcii, and
the I'rotestant Orphan Asylum. The burning of
the Parliament Huildings, and the accompanying
riots over the Rebellion Losses Hill, occurred on
April 25lh. In March, 1^*55, an Industrial lix-
hibition was held in the City Concert Hall for
the purpose of selecting articles to be sent to the
Paris Exhibition. It was publicly inaugurated
by His Excellency Sir Edmund Head, the Gov-
ernor-General, who visited Montreal, for the first
time for that purpose, on March 5th. This visit
was celebrated in the most enthusiastic manner,
and every possible effort was made to render it
agreeable.

In August, 1857, Montreal was visited by the
most distinguished company that had ever met
in the Province. On the 12th of that month the
American Association for the Advancement of
Science assembled in the Court House, and con-
tinued in session for one week. On Thursday
evening, a soine was given by the Natural His-
tory Society, in the City Concert Hall, and was
numerously attended. On Saturday,by invitation
of the officers of the Garrison, the party visited
St. Helen's Island. On the Monday following,
a Conversazione was given by the Governors,
Faculty and F Hows of McGill College and was
a magnificent affair. At the closing meeting of
the Association, addresses were given by ex-Pres-
ident Filinore of the United States, Professors
Henry, Swallow, Ramsay, Caswell, and other
celebrities. Onr. of these speakers congratulated
the people on possessing such a city, and stated
that there was " a power stored up here upon
the shores which, wiihin less than one hundred
years, will probably result in making this the
greatest city in America. This immense water
power, being directed to the manufactures which
might be established here, will make it one of the
great cities of the globe."

In July, 1862, the Governor-General, Lord
Monck, paid his first visit to the city, and was
hospitably entertamed by the Corporation, who
presented an address of welcome, and provided
every possible means to render his visit pleasant.
The formal opening of Victoria Bridge was, in
Colonial importance, the chief feature in the

visit of the Prince of Wales to Montreal in 1S60.
As an engineering triumph over natural difficul-
ties of the most stupendous kind it has had few
equals. Lately it has been enlarged to meet the
increased business of the Grand Trunk Railway.
While the city was in the niiilst of excitement
on account of the seizure of Mason and Siidell,
an event occurred which temled to throw a sad-
ness over its inhabitants. On Tuesday, Decem-
ber 24th, 1861, the news arrived that the Piince
Consort iiad suddenly died. A large meeting of
the citizens was held at the City Concert Hall,
and adopted an address of condolence to Her
Majesty.

In the early part of 1868 the mutterings
of Fenian excitement were heard on our borders,
and 've were threatened by an armed invasion.
But, fortunately for Canada, the resources of the
" Brotherhood " were not sufficient to enable
it to make good its foothold in the country,
although the spirit aroused caused the death
of the Hon. Thomas D'Arcy McGee, a repre-
sentative of the City of Montreal in the Domin-
ion Parliament, who was assassinated on the
morning of April 7th, 1868, while returning from
the Parliament Buildings to his lodgings; in Ot-
tawa. The funeral, which took place on the
13th of April, will be long remembered. The
streets were filled with mourning flags and fes-
toons of black, giving the scene a striking and
funereal aspect, and those through which the pro-
cession passed were lined on either side by soldiers,
regulars and volunteers. On the 21st of Novem-
ber, 1872, the ceramony of formally presenting
to the city the statue of Her Majesty the Queen
was performed by Lord Dufferin, the Governor-
General. In 1873 Sir George E. Cartier died
in London, and his funeral in Montreal was the
largest ever seen in the city. The expenses
of his obsequies were borne by the Dominion
Government. In 1875 the Guibord burial case
occasioned some ill-feeling in Montreal, but by
the energetic action of Dr. (now Sir William)
Ilingston, the Mayor, to whose wisdom and
tact all praise is due, the trouble was settled
without any actual disturbance. On the 8th
of October, iSGq, H.R.H. Prince Arthur, arrived
in Montreal to join for a time the P.C.O.
Rifles, there stationed, and in which he held

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a Lieutenant's commission. In November, iiSj.S,
the Marquess of L(jriie and II.U.H. tiie I'rincess
LouijC arrived ia tlic city, and great was tlie
welcome which every one gave to the Queen's
daughter.

Durin;; the years wliich have followed Mon-
treal has steadily increased in size, wealth and
population anil its boiindarius arc extending in
every direction. Among the principal events of
these years may be mentioned the Kid Rebellion
in the Nortii-West, when two Montreal regi-
ments were sent to the scene of the uprising —
the Garrison Aitillery and the 65th. The first
was an English, the second a French-Canadian,
corps. During the summer of 18S5 tlie small-
pox epii'emic was of such magnitude tluu several
thousands fell victims to its scourge, tiie most
noted being the well-known politician. Sir
Francis Hiiicks. The execution of Louis Kiel,
after the close of the Rebellion, caused great
excitement in Montreal, happily without iwy
serious result, although thousands met on the
Champ de Mars and passed condemnatory res-
olutions. A great bridge, built by the Canadian
Pacific Railway, was erected at Lachine and the
magnificent gift of the Jubilee Victoria Hospital
by Lord Mount Stephen and Lord Strathcona must
also be mentioned. Fine buildings of all kinds
have been put up in Montreal within the past few
years. The following has been the growth of Mon-
treal, including suburbs, since it wns fi)unded in
1642 by 18 persons :

Vrar. Inhabitants,

1667 766

1689 2,000

1703 3.000

1790 9,000

1842 50,000

Year, Inhabitants.

1858 80,000

187I 107.225

1««I 155.237

189I 240,000

1897 300,000

Of course there are cities on the continent
which have progressed at a greater ratio, but tire
locality has been different from Montreal, the
advantages greater, the difiiculties to be over-
come immensely less, and altogether the effects
infinitely easier. Let me give only one example
— the deepening of the channel of the St. Law-
rence from Montreal to Ouebec. About the year
1850, when the writer landed in Montreal, the
depth of the cliannel to Quebec was only 11 feet,
and he well remembers being iir the beautiful
Clipper 'Jlirce Bells for three days in Lake St.
l^eter, as the vessel could go no farther with her
heavy load. This ship was the first iron vessel
ever moored at the wharf of Muirtreal and was
consigned to the firm of Ednionstone, Allan &
Co. Ligliteis had to come from Montreal to take
part of her cargo to enable her to reach her port
of destination. In 1853 the channel was deep-
ened to 15 feet 2 inches and the Gleuora was the
first ocean steamer to arrive in Montreal as a
result of this depth. This tight little steamer,
the Lady E^linton and Sarah Sands were the pion-
eers of the graird array of ocean monarchs which
now steam up St. Lawrence. In 1854 the river
channel was deepened to ib^ feet. By 1865 it
had deepened to 18 feet and by 1875 to no less
than 20 feet, when the wharfage had attained a
length of 3.17 miles. The depth in 18S8 was
27^ feet and the wharves were extended for no
less than 4.7 miles, and to the credit of Montreal
electric lighting was adopted for its harbour.
The deepening of the channel still goes on and
the increasing tonnage of the ocean steamers
still advances. It must be added that Montreal
possesses some of the wealthiest, and the most
generous, private citizens in Canada.

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THE CITIES OF VICTORIA AND VANCOUVER

MRS. F. G. HENSIIAW "JULIAN DURHAM."

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VICTORIA.— The Queen City of British
Cohiinbia, and the oldest established
town in the Province, is situated at the
southern end of Vancouver Island,
some forty miles distant from the mainland,
and is one of the most beautiful residential spots
in Canada. Early in the present century Fort
Camosun, as the place was first called, was
a busy Hudson's Bay and trading post, and
in the year 1849 Vancouver Island was formally
proclaimed a British possession open for colon-
ization. During the same year Mr. R. Blanshard
was nominated as first Governor of the new
Territory, but declined the responsibility, and
in 1851 Mr. James Douglas (afterwards Sir

ordinary modern business town. Many persons
of wealth came to reside in the neighbourhood,
for the beautiful natural surroundmgs and the
great commercial advantages offered by the port,
together with a very temperate climate, tempted
a large number of families to settle permanently
in and near Victoria. During his long tenure
of office Sir James Douglas built many excellent
roads, not only opening up the island in all
directions but also commencing schemes of great
magnitude to coimect Hope with Oi;anagan
and the Kootenays, and the coast from Edmon-
ton by means of first-rate colonization roads;
and the portions of the Cariboo Road in use to-
day are a monument to his skill and determina-

James Douglas), the Senior Chief Factor of the tion in carrying out so gigantic an undertaking.

Hudson's Bay Company, was appointed to the
position. On the i6th of June, 1S56, Governor
Douglas founded the Parliament of British
Columbia by calling for the election by £20
freeholders, or ^joo property holders, to a House
of Assembly, which met on August 12th of tlie
same year in an old room in the Fort, and there
confined its attention to matters of immediate
import, such as schools, roads, etc. The clergy-
man who read the opening prayers on this
memorable occasion was the Reverend, now
Right Rev., Bishop Cridge, a most highly
esteemed clergyman of Victoria.

Up to the time of Confederation, in 1871,
Victoria remained a free port. When in 1858
the gold discoveries on the Eraser River and
in the Cariboo country attracted thousands
of Californian miners and prospectors to the

It was Mr. Edgar Dcwdney, the late Lieut. -
Governor of British Columbia, who in 1865
carried the Dewdney Trail down the Similkameen
to Osoyoos, and thence by Kootenay Lake
into Fort Steele, and thus gave to the world
an entrance into the wonderfully rich mming
districts of the Kootenays.

Even the briefest sketch of Victoria would be
incomplete without a mention of the late Sir
Matthew Baillia Begbie, the first Chief Justice of
British Columbia, a man of sterling qualities, and
an unflinching dispenser of justice, who pre-
served law and order throughout the length and
breadth of the Province at a time when it was
swarming with all sorts and conditions of men,
and when across the border every form of liberty
and license, murder, theft and vice were rampant.
On August 20th, 1850, the Mainland of Caledonia

north, the old Fort, which in 1842 had changed was christened British Columbia, and on Sep-

its name to Victoria, was the scene of great tember 2nd, 1858, Sir James Douglas was made

activity and excitement. But after a time the Governor of the new Colony, though it was not

tide of gold seekers flowed on, and the Queen till November igth, 1866, that the mainland and

City settled down to the steady quiet life of the the Island were united under the same numc, and

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CANADA: AN KNCYCLOI'.KDIA.

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the c.ipital of the whole Crown Colony finally
fixed at Victoria. In the year 1H71 British
Columbia was admitted to the Canadian Confed-
eration under the provisions of the British
North America Act.

As the capital of one of the most progressive
Provinces in Canada, Victoria is a place of con-
siderable importance. The magnificent Parlia-
ment Buildings recently erected, at a cost of
about $1,000,000, are worthy of all admiration,
and surpassing in architectural beauty and eiiuip-
ment those of many other Provincial centres,
compare most favourably with the Dominion
Government Buildings at Ottawa. Situated on
a beautiful site overlooking the harbour, the
stately pile of stonework is surrounded by spaci-
ous grounds, and presents a particularly imposing
appearance backed by the Olympian Mountain
range, flanked by beautiful residences, and with
the blue waters of James' Bay flowing in
the foreground. It is composed entirely of
grey stone, with slate roofing and granite steps
and landings, all of these materials having been
obtained in the Province. A dome-roofed Cen-
tral Hall, ornamented with marble pillars,
wrought-iron and stained glass windows, forms a
splendid entrance to the building, whilst the
Legislative Chamber, a room sixty feet long by
forty fiet wide is panelled in Italian marble,
with great monolithic columns of green Cippo-
lino. This Hall is oak-finished, and tlic adjoitnng
committee-rooms are all panelled in various
British Columbian woods, such as Maple, Alder,
Cedar, Fir, Pine, Spruce, Cypress, etc. The
electric lighting and fire-proof arrangements are
of the best, and the tiled floors and walls, exqui-
site stained glass windows, and artistic fittings
of the entire building simply superb. The Pro-
vincial Museum, which is situated in a wing
connected with the main edifice by means of
colonnades forming a facade over five hundred feet
long, contains a most excellent collection of
British Columbian animals, fish, birds, fossils,
Indian curios, etc.

Lying on Vancouver Island, off the extreme
western boundary in Canada, the Port of Victoria
is the first port reached by all in-coming ocean
vessels, and, as the shipping trade has increased,
so have the city's commercial interests advanced.

Then, again, the lumber, mining, salmon-canning,
and deep-sea fishing industries have all largely
contributed to local business importance and
prosperity, and a glance at the customs returns
of last year amply testifies to the solid commercial
position now enjoyed by the (.)ui;cn City. In
ieSg7 the total importa at the Port of \'ictoria
amounted to $2,754,079 and the exports to
$2,610,794, whilst collections added up to
$7.51,506.

The scaling industry is almost entirely confined
(as far as British Columbia is concerned) to Vic-
toria, and the fDllowiiig statistics gathcretl from
the Year-Bouk of KS97 (Mr. R. E. Gosiicll) will
convey a brief iilca of its magnitude. There are
sixty-five schooners of a net tonnage of 4,29;^
registered, valued at $614,500. Eight hundred
and seven whites and nine hundred and three
Indians are employed. The annual cost of out-
fitting is about $135,000, and some $350,000 is
paid in wages. Tlie value of the skins has
averaged $750,000 per annum for the past three
years, of which $500,000 is the product of
Behring Sea.

Amongst the line stone and brick buildings in
Victoria may be noted the Jubilee Hospital, the
new Custom House and Post OfBce, the Drill
Shed, City Hall, and Board of Trade Building.
In addition to these the city boasts of many
admirable churches, schools, hospitals, orphanges,
exhibition buildings, shops, warehouses, etc., and
the various places of business of such firms as E.
J. Prior & Co., the Victoria Roller Flour and
Rice Mills, the Colonist and Times newspapers,
etc., are deserving of special mention. The
immense warehouses and docks of R. P. Rithet
& Co., which is one of the largest exporting
establishments in the Province, and represents
numerous influential British, Canadian and
American firms, and also the enormous premises
of the Hudson's Bay Company, Turner, Beeton
& Co., Ames Holden & Co., Robert Ward & Co.,
Simon Leiser & Co., and others far too numerous
to mention, all testify to the large and substantial
wholesale trade carried on in Victoria. The
commercial enterprises of the Queen City are too
great in number to mention individually, but
amongst the most progressive concerns are the
Albion Iron Works, the Okell & Morris Fruit

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I'lcsciviiif^ Co., the Hrackinan Sc Kcr Mills, tlic
Cheiiii(;il Works, tin; V'ictoii.i I'Iklm.x Hrewerv.
cti-., whilst tho list of itidiistrics successfully
carried on in the town incliuK s boot, shoo and
trunk niakinj^, soap factorit:s, pansier works,
pickliiif,' and spice factories, clicniical and nutal-
liHRical works, fmiiiture aiul bisrnit factories,
flonr, fi cd and rice mills, iron foundries and
machine shops, etc., and what is more, all of
these a'e now nniiiing on a p.iying basis.

There is no doubt that the splindd location of
Victoria has largely contribnti.'il to its progress,
and the oriijinal settlers were most wise in their
generation whm they chose this particular spot,
close beside the great Songhee Indian Reserve,
as the site for a fort and trading post. No
wonder that in the course of time warehouses
and docks, wharves and oftices have replaced the
siiacks of earlier days, and now cover the shores
of the almost landlocked harbour, for where
ships come and go, there will prosperity invari-
ably follow. As the West has developed and
demand increased, so has Victoria enlarged her
borders, and catered to a steadily increasing
trade.

The Canadian Pacitic Navigation Company,
the Victoria and Sydney Railway, and the
Esquimanlt & Nanaimo Railway are all impor-
tant factors in the passenger and freight traffic
of the place, whilst the Canadian Pacific Steam-
ers to China, Japan and Australia make it a port
of call. Victoria is also connected by excellent
steatnship service with San P'rancisco, the
Puget Sound ports, Vancouver, the Fraser River
ports and Alaska. The Esquimault & Nanaimo
Railway, which was finished in 1886 at a cost
of §3,000,000, connects Victoria with Nanaimo
and Wellington, the centres of the great coal-
mining industry of Vancouver Island, and is con-
trolled by the Dunsmnirs. The export of coal
from Nanaimo last year (1897) amounted to
$2,445,397. Victoria has a capital electric
Street Railway, lighting and telephone service,
water works and a new system of sewerage now
in course of construction. The banking facilities,
too, are admirable, as the Bank of Montreal,
Bank of British Columbia, Bank of British North
America, tlie Molson's Bank, and the Merchants
Bank of Halifax, all operate flourishing branches

in the city. Two excellent Clubs, the Union
and the Badminton, afford first-rate cuisine,
riMding, smokin;,', and bdliard rooms. Ab un
illustration of tin; steady advance in the worth
of city property, it may be stated tint the total
valuation, which in iSSf) was|)laced at $5,178,800,
has increased to an assessed value of $^3,007,4^0
in 1887.

Two things which make Victoria particularly
notable are first the (act that Es(|uimault is the
headtpiarters of the British Pacific sijuadron and
secondly the niunerous and beautiful residences
in the locality. Esquimanlt Harbour affords
magnificent anchorage for the vessels of the
Royal Navy, and all the way from the dock-yard
out to Oak r.av, a distance of about six niik-s,
may be sein some of the finest houses in Canada.
Large residences standing in immense private
grounds, gardens full of tropical growth, and
flowers that bloom from February to November,
tennis courts and golf links, all unite to render
Victoria a very lovely place. Indeed, as a resi-
dential locality, it is unequalled in British Colum-
bia, for there one can obtain all the comforts
of modern civili;sation combined with the pictur-
esque elements of country life. Three large, and
many smaller, hotels afford ample accommodation
for travellers. Beacon Hill Park ii a great addi-
tion to the city, for in its confines are a menagerie,
pretty walks and drives, a tiny artificial lake
bordered by oaks and elms and f.rst-rate grounds
for foot-ball, cricket, etc., together with an open
space sulBcient for the holding of large naval and
military reviews — a most necessary adjunct, the
local Militia forces being extensive, and the
First Battalion of the Fifth Regiment C.A.
an exceedingly popular corps. Lacrosse groumis
lie close to the Park, and all along the western
shore the san<ly bays form a splendid jilay-ground
for young Victorians and a capital bathing
place for everyone.

In 1855 the Hudson's Bay Company estab-
lished free public schools on Vancouver Island,
and in 1865 a free school system was inaugurated
by the House of Assembly, but it was not until
the year 1872, a.*"ter the union of the colonies of
Vancouver Island and British Columbia, that the
educational system of the Province was adminis-
tered by a proper Board presided over by the Sup-

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criiitcruli.'iit ol Kilucatioii. At tlic lucsrnt tiiiio
the Minister of ICdiication is (lu! cliicf executive
oIlictT of tlie l)ej)iiitiiu;iil, :iii>l he is assi-ititl by a
SiipurintiMiileut of I'.diu atioii, linanls of Tiiistecs
and Jixainiii'-TS, and Inspectors of Public Scliools.
The chinati! of \'irioria is snpcib. In suiiuiht
the days arc warm and the ni[;ht3 cool ; in winter
the averaj^e temperature is moderate, the ther-
inotneter only varying from ;^3 to 70 (h,<f^rees all
the year round. A few lumber statistics may
here be (jiven with advanta^'c, Vancouver Island
cumpiismg some fine timber limits. In i8(j6
the ciyhty-tive nulls at work in Hiitish Columbia
cut 1 1.2,957, lot) feet '^f lumber, and of this total
the Port of Victoria shipped i 5,09.2, 2(ji feet,
valued at §101,791.

It is extremely difficult to ascertain correctly
the present population of the (Jiieen City ; prob-
ably it is in the nei;,dd)ourhood of 26,000. This
fi},'ure, of comse, includes Indians and Chinese.
The Chinatown of Victoria is a larm; settUineiit,
densely populated, and containiu}^ the same sort
of shops, shacks, joss house, and th-atre that
cl)aracteri;{e all the other Mongolian quarters on
the Pacific coast. Victoria is Canada's ^rt^at
dcfeniled western outpost, for, in addition tobcin^
an important naval station, a detachment of
Royal Marine Artillery, also one of the K()\al
Ku{;ineers, for the express puri>ose of constructing
and kecpin}» in order the splendid fortifications
at Escjuimault Harbour, are stationed at the
Macaulay Point Barracks. The local Militia
force, under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel
the Hon. E. G. Prior, as commander of the Fifth
Regiment C.A.,and Lieutenant-Colonel Gregory,
commander of the First Hattalion thereof, arc
exceptionally fine corps.

VANCOUVER.— The City of Vancouver is
to-day the principal shipping port of British
Columbia, the terminus of the great transcontin-
ental Canadian Pacific line of railway, and one
of the most important commercial and trading
centres on the western coast of Canada. A truly
wonderful record this for a twelve-year-old city,
even out on the Pacific slope, where towns spring
up like mushrooms in the night, and population
increases with proportionate rapidity. To go
back to the very beginning of the history of the

Terminal City (as Vancouver is frequently called)
is not a difficult task, for as recently as the year
iSN5 till! town partook largely of the nature of
.\Iargtry Daw — "there wasn't any" — its exist-
ence only dating from the spring of 18.S6, when
what wi; now know a:; ;i thriving business centre
was cliielly standing forest, the few wooden
shacks originally dubbed Gastown and subse-
(pieiitly called Granville, being first incorporated
iis a city in I'ebruary, 1886, under the now
wiiltly-kiiown appiUalion of \'ancoiiver — so
named by Sir William Van Home, President of
the Canadian Pacific I'ailway Company, in honour
of Captain Vancouver, the noted British naval
explorer who in 179 5 iliscovered the waters of the
Hurrard Inlet, which now forms one of the
largest and most magnificent harbours in the
world.

During tin; spring of iiH.Sf) considerable work
was dune in the shape of forest-clearing, and
gradually the little town site began to f,row
apace and spread out its arms in every direction.
Then can »■ a sudden cluck. On the morning of
June I3tli the place was almost completely swept
away by fire, nothing of it remaining save the
Hastings' Mill and Store, the Regiiia Hotel, Mr.
R. II. Alexander's residence and a few cottages
on l''alse Creek. It is estimated that at *liat
time about two thousand people had already
settled in the locality, and those who were pres-
ent on the spot S[)eak most feelingly of the dis-
tressing scenes enacted ilining the coiillagration.
I'^anned by a high wind, the blaiic raged fiercely
for six consecutive hours, and by four o'clock in
the afternoon the town site, with the exception of
the above-mentioned houses, was a mass of
blackened, smoking debris. With indomitable
energy the inhabitants settled down to woik, and
on New Year's Dav, 18S7, no less than three
hundred and fifty buildings had been put up,
some stone, some l)iii:k, and the majority of
wood, at a total cost of about $500,000 — a capi-
tal showing for six months' work in the wilder-
ness. It is amusiitig to note that one ol the first
purchases made by the new City of Vancouver
was a fully-e(]uipped fiie engine. Prevmition,
they thought, was better than cure, and they hail
no desire to rebuild -their houses a second time.

The Hastings and Royal City lumber mills

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CANADA ; AN I:N( Vl I.OIM.DI A.

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Ki'uutly incrcasuil their business abuiit tliia time,
ami tlio Caiiailiaii Pacific Kiilway tornpaiiy
((iiiiiiiciiccd to erect an excellent liotul on Ciian-
villo Street. Diniiiji tlio year 1H1S7 ininiensu
striilfs were inado by the yoinin ^^'^y- Nuinbeis
of public l)iiililint;s and privatt; resiliences were
put up, and a public seliool ()|)eiu.'d in the east
end for the benefit of the rising generation.
Street gradiiiK and the clearance ol buiMiiij; l.ind
did niuih duriiif,' th.it summer to tuin N'aiicouvcr
into a respectable looking town, and it is inter-
esting; in the light uf the present unti-Mongoli.in
agitation to look back upon the hostility exhibited
towards the Chinese as early in the history of
the Terniin.il City as September, 1SS7, \s!ien the
prompt cst.iblishnient of an cflicieiit loc.d police
force alone prevented serious disturbances.

On the 2jrd of May in the s.iiiio year occurred
one of the greatest events in the uiinals of the
coast, and al.io one that opened up direct conu
nuinication for the first time across Canada from
the Atlan'ic to the racilic. The pioneer trans-
continental train of the Canadian Pacific Railway
arrived at its western terminus and thus by an
unbroken line the East and the West were
united. What the Canadian Pacific Railway has
done for Vancouver is already well-known to the
world, the Company having practically made the
place what it is to-day — a prosperous shipping
and commercial centre. About the month of
July Vancouver was made a Customs port of
entry, and within a very short period the local
returns bade fair to show how important a mari-
time place the town was soon to become. A
Board of Trade organiijed about this time has
ever since done good work in the interests of the
Terminal City, being to-day one of the most
respected and able local institutions. IJefore the
year had run to a close branches of the Hank of
Montreal, liank of British North America, and
Bank of British Columbia were established,
showing how strong was the belief in the financial
world that the growing community would soon
require extensive banking facilities.

Perhaps the most progressive year Vancouver
has ever experienced (when one considers how
many permanent works were begun and well-nigh
completed in it) was that of 1888, when the late
.Mr. David Oppenheimer first took the reins of

iiiiiMicipal government into his hands, and ac«
cepted the olfici; of .Mayor. Local improvements
went on apai e uinh r h>s guidance, industries
sprang up and population iiK reased rapidly- Saw
mills, iron works, factories, brevveries, ship*
yards, aii<l nuiiieinns other enterprises were
started, ami the geiuiid coiiilition of the streets
(now one of Vancouver's proudest boasts) was
vastly improved. One of the greatest attractions
Vancouver offers to the traveller at the present
day reached com|)Ietiiin at that time, namely, the
beautiful drive around Stanley Park, which was
laid out and grailed in an admirable manner, and
very sojii afterwards the whole Dominion (lov-
eiiinient reserve came to bo regarded in the light
of a valuable addition to the town. Since then
the P.irk has been much improved ; trails have
been cut, traversing the denser portions of the
almost impenetrable forest ; the Brockton Point
Athletic Grounds have been made on the eastern
slo|)e ; and the natural masses of gigantic pines
and extpiisite fern-carpeted glades have been
intersected by means of excellent roads and paths
that take one close to (yet detract not from) the
wild beauties of this vast natural park, where
some of the largest trees in British Columbia are
to be found.

The Capilano Water Works system meanwhile
progressed steadily. The supply from it is ab-
solutely inexhaustible, and starting from a point
seven miles up in a mountain valley the water
itself is always cold and as clear as crystal.
Brought down the hill in a huge main, then
on across the Narrows and Stanley Park, it was
no easy engineering feat to accomplish, and
recently a reservoir was also constructed on the top
of Prospect Hill at great expense to the city, so
that should the mains at any time get out of order
the water supply will not be cut off at all. The
city ac(iuired the Capilano Water Works in 1892
from the Company who originally owned them.

Simultaneously with the increase of the place
the maritime industries grew and flourished, anu
an Imperial subsiily was granted to the C.P.R.
mail service between Vancouver, China and
Japan, which the Company richly deserved,
if only on account of the great impetus its steam-
ship line has given to the foreign trade. The
Customs returns for October, 1888, showed

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CANADA: AN KNCYCKOIMIDIA.

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ail iticrcuHu of I t^.J per cent, over those of the
same month in the previous year. Tlic municipal
list for liSM(S also provcil conc'hisively the marked
increusu in population, showmf^ i>.5.{^) voters'
names as af,Minst HHy in the year 1.S.S7. The
city ossessmcnt for iHHH aniounttti to $.{.463,605
and had increased to nearly donhie that sinn,
naniel> , $6,005, ()^J, by the year iNNcj. Deep
sen tisliiuK received marked enconrancinent dur-
ing l8i?H ; the Moan! of Irade taking up the
mattt-r «piile (Ium (helically. 1 he resources
of liritisli C'oluinbia in connection with the
hnliliut and seal fisheries were tliereforu exten-
sively advertised. Agriculture also was helped
on by tile export of farm and orchard produce,
and the horticultural and other samples sent from
Vancouver to the Toronto ICxiiibition attracted
a {jood deal of favourable attention. A hrst-rate
market buildinf^ was erected in the saiiu year
at a cost of $20,000 on the corner of Hastings
Street and Westminster Avenue, which comprised
an admirable public hall in addition to the neces-
sary accommodation for tradiiif,' purposes, cold
storage, etc.

Before the end of i8(S8 the civic authorities
determined to inaugurate a public system of elec-
tric lightinfr, and a local Company agreed to sup-
ply the requisite number of lamps at sixty cents
per light for each 2,000 candle power. This
somewhat exorbitant cost has since been much
reduced, and to-day the British Columbia Elec-
tric Railway Co. supplies the same power at
tweotv-seven cents a light per night. The elec-
tric tramway by-law passed the City Council
Board in November, and a capital telephone
system became an established reality ; thus
three very important adjuncts to the business
life of the sea-port were obtained. Vancouver
enjoys the distinction of possessing the first elec-
tric street railway ever employed in Canada.
Then camp the building by the Dominion Gov-
ernment of a magnificent stone block for the
Custom House and Post Oflice, and the City
Hospital, costing $8,182, and the Seymour
Street FireStation, costing $18,837, were erected
and equipped about the same time.

The material progress of Vancouver at that
date was simply amazing, and within three years
thirty-six miles of streets were graded, nine miles

of I'ark roads made and twenty-four miles of side*
walks and 5,280 feet of bridging built. A spleiw
did permanent sewerage system was also com-
menced, which in this year, i8<jM, is tlu! best con-
structed and laid system in British Columbia.
These excellent sanitary conditions, an unrivalled
water supi)ly, and a temperate climate render the
city exceptionally healthy and an eminently do-
sirable |)lacii of residence. The Biocktnii Point
Athletic Association and the Jockey Club were
foriiUMl in iSS(j, boating clubs were org.iiii/ed,
ami the plans of the C.l'.R. Opera House finally
drafted. The H.P.A. Association Grounds are to-
day one of the greatest attractions of the city,
comprising as they do lacrosse, football, cricket,
hockey, tennis, baseball and golf grounds, u splen-
did cinder bicycle track, and a large " grand
stand." They are situated on one of the most
picturesque points in Stanley Park.

With the following year came the establish-
ment of the Sugar Refinery, the new Court
House was built, and the B.C. Iron Works com-
menced operations; but i8<jo was signalized
chielly by the sharp contest that took place over
the election of the first Vancouver members
chosen to represent the city in the Provincial
Legislature, and in which Messrs. l\ Carter-
Cotton and J. W. Home came out at the head
of the polls. The Y.M.C.A. Building was erected
and opened in that year, as was also the West
End School ; whilst among the business enter-
prises started were the B.C. Fruit Canning
concern and the Vancouver Tannery. In the
month of April, 1891, K.M.S. Empress of India,
of the C.P.R. Steamship Line, anchored in port,
and was followetl in due course by the Empresses
of Japan and Cliina, thus connecting Vancouver
regularly with the Orient by means of a first-class
line of steamers in place of the old chartered
boats. Hospitals, orphanages and churches had
for some time been well established in the city,
also other charitable organizations too numerous
to mention.

The inauguration of the New Westminster and
Vancouver Electric Railway took place in July,
and thus an immense step was taken towards
uniting the Terminal City with the Eraser Valley
country ; the line also opened up Central Park,
where the Dominion Rifle Range is situated, and

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it has cvor since contributed largely to inter-
urban comnuinication. The followin}^ year, that
of iSg2, saw a great r.Jvan. e of rateable property
value, wi.ich enabled the city to reduce the local
taxation from sixteen to ten nulls, and that, too,
in the face of extensive municipal expeiuliture
upon civic works. The town itself improved
rapiiily in appearance and a number of fine build-
ings were put up, such as the Vancouver Club,
the Banks of Montreal and British North
America, the Court House, the Hudson's liay
Company Buildings and other blocks; and the
C.P.K. permanently established a large railway
industry by erecting machine shops and engineer-
ing works of considerable value.

On November ist, 1892, an event occurred that
marked the growing imjiortance of the Terminal
City, namely, the holding the first of a series of
Courts of civil and criminal assize, and ever
since then \'ancouver has enjoyed the full legal
facilities that rightly belong to a flourishing com-
mercial and sliipping centre. Unfortunately,
with the summer of 1892 came the epidemic of
smallpox, which temporaril)- interrupted the
trade prosperity of the city. It was a brief
scourge, however, for the autiiorities exercised
extreme caution and took stringent measures to
stamp out the noxious disease before it had
gained a strong foothold, and by the autumn
matters had gradually resumed their accustomed
routine. The wave of commercial depression
that swept over the whole world soon afterwards
struck the Pacific Coast, and 1S93 saw a sad
falling off in business development ; but Vancouver
bravely struggled on through the crisis, and has
now emerged into the sunshine of better times.
To-day all the talk ru.is to mining and mines,
and, if " half the tales they tell be true," a more
brilliant future is before the seaport town than
even the most sanguine " eighty-sixer " ever
dreamed of.

Jiut to return to the ye;'r 1893, when the min-
ing industry lay comparatively dormant, and the
Kootenay country was only just beginning to be
opened up. The Miowcra, the pioneer vessel of
a second large line of steamers plying to the
Orient, entered Vancouver Harbour in June.
The Canadian-Australian service was thus suc-
cessfully consummated, and the line has ever since

been the means of establishing increasingly valu-
able commercial relations with the Australian
Colonies. With May, 1894, came the news of
the lloo<ls in the upper country and down the
Fraser Valley. These inundations temporarily
interrupted traile intercourse with the farming
districts and caused serious inconvenience and
loss to the C.l'.R., delaying the trains and en-
tailing damage to bridges and low-lying sections
of the track. Time, however, rapidly cured these
ills ; the Company with ready activity repaired
the breaches and the express trains ran as regu-
larly as before. July then turned the current of
public thoughts into an even more exciting chan-
nel, and Vancouverites plunged heartily into the
hot Provincial Election campaign, returning three
Opposition candidates to the Local House. Dur-
ing the summer many distinguished strangers
visited the seaport, amongst tlutn His Excellency
the Governor-General and Lady Aberdeen and
the Hon. Wilfrid Laurier ; and Sir Hibbert Tup-
per also came to \'ancouver late in the season
of 181)4.

In 1895' the Consolidated Company became
the owners of Vancouver's Street Railway and
electric h,;hting services, and have run them to
the complete satisfaction of the public. For a
town of its size Vancouver is ncnv exce[)tionally
well-covered by the tramway lines, the cars run
on a ten-minute service, a double track is laid
down the principal streets, and all through the
summer mouths excellent open cars run alter-
nately with the closed ones. Additional exten-
sions are being contemplated, notably one to
English Bay, where it is proposed to make large,
free recreation grounds. The year 1895 saw
great mining developments in British Columbia.
The Kootenays, Slocan, the Okanagan and Cari-
boo all came prominently into notice, with the
consequence, that Vancouver being the com-
mercial distributing centre for all the mining
districts, local trade increased enormously. The
salmon pack of that season reached the high total
of 600,000 cases, valued at $3,000,000, and largely
benefited the Terminal City. Then followed
another wave of trade depression, so serious that
all the cities on the Pacific Coast suffered more
or less from it, but Vancouver still fought bravely
on, and as a matter of fact maintained a more

CANADA; AN i:\(VCI,()I'.i;i HA.

-'77

soliil front diiriiiff those exceed iiijjly tryinfj
iiioiUhs tliaii any otiicr western centre. Owiufj
to tlie bad times wluch preceded it, tlie Klondike
" boom " struck the Terminal City with tremen-
dous force. Ill June, iS<j7, the f;reat reaction
set in, and as one of the chief places for the
purchase of outfits and supplies, ami the only
necessary trans-shippiiiij jioint between Eastern
Canada and the Northern Gold Fields, the city
sprang with one bound from the depths of busi-
ness depression to the heights of good times.
And so thinys have gone on ever since. Thougii
the first great rush to the Yukon has subsided,
the trade to Vancouver stands firm, based, not
on tiie iluctuating market of a mining excitement,
but upon the solid bed-rock of commercial enter-
prise backed by capital.

At last we come to this year of grace i8g8 —
and what is Vancouver to-day ? A city of some
thirty thousand inhabitants thriving apace under
the progressive rule of Mayor Garden and an
energetic Board of Aldermen. Over two million
dollars' worth of buildings are going up, chief
amongst them being the magnificent new Cana-
dian Pacific Railway Station, the Molson's Bank,
the Bank of Commerce, the Fairfield Syndicate
block, the Prior block, De Beck block, Leckie
block, and many other fine stone and brick
structures too numerous to mention. The streets

are excellent, bituminous- rock paving, wooden
block paving and macadam being used ; the
sewerage and water systems, fire brigaile, cdectric
stre;!t railway and lighting systems, the telephone
service, hotels and opera house comjiaie most
favourably with those in old established Eastern
cities; wliiist the slu)j)s are admirable, the resi-
deuces beautiful, and the Park, Harbour and
recreation grounds quite unsurpasseil in Canada.
And Vancouver is only twelve years old 1

British Columbia possesses the finest and most
colnpact reserve of timber limits in the world
to-day, the 524,573 acres of forest lands leased to
mill owners containing approximately 20,000 feet
of timber per acre. As the centre of the lumber
trade of the Province, the distributing point for
the salmon canning industry and of supplies for
the Coast mines and Kootenay camps, and as the
terminus of the Canadian Pacific Railway, Van-
couver is destined to become a second San
Francisco. Most exquisite is the natural location
of the town site, for, surrounded on three sides
by water, with the Harbour and mountains lying
to the north, the Gulf of Georgia to the west and
south, and Staidey Park with its tall fir trees at
the western boundary of the city, the situation of
Vancouver may well be termed an ideal one,
possessing all the scenic advantages of mountain,
wood and water.

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HISTORY OF THE CITY OF WINNIPEG

CHARLES N. BELL, F.R.G.S.

i| I-

iff 1.

AS early as 1736 a party of French adven-
turers from ^)iiobec, under the com-
mand of La Verendrye, who had
permission from the French authorities
to penetrate into the interior of the country to
the west of Lake Superior, arrived at the mouth
of the Assiniboine, where it merges its waters
with those of the Red River. The Assiniboine,
so named from a tribe of Indians living in its
vicinity, was re-christened the St. Charles, and
afterwards the Upper Red River. At the junc
tion of tiiese two rivers a post was established,
with the name of Fort Roufje. In 1763 occurred
the conquest of Canada by Great Britain, and,
some fifteen or twenty years after, fur traders
from Canada began to seek the Nortli-West for
the purpose of trading with the Indians. The
trade of the Red River country, however, seems
to have been almost neglected till toward the
close of the century, when posts were established
on the upper waters of the rivers. The point
between the Red and the Assiniboine Rivers was
known to the trauers at that time, and for many
years after, as "The Forks." The Hudson's
Bay Company had long confined their trade to
the neighbourhood of Hudson's Bay; indeed,
from 1570 to 1774 they had not established posts
on the banks of the streams flowing into Lake
Winnipeg, and it is most likely that their first
post on the Red River was established as late as
1796.

About 1803 .Alexander Henry, of the North-
West Company, who was in charge of the Red
River district for his concern, sent a party of men
to build at The Forks the post afterwards named
Fort Gibraltar, and which at first probably con-
sisted of but one or two log houses. By the
erection of Gibraltar, the foundation of the future
commercial greatness of the town was laid as

well, for ever since that date mercantile business,
has flourished within what are now the limits of
the City of Winnipeg. That tiie present site of
Winnipeg was early recognized as a central one
for the distribution of supplies is proved by the
custom pursued by the traders of landing here to
assort and repack their outfits for distribution
south and west. The Hudson's Bay Company
began to push up the Red River about 1796, and
during the next decade had placed posts in the
vicinity of their rivals, with the exception of at
The Forks. In 181 1 Lord Selkirk, after con-
trolling a large share of the stock of the Hudson's
Bay Company, secured from it a grant of land
along the Red and Assiniboine Rivers, covering
an area of some 116,000 square miles, under the
claim that the Company's charter gave them
control of the country, which claim was contested
by the Canadian fur traders. Lord Selkirk issued
a most glowing description of the land, climate
and general advantages to be gained by persons
joining with him in settling in this tract of coun-
try, and induced a number in Scotland and
Ireland to come out. The party sailed in the
spring of 181 1 for York Factor)-, but had to
winter at that place, and reached the Red River
during the next year. Other parties were sent
out in 1813 and 1814 to augment the colony, or
what was termed the Selkirk Settlement.

A struggle for supremacy at once began be-
tween the rival fur companies, which resulted in
bloodshed on more than one occasion, and the
total destruction of the property of the Selkirk
settlers,who were generally merely onlookers. On
March 17, 1816, the Hudson's Bay Company
people, who then had a fort at Point Douglas,
about three-quarters of a mile below The Forks,
attacked Fort Gibraltar, razed the buildings to
the ground, and carried the timbers to Point

MT

CANADA: AN EXCVCLOl'.KDIA.

279

Duuglas. In tlie followintj spring tl'.'.; employes
of the North-West Conipany c;iine into collision
with the Hudson's Bay Company people under
Governor Sctnple, a short distance north of the
present limits of Winnipeg', with the result that
the Governor and some twenty of his nuii were
killed in a few minutes. Then matters were in
a very disturbed state until the coalition of the
two powerful Companies in 1820 -ji, when the
Hudson's Bay Company, after absorbin}? its rival,
established a fort at The Forks and opened
stores to supply the settlers, traders and Indians
with goods. And so another era in the trade of
Winnipeg was entered upon. Fort Garry, of
which only the ruined ba k gateway now stands,
was erected in l8j5 by Governor Christie. The
people, wlio from time to time came to the set-
tlement, took up land-along the Red and Assini-
boine Rivers, those of the same nationality
generally settling in localities by themselves.

Owing to dissatisfaction in the settlement and
to reported American intrigues, a body of British
regular troops were sent out from England to
Fort Garry in 1846, under command of Colonel
J. F. Crofton, consisting of 3S3 soldiers from the
Sixth Foot, Royal Artillery, and Engineers.
These troops returned to England in i848 and
in that year v/ere succeeded by a corps of
fifty-six pensioners, many of whom afterwards
settled in the country with their Commander,
Lieut. -Colonel Caldwell as Governor of the Col-
ony. Again, in 1867, 100 men of the Royal
Canadian Rifles i,.'ere sent via York Factory and
were quartered at Fort Garry before the Riel
Rebellion of 1869-70, when what is termed the
" First Red River Expeditionary Force ", com-
posed of regulars and volunteers from Ontario
and Quebec, was dispatched from Eastern
Canada and arrived in August, 1870, to find that
Louis Riel had fled, and his "provisional govern-
ment" had evaporated into thin air. It was from
this date that Winnipeg, as a place distinct from
Fort Garry, became known.

On the arrival of the troops in 1870, the village
consisted of a collection of about thirty log
houses, centering about the site of the present
Post Office, the population numbering about 150
persons. In the spring of 1S71 the Ontario and
Ouebec volunteers were disbanded, the greater

number of them returning to (heir homes, tho'igh
many remained in Manitoba to cast in their lot
with tiie Canadians wiio began to flock into the
old Settlement. Winnipeg, which was incorpo-
rated as a city in 1874, rapidly increased in
population for a time, but, as the supplies were
brought through the United States and down the
Red River in steamboats, the cost of removing
from eastern Canada and the high values placed
on all necessaries of life, proved a check to the
settlement of Manitoba until 1879, when the lail-
way from Winnipeg south to the intern.tio lal
boun<lary opened for business, in connection with
tile American line to St. Paul. In 18S0 ramethe
beginning of the great land "boom," when set-
tlers and money for investment came pouring in,
and within a year the population of Winnipeg
had increased from about 6,000 to 12,000. In
the S|niiig of 1881 the Canadian Pacific Railway
Company commenced active operations, and
within a short time the population numbered fully
20,000. Since the close of the boom period the
city, in keeping with the settlement of the Prov-
ince, has steadily progressed, and is regularly
adding to its population, which now numbers
about 37,000.

The geographical position of Winnipeg may
be briefly described as follows : It is situated at
the juncture of the Assiniboine River and the
Red River, and along the west bank of the latter.
It is about forty miles south of Lake Winnipeg,
and sixty-six miles north of the international
boundary line between the United States and
Canada. Practically speaking it is on the eastern
edge of the great prairie country which extends,
in this latitude, from the line of the Red River
west to the Rocky Mountains. It has been
aptly expressed that "Winnipeg is the neck of a
double funnel whose mouths gather the traffic of
an empire and three oceans, the Atlantic, Pacific
and the Great Lakes. With the growth of the
west and ever-increasing wants of the east, who
will set a limit to prairie products when the iron,
coal, oil, silt and other products of near tributary
districts are developed, and the fertile Province
of Manitoba be under grain and cattle ?" To
the east are the mining and timber districts of
the Lake of the W^oods; to the north the mineral
deposits, timber areas and great fisheries of

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Lake WinnipL'^ ; t(i tlic norlh-west the timber,
salt deposits ami fisheries of Lakes Manitoba and
Winnipef^osis ; to the west and south the fertile
j^iain laihU which stand nnrivalled in prodiiciu)^
the linest of ail wheat known in the markets of
the world. In all tiiese directions are even now
t-) be iound lari:fe numbers of cattle, horses,
sheep and other livestock.

Thus it will be st'iu that, imiependent of the
fact that Winnipcf^ is tiie great central mart for
Canada between Lake Superior and the Kocky
Mountains, within the limits of ;i circle described
at a distance of 150 miles from the city she is
the objective point for all the trade arising from
the development and cultivation of varied indus-
tries and natural protliictions. Railways strike
out from Winnipeg; like branches from the parent
stem of a tree. Those actually constructed are :
]'2ast and West, the maiy line of the Canadian
Pacific Railway, from Atlantic to Pacific ; the
Emerson branch, running to the international
boundary on the east side of the Red River, and
connecting with the United States systems of
railroads ; the Pembina branch, also running to
the international boundary on the west side of
the Red River and extending through the south-
western portion of Manitoba; the Clenboro'
branch supplying all the needs of the country
south of the Assiniboine River, and on through
the Souris country to connect with the " Soo "
Railway in Assiniboia ; the Selkirk branch, down
the west bank of tiie Red River to near Lake
Winnipeg; the Stonewall branch, through a good
section of the country to the north-west of the
city ; the main line of the Northern Pacific and
Manitoba Railway, south to the international
boundary, and brandies west to Brandon and
Portage la Prairie. Nearly all these lines have
sub-branches tributary to them which act as
feeders, and give access to Winnipeg from all
parts of the Province of Manitoba and the North-
West Territories.

A railway is projected south-easterly to the
international boundary, where connection can be
made with Diiluth and Fort William by the
c. tension of roads already partially constructed.
The Winnipeg Transfer Railway is in operation
from the south to the north ends of the city,
along the water front. Probably no other com-

mercial city in the world, of its si^e, has such a
complete railway system as th2 above is shown
to lu!. While the Red River in ordinary seasons
pivis a sufficient depth of water to permit of
navigation by large river steamers from the
international boundary to Lake Winnipeg, some
improvements are necessiiry at extreme low water
to enable lake vessels to ascend to the city,
but the character of the obstructions is trivial,
and the Dominion Government has lately taken
steps to remove them. Unlimited siii)i)lies of
iron ore of rich quality are on the lake in juxta-
position to immense tracts of timber suitable for
the production of charcoal. Lumber and fire-
wood are now brought to the city from the lake.
It is onl)' a question of time when the great coal
fields of the two Saskatchewans will send their
products down stream to Lake Winnipeg and
thence direct to Winnipeg. The Assiniboine
River at one time was navigated by steamers
which ascended that winding stream for a dis-
tance, along its course, of fully 500 miles. A
canal of a few miles' length, through alluvial soil,
will connect Lakes Manitoba and Winnipegosis
with the Assiniboine River.

Naturally, Winnipeg is the centre for the
wholesale and jobbing trade of the Canadian
North-West. Immense stocks of goods and
merchandize, covering all varieties required to
supply the wants of the districts devoted to grain
juoduction, stock breeding and cattle ranching,
mining, lumbering and fishing, as well as the
more diversified demands of the city, town and
village peojjle, are to be found in the handsome
warehouses, supplied with all modern conven-
iences and appliances, which are a marked feature
of the city's edifices. Shipments are made daily
to points over 1,000 miles distant, so extensive a
range of country is supplied from this well-stocked
central market. The ample railway systems
radiating from Winnipeg afford facilities to the
merchants of the Province and Territories for
the securing of goods at short notice, and experi-
ence has shown that they take full advantage of
the situation. The railway corporations recog-
nize Winnipeg as one of the principal wholesale
depots of Canada and deal with the wholesale
trade on that basis. \\'ithout giving here any
detailed statistics of the voljine of trade, it will

CANADA; A\ i:\('Vtl.()lM;iiiA.

j.->i

suiVice to state that the Wiiinipefj bank clcariiit;-
house, for the volume of Ixisiness, stands third
on the list of Canadian cities, takinj,' iinincdiate
phice after Montreal and Toronto. The actual
figures for the year ending jist Augi-si, iS(j6,
were $61,000,000.

A larpe number of English and Canadian loan
and investment companies, representing an
enormous amount of capital, have fT,;iieral agency
oflices in the city. The leaduifj fire and life
insurance companies of Great Britain, Canada
and the United States heive offices as well. An
active Board of Trpde, incorporated by the
Dominion, exercises all the functions usually
undertaken by such bodies, and closely watches
over the business interests of the city. The
headquarters of the Manitoba grain and flour
trade are to be found in the rooms of the Winni-
peg Grain and Produce Exchange, which com-
prises in its membership the principal millers,
grain dealers and exporters of the Province, as
well as many of the leading exporters of Eastern
Canada. The North-West Commercial Travel-
lers' Association, with a city membership of 300,
is one of the city's business organizations which
illustrates the extent of the wholesale trade con-
ducted with the western country. Over 900
telephones are requireil to meet the wants of the
people. Two electric and one gas-light com-
pany supply both street and house lighting.
Street cars run on the principal streets, there
be ig fifteen and one-half miles of track in service.
Many miles of water mains distribute water for
public and domestic service.

The Corporation has at the present time 146
miles of sidewalks, 102 miles of graded streets,
twelve miles of paved streets, thirty-nine of under-
ground sewers, fifty-six fire tanks, sixty-seven
public wells, and 1 24 arc electric street lights. A
complete and well managed fire brigade system
is in force. The police force is a very efficient
one, the men being intelligent and of good
character, and having a minimum height of six
feet. Postal and telegraphic arrangements are
provided to meet every requirement, and the
daily newspapers rank with the best in Canada.
Winnipeg is not only the commercial capital of
the vast extent of country lying between Lake
Superior and British Columbia and north of the

United Slates, but it is the centre for the I'^ederal
Government offices situated therein. The head
land and timber offices of the Dominion Govern-
ment for the west are located here. The princi-
pal Custom House, Registry of Shipping, Excise,
Weights and Measures, Food Products Examin-
ers, Oil, Gas and Electric Inspectors, Post Office,
Grain, I'lour and Hide Inspectors, Intelligence
Office, Emigration Agents, Receiver-General,
Government Savings Banks, and many others
are situated in Win;iii)eg on account of its
importance and central position. Winnipeg is
also the Provincial capital, and in consequence
the Manitoba Legislature, with the Lieutenant-
Governor, and the Departments of Agriculture
and Statistics, Attorney-General, Public Works,
Treasurer and Provincial Secretary, with the
Registrar-General of Lands, have their official
heaihiuarters in the city. The Superior Courts
of the Province are held here, which entails the
attendance of the principal barristers and attor-
neys of the country. With the other Govern-
ment institutions, the Institute for the Deaf and
Dumb is placed in Winnipeg.

The regular troops on duty in Manitoba are in
barracks at Fort Osborne in the city, and the
volunteers with headquarters here include the
corps of cavalry, field artillery and infantry. The
head offices of the Hudson's Bay Company (in
America), the great land companies, and in a
word all the great corporations doing busmess in
this country, find it notonly convenient but neces-
sary for the proper transaction of their affairs to
have offices in what has been termed by a Gov-
ernor-General, " the heart city of Canada." The
Winnipeg General Hospital is an institution
which the city n>ay well be congratulated on
maintaining, for the great part, by her own con-
tributions. The poor and suffering receive here
the most careful and humane treatment, in well-
appointed buildings, t the hands of skilful and ex-
perienced medical men and nurses. A maternity
Hospital and N urses' Training School aie attached
to the parent institution. The Women's Home
and Children's Home are other instances of how
the charitable people care for the poor and home-
less. Night schools for children and free kinder-
garten schools for poor children are maintained
by private subscription. The general free Pub-

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CAN.M)A ; AN KNCVCLOl'.KDIA.

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lie Schools of tlie city iimiibor fifteen, includ-
ing a Collepi.'ite, wliicii requires a staff of over
loo qualified teachers, the mitnber of pupils cn-
rolleil on the monthly average during the year
1896 being 5,000, and the average attendance
over 4,000, showing an increase in the enrolment
and attendance over the pn^ceding year of 17 per
cent. The value of the School buildings, sites
and furniture is $404,000.

Winnipeg is justly proud of her athletic associ-
ations. The senior four of the Winnipeg Kowmg
Club have been twice amateur champions of
America. The Hockey Club held the champion-
ship of the world. In curling, skating, snow-
shoeing, lacrosse, golfing, cricket, football, bicy-
cling, lawn tennis, and rifle shooting, the young
men of Winnipeg are prominent, the best element
of the people controlling these sports and encour-
aging and aiding the young men to keep tlietn
free from the taint of professionalism which is
dragging down and stifling clean sports in so
many American cities. Social clubs of all kinds
are a special feature of Winnipeg's private life,
while of secret and fraternal associations there is
a plethora. The National benevolent societies
are well organized and do much good and useful
work. Several musical and dramatic associations
flourish. The Manitoba Historical and Scientific
Society maintains a library and museum, and has
published a large number of valuable papers,
dealing with subjects coming within the .scope of
its operations. The city has a Free Public Lib-
rary, recently re-organized and enlarged. Five
Colleges and Manitoba University are situated in
the city or its immediate vicinity. Churches are
to be tup.t with in every corner of the city, and
Sunday is indeed a day of rest, in strong contrast
to the state of affairs in the western cities of the
United States.

A few words may be written as to the future
prospects of Winnipeg. Year by year it is found
that Manitoba's natural resources are gre.iter
and more varied than has been supposed, and
just in proportion to such revelations does the
probable future growth and importance of Win-
nipeg appear to increase, .^t one time Manitoba
Was supposed to be a purely wheat country, and
now it has been proved beyond all doubt that it
is a dairy country of the first class. Creameries

and Cheese factories are in operation all over the
Province, their output being sent to Winnij)cg
for disposal by local consumption and export.
Train loads of the fattest and best of cattle arc
shipped regularly to Eastern Canada and Great
Hritain ; oats, barley and fla.xseed are exported in
large (piantities ; in a<Klition to the many millions
of the famous "Manitoba hard" wheat. The
goKl-miniiig districts about the Lake of the
Woods, now being developed and producing from
several stamp mills rich returns, are so close to
the city that most of their supplies are drawn
from it.

1 Ik: fishing grounds of Lakes Winnipeg, Man-
itoba, Winnipegosis, and hundreds of smaller
bodies of water, have scarcely yet been touched,
and already the exports of fish to the United
States alone amount to nearly 2,000,000 pounds
annually. Building stones and brick clays are
found in unlimited quantities near the city, and
the handsome and stately edifices lining the
streets bear testimony to their appearance and
quality. The coal mines of the west and south-
west are being worked and the product supplies,
to a great extent, the wants of Winnipeg and the
rural districts, and yet a few years ago it was
thought that the fuel supply was the great ques-
tion to be solved. So vast are the deposits of
coal that thousands of square miles of territory
are underlaid with them. In the early days of
Manitoba's existence as a Province, practically
all the salt consumed in the western country was
obtained from deposits near to Lake Winnipeg.
The extension of railways is bringing these
deposits into prominence again and enabling
them to be worked at a profit. From every point
of view, therefore, the future prospects of Winni-
peg appear to be bright and encouraging.

Sketch of Winnipeg:, by Lady Schultz. *The
capital of the Province of Manitoba and " Gate-
way City" of the North- West stands at the
confluence of the Red and Assiniboine Rivers in
49° 56' latitude and go** 7' W. longitude, and 764
feet above the level of the sea. It is famous in

•NoiK. Tliis brief .-ikt'tch affords a (orthor and inlerestinj; view
of Winnipeg. Kspecially valuable is the ([uoted extract from the
speech by a lale <iistint;uishcd pioneer and Governor.— Tun
ElHTOR.

CANADA: AN KN(:\(I,( llM.DIA.

a83

Canadu fur its broad streets, healthy cliiimtc and
pure attnosphcrc. The city was named by the
lato Sir Jolin Schult/, one (jf its earliest pioneers,
after tlic lake which the Red River reaches forty-
five miles farther north, and the name has proved
a distinctive and characteristic appellation. The
won! is from tiio Ojibiway and si^Miities nuuldy
water, but tho jxjetical renderinj.' of which the
Indian lan^^uage so happily permits is " shadowed
water." The plain on which the city is built is
as level as a floor, and stretches to the west as
far as the eye can reach, an unbroken pniirie with-
out tree or obstacle of any kind to break the view
until the horizon blends with the sky. The soil
is rich to a hifjh degree, and of such a nature that
when unbroken it beats into a hard compact sur-
face perfectly level for many miles in every
direction, entirely free from dust and most
delightful to drive or ride over, the prairie beinjj
very pleasant to the horses' feet.

It is not so many years since the tracks of the
buffalo could be distinctly seen where they had
come down to the river to drink, which last
occurrence must have been as late as sixty years
ago. The water of the Red River is of a rich
reddish brown ; the river takes its rise from
Elbow Lake in Minnesota, U.S.A., about 455
miles to the south of Winnipeg ; it is very wind-
ing, in many cases almost returning upon itself.
The poet, Whittier, has made it and the Town of
St. Boniface (which is opposite to Winnipeg on
the eastern bank of the river) famous by his poem
"The Red River Voyagcur." The Assiniboine
River, which maandcrs leisurely from the North-
West for many hundreds of miles, is also very
winding, and [joins the Red River at Winnipeg.
It is the present water supply of the city, but is
fast giving place to artesian wells, for which there
isan almost limitless subterranean supply, furnish-
ing sparkling and pure water of the finest quality
and most agreeable to the taste. Winnipeg has
many handsome and imposing buildings. Most of
them are of brick and present a creamy-grey
colour, which the clay of the country furnishes,
and, as the fuel principally used heretofore has
been wood, the fresh and perfectly clean appear-
ance of the buildings has been preserved. In
1871 there was a population of about 250; in
1873 the place was incorporated as a city, havmg

previously been known aS Fort Garry, or the Red
River Settlement. The census of 1881 claimed
7,985, while this year, 1898, Winnipeg is said to
have 40,000 inhabitants. It is the healthiest of
cities as its death rate shows. Its suburbs are
amongst the best kept in the world, and its
churches are many and beautiful. The city is
widely spread as there is no lack of space, though
it does not seem too scattered. Its Main Street
is 13.J feet wider than Jiroadway, New York,
while Portage Avemie, which is also the same
width, is unique, from the fact that anyone look-
along it to the glowing west is interested by
learning that the path it marks has stretched in
an unbroken line westward for nine hnn-lred
<niles, ai.itost to the foot of the Rocky Mountains,
as being the old trail of the Plain Hunters. Main
Street, also, has its measure of hi >toric incident,
ami was referred to in the following terms by the
late Sir John Schultz in the year 1894, when, as
Lieutenant-Governor, he was called upon to
unveil the monument at Seven Oaks :

" I have said that this road, whether as Indian
trail or King's highway, in old or more recent
times, is indeed historic. Over it, in the dim
past which antedates even Indian tradition, must
have passed those aboriginal inhabitants whose
interesting sepulchral remains near St. Andrew's
Rapids (sixteen miles north of Winnipeg) and
elsewhere, excite wonder and stimulate conjec-
ture, and show them to have been of a race
superior in many respects to those who succeeded
them. Over this road and near this spot must
have passed the war parties of the Assiniboines
in their futile effort to oppose with arrow, toma-
hawk and spear the invading northern and east-
ern Crees, who had, doubtless, when similarly
armed, envied in vain the warlike " Stoney " his
possession of what was later known as the Image
and White Horse Plains, with their countless
herds of bison ; and when the earlier possession
of fire-arms gave the Cree the ascendancy he
sought, and that dread scourge, the small- pox,
had thinned the Assiniboine ranks, it must have
been along this great trail the latter retreated
towards the blue hills of Brandon and to the
upper waters of the river which still bears their
name. La Verendrye, the first white man who
looked on this fair land, must have seen this spot
and passed by this trail, and while it was yet a
bridle path or cart track, and long before it was
known, as it afterwards became, as the King's
Highway, men who were great in their day and
generation and are deservedly still remembered

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fur tluir important discoveries aixl tlieir atimiii-
istrativ'L* abilities have trodden tlio |Mtli wliicli
lu-3 nt uiir fuut. Over it has passed (hscoveror,
coiirior, missionary, arctic voyager, chief, warrior,
and niethcinc man, ^oviniior, factor, jndfje,
councillor and commander; alonj; it has hecn
carried wamixiin and tomahawk, messiij^es of
noaco and war. It has heard the rimihle of artil-
lery and the stt-ady niar( h of tin; Sixth of the
Lino, the Royal Canadian, and the t)e)th KilKs;
and aloiif,' its co'irse the hard-()ressed loiindeis of
the Selkirk settleniiMit alternately striiRf,'leil south-
wards ir search of food, or hurried northwanl
for safety with steps of fear. Over it have tr.iv-
clled tile pioneer priests, ministers and liishops
of the Roman Catholic, Aii'^lican, Presbytt^rian
and Weslevan Churches. The Ciovernors of the
Hiidson's r>av Company have, as well as the lieu-
tenants of the (iovi'riiois of the Dominion of
l"anada, all passi'd this way. Triily this is an
historic place; and from the spot where I now

stand coiild once liavc been seen iiearlv all the
old historii; stronj^holds of the Hudson's Hay,
the North-Wt!st and the X.Y. Companies. I-'rom
it may still Ix; seen places made memorable by
tiie fjood works of the Rev. Mr. West, Hishops
Anderson ami I'rovencher, the Rev. John lilack,
and otliiM' devoted men; within view are the
residences of the Hon. John Inkster, the father
of our woithy Sheriff, a member of the old
('onncil of .Assiiiiboia, and that of my brave and
valued old Iriend, Hon. Robert Mclieth, also
a member of the Comicil, and the father of the
President of our Historical Society (Hon. John
McHeth, M.i'.i'.), whose instincts of hospit.ility
were not to be thwarted by the knowledfje that
conliscation ;ind worse iniKht follow his shelter
(during the first Kiel Rebellion) ofa hard-hunted
friend; and I see all aroniid me here worthy
childiiii of such worthy sires, the descendants of
those p!oiiecr Selkirk settlers, whose tale of sor-
row, suffeMUi;uuddaugwial\vuys evokes sympathy."

tl I

1 he Hon. Hu^h Jolin Macdonald, (^.C.

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HISTORY AND PROGRESS OF THE CITY OF TORONTO

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JAMES HRATY, Q.C.. D.C.L., Ex-Mayor of Tor.mio.

TORONTO is beautiful by situation. It is
not a "city set on a liili," i)iit is,
nevctheless, very picturcstiue aiiii at-
tractive. It looivs not out Iroiii tiie
summit of a mountain, nor from the cra},'s and
juts of a frowninj; roci<, but, on the contrary, is
located on plains or plateaus rising from the
northern shore of Lake Ontario and the May of
Toronto in easy grades, until it reaches the north-
ern limit of tlie city, There the elevation is 220
feet higher than the lake level. Standing on a
vessel coming into port, the view of the city is
striking and agreeable. The grades of the streets
are comparatively level, without abrupt breaks,
yet rising sufficiently to afford facilities for an ex-
cellent system of drainage. The principal streets,
avenues, and parks are all lined with hue old
trees, or young ones planted long enough to pre-
sent a beautiful foliage, affording in the summer
months, at the same time, both shade and
beauty.

The site is about forty miles from the western
end of Lake Ontario, and was originally a camp-
ing ground of the Indians. The name given to
the lake is said to have been of Imlian origin, at-
tributed to the use of a word sounding like Onta-
rio, and meaning "beautiful." In the year 1793
the location was made the site of a town intemied
to be the capital of Upper Canada, now the Pro-
vince of Ontario. It was first called York, and
the bay was also known as the Bay of York. On
the 6th of March, 1794, the name " Toronto," an
Indian word, the meaning of which is not clear,
although said to be " place of meetmg " was sub-
stituted for York. " Trees arising out of the
water," or " trees in the water," have been sug-
gested as meanings without strong warrant.
This latter idea might have arisen from the ap-
pearance of the Island in front of the city, which

at first sight woiilil look as if the trees grew oul
of the water.

In what is the west(>rn part of th(! present city,
a trading post lia<l been established in 1749,
known as " I'ort Rouillc" and sometimes " I'ort
Toronto," and as the " Old I'rench I'ort." It
was burnt down in I75<), and a new one was
erected svhii-li stood until 11X78, when the site of
" I'ort Koiiiile" became the grounds of the " In-
dustrial I'xhibition Association of Toronto,"
whicii now occupies it, and as of old becomes
"a meeting place" once a year fur an immense
gathering of the farmers of the Province of On-
tario and other countries, to see the display of
horses, cattle, grains, and other natural products
of the Province ; the implements of husbandry
and of practical utility in farming ; and various
manufactured products.

The location was described in 1793 by the
surveyor, Bouchette, as " the untamed aspect
which the country exhibited when I first entered
the beautiful basin. Dense and trackless forests
lined the margin of the lake, and reflected their
inverted images in its glassy surface. The wan-
dering savage had constructed his ephemeral
habitation beneath their luxuriant foliage, and
the bay and neighbouring marshes were the
haunts of immense coveys of wild fowl. Indeed
they were so abundant as in some measure to
annoy us during the night." The city started
into reality in 1794, near the Don River, where
the first public buildings were erected.

The Island opposite Toronto to the south,
lying out in the Lake across the Bay, has not
only a pleasant aspect but was in fact one of the
chief factors in the making of the city. It con-
tains about five hundred acres, and is a long
stretch of sandy land running from below the
Don River in a southerly and westwardly direc-

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CANADA: AN KNCYCLDI'.KDIA.

if

tion, and apain northerly towards tlw shori; in
the shape of a rcapiiij; sickle, the handle beinfj at
the month of the Don, the point, formerly knj)wn
ns Ciihraltar Point, beinf; the same as that now
called " Hanhin's Point" — named .iftcr Hanlan,
the ehampion oarsman df the world for several
years.

The Island was oripin.illy a peninsula, only cut
into two parts by a sort of canal, tlirout^h which
a portion of the Don Kiver flowed into the tnarsh
and through to Ashbrid^'e's liay. Ki^hty years
n^o and for many years afterwar»ls, citizens could
drive from the mainland over a briilf,'e crossinfj
the cut and around the whole Island to the west-
ern point. This point reached the shore so nearly
that only a passage for not more than two vessels
at a time was left. The sand from this passage
has to be dredged yearly. Fine old trees were then
growinj,' on each side of the Island along its whole
length, and proved natural breakwaters which
kept the Island intact. For some inexplicable
reason the early municipal government of the
city allowed these trees to be cut, and also
allowed sand to be carried away to the city,
which prepared the Island for the inroads of the
currents over what was then its widest part, but
which ultimately formed what is termed the
" Eastern Gap." The writer has been told by
the late Chief Justice Spragge, Rev. Dr. Scad-
ding, and the fate James Beaty, m.p., that they
have driven, or walked, and hunted from the Don
to the western Gap on dry land. Vessels run
not only through the western Gap as always, but
now also through the eastern Gap. This latter
breach in the Island first occurred seriously in
January, 1853, and completely in the winter of
1858. It has been somewhat arrested since by
breakwaters, which were commenced by the
Dominion Government about fifteen years ago at
the instance of the members for Toronto in Par-
liament, Messrs. Robert Hay, John Small, and
the writer — who obtained nearly half a million
dollars for that purpose.

The Island has now a large and healthful park,
about two hundred and fifty acres, which was laid
out in 1880 by order of the City Council. It has
since been much enlarged, improved, and beauti-
tied by subsequent Councils, led notably by two
aldermen, John Irwin, and John Hallam. The

two somewhat sluggish, though deep and narrow
rivers, the Don in the east and the ffumber in
the west, are now the only streams of any import-
ance left near the city. Smaller streams, such as
the Garrison Creek and the stream near St.
JiUK's' CtJineter)', and others, are now sewers or
rivulets only to carry off the Hoods of spring when
the snow is thawing. The writer has been told
by a long resident of the city that in spring-time
he has "canoed" from the corner of Yonge and
College streets through the present Normal School
grounds, down past the present linglish Cathe-
dral site into the bay. The ravine through which
this stream ran is unknown now e.\cept to the
oldest inhabitants, it being filled up and built
over.

The City of Toronto was long ago known as
" Muddy Little York." It was not a bad descrip-
tion, although at the present time few would re-
cognize the fact. It was in many places marshy
and dotted with quicksand pits. The writer's
father lost his shoes in the mud, about 1820,
crossing King street at the junction of Yonge.
There was a quicksand pit on King street just
opposite the English Cathedral, which was filled up
many feet by throwing in logs and brush before a
roadway could be formed. About that time the
acre on the south-west corner of King and Yonge
streets was offered to be exchanged for a pair of
boots, and the corner acre on Wellington and
Yonge was offered in exchange for a bottle of
whiskey. Both the boots and the whiskey were
thought to be worth more than the acres. They
were both then more difiicult to get than the land,
and paid better in their use to the owners.

The Toronto Bay is about two and one-third
miles in length from east to west, and is about
one and a half miles in width at the widest point
from north to south, and its greatest depth is
thirty-t\yo feet. Toronto itself is now about
seven miles in length on the shore line of the bay
and lake, and runs north about two miles and a
half. The city limits include an area of 10,391
acres, or about sixteen square miles. In 1803 the
area was 420 acres. A large addition was made
to the city front by the construction of the
Esplanade, commenced in i860. It has afforded
room for the tracks of the various railways, the
water-lots being filled out from the ridge of land

CANADA: AN KNCYCLOI'.KDIA.

aij

on the front to what was termcil the Windmill
Line. Thu Windmill was a Rtrnrttiio built in
iM.}o by Mr. J. (1. Worts, and was the stmtinj,'
point of the immense distillery now carried oii by
the (iooderh tms.

The history of tlu; city covers substantially a
hundred years. It commenced with a population
of a dozen householders, and now contains a
popidation of n'mh two hundred thousand. Its
progress has been almost continuous, althouf^di
suffering occasional depressions, serious reverses,
and temporary shocks. It always revived, how-
ever, and pursued its steady course of enlarge-
ment and expansion. It has had varied and
chequered experiences during that period. It
has felt the devastating and ruinous effects of
regular warfare, and the disturbing and injurious
consequences of a trivial and spasmodic revo-
lutionary outburst. It started into existence
after the separation of the Uniteil States from
Kngland. It was not of sufficient importance
then to demand national consideration, but it
became an object of attention in subsequent em-
broilments with our neighbours.

The first Provincial Legislature which met in
Toronto convened on the first day of June,
1797. A weekly public market was formally
established by proclamation of the Government
on the 5th November, 1803. The present St.
Lawrence Market is on part of the four acres then
set apart for market purposes. In 1803, the
Legislature authorized the selection of certain
gentlemen to practise in the Law Courts, notwith-
standing the absence of legal training. Dr. W.
W. Baldwin, D'Arcy Boulton, Wm. Dickson, and
John Powell were thus proclaimed lawyers. They
had first to be examined by the Chief Justice.
They were popularly termed " Heaven de-
scended" Barristers-at-law. There are some
people who would not admit that their successors
could be aptly described by those words.

Dr. Baldwin and his son, the Hon. Robert
Baldwin, were leading men in their day in medi-
cine, law, politics, and social life. The latter was
Attorney-General of Upper Canada, and the pro-
moter of Municipal, School, and other important
measures. At this time the Hon. Wm. Hume
Blake was Solicitor-General, and afterwards
Chancellor. He and his two sons, the Hon.

I'Mv.-ard Hlake, m.p., tuiw of the ICnglish House
of Cotiimons, and the Hon. S. II. Blake, y.c,
formerly V'lce-Clianccllor, have been notably con»
nectcd with the history of Toronto. The firm
of Baldwm Hi Sou, undcir different names, has
continued in dini t succession iiutd tlx* present
firin of the writer, which is the tenth. The Hon.
Robert Baldwin Sullivan, Sir Adam Wilson, at
one timt! Mayor, and afterwards Justice of thu
Court of Appeal and Chief Justice, the Hon. C. S-
Patterson. Dr. Lariatt W. .Smith, y.c, John
Hector, \,i.(;., and others were members of
the various firms. It is related of Dr. Baldwin,
that when he was practising at the Bar, and en-
gaged in legal cases, he would be fre(|uently sent
for in cases of 'imcrgency from sickness, and hav-
ing informed the Court of the demand upon him,
the Court would adjourn until his return. He
would then take up the matter an( proceed as if
there had been no interruption.

In 180J the Duke of Kent, father of yueen Vic-
toria, visited Toronto. Royal visits have not been
very numerous. The Prince of Wales visited
Toronto in i860. Prince Arthur in iSfxj, Princess
Louise (Marchioness of Lorne) and Prince Leo-
nold in 1880, Prince George of Wales, now Duke
of York, in 1883, and Prince Arthur (Duke of Con-
naught) again in i88(), when he was entertained
with his wife, the Princess Louise Margaret of
Prussia, at " Glen- Edyth," by Mr. S. Nord-
heimer.

The first election for town and public offices
was held on the 3rd of March, 1806. In 1806
President Peter Russell offered for sale by ad-
vertisement two negro slaves, a woman and her
son. The woman was valued at one hundred
and fifty dollars and the son at two hundred
dollars. He was fifteen years of age. This is
the same official of whom it is said that he grant-
ed many hundreds of acres of land to himself.
The grant commenced with the words, " I, the
Hon. Peter Russell, grant to you, Peter Russell,
Esquire," the land intended to be disposed of.
A remarkable incident in the history of this city
was the fact that early in the year 1813, during
the war with the United States, the ensign of
Great Britain no longer flew to the breeze, while
the star-spangled banner floated in its place. For
eleven days York was held by the enemy. The

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lirick Ixiil. lilies of tlu" l.(•^•isl.ltllro nin! Itii-
Liliraiy aod p.ipvi'a wtre ilL'stroyiil in July fi>l-
lowinj,', wlun the fn«;iiiy tonk possfBsioii for oiu;
day o?il ,'. C'oloncI (.ifttTw.nils (iciuial) Wiiilii M
Scott w.is tlie Ainoiiciiu oflictr wlio sacktil tlic
town tliis sft-oiiil tirih'. In lNi7 ri tliid nv.ih
foiijjht bi'twi'cn two yoiinjj Kcntlfineri (Ntossrs.
Kiilout anil J;irvis) over a tri\i;il lovo aff.iii, it is
said, which n'snlt<i| in tlii; death of the former.
The dnel was foii^jht <>n Clover Hill, west of
Yonge Street. In 1.SJ4 tho new Parliament
Huildinfjs were destroyt'd by fire aftir Ixinj,' hmlt
only liv(! yens. The first Oianjje procession held
in Toronto, possibly in Canada, was in the year
1^20, by i\ do/en Orangemen, of whom three
were the lato James He.ity and his two brothers,
John and William. John carried the open I?d)l(',
William the tla^, and James the sword. In iSjcj
what are now the old Parliament Hnildin^s were
erected on Front Street. A new and very sub-
stantial and iniposiiif,' building; was erected in iS() 5
in its place, and no.v covers the Legislative wis-
dom of the Province, represented by ninety-three
le^jislators.

In i8j.j the city suffered a serious sconrRe from
cholera. iMom iS{.i to iN.j; the agitation was
carried on against the then rulers of the Province,
termeil derisively the " I'.imiiy Compact ", from
the number of officials enga'^^ed in the a<lministra-
tion of public affairs and selected from a few of
the leading families of the period. This agitation
resulted in what is known as the " Macken;fie
Rebellion", its leaders being chiefly citizens of
Toronto, althougli there were many active men in
the country districts, as shown in the persons of
Samuel Loiint and Peter Matthews, who were
convicted of treason in Toronto, and after impri-
sonment in the Toronto Gaol were hung in the
gaol-yard on the south side of Court Street, near
Toronto Street, on A|)ril 12, I'SjS.

Toronto was incorporated on the 6th March,
1834, s.) the name " York" thereafter disappeared.
A Common Council was immediately elected and
William Lyon AL'ickenzie was chosen the first
Mayor. There have been twenty-nine Mayors
smcc. G. D'Arcy Boulton, John Haxter, John
McGillivray, P. G. Close, John Shaw, D. H.
Read, Q.c, and John Carr have been Presidents
of the Council. A feature of the early city financ-

ing, which would be a f^ood on«' to continue if
practicabh', as it would save the city from extrav-
agant e.xpenditnru, was to obtain a loan for the
consti uction of side-walks on the personal guaran-
tee of the AMi'rmen ami Councdmen. The
Coimcil consisted uf the Ma><ir, Aldermen and
C'ouncilnien. The Councilinen wore afterwards
abolished. The first Counc il was composed of
ten .Mdermeii and ten Coimcillors, expressed in
olticial terms : " The Mayor, AMermen, and Com-
monalty." Pumshmeiit by placing offenders in
the stocks was still in force in iS.j }, and, although
a woman punished in that way by the Mayor was
the last, yet many had previously been exposed in
tho stocks to the public gaze. Mackenzie
designed th<; city arms, an<l selected the motto,
" Industry, Intelligence, Integrity."

Upon the passing of the Union Act between
the Provinces of Upper and Lowi-r Canada, a
proclamation was issued on the 5tli of February,
1.S41, whereby it was declared that the Union
should take effect from the loth of that month.
This Union did away with the two separate Pro-
vincial capitals and was a matter of concern to
the cilizins of Toronto. Kingston was chosen as
the capital of the United Provinces. The last
Legislature that sat in Toronto before the Union
closed on the loth I'ebruary, 1840. Kingston
was the capital for only three years. Then Mon-
treal had the privilege, and in 1849 Toronto
became the alternate capital with Oiiebec for
periods of four years. At Confederation, in
iS()7, Toronto became the pertnancnt capital of
Ontario.

In 1847, a (iasand Water Company which had
been formed not long before, sold out its gas
works to thi Consumer's Gas Company, which
has supplied the city ever since. Mr. Charles
Herczy was the first President, followed by
Richard Yates and N. Whittemore and E. H.
Rutherford, who was a long time President. He
was succee<led by James Austin, and then for
some years Dr. Larratt W. Smith, n.c, was
President. The Company started with twelve
lamps, and gas was charged for at the rate of five
dollars per thousaiul cubic feet. It is now ninety
cents per thousand. At first the gas was oidy
twelve candle power, while now it is twentv-one.
Mr. Alexander East, on i8th May, 1861, procured

CANADA AN i;N(V( I.OIM.DIA.

iS.)

a charter to run a street railway by liorse-powrr.
A tramway waH constriictfil, the I'nst in (atiada,
and coiivi-yod paHS»;n(,'irs for a number i)f years
in a liniit'jd way throng;!! tlie rliiff Htrufls of tlio
city. On tlio iSth of Nnvcmbor follnwint,', by
uKreement willi tliu TDiimto Roads' Company
(James Heaty, I'resident), it wan cxtindcil noith
beyontl tlio then city limits. Tin n tlio Toronto
Street Railway came iiiidir tin; (uiitrol of fluilato
J. G. Howes, for sivrral yiais Mayor of the city.
Subs'.'tpiently it was Mianaf^id by Mr. ('. U.
Enf^lish, a lawyer of the city, in tlio interests of
the Bowes family. In iSfx) it came into the con-
trol of tho Messrs. Kiuly, and afiursvards Sir
Frank Smith, Senator of the Dominion, joined
them. Sir Frank was I'resiilent for tin years,
and Mr. James Giimi was connected with the
Tramway as Secretary or Snperiiiteiident fiom
1869. On 1st September, I.S()i, in consequence
of tho expiriiifj franchise of the Company, it
became the policy of the city to buy it out. This
was done. The franchise and properly were then
sold to capitalists. In 1891 the franchise was
transferred for thirty years, William McKen/io
being President of the new (■ompany. In i.S(jJ
the trolley or electric system was commenced, by
which means the cars are now propelled. A
Sunday car agitation proceeded for years, and in
1897, at a third election, and upon a vote of
32,000, a majority of 320 was obtaincil, authoriz-
ing cars to be run on Sunday. There were in
that year eighty-five and one-quarter miles in
operation.

In 1842 Mr. Albert Inirness undertook to sup-
ply the city with water. In 1851 he sold the
works to the Metropolitan Water Comiiany, Hon.
William Kilally, President. They were after-
wards re-transferred to Mr. Furness, who, in
April, 1873, sold them to the city. In 1872
f Commissioners were appointed to construct and
enlarge the works. Large expenditures have
since been made, and at present there is a fairly
good system in working order. The water is
obtained from Lake Ontario, south of the Island,
through a conduit, by pumping up to a large
reservoir on Callow's Hill, north of the city, and
270 feet above the lake level. The City Hall
still owns the waterworks, as it should all the
public franchises — Gas, Electricity, Street Rail-

ways and other reveniie--producmg works. On
tho 7th of April, iS^f), the city suffered a great
calamity by a lire whii h desdoyed half a million
dollars' worth of property, cliielly situated along
King Street, east from (Hiurch and north to Duke
Street. A malign iiit fevi-r, and snhsetpiently
cholera, in the summer of that year w.is brought
in by emigrants, and raged until 527 citizc:ns had
died from tho epidemic. William Ljon Mac-
kenzie returned from the United States in i8.j8,
afti.r Ml exile of eleven ye, irs, having taken the
benefit of an Amnesty Act, and a considerable
riot was the conse(pieiice. There wero those
who could not ap|)reciate the wisdom of pardon-
ing one wh(jm they termed a "scoundrelly
rebel."

Up 10 i85(j tho Mayor was elected by the
Council from their own members. In 1858 an Act
was passed reijuiriiig tho Mayor to be elected by
the citizens at large. This system continued
until the year 1866, when tho election of the
Chief Magistrate reverted by law to the Council.
In 1873 this mode of election was changed, and
the citizens again directly controlled the election
of tho Mayor— a system which has continued
ever since. The office of Common Councilman
was also abolished and the number of Al(l"rmen
increased to three in each ward. They were to
hold office for three years. This term was after-
wards reiluced to one year. This was a serious
retrogression which has impaired tho efiiciency
of the Council ever since. There are now si.\
Wards with four Aldermen elected for each.

In i860 the Prince of Wales visited this coun-
try. He came on the 7th of September to
Toronto, accompanied by ihe Uuke of Newcastle,
Colonial Secretary, and a numerous suite. In
consequence of the condemnation by the Duke of
Newcastle of certain displays by Orangemen, in
which he was joined by Sir Edmund Head, the
effigies of those distinguished gentlemen were
burnt on Colborne Street. The Prince and party
wore received by the Mayor, Mr. Adam Wilson,
y.c, afterwards tho Hon. Sir Adam Wilson,
Chief Justice, and at one time M.P. and Solicitor-
General. A great demonstration was given and
a brilliant and appropriate reception accorded to
the Prince, such as has seldom greeted any visi-
tor to this continent. Mr. (afterwards Sir David

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L.) Macphcrsun in a princely manner entertained
His Royal Highness at Chestnut Park, near
Toronto. It was in this year tiiat John Sheridan
Hogan, M.P., was murdered at the Don Bridge.
His body was thrown into the Don River and
was not discovered until 1861. Some of a gang
of ruffians, known as " Hrook's Bush Gang,"
were found to be the criminals, and, although not
the person who actually committed the crime,
yet for being present and abetting it, one Hrown
was hanged for the offence.

The Trent Affair created a great interest. The
seizure of Messrs. Mason and Slidell, Commis-
sioners of the Soutliern States to Europe, from
the British Steamer Tr<!«/, threatened to produce
war between ICngland and the United States.
Toronto as a prospective lake port of easy access
for an assault, was of course specially interested.
It also became during the years of the Civil War
in the United States the rendezvous of many
hundreds of " Skedaddlers " from both North and
South, chiefly from the South or Middle States.
Subsequent years were quiet and prosperous until
1866, when the Fenian Raid occurred. On the
First of June, about a thousand crossed the line
and landed near Fort Erie. Toronto sent her
Oueen's Own and other Companies to the front
and tlie enemy was compelled to retire with the
loss of a number of Canadians, and the wounding
of many more. A monument was erected near
the University in the Queen's Park to the mem-
ory of the latter and memorial windows placed
in Convocation Hall of the University. The
Toronto names of the dead were Major McEach-
ern. Corporal Defries, Private Smith, Private
Alderson and Private Tempest. Others subse-
quently died from th''ir wounds or diseases
contracted, including Sergeant H. Matheson,
Captain and Paymaster John Huston Kichey,
Private James Caliill, Privite James H. Morrison,
Private Daniel Boker, Private M. Prudhomme,
Private Larratt W. Smitli.

The first day of July, 1867, was the birthday of
the Dominion of Canada, and Toronto was fore-
most in its demonstrations of gratification at the
accomplishment of the Union of the Provinces of
British North America. Toronto became the
permanent capital of the Province of Ontario and
Major-General Henry William Stisted, C.B., was

appointed the first Lieutenant-Governor. Mayor
J. E. Smith gave a costly banquet at which Gen-
eral Stisted, Sir J. A. Macdonald, the Hon.
George Brown and other celebrities attended.
During 1869 H.R.H.PrJ-ice Arthur visited Toronto
aiul was hospitably entertained by Lieut. -Gover-
nor Howland at " Siirewsbury Lodge." The
public demonstrations were on a grand scale,
and the enthusiasm displayed equalled the recep-
tion given to the Prince of Wales. Samuel Bick-
erton Harman, y.c., was Mayor during the year
and performed his part with dignity and success.
In tliis year the York Pioneers founded their
Society. They are still an iniluential body of
citizens. Mr. Coates and Mr. Richard Denison
were among the original promoters and the Rev.
Dr. Scadding, D. J>. Read, y.c, and Dr. Cannif!
have continued the work of the .Society.

The Industrial Exhibition Association, incor-
porated in 1879, commenced its first efforts in
1S77. Since its incorporation it has succeeded
to a marked degree. It can well claim to be the
equal of any similar institution on this continent
and seems to increase in importance and useful-
ness every year. As many as eighty thousand
visitors are present on occasions, even on one
day, and three hundred and twenty thousand
visitors have appeared during the two weeks of
the Exhibition. Its operations have been guided
by the exceptional intelligence, energy and cour-
age of the President throughout its whole history,
Mr. John J. Withrow. The services he has ren-
dered have been throughout gratuitous (except a
trifle given in 1896), owing no doubt to the un-
willingness of Mr. Withrow to receive any com-
pensation. He has been ably assisted by Mr.
H. J. Hill, the indefatigable Secretary, whose
adaptation to that kind of work has been proved
by his undoubted success.

In 1880 the Princess Louise visited Toronto
with her husband. His Excellency the Marquess of
Lome. H.R.H. Prince Leopold accompanied her.
The Princess was received with the most marked
consideration by the citizens, and by large crowds
of country people. It was estimated that at
least one hundred thousand people lined the
streets on that occasion. The writer was Mayor
during the visit. The Vice-regal party,through the
kindness of the Hon. D. A. Macdonald, then Lieu-

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tenuiit-Ciovernor, occupied tlovertunent House.
Tile Ontario Premier, the Hon. (now Sir) Oliver
Mowat, loyally contributed for the Province a
large share of the expenses connected with the
entertainment of the distinguished visitors, and
the city supplied the rest. The visitors remained
about three weeks, and their kindly and tiiought-
ful interest in the various benevolent eiite-prises
of the city endeared them to all hearts. They
were also hospitably entertained at " The Hall,"
the residence of Colonel Sir Casimir G^owski. At
subse<iuent visits similar hospitality was extended.
In 1H73 Prince Ge<)i<,'e, son of the Prince of
Wales and now Duke of York, visited the city.
In 1884 a semi-centennial celebration of the
jncorjjoration of Toronto was planned and carried
out with great success. Mr, A. R. HoswcU, y.c,
the Mayor, succeeded in awakening marked
enthusiasm in the citizens, and Mr. W. Barclay
McMurrich, i).c., who had been Mayor in 1882
and who had designed the celebration, worked
with much earnestness to make it a success.
Prince Arthur (Duke of Connaught) visited
Toronto agam in the year iSSg, and as usual
the loyal demonstrations of the ever-loyal capital
were shown in an enthusiastic manner. Mr. K.
F. Clarke, M.l'.P., was Mayor.

It may be noticed here that the salaries of
Mayors ranged from eight hundred to four t!iou-
sand dollars. The Aldermen were not paid any
sum until 1894, when a small compensation of
$300 was given to them. -Hitherto their service
had been gratuitous, and the work to be done
was very considerable, especially that of the
Chairmen of Committees. In 1889 valuable ser-
vice was rendered by the Committee of which
Alderman William Roaf was Chairman, appointed
to revise and consolidate the by-laws of the city
from its incorporation in 1834 down to the 13th
of Jai'.uary, i8go. Mr. Frank J. Joseph, under
the supervision of Mr. Roaf, also did useful work
in the consolidation. In 1880 the largest num-
ber of conventions that had ever visited Toronto
in one year were convened here. Since that
lime it has become a noted " Meeting Place "
for the continent. It is properly the "City of
Conventions," as well as the " City of Churches
•and Charities."

The year 1897, the Diamond Jubilee of the

reign of Her Majesty, Queen \'ictoria, will be
noted in connection with the loyalty and patriot-
ism of the citizens of Toronto. The loyal
demonstrations were widespread and unique in
their unity of all creeds and classes. Some
enthusiastic Aldermen — headed by Mr. John
Hallam — at the expense of the city had a casket
prepared for presentation to Her Majesty, Its
construction from gold, silver, precious stones
and beautiful woods, all Canailian products and
manufactured by Canadian skill, spoke well as to
the natural richness of Canada, and for the
advanced intelligence of the artists and mechanics
responsible fur the nature and style of a gift
which represented the earnest patriotism and
enthusiastic loyalty of the promoters. Alderman
Hallam, Chairman of the Jubilee Committee, and
his colleagues, while they unwisely declined the
aid of the Citizens' Committee, nevertheless
worked zealously and efficiently to make the 22nd
of June a memorable one in the history of To-
ronto. The Address of the Council to Her
Majesty was admirable in matter and style, in
brevity and completeness. The Earl of Aberdeen,
Governor-General, with the Countess of Aber-
deen, frequently visited Toronto during his term
of office, and was received with marked consid-
eration, not only on account of hisofHcial position,
but from the earnest and sympathetic interest
they had both taken in all charitable, benevolent
and humane enterprises promoted by the people
of Toronto and Canada generally. On the 12th
June, 1897, an unusual event took place, probably
the only one of its kind, in view of the lengthy
service of the Chief Justice, that ever occurred
in the Province. The Hon. (now Sir) John
Hawkins Hagarty, lately Chief Justice of the
Province of Ontario, after forty-one years' service
on the liencli, was presented with an address by
the Bar at a large meeting held in Osgoode Hall.
The Hon. A. S. Hf.rdy made the presentation,
and a felicitous and appropriate reply was given
by the learned and aged Chief Justice in good
voice and vigourous manner, although then
eighty years of age, fifty-seven of which had been
engaged in legal work.

Turning to the commercial progress and stand-
ing of the city we find a notable illustration of
the advancement of the country at large. The

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fact Ihat in one century Toronto has grown from
about ten thousand of population to two liumlred
thousand carries with it undoubted proof of its
commercial, financial and industrial importance.
It is the chief city of a large Province now num-
bering two millions of people, with as fine soil,
climate <ind other elements of natural wealth as
any territory in the world of similar extent. The
growth has been gradual, with occasional depres-
sions, but on the whole steady and continuous.
The excellent agricultural district surrounding
the city has contributed largely to its commerce
and trade. Its situation on Lake Ontario, and
its commodious harbour, were leading factors in
the concentration of commerce and trade in the
city, as it soon became the central point for col-
lection and distribution of the products and
merchandise of a wide extent of country. Its
position as the capital of Upper Canada, at times
of United Canada, and then of Ontario, no doubt
was useful at the start and as fixing the minds of
the general public upon its location and pros-
pects. The management of the harbour is by
Commissioners appointed by the Government of
Canada and by the city.

The trade of Toronto is well indicated by the
interest taken by the traders, manufacturers and
merchants in its Board of Trade, which was
organized in 1844 by the election of Percival
Ridout as President, Joseph Workman as Vice-
President, and Hijnry Roswell as Secretary-
Treasurer. It was incorporated on the loth of
March, 1845. In 1880 Mr. H. W. Darling was
elected President and gave much attention for
five years to the affairs of the Board, resulting in
a great interest in the Board and a large increase
in the membership. Five hundred merchants
tendered a banquet to him and a handsome piece
of plate upon his retirement. The first Annual
Dinner was held December 30th, 1877, and was
a brilliant affair. President William Ince was in
the chair, and about two hundred and sixty
members were present. In i88g a new building
was erected on the corner of Yonge and Front
Streets. The estimated cost was $400,000.
The previous location of the Board was on Leader
Lane. The new building is seven stories high
and has 86 offices. The membership in 1897 was
850. Incidental to the organization of the Board

of Trade was the Toronto Exchange, which was
formed in 1866. Robert Spratt was the first
President, H. S. Howland, Vice-President, and
J. E. Kirkpatrick, Secretary-Treasurer. It amal-
gamated in 1884 with the Board of Trade. In
the various advances and changes in the latter
Board during fifteen years, Mr. Edgar Wills,
Secretary, has had a large share, and upon him
must be bestowed much of the credit resulting
from the successful prosecution of the schemes of
the Board, and particularly the erection of the
building.

The Toronto Stock Exchange was organized
by Act of Incorporation in 1878. It had pre-
viously existed for some time as an unincorpor-
ated institution. Among those who applied
for incorporation only a few survive — Messrs.
Robert Beaty, C. S. Gzowski, Philip Brown,
R. Cockburn, E. B. Osier, M.i'., and R. H.
Temple. During the past twenty years there
have been two or three local crises besides
the more widespread ones such as the silver
disturbances in the United States in 1893 and
i8g6, and the brokers have passed through
several serious difficulties. There are now
thirty-two members of the Exchange. The
number of members is limited to forty, and seats
have sold as high as four thousand dollars.

The increase in Toronto's mercantile business
is indicated by the Customs duties paid at its
port— in 1874, $1,972,425; in 1884, $3,186,443;
in 1894, $3,041,400. The railways have been
a very important feature in the development
of the commercial interests of the city. The
first iron road in Western Canada was started
on the 15th of October, 1851, and the first sod was
turned by Lady Elgin, nearly opposite the
Parliament Buildings on Front Street. This
was known as the Ontario, Simcoe and Huron
Railway and afterwards as the Northern Railway.
The first portion of the line from Toronto, about
thirty miles north, was opened on the i6th
of May, 1853. In 1855 it was opened to Colling-
wood on the Georgian Bay. Thus the waters
of Lake Ontario and the Georgian Bay were
united for commercial purposes. The Toronto
and Hamilton Line was opened in 1855. The
Grand Trunk from Montreal to Toronto was
opened on the 27th of October, 1855, and was

CANADA : AN ENCYCLOP.KDIA.

^93

shortly afterwards continued to Guelph and
thence to the western limit of the Province.
The narrow gauge, Toronto, Grey and Bruce
Railway, the Toronto and Nipissing, the Credit
Valley, and the Ontario and Quebec and Canadian
Pacific all followed in course of time. Toronto
thus became a notable railway centre. The con-
veniences afforded from the facilities of land and
water transportation in reaching the city, either
for passengers or for freight, added largely to its
commercial growth, and also encouraged the
location of manufacturing establishments of nu-
merous kinds. Electric railways also grew out
into adjoining p;irts with great rapidity. For
some distance there is now one running east-
wardly, one westwardly and one northerly.
The population of the city has made the following
steady increase :

1803 456

1825 3,000

1834 9,000

1844 1 5,000

1854 40,000

1864 (about) 49,000

1874 68,000

iS'/7 105,211

1894 188,333

1898 (about) 200,000

In 1880 the writer made an effort to unite to
the city proper the adjoining towns and villages,
such as Yorkville, Parkdale, Brockton, Riverside,
Seaton Village, and other municipalities. This
policy was carried out by his successors until all
the then existing villages were annexed, much to
their advantage and that of the city. These addi-
tions largely increased the population, and must
be taken into account in considering the growth
of subsequent years. The public charities of the
city number sixty at least. They serve great
public needs, but require more control and
systematic management. To avoid imposition,
a central Board for purposes of information is
needed very much. The Public School system of
Ontario, of which Toronto is the centre, is probably
as good as, if not better than, any other in the
world. The Toronto system is under a Board of
School Trustees, who receive their funds from
the City Council, the Board determining the
amount to be expended. Mr. James L. Tughes

has been for many years an energetic and intelli-
gent Inspector for the city. The attendance of
scholars in 1896 in Toronto was over thirty-two
thousand. There are Roman Catholic Separate
Schools as part of the general system. It may
also be mentioned that 6,000 pupils attend
Toronto's Universities, Colleges and High
Schools. The Police number 257, under the
control of Lieut. -Colonel H. J. Grasett, and the
Police Cotnmissioners include the Mayor for the
time being, the County Court Judge, and Lieut. -
Colonel George T. Denison, Police Miigistrate.
The latter has been assisted by Hugh Miller, j. p.,
and Mr. R. E. Kingsford. The debt and taxation
of the city, apart from the Local Improvement
Debt, which was incurred for streets, sewjrs and
sidewalks and is a charge on the local property,
is comparatively small. The whole debt (1897)
is $21,775,000, of which there is on account of
local improvements the sum of $6,560,000. The
city has against the general debt property, apart
from taxation, amounting to $8,500,000, and
waterworks worth four millions. Of this general
debt ne"-'y the whole amount is made up of
Railway Debt, Esplanade Improvement Debt,
Court House Debt and other permanent work.
The total assessment is about $130,000,000.

There have been only four Treasurers since the
city was incorporated. Mr. Matthew Walton
was the first, and A. T. McCord was then Cham
berlain — as the office was called — for over forty
years. Mr. S. B. Harman, d.c.l., ex-Mayor,
followed for some years, and the present compe-
tent official, Mr. R. T. Coady, has been Treasurer
since 1890. The City Clerks have also been few
in number, Mr. J. Harvey Price, afterwards Min-
ister of the Crown, being the first, followed by
Charles Daly for twenty-nine years. John Carr,
Stephen Radcliffe, Robert Roddy and the present
Clerk, John Blevins — an Alderman for eleven
years, and appointed in 1884 — followed in suc-
cession. The Engineers have been fourteen in
number, including Thomas Young, John G.
Howard, William Kingsford, c.e., William
Thomas, Thomas H. Harrison, Thomas Booth,
Alfred Brunet, J. H. Bennett, C. W. Johnson,
Frank Shanly, ce., Redmond J. Brough, Charles
Sproatt, W. T. Jennings, c.e., and E.J. Keating,
C.E., the present Engineer. City Solicitors have

m

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CANADA: AN KNCYCLOI'^iniA.

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not been numerous. Mr. Clarke Gamble, Q.c,
acted for twenty years. Following liim came the
Hon. John Beverley Robinson, C. K. W. Biggar,
Q.c, and James S. Fullerton, Q.c. Thomas
Caswell acted for a number of years. The first
Medical Health Officer appointed was Dr. William
Canniff. After him came Dr. Norman Allen ami
Dr. Charles Sheard, the present energetic officer.
It may be said in passing that there are 256
miles of streets, 228 miles of sewers, 248 miles of
water mains, and 225 miles of gas mains in
Toronto.

The press has not been the least of the forces
in upbuilding the city. Toronto may claim to
have been always the chief journalistic city in
Canada. To-day it leads on many public ques-
tions the larger portion of the press of the
Dominion. Among its earlier newspapers may
be named the British Canadian, Herald, Patriot,
Colonist, Examiner, Christian Guardian, still pub-
lished, Star, Mirror and Banner. The pr.pers of
to-day include the Globe, the Mail and Empire,
the World, the Telegram, the Evening News, the

Evening Star, the Catholic Register, the Canadian
Churchman, the Church Evangelist, the EvangeliaU
Churchman, the Westminster, the Monetary Times,
the Merchant and the Canadian Baptist. The
publications, all told, number not less than one
hundred and sixty. And every kind of interest,
political, religious and material, seems to have its
organ.

It has been a somewhat difficult task to suffi-
ciently compress this record of a city's prowtli,
and those seeking further information may refer
to the following books :

Toronto of Old, by the Rev. Dr. Scadding.
Toronto, Past and Present, by Rev. Dr. Scadding
and John Charles Dent. Toronto, Past and Pres-
ent, by J. Timperlake. Toronto, Old and New, by
G. Mercer Adam. Historical Sketch of Toronto,
by J. Castell Hopkins. Toronto Called Back, by
C. Cunningham'Taylor. The Old Landmarks of
Toronto, by Jolm Ross Robertson. Ths Life of
Governor Simcoe, by D. B. Read, Q.c. Reminis-
cences, by Charles Durand. Facts about Toronto
(1897), by Alderman Daniel Lamb.

THE CITIES OF CANADA— EDITOR'S NOTES

;

The City of Montreal. The following data
extracted from Mr. George Johnson's First
Things in Canada will supplenr.ent the facts given
by Dr. Bortliwick. M. Olier, of St. Sulpice, was
ambitious to form a mission in New France in
which the sick should find an hospital; the
young, educational facilities; the Sulpicians, a
theological seminary ; and all, protection from
the Indians. He and his associates, after pur-
chasing the Island of Montreal from one of the
One Hundred Associates, organized the Society
of Notre Dame de Montreal, adopted Ville-Marie
de Montreal as the name of the settlement they
anticipated would form around the hospital, the
convent, the seminary and the fort ; and selected
M. de Mai.sonneuve as the first Governor. Arriv-
ing at the Island in the autunm of 1641 the latter
prepared the site and had it formally dedicated.
In 1642 it was enclosed with palisades and
guar<ijd with cannon. Within the enclosure
were housed the eighteen persons composing the

population. The Hotel Dieu, a massive stone
fighting fortress of a hospital, was begun, finished
and opened within two years* time. In 1653
actual colonization began, and grants of land
were given.

The first census was taken in 1667, when there
was found to be a population of 766 persons.
A police force was then organized, and the first
public square formed, in which was held the first
public market. In 1762 the streets were named,
as they are to-day, with a few exceptions. In
1688 the town was surrounded with a wooden
palisade, fifteen feet high, with four gates. In
1685 the population had reached 1,360. In 1717
the inhabitants were permitted to establish an
Exchange or Bourse. In 1721 a regular postal
service between Montreal and Quebec was estab-
lished. In 1739 the population of Montreal and
banlieue was 4,210. In 1760 the town capitulated
to the English soldiery. In 1765 the population
was 5,733. In 1775 the city was occupied by the

CANADA; AN ENCYCLOP.i'.DIA.

m

I

American General Montgomery, and in the same
year the Gazette Littiraire shed its light upon the
popular intellect. In 1779 the first rudimentary
canals were begun and Montreal commenced to
stretch out its hands to the far north-west by
organizing the North-West Trading Company
in 1782.

Montreal began the present century with a
population of 2^,000 persons. Waterworks were
begun in 1801 and completf'd by 1832. In 1817
the Bank of Montreal was founded. In 1832
Montreal was made a port of entry, was incor-
porated with a Mayor, and began the first line of
docks on the river front. Gas works were started
in 1836, and the city rejoice<l, in the year of the
Queen's accession (1S37), in the opening of its
first railway, the Champlain and St. Lawrence,
a few months before that auspicious event took
place. In 1S41 an expansion of the Committee
of Trade (established in 1822) resulted in the
formation of the Montreal Board of Trade in
1842, with J. T. Brondgeest its first President.
In 1850 foreign vessels were first permitted to
proceed to Montreal, under license, for the pur-
pose of loading — returning to Quebec for sea
clearance. In 1853 the Gctiova, the first ocean
steamship to arrive in Montreal, put in an appear-
ance. In 1854 John Redpath established his
great sugar refinery. By that date the ocean
channel had been deepened to 16^ feet. In
1856 the Allan Bros, established a fortnightly
line of steamers to England ; the first train from
Montreal to Toronto left on October 27th; and
several important factories had found suitable
sites on the banks of the Lachine Canal. In 1S63
the tea business found a centre of operations in
Montreal. In 1876 the Intercolonial Railway
was opened. In 1879 a second large sugar
refinery was established, and the railway to Que-
bec on the north shore of the St. Lawrence com-
pleted. In 1S82 the ocean channel was deep-
ened. On the 28th June, 1887, the first through
train to the Pacific coast via the Canadian Pacific
Railway, left Montreal. In 1888 Montreal was
practically made a free port (except pilotage) by
the Dominion Government assuming the Lake
St. Peter's Channel debt, and by the removal of
wharf dues on steamers and sailing vessels. On
the 3rd June, 1889, the Canadian Pacific Rail-

way cars entered Halifax and Montreal, and the
interior country had two winter ports, St. John
and Halifax. In 1891 the population of Mon-
treal was 216,650 with a very large overflow in
municipalities immediately in contact witli, but
not then annexed to, the city.

Canadian City Mayors. The following lists of
the Mayors of the chief cities of Canada have
been obtained from the respective civic records,
and will, no doubt, prove of value for reference;

MAVOKS OF TORONTO.

1834 William Lyon Mackenzie.

1835 Hon. Robert Baldwin Sullivan, i,].c.

1836 Thomas D. Morrison, m.d,

1837 George Gurnett.

1838-40. John Powell.

1841 George Munro.

1842-44. .Hon. Henry Sherwood, y.c,
1845-47.. William Henry Boulton.
1848-50.. George Gurnett.
i^5i-53- John George Bowes,
jg [Joshua George Beard.

<■ Hon. John Beverley Robinson, President.

1855 Hon. George William Allan.

1856 Hon. John Beverley Robinson.

1857 John Hutchison.

jg g fWilliam Henry Boulton.

'■David Breckenridge Read, Q.c.
1859 Hon. (Sir) Adam Wilson, y.c.

f Hon. Sir Adam Wilson, y.c.

I John Ci'.rr, President.

1861-63. .John George Bowes.
1864-66. .Francis H. Medcalf.
r867-6S. .James E. Smith.
1869 Samuel Bickerton Harman.

/Samuel Bickerton Harman.

' ' vGeorge D'Arcy Boulton, President.

1871-72. .Joseph Sheard.

1873 Alexander Manning.

1874 Francis H. Medcalf.

n /Francis H. Medcalf.

'•John Baxter, President.

1876 Angus Morrison.

jg_„ /Angus Morrison.

'•Patrick G. Close, President.

1878 Angus Morrison.

1879-80. .James Beatty, Jr., n.c.i,., o.c.

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CANADA: AN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

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1881-82. .William Barclay McMurrich, g.c.
1 883-84.. Arthur K. Boswell, y-c

1S85 Alexander Manning.

1886-87.. William H. Howland.
1888-91. .Edward F. Clarke, M.P.P.
1892-93.. Robert J. Fleming.
1894-95. .Warring Kennedy.

1856 Robert J. Fleming.

1807 .../'^°^^'"t J- Fk-ming, ist six months.

'■John Shaw, last six months.
1898-99. .John Shaw. '

MAYORS Ul' MONTKEAL.

1 833-40... Jacques Viger.
1840-43. ..Hon. Peter McGill.
1 843-45... Joseph Bourret.
1845-47... Hon. Janies Ferrier.
1847-48. ..John E. Mills.
1848-49... Joseph Bourret.
1849-51... E. R. Fabre.
1851-54. ..Charles Wilson.
i854-50...Wolfrcd Nelson.
1856-58... Hon. Henry Starnes.
1858-62. ..Hon, C. S. Rodier.
1862-66... Hon. J. L. Beaudry.
1866-68. .. Hon. H. Starnes.
1 868-7 1...W. Workman.
1871-73..C. J. Coursol.
1873-74... I'rancis Cassidy.
1 874-75.... \. Bernard.
1875-77... Hon. (Sir) W. H. Hingston.
1877-79... Hon. J. L. Beaudry.
1879-81. ..S. Rivard.
1881-85. ..Hon. J. L. Beaudry.
1885-87... H. Beangrand.
1887-89... Hon. (Sir) J. J. C. Abbott.
1 889-91... Jacques Grenier.
1891-93... Hon. James McShane.
1893-94... Hon. Alphonse Desjardins.
1894-96. ..J. O. Villenenve.
1896-98. ..R. Wilson Smith.
1898-1900. R. Prefontaine.

MAYORS OF OTTAWA.

1850 John Scott.

1851 Charles Sparrow.

185a Hon. R. W. Scott.

1853 J. B. Turgeon.

1854 Henry J. Friel. *

i855-57-J-I^- Lewis.

1 8 56-59... Ed ward McGillivray.
1850-62... Alexander Workman.

1863 Henry J. Friel.

1864-66... M. K. Dickinson.

1867 Robert Lyon.

1868-69... Henry J. Friel.
1870-7 1... John Rochester.
1 872-73... E. Martineau.
174-5. ..J. P. Featherston.

1876 G. B. L. Fellowes.

1877 W. H.Waller.

1878 G. W. Bangs.

1S79-81...P. St. Jean.

1S84 C. T. Bate.

1885-86... Francis McDougal.
1887-88. ..McLeod Stewart.
1889-90... Jacob Erratt.

1891 Thomas Birkett.

1892-93. ..Olivier Durocher.

1894 George Cox.

1895-96. ..William Borthwick.
1897-98... Samuel Bingham.

MAYORS OF yUliBEC.

1833-34... Elzi»5r B«5dard,
1834-46. ..Hon. R, E. Caron.
1846-49. ..G. O. Stewart.
1850-52... Hon. (Sir) N. F. Belleau.

1853 Hon. U, J. Tessier.

1854 Charles AUeyn.

1855 Joseph Morrin.

1856 0. Robitaille.

1857 Joseph Morrin.

1858-60... Hon. (Sir) H. L. Langevin.
1861-63... Thomas Pope.

1864-65. .. A. G. Tourangeau.
1866-67... Hon. Joseph E. Cauchon.
1S68-69...J. Lemesurier.
1869-70. ..W. Hossack.

1870 A. G. Tourangeau.

1870-73. ..Hon. P. Garneau.
1874-77. ..O. Murphy.
1878-79... R. Chambers.
1880-81. ..J. D. Brousseau.
1882-90... Hon. Francois Langelier.
1890-94. ..J. J. T. Frdmont.
1894-98. ..Hon. S. N. Parent.

MAYORS OF HALIFAX.

1841 Stephen Binney.

CANADA : AX KNCYCLOPifiDIA.

297

1S42 Hon. (Sir) Edward Kenny.

1842 Thomas Williamson.

1843 Alexander Keith.

1844 Hon. Hugh Bell.

1845 Andrew McKinley.

1846 Joseph Jennings.

1847 William Stairs.

1848 Adam Hemmeon.

1849 Henry Pryor.

1850 William Caldwell.

1851 Andrew McKinley.

1852 Hon. A. Keith.

1853-54- -Henry Pryor.
1855-56... Archibald Scott.
1857-58... Henry Prior.
1859-60... Samuel R. Caldwell.
1861-63... Hon. P. C. Hill.
1864-66... M. H. Richey.
1867-69... Stephen Tobin.

1870 Hon. W. A. Henry.

1871 William Dunbar.

1872 James Duggan.

1873-74... John A. Sinclair.
1875-77. ..M. H. Richey.
1878-80... Stephen Tobin.
1881-83... George Fraser

1 884-86... jiimes C. Mackintosh.
1887-88... Patrick O'Mullin.
1889-91... David McPherson,
1892-94. ..Michael F, Keefe.
1895-96... David McPherson.
1897-98. ..Alexander Stephen.

MAYORS OF ST. JOHN.

1785 Gabriel G, Ludlow.

1795 William Campbell.

1816 John Robinson.

1828 William Black.

1829 Lauchlan Donaldson-

1832 William Black.

1833 John M. Wilmot,

1834 Benjamin L, Peters,

1835 William H. Street.

1836 John Robertson.

1837 Robert F. Hazen.

1840 William Black.

1843 Lauchlan Donaldson

1847 John R Pertelow.

1848 William H. Street.

1849 Robert D. Wilmot

1850
1851
1852
185J
1855
1859
1863
1866
1870
1874
1877
1879
1881
1S84
1885
1S87

1S89.

1891
1894
1898

-54

Henry Chubb. •
Thomas Harding.
William O. Smith.
James Oliver.
William O Smith.
Thomas McAvity.
Isaac Woodward.
Aaron Alward,
Thomas M, Reed.
A. Chipman Smith.
Sylvester Z. Earle,
Charles R. Ray.
Simeon Jones.
James MacGregor Grant.
J. S. Boys DeVeber.
Henry J. Thorne.
George A. Barker.
I. Allen Jack (Recorder).
W. Albert Lockhart.
Thomas W. Peters.
George Robertson.
Edward Sears.

MAYORS OV WINNIPEG.

1874 Francis Evans Cornish.

1875-76. ..William N. Kennedy.
1877-78... Thomas Scott.
1879-80... Alexander Logan.

1881 E. G. Conklin.

1882 .Alexander Logan.

1883 Alexander McMicken.

1884 .\lexander Logan.

1S85 Charles Edward Hamilton.

1886 Henry S. Wesbrook.

1887-88... Lyman M. Jones.

1889 Thomas Ryan.

1890-91... Alfred Pearson.

1892 Alexander Macdonald.

1893-94... T. W. Taylor.

1895 Thomas Gilroy.

•396 R. W. Jamieson.

1897 W. F. IvicCreary.

iSg8 A.J.Andrews.

MAYORS OK VICTORIA.

I S62-65... Thomas Harris.

1866 Lumley Franklin.

1S67 Hon. William J. Macdonald.

iS68-7o...J;imes Trimble.
1S71 A. Rocke Robertson.

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298

1872 Kicliunl Lewis.

Q J James E. McMillan.

Ijiimes D. Robinson.

1874 William Dalby.

1875-7O...J. S. Drutnmund.

1877 Hon. M. W.T. Drake.

1878 Roderick Fmlayson.

1879-8 1... Hon. J. H. Turner.

1882 Noah Shakespoaro.

1883 ClUiles E. RiHlfern.

1884 Joseph \V. Carey.

1885 R. P. Rithet.

1886-S7.. .James Fell.
1888-91... Joim Grant.
1892-93... Hon. Robert Heaven.
1894-95. ..John Teagiie.

1896 Hon. Robert Heaven.

1 897-98... Charles E. Redfern.

MAYORS OF V.\NCOUVER.
1886-87. M. A. McLean.
1888-91. ..D. Oppenheimer.
1892-93... K. Cope.

1894 R. A. Aniierson.

1895-96... H. Collin.s.

1897 Hon. W. Teinpleinan.

1898 J. F. Garden.

Canadian Civic Statistics. Some of the figures
given biilow were compiled for the Star Almanac
of Montreal in 1896 and are well worth republish-
ing for reference. Others are from the Census
returns :

City.

CANADA: AN ENCYCL01M<:i)IA.

Three Rivers 1857 8,670 8,334 9.032

St. Hyacinthe .... 1H57 5,321 7,016 9.230

New Westminster i860 1,500 6,641 5-^5"

Victoria 1862 5.925 16,841 20,000

Winnipeg 1871 7,985 25,642 .\7,ooo

Hull 1875 0,890 11,265 11,973

St. Catharines .... 1876 9,631 9.I7<» 9.423

Helleville 1877 9,516 9,914 j 1,000

Brantford 1877 9,616 12,753 15,954

Guelph 1879 'J.S'H' 10.539 '".500

St. Thomas 1881 8,367. 10,370 10,563

Str.atfoid i8iS5 8,239 9,501 10,624

Vancouver 1886 13.685 17,000

Windsor 1892 6.501 10,322 13. "oo

Peterborough 1850 6,812 9,717 10,835

Uateof
1 iicorpo-
ration.

Centui. Cantus. Kstimatad

1881. 1891. 1885.

4^353 39.179 45.000

96,196 181,220 188,914

62,446 63,090 70,000

St. John 1785

Toronto 1834

Quebec 1840

Montreal 1840 155,237 216,650 250,000

Halifax 1841 36,100 38,556 41,000

Kingston.. 1846 14,091 19,264 18,000

Hamilton 1846 35,960 48,980 48,491

Fredericton 1S48 6,218 6,502 7.500

London 1855 26,266 31,977 34,429

Ottawa 1S55 31,307 44,154 47,775

Charlottetouii .... 1855 11,485 11,374 12,000

Municipal dtbt

June »Uth,

18U6.

St. John, N.H. 3.032,448

Toronto 16,674,81 1

Quebec 6,374,166

Montreal 23,600,000

Halifax 2,915,016

Kingston ^M<i77

Hamilton J. 161, 394

Fredericton... 238,000

London 2,052,000

Ottawa 3.551.479

Charlottetown 306,000
Three Rivers.. 488,316
St. Hyacinliie 424,900
New West-
minster 171,741

Victoria 1,874,000

Winnipeg 2,478.700

Hull 386,000

St.Catharine.s not given

Helleville 408,000

Brantford 727,610

Guelph 480,915

St. Thomas ... 332,838

Stratford 347,800

Vancouver .... not given

Windsor 850,798

Peterborough . 245,650

Value nf
Proparly.

23.382,900

146,338,684

1,276,813

170,000,000

25.643.510

6,518,235

25,138,220

2.9i5.'7i
15,856,410

19.775.145

2.649.757
2,348,422
2,924,675

3.585.500
14,888,673
22,168,990
2,228,859
4.285,775
4,005,000
7,467,841
3.764.950

4.252.779
4,470,610
18,301,084
5,500,000
4.339782

Kal* or Tax-
ation in Milla
on dollar.

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20

9i
20 ,"0

2li

Hi

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5

(b)

15
20

12^^

not given
20I

17
24
16
20. J
not given
21I
16

SECTION IV.

FINANCIAL HISTORY, LOAN COMPANIES AND INSURANCE.

• ./t

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•vf.

h 1

SKETCH OF CANADIAN FINANCIAL HISTORY

BY

I r t* - • I

The HON. GKORGE K. POSTER. HA.. l.L.n.. D.C.I.,, M.H., Late Finance Minister of the ix.minlcn.

Tlll'l cstublishiiieiit of Confucleruliuii in
1867 introduced u strikiuf; cliuiif^c into
tlic inau;if{cipetit of all GovoriiniLMit
finances in the new Dominion, liotti in
basis and scope. U|. tu that time each Province
had been paramount witliin its borders, restrained
l)y no hmitation of powers or division of effort.
Vexed questions had, of course, arisen as to tlie
prero(,'ative of tiie Crown, powers of the Execu-
tive Government and the rights of tiie Legislature,
but by 1867 these had been fairly well settled.

Under Provincial administration revenues had
been collected without raising any question of
direct or indirect taxation — both methods being
open to the Legislatures — and without any refer-
ence to source other than relative availability
fronj either a productive or political point of view.
In like manner expenditures had been made with
no distinctions as to objects other than those
.demanded by the necessities of the case, and
which the available revenues permitted. Debts
had been contracted and obligations incurred
which had to be met by each Province. When,
therefore, the idea was broached of having a
Union of the Provinces, and, supervening be-
tween the Provincial Legislature and the Crown,
a superior body-politic, the difficult and intensely
important question had to be decided as to
the division of powers — the modes of taxation
and scope of expenditure ; the assumption of
public properties and of Provincial debts.

Henceforth the revenue basis of the Provinces
was to be limited, and it became necessary to fix
with exactitude the powers, the burdens and the
duties of the Provincial and the Dominion
administrations, respectively. This was tjffected
in two ways. First, to the Local and the Federal
Legislatures was given exclusive jurisdiction in
certain subjects, and the financial powers of each

followed the division of sulijects. Secondly
express provision was made as to the debts with
which each Province was to enter the Dominion,
or, 111 other words, as to the obligations at that
time running which were to be assumed by the
I'eileral power, and the properties which were to
be set over against them.

All exaiiiiiiatioii of the Act of Confederation,
1S67, will clearly illustrate this. There were
some subjects in which both Provincial and
Federal authority could be exerciseil, but, in so
far as each proceeded, the respective Govern-
ment was to make its own provisions for the
necessary finances. Briefly, then, the Federal
authority carries the public debt assiiined for the
Provinces in 1867, or since adiled in anyway;
administers all public properties given over to it
in 1867 or since added ; has power of raising
revenue by any mode of taxation and of borrow-
ing on tlie public credit ; provides for the postal,
military and naval services and, generally, for all
classes of services not exclusively assigned to the
Legislatures of the Provinces. The Local Legis-
latures have the power to raise revenues by direct
taxation alone ; can borrow on the sole credit of
the Province : and provide for the management
of public lands, prisons, asylums, hospitals and
charities, the sale of liquor, purely local works
and undertakings, the administration of Justice
in the Province, education and local matters
generally. In the matter of Agriculture and
Immigration each has jurisdiction, but in such a
way that Provincial Acts shall not be repugnant
to Federal enactments. Henceforth the Prov-
inces were to have a limited and specific field
of financial operations, and the Dominion a spe-
cific and much wider field, and with the exception
of two or three subjects only there was no con-
current jurisdiction.

V '1

1^1

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>{

.\0'

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOIVKDIA.

I' ,

lilt l)ebt. The debt of tlie Dominion of Can-
adit fur all triiu piirpoHeii uf conipariHoii or ]\u\^-
intMit must be divitlcd into two classes:

1. Tliat which han liucn contracted by Provinces
lip to the tiinu of tlu;ir entering the t'oiifedera-
tioii, or which on a fair basis of e(|iiali/ati(>n
iiiif(ht bu allowed as having been ciiiitractcti.

2. That which has been added sinci; 1^(17 on
account of works and expenditures iin>ieitaken
and cuinpleced by the l''ederal Governineut.

In explanation of the former, it may be stated
that in some Pioviiucs the debt was coni|)ara-
lively small, whilst in Untaiio and ^hiebec it
was comparatively lar^c, and the disparity was
ecpiali/cd by the expedient uf assuming a certain
proportion of the debt of the latter, and by allow-
'u\\i to the former a nominal ilebt larger than the
actual one, tiio excess of which should remain as
ail asset of the I'.ovince with interest at live per
cent, per annum until it shoulil be absorbed,
I'or the excess of the ilebt of Ontario and Que-
bec above what was assumed by the Dominion,
the l'"ederal Government was liable, but on this
excess the Provincial Governments were to pay
interest to the Dominion at five per cent, per
annum. In further explanation of the classes of
debt mentioned above it may be said that the
division of assumed indebtedness settled in 1867
was subseciuently altered on various occasions,
either because in itself it was considered inequit-
able, or because it was deemed advisable in the
interest of the Provinces t<j grant further relief,
or in conse(pience of the admission of new Prov-
inces to the Confederation. With these explan-
ations let me examine briefly the growth and
extent of the Federal Debt. In 1867 under the
Act of Confederation the allocation of assumed
indebtedness was as follows :
For the Provinces of Ontario and

Quebec $6:^,500,000

For the Province of Nova Scotia 8,000,000

" " New Brunswick 7,000,000

Total $77,500,000

In i86g a further allowance was made to Nova
Scotia of $1,186,756, and this was read into the
terms of 1867 in such wise that Nova Scotia
should be considered as having entered Confed-
eration with a debt of $9,186,756. In 1870 Man-

itoba was added to the Union with a debt allow-
anctt of $47^,01^0. In 1871 iiritish C'oliimbia came
into Conleileratioii with a debt nllowanre of
%l,iMi,ioo. In 1871 Prince Fdward Inland
fiiteri'd with a debt uf $.|,(jJ7,o(io. In 187J
Ontario and (.Miebec were allowed the excess of
their actual over their assumed debt of 1867,
which excess amounted to $io,5o6,t)8(^ ; i.e., the
Dominion assumed this in addition to the $6^,<
500,000 assumed in 18O7; and, in order to pre*
serve eipiality, proportional increases vereallcjwed
to Nova .Scotia, Niw Hniiiswick, Manitoba and
Hritish Columl>i>i. Again, in 188.), re-a<ljustments
were made which resulted in increases in the
assumed debts of all the Provinces, and in 1886 a
substantial increase took place in the case of
Manitoba. The following table will best illustrate
the iletails and final result of the various adjust-
ments above noted :

l^cht Alliiii'iimes to Provinces.

V*«r

Ontario

\ IJU«b€C.

IIMI7.

tO-.'.MM,UMI

187'.'

1X73

. lU.MU.IMN

1874.

IHMI.

u.3U7,.^U

1H8,1.

IHWI

Nuvi
Scotia.

0,lHU,7.'ill

i,:m,7Hii

Miuruvflck.

.Maiiilulia.

Biitlih

I'. K.

ColumbU. Klatid.

'.(XNI.IIUII

7U3,3tW

4,IU7,n60

l,l7U,tlHii .'kM,H7

uui.Aiu iiu,8'ia «a,iu7

3,1I3J3S '.'...

lui«l...$78,4(Xl,.'WO ll.3:iU,324 8,781,191) 3,77A.(MI -.2,1120,301 &,1I0,QS3

The total final indebtedness of, and for, the
Provinces, assumed by the Federal Government,
is now (July i, 1897) $109,430,148 — a very con-
siderable portion, as will appear hereafter, of the
whole public debt of Canada. The greater part
of this amount had been expended for railway and
canal construction, and in necessary public works
in the various Provinces. These debts were assum-
ed by the Dominion because of the nature of the
workson which the money had been expended, and
because, as the Federal Government tock over the
revenues from Customs and Exci.se, and hence
absorbed the most productive sources of taxation,
it was considered just that it should assume the
burden of carrying the cost of the public works.
But besides the debts assumed for, or allowed
to, the Provinces, the Federal Government has
been expending yearly upon great public works in
Canada a large amount of money over and above
what has been available for that purpose out of
the current revenues. This amounted at the end

CANADA; AN KNCYCLOI'.KDIA.

303

of tlio fiscal )i'ar, lS(j6.7, lo $13^,108,448, ami,
ailduil to tlio f ui(>,4 )(), 14^^ ussiiiiHril ior the Prov-
inces, coiiHtitiiti'tt tliu total net dt^bt of thu Do-
tiiiiii(in,oii tlio abovu datu.or |^()i,5,{H,3i)6. 'I lie
folluwitif; tiiblu of ICxpuiiilitiiii'S oil Capital
Account siiict! iM>y will show at a f;laiicu tliu
cl isH of vvuiks rc-s|ioiiHil)l(! for thi» increuHu in the
public debt :

Canadian I'acitic Railway i"»-'.7.l3»-l'''J

Canals ^S,y()H,Hiy

Interculonial and connected Kailways,

inclndinjj IMC.I.R 40,380, 8^5

Nortli-Wcst Territories _j,8oi, jijM

Duniinion Lamia (Suiv«:yH, &c.) .i-^-i-'W)

Public Buildinf,'9 and Works •J.4Jii.5f'.>

Militia — new c<piipnicnt •JIS.'j'M

$176,704,345
It will be observed that these expenditures are
in excess of thu net addition to the public debt,
the excess having; been met out of surplus revenues
after ciurcnt expenses were paid. A second
diviaioti of the Public Debt is made in thu
accounts into the Gross and Net. This is based
on thu fact that Canada has assets as well as
liabilities. Jn 1867 the gross debt of Canada was
$93,046,051, and the assets, or investments, $17,-
317,410, and thu net debt found by subtracting^ the
assets from the gross debt was $75,728,641. In
1897 the gross debt was $332,530,131, thu assets
$70,991,534, and the net debt $261,538,596. Thu
invustments, or assets, includu interest-bearing
assets, loans to public works, cash and bank
accounts only, and, of course, exclude all public
works built wholly or in part with Government
funds. The following table shows the asM ts of
1897:

Sinking' I'und $38,516,189

Other investments 6,261,527

Province Accounts 10,606,502

Miscellaneous 1 5/^^7,765

$70,991,983

On this, $1,448,003 of interest was received, or
at the rate of about two per cent., whilst the
interest paid on the gross debt was at the rate of
3.20 per cent. From the preceding it will be
seen that Canada must have had tecourse *.o

tonnfl in order to cairy on its targe uxpen<litur(!ii.
These have been raised tn |)art from her own
people, but mainly from thu L(mdon market.
l''rom her own peoplu loans have been made
through threu agencies - 1 he Savings Kank, thu
Government Note Cuirency, and the sale or
isMUo of Canadian Stock. In the system of
Government and Postal Savings Itanks, tliu puo-
pie are encoinaged to deposit their .Htnall earnings,
at a fair interest, ami with perfect security. The
rate allowed has varied from four pur cunt, in
1871 to threu percent, at thu present tiiiiu, and
thu amount on diposit his incKtascd from
$1,687,807 in 1868 to $48,934,975111 1897. By
thu system of (jovernment issue of small note
currency, and largi- notes for banking purposes, a
considerable loan is raised at small cost. Thu
Govurnnieiit has thu exclusive issue of notes for
less than $5, to an amount limited by Parliament,
and for til'' redemption of which gold and guar-
anteeil sucu I .cs to thu amount of 25 per cent, of
thu issue mias» be kept, as also 75 per cent, of
Debentures nf t he Government. These notes are
issuecf throUf^ e banks of ihu country and are
redecMiiable in gold. Thu amount of thuse notes
current at thu end of the fiscal year 1897 was
$22,318,096. Since Confederation scviral issues
of Dominion Stock have been authorized. In
1868 a six per cent, stock was issued which
attaineil a maximum currency of $4,516,499 in
1872, and ran at about that amount till 1879,
when thu most of it was retired. In 1873 a five
per cent, stock was issued and in 1881 $9,626,307
of this stock was held by the public. In 1884 a
four per cent, stock was opened for subscription
which in 1888 attained a currency of $5,030,822.
In 1891 a i^ per cent, stock was issued which in
1897 was held to the amount of $3,150,514. The
total amount of all these stocks outstanding on
June 30th, 1897, was $5,085,137.

Hut it is in London that the principal loans
have been made by the Dominion. These have
in some instances been guaranteed by the British
Government, and in earlier years were floated
with the Sinking Fund attachment. Of late no
guarantees have been asked, nor have any loans
made since 1884 had a sinking fund attached.
The total debt payable in London, in 1867, was
$67,069,115, of which $34,565,500, or over one

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T

304

CANADA: AN KNCYCI-Or.1£l)IA.

I }

M

I M

half, bore six percent, interest ; $31,822,282 bore
five per cent.; and the reniainint; "^ '^i>J33 was
running at four per cent., being a loan guaranteed
by the Imperial Government. In 1872 gj^ per
cent, of the loans payable in London buie fi)ur per
cent, interest (guaranteed by the British Govern-
ment), 45 per cent, bore five per cent., and 45J
percent, ran at six per cent. In 1882 the loans
bearing six per cent, were only 7J per cent, of the
total payable in London, tiiose bearing five per
cent, interest were 25 J of the otal, whilst those
bearing four per cent, interest were 67 per cent,
of the total. By June 30th, 1897, the whole of
the six per cent, bonds had disappeared, but
$2,433,333 remained of the five per cent, bonds.
$140,856,894 bore four per cent., $24,333,333
bore 3^ per cent and $50,602,241 bore three per
cent. In the autumn of that year a loan was
placed in London which, including costs and
charges, bore 2J per cent. — and this latest loan
marks the strong contrast between 1867 and the
present, and emphasizes the immensely cheaper
borrowing as compared with the opening years of
Confederation. The appended table shows* at a
glance the loan transactions between the Domin-
ion Government and the London market, the
marked rise in Canadiar credit and the signifi-
cant decrease in rates of interest :

Year.

CANADIAN LOANS.

Aniuunt of l.uan.

1873..

1874...
1875...

1876...
1878...

1869... *I, 500,000
500,000
* I, 500, 000

*3oo,ouo
4,000,000
* 1,500,000
1,000,000
2,500,000
*i, 500, 000
1,500,000
1879... 3,000,000
1884... 5,000,000
1885... 4,000,000
1885... ( Canada
i reduced
I 6,443,136
1888... 4,000,000
1892... 2,250,000
1894... 2,250,000
1897... 2,000,000
'(idaranteed.

Kale of

Price realized

Actual late of

Inttrrcfti

per

jCMt.

iiiterckt paid.

£

s.

d.

41
5i

105

IJ

II

4i

il

104

7

8

3,"o

4

90

3

3

4l

41
4'

yj

8

4«

4

()!..

4i[

41
4'
4

96

1 1

9

4i

95

10

4:

Ji

91

2

4I

4

1 01

8

4i".

4

•••4.\,

i

95

0

3}

^

<)2

0

10

Xi

3

07

<)

2

3 A

2i

yi

10

5

2;

The loans payable in London, and now bear-
ing over three per cent., mature at different dates,
but all before Oct. 1st, 1913. As these fall due
they will no doubt be renewed f.t about 2^ per
cent., and the saving in interest upon the $167,-
623,260 included above will be very considerable,
i his now bears a net interest rate of 3.72 per
cent, and the saving will therefore be represented
by 1.20 per cent. Whether the change will
operate an absolute saving in interest paid, or
make it possible to carry a larger indebtedness
without added interest burden, remains to be
seen. In 1897 the total interest paid in London
to support a debt of $218,225,503 was $8,125,564.
At 2^ per cent, the same amount of interest
would carry an indebtedness of $225,026,560. It
would not be wise, however, to contemplate a
debt solely from the standpoint of interest. The
principal must sometime be met, and ordinary
prudence will shrink from an excessive increase
of the liabilities of the country.

The Rfuentie. The Revenue of Canada Is de-
rived from two sources : Earnings and Ta.xation.
The former is illustrated by the Post Office,
which p rforms an invaluable service to the
country and charges therefor at fixed rates.
These charges produced a revenue in 1897 of
$3,202,938. The other examples of revenue
earners are Railways, Canals, Public Works,
Dominion Lands, and Interest-bearing Invest-
ments. The revenue d'.rived from all sources
under Earnings was, in 1868, $1,987,247, in 1897,
$^,181,152. Of course the expenses of operating
these revenue earners exceed the revenue ob-
tained, but that does not affect the point now
under consideration. The bulk of the revenue is,
however, raised from taxation, chiefly of two
kinds, viz.: that derived from Excise tax on
Liquor and Tobacco, and that from dutiable
imports coming through the Customs. In 1897
the amounts severally obtained from these sources
we.e :

h.xcise (Tobacco, all varieties...) *9'i7o.37»
Customs 19,478,247

Total $28,648,625

These revenues have expanded greatly since
1867, as will be seen from the subjoined table

', *.i

CANADA; AN KNCYCLOIM'.DIA.

sliowiiifj tin; averapjn riiiKiiiiit from each soiirco for
live; year periods :

lni:luAive. EarninKH. Kxci.se. Cii'i-.unit. 'r<>iat.

1868-72 2,738,523 3,672,7(17 Iim6!,i)12 16,574,202

i*<7.5 77 3.')"S>23'' .S.'^SWi iJ,i«),22o 2^,644,387

1878-83 4,985,84s 5,141,(118 I5,()4S,4()8 26,07(1, 2')4

1883-87 7,o66,()5J 6,o()5,92j 23,744,250 33,877,128

1888-92 8,i8'i,825 7,1187,25s 22,740,405 38,014488

1S9J97 «.843.022 8,330,110 19,420,822 36,593,<J54

A glance nt the eiiactinenls relative to this
brancli of revemie from Coiifetieration up will
show: (i) That ICxcise on Tobacco and Li(inors
has been imposed with a view to ensure
the largest possible revenue — the inaxiniuin rate
levied being regulated by the consideration
of possible danger in passing the product-
ive limit. The present rates levied are
the highest in the history of the country,
and it is open to grave doubt if tluy do
not transcend the limit of production, (j) That
the Customs tariffs since Confederation have
either been framed witli, or have attained, a
double object — that of producing the revenue re-
quired and at the same time of placing Canadian
products, natural and artificial, on the more or
less advantageous basis of protected industries as
compared with similarproducts of other countries.
The average tariff rate on dutiable imporis for
home consumption has varied from 20.16 per
cent, in i.S68to 30.04 per cent, for the year iScjj.
From 1S68 to 1873 it averaged 19.70 per cent.;
from 1S74 to 1878, 20.37 per cent.; from i8(j7 to
1896, 23.43 per cent. ; and for 1897 it was 30.04
— whilst in every tariff enactment the item-rales
grade from an absolutely low revenue import to
a highly protective duty. So far the Dominion
Government has not exercised its right of direct
taxation, unless the stamp tax it one time col-
lected be so classed. This tax was abolished in
1882.

lixpenditiire. The expenditures of the Federal
Government are grouped under two heads — those
on Consolidated Fund acconntand those on Capi-
tal account. All the revenues of the country from
whatever source go into a common fund, called
the Consolidated Fund of Canada. The borrow-
ings of the country through Savings Banks and by
Stock or Debenture issues go to Capital account\
All the yearly services of the country are a charge
upon the Consolidated Fund, including charges on

debt aud sinking fmui, subsidies to I'rovinccs,
Legislatures, Civil GDvernment, Pul)lic Works
and IJuildings, RaiKva\s, Canals, administration
of Justice, Mounted rolice, Lighthouse and Coast
service, Immigration and Onarantine, adminis-
tration of Customs and Excise, and all minor
services. If tiiis iMind is more than sufficient to
meet the cost of tlu-se services there is a surplus
which f^oes to Capital account and may be used
to supplinieiit the Capital expenditure, or dimin-
ish the public debt; if tliis Fund is insufficient
there is a deficit on Consolidated Fund account
which must be met out of capital borrowings.

The line drawn between Consolidated Fund
expenditures and those from Capital is not in all
cases a consistent or logical one. For instance,
an item of!? 15,000 for dredging thti Kaministiquia
River is charged to Capital, but tlie whole general
dredging work of Canada is defrayed from the
Consolidated Fund. General railway subsidies
are a charge on Consolidated Fund, while special
great Railways grants, such as those to the C.
P. R. main line and Crow's Nest Pass are pro-
vided for out of Capital. The rule which
governs, though there are a few exceptions, is
this:

The ordinary services of the country as estab-
lished above are by statute a charge upon the
Consolidated Piind; extraordinary services, which
in their nature are too comprehensive and expen-
sive to be met by the ordinary revenue, are by
enactments, special or as provided in the supply
bill, debited to Capital, and money is to be
borrowed therefor. The surplus of Consolidated
Fund, if any, goes to help out the Capital expen-
diture, and the deficit when it occurs must be
met by Capital-loans. The terms, surplus and
deficit, are therefore technical terms and do not
as to the first show that in the year's total tran-
sactions there has been anything to the credit of
the country, nor as to the second that the sum
indicated as deficit is the total amount to go to
the debit of ttie count rv for the year's transac-
tions. To know the exact outcome for the year
one must have regard to all the expenditures as
compared with the total revenue — the gain or
loss, the credit or ilebit, will then show the result
of the year's openitions. Judged by that stand-
ard Canada b.as had but two surpluses since

.■■■r ^'

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m

k '

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306

CANADA: AN KNCYCI-OP.KDl A.

i

'} I

^

H

,; h

(.'

V

Confederation — in the years 1871 and iSSj, in
which the debt was diminished by $503,224 and
$1,734,129 respectively.

Tiie expenditure on Consolidated I'und account
may be divided into two classes : that which K"^'^
to the Provinces to be expended by thuni inde-
pendent entirely of the Federal authority; ■ nd
that which is entirely administered by the Fede-
ral Executive. In the first class are embraced
all subsidies, and allowances which, in lieu of
surrendered powers of taxation or for purposes of
Provincial Government, were authorized and made
obligatory under the British N(Mth American Act
or subsequent Dominion lej^islation. These in
1868 amounted to $2,753,966, and in 1897 to
$4,238,059. The increase has been $1,485,093 —
owmg to the alhnvance being in part based on a
payment per capita of the population ami in part
to enlargements and adjustments made by the
Dominion Parliament.

All other expenditures are made either in pur-
suance of statutory enactments ci a permanent
or special character, or under the authority of the
yearly supply bill voted by Parliament. There is
one exception to this rule in the case of expendi-
ture by Governor-General's Warrants ; an excep-
tion rendered necessary for public safety and
security on extraordinary occasions, but which is
liable to abuse unless very prudently and wisely
exercised. Its use has in fact been more than once
criticised. The Warrant is authorized by law and
the conditions under which it is issued are laid
down in the Act. The object is to provide for
an expenditure not foreseen and not authorized by
the supply bill or other enactments when it is
needed to provide against sudden and i.nforeseen
disaster or exigency. If, for instance, as tiie
result of a storm, a public wharf is swept away,
and the necessities of business rcviuire immediate
re-building, th-n, if there is no Parliamentary
appropriation therefor, a Warrant maj' be issued
in lieu thereof. A list of all sucli Warrants is to
be submitted to Parliament each year within
fifteen days after its opening, and the sums so
expended must be plac^id in the supplementary
estimates and voted. The following table shows
the expenditures on Consolidated Fund account,
grouped under general headings for the years
1868 and 1897 :

1S6.S. 1897.

1. Charges on Public Debt. $4, 860,757 $10,960,977

2. Subsidies to Provinces. 2,753,966 4,238,059

3. Sinking I'und 355.266 2,101,813

4. ("ollcetion of Revenue.. 1,885,804 9.336,916

5. Miscellaneous Expendi-

ture 3,630,298 11,711,993

$13,486,091 38,349,758
The growth of the Public Debt is responsible
for tiie great increase in item one — the interest
paid in iS,j7 being $10,645,663, or $6,144,095
more than in 1868. Item 2 siiows an increase of
$1,484,093, due to the increase of population and
the fact that the subsidy is paid on a per capita
basis. Item 3 is the amount set aside and in-
vested for ultimate payment of the loans to
which Sinking Funds are attached. Item 4
shows the cost of administering the various
revenue-collecting departments, including Cus-
toms, Excise, Post Office, Railways and Canals,
Public Works, Dominion Lands, Inspection of
Food ,ind Staples, cutting of Timber and Weights
and Measures — outside, of course, of that included
in Civil Government i.e., tlie Staff Departments
at Ottawa. Under item 5 are grouped the Ad-
ministration of Justice, which from i858 to 1897
has increased from $291,243 to $774,762 ; Arts
and Agriculture from $5>58i to $224,390; Civil
Government from $5^4442 to $1,418,847;
Fisheries from $30,572 to $443,587; Geological
Survey from $28,600 to $146,994; Immigration
from $36,050 to $127,438; Quarantine from
$24,346 to $120,162; Indians from nothing to
$908,064; Legislation from $595,810 to $1,134, -
773; Lighthouse and Coast Service from $174,-
983 to $445,743; Steamship Subsidies from
$177.-549 t'^ v'55.5'''^^- ; Militia and Defence from
$1,013,016 to $1,667,588; Mounted Police from
nothing to $526,162 ; Ocean and River Service
from $92,162 to $183,258; Penitentiaries from
$209,369 to $409,598; Public Works from $126,-
270 to $1 463,719; Superannuation from nothing
to $,)07,793 ; and a few oilier branches of service
of minor imp ntance.

What strikes one on studying the above sum-
mary is firs': the great increase between the years
mentioned, and, secondly, the prepondering pro-
portion (/. what may be called fixed charges. As

CANADA: AN KNCVCI.OI'.KDIA.

307

to the first we must not fail to note the vast
extension of territory, the wide distribution of
population, and the imperative call for modern
public services thus made necessary. To the four
orif^inal Provinces have been added three others
and tiie immense stretches of the North-West
and the Yukon. Over this vast region tiie wave
of population has spread thinly but rapidly,
attra:ted by fertile soil and nevvly-discovereil
mineral areas. These demand the ».stablishment
of law and order, postal and other conveniences,
and the essential advantages of transport facilities
by land and water ; and our even moderate at-
tempt to supply their demands has entailed large
expenditures, which, though unproductive in
revenue returns, have in the main been potential
and wealth-producing factors. The other branch
of public expenditure — that on Capital Account —
merits a brief space for description. The follow-
ing table will show the nature of the expendi-
tures, the increase therein, and the total expended
during the period under discussion :

lS;i8. 1S!)7. Toial ISUS tu 1SU7.

Canals $51,458 $2,348,636 $48,768,727

C;iiiiul an Pacific Railway. . .

Dominion Lands

Intercolonial Railway

Militia

Debts allowed to Province^,.
Public Uuild;ni;s, Ottawa.. . .

Other Public Works

P. K. Island Railway

N.W. Territories

45S.249

4 1 ,6.Si)

•4.054

6»,733.4f'9

91,411

3,842,499

190,596

45.744,9115

745//>4

> 745.9!^4

3" 743.J92

2.163.544

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7,267,819

635.830

3.2S4

3.801,398

Total $548,396 $3,5-'3.'82 $io7, 447,637

Of this amount $21,637,687 has been contrib-
uted from surpluses on Consolidated Fund
Account; the remaining §185,809,955 is due to
increase of debt. It will be seen that, outside
the §30,743.392 of debt allowances to Provinces,
over §157,000,000 are represented in the Govern-
ment system of Railways and Canals, and the
country's subvention to the Canadian Pacific
Railway. Large expenditures were absolutely
necessary, as well for opening up the country and
developing its resources, as for retaining its
native population and attracting new settlers.
The vast reaches of the North-West, destined
to be granaries of the future with possible homes
for a population of many millions, were practically
worthless unless artificial and adequate transport

facilities were made available. The long lines of
water communication were useless for six or
seven months of the year, and even for the remain-
ing open navigation period were useful more in
an auxiliary and a competitive connection than
as main lines of carriage. Speed and regularity
are demanded in these days of keen competition,
and so, but for these expenditures, Canada would
not only have remained far behind in absolute
development, but would have suffered severely in
competition with the United States and other
countries in the race for population and markets.
The roads and canals had to be built. The
future had to be nK)rtgaged, inasmuch as for the
present the burden of construction was too heavy
to be made an additional draft upon the abumiant
energy, but scanty capital, of a new country.
Money was borrowed and the works completed
and no one now doubts the wisdom of the policy.
In one sense the works are non-productive, inas-
much as they fail to pay working expenses, and
return no interest on capital. But, in the more
important sense of developing and populating the
country, and opening up the highways to profit-
able trade, they are productive in the highest
degree.

Our Banking SystcDi. No review of the financial
history of Canada would be complete without a
reference to its admirable banking system. This
has been the result of experience operating on
the peculiar conditions of the country, and is on
the whole a combination of conservative methods
joined to expansive facility which commands the
confidence and approval of all classes of the
people. The Banking Act is subject to revision
every ten years, at which period Bank Charters
expire, and this decennial period is chosen for re-
vising and strengthening what experience has
shown to be necessary either in eliminating
faults or in adding necessary new features. The
system is a combination of the corporation and
the Government.

All bills from $1 to §4 inclusive are issued by
the Government, as are also bills of a larger de-
nomination for deposit and legal-tender purposes.
The amount to be issued by the Government is
set by Act of Parliament, and at present is con-
fined toa maximum of §20,000,000, against which
the Government must hold a reserve in specie and

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guaranteed duln'iitiiifs of jj per ciMit. (of wliicli
IKJ Irss tliaii 15 inr iH.'ut. must bo in specie) and
a ^ii.iraiitec ill Dmiiinion Di'.icntiucs of 75 pi'r
CLMil. M.)rc3 til. in !?Jo,oi)i),0()a ma)' be issued, but
for every dollar c'"tlic excess f,'old must be lielil in
reserve for giiarantt^e. Tlie is^iie is not put in
circulation by tlio Goveniinent directly, but
tliroiiKli the banks, which in tlie first place require
the smaller denominations f(jr circulation and
which by the Bank Act are obl;f,'ed to hold a cer-
tain amount (not less than 40 per cent.) of lej^al
tender in Dominion notes. Assistant Receivers-
General are appointed in six of the principal cities,
through whose offices the distribution of the
specie and small notes and the re-collection of
the latter when used up are effected.

All notes of $5 and upwards (multiples of five),
in circulation, are issued by the banks which are
chartered under the Act. The conditions of the
issue of Bank Charters are strict and pretty
severe — the circulation of each bank is restricted
to the amount of its uni'.npaired paid-up capi-
tal ; a system of monthly report and Government
inspection is imposed ; and the moiithlv reports
are published in the otlficial Gazette for the infor-
mation of the public; while a rigid .".ystern of
penalties, gradingfrom a slight fine to cancellation
of charter, is imposed for infractions of the law.
Arrangements are made by which the notes of
every bank are taken or redeemable at par in any
part of the Dominion, so that there is no discount
on any bank's notes. A system of virtual in-
surance is provided by which the banks pay into
a Government fund five per cent, of the value of
their average jearly circulation as a "bank cir-
culation redemption fund" and this is to be used
at any time to ensure that notes of a failed bank
shall be redeemed at par to their holder. Notes
of banks in liquidation thus bear interest till re.
deemed. These features were introduced into
the Act in 1891, and have proved most satisfac-
tory in their operation. No limit of specie re-
serve is set arbitrarily to be held by each bank,
though it may be said that the banks themselves,
by virtue of their strong ccmservative manage-
ment; their interdependence ; and the advisory
supervision of the Banker's Association, tend to
secure a safe minimum of specie reserve. No tax is
paid by bankers on the bank issue. All banks have

the double liability of their shareholders in addi-
tion to all assets as a security to nole-lioUleis.
These liberal provisions enable the banks to in-
crease their circulation when the needs of com-
merce require it and to decrease it as their needs
become less exacting, and it is this elasticity
which renders the system so well adapted to the
trade of the country as it expands and contracts
with the seasons.

After this rapid summary of the Financial
history of Canada I may be permitted to make
some more or less self-evident deductions, part of
which follow absolutely from the facts, and part of
which may enter the debateable region of theory.

1. Decrease in interest rate. This has been
notable and due tc three causes — the cheapening
of money the work' over, the solid growth ol
Canada and the scrupulous integrity with
which she has met hei financial obligations. On
the first it is not necessary here to enlarge. But
of itself this would not have given Canada the
enviable position she at present enjoys in the
world's money market. The consolidation of the
Provinces and uiiorganized territories into a
united and integral body-politic gave a basis for
enlarged confulence and better credit which was
quickly apparent. The courageous and enlight-
ened policy of permeating this united country
with arteries and high-roads of commerce added
immensely to this feeling and by opening up and
rtili^iiig our unbounded resources gave a wonder-
ful impetus to the operations of capital. To this
was added that scrupulous fidelity which has
always marked the Government in fulfilling its
financial obligations.

2. Enlari^'cci Capital capacity. This follows from
the first, but it is well to note it in connection
with such criticism as dwells solely upon the fig-
ures of the national debt. To carry the gross
debt in 1868 — consisting then of $r)6,8(j6,G66 —
required an interest charge of $4,501,568 and the
average rate was about 4.64 per cent. It is
obvious that by whatever amount you reduce the
rate of interest, by so much the greater a propor-
tion of Capital debt can be carried without
increasing the interest burden. Again, if, in 1868,
$4,501,568 of interest had to be met by some
three millions of people, the burden per capita
will each year be so much the less in proportion

I

CANADA; AN ICNCVCl.or.KDIA.

30'»

fm.

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to the increase in popiilalion. Decrease in rate
of interest and increase in popnlation render it
possible for Ciuiada t<j bear in i.StjS a far lar^'er
Ca|)itul (Kl)t than was possible in i8(j.Sand to bear
it with no{,'reater, bnt, in fact, witli far less hard-
ship. Tlii'se facts mnst be borne in mind when
we contrast the debt of to-day with tiiat of 1S6.S
and sncdeeding years. With onr present popu-
lation of 5,000,000 and the current rate of inter-
est, 3.10 per cent., it is possible for us to
bear a debt of $200,000,000 with at least as
great ease as in 1868 we carried a debt of
§(j6, 000,000. When the current rate becomes
lowered to, say 2h per cent., the p. incipal that
can be borne with equal ease will, taking increas-
ed population into account, be of course still
greater.

3. The disposition of tlie money. Tlie debts of
most countries have been incurred in wars —
ruinous and expensive in themselves, and, in few
cases, in any degree, offset by beneficial additions
to territorial or other productive resources. Of
Canada it can be said that her debt has been
incurred by the conquests of peace — the triumph
over natural barriers to union and commerce —
and that for every dollar well spent the present
and future dweller in Canada reaps a return in-
crt^asing in value as each year passes. The burden
of the debt has not been increased by the loss of
productive life and valuable property by the people
who have to bear it. The Intercolonial Railway,
once built, not only joined the Maritime Provinces
to their sister Provinces in the west, but estab-
lisheil, for all time, a great highway of commerce,
increasing in importance with each year of national
life. The same, in greater degree even, can be
said of our Canal system and the Canadian P.icilic
Railway — to the latter of which Cuiada made so
generous a subvention. Yet tluse three alone
have up to date been responsible for a Capital
expendituie of $157,883,021. Whilst they do not
directly return to Canada revenues sufficient to
re-imburse the Government for interest and costs
of maintenance, they are of inestimable benefit to
the country at large in point of trade, agrinillural
and industrial development, and the comfoit and
convenience of life. As factors in future progress
their advantage is equal to their necessity. They
form the essential main ciiculatorv system of

Canada, and without them tin; country would be
weak and lifeless.

4. The future course. It does not follow from
w!iat has bien said that Canada can jiiit out of
sight the fact of Capital indebtedness and con-
template only the iiit^Mest burden. For the
principal has soinetiiiie to be met, and it should
be a matter constantly k( pt in mind as to how
soon and in what degree Canada may assume the
position of lessening and ultimately of discharg-
ing her indebtedness. Nor, on the other hand,
can she afford to contemplate with equanimity
any large further addition thereto even though it
be excused as temporary. The fact that one-
third of our ordinary income is now consumed in
debt charges emphasizes at once the danger of
increase and the crippling effect upon other and
necessary services of the Dominion Government.
To the plea that a young country of vast extent
and great resources needs extensive Governmen-
tal capital expenditure in order to open it up and
develop its latent wealth, it may now well be
urged that, whilst this was true during the first
twenty-five years of its existence, and to a lesser
degree is still true, yet there is a limit to Govern-
mental capital expenditure and that there is
none to private or corporate expenditure. The
question may well be asked as to whether
Government, by its tremendous initial expendi-
ture, has not laid the basis broad and deep
enough for private and associated capital to now
step in and do the rest — at least the main part of
it. Paternity in a Government can easily be
carried too far. Corporations will bleed a Gov-
ernment as long as it shows a predilection for
that species of treatment, but corporations may
be depended upon to develop them if the
resources are there and at all within the reach of
profitable investment. It seems to tlie writer
that with the completion of the International
Railway and the Canal system ; with the Cana-
dian Pacific and Grand Trunk Railway systems
forming vast and well distributed trunk lines of
cominniiication ; and, with the added auxiliary
and lesser railways, tngetherwith thewelldevelop-
ed watir services, inland and ocean, this time has
arrived, and that hereafter no further debt should
be incurred for state public works, beyond what
can be added with no greater annual burden to

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CANADA: AN ENCYCLOIMIDIA.

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the people coincident with the lowerin}; of the
interest rate.

.1 threatening ilaiif;er. The instability of finan-
cial conditions as between the Federal and
Provincial Governments is still fraii{,'lit with
^reat possible danger to the success of Confede-
ration, and there is need of all the prudence and
firmness possible on the part of the former, and
all the wise and accordant co-operation possible
on the part of the latter, in order to prevent dis-
astrous results. The Provinces have mostly fixed
revenues pretty well defined and not very elastic.
For increase beyond these they can only resort
to forms of direct taxation, a proceediiif» which
is unpopular and might be dangerous to party
managers. The tendency, therefore, is con-
stantly to press upon the Federal Government
for adjustments and additional allowances. The
separation of the spending from the jirovidiiig

power tends to induce recklessness in the former
and to increase the fierceness of the demand for
more. On more than one occasion the demand
for better terms and increased subventions has
succeeded at Ottawa, and the exigencies of party
render such appeals less easy of resistance than
they otherwise would be. To spend extrava-
gantly in the Provinces, and for largely parly rea-
sons, with the distant hope that eventually the
Dominion Government can be persuaded or
forced to come to the rescue, is not an unknown
contin,"ency in the history of our party politics,
and this contingency constitutes an element of
menace to the stability of the Confederation
itself. Let us hope that the solid buiiness sense
of all the Provinces will set itself firmly to resist
and ultimately to overcome this tendency, in the
interests alike of good government and permanent
political conditions.

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The Hon. Archibald Woodbury McLelan.

Dominion Miniiter of rinance, 1H85-87.

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THE HON. OEORCIE EULAS FOSTER,
Cnnadiaii Minister of Finance, 18S6-96.

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CANADIAN LOAN AND SAVINGS COMPANIES

UY

K. M. TOMLINSON, Manawer of tli,' /.liHsli ( anailion I ihui aiut /inrsliiii-iil ( 'i'ii//><iin: I. Id., "f Toroiilo.

TIIIIKIC is 11 ficliii}^ jibroiid tliat Lo:m uiul
Suviiij,' C'niiipaiiics and all ullur cui-
purations of a like kind that luako a
business of lL-ndin},'tii()iieyoii tnortfjagcs
of ri;al estate are composed of lai;,'o capitalists
who roiiibiiio in this way to obtain better and
more certain returns for their momy than they
could pot by lending it themselves; also that
they may secure for themselves and their friends
positions of trust and emolument in the manage-
ment of the companies with which they are con-
nected. This is far from beinjij the true state
of the case. Whilst there are in these companies
many larf,'e shareholders who adopt this plan
of investiufj their money in real estate securities,
and who, from their well known acquaintance
with fmancial and business affairs, are clu)sen
to iill the responsible positions of Dinctors,
the great majority of the shares is in tlie hands
of comparatively small holders, composed chiefly
of the most thrifty and industrious portion of the
commimity, who prefer to invest their savings
in these companies because they are limited
in their operations, as a rule, to loans on real
estate securities and Government and Miuiicipal
Honds. That Canadian Loan Companies have
realised the expectations of their promoters
and the confidence of the investiufj public there
can be no doubt, as evidenced by the phenomenal
growth of these companies during the last twenty-
five years, and the fact that so few failures have
occurred and that no creditor of one of these
companies has, as yet, suffered any loss.

In reviewing the rise and development of Can-
adian Loan and Savings Companies, it is neces-
sary to review, briefly, en passant, the various
Legislative enactments imder which these com-
panies have been formed. The earliest legislation
authorizing the formation of anything in the

nature of a company to Kiid money and take
real estate security \\'as an Act passed in the
ninth year of Her Majesty's reign entitled
" An Act to Encourage the Establishment of cer-
tain Societies connnonly called ' Buildnig So-
cieties' in the Province of Canada formerly
constituting Upper Canada." The Societies
formed under this Act were what are known
as "Terminating" Building Societies, almost
identical with the Building and Loan Associations
of the present day. Under this Act a number
of Societies were f(jrmed,l)ut in only two or three
instances did they terminate successfully, that
is, mature their shares. The members of two
of these societies were so well satisfied with the
management of their affairs, and realizing the
great need for more organized capital to meet the
demand for loans on real estate, that they resolved
in the beginning of the year 1855 to unite and
establish a " Permanent " Building Society
which would enable persons to become members
thereof at any time for investment therein, also
enable them to obtain advances by giving security
therefor, without being liable to the contingency
of losses or profits in the business of the society.
Doubts having arisen as to whether such " Per-
manent " Building Societies were within the
meaning and intention of the above Act and the
amendments of 13 and 14 Victoria, tiie Legislature
passed an Act in the year 1S59 confiiming
the establishment of the " Permanent " Societies
theretofore ftirmed and providing for the estab-
lishment of new societies upon the " Permanent "
plan, also authorizing such societies by their
Rules, Regulations and By-laws to " borrow
money " to a limited extent.

The rapid development of the agricultural and
industrial interests of the country following the
closeof the American Civil War, and theConfeder.i-

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.V4

CANADA: AN KNCVCI.Ol'.KDIA.

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lion of the Provinces in the year 1H67, cruatud an
^■xtruordinary (ieiiiand fur h)an8 on ruul ustato,
whicli led to the: formation of a number of new
Aocictius on thu " Permanent " plan in the lead-
ing business centres, more especially in the
Province of Ontario, Tins was a comparatively
easy matter of accomplishinciit, owiiij^ to the
rapidly increusint; savinf,'3 of the people and the
popularity of the shares of these societies as
investments ; also, because the plans ailopted by
many of the societies in their formation were well
calculated to secure to thu shareholders a gradual
and systematic nccumulatinii of capital. In the
y(;ar 1S74 the Hiiililiuf^ Societies Act was again
amended an<l aiithoiity given to receive money
(jn deposit; also for the lioard of Dirt;rtors to
issue dibeutures, subject to certain restrictions
as to the amount of such deposits and deben-
tures, respectively, and in the aggregate.

The number ol Loan and Savings Societies in
operation and making returns to the Government
at Confederation was nineteen, possessing an
aggregate paid-up capital of $2,110,403, and
deposits amounting to $577,299. During the
following seven years the uumber increased to
thirty-three, the paid-up capital to $8,042,157,
and the deposits to §4,614,812. Although efforts
had previously been made to iniluce Hritish capi-
talists to invest in Canailian L)an and Savings
Companies, it was not until this yt-ar (1874) that
the item *' Debentures payable in Great Jiritain
or elsewhere " appears in the Annual Govern-
ment Keturn, and then only for the small sum of
.519,992. During the ne.\t period of seven years,
from 1874 to 1881, under what was still known as
the Building Societies Act, which had been
further auiLmied and many valuable improve-
ments made to meet the altered conditions of the
loaning business, and to the formation of some
new companies under private Acts, the number of
companies increased to eighty, the paid-up capital
to $25,445,639, the deposits to $13,460,268,
debentures payable in Canada (a new item) to
$1,240,406, and debentures payable in Great
Britain or elsewhere to $21,913,828. At the end
of the ne.\t period of seven years (1888) there was
a reduction of two in the number of companies
making the return, but the paid-up capital had
increased to $32,410,358, the deposits to $17,-

307,033, the debentures payable in Canada to
$7,214,785, and those payable in Great Britain or
elsewhere to $3^^^,582,670, and " Debenture
Stock" (a new item) to $1,242,899. On the 3191
of December, 1897, the number of companies and
associations was ninety-live, the paid-up capital
$43,229,920, the deposits $19,667,112, thu deben-
tures payable in Canada $11,869,512, those paya-
ble in Great Britain or elsewhere $41,355,134,
and debenture stock $4,006,697. Thu largest
amount of British capital invested in Canadian
Loan Company debentures was $4(), 408, 3(^8,
given in the n^luni for the year 1893. Since then
there h.is been a gradual ye.irly reduction, and at
the end of 1897 the amount was $41,355,134.
This reduction of British capital has not, however,
diminished the loaning resources of the compa-
nies, as the dilfiMence has been made up largely
by increased deposits and debentures payable in
Canada.

In the year 1887 an Association was formed
known as "The Laud Mortgage Companies'
Association of the Province ot Ontario," com-
posed of representatives of all such loan com-
panies as should jcjin the Association. Its objects
were to consider and take action in regard to any
proposed or existing legislation affecting thu rate
of interest on money, legislation affecting the
inviolability of private contracts, the taxation of
loan companies by municipalities, the effect of
unregistered hire receipts upon machinery and
other fixtures, and the relations of loan companies
with banks and iusuraiicu companies. This
organization has done much to bring the com-
panies into frieiully accord one with another, and
it is believed that it has fulfilled in other respects
the purposes for which it was formed. The last
annual report of thu Association showed a mem-
bership of thirty-four companies, representing
assets amounting to $95,714,238.

The most recent, and undoubtedly the most
important, legislation affecting Canadian loan
comp.mies, especially those operating in the
Province of Ontario, is an Act passed by the
Legislature in the year 1897, entitled, " An Act
to Consolidate and Amend the Law respecting
Building Societies and other Loan Corporations."
Under this Act, every Corporation, Incorporated
Company, Association or Society (not being a

CANADA; AN KNCYCI.OP.KDIA.

3IS

Cotiipauics orKiiiiized under tliu Hiiiklinjj Socictios Art,
haviufj I'eniianent Capital.

Name <>r Company.

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Head Office or

Chief I'lace of

Buiineu.

I'oronlo, Ont

Duilding and Loan Aatociniion

Canada Permanent Loan and Saving! Company

Freehold Loan and Savinf(H Company "

I'eople'ft Loan and Ueposii Company "

UnioolLoan and SavingH Company , "

Western Canada Loan and SavinK* Company '*

Agricultural SavinKS and Lran Company London, Ont. ...

hominton Savinifs and Investment Society ** ........

Huron and K>ie Loan and Savinga Company "

London Loan Comoany of Canada **

Ontario Luuii and i)e|jenlure Company "

Ailaa Loan and Suvings Company St. Thomai, Ont. . .

Southern Loan and Siivings Company " ....

Souihwesirrn Farmcii and Mechanica Savings and Loan Society " ...

Star Loan Company " . . . .

Hamilton Provident and Loan Society Hamilton, Ont

I. anded Banking and Loan Companjr ,"

Huron and Lambton Loan and 6avmgi Company Sarnin, Ont

Industrial Mortgage and Savings Omipany "

Lnmliton Loan and InveiiMient Com|wny "

Nlctropalitan Loan and Saving! Comjiany of Ottawa Ottawa, Oni

Kronlenac Loan and liivvstment Society KingstoUi Ont

Ontario Huilding nod Savings Society **

Grey and Hruce Loan Company of Owen Sound, Ont Owen Sound, Ont,...

Oxford Permanent Loan and Savings Society Woo<lstocl<, Ont

Ilarrie l^an and Savings Company^ Limited Barriej^ Ont

Hastings Loan and Investment Society Kelieville, Ont

Koyal Ixwn and Savings Company Brantford, Ont. .

Brockville Loan and Savings Company Brockville, Ont.

Chatham Loan and Savings Company Chatham, Ont ......

Huron and Bruce Loan and Investment Company Cioilericb, Ont

Ciuelph and Ontario lnvr^lmetlt and Savings Society (iuelph, Ont

Victoria l^ian anil Savings Company . . , . Lindvay, Ont

Ontario Loan and Savings Conip;iny Oshawa, Ont

Crown Savings and Loan Company Petrolea, Ont

Midland Loan and Savings Company Port Hone, Ont

Security Loan and Savings Company St, Catharines, Ont.

lontreal Loan and Mortgage Company Montreal, Que

l^vis Permanent Building Society Levis, Que

Uuebec Permanent Building Society. Quebec, Que

Permanent Building Society of the District of Iberville St. Johns. Que

Canadian Savings and Loan Company of London, Canada London, Ont

Dale of
Organisation.

March 1st, 1H7n.
18.V>.

May, I8i)l>

March, IM7A. .
Match Isi, IN!.')
March, 18(13.
May, 187a ...
April, 187'^

IMtVI
1X77

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Oct., 1870
Aug., 1887

Feb. 18lh, is:

Aug Ulsl, 1881 . .

S-pt., 1871

Feb., 1877 ...

1877
188!)
1817

Aug., 1870

Dec. 14ih, I8«i:i..

June'^thh, 1871 .

Aprilloih, 18.S» .

18(1'!

April Ulh, 1881
Jan. lllb, 187U..
Juno 1st, 187a...
July Isi, 188.'. ..
Sept. 2Mih, 1881...
April 17tb, 188;->

1876
Oct. 1st, 1895 .
March. 1873 ...
Jan. 30lh, 1882 ._..

March 12tb, 1870

May, 1858

April 3rd, 18t» . .

April, 1856

Ian. 1st. lam. . . .
Oct., 1875

Capital
Subscribed.

; 7.'iO,00n.o(i$
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:i,2Aaou.iio

U(IU,UUI IK)
1 li!l5,4U(l(lt)
3IIIKMX)0I)I)

fM,{n> IK)

1 1KNJ.IMIDIIII
3 INIU.IKKI IN)

«7I),7IIU.IH)
3,(III0,UIK).IIU
l.U(IO,0U<l.nO

IIHI.IHNI.INI

iti:i 81N1 (ID

■J7II,()(K) IK)
l.'i(NI.IKIIIIIO
7(IUIKNMKI
3!IU,2IIU.(IO
3:U,0OII.IKI
.VKI.IKNI 110
3J0,(I(III.IHI
'.'(l(IO(KIIIII
L'.'llMKNIlK)
4U,(k'>ll(IU
i27U.U(III.INI

•iw.m) 110

iW.'i (HKI.(IU
TidlMKKMIO

arid.doo.iKi

3,V.>,1(I0.(K1
2I8,«UO.IIO
7'.1) OUI.dO
I37.IK1II(II)
.Idd.lNld.dO
<2II(I(HX).II0
5(t(l,0(IU.IKI
275,U0O (K)
o(KIU(l(IU(l

(sd.eud.iN)

2IK),(KI(1 (K)
liHKMXIIX)
7,i()(KiOOO

Capital
Paiil up.

7,'i(l,(KKI.IIII
2l)(NI,l;«III.IKI

i,:iiii,iuiiiiii
em.wu mi

l,.'i(X),(l(KI.II()
(Ltl.iifiU IK)

'.ai.iiiKi ijii

l.llKI.IKKI.IK)
(illl,8'iiilK)

1 L'(K),(KKI.IK)
IKKI.UIKI IMI
4lli|U(NMKI
l!ti:t!f.'.l!(
'.>-.M..ilKMKI

1 IIKI.UIKIIK)
I>7I,IU(HK)
:il7,57(l.itl
317,41)1 1.1

m>mi ol

3IU,a(ii>IK)
'.'(KI.(KKI.IK)
•J."i(l,(X)().0(l
lilt) iLtllHI
L'lU.llll.ai

ll7,M).m
-JIII.I41I.II

:>(iii,(H)ii.(Ki

178 (MHK)
•2:t7,3!)2.;>!)
18(l.37,t ll'i
4l>4,UUI>.IIII

81 3811.7!)
•.'il!»43ll.,-.:i
178,5'.'l.,«
30l).(KKIlKI
27o,0U(i.lK)
5(K),(NKI.IKI

3(I.847.IKI
'JIK),(KK).(KI
l(K)U()li.(X)
733 5(H) (K)

Assets,

$ 1,7111808.51
II :i.H|,8;i(l.8ll
(I I.T.MIII7.88
1,02(1,81!). 7U
2l7;>;i;i8()7
(1 7117.21(1.37
2077,411.87
2 247 131 !I7
II,III7,I!I3.I2

3,!Ki3..7ll,-i.49

78o,(niU7i

88»,lll'..fll
.i(l!i,(l2( 1.1(3
4(111 ;M8.86

.1,01)1 Ikil 1)1

2 0;m,.')!r2.18
723 313,111
Kill 1113.1)1

1 .•t8.-|,(l5,t.7.i
417,1)17 .'to
t>l3(i;'i8.H0
4111,21!). IH
3!lil.')(Kl,70
.'Ml.Ki.VOl
I(H),.5,^2.!I8
l.>1.172.87

13113 (Ml 1)7
431 7!l(i.24
574.H02.,>8
2(12.8:«.79

1,(172.7(11.47
111 I 32:1.17

1107 73;t.(a

302,36:1.17
1.401.530.85

(118 937.86
1,1(1(1 444.64

:i8:<»6.65

2(11 2114 50

:«<U,998.13

1 843,392.90

$33,105,310.00 $22,129,637.00 $71.151,1142.58

H

• f

chartered bank or an insurance corporation stand-
ing registered under tlie iuw of the Province)
authorized to lend nioiu-y on real estate securi-
ties, either directly or indirectly in tlie Province,
must re(;ister under the Act and pay an annual
fco varying from $^5.00 to $200.00, according; to
the amount of its assets. The Act also provides
for a special audit in certain casus, and prohibits
unregistered companies.

It would bo impossible for anyone not inti-
mately connected with the muiat;Liiient of Can-
adian loan companies to form any conception of
the important part performed by these companies
in the development of the material resources of
the country during tlie p.ist twenty-five or thirty
years. Tlu;y have been to the real estate owner
what the chartered banks have been to the
merchants, manufacturers ami business coiiiiniin-
ity generally. The lar),'e resources at their com-
mand have enabled tlicin to meet the requirements

of real estate owners at all times, and at rates of
interest and upon terms for repayment as favour-
able to the borrower as could be got anywhere on
this continent. It is a well-known fact that
there is not in any State of tho American Union
a system of organized capital for lending money
on real estate securities that will compare with
the Canadian loan and savings companies, and
at the same time furnish the capitalist with such
unequalled facilities for the investment of his
money as the shares, debentures, etc., of these
companies. Tlie following classification of Can-
adian Loan and Savings Companies is taken from
the thii ty-secoiid Annual Report of Loan Cum.
panics and Building Societies in Canada for 1^97,
containing for that year returns from all the
principal associations throughout the Dominion,
and prepared by order of the Deputy Minister of
I'inance, by N. S. Gail.iiul, I'.s.s., r.s.A., Clerk of
I'iiiancial Statistics:

:^

rrr

J"

CANADA: AN KNCVCI.OI'.KIHA.

■•• ;

Ccmipiinifs orgatii/.cd under tlic Kiiildiiij^ Sucictirn Act,
having' 'I'criiiiiiatiii^' Shares.

Tli<

1h.
Th.

Th.

Ill*

Ihr
Tl,..

Tii«

Ihx

lh<

'l'h>
Iha

'lIlK

Thu
The
The
The
'I he
The
I'he
The

llnil Onice iir

<:hi*ri'ij>ie,.r

HiotneM.
. . 1'uruiilK, Onl

N.imc of Company.

Alil Suvinitiiiiil l.ni«n Ci>ni|Mri\

CMHAtliati lloiiie4teil<l l.<)«ri iinil Nrtvintf^ A^«ni:t«lloil

(*anit<lMit MMMi.it l,<»jiii aiiil li)vr*iii)«iii Ctinitiiiny *'

4'.ti.aili.in >avini|K, loan nnd IhiiUlinR A«»uci«hun '* . .

I iiy ami ( iiiiiiy l.".iii A<»'« ialhin "

IKjinifii ut HtiililiitK iirul I.D.in A«MK;iiilion '* ...

I'liiimlile S.I' ii.|)>, l.(>.<n iinil lliiililiiiK A«M)ci«llon . "

ISovitH iHMU)iMitii{ anit l.«>iin A«MH inri>).i '* •.,

Kfflian. r l.iiAi) niitl SnviiK:4C'<>ii|Hiiiy ... Uutiirlo ..-- "

Sun Savnu* Hnd l.omi ('<ii(i|tnny Iff Oritarko "

York Cmumi\ l.onn aiul S.kviiiK« (!uinp4tiiy "

llirklir. k I. uti iompany London, Onl.. .

Peopled IhiiliUriii uiiil l.'.iin AxuvialioM ufLundun, Unl "

KIkiln l,u.in mul Saving h <'. iiiiiinny Hi. Thomas, Onl

II •■ ■•

Dale iit
Organl/aiiun.

, K.>. I.Vh, isii;)

. . 8>|il., INNd

., June llih, lnim
.. Match JMih

imm,

IKH'.I

INim

, Jan. •ilMi
. Alav7ih,

, re'. . iHita .

N..V. Ilth. INtll
Juiia'.'lih " ■'

Sr,,|, |.|,

Dir:. Mih,
Keh. IWd
Jiici« I7ih,
Ap'il llih, ln;!>

iilinii Miiliiul lliiildiiiK .S.Hii^iy llaniltlon.Oni ■>•-'. t<l, IWKi

Millie lliiiMinti ami Savlni|> A»<M.ialiim of Ottawa Oilawa. Unl lime '.jlili. iFOIIi

I iMrn Siiiiiiil lltiihIiMK ami .Savliiita.Siiciely Owan nounil, Onl. . Alarch 'J7ih. IMMI

Slralf.iril lluililint; HMil SiiviiiKH .s.M icly SiralfortI, Out . . Ami;. 'JIImI. IHM1I

OnLiriti IVrnu'iiritt Itiilliliiii^ ami l.«ian A»MH:ialion VVinmUiik Ic. (Mil . .SrpI, JAlh, |H!t.'

Niannra Knlli lliiihliiiK, .Savi'<i|i ami l.iiai. A>a.iciaiion Niagara Kalla. (Ini.. April l-i, |s!l|

M.Miireal I i<nn mill liive«inienl C.iMipany MniilrenI, <^«« April 7>h, |xt<l

lliikhet.k liivcalnirni Sicuiily ami .s.iviii||aC'uni|>any I urunlu, Oii« May Im, l.s:i:i .,

(.ipilal
Siilncrilwil.

$ nxl.lllKi.Mi

imi.li.iiMHI

I IIM.I.JHI ml

l,J17,.li<Piill

Id.ii.'ai I'll

'.'l).S7,'.1l(Hill

I .1.11 '.lliriiri
'.' iiilN.Nmiin
L',ii;(l,7iil)iKi

Ml|..'lll<l.ll<>

MKf.'.miii.liii

jIM IINI.I4I

l,iillll.7i«>i'>
(.•.'.■i.lllllMKI

.vm lui.ii))

:iiii.iiv<>'«i

illl.UVi II"
IMI.IIINMKI

'.'.Wl.-Jimiii
ii;,7ii<

.<<7l,lllill.iiii
I.7M7,MNIIN)

Cnpllnl
I'.ia Tp.

|H.I7ll.ltJ
ll.iKlll.lHI

•.'.■i.-.l«l.|iO

iM.iimiii.^
liii.;.i;f.7
ii;i..'iii;i III
.v.M.v.'.im

tl)ll.'i7.'illll
.A'il7.i«l

i.v<,:i<iMii>
i;.7ii7 :<n

■.'7,ll<ill.'.1l

M>, iii;t :h

ll.lt'H u

iM.if.'diii
Ii,.-i7:i,i7
iii.-j-Jii '.fj
7'.'.iliiii mi
;)7,,Mi •-'•>

l.rrllll.llll

;iiiii.ii2i.'.>ii

Aaaaia,

I .U.1II It

ImMII. mi
l,.1l7,)M,'lill

;;i,i77iii
fVii.iiiiiii

l,'.'7.\ltllU.'<
:i:ii Nil l.i

ll."i,ll7.Hi7
•J.Vi.ll'lllU

7.'i.'.'lkMIII
liHI.IIHIII'.'

KI.I71I ID
'.'I'.' I.'ll lA
lOl.'.'Jd.U'i

in 'iJM III
III lllllllll

JI.IUVI!)

HI.IIW II
lUl.llHii.ilil

liiil,il|ii.:Ht
ll«,.VI7.7.'i

$'Jtl,^.UiU.iNi$ l,IWt„'ill7.:M$ ll,AIM.I73.H4

C'liiiipiinii'S oif^iiiii/cil iiii(l< r the Joint Stuck I'liiiipimifs .\ct uf llic Uoiiiiiiiim
Parliament oroftiio rioviiicial Le^'i.slatiires.

Name of Company.

Hen.! Onire or

( hief I'liiieof

lIUbinchA.

Toronl'i, Onl

Hale o(
Or^aiii/nliori.

Capital

.Slilmrrilietl.

Capital
I'aUl l')..

Axaeta,

April Mill
Sept. Ill
De... IN

The Canada Landed and National Invattment Company, Limited

The Home Saviiififi niul L an Company ... ....... ....

The Impel I. il Loan ami liiveMiirient Company, I.iiiiiltd

The Kca! l-.vin(e Loan Company of Canada, LitiiilM ,

The Central ('ana.U L')an aiul Savinifi ('uiiipany of Ontario Pelerhoroiigh, Out .. April lnl

The I'oronto SavinK< anil Loan C<)mp.iny ...... ** Jurielo,..,

The llriii^h Moriir.ije I, nan Company of Ontario Stratford. Onl Ori., lAi7 .

Tha .Soti<?ll! de I'irK el I'lncemenl^ ile (,)ili*l>ec I.liiehec Cily, (,lur. . . Nov., IS7I

The Nova HLOiia I'ctin.incni llenefii lluilding Society and Havinga Pund llalifux, N.b Auk., KVi..

'K-|N$ '.>.iNIM,iilllllK'$ |,lll)|,lllin.lM)$ I '.>IH.tni)8A

. L>,IIINI,INIIIIHI '.'.111,111 Kl.m) 'J,|ll.'I.IIIS.7H

n;«im.vi.ini 7:ii,ill7.!iil l,H:i,:ixs.ti|

.'>7n '<i(i iHi M;:t,7'.iniii iiKi.avi :u

2,.'ii«i.iKKMi(i i,'j-,ii,iii)ii i«i .'i,;i77,.'iii;i.(ii

LiHKI.INKIlill lilMIIHHIIHI l.lL'll,.V.tllM

.... i.'ni.i'iNHiii :iiii.'iiii.ii.s i.iii'.'. rui 71

!AIII.(Nltl.l4) ■Jim.llllll INI .'l.'.'i.lHi.'i 7!)
!k-.l,l.^irtil

$ <.l,MII,tWU IIU $ t,l.ll4,M7:2 III $l8,:i:1),<JUI.UU

("niiipaiiiis ()r};,iiii/((l tiiidi r I'livati' .Acts uf iliii Doiiiiiiioii I'arliainunt or of tlie

Name of Company.

rroviiicial Lcyisiatuns.

Mead office or

C hicf I'lacc of

ltusine»!i.

n.nlei'f
Organization.

The nrili»h Canadian Loan nnd Investment Company, Limited . . . Toronto, Onl 'iily li', 1877 .

The London and ('anadian Loan anil Agency Company, Limited " Ian. I'.t, IM'^I

'I he Lonilon and Onlario Inve.sinient Company, Limited *' May 16ti: 1H77.

The Credit Foncier I ranco-Canadirn Mnnireal, Que IVSI.

The Shcrhrooke Loan and Mormace (.'oinpairy Sherhroofce. I^hlr. , , . Sept., I,S7I

The Knilcrii Caiiail I .Saline* ami L'Mii Componv, l.imired Halifax. N.S. MnyUt.l'^'W

T'iie Manitoba and Nuiih West Luu.i Company, Limned vv iiuupeg, Inm June, 1K71I.

Capital
Suh'.crilwd.

$'.'.IIII0,I)I1II.I'I1
.ilKKI.INlll.lXI
IfT.'ilMUHl.lHI
I r.'*! IWIKHI

ir.inio.iMi

'.'ol.lNIII.INI
1 .VS'.oooilll

Capital
Paid I' p.

$.inS,IHI.IIIi

7llii.iillii.IHi

A.'lll IKNI IMI

Lll«i,17l".V>

ll7,l!iKHI||
|INI,.°illll.lK)
:I7.M'0(I !»'

Asset!.

VMit-.'.77:i.2i)

1.102. ;iwiij
•.'.uvi x> trt

«.i'il».,!lii;t 7!»

;i".'..'i<i!ii>;i

III-.' l.VI.'.'L'

i.;«w,!i:t.'>!i7

Jlll.;w:t.2«l.00 $3.itl7,75:i.8J $lll,H;iU,m!l.88

C()iii|>aiiics orf,'aiii/L'd iiiiilm- IiiiptMi.il .Acts.

Head OlTice or t, . r r> •. i ^ • ,

Namecfl ompany. Chief I'l.ice of ,, ""I" "I «?■•".',"', d^?!",'?' Assets.

' Itusinesj. OrKant/allon. Siihuciihed. Fold Up. -"seis.

The N'.rlh I'.rilisli Canadian Inveslnient C:ompanv. Limited Clasgow, .Srollnml . . Oct. I llh. 18711 . . $.' I.II.XIS.SS 408 HVi (ll $2 <i7l.n.'ll 10

The North of Scotland Canadian Mortgagii Company, Limited Aherdeen, Scollaml. Dec. 17lh, I87.> . :i iLyi IHNI llO flUl.lllKl.llU 4,r.'(>,'.'INI.7M

The Scotli..h .American lnve<tment Coni|iany, Limited Ldinburgii. Scollaml March '."Jlh, 18711 2 .VHI (HHI.Illl IKit If.'I.IU

The 1 ruM and Loan C.mipany of Canada London, Kngland... Nov., ISIS 7 .'HNI.IKIO.DO l..VSl,lil»i 117 (l,8<t'>,'(.'Kl.77

$io.H8a,uaa :ia 42,8iu,(ui.i>ti$ia,iui2,i'ju.uu

CANADA AN l,N(V( I.OI' I DI A

3«7

Till! ))iunucr in tli<! L-stahliHliriu-nt and iiiaiiiiKe-
nii'iit of ( aiiaili.iii I.oiiii ('oinpaiiii'S has lutii
Mr. J. Ili'iiirit Mason, lli; was mainly inslni-
mental in tilt' oif^ani/ation of tin; ( \iiuhia I'ciiiiaii-
tut ill 1K55 anil lias Ixirti its ( liirf c.xcriitivu
(ifHrtT iitid' r (lilT<iint titles nntil tin: pn-sunt
year (iS().S). Almost t'i|iially jiroinini'iit lias
lain Ml. W'.iltiT S. Lie, M;ina>,'mj^-|)i'.{:l<ii-
oftliu H'cv/r/)! Ciniiiilii siiut; i<SO^. In I^Mn<li>ti,
Ontario, Mr. W'i li.im I'. Hiilleii, of iIh' Oniano
Loan and I hlicnline (oiiipaiiy, liaa also had a pro-
lunKud expcriencf.

Since thu ahovi; was written and by an u;;ree-
inont riMiliitl at a iiicetiii),' held in the otliccg
of the (joojorham iV Worts Co. (Limited),
Toronto, on January 4tli, iNyy, a ^rent combina-
tion of loan companits has been formed.
I''oiir of the leadiii;^' companies in thu Dotnmion
arc unial(;amatcd under one inana^etneiit. The
new corporation will have a paid-up capital
of at least $(>, 000,000, a boiuleil i:apital approx-
imating $i(j, 000,000 — a total of $-'5, 000, not)
an<l assets of b(!twcen !p27,ooo, 000 and !pa8,ooo,-
000. The Mana;,'er selected for the new concern
was Nfr. Walter S. Lee. The Companies thus unit-
ing were the Weslcrn (\iiiadii Loan ami SainiK^s Co. ;
the Freehold Loan and Savinf^s Co. ; the Canada
f^trmanent Loan and Savings Co. ; and the London
u'ld Ontario 'in'eitnient Company, all of Toronto.
TIk iirst formal meetiny (^accordiiif; to The Globe

of Jiinuary ^tb) to complete an ,imal.;.im.ition
wlii( h had been tindtr consideration for hoiiiu
time, w.is III id oil Decinibir .jo, iNijS, at the
olliii.: of the (ioodirliain iV W'oita Co. At that
meeting; there were present three ri.pieaentativeH
of e.u h of the fiiiir Coinpanii s. Thellini, S. C
Wooil, Mr. C. IL (jooderliani,aiul Mr. T ^nllier-
land Stayiier represented the I'reeliold : Mr.
W. n. Heatty, Mr. Frederi. k Wyld and Mr.
A. M. Cosby represented the London and Ontario ;
Mr. J. lieibert Mason, Mi. K. K. I>iirj;ess and
Mr. W. I). Matthews represented the Canada
Permanent; and Mr. (jeorf,'e Ciooderham, Mr-
George Lewis and Mr. Walter S. I^ee the Western
Canada. At this meetinj,' was discussed the
advis ibility of consolidatiii>; the assets of the
four companies and forming a company to take
them over, on the basis of tin ir valuation.
A resolution was then passed that it was desirable
to make th.: consolidation, and this resolution
was referred for conrnniation to the full Hoards
of the several companies. Mietiiij,'S of the
Hoards were subse(|iiently held, and the resolution
aj)proved by them. It was stated that the
primary object in view in the formation of this
f,'reat corporation was to secure more economy
in the administration of the business, and
also *o meet the reduction in the rate of interest
which had taken place within the last lew years
in Canada.

. H.\

• 14' .

■;;v''

■ '

' ■ •' ,1 I

rr^

'I

HISTORY AND PROGRESS OF CANADIAN FIRE INSURANCE

BY

/. .). KENNY, Vice President of the ISrilhh Amiriai and Western Assurance Companies.

\ \

%

liS

•1

Til IC uri;;iii of Fire Iiisur;ince in CuikhI.i,
as in tne other Colonics of Great Britain,
iKiy be traced to the ebtalMislnncnt
of af^encies in tiie chief seaports of the
older Provinces by English companies, which,
it may be remarked, have for upwards of a cen-
tury past afforded protection af,'ainst loss by fire
to tiie vast commerci.d interests of the Empire.
These corporations, organized to sujjpl.mt the
system of " underwriting," or the tindertakinj;
of such risks by private individuals which pre-
vailed in earlier times, soon came to be reganled
as a ntressary adjunct to the growing trade
of British merchants, until to-day we find them
girdling the globe with their agencies and,
in a sense, endorsing with assets aggregating
upwards of fifty millions sterling the transactions
of the financial and mercantile world.

The Fire Insurance business of the Provinces
which now comp'"se the Dominion of Canada,
thus in.uigurated by British companies, was
for many years largely monopolized by them.
Their method of conducting it was to appoint
pnMninent mercantile firms as their representa-
tives, giving them authority to issue policies
and adjust losses, the rates of premium being
fixed by the ci)m()anies in England. The oldest
exis'ing agency of an English Company is that
of the Phcenix Fire Office of London. In 1804
this Company appointed Maitland, Garden
(S: Aldjo its agents at Montreal, from whom tiie
agency was transferred in 1826 to Gillespie,
Moffatt & Co. ( ifterwards Gillespie, Paterson
cS: Co.), and it has retained the connection thus
established for upwards of seventy years, Messrs.
A. T. P.iterson & Son, the present representa-
tives, having, on the dissolution of their former
firm in 1S66, assumed the management of the
Compan\'s business in this country. There

are . jw twenty British fire insurance companiei
with agencies in Canada, from which they derive
an annual premium income of close upon
$5,000^000. With the growth of fire insurance
interests came the establishment by these
companies of branch otBces in charge of man-
agers specially trained in the business, who
exercised full authority in the appointment
of agents and in the general conduct of the
affairs of their respective companies throughout
the Dominion.

Although, as has been said, the larger part
of the fire insurance business of this country
was, in its early history (as indeed it is at the
present day), transacted by British companies,
they have had numerous local competitors, some
of them dating back to the beginning of the
century, and, while in some cases these have
proved profitable investments to their stock-
holders, it must be ailmitted that Canadian
ventures in the field of fire underwriting have
been far from uniformly successful. Nor can
this be wondered at when it is considered that
their chief competitors are British companies
with a world-wide field of operations, man^
of them enjoying the pre^iigc of a long and
honourable business career, and all of them
free from restrictive legislation at home such
as is applie;'. to our own companies by the
insurance laws of Canail.i — laws which, while
possessing the merit of making "assurance
doubly sure " to policy-holders, seriously hamper
a company with a growing business and discour-
age investors by presenting, in the annual
Government Reports, an estimate of the com-
pan\'s liabiliti<'S upon its current policies which,
to quote the words of the late Superintendent
of Insurance, Professor Cherriman, "is larger
than the amount which a company in continuance

:V '%

CANADA : AN ENCYCLOIVEDIA.

V9

u
;c
;r
r-

of active business would require, umler ordinary
circmiistances, for the fullilnient of its con-
tracts."* This reserve is, as a matter of fact,
upwards of fiity per cent, greater than woiiKl
be charged for the same habihty by any standard
atlopted by companies in }Mirope, and in justice
to our Canadian institutions this sliould be borne
in mind in consitlering their standing as set
forth in the annual Government statements.
During the past twenty-iive years (i875-<jcS)
ten joint stock fire insurance companies whicli
have been organized in Canada have, owing

The Hon. William Allan.

to unfavourable experience, discontinued business,
but it should be noted that these, with possiblj'
one exception, have discliarged all tluir indebted-
ness to policy-holders; in fact in the majority
of cases their risks have been assumed by British
companies which have retained their agencv
connections and continued to operate thcin,
frequently under the same local management,
as Canadian branches of the home institutions.

•Report of the Sui>erintenilent of Insurance of the Dominion
of C'anida for llie year cndint; 31st l)eceml)ei, 1SS4.

It will be of interest here to glance briefly
at the records of the existing Canadian offices.

The Halifax Fire Insurance Company is the
first of which any record is obtainable. It was
founded in l8og as the Nova Scotia Fire Asso-
ciation, and among the historic relics possesseii
by the Company is the first notice issued to the
shareholders and signed by John J. I'Megler, as
Secretary, requesting the members " to pay all
dues at the office of the Com[)any in his house."
In i8i(j the Association obtained incorporation
as the Halifax Fire Insurance C'^mpany, and
the first lioard of Directors embraced a number
of the leading Haligonians of that day. The
Company sustained a severe blow in the disas-
trous fire which destroyed the most valuable
blocks of buildings in Halifax in 1859, and
it was re-organized with a capital of $240,000 —
fifty per cent, of which is now paid up. It has
since accumulated a reserve fund of about §150,-
000 and its stock has proved a remunerative
investment. Its business is confined to the Prov-
ince of Nova Scotia.

The (jucbec Fire Assurance Company is next
in point 3f age. It was organized in 1816, but
during the first two years of its existence it was
a mutual office, insuring only the property of its
members. From 1818 it transacted a general
business, but it was not until the year 18.29 that
it was chartered as a !-tock company by the Par-
liament of Lower Canada with a capital of
$1,000,003 fully subscribed, of which $325,000
was paid up, and with power to carry on the
business of fire insurance for sixty years, which
charter has since been extended in perpetuity by
the Dominion Parliament. Many of the original
promoters were of French descent, and a con-
siderable amount of the stock is still held by de-
scendants of the founders of the Company.
Shortly after commencing business it established
agencies in some of the chief cities of the Prov-
inces then kiu)wn as Uppei and Lower Canada.
It has since extended its operations to the other
Provinces of the Dominion, and more recently
has opened business connections in some ol the
principal cities of the United States. The his-
toric city of (Quebec has been the scene of a
number of serious conflagrations which naturally
made heavy drafts upon the funds of the leading

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i:ANAI).\; an ENCYCI.OIVKDIA.

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local Company, and in iSSr led to the reduction
of Its capital to $225,000. Tiicse losses, however,
being promptly and honoiirahly met, served to
est.iblish a reputation lor stability for the
" Quebec " which it has since fidly maintained.
It has paid in losses to policy-holders S4, 337,000,
and in dividends to shareholders some $750,000
since its organization. Mr. Ildwin Jones is now
President and Mr. William W. Welch, Secretary,
of the Company.

The British America Assurance Company of
Toronto is the oldest Ontario tire insurance com-
pany. It was incorporated by Act of Parliament
in 1833, and commenced business in 1835 with a
capital of eight thousand shares of ;f 12 los. each,
equal to about $400,000, which was increased in
187S to $500,000, the whole amount being paid
up. Ill iS(j3 there was a further increase of cap-
ital to $750,000. Among the promoters and first
Directors of the Company are the names of many
gentlemen prominent in our Provincial annals of
sixty years ago. The Hon. William Allan was its
first President, and it is a noteworthy fact that
Mr. Clarke Gamble, who procured its charter
in 1833, is still a member of the firm wdiich, dur-
ing the sixty-four years of its existence, has acted
as the Company's legal advisers. Its business
was confined to the Canadian Provinces until
1S74, when it established agencies throughout
the United States, from which country it derives
a large share of its income. Its total assets on
31st December, 1897, were $1,510,827 and its
premium income for that year was $1,426,634, of
which $i,i83;788 was from its fire business ami
$242,846 from marine. It has paid for losses to
its policy-holders upwards of $16,500,000 and in
dividends to shareholders, $1,419,649 — equal to
an aver-'.ge of about seven and three-quarters per
cent, per annum on the amount of its paid-up
ca|)ital.

The Western Assurance Company of Toronto
was incorporated and commenced business in
1S51. He<j;inning in a very small way it has
steadily grown until, with a capital of $2,000,000
subscribed and .$1,000,000 paid up, total assets
of $2,415,086 and an annual pieinium income of
$2,211,376 (for the year 1897), it is now .'ecog-
nized as one of the leading fire assurance
companies on this Continent. Among upwards

of one lumdieil home and foreign com|)anies
reporting to the New York Insurance Dipart-
!nent in 1S96, but sixteen show larger premium
receipts in the United States than the " Wes-
tern." In its earlier years the Company shared
the general adverse experieiice of most new fire
comi)anios, but it ha.;, lor more than thirty
years, regularly paid liberal dividends to its
shareholders. These aggregate, from the time
of incorporation to the clost; of 1897, $1,655,558,
equal to an average for the forty-six years of
upwards of eleven per cent. upt)n the paid-up
capital, and it lias paid its policy-holders losses
aggregating $25,655,500. During the past five
3ears the business of the " Western " and the
" British America " has to a considerable extent
(more especially in relation to the operations of
the Companies outside of the Dominion) been
under joint n.anagcment, although they maintain
their distinct organi.zations as separate com-
panies. The Hon. George A. Cox and Mr. J. J.
Kenny fill the positions of President and Vice-
President respectively of both Companies.

The Mercantile Insurance Company of Water-
loo, Out., incorporated in 1874, has a subscribed
capital of $200,000, with $40,000 paid up. It
commenced business uiuler authority of an Act
of the Ontario Legislature, but in 1892 it made
the necessary deposit at Ottawa, and obtained a
Dominion license. Mr. I. E. Bowman, M.p.,
was for many years President of the Company,
and for the first eighteen years of its existence it
was under the management of Mr. P. H. Sims.
The "Mercantile" has paid its shareholders
aumial dividends often per cent, from its organi-
zation till 1895, when the stock was acquired by
the London & Lancashire Insurance Company
of Manchester, and its business is now conducted
under the general management of the officers of
that Company.

The C.inadian I'ire Insurance Company of
Winnipeg was also incorporated as a Provincial
company, its charter having been granted by the
Manitoba Legislature in 1895. It has recently
acquired a Dominion license, but it is not as yet
doing business outside its own Province. It has
a subscribed capital of $400,000 with $80,000
paid up.

The London Mutual I'ire Insurance Company

CANADA: AN ENCYCI.OIVKDIA.

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IS the only mutual company which has extended
its operations beyond tiie boundaries of one
Province. Orifjinally incorporated in 1859 under
a Provincial Act, it obtained extended powers
from the Dominion Legislature in 1878, and has
since carried on a general insurance business in
several Provinces.

Among the leading companies doing business
under Provincial licenses are the following: In
Nova Scotia, the Halifax Fire Insurance Com-
pany (already referred to as the oldest company
in Canada), and the Acadia Fire Insurance
Company of Halifax ; in New Brunswick, the
Keystone Fire Insurance Company of St. John,
and the Central Fire Insurance Company of
Fredericton ; in Quebec, the Stanstead & Sher-
brooke Mutual and the Eastern Townships
Mutual; in Ontario, the Gore District, the
Waterloo, the Wellington, the Perth, the Econ-
omical, the Hand-in-Hand, the Fire Insurance
Exchange, the Millers & Manufacturers' (all
mutual companies) and the Queen City, a
joint stock company which confines its business
to the County of York ; in British Columbia, the
Pacific Coast Fire Insurance Company of Van-
couver, and the London & Canadian Fire Insur-
ance Company — which latter has an English
charter but does business only in British Col-
umbia. A considerable share of the fire insur-
ance business of Canada is done by United
States companies. The first of these to enter
the field was the /Etna Insurance Company of
Hartford, Conn., which placed an agency in
Montreal in the year 1821. There are now eight
American companies licensed in the Dominion,
whose aggregate premium income in 1896 was
$1,041,966.

Insurance Legislation. A company desirous of
carrying on business throughout Canada must
obtain a license from the Dominion Government.
If it proposes restricting its operations to one
particular Province, a license may be had from
that Province, and it can transact its business
within such limits without regard to any general
laws of the Dominion relating to insurance,
these latter being recognized as applying only to
companies working under a Dominion license.
In 1875 an Insurance Department was created as
a branch of the Finance Department at Ottawa,
21

under the supervision of an officer known as the
"Superintendent of Insurance", whose duties
are to see that the laws enacted from time to time
by the Canadian Parliament are duly observed by
the companies. Thechief requirements under these
laws, as they at present exist, are : (i) a deposit
with the Government of $50,000 by Canadian
companies, or $100,000 by companies of oth-^r
countries, in Government, municipal or other
approved securities; (2) the appointment of a
chief agent, with power of attorney from the
company; (3) the filing of a statement showing
the financial condition of the company at the
time of its application for admission, and subse-
quent annual statements of its business. Books
of record must be kept at its chief office, and be
open to the inspection of the Government offic-
ers, whose practice is to make examinations of
these annually. Companies are required in
their statements to the Government to charge
themselves, as a liability, with fifty per cent, of
the total premiums on all unexpired annual poli-
cies and a pro rata share of the premiums on
risks written for a longer term ; and companies
of other countries must hold in Canada assets
— deposited with the Government or vested in
trustees — sufficient to meet these and all other
liabilities.

Each of the Provinces has legislated to a
greater or less extent upon matters relating to
insurance in its own territory, and Ontario has
established an Insurance Department, under the
supervision of an official known as " Inspector
of Insurance ". In connection with Provincial
legislation of this nature arose the first of a num-
ber of legal contests which have occurred
between the Dominion and the Province of
Ontario as to their respective powers under the
"British North American Act," passed by the
Imperial Parliament at the time of the confeder-
ation of the Provinces. This Act, among other
things, sets forth the matters which are to be
under the jurisdiction of the Dominion and Pro-
vincial Legislatures respectively. No reference is
made to insurance, and both Governments
undertook to deal with this subject. So long as
Ontario confined its measures to the regulation
of tlie business of companies operating niuier its
own Provincial licenses no questions of dispute

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arose, but in 1876 it framed a set of policy con-
ditions and enacted a law making; these applica-
ble to ail contracts of fire insurance entered into
within the Province. The Companies working
under Dominion licenses if^nored this legislation,
claiming tiiat, as far as they were concerned, it
was ultra vires.

The question of the validity of these Ontario
statutory conditions soon came before the Cana-
dian Courts, and finally two cases depending
upon the decision of this point were carried to
the Judicial Committee of tiie Privy Council in
England. The main contentions on the part of
the companies were that, in the distribution of
legislative powers under the Act referred to, the
" regulation of trade and commerce " was speci-
fically assif^ned to the Dominion Parliament;
that the business of fire insurance must be con-
sidered as coming within jthe term "trade and
commerce," and that the Provincial Legislatures
could exercise no jurisdiction upon subjects
which were declared to be within tiie scope of
Dominion legislation. On the other hand the
Province contended that the regulation of fire
insurance contracts came under " property and
civil rights in the Province ", wliich were
included among the matters set forth as being
within the exclusive power of Provincial Legisla-
tures. Jud'^e Taschereau and Judge Gwynne, of
the Supreme Court of Canaiia, in very exhaustive
judgments, found in favour of the companies, the
latter exjiressing his views as to the claims of
fire insurance to recognition as an integral part
of trade and commerce in the following words :
" When we consider that, but for the business of
fire insurance, the trade and conmierce of the
world could never have attained the magnitude
and success and the exalted position which they
have attained, we may well say, in my judgment,
that the trade of the fire insurance is, par excel-
lence, the trade of trades, without which all other
trades would have dwindled and decayed." The
majority of the Court, however, decided, as the
lower Courts had done, in favour of the Ontario
Government, and this decision was sustained by
the Privy Council Judicial Committee in a judg-
ment which, while it settled the immediate
i^juestion at issue, (the constitutionality of the
Ontario statutory conditions), failed to decide the

point over which there had been so much con-
tention in our Courts, (and previously in the
Courts of the United States on the question of
State jurisdiction over insurance), as to the legal
status of fire insurance in relation to trade and
commerce.

The gist of the judgment is contained in the
following words: " Their Lordships abstain on
the present occasion from any attempt to define
the limits of the authority of the Dominion Par-
liament in this direction. It is enough for the
decision of the present case to say that, in their
view, its authority to legislate for the regulation
of trade and commerce docs not comprehend the
power to regulate by legislation the contracts of
a i)articular business or trade, such as the busi-
ness of fire insurance, in a single Province, and
therefore tliat its legislative authority does not,
in the present case, conflict or compete with the
power over property and civil rights assigned to
the Legislature of Ontario." It will be observed
that the important question is left undecidtd
whether legislation on the subject of ir'--rance
generally comes, by the terms of the Confeder-
ation Act, within the jurisdiction of the Parlia-
ment of the Dominion, or within the class of
matters assigned exclusively to the Provincial
Legislatures. The conflict of anthority and con-
sequent disturbance of important interests which
might have arisen from this condition of doubt
and uncertainty seems to have been avoitled by
a compromise, manifestly in the best interests of
all concerned, under which the Dominion does
not interfere with Provincial companies while
confining their business within the limits of their
own Province, and the Provinces do not interfere
— beyond the imposition of Provincial license
fees — with companies licensed by the Dominion.
The requirements for a Provincial license in
Ontario are a deposit of $25,000 from Canadian
companies (other than mutual companies) and
$50,000 from those of any other country. An-
nual statements — similar to those required by
the Dominion — must be made to the Inspector
of Insurance for the Province. The fire insur-
ance legislation of the other Provinces has been
confined chiefly to the adoption of statutory
conditions (almost identical with those of On-
tario) by Manitoba and British Columbia and to

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CANADA: AN ENCYCLOIMIDIA.

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the imposing of license fees and taxes by the
Provinces generally. In Quebec these latter
were made so onerous that the companies felt
compelled to reimburse tiiemselves by increasing
their rates of insurance on all classes of property
in that Province. These rates, it may be ob-
served, are now fixed in all the Provinces by
tariff associations whose memberships comprise
almost all the stock companies — as well as some
of the mutuals — doing a {general insurance busi-
ness throughout the country.

Government Statistics. The statistics of the dif-
ferent branches of insurance business, apart from
their value to those concerned in the special
subjects with which they deal, are interesting in
a broader sense from their bearing upon the gen-
eral conditions existing in a communiiy; for,
while the amount of the premiums annually paid
to life companies affords an index to the material
welfare and thrift of the people, the growth of
fire insurance may be taken as a fair measure of
commercial progress — a gauge of the accumu-
lating wealth of the mercantile and industrial
classes. The first official compilation of figures
presenting the transactions of insurance com-
panies in Canada embraces the business of the
year 1869, and a comparison of these with those
contained in subsequent annual Dominion Gov-
ernment Reports shows the progress which fire
insurance has made in this country during the
past twenty-nine years. This will be seen by a
glance at the following figures taken from the
Reports of the Superintendent of Insurance :

Amount of Premiums . ,, ■ ,

Polid« taken. Recced. '""" ' ^"'•

1869 $171,540,475 $1,785,539 $1,027,720

1070 199,102,070 1.916,779 1,624,837

'871 244.437.'72 2,321,716 i,S49.'99

1872 277,387,271 2,628,710 1,909.975

1873 271,095,928 2,968,416 1,682,184

1874 329,178,974 3.522.303 1,926,159

'87s 353.206,984 3594,764 2,563,531

1876 401,148,747 3,708,006 2,867,295

1877 396,663,112 3.764.005 8,490,919

"878 359.847.757 3.368,430 1,822,674

1879 360,^04,419 3,227,488 2,145,198

1880 384,051,861 3 -'79.577 1.666,578

1881 44i,.<i6,238 3,82/. 116 3,169,824

1882 478044,416 4,229,706 2,664,985

1883 513,580302 4,624,741 2,920,228

1884 513983 378 4,980,128 3.245.323

1885 486,002,908 4,852,4611 2,679,287

1886 .505.752.907 4932335 3301.388

Amount of
Puliciei taken.

1887 532,757,088

'888 54i,5,Sooo7

1889 572,782,104

1890 620,723,945

1891 623 4i8,,22

1892 687,175,688

1893 t.87, 604,239

"894 653,589428

1895 667.639,048

1896 669,288,650

1897 657,098,308

Totals 13,600,801,846 133,257,922 91,640,239

Taking the totals for the same twenty-nine years
acconling to the nationalities of the companies,
the following are tiie results :

Premiums
Received.

Losses Paid.

5,244,502

3.403, 5M

5.437.263

3.073.822

5,588,016

2,8/6,211

5,836,071

3,266,567

6,168,716

3,905.697

6,512.327

4.377.270

6,793.595

S.052,690

6,711,369

4.589.363

6.943.382

4.993.750

7,075,850

4.173.5'J'

7,214,612

4.670,549

Amount of
Pulicich luken.

Pr.;niiuins
Received.

Lueses Paid.

Canadian Companies. $3,417,036,961 $32,682,165 $23,289,020
IJntish Companies... 8,839,975,028 86,939,455 59.135-397
American Companies 1,313,789,857 13,636,302 9,215,822

Totals 13,600,801,846 133,257,922 91,640,239

It should be pointed out that the Reports
from which these results are compiled do not
include the business of companies working
under Provincial licenses. Of these no official
records are kept except in the Province of Ontario,
but it may be safely estimated that its growth
has been proportionately equal to that of the
companies having Dominion licenses, and this
being the case we find that since 1869 the amount
of insurance annually effected in Canada has
multiplied close upon four-fold — a much larger
ratio of increase than is shown in the population
and indicating a very material advance in per
cij/>i7rt wealth. The figures quoted further show
that for the period embraced in these official
returns the ratio of losses to premiums has been
sixty-nine per cent., which, after providing
for agents' commissions, taxes and the other
expenses incidental to the business, leaves but a
small margin of profit to the companies. This
is largely due to the fact that during the period
dealt with some of our cities have been visited
by serious conflagrations, notably that in the
City of St. John, N.B., in the year 1877, which
resulted in the destruction of property valued
at $15,000,000, and a loss of nearly $6,500,000
to insurance companies.

The only official fire insurance statistics
beyond those published by the Dominion Gov-

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eminent are, as already intinuited, those pre-
sented in tlio Reports of the Inspector of Insur-
ance for the Province of Ontario, from which
it appears tliat risks aggrefjatinfj upwards of $200,-
000,000 are carried by some eighty-eight com-
panies woriiing under Provincial licenses. These
are chielly township and county mutuals, con-
fining themselves almost exclusively to the
insurance of farm property, although there
are several mutual companies doing a general
business throughout Ontario. While the statis-
tics which have been quoted show that the
Dominion has not proved a lucrative field
of operations to fire insurance companies in the
past, it may reasonably be anticii)ateil that the

more substantial modes of construction now
adopted in most of the leading cities and towns,
as compared with those of earlier years, cotn-
bmed with the improved fire appliances which
are from time to time being introduced, will
materially reduce the danger of serious con-
fiagrations in the leadmg business centres,
and thus tend towards placing the risks assumed
by fire insurance companies in Canada more on an
equality with those of older countries than they
have been during the period when wood — owing to
its cheapness — was so largely used in the construc-
tion cf buildings, and inadequate fire protection
was the rule rather than the exception in Cana-
dian towns.

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The Hon. George A. Cox.

THE HISTORY OF LIFE INSURANCE IN CANADA

WILLIAM McCABE, LL.B., F.I.A., F.S S , Maiuging-Directur of ihe \orlh .tim-riian /.i/r .Issiinimi- Company, rcjtuiito.

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IN hi3 most instructive and vuliiable work
on " The Climate of Canada," Sir William
Kingston, M.u., shows tliat Canada ranks
amongst the lie.dtiiiost countries in the
world, and taking cognizance of climate, physical
conditions, habits, longevity and every circum-
stance wliich could influence the death rate,
it is a most favourable field for carrying on suc-
cessfully the business of Life Insurance. He
points out that British life companies of the
highest rank had assigned to Canadians a place
among the healthiest, and, on this graund had
thought themselves warranted in accepting
•lower rates of premium, up to a certain period
of life, than in Great Britain. Much as that
consideration may have had to do witii such
3. decision, it is probable that the higher rates
of interest formerly obtainable on investments
in Canada had also much weight in the matter,
coupled in later days with the necessity of meet-
ing the competition of Canadian companies,
which have always granted insurance upon most
favourable terms. Life Insurance in Canada
is carried on by three classes of organizations,
viz. :

1. Those known as fixed premium or " old
line " companies.

2. Those embodying the feature of assessment
in some form or other.

3. Those doing society or fraternal insurance
which IS conducted, I believe, wholly on some
modification of the assessment plan.

This history divides itself, especially in the
case of the first class of companies, into three
periods ; (i) that prior to Confederation in 1867 ;
(2) from Confederation to the establishment
of the Dominion Insurance Department in 1875;
and (3) since 1875 to the present day. Among
the earliest companies of the first class were

i-ii

the Stttiulniil, ScoHish Amicable and tlie Inter-
Hiitional, all British companies. After 18.^5 the
business of the Standard was extended to the
taking of risks on the lives of parties going
to the Colonies, but the Company had no regular
agency in this country down to 1847, prior
to which year the Scolthh Amicable had one
or two agencies, the chief of which was at
Chicoutimi, a small fishing village on the River
Saguenay, in the Province of Quebec — which
fact shows clearly that business was not espec-
ially sought after. As the business of the
Standard on the lives of persons going to the
Colonies, was thought to interfere with the
home business, the manager of that Company,
Mr. William Thomas Thomson, an eminent
actuary in his day, started the Colonial Life
Assurance Company in 1847 to do business
in India, the United States and Canada, prior
to which date the International did a little
bireiness in this country in a small way. The
Colonial was, after a short experience, absorbed
by the Standard in 1865.

Before the passing of the Act of 1868, seve-
ral of the best English and Scotch companies
did business in Canada, but the requirements of
that Act were so unacceptable to the managers
that all retired except the London & Lancashire
and The British Empire. Especial exception was
taken to the provision that the reserves on their
Canadian policies should be invested in stated
British and Canadian securities for the protection
of their policy-holders here, such investments
being beyond the immediate control of the com-
panies. The earliest application to the Legisla-
ture for an insurance charter was made in 1829.
The Journal of the House of Assembly (page 22)
states that a petition was then presented for an
Act incorporating the petitioners as " The Upper

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Canada Fire, Life & Marine AssurancuCompuny,"
witli a capital of $1,000,000 ami shares of !?5o
eacli. '1 0 petition was duly referred, but the
Committee made no report.

The Journal of the Assembly, iSjJ-j.} Ipage
jj), records that on the 15th November, i>S,5-', a
petition from William Maxwell and forty-nine
others, for an Act incorporating them as "The
British American Fire and Life Assurance Institu-
tion "' (rhanfjed in the Lcf,'islative Council to
"The IJritisli Anu'rica I'iie & Life Assurance
Company"), with a capital of $400,000, and shares
of $50 each, w.is iTcscntctl. The petition nsms
duly referred and a liill based on tiie report d
the Committee reached its third reading on the
2gth of December, i>\5-', wlun a rider was added
requiring,' a return to be maile inid.-'r oath of tlie
Governor and Trustees of the saiil Coinpan)' to
the Provincial Parliament once in each year,
which return sInuiKl contain a full and true
account of tlie funds and property of the Com-
panv, the ameiunt oi capi;al siKiscribed and paid
in, tlie amount of insuran, e of the previous year,
t!ie amount char^'ed upon the st'veral kinds of
jiroperlv or on liws insured, and the amount
whiili the Company paid, or stood liable to Jiay,
for losses or otherwise diuir.j; siu h jear. This
is the bcj^inning of the annual iniancial state-
ments now made, as retpiired by law, to the
Dominion and several Provincial (jovernm.jnts.
The Company, however, seems never to ha\e
exercised its corporate right to do Life InsinMiue
business.

The earliest insurance statement presented
among our PariiauR'ntary ncords is that laid
before the House of Assembly, P'ebru'iry 5t!i,
lSj5, by the Speaker, Mr. M. S. P)idwe;l, show-
ing the transactions of the .S7. Lawrence Inluiul
Mtuiiic Insurance Company, incorporated in 1832.
In 1S35 Daniel Jones and other influential pro-
moters succeetled in c.irrying through the Assem-
bly of Upper Canada, with the general supjiort
of both sides of the House, an Act incorporating
a Life Insurance and Trust Company, upon the
general plan of the Xcw York Life and Trust Com-
pany, incorporated on the gth March, 1S30 by
the Legislature of the State of New York. Sir
John Colborne, the Governor, reserved the IJill
fir His Majesty's pleasure, but assent thereto

was refused. Lord Glenelg, Colonial Secretary,
with wise forethought raised several objections
to the Act, amongst which were the following:

" (1) It appears that this Bill establishes a
corporate body for three distinct objects — the
effecting of Life Insurance, the receiving of depos-
its for accunuilation and the acce|)tancc and
execution of trusts. These objects, if not, strictly
speaking, compatible with each other, could
scarcely be carried on so as not to involve the
corporation in many dangers and embarrassments.
I do not hire refer to the circumstance that the
time and thought of the Directors would be dis-
tracted by their attention to so many branches of
connnerce (though that is no immateri.il circum-
stance), but ratiicr to the blending together of
funds, which justice to the parties conci'rned aiui
and the pid)lic's security would alike recpnre to
he kept distinct. The trust moneys inigiit be
applied to pay off Life Insurance, or the deposits
niii^ht be useil to liipiidale the claims of those for
whom the Company sliould be trustees. 1 find
in the Bill no secuiilies wliatever against these
obvious and ioniiii.iable dangers.

(2) Tlie Courts by which the trusts are to be
delegated to this Company arc not invested with
air,' sunimaryjuiisdiciionover the corporate body,
its oHicers or its fuiuls. 'ilie property of infants
and of absentees, of married women and of luna-
tics, would be thus committed to functionaries
not amenable to tlie summary orilers of tlie tri-
bunals from which their power is to be dei ived,
nor bound to render to them any accomif of the
administration of the trust funds. In every case
of alleged breach of trust, legal proceedings must
be instituted, the nature of which is not at ail
explained, and the success of these proceedings
must depend upon the solvency of a body virtu-
ally irrespimsible lor their conduct. (5) The so
ciety to which these extraordinary powers ar<;
to be granted is limited to a capital of $1,200,000,
currcncv, of which they are not re<piired to
invest more than one-tenth part. Such a fund ..s
$120,000, currency, would seem a most inade-
quate security to those who are to be involved in
pecuniary transactions with this body. (4) The
Company are expressly exempted from the obli-
gation of giving, in any case, any special security
for the faithful discharge of any trust whirh they
may undertake — an exemption of which I am at
a loss to conjecture the reason."

The Colonial Secretary also showed that there
was no Court of Equity in the Province, and he
did not see how relief for neglect or a breach of
trust could be had, and objected to the power of
investing the Company's capital in the stock of
o'her trading rf)rpnrations. lie added that this

CANADA: AN KNCVCLOP/KDIA.

3^7

•' will larKcly and needlessly enhance the risk
with all with whom they deal." The Company's
charter was to be limited to twenty-five years,
and L >rd Glenelfj furtlier pointed out that no
provision was made for seem ing the property of
infants and others, for whom, at the end of that
time, the Company will be Trustees, or respect-
ing the payments of policies on lives which
tweiUv-five years hence may be still in bcinf;.
(Jotiniul of Asseml)ly, 1S56, paj^i's 265-4). A
striking proof of the foresij^'ht of Lord (ilenel^,
re^'arding the danger of combining in the same
company two classes of busiiuss so different as
those of Life and Trust companiis, was cli'arly
shown bv llu; failure in 1857 of the Ohio (U.S.)
Life Insni'iiiue and Trust Company, which it is
supposed brou;,'lit on the si vere linaiicial panic
of that year — one which spread to I-iij;!and and
was stayed there only by the suspensi ui of tin,'
Bank Act. The VaniuUi Life for m.uiy years
n.'ceivi'd moneys on iIcpo:,it, but after tiie appoint-
ment in 1>S5(_) of Mr. Ramsay, as M.mager, on
the ill. ah of its lii.st Prrsklcnl, .Mr. IIi:-Ii (".
Haker, thi.- Company tlisc-oiitiniu' I tliat biaiich of
its business, inibienciii, no doubt, b\' tlu; wise
counsel of its future President, Mr. A, G. Ram-
say, I'M. A., wlio acted jMobabiy on the directions
discussed b\' the Coloni.d Secretary in cmiiu'ction
with the above application of Mr. Jones and
others ill l.'\;5.

The l)oinini(-)n Parliament in the Insuranco
Act, 57 \'i ■., cap. 20 (iSij^), provided ajraiiist this
liaiiger by enacting that: "A license shall not
be granted to a company to carr\' on the business
of Life Insurance with any other branch (jf
insurance." Siibsecjiient to the Union of Upper
and Lower Canada (in 1841) the Canada Life
Insurance Company, which had been formed under
a Deed of Settlement, dated the 21st of August,
1847, became incorporated by the Parliament of
Canada on the 25th of April, 1849. This was the
pioneer Life Insurance company of Canada,
established for the three-fold purpose^ (r) of
making the knowledge and practice of Life
Insurance in its various branches general amongst
all classes in British North America ; (2) of
affording to all residents therein the opportunity
of availing themselves of these important benefits
at the lowest costs compatible with safety ; and

(3) of retaining within the Province the accumu-
lations thu.^ made for the ecpial benefit of our
country and the assured, Tiio Company is a
mixed one, being partly proprietary and partly
mutual. Under its Act of incorpor.ition twenty-
five per cent, of its realized profits go to the
shareholders, and the remaining seventy-five per
cent, were to be annually divided among its
participating assurers. Several years ago the
Company voluntarily reduced the proportion to
sharehcjlders very materially.

Its first Rt.'port shows that tiic first year's

Alexander G. Rams»y.

premiums on 1.56 policies amounted to $6,200 on
insurances for ijiijQ.bj^.oo. According to the
Company's last official Report, the premium
receipts for i8(j7 amounted to $1,876,103, being
an increase of over 308-fold, and the amount of
insurance carried by the Company amounted to
$72,275,894.67. These figures afford a most
striking illustration, not only of the great prog-
ress of Life Insurance in Canada, but of the thrift
of Canadians in making such provision for the
future. The only other Life Insurance company

3^«

CANADA: AN KNCYCLOl'.KUIA.

r

■

incorporatevi by the; Parliament of Canada prior
to Coiiloiloratioii was the .S;<// lAjf, iiiuk-r Aii,
2S Vic, cap. 43, assuntud to Marcli i8tlj, x^i^^.
The Company did not commence business until
May, 1S71. The history of tliis C"ompany
hunishis also evidence of the marked pro>,'rcss of
Life Insurance in this country. Tlie premiums
receiveii by the Company in I.S71 amounted to
't'l.l.'^ZS ii|">ii policies (or $40^,000, while the
last official (iovernment Report sliows that for
the year 1807 its piemiiim income amounted to
§1,851,157.^0, its new business for tlie year to
$7, 468,^81 and its business in f.)r(:i) to |44,()6j,-
246.79.

The first returns of the Life c;)mpaiiic3 doing
business in Canada after Confeileration, made in
compliance with the Act, jl Vic, cap. 48, sec. 14,
embrace the transactions for the ;year 1868 of
twenty-three companies, of which thirteen were
Mritish,niiie U.S., and one Canadian-^tho Canada
Life. The returns are probably imperfect and
incQinplete, but they show that the premiums of
the year were $960,331.33, and the new policies
issued 3.990 for $6,971,967.86, and that the total
insurance in force amounted to $^9, 572, 188.21 — •
in part estimated by the Hon. Mr. Langton, then
Auditor General.

Mr. J. H. Cherriman, m.a., f.i.a , was ap-
pointed Superintendent of Insurance on the
nomination of Sir Richard Cartwri^ht in 1875,
under sec. 28, 38 Victoria, cap. 20. His first
otticial Report, dated Auf^nst loth, 1876, was
maile to Sir Richard Cartwright, as Finance
Minister, the business of insurance having; been
made a branch of the Tinancc Department.
The summary of the Superintendent shows that
the amount at risk had grown to $35,680,082 in
1869, to §85,009,264 in 1875, having been tripled
in the United States companies, and more than
quadrupled in the Canadian companies. The
premiums rose from $1,238,359, for 1869, to
§2,882,287, for 1875, of which §1,551.835 went to
United States companies — the balance being
about equally shared by the Canadian and British
companies.

During the said seven years the premiums
paid exceeded fifteen millions of dollars, of which
the U. S. companies received over eight millions
of dollars, the British over four millions of dollars,

and the Caiiadi.in not <piitt' thrt-i' millions of
dollars. The Superintendent estimated th.tt the
premium reserve on the policies held by United
States companies on the lives of Canadians in
1875 was between six and seven millions of
dollars, which would represent the amount then
entrusted by Canadian policy-holders to those
companies for management and investment,
which has grown as at December 31st, 1897, to
§13,582,769. The total amount of Life Insurance
premiums paiil to U.S. companies from 1875 to
i8()7 amounts to the large sum of $50,915,132.
During 1875 the new business done by the U. S.
companies in Canada fell off §3,398,495, while
that of the Canadian com|)anies increased $2,-

During the period, 1869 to 1875, the amount of
policies in the U. S. companies which ceased to
be in force in Canada, othek wise tharj by payment
of claims, by death, or maturity, amounted to
$.J5ii".i.i>*^2, while in Canadian companies the
like terminations amounted to only $7,442,258,
tending to show the greater stability of the busi-
ness done by the Home companies. The business
of Life Insurance in Canada, at the close of 1897,
was transacted by fifteen Canadian companies,
fourteen British companies and fourteen United
States companies, — the total amount of policies
issued for the year being $48,517,249, of which
the Canadian companies secured $30,358,694;
the British $2,778,510, and the United States
companies $15,380,045. The premium receipts
for 1897 were: by Canadian companies, §6,598,-
034; by British, $1,174,814; and by the United
States companies, $3,445,644 — the premium
receipts of the Canadian companies being nearly
double those of the United States companies.
These figures afford very marked evidence of the
great progress of Life Insurance in Canada,
especially in the Home companies, when it is
borne in mind that of the total premiums for the
year 1869, amounting to $1,238,359, the only
Canadian company received but $164,910.

The total amount of insurance in force at the
close of 1897 was, in the Canadian companies,
$208,927,011; in the British companies, $35,292,-
744; and in the United States companies,
$100,094,693 — the business in the Home compa-
nies being over double that in the Unites States

CANADA; AN KNCYfJI.UI'.KDIA.

3»V

cuinpaniL'S. Thu uinount of insiiruiicc in forcu at
tlic doso t)f iHtu) was, in Ciiiiiidian companies,
|5,476,,}5.S ; in HritiHli t;oniiianicrt, $i(),ji.S,47(j ;
and in United States companies, $1 J,''<H5,24<j.
Since the first oHicial Report of the Insurance
Department after Confederation, in 1875, down
to the close of iiS<j7, the total amount of premi-
ums collected by Canadian companies was iJOS,-

207,775 ; by British rompuriies, $19,444,104; and
l)y United States companies, !5>5o,<ji5,i j-J — Ixiinj;
a tol.il oi premiums paid by Canachans during;
that period of-ijii j.S,567,o3i. 'I'lie lollowiiiK' table,
from olTicial sources, will be of value in this con-
necliun^it beinj,' noted that the coiiipanii's mark-
ed with an asterisk have ceased tloin^ new
business in Canada :

AUSTKACT ol'" I. IKK INSDUANCli IN CANADA l-OK VI:A1< 1^97.

I'reniiiima

for

Year.

Caiiiidian Companies. $

Canada Life (Canadian business) 1,870,103

Confederation (Canadian business) 920,432

Dominion Life 7">8f)3

Excelsior 7". 447

Federal .^'JiS'^^'J

Great West 202,482

Imperial Life 32.060

, , , r (General 52,828

London Life 1 , . . ,

llnilustrial '.{2,71 1

Manufacturers (Canadian business).... 354,8()5

North American (('.inadian business).. 574,217

Northern Life 4/)i2

Ontario Mutual 644,107

Royal Victoria 8,071

Sun Life (Canadian business) 1, 129. 744

Temperance and (ieneral 174,878

Totals for iS()7 '^'.5'j8,03()

Totals lor 1 8()6 (),o75,454

Increase,!; decrease, d / 522,585

British Companies.

Hritisii Empire 219,742

Commercial Union if),oiS

Edinburgh Life* 6,013

Life Association of Scotland* J4.814

Liverpool and London and Globe 6,579

London and Lancashire 239,989

London Assurance* 1,108

North Hritish .5.5.985

Reliance* 6,313

Roval 16,654

Number

of

I'lilicicH

Ni'w

itnil

TiiUeri

up.

1,818

1,984

4/17

'..555
i.5"5

1,588

37"
491

10..552

1.47-

2.52<)

287

14.5

•'*.554
1.605

.5^>,4^'.5
28,744

f)5
2
None.
None.
None.
46S
None.

None.
None.

Amiiuiit
of I'olicicH

New
and Tiiken

VI 1 1.

I

i.b27.73.5
3,040,172

5'i.5.7»'J
719,048

2,003,850

2,219,300

1.185,725

4'J5.25"
1,016,86'
2,287,1)88
.5.426,524

360,500
3,031,900

242,500
4..5 1 7. 2<J2
i,7()o,65o

Numl^cr

of
I'olicirii

in

Korce lit

Uate

3l,2ofj
•'^725

2,121

2,9fj8
6,462
4.5.54

2,071
30,617

7.153
13,016

284

15,701

143

2(.,777

fj.3J4

30,35''^.6(J4 168.492
26.171,830 150,063

304,150
4,000

None.

None.

None.
829,000

None.

3. 695
None.

None.

2,745

2^3

97
865

130

4.533

7

481

178
329

Nel
AniDuni ill
I'orce,

66,131,637

27.9.59.0'"

2,614,873

2,664,121

10,483,088

7.064,534

908,725

I, ((15,664

2,816,837

10,622,656

18,494,963

346,000

21,426,878

242,500

28,o6(),239

7,i8(j,286

208,927,011
195.303.042

'7-719 »' 4,186,864 118,429 J 13,623,969

5.850,655
584,810
264,407

1,466,487
222,092

7.392,156
33.186

1,199,418

223.324
840,126

11* 1

I

Jje

CANADA: AN KNCYCLOP^IUIA,

.; I

:<«

J

r

i'ramiiinia
Ytat.

liritish Compiiiiics, $

Scottish Amicable* 3.i(»o

Scottisli rnvulout* ii7'»5

S t a mla rd jfiS , i .' J

Stur •''^•53-

Toiiiln f(ir iSi)j T,i7}.Ni.)

Totals for If)y6 •.'.{7.*'"/

IncreiiHL', ;'; ilirrfasf, </ 137,^07

Ainiriciiii C'lnpiiiiics.

^Et na Life 5 jfj.fKiO

Coniiccticiii Mutual .5.}'7'^*7

I'(iMit;il)lt: (»5 ;. Kn

("iciiiiaiiia .S,7i;u

(General )

Mi'trciiolilati... , , . , jiio.ooj

I liiilustrial )

Mutual Life 7»-.''^ll

National Life' i-5^.\

N c \ V V . I r 1; '"^ « 7 . ' >5 7

Nortli-wostern' I.}i4.5f'

Pluvnix Mutual' -'o,()V)

Provi.liiit S.iviii;^'s 114.949

TravelUrs i.i7.579

Union Mutual i2t),2i.\

United States t.5.477

Totals for 1897 3.44J."74

Totals for iSi)() 3..{89/'"5

Increase,/; decrease, </ » 55.4^9

ui:c

Cana<lian Companies fj, 598,1

Hritish Companies 1.174.'

American Companies 3'443.'

Grand Totals for i8()7 ii,ii5,<

Grand Totals for iSq6 10, 602, (

Numtwi

of

New

(ml

Tnkcn

U|).

Amtiunl

III r<>llcie«

New
■ml Taken

up.

Nunilwr

III
rollcif*

In

Korre at

Date.

Nti

Amount In
Koice.

1

1

None.

Ni)ne.

I".J

26^,001

N«>ne.

None.

55

« 55.945

•'<44

i.5f,8,75>)

7.773

l(),20<j,0.}<>

ii

()"*,yi3

2b0

58S.IUI

'.44.J

^.77^.5'"

17.827

.i5.-!'^'7»4

i.Ooj

2,8()c>,<)71
1/ •)!. I'll

•7-54'

.»4.''< .17.44''*

'' '59

'■ 455. -9'>

401

7o8.7()t

1 1,7811

15.09i.-9''

N..IW.

Nmir.

77^

i.3lo,.l62

747

i.7 1.>''*^.{

8.8.19

I9.u7i>,l.i6

None.

None.

K\(>

-5-. H'O

( 7-;.{

5" -71'

8t)j

76j,6.jo

i ;'>.«. i7

5..{<'7."''5

•|6,4-'5

5..{67,876

•^5-!

i..ss(),.S5o

S.()(,5

l8,i29,()i 1

None.

None.

1.;''

124, ;oo

1.667

2,861.050

1 1,1)41

22,918,289

None.

None.

.}«•!

422,699

None.

Notie.

Sob

856,596

4U

916,762

^•79i

4,I2J,OIO

153

5^'-J.9i5

■^•7.\.\

5.^13.994

45'J

6,1.718

J,9«9

4.759.974

114

178,260

840

1,490,940

■\i.(>75

I5.J>VJI5

9^, 1 >,:-,

ioo.094,6(;3

42,1)60

ij.58-'.7f^'9

9-5.594

97,660,009

</ 1,285 11,797,54^' » 1.541 12,434,684

ni.ArioN.

3''.4f>.'.

1.443

4i.fJ75

79,5''^ I
73.306

3^.., » ■>.49-*

2,77'^ >'« ^7,^-7

I53^ '."45 9''*.>35

48,517,249 284,454
42,624,570 261,198

20S,927,0II

.55.292,744
100,094,693

». 314. 448
,800,499

i 6,275 «" 5.892.679 »' -23.256

'6,513.949

^PWP

CANADA ; AN ENrVCLOP-finiA,

SJi

III hin last ofTici.il Kcpnit for iS(j7 tin: Siipcrin- tiuna t'> the iiicati luiinbur of lives exposed to

teiiilt'iit (li IiiHuriiiicuHtiUi-s tliiit ill tiiu culculutioii risk, ami tlio nuitiLtcr of ileatlis during; tlie year,

of tliu ticitili rate in tli.it year, as in previous reitpeclivoly. It is bijievcd that tlio results

years, the iiieaij iiiiiiihir of policies in force ami arrived at as follows represent the actual mortality

the iniiiiber uf policies tei niiiiated \>y di ath dur
iii|; the year have hieii adiiiitted as ap|iroxiiii.i

1S05

a II inii^' insured lives in Canada as accurately as can
he ^Mtherccl Iimiii tliu returns of the c<^iiipanieB :

iHiA

Dtnih
Kate.

Ueaili
llnlc.

i,S.)t.

Draili
Kai«.

iSgj,

Dcaili
Kile.

1 89 J.

Ue.i li
Kai>.

IN91.

Ilmiti
ICate.

|8(/). l8ri9.

I).- lid
Kill'.

Dciih
Km-.

l8!i8.
kiir.

1887.
Kiie.

Aetivo companies ia."<i5 11.166 10.J27 10.176 10.67O 10.178 lo.i jM 8.M46 8.614 ^ i'?

Assessment companies.., 6.7(^8 8.655 ^-lot y.-|o7 8.c)}6 g. } 15 **■ |75 ^-50 97''7 <)i-io
KetiKtl conipanii'S J-y6(j 30.2J5 26.4.PJ 2^.57.^ 26.514 20.i«i(j 21.117 lO.Nio 2j..jNij 17.<H3

On total lives insured (j.jIji u.o.jJ 10.J40

In this connection the Kejiort for i.S()6 of Dr.
Uryce, Secreiaiy of llio I'rovinci.d iJo.ird of
Health fir Ontario, j;ives its death rate as 10. (j
per l.'ioo, as compared with that of En!.{laiid,
which is iS 7 per 1000. Life Insnriinci! in Cm-
nda is controlK d by the Insuraiuu At, c.ip. u |,
Revised Statiitt s of Canada (1S86), as umeiiil. d
by 51 Vic.. «■ iP' 2S (18SS), and 57 Vic, cap. 20
(i.S(j4). Olio of the most beneficent provisions
of Lilc! lusiiiaiicc (rc:cciiliy eiiLu^ed in its oper-
ation) was di iwii lip 111.1 iiy years a^'o by Chief
Justiii! (iio.v Sir Georj^'c \V.) Huitmi, while solici-
tor of the Canada Li:e Assurance Coiiip.iiiv,
under which a person LlTi.ctin;i an insurance on
his or 111 r own life iii.n , cillier by tli j contract of
insurance, or by an in-trument in wiiliiif; attached
to, or I'lidorsed on, or identifyiii;', the s.iid con-
tract by number or o; herwise, declare the insur-
ance money, or a portion of tiie priiK ipd or
interest thereof, to be for the benefit of the hus-
band, wife, cliiUlreii, grandchildren, or mother of
the assured, ami so loiijj as any object of the
trust remains the money pavable under the con-
tract shall not be subject to the control of the
insiireil or of his or her creditors, or form a part
of his or her estate, when the sum secured by the
contract becomes payable. This provision has
been incorporated in the laws of nearly all the
Provinces, but it is not contained in the Dominion
Insurance Act.

The followiiifj companies authorized by law on
the fi.xed premium plan ceased to do business
several years ago, having re- insured their out-
standing transactions with one or other of the
regular Life companies, namely : (i) The Mutual

lo.j6f 10.860 IO.JJ3 lo.jfo 9.08J g.,()5 8.^55

Life Association of Canaila, which commenced to
do biisnii ss on tlie 2Jiid of August, l^/l, with
head (jIVu e at Hamilton ; (J) The Cili/eiis' Itisur-
aiicu Companv', which began businesson the I4tll
of July, 1S7, 5, with lii'atl olTice at Montreal ; (j)
The Toronto Life Assurance and Tontine Com-
pany, which bi'i^an business on the 14111 of July,
1874, with head office at Toronto; (4) The
Stadacona Life Insurance Compan\-, wliieli bi';;an
bnsiiujss Aii;,Mist jo, 1875, head oiiici: at tjne-
bei; ; (5) The Dominion Safety I'niid of St. John,
N.H., whiih conimeiiced business 8lli June, 1881.
Notwithstanding the discoiitimiai e of bii.-.ines3
of these companies it is believed ti. c the transfer
of the business was in every case to the great
adv.mtagi; of the policy-hoUlers. The following
table will enable the progress of the total business
to be traced during the past twenty-two years,
both as regards the amounts of insurances effected
from year to year, and the total anionnt in
force :

.\moiinis

OK INSIIRANCK KlIKcrKD

ihki.m; riii'i

KKSI'ECriVK

Y

KAKS 1875-1897:

Vhak.

Canadian

Rri i>b

.American

T,*|.il

C'lmpinicH.

C'jnip.inies.

ComptiniCH.

1 uiai.

$

$

$

$

IS75....

5, 07 7, (KM

1.689,83,5

8,300,824

15,074,258

iS7(i ...

5,4(.5,<)(»6

i/>8j,.i57

() 740 804

13,890,127

1877...

5.7-!4.('48

2,I42.7^-!

S.''<'7.3'7

13.534,667

1878....

5.S08 ssO

2,789.201

3.S7".W«

12,169,75s

1879....

f) 112,706

1,877,018

3.i'ii.6oo

11,354.224

1880....

7.547.S70

2,302,01 1

4,057,000

13.906.887

1881...

n.i5**.47<)

2,536,120

3.923 4' 2

17,618,011

1SS2 ...

11.855,545

2.833,250

S.423.'Aj

20,112,75s

l88j ...

n.8Sj,ji7

3,278,008

6.4". 63s

21,572,960

18S4....

12,926,265

3 167,910

7.323.737

23,417,912

18S5 ...

14,881,695

3 950.647

8 332,646

27,164,988

1886 ...

19 289,694

4,054,279

11.827,37s

3S.'7i.34&

T V-

3i^

CANADA. AN EN^YCLOIVKDIA

I

■■ }

I \

i¥

VbAU.

( .tM.uliiin

llrilMi

.VriKTicin

•i> „ ,1

(.'uin|Miiies.

Ci.ilip.iiiiuv

.*tiin|unies.

I ot,ll.

$

$

$

$

1SS7...

• 2J 5"S.S49

3.oLi7,»4J

".455,721

38,008,310

ISSS...

. 24.S76.J5<i

3.985 7V

' • 3i'4.483

41,220,529

is.s.)..

2(.,4jS J5S

3.399 .IK\

1 4 7 1 9 266

44,556.937

1890...

• 23S41.4U4

3,390 072

13 591,080

40,523 456

iS(ji...

2l,<K54.J^l-

2,047.^4"

'3014,739

37,866,287

iS.).',..

■2.i i^i'S.H

3,625.213

15,(09 2I16

44,620,013

iS.)J..

2S,t).St),4(7

2.9i'7.855

14.145,555

45,202,847

1 S()4 . .

28,670364

3,214.216

17,641,077

49.525,257

1805..

• 2^^)^i%b^l

3.337.<''38

13,093,888

44,.i4'."'S

lSej6..

■ 2(1,171,830

2,869,971

13,582,769

42,624,570

1897..

• j:>,35'<.<''y4

2 77X510

I5,3Sj,o4S

4S,5'7,249

Ti)tal

*.. $404,483,751

67,888,997 a

29.627.797 $702,000,545

Amoums ok Insuramk. IN^I

11RCK, 1875-1

898;

Year.

Cinadiaii
CantpanicN.

Kritish
Conipnnieii.

.\incrican
Coinp.itiics.

Total.

$

$

$

$

1S75..

21,957,21)6

19,455. L>07

43.590,361

85,009,204

1S76..

24,(>49,284

'S. 873. "73

40,728,461

84,250,918

iS7-..

2(1,870,224

10,349.-04

3(),468,475

85,687,903

1S78..

28,056,556

20,078,533

30,016,84

■n,75i.937

1S79..

3.5.246.543

19,410,829

33,<"6.33o

80,273,-12

iSSo..

37,S3S.5'8

19,789,863

33."43.745

9'.272,126

iSSi..

46,041,591

20,983,092

36,206,240

103,290.932

18S2..

53«S5.o5'

22,329,368

38,857,629

115,042,048

1SS3..

59,213,601)

23.5". 7'.!

44.47', 554

124,196,875

1SS4..

66,519,958

24.317. '72

44,616,596

'35453,726

1SS5..

74.591.139

25,930,272

49.440,735

149,962 140

1S86..

88,181,859

27,225,607

55,908,230

171,315,696

1SS7..

101,796.754

28,163,329

01,734,187

191,694,270

1S8S..

114,034,279

3ii,a33,2io

67,724,.,94

211,761,583

1SS9..

125,125 692

30,48,^,618

76 348,392

231,963 702

1S90. .

i35.'"S.99f-

3'.<^''3.73o

81,599,847

248,424,567

IJ91..

. i43.3'''S,8i7

32.407,937

S5,698,475

201,475.229

KS92..

154709,077

33,692,706

90,708,482

279,110,265

1S93..

'67.475.5*72

33,543,884

94,602,966

295,622,722

1S94.

177.5".>''4<>

33.9".8.S5

96,737.705

308,161,436

1S95..

iSS, 326,057

34.34'. '72

96,590,352

319.257,5«'

1S96..

'95.303.04.!

34,837,448

97,660,009

327,800,499

1897 ■■

408,927,011

35.292,744

103,094,693

344,3'4,448

Totals... $2,473,419,065 619,551,095 1,446,130,415 4.336,093,575

Industrial Jwurance is an important branch
of the fixed premium plan, and includes the
promise for a vveekly premium, generally five cents,
to pay small sums on the death of a child.
This system of insurance was introduced in On-
tario, in 1881, by the North American Life
which issued in that year 3,348 policies for
!5424,837.oo. The Metropolitan Life Insiiraitce
Company of New York issued, in 1885, 1,470
Industrial policies for $166,605.00 ; and in 1887
the London Life be^an issuing similar policies,
granting 3,112 policies for $320,385.00 the
first year. Since 1887 the London Life and

Metropolitan of New Ydik have been the
chief promoters of this chi^s of business, issuing
io,35J policies for $1,016,863 and 36,137 policies
lor $5,367,065 resuectively for the year ending
December 31st, 1^97. At that time the Metro-
politan had 46,425 policies for $5,367,876 and
tiie London Lift, 3o,()i7 policies for $2,816,837
in force. The Sun Life Company has for the
past couple of years been issuing a class of policies,
styleil " Thrift " policies, which are practically
Industrial policies, but, as the piemiuins are
s.iid to be payable yearly, half-yearly or quarterly,
they have thus far been treated as ordin-
ary insurance. The Excelsior Life has also,
during the past year, commenced the issue
of small Dolicies upon the monthly plan,
and the North American also in March, i8ij8.

There is no special Dominion legislation regard-
ing such Insurance. The Inspector of Insurance
for Ontario for the past two years has asked for
special returns regarding policies on the lives of
children, under five and between five and ten
years of age. The Ontario Legislature passed an
Act in 1892 regulating the amounts which may
be insured in the case of children under ten years
of age, and limiting such amounts to $32 on the
death of a child dying under two ye.irsofage,
rising gradually to $147.00 payable on the death
of a child dying between nine and ten years of
age. The intention seems to be to limit the
amount by Parliamentary enactment to a burial
fund. The legislation of Ontario has been sev-
eral times amended, and now stands as deter-
mined by Section 150, sub-sections i to 6 inclus-
ive, of the Ontario Insurance Act, 1897, which,
I believe, is the only special legislation in Canada
affecting Industrial Insurance.

Assessment and Society Insurance on this conti-
nent or Life Insurance on the Assessment Plan,
was first worked in a very limited way by various
secret societies as an incident to the main purpose
of their organization, and consisted of providing
small benefits for the families of their members.
According to the Monetary Times, " it was usually
conducted in the form of a fi.\ed contribution of
one dollar with 10 or 15 cents additional for
expenses from each member on the death of an
associate, and was carried on in the simplest and
least expensive form. This branch of Life Insur-

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOIVKDIA.

333

ance is carried on in Canada at present by six
Canadiim and two United States companies.
The total income of the Canadian companies for
1897 was $2,219,174.27, and of tlie United States
companies $580,054.85 ; tiio expenditure of the
former during the same year was $1,575, 94(3-77
and of the latter $430,568.65." The history of
assessment insurance in Canada seems to have
been a record of disaster in many cases, while so-
ciety insurance, confined to assistance in sickness
or accident, with a small fraternal benefit, has
been a decided success among well-established
fraternal bodies, such as the Masons, Odd Tellows
and Orangemen. There are ninety societies
which report to the Ontario Government.

Probably the oldest existing Canadian Assess-
ment Society pa /ing a substantial sum in the
nature of Life Insurance is the Odd Fellows'
Relief Association of Kingston, Ontario. It com-
menced operations in 1874, and "jeems to have
been conducted with considerable care. It is
only since i8gi that it or any other such Sor-ety
has been obliged to make sworn returns of the
business transacted, to the Provincial Registrar
of Friendly Societies in Toronto. In December,
1891, it had 5,102 contracts in force for $7,164,-
000, and during 1892 had 51 death claims for
$74,000. On December 31st, 1896, it had in
force 9,058 contracts for $12,181,500, and during
the year its death claims were 69 for $94,000, for
which si.x assessments were made. Its Assets
amounted to $109,300.33 and Liabilities to $12,-
coo for claims admitted. An older, similar
Society was the Canadian Masonic Mutual Benefit
Association! of London, Ontario. It was organ-
ized in December, 1870, and failed in 1894. In
1875 it had 2,250 members and the cost of its
insurance was then about $8.00 per 1,000, which
rose to $18.10 in 1885 and to $25.00 in 1893. On
July 19th, 1894, it closed up and tlie $82,686 of
ai)parent assets were jiut in charge of a liquidator.
Its failure developed a number of cases of extreme
hardship.

A much better record, owing mainly to the
large yearly addition of new members and the
consequent under-average mortality, is being
made by the Independent Order of Foresters,
which, like the Masonic Mutual Benefit, also
originated in London. It commenced business

in Ontario in July, 1881, and had on the 31st
December, 1897, 124,625 certificates in force^
promising the payment of $68,750,000 to Cana-
dian members, and $85,760,000 to hoi lers thereof
in other coimtries, or an aggregate of $154,510,-

000. Unlike the Odd Fellows' Relief Association
and the Masonic Mutual Benefit, it was not
limited to the membership of any old Society, but
started a society of its own with branches almost
everywhere in Canada, as well as in the United
States and Great Britain. As is well known,
most of the Fraternal Societies levied monthly
assessments based on the mortality experienced
by the Society from month to month. The

1. O. F. modified this system by ccllecting from
its members, not the current actual monthly
cost of the assurance, but a Level Premium Rate
ceasing at age 70 and varying but slightly from
the actual tabular cost of insurance for the single
year of the age of entry of the member, which
fixed premium rate, in the judgment of the foun-
ders, would always prove sufficient to cover the
actual and uncontrollable increasing cost of insur-
ance. This Level Premium Rate of the I. O. F.
is, as mentioned, about the tabular cost only, as
stated in the mortality table used for the insur-
ance of the single year of entry of the member at
his then age, and remains stationary at that
figure up to age 70, when it ceases, although the
actual net cost of insurance steadily, and especi-
ally after age 50, and to a greater degree after
age 70, rapidly increases, so that the larger
the enrolment of members the heavier must
be the inevitabledisaster,unless all past experience
is unreliable. The I. O.F. was licensed to transact
business in Canada on the ist of May, 1S96, at which
time, it is believed, it had in fo'-ce about $100,000,-
oooon the Endowment plan, nearly all of which was
payable in instalments of one-tenth the amount
named in the certificate, beginning at age 70,
when dues ceased, and continuing for ten years,
unless death occurred within that term, when
the balance would become payable at once. No
adequate attempt has been made to provide for
the payment of such endowments nor for the pay-
ment of half the amount named in the certificate
promised on the member's disablement. On
coming under the in?;urance Act of Canada, I
believe the Order ceased doing business on that.

*''i,l--'

*/,.'*.:

wm

334

CANADA : AN ENCYCLOP.-EUIA.

I!>

r

pl;iii. or at least it was legally prohibited from
doing that class of business under the provision
in Section 39, sub-section lo of the Act, which
states: "No company wldch is authorized to
assure or assures to any of its members a certain
annuity, either immediate or deferred, wiietiier
for life or for a term of years, or any endowment
whatever, shall be eligible for license as an assess-
ment company under the Act." The Special
Act authorizing the Society to become licensed
uniier the Act does not affect in any way tin:
contracts then outstanding, and it is unknown by
the public whether such contracts have been
called in or not. If they are still outstanding, it
would require millions of dollars in hand to be
increased and impnned yearly by several times
tiie regular premium therein stated, to make
proper provision fur the payment of such con-
tracts. Notwithstanding that the Special Act
authorizing the licensing, of this Order to do busi-
ness provides for and requires a statement of assets
and liabilities each year, the last Report of tlie
Dominion Superintendent of Insurance for the
Imsiness of 1896, under the head of " Liabilities
87,725.85" closed with these words "Total
Liabilities, excluding reserves on unmatured bene
fits, which benefits then amounted to $128,791,-
000." This presents the play of Hamlet witli
the part of the Prince of Denmark omitted. The
very serious aspect of excluding proper provision
for the payment of these so-called large un-
matured benefits becomes mure apparent by an
inspection of the preliminary Government Report
for the year 1897, which shows they were, on
December 31st, 1897, $154,510,000, being a
yearly increase of $25,719,000. In the Report
of tlie business for 1896 (see page 566) under the
head of liabilities is included " Present value of un-
paid instalments of old age annuities ($800 per
annum) the sum of $5,934." This seens to show
the Order to be still paying the maturing endow-
ments above referred to. Tlie section of the
Insurance Act of Canada, above quoted, ex-
prissly provides that no assessment company
assuring a certain annuitv either immediate or
deferred, or any Endowment whatever, shall be
eligible for license as an Assessment Company
under the Act.

Under the existing law, therefore, it would

seem clear that the total liabilities of this Order,
instead (il being as stateil by the Chief Officers
of the Order at $89,725.85 on December 31st,
1896, should be several millions of dollars,
whither the outstandi.'-.g certificates be valued as
contracts calling for a limited number of pay-
ments lip to age 70 only or as Endowment
contracts, payable by instalments, nn the mem-
bers attaining age 70 lor such as were in
force at the passing of the special Act. A
magniticent Temple has been built in Toronto by
the I O. E. as a headquarters, and a monthly

William McCabe.

magazine is published, which is now in its eigh-
teenth volume.

The Canadian Order of I'oresters is a much
smaller body than the I. O. I'. It was i.icorpor-
ated December the ist, 1897, and has now about
25,000 members, with over a million dollars of
invested assets. It admits at ages 18 to 45
only on raliis of $7.20 per $1,000 at 25 and
under, and $12.00 at ages 40 to 45, and these
rates "always remain the same and arc not
raised." The Canadian Mutual Aid was organ-

CANADA: AN ENCVCLOl'/KDIA.

335

izecl in Toronto on the assessment system in
1880. Its clain; was that, for oi\e dollar at each
death, insurance for $3,000.00 at ages 18 to 30,
and scaling down to $1,000 at 59 to 60, should
be paid. At tha close ol' 188O it had 3,457
members and an increase of only eight during
18H9, who joined during the year, and soon after
that the Society began to rapidly disintegrate
through increasing mortality. To save some-
thing for themselves or for the members, the
officers turned it over lo the Massachusetts Beiieht
Association, then one of the largest Assessment
organizations in the world, having over 100,000
members. This Association had a deposit of
§100,000.00 at Ottawa, and has since failed most
disastrously. The Provincial Provident Institu-
tion was another very promising Assessment
Society, which flourished at St. Thomas from
1884 to iS(j6. On December 31st, 1S95, it had
7,951 members, carrying $13,067,000 of insur-
ance. It soon after followed the steps of the
Canadian Mutual Aid, being sold out by its
officers to a larger concern from tlie United
States — the Mutual Reserve Fund, of New York.
The rates of tiie Mutual Reserve were $9.75 at
20, $10.65 ^t 30» $13-81 at 40, and $48.00 at 60,
and have since been heavily increased and
even so are not yet up to safety point. The
eight Assessment Societies to which the Covenant
Mutual and the Mutual Reserve belong in the
Ui.ited States, appear to have assets in Canada
of $2,084,670 towards meeting the $132,885,400
of certificates in force, or $2i-o'o lor each $100
thereof.

An important step in advance was made in
Assessment Insurance on the passage ot the
Dominion Act, 49 Victoria, cap. 45, 1886, Sec-
tions 36 to 43, inclusive, regulating Assessment
Life Insurance. Before the passage of this Act
the certificates of companies doing Assessment
Insurance contained onl\' a promise to pay such
sum as niiglit be received from tiie members
under an assessment made on the death of a
member, not exceeding $1,000 or such other
Sinn for which the certificate purported to be
issued.

Section 39, sub-section 8, of the said Act now
provides as follows : " Every certificate and pol-
icy shall contain a promise to pay the whole

amount therein tnentioned, out of the Death
Fund of the Association, and out of the mon'jvs
realized from assessments to be made for tnat
pinpose, and every such Association shall be
bound fortluvith and from time to time to make
assessments to an amount adequate with its other
available funds to pay all obligations created
under any such ccrtiticate or policy witliout de-
duction or abatement." The Report of the Reg-
istrar of Friendly Societies of Ontario shows no
less than ninety P'raternal Societies making offi-
cial annual returns to that office in Toronto.
Most of these provide only for very small bene-
fits in case of sickness or death. The following
are the chief:

Name. Organized.

Chosen 'r''riuiids, Canadian Order of 1887

Foresters, Ancient Order of 1871.

" Canadian Order of 1879

Catholic Order of 1S83

Home Circles, Canadian Order of 1884

Knights of the Maccabees, Supreme Temple . 1883

" Pythias, Supreme Lodge 1864

Odd Fellows Relief Association 1874

Royal Arcanum of Boston, Mass ^^77

Royal Templars of Temperance, Hamilton... 1884
Select Kniglits of Canada, St. Catharines... 1883
United Workman, Ancient Order of 1879

The names of the six Canadian Societies regis-
tered at Ottawa are as toUows :

Catholic Mutual Benefit Society 1880

Colonial Mutual " " 1895

Commercial Travellers' Mutual Benefit 18M

Home Life Association, Toronto 1892

h'oresters. Independent Order of, Toronto... 1S81
Woodmen of the World, London, Ontario... 1893

Whether the Provincial Legislatures have
power to regulate ttie rates to be charged by
Fraternal Societies for Life Insurance contracts,
large or siiudl, is probably an undecided question
as yet. But in the Ontario Insurance Act, 1897,
Sec. 60, sub-section 6, it is provided that " no
Society organized in another Province can do
business in Ontario unless its contracts are free
from all endowment provisions and unless they
provide for collecting at least the rates set forth
in Schedule A of the Act." These rates, whether
monthly or quarterly, or yearly, must be paid in
advance and enough over to cover all expenses.

■ ( 1
V, • I

> .' ,■■ !

■» •. .

■ ■ ,' t I

Pf

33"

CANADA : AN ENCYCLOIMIDIA.

■■ >

■1 I

I J! I,

They coiiiincnce iit a},'u 18 witli $g.86 per $1,000;
at JO with $14.31 ; at 40 wiili $^o.i8 ; at 50 witli
$30.7^ ; and at 55 with $38.94. They are based
upon the experience of tlie Canada Life, but it is
by no means probable that any Society conducted
on the Assessment principle (with liability to
increased assessment driving out healtiiy lives),
would have so light a mortality as that of a
regular insurance company. The element of
encouragement of the best lives to continue, in
the shape of endowments and large profit accu-
mulations, would be wiioliy wanting.

The following table gives the date of the
organization of every Life Insurance Company
now doing business in Canada together with the
date at which Britisii ami American Companies
commenced business :

Establitbetl.

Canadian Companies.

Canada Lite 1847

Confederation 187 1

Dominion Life i88(j

Excelsior i8go

Federal 1882

Great West 1S92

I mperial Life 1897

London Life 1874

Manufacturers 1887

North American 1881

Northern Life 1896

Ontario Mutual 1870

Royal Victoria 1897

Sun Life(Canadian Business) 1871

Temperance and General 1886

Brilish Companies.

British Empire 1847

Commercial Union 1861

Edinburgh Life 1823

Life Association of Scotland 1839

Liverpool and London and Globe 1836

London and Lancashire 18O2

London Assurance 1720

North British 1809

Reliance 1 800

Royal 1^45

Scottish Amicable 1S26

Scottish Provident 1837

Standard 1825

Star 1843

A merici'.i uumpanies.

.^tna Life 1850

Connecticut Mutual 1846

Equitable 1^5')

Germania i860

Metropolitan 1867

Commenced

in

Canada.

1883
1863

1-^57

1857
1851
1863
18G2
1882
1868

1851
1846

1847

1868

1 866

1868
1868

1887
1872

(.'uinillencett
Etlnliliihril. ill

Caiiaila.

American Companies.

Mutual Life 1843 1885

National Life 1850 1869

New York 1845 186.S

North- Western 1858 1871

PhoenixMutual 1851 1866

Provident Savings 1075 1889

Travellers 1863 1865

Union Mutual 1849 1868

United States 11*^50 i'^73

Experience h.>[\\ on this Continent and in
Europe has abundantly shown that *he safe
conduct of Life Insurance business can be secured
only by the observance of the laws deduced from
the mortality experience of insured lives, coupled
with the premium rate based thereon being made
upon a conservative rate of interest. Tiiis forms
a large part of the work of the Actuary, and
every properly managed company has to-day on
its staff an officer having such knowledge. The
Institute of Actuaries of Great Britain and Ire-
land, a few years ago, wisely placed the means of
acquiring this knosvledge within the reach of
young men engaged in Life Insurance in Canada,
by extending its examinations to this country.
Such examinations are held yearly, on the same
papers, in the month of April, simultaneously
with those held in the other Colonies, as well as
in the Mother Country. In the City of Mon-
treal they are under the supervision Ok Mr. R,
W. Tyre, and at Toronto of Messrs. A. G. Ram-
say and William McCabe, both Fellows of the
Institute. Whatever else may be said of Life
Insurance, this much I believe to be undeniably
true, that since the adoption of the law fixing a
standard of solvency, requiring the maintenance
and calculation of a reserve upon the proper
tables of mortality and a conservative rate of in-
terest, there has been no business in the world that
records so few failures as does the system of
regular Life Insurance. I heartily acknowledge
here my great indebtedness in the preparation of
this artic e to the Monetary Times ; to Mr. W. H.
Orr, Manager jEtna Life Insurance Company; to
Mr. J. Howard Hunter, M.A., Inspector of Insur-
ance for Ontario; to Mr. William Ramsay, Manager
of the Si and ard Life; to Sir William Ilingston,
M.n.; and to Mr, A. G. Ramsay, President of the
Canada Life.

CANADA: AN KN( YCLOIM'.DIA.

337

Since the close c'" the furefjoiiig, it is only fair
to say tluit tlie Forester for Dec. I5lh, ifSijiS, tlic
otficiul organ o. the I.O.I'., has appcaruil, an-
nouncing new premium rates pavablu by mem-
bers joining after Jan. I*t, liSyg, and stating that
"no table of ratus which does not give promise
of permanence without 'extra calls' can be
considered as proper for adoption by any Society,
except as a temporary expeilient." Tiie new
rates, which api)ly only to m.w members, are
from 30 to 50 per cent, greater than the rates
called for by the outstanding contracts which
aggregate about one hundred and eij;hty-five
million dollars, to which contracts also are added
the new benefits of: "(4) An Oiil Age Disa-
bility lienefit .... which consists of the pay-
ment to the member hnnself on and after the
age of 70, annually, of one-tenth of the face of
his policy till the whole amount is paid, or in
the event of his prior death the unpaid balance
is paid to his beneficiaries ; (a) also an Old Age
pension beginning at $100 a year at age 70 on a
$1,000 policy, and increasing to $416 per annum
on a fi,ooo policy at age 90; (b) also a fun-
eral benefit of $100 " ; and (5) " IJonus distribu-
tion from time to time to members of seven
years' or more good standing, which benefit even
now (is said to be) in sight."

Comparison is made with the rates (a) known
as the " Fraternal Congress Kates, recently
formulated by some of the ablest men in that
Association; (b) the Hunter Rates; (c) the
Fouse Katts recently prepared for the Ancient
Order of I'oresters " ; and the Forester, ihe offi-
cial organ of the I.O.F"., adds that all these
" minimum rates " are intended simply to pay
for the insurance at the death of the policy-
holder. Their anthers claim there should be no
deduction of any kind whatsoever, not even for
expenses. The matter therefore stands thus —
that for a lower rale than any of the said " min-
imum rates " so far proposed, the I.O.F. under-
takes to give five more benefits than can be
secured under the other rates — (a), (b) and (c)
above. The three other benefits additional to
(4) and (5), already named, are (i) Relief
from further taxation of any kind on Total and
Permanent Disability, which might occur within
a month of one's initiation ; (2) Payment of one-

half of the face of the policy at the end of six
months after Total and Permanent Disability,
which might happen within the first year of
membership; and (j) Relief from further taxa-
tion of any kiml on reaching the age of 70 years.
'\'\\e Forester adds (see p. 171, Dec. 15th, 1S9.S)
" Too mucii emphasis cannot be placed on the
fact that all the rates named other than those of
the I.O.F. are for a whole life policy only — that
is to say, all the policy-holders are obliged to pay
premiums until death, while the policies of the
I.O.I'. carry with them the special beneiit by
which all members cease pa\ing at 70 years of
age."

Omitting the large provision essentially neces-
sary to provide for the payment of OKI Age and
Permanent Disability claims and of Pension and
Funeral bene!;ts, and the payment by instalments
on and after age 70 of the outstanding policies
as at Dec. 31st, i8g8, which the holders of such
policies are relying on, according to their terms,
aggregating about one hundred and eighty-iive
millions of dollars, it is well to contrast the net
rate ceasing at age 70, fixed by the Dominion
Insurance Act for a policy payable at death only,
for $1,000, with the rate of the I.O.F. before the
last change and with the Order's new rate at,
say, ages 30, 40, 50, 54 :

i..\

Asr.

Dominion Govt.

Standard rate.

(Net)

I.O.F. old rates

with all added

benefits.

I.O. F. new rates

with all added

benefits.

3"

16.30

8.64

13.68

40

-'3.85

10.80

20.16

50

.5S.90

50.00

34.SO

54

4<J-5(^

36 00

46.80

Inadequate as the above highest of I.O.F. rates
are when tested by the Government standard,
how much more so are existing rates on tiie large
insurance outstanding of about $185,000,000?
Assuming for 1S98 the same rate of iiicrca.se as
in 1897, will not the new rates prove but a tem-
porary expedient ? How can the scheme as
illustrated by the largest Society under existing
conditions escape resulting in failure and carry-
ing misfortune and disappointment to thousands'?
The trouble is in this, as in almost every other
case of assessment insurance, the rates were
wholly inadequate, and inadequate rates at the
start cannot be cmed by a late reformation.
Tables of mortality based upon experience, almost

■ '. ■,'' I I

:,"r-

33S

CANADA: AN r.NCYCLOr.KDIA.

J '

' I

as unvarying as time itself, have been entirely
disregarded. The Insurance Monitor, in a recent
issue, contains some rcllcctions on the sudden
failure of the Mussachusetts Benefit Association
after having several times increased its rates, not
on new business only, but on its whole business,
which deserve the serious consideration of all
connected with the management or supervision
of the unsound system considered in part of this
article, as illustrated by one of its chief examples:
" For a hundred years we have had mortal-
ity tables. They have been compiled from every
class and condition of people. They all agree in

showing that the rates of those that failed were
ridiculously inadequate. If a captain should put
to sea in a rotten vessel with a shipload of women
and children, and diown half of them, he ought
to be swung from a yardarin. If he were heard
to plead that he had never been to sea before and
did not know his boat was rotten, an extra haul
on the rope that suspended hiin should be taken.
. . . i he failure of a large mercantile house
is a great misfortune, but it is one of the risks
incident to business. The failure of a savings
bank or a life company is generally a crime.
Neither is supposed to be subject to ordinary
business risks, and both are depended on by
helpless families."

J. Herbert Mason.

Fresideiu uf ibc Canada Fermaiieiit Loan Company.

FRATERNAL INSURANCE AND SICK BENEFIT SOCIETIES

JOHN FERGUSON, M.A., M.D.

♦ vi

IN (IculintJ witli a tnatter so largely CaiKuliaii,
it is not necessary to go into the geiier il
liistoiy of fraternal insurance and sick ben-
elit societies. It may be mentioned, in
passing, that in other countries thi'y can claim a
very ancient origin. There were societies for the
relief of the needy in Greece and Rome. They
were mostly of some religious order, or owed
their origin to some supposed Divine inspiration.
They were entirely voluntary. There does not
appear to have been any definite collections or
fixed benefits. They assisted as the occasion
demanded. There was one, however, at a place
some nineteen miles from Rome, with a much
more definite system of business. One rule was
that a new member must give an amphora of
good wine, pay the equivalent of $3.75 and pay
two cents every month. In the event of death
about $11 was allotted for funeral expenses.
There were also fines for fraud.

In the thirteenth century aid was usually dis-
pensed by the Church. Diiring the fourteenth
century, serfdom was breaking up, and the
agricultural classes were forming guilds. The
period of the Reformation was one of the many
changes in the direction of individual fnedoin.
The guilds were mostly destroyed. In their
place, however, arose during the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries various societies of the
collecting class. As an example, take one in
Englaiul where a member paid 2d. weekly to
secure 6s. weekly during sickness. A levy of 6d.
was laid upon the members when a death
occurred. This was paid out as a funeral benefit.
Through various ensuing changes au<l gropings,
societies in Great Britain attained to the great
influence in membership and wealth which they
now possess.

C'jtning to this country, and limiting n:y

remarks for the present to Ontario, I find that
the Canadian Onler of Odd Fellows began
its work of giving endowment benefits in the
year 1.S52. It was followed by the Knights of
P\ tliias in 1870. Next came the Masonic Mutual
Heuefit in 1870, which failed in 1894. The An-
cient Order of Foresters was started in this
country in 1871; the Sons of England and the
Odd Fellows Relief in 1874; the Sons of Scot-
land in 1876; the Royal Arcanum in 1877. The
Canadian Order of Foresters and the United
Workmen began in 1879. The Catholic Mutual
Benefit Association was organized in 1880. The
Independent Order of Foresters began in 1881,
and the Orange Mutual in the same year. In
18S3 several societies came into existence — the
Select Knights, Knights of Maccabees and Catho-
lic Foresters. The Home Circle and the Royal
Templars of Temperance began in 1884, the
Canadian Relief Society in 1886 and the Chosen
Fr'M.':; in 1887.

It ill be seen from the above dates that
though fraternal benefits go as X.ir back as 1852,
the real commencement of this form of insurance
had its beginning about thirty years ago, when
the larger societies took root. Since then the
growt'i has been rapid, especially in Ontario. In
the year 1892 the Ontario Legislature passed an
Act relating to insurance corporations. By this
Act, Friendly Societies are required to make
annual returns of their condition on the 31st of
December of each year. This has been produc-
tive of much good. These scjcietics are now com-
pelled to make a full and explicit statement of
the amount of insurance in force, the amount of
benefits paid, the total receipts and disburse-
ments and other items of importance. This
places before the public a full statement of the
conditions of each societv. Members of these

• 1 j^j, '

.Vt"

CANADA: AN i:\( 'VCI ,()!' Kl >l A.

societies uiul the geiiural public li.isc tlms tlir
material at their conuiiaiid to eiiahlu tiieiii to
form opinions as to tiic relative nn-rits of tin:
various orj,'anizatK)ns. Tiiis Ait has no doiiht
introduced more careful methods, and it also
made the formation of assessment insdraiue
Orders impossible. In i8q8 tiie Quebec Cioverii-
ment passod an Act of much importance. In
addition to calling upon the societies for returns,
it enacti'il a minimum rate, as the lowest that
could be employed with safety. This rate is the
Canada Life's " Experience," which the reader
will find referred to later on. The Dominion
Insurance Act does not enact any special or
strinfjent regnlati(;ns for I'raternal Societies. It
does not fix a minimum safe rate, call for period-
ical valuations, or demand returns of their
financial staM<iing on prescribeil forms. In Man-
itoba and the West, the main fraternal work is
carried on by local branches, courts, camps,
lodges, etc., of the several societies whose head
office is situated in some other Province. This
is to a great extent also true of the Maritime
Provinces.

It is much more tlifficult to collect actual facts
regarding fraternal orders than regarding regular
life companies. For the latter there has been
for many years the annual Report issued by the
Insurance Department at Ottawa. From these
Reports tlie growth of regular insurance com-
panies can be readily traced. Such returns have
not been asked from the fraternal oniers, nor has
there been issuad an aimual rejiort, as in the
case of tlie regular c(jmpanies. The Province of
Ontario is tiio only exception to this. For a
numl)er of years, Dr. J. Howard Hunter, the able
Inspector of Insurance and Registrar of Friendly
Societies for the Pr(jviuce, has called for full
returns from the societies, and has regularly issued
a comiinlieiisive annual Report. Judging by the
importance of the subject, it is to be ho|)etl tiiat
the other Provinces will lose no time in demand-
ing returns from the societies within their limits,
and issuing complete annual reports.

Two or three fraternal societies, the Independ-
ent Order of Foresters, the Ancient Order of
Foresters and the Catholic Mutual Benefit, have
Dominion incorporation. It is quite impossible
to obtain complete information upon the volume

(if tiiese soc;ieti('s' woi k, as many of them, in
Milking their returns, include tiuir business in
tiie United Stat(;s as well as Canada, and one,
the I.O.I*"., gives its membership, collect ions, etc.,
in Britain also. Taking the Ontario returns for
the year l8(j8, the following totals, compile<l by
carefully collecting the several itiMiis from the
respective societies, will give some idea of the
extent to which these Orders have pressed tliem-
selvi's into public favour :

Amount of Insurance in force $950,419,911

Number of Members 557.313

.Amount of Insurance paid in one year $8,984,524

Sick Beuefus paid in one year $259,983

Total Receipts for the year $11,143,324

Total Assets $4,794,532

The feature in the above summary that attracts
most attention, because by far the most impor-
tant, is that the assets on hand and the yearly
receipts are so small as compared with the con-
tracts in force and the amounts paid in benefits.
This cleaily points to the fact that, in
the grand aggregate, these societies are not
laying by enough money in proportion to
their growth in size and to the mortality
experienced. At this rate of gain in assets
their mortality may overtake their income, when,
of course, the assets on hand would rapidly
disappear. As members enter these societies at
an average of 35 yeirs of age, the premiums paid
by the members should average at least that due
to this age. For the above amount of insurance
in force, this would call for the payment by the
members of about $15,000,000 in premiums, to
be used only in the payment of death claims and
for accumulating the proper reserve. The actual
total for all purposes, however, was but little over
$ii,oco,ooo, as shown above. This, of course,
is on the assumption that a premium charge,
such as that prepared by the National Fraternal
Congress, was employed instead of such rates as
quoted in the table of rates from a number of the
societies. The average premium of the societies
for the age 35 is between $10 and $11, whereas,
according to the experiences of the Canada Life
and the National Fraternal Congress, the rate
should be between $16 and $17. All working ex-
penses must be an extra charge. It might be
well here to call attention to the fact that many

(. i

CANADA: AN KNCYCLOIMIDIA.

34t

fraternal ordeiH return their unliru Ixisnicss in
the annual reports. All those societies, doiuK
business outside of Canathi, siiould he n impelled
to make separate returns, clearly po ntinj^out the
portion that is Canadian, as apart from that
which is American or Hritish. It is impossible
to obtain tile Statistics for the otiirr Provinces, as
there are no Provincial returns as )ct. It m ly be
mentioned, however, that the Orders doing busi-
ness in thein arc the same as those ref,'istereil
under the Ontario Act. The returns for the
latter Province will therefore practically cover
the whole ground.

The Rates. This is a very im|)ortaiit iiiatti;r in
the management of biMielit societies, whether
they grant insurance or sick beiielits, or both.
In the organi;{ation of maii\-, indeed most,
societies of the friendly and fraternal cliaracter,
the question of the rates that ought to be collected
in order to enable them to pay their claims, and
maintain a solvent condition, was not sufficiently
considered. It was thought quite enough to
make an assessment upon the iiieiiibc is when
money was reciiiired to pay claims that had
matured, either by the death or by the sickness
of the nieinhers. This constituted what was
known as " the post-mortem assessment plan."
As time went on it was found not to work well.
It wa? a uiiivers.il e.xjierieuce in all the socit^ties,
as they grew older, that death and sickness rates
advanced. This gave rise to the necessity for more
frequent calls, and the effect of tliese frequent
calls was to render the societies unpopular
amongst the younger and healthier members.
These voluntarily withdrew, and their places
could not be replaced by recruits from the
healthy young men of the community at large.
These facts had the effect of converting the
societies into old men's societies, with very
heavy rates of both death and sickness. In
course of time the members were unable to keep
up their payments and consequently the societies
so conducted wire discontinued.

It became apparent that this ni(;th()il must be
abandoned. To overcome the weakness of the
system, those having charge of fraternal insurance
societies advised the members under their con-
trol to adopt the plan of making regular calls —
say every month. The rate usually selected for

this purpose was the natural premium one of tho
American Experience T.ibie, the Hritish com-
bineil I''xperieiice Table oi the Healthy Mala
Lives Experience of Hritish Companies. In
selecting these rates, perfectly correct in them-
selves, tho societies made, however, the serious
mistake of applying, to llu: whole term of life,
rates that were calculated as only adecjuate for
one year. It isa ilistinctive feature of tho natural
premium rates that tiny should advance, year by
year, as the member becomes older. Later cx-
perii.'iice has shown that the death rate, as esti-
mated by these tables, has not, however, been
fully realised. This fact has enabled the societies,
working under these rates, to accumulate a fund
of money on hand and this fund is regarded by
many as a surplus. It is not. A surplus is only
such sum as may be on h.aiid after all liabilities
are provided for, including the very important
one of a proper reserve, as <'"termined by one or
other of the plans of valuation now recognized by
actuaries.

The variety of premium rates charged by Cana-
dian fraternal societies is sul'ticiently numerous
to show that there has not been any common
principle in their calculation. This, of course,
indicates a haphazard method adopted by the
founders of these societies. For every dollar of
insurance or sick-benefit promised a member,
there ought to be a proper and fixed income. If
the societies give insurance, payable at death
onI\-, the collections should be equal. If the)-
undertake to give endowments of a simdar kind,
the charges again should be equal. In addition
to the British Healthy Male Table, and the rates
deduced from it, we have now three others of
very great importance, because they are recent,
and give Canadian and American experience.
The Canadian table of mortality was calculated
from the result of the operations of the Canada
Life Assurance Company for a period of forty-seven
years. The other two experiences are that pre-
pared by L, G. Fouse from American Assessment
Society operations and the one which was pub-
lished in iStjSby the National iMaternal Congress
of the United States. The membershipofthis Con-
gress included many Canadian organizations, as for
example the Independent Foresters, the Wood-
men of the World, the Royal Arcanum, the

•.1 I

34 a

CANADA: A\ I.\<V(|,()IM:I)1 A.

i.

1' '
1 :

I.'

'7

.

'

>

Kiii;,'lil.s i>f ilii: Miiccalnx's, iiii<l sonu' <itlifi!j.
This csiKMiciu .' \v )iil(| 1)0 ii >,'(iin| (iiiu for C'.ma-
(Jiaii societies tu fouiil tlu'ii' wmk tipnii. In order
to rnaku tins matter of rates clear it is nuccsmiry
to quote tliein fully. Tliuratu uf inlerust alloweil
in tlio tablrs usitl for comparison is four per
cent, on all accumulation-;. Tlic other rates of
pretiiiuin cliarj^'u are ^iven n3 examples of tiiost!
ailoptiil by Canailiaii societies, vi/., the Iiule-
pciuKut OriK r of I'ort'sters, the Sons of Scollaiid,
the Ancient Order of Foresters, tiio WorkuK n,
the Odd Fellows Relief, the Maccabees and the
Sons of Enj:[land. Neither sets of tables are car-
ried beyond the a^e of fil't) live, as societies do
not, with few exeiptions, admit members at
greater a},'es. It will be readily understood that
the rate of mortality increases as theafjes increase.
These rates are estimated to meet present and
future mortalitv :

TAin.i'. No. J,

T.AHLi'; No. I,

The h.ilr |.rf
uar«l by I.. ()

Hilti«li 11

pallhv

('

tnvtfl 1

l.lff

Nnii

tnal Kruterriiil

Vonti!

(tn Anier.

M.il."

1' iji^riftu ■ .

CHUjr. N

i> all

.Minul

Underwriter*'

A«%oc(aliuii.

8

3

i

^ m

I

it

i

is

4

X

X

n

L

^

It ■■

ii.;t2ii

Ti

J12.1.'>

<

20

m
h

u

<

20

"f

u

<
20

J=

20

4 (127

$10113

,').0OII

$10(12

$10:17

21

t! 7J.1

12 70

21

4,(111,')

io.:i2

21

.'>,(I.T2

10.(12

21

10 (12

2-.'

tiTU

1:1 13

■22

4.7011

10 (12

22

.VINIM

10 02

22

10 80

2:1

It Tlil

13 18

2:1

4,7.VJ

lll."3

2;"i

.'• 108

11.21

•j;|

II 18

2t

« IHll

13.87

24

4,8113

1 1 2(1

21

5.1.V2

11 ,17

24

II 1;

25

11 lillii

1128

25

4,8,'«8

11 111

2,^

.').202

11.02

25

1178

■M

li,ii-.-|

14.72

26

4,1»2U

11.0;

2(1

i,i>7

1228

20

12 11

27

i;!Ni4

1.V19

27

4,087

r2.:ii>

27

,'>.31U

12 117

27

12 15

2X

7.172

1,-. 117

28

.l.otlO

127(1

28

5,387

i:i.08

18

12 81

2U

7 4:i;i

1U17

20

.'-■III

13 10

2«

5,4IU

13 51

20

13 10

:io

7,7;'3

111 lai

:io

.1 2:i,->

13 (U

■M

o,.')!!!

13%

:iil

l.iM

31

7 017

172:t

31

.'>,33.i

11 11

31

.1,(114

14.43

31

ItlKi

»>

8,111.-1

17 80

3i

.141.'>

mil

.32

5,7.'iO

i4.m

;t2

11 17

33

«,2H.5

IS. 10

33

r,.M^

I,'.. 13

;i;i

.'1,8(17

1.VI7

:)3

11.01

3t

H .i04

10.03

31

,'>7ii2

I.-i (10

31

5,000

i(iii:i

:14

1.1.43

:vt

8 774

lli.tljl

3.)

,') 8.'iO

11127

:t,-i

B.IKI

Id (12

;ii

15 0(1

m

11, lint

20 .'W

;u>

11013

1(1..S0

■Mi

(i,:io.8

17.21

Mi

111.12

37

!l (1)1

21 II

37

(i,lll3

17 .'.l

37

11, 400

17,00

37

17 10

3n

0.780

2187

.38

(i :iiii

18 22

:i8

(1.(102

18(1(1

;«

17.72

;«)

10 OH'.'

22(17

;«i

li.dIO

18 O,-.

:i!i

(1.018

10.31

30

18.113

40

II Ml 1)

2 1.VJ

40

« 8.V2

10.72

40

7 170

21111

40

10.0(1

41

111 1S7

21 12

41

7.118

2(1 .fct

41

7 4.'iO

211.0:1

41

10 70

4i

107:11

2).3S

12

7,1111

2l.:w

42

7 7(12

21.80

42

2ii.,-|(l

43

ii.r-'7

20.10

43

7.7:1.-.

22 20

43

8 1111

22.72

4:1

il.:H

41

1I..V.()

27.1:1

41

8.001

'. :i.2.i

41

8 107

Siiio

41

22 41

45

]2 1!I2

28 (W

tr,

8,181

2 1 27

|."i

8 87.'i

21.72

45

2310

411

I.'.OIO

20 87

411

8 018

2.'i.:iO

111

0,202

2.1.81

4(1

24 13

47

13.7IIJ

31.1.-.

47

0 :i:i:!

211 10

17

0 7.-.:i

2(1.01

47

ii 15

4M

11.110

32. ID

IS

0.0.'2

27 71

48

111.211:1

28 20

48

2B.2,')

4!)

l.-i.-_>-.'0

XIOl

40

lll,.Ml3

28 00

I'.l

10 827

■/y..ii

4!t

27.10

flo

l.'i.iliO

;ci. 12

.'>!)

11 113

:iii:i(i

.'i P

ll.l.'il

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28.li:i

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ltJ.fl70

3, -.112

,M

11 810

31 si

,-.1

12,111

:t2.:io

51

2U.03

r>'i

17 .'ilO

3^73

.'I'J

r-Mi-ii

:i:i.:t.-i

fp2

12.0 '3

:i:i.07

.12

31. .12

!>:i

IS.I'iOll

411 M

r.M

13 182

Xl OH

,V1

13.717

3.101

,'kl

32M1

!>i

10 731

42. II

'.I

11 12(1

:iii 7 1

.11

11.070

37 1,-.

51

3l.:ill

J5

21 OXI

4l.,-rfi

;V>

l.'i, IU(i

38. Bo

•Vi

15,710

;to.:t(i

:V.

;iii 1)5

The f(jllowinf,' flj,Mires give the amount char},'ed
by a number of well-known (*;inadian fraternal
societies at certain specified ages :

21
22
2
21

2.1
2il
"i

28
20

:io

31

•lil
31
3.1

:m
37
:ii
:to

40

41
42
43
41
45

Id
4;

48
4U
.10
Al
.12
.VI
51

7 II

7.<l
7(IM
7H0
701

8 01
8 III
8 28
N 10
8.V2
M7U
Olio
1)24
OIH
0.72

lum

10 '20
1011
10.08
10.02

11 m
11.10

11.01

11.88
12 12
i2:iu
uiki

1281
13 08
l».:i-i

11

0 18
0 iJ
11.01

III 20
II.KI

10 02

11 111

ii.ni

12(10

ij:«i

12 81

1:1:12
1:1 81

I I '20
11:17

IV 21
1572

III 12
10.02
17.(11
18 21
18.03
10 8(1
'20. .12
21.3(1

J y i

i'Tiji h

OdO
0 81

M.I18

io.:i2

I ISO

II .'8

1 1 7ll

12 2.1
12 72
1 1. '21 1

i:iii8
II. Id
11.111
I.VI2

15 81

Id. '41

17.28
ISOU
ls.72
10 11
'20 Id
21.12
'22 08
'2:1111

2I1HI

24 0.1
'211. IB
•27 81
:iO.(HI
3240

:u.8u

.'17.20

mou

4tl.M0

7 '20

7 '.ll
7. '20
l-M
7 '20

8 III
8.10
8 10
8 Id
8 III
0.0(1
0.110
IMm
Olio
Olio
omi
oim

0(K.
Olid

o.do

III 80
lilSO
III .Sll
10 80
10 80
12.(111

8.711
8 70
8.7(1
8,82
8 01
IMii
Oii«l
0 12
0.18

ii.:iii
0. 12
0.11

OIUI
081
0 0(1
10 08
I0'2(l
10 M
111 ,10
10118

10 0'2

11.10

1 1 '28
1 1 52

11 88

12 IS
12(10

i:r2o
i:is(i

It7u

4. 80
18(1
I 811
I 80
4 8(1
Mo
5. 10
.1 10
5..1O

A. 10

flim

BlHI
Boo

l.llll

OIK)

7 -'0
7 20
7 20
7 JO
7.'20
0(Ni
0.110
llliO
0 00
011(1
1080

lotto

10 80
III8O
12IKI
12 (Nl

1.1.00

18 00
■24 (lU
30 00

dm

dOll

diio

dINI

doo

(100

uoo

II INI
BOO
B.OII
(Kill
(1(10
IIIUI
BdO
(Kin
7'2il
7 20
7 '20

7 211
7 '20
N. 10

8 111
N 10
8 10
8 III

111 '20
111 20
III '20
111 '20
HI '20
10 .0

Another jioint ol great importance in the study
of mortality rates is to note carefully that, if tiie
death-rate is low in the earlier yearj of life, it
must be higher in the older ages. All who live
past mid-life must increase the number of aged
persons, and, as all must die, the mortality will be
heavier under such conditions. Thus it is clear
that in a healthy country, where the mortality is
light among those from twenty to fifty years of
age, it becomes high afterwards. While discuss-
ing the question of premium rates for insurance
it is necessary to explain what is meant by a level
rate. In the management of insurance a rate
may be chosen for a given age that is not adequate
for the whole life. Such a rate would require,
from time to time, to be increased. This is the
na; ur:il premium phin. In the case of a level rate
no stich advances in the ch;iiges are made as the
person beconus older. The rate is fi.M.'d at such
an amount for e;uli age as is fully e.vpecled to
carry the insurance to the end of life. This
means that, while the member is young, lie is
c.illed upon to pay more than is required to meet
claims. These extra payments on his part form
a reserve fund which obviates the necessity of
r.iisiiig his premiums as he becomes old. In
other words, it places the heavier end of the

CANADA ; AN I'.NClVt I.OIM.DIA.

343

burden on the; younf^tir ami inoro wiij;i:-c'arninj,'
yeurs of lilc so that llic non-prodiictivt; |)»!iiii(l nf
old u^'u ni.iy bu tclu^vtd. 'I'lns is wise ; iinl most
fraternal orders aru taking steps to a(|i>|it such a
nittlioil. A f^laniu It thi; prciiiiiiui rules, as \nv
pared frciin tlio c\prriem:e of Ihi; Ciiutda Life,
the National i'raterual Cun^'iess and tlie Mntii.d
Assessment Companies, shows a very dose
similarity. 'V\\ry vary very little at any f,'i\t ii
af,'e. On the other hand, the rates, as (]uoii d
from a nuud)er of Canadian societies doin^' busi-
ness, contain the most remarkable differences.
The only Conclusion one can come to upon this
(piestion is that tluse rates wt-rc prepare I by per-
sons who did not understand the subjeet. The
rates now usetl by the luilependent Order of
Foresters are nearly the saiiu; as thost; deduccni
from the mortality of the Caitiula Life anil the
experience of the National I'raternal Conj^ress.
It should b(! nieiitioued that the I.O.I', rates, as
now uscil, are of recent date, beiu^; adopted at
the last Triennial Meetinj^ in iSq.S,

Liifyscs. This aspect of fraternal insurance has
always occupied a larfje share of attention. Much
has been said about the matter that is (p.iile er-
roneous. It was supposed that a society could
grow rich on its lapses, and by securin^j new
members obtain a perennial existence. This
theory has been fully exploded. If the society was
of the kind which made calls when money
was required, nothing was gained by the lapse of
a member, as he left nothing behind him in the
treasury. Besides, it is almost certain that he
would be healthy and young, as it is among these
that lapses are met with. The new member who
took his place brouf,'lit the same risk of death
and siikness that his st'cediiig predecessor had
placed upon the order. In other societies, where
there is a re.i^ular rate char^jed and collected, say
every month, if this rate is more than sufficient
to meet current death claims, then the lapsing
member would leave some money behind him
in the hamls of the society. lint, if the ratechari,'-
cd was not an adequate one, there would still be
some loss due to the secession of the member.
There is aderniite cost for a given amount of in-
surance; and, if the member has not paid this, he
creates a loss by his withdrawal, even though he
leaves some nnuseil money with tiie society.

ThiiH it is quite clear that alt who pay too small
a premium for their insurance cause a loss when
they withdiaw. In the c.iso of those who pay a
pioper amount into the funds for their insurance,
there is nolosstnade by their Hecession ; but thciu
is nothing gained. They were j) lyiiiga proper rale
a'lil ail that tluir successors can do is to pay a
proper rate. The rato paid and the reserve ac-
ciiiiiiil.iled arc just as ample for the oUI member
as lor the youiig. In one sense lapsation is always
a loss. It is a matter of veiy thorough e.speri-
( lice that only those who regard themselves as in
good health withdraw. This tends to raise the
lie iih rate among tiie remaining members. It is
tliiisplainth.it witlulrawals cause a dinibic loss
in all cases where the premiums are too low — the
loss of healthy members and the money loss due
to carrying tiii.'ir insurance too cheaply. In the
case of a society with a proper system of charges
there is always the loss due to the .secession of
healthy yoiiiig ir.embers. Within recent years, a
school of actual ies has arisen with the object in
view of taking advantage of the lapses in advance.
Hy this method of calculating the premiums it is
claimed that these can bo considerably reduced
while at the same time maintaining the proper
reserve. This method of calculating the premi-
ums for societies is <piite correct if the future
l.-jjse rate can be known in advance. It is not
possible to determine the lapse rate with the same
precision as the death rate. Unless the lapse
rate can be determined, it mij^ht prove a very
dangerous experiment to make it one of the
factors in the calculation of the premiums. It is
contended, however, by Mr L. G. Fouse and
others, that the observations made on large num-
bers, over lengthy perioils, ei.able us to approxi-
mate very closely to the lapse rate, and scale
down the premium accordingly, hy this school of
actuaries, the right is reserved to make a special
call upon the members, if the premiums should
prove insntticient. This admits tliat they are not
perfectly sine of their ground.

Instead of counting the lapses in advance, it is
held by many that the better plan for fraternal
orders would be to charge the full level rate, as
estimated from soiiio such experience as that of
the (\iihida Lift'. Tlie advantage of this method
is that, when a ineiiihcr withdraws from the

r"

U)

CANADA: AN KNCIYCLOI'-KDIA.

\

fliK-ifty, it can afToKl tn^'ivn liiiii a c.ihIi siiri(<ii<l<-r
value. Tin; ar^iitnciit tlicii lies liolAceii tlu; tw>>
poHitiuns — paying; a lower preiniiini witlmut casli
Burreiulcr value and with tlio risk of urcasional
spicial Itjvies, or pa\ injj a Injjhcr preiniiiin witli .i
casli siHTcndcr valiiu and no \\^k of special Irvies.
Tho latter position is certainly tliu snfer ; and
safety ia thu principal clement in all foiins of
insnranee. 'Plu! opinion of Mr. (i. I''. Ilaid\ , tin;
eiMineiil lCn^li->li aetiiaiy, who liis^is'i-n so nnieli
K<iod niK'ieo to friendly societies, should be kept
Will in mind. He states tli.it theiu is no i)t)jcc.
tion to takin;^' diiu account of l.ipscs in niakiii;^'
lip the financial statement of any society, hia
that the greatest euro is reipiin d if tiie attempt
he niaile in advance, as thiie an: c.o niiiiy con-
tingencies iiponwhiclilapsation ilcpeiiils. Iiispeak-
ingof tlie(,':iin to societicscollect iiij; a proi)er pre-
•ninni he remarks: " In tho majority of societies
ira the meiiihcrship is lar;,'e, it will be found
'i, liieert'ect of such seifssion is imt material, in
consequiiice of their absolute cessation before
the oiler af,'cs are readied." Then aijain he
makes the statement that, where the iiioiiie is
tiie proper anu)unt, "a constant lapse rate of one
|)ir C(Mit. per annum at all aj^es is equivalent to
an increase of onei)cr cent, in the rate of interest."
Hut it has already been siiown that when the
premiumsare lower than thccostof insurance there
is always a loss by secessions. Taiiiiii,' at random
a number of I'raternal Societies opcratin.,' in Can-
ada, and haviiifj a total iiiiuraiico in force
amonntiiif^ to §9.24,8^1,750, it is found that the
lapses in contracts for the year amounted to
$29,734,075. This was sli^^'hlly above three per
cent, of the contracts in (oice. Many of these
lapses only pass from one society to another.

Wilitatidis. 15y this is meant the inakinj^f of such
an iiis|)ei,;:'ii of the business of an insurance
society, or com|-iiiy, as will enable its officers to
know whether the reserve on hand is suflicient;
and if the preminiii., collected arc capable of pay-
in<; claims, and maintaininf^ the reserve up to a
proper standard. Valuations have not been made
in Canadian fraternal orders, with two except-
ions— the Ancient Order of Forest(.'rs, and the
Sons of Scotland. The effect was in these two
cases to show that, althout:jh they h ul consid-
erable funds on hand, they had not tiie requisite

amount ; and, ••onHcqiieiitly, ther<'w,isan impair-
ment in tliu icstuve. Willie spe.kkin^' of reserves,
it ni.iy be well to dispose of tim view, too often
held, that they are acciimul.itions taken from thu
members in exc(!ss of what is rc<]uired. Geort,'o
I). ICIdriili^e has done much ^ood to societies by
showing that reserves aro for the p.iymeiit of
future and deferr>-d death claims. It is a mortal-
ity fund. This t^wc rise to the e.xpressiMH, com-
mon a few years a^'o of " make assessments and
keep tho reserves in your pockets." This is
almost abandoned and c.innot be abandoned too
soon for the good of all fraternal societies. It is
now almost universally atlmitted th.it a reserve
fund is recpiired; and one would think that it
would be c(|iially admitted that a proper leserve
fiiiiil should always be on hand. The only wav
of determining this point is by making regular
and careful valuations. It is not cnoiightli.it the
piemiiiin rates be adecpiate. The diffeience be-
tween what is needed for cl.iims, and the income,
must be invisted at four per cent., otherwise a
sufficient premium would not accumulate the
necessary reserve.

With reganl to valuations the condition in
Canada and Ikitain is quite different. In Hrit-
ain the Chief Re<,'isirar must, by law, publish and
distribute among friendly societies forms of ac-
count, balance sheets and valuations. He must
also calculate safe and proper tables for societies;
but the ado, >tii>ii of these tables is left opti(Jiial.
They are intended to be guides. In cases where
societies grant annuities, present or deferred, the
tables used by them must be certilied as correct
by a Government actuary, or some actuary ap-
jiioved by the Treasury. If this be not complied
with registration is refused such societies. All
registeied societies must make a valuation evtrry
live yeais. This must be done by some one
wlioi.e certificate the Government officials will
accept. The .e regular valuations soon decide the
otiuT aspect of tho case, viz., the income. If this
be not siiffi ieiit, or improperly invested, the re-
set ve will not be on hand when these valuations
are 111 ule. In Canada valuations are not com-
pulsory upon registi-r. The business done by fra-
ternal orders is now so enormous and such a large
number of p,.'i'soiis, whose insurance protection
may bo entirely carried in tlicni, are so deeply

CANADA : AN KNCYCI.OIMIDIA

M3

intfrcstud ill tiicse Hocictics tliat it ii (|iiit() pioli-
ubic tliat till! Ciovt'iiiiiiL'tit iii.iy enact Icj^'islatiMii
■iiiiihir to tluit ill folic in Hrituiii. In llio lattrr
country tlu! valuer iiiiiHt Htuto tlu! tablu ho uiii-
ploynl 1111(1 tlio rati! of iiiteirrst lio allnvviil. IT;
must also htato iiiiplinlly tliu Kott of txMiclitH
i;ruiitutl by tliu Hociuty, Huch us HickiiesH allowaiicc,
iiisiiratKu LMidowinciits, annuitii:s, fiiiu ral, or
other btruflits. This reinliMH the prriodiral valiia-
titiii of Ihilish reKislerctl societies very string-
cut ami exacting.

Ai I Hilling to calculations kimlly niriiishc<l me
hy Ml. Thomas Lawless, one of the chief otiicials
of the Iiiih pciKUnt Order of I'oresteis, there was
in iSt)i an approxinuito total uf #185,000,000
of fratt iiial assin.iiice in fon u in ('.mad 1. ]\y
ihe 31st Deiemher, l>"Si)7, he places the sum
total at §450,000,000 — surely a most si^iiiticant
anil iiiijxii tant increasi:. This total illustiatis the
stateiiunt wliich I have previously mailo re^jaid-
iii^ the $i,jo,oo(),ooo of fraternal assurame re-
ported to the Ontario Department by Companies
opiratiiif,' in both Canada and the l.'iiited States.
Oiu:-half tlu; amount is eviileiitly American
business. The tables f,'iven below, and for
which I am also indebted to Mr. Lawless,
imlicate in snmc measure the progress oftlitse
societies. Some preliminary explanation of their
individual scope will, however, be in order. The
LO F. was establisheil in 1S74 as a death assess-
nu'ut society but n'ally dates fioin its re-or^'ini-
2ation by Dr. Oronhyatekha, in i^Ni, whin it
abandoned that scheme and adopted a plan which
combined the level i)remiiim, and to a limited
extuit the natural premium plan, with the rij,'ht
in certain coiitiuf^encies to levy extra assessments.
It undertakes mortuary, total and permanent
disability, old af;e, sick and funeral benefits and
admits females to membership. The total bene-
fits given below do not include those paid by
subordinate courts which, with the sums paid
before n-orpanization, amounted on Dcceml)er
31st, iS(j8, to a total of $6,180,045. At the same
time there was a surj)lus or reserve fund of
$3,129,452.

The Canadian Order of I'oresters undertakes
mortuary, sick and funeral assurance beiielitsand
has a graded scale of assessments collected
monthlv in ailvance. Tlie Canadian Order of

0 Id l''cllows, for many years after its orKani/ ition
in 185.!, conliiii'd itself to sick and fui^eral beiie>
fits and a widows mul orphans' fund. It has
lately added cndownteiit and mortuary assurance
beiielits. in the fi;,'iiieH jjiveii below, its opera-
tions in Ihitisii C'<ihimlMa sun u iSSi^, when a
tiioii^and tnetnbeiH formed a separate Pro-
viiuial Ciraiid Lnd^'e, are not iuchuled. The
Independent Order of Odd I'"i llows which coin-
iiieiii I'd busine>^s in Oiitaiio in the early fifties
carries on its mortuary beiielits iin<iiT the con-
trol of an au.viliary society kii'iwn as the Relief
Association, which commenced operations in
1874. The Kiii;^lits of Pythias is an American
Order, combimii^ fraternal relief and assurance
with soci.d and military features. It was intro-
duced into Canada in 1870 and its insurance
branch was established in 1877. The Canadian
Order of Chosen Friends was orpaiiixed in 1877
and undertakes mortuary assurance and sick
benefits. Its membership is np( n to females.
The Order of Canadian Ilnnu; Circles was
formed and incorporated in 1884 and its functions
are similar to those of the precedinj^ Older.
The A. O. r. \V. commenced business in (Onta-
rio ill 1871). The fi,;iues given below refer to its
biisiiK:ss ill that Province. Since i8(j2 the mem-
bership in .Manitoba has increased from l,.i ',5 to
3.|}l in lSi)7, and the beiietits paid there from
$j,ooo to $40,000. The Sons of En!,'laiid Hen-
evoli lit Soe-iety w,\s or^'aiii/ed in 1874 for pin-
poses of a national and social character, with the
addition of sick benettts and medical attemlance.
Its ordinary membership was 1,079 in iSSi with
$1,150 of sick benefits, and 12,048 in 1897 with
ijjj, .264.1^ paid in sick benefits. In the Heiiefi-
ciaryDepartnieut it had 130 members in i8S4,and
2,526 in i8(j7 with a total amount paitl out of
1143,804. Of course, the limitation of member-
ship ill societies of this nature to those of some
particular cieed or race, is an obstacle in the way
of l.ii^jo returns. The Ancient Order of Foresters
has in Great Britain a nuinbership of some 900,-
000, and a yearly expenditure of §4, 500,000. The
li;,'ures given below relate to Canada alone, and
include sick benefits and funeral fund only. Its
Heneficiaiy Fund in 1893 had 1081 members,
with an expenditure of $8,000.00, and in 189S,
1075 members, with an expenditure of $''1,5)0.00.

*'l

''■:'!

'^1

34«^

'' ;

w-m

11'-
I'
I'

iNi>i;iM.Ni>i.N I' (luni'.K oi i-tiKi.sri:KS.

Year. ' Membership. Henelils paid.

iSSl I.OKJ $ I,J(10,00

l8gi i,i.i4 ■^lu,.\:,(>.ji

IN97 124,085 iJi)2,2^^.Go

Tot.il Heiictitspaid. lScSi-iS()7, $4. 54(). 21^.05.

CAN.MW. .W KNCVCI.()I'.'KI)I,\.

Year. Memlieikhip.

IleneCls paid.

1884 157.1.5.5 357<(^97-^7

i8()4 450,i)<)4 1.245.-9.5.5-

i8')7 4()8,j()(j 1. 264,461. .51

Total Relief granted, 1864-1897, ^16, .548,5-15.1 5.
KNK.ins oi' I'VTiiiAS (Iiisiiiaiici! Depart incut.)

CAN.MU AN ()Kl>i:K ol

OK

l-.STl'.US.

Year.

Membership.

Uenctils paid.

1878

6,416

$ 10,517.00

\ ear.

Membership.

Benefi s paid.

1888

i7.-:<'4

4(J(J,(J20.00

18S0

.S,o

* 5.S38-5"

i8()8

5-'.5.ii

1,120,521.04

1 8(jo

Io,2>'>2

51,800.00

'rctal 111

III

Ills p.iiil, 1S78-1

N()8, ,*» 12, 161,96

i8()7

27.105

i.ji,9S6.42

Total liciielits p.ii.l, lN8()-i>S97, !?1, 008,1^2.52.

CANADIAN OKDl-.U Ol' (IPD I KI.LOW S.

\ear.

1852
1S72
18S5
1897

Membership.

191
2,JOO

3,808

Uenelits paid.

!? 182.50
2,050.90

8,27o.S5
5,022.63

(ANADIAN (IKDI.K i 'I' iKdSl.N l-KIENDS.

Year. Membership. Henetits paid.

1807 175 $ 1,092.40

1S97 15.1^-7 113,505.60

Total lieiielits jiaid, lSS7-i.S(i7, $485.33^75.

(IKIH-.K 111' lA.NAIUAN lIOMls CIKeLl.S..'

Total Bcneiits pan!, i852-i8()7, $146,888

INDKl'KNI'l.N r OUDHK ol' (MU) II-. I. LOW S.
Year.

Msmbcrship.

1856 6.'5

1866 647

1876 II,J-22

1886 14.847

1897 ^^74-i

Henefits paid.

$ 299.00

1,239.00

19,403.20

47.507.1.5
82,618.89

Year.

18S5

1897

Membership.

10,174
10,614

Benefits paid.

$ 2,365.30
111,000.00
156,646.46

Total Bfiietif. paid, i''56 1897, $1,213,906.11.

onn I'KLi.ows Ki'.i.ii-:!' associatkln.
Year. Meml>ershi.). bene'"ils i;aid,

Total Benefits paid, i885-i8()7, $966,531.22.
ANcni-Nr ()ui):.K of unitkd wokkmkn.

Benelils paid.

$ r 2,000.00

286,000.00
1,493.742.8.,

Total Benefits paid, 1880-1897, $4,460,092.99.

ANCll-.NT ')U1)I-.K OI' l'OUi;S'rKl<S.

Year.

Meml>ership

1880

3.208

i8()o

22,413

1S97

.':i.Q,54

1873
1385

2.I.S7

#^

1,400 00
14.500.G1

^•ear.

Membership.

li.'nefi s paid.

1895

Kv/^

7(1, 500.00

1881

i.9.}8

$10,000.00

1897

9'5.~i

68,000.00

1891

10,606

53,030.00

^t il Benefit-

p^iid.

i'^7 5-

;S()7

. SO55.83/

.00.

i^()8

15.7-29

64,945.00

K':;u;hts 01 rvriilAS (Relief Departineiit).

Year.

iS6f
187 I

MtrlplxTship.
78

1'^'. 4.0.5

Ki;lief granted.
$262. 671). 30

Tot. I .Sinn paiil, 1881-189M, ^.Sj7,8i7.oo.

The followinf; table, coinp'le'd from the Report
of tiii^ Siipennteiiileiit of Iii-.inaiu'e for 18(^8,
affords some further detai' , in this connec-
tion :

I

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOIM<:i)IA. 347

Abstract of Life Insurance in Canada {Assessment Plan) 1898.

CANADIAN COMI'ANIiiS. AMKRICAN

COMl'ANIIiS.

I 1 -s 2 I

81:15-8 £ i f, ^ 9

111 fsli r' ^fis. I? f1 1^

(3a-? Lh^.l B< J:oii ^i* u?! ^;2

Total Amount paid by Members $223, 6jj $24, 44^ $2j>JSt $7^5,202 $52,700 $47,907 $4S5iS67

Numl>er of Certificates repoitecl as taken. . 977 144 47S yjiS liS4.5 1°' ''4J

Amount of Certificates new and taken up. . $1,178, ooj $I44,o_>o $583,6^0 $.0,716,50) $1,(127,501 $ii'»,625 $1,041), 200

Number of Certificatus in force at date. .. . 12,145 2,383 i,iSo 62,215 4i7"J 1 45- '4.447

Net Amount in force $18,151,000 $2,383,000 $1,386,130 $73,854,001 $6,268,500 $2,345,500 $2<),398,974

Number (if Certificates become Claims. .. . 109 23 4 421 29 22 154

Net Amount become Claims $165,000 $23,000 $4,000 $4S1,374 $44,212 $40,000 $328,800

Claims T'aid $198,750 $23000 $5,425 $484,016 $41,012 $41,860 $100,693

Unsettled Claims not Resisted 9.75o """« i,ooj 40,648 3,400 i2,5''o 1 . .350

Resisted none none 2,000 none 1,500 none 2,000

There have been a number of Fraternal Assur- Hiiiiiaiiity in iS88, tlie Good Templar's Buiiefit

ance Societies in Canada which existed for a short Society in 1897, were scjiiic otlii-i Canadian organi-

time and then disappeared. The Select Knights zations which have failed. The St. Antoine de

of Canada, the Canadian Masonic Mutual Beneht Purdue was a French-Canadian society which

of London, and the St. Pierre Association were suspended in 1898, as did the Union of St. Thomas

perhaps the longest lived. The Canadian Relief — after amalgamation with the Union of Ottawa

Association w^nt out of business after five years, — in the same year. A number of Ui d States

while the Canadian Educational Endowment societies of this nature have flourished lor a short

Association, the British North American Beneht time in Canada and then collapsed. Amongst

Association, the Equitable Provident Savings them were the Fraternal Mystic Circle the Iron

Association, the Reserve Fund Accident Associa- Hall, the Fraternal Union, the Order of Tonti

tion, were all refused a renewed registration by the and the Golden Circle, 1S92-3. The Fraternal

Government in 1892. The Septennial League in Alliance, the American Order of Chosen Friends

1890, the Knights of Honour in i8<)i, the and tl:e Scottish Clans were refused registration

Brotherly Union Society in 1S78, the Knights of by the Government.

Accident Insurance in Canada. The facts the field was entered from England by the Lon-

which follow are supplied to the Editor through don Gitaranlec. Including the above named, thir-

the kindness of Mr. G. G. Burnett, Chief Agent teen companies have been licensed to date, of

for Ontario of the Ocean Accident and Guarantee which one was American, four British and eight

Corporation, Limittd, of London. The business Canadian.

of accident insurance in Canada is an inlant Alike with all other undertakings of a financial

industry when compared to fire and life nature the businessofa.xident insurance in Can-

in:^.urance, but an infant of strong and rapid ada shows a wonderful e.\pansion, more espcci-

growth. The idea of granting an indemnity ally in the last ten or fifteen years. At first

for bodily injuries was hrst put into practical attention was alnu)St wholly devoted to insuring

shape in i8.|9 in England. The first license travellers by railway or steamship, but gradually

issued in Canada was to the well-known rn/i'f/iTs the s\ stem was extended to embrace almost all

Compa>.y, of Hartford, Conn., August, 1868. men in almost every walk of life ; and the policies

The fiist license to a Canadian company was have been made so attractive as to command a

issued in J illy, i8()_5, to the Citizens, which di*l large siijiport from the public. The statistics

also a life business. The first purely accident prior to 1S76 are not available but since that time

company licensed was the Accident Insmance Com- have been carefully collected. The following are

puny of North America, in April, 1874. In 1880 the premiums paid in Canada in the years named :

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348 CANADA: AN KNCYCLOP.-l' DIA.

1875 about $ r>5,ooo The increasing tendency of the public to hold

'^^° Ij 7'>'J'^ corporations strictly to account for the personal

j^ j^ .. Vc "rl safety of tlie people coming in contact with them,

j,S95 ,,,,[, •' ^57,2(15 and the heavy dan^ages now given by juries, have

1897 " 4().},2y5 made it necessary for the smaller railways, the

Tile Canadian, Hritisli and United States com- steamship lines, the contractors for public works,
panics in the last-named year had eighty-two etc., to insure themselves against loss from
millions of dollars at risk, under 28,j66 policies, this liability. Policies are now written to
and paid in losses $262,511 — about one-half of individual persons to provide an indemnity in
the premiums being taken by one British and one case of death or disablement by accident ; to
United States company. This is not unlike the employers to cover their liability to workmen ; to
experience in other lines of trade — the large com- provide indemnity for accidents falling outside of
panies are oiistiiig the smaller ones. Of the six the liability laws; to common carriers to cover
Canadian companies started prior to i8()5 their liability to passengers and the general pub-
only one is still taking risks. With tlie passage lie; to owners of public buildings to cover liabil-
of the " Wt)rkmen*s Compensation for Injuries ity to tenants and the public; to omnibus and
Act " (iS(j2) in Ontario, and simil.ir enactments cartage companies to cover liability to persons on
in other Provinces about that time, a wide field the streets; and in many other forms suited to
was opened up to the companies. individual requirements.

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SECTION V.

NATURAL HISTORY IN CANADA.

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THE BIRDS OF ONTARIO.

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THOMAS MclL WRAITH.

IN every habitable part of the Rlobe, birds are
to be found. They are the delight of the
young wherever they appear, and even a few
of the more advanced in years Hnd enjoy-
ment in watching th(;ir habits and writing their
history, though the mass of the people give no more
than a passing glance at the beautiful creatures.
In tropical countries the plumage of the birds is of
the most gorgeous description, but few, if any, of
them have the power of song. The parrots, pea-
cocks, birds of paradise and others are beautiful to
look at, but they lack the musical attraction pos-
sessed by many less gaily attired. The total
number of species of birds has been variously
estimated at from twelve to fifteen thousand, but
so much difference exists in the division and classi-
fication of the various groups that it is not an easy
matter to come to a correct conclusion on the sub-
ject.

For many years this difficulty existed in regard
to North American birds, each writer choosing his
own classification and nomenclature, which led to
endless confusion. To try to overcome this trouble
a number of contmental ornithologists, among
whom was the present writer, met in New York,
U.S.A., in September i88j, and remained in ses-
sion for three days. One result of the meeting
was the formation of the .\inerican Ornithologists'
Union, five members of which were appointed a
Committee to revise the nomenclature and classi-
fication of North American birds. The publica-
tion of a quarterly magazine entitled The Auk in
which all matters relating to North .American birds
should be fully reported was also approved. These
resolutions have been faithfully carried out and
have placed the subject in iiiucii better shape than
formerly. The revised check list appeared in due
course ami though to beginners it presents the
usual number of unpioiioiiiKeable names, each of

these is followed by a carefully selected vernacu-
lar one, so that we can still recognize our old
friends notwithstanding the alteration which may
have been made in their scientific title.

The order of arrangement decided upon was to
start with the lowest forms of bird life and work
up to those of more perfect organization. Ac-
cording to this plan, the grebes and loons come
first, while the thrushes and blue-birds close the
list as being the most fully developed. The first
list was published in 1886, and the second edition
came out in 1895, revised up to that date. It
describes seven hundred and sixty-eight contin-
ental species with a hypothetical group of twenty-
six about whose specific position there seems to
be still some difference of opinion. Some are in-
clined to think that there has been too much sub-
division, the differences between certain species
being too slight to be recognized, but even if they
are slight so long as they are constant and regu-
lar it makes the subject more complete to have
them described separately. From the southern
country all the way up to the northern limit, cer-
tain groups are found which remain in the same
locality all the year round, but the extremes of
temperature are so wide apart that, as a general
rule, the mass of North America birds are migra-
tory, passing north or south according to the sea-
son. Some species which raise their young even
in .\laska, visit South America in winter, so that
save the short time they are engaged in family
duties they are continually on the move.

These movements of the birds, north and south,
are now pretty well understood. They extend all
the way across the continent, some species taking
the Pacific Coast, others the Atlantic shore, while
many prefer the line of the Mississippi Valley or
another route inland to the east. Over all these
routes the flocks pass up and down with so much

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CANADA: AN KNCY(:iX)FM:r)IA.

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regularity that observers can tell within a clay or
two at what time certain species will arrive at a
given point. This subject of bird niij,'ration is
one about svhich a threat deal has been said and
writti'ii but no one has yet told us hosv it has all
been brought about. We know that the birds
travel in tlocks and arc supposed to be led by a
veteran who has been over the i;round before and
knows the route to take. Inherited memory is
spoken of in this connection and there may be
much truth in the sup|)osition that our present
race of birds inherit tlie miimory of what has been
done by their predecessors for centuries back, but
when we follow them in that direction, we soon
come to the bef;inninf( when we have to enquire
what veteran led the first Hock and what memory
he inherited to help him on the way ? This is an
interesting subject for enquiry thoufjh at present
we can only admire the regularity with which the
movements annually occur.

Ontario has many attractions to offer to the
birds as there are within her boundaries large
lakes where the swimmers find a summer home,
while the waders line the shores. There are also
large tracts of marsh where the rails and the
bitterns can raise their young without being dis-
turbed, thick woods where the owls can snooze
away the hours of daylight, and many clear grass
fields where the merry rollicking song of the bobo-
link may be heard at all hours during the long
summer day. Like other parts of the continent,
this Province has a few resident species but the
majority are migratory. The total is three hundred
and sixteen species, thr)ugh no doubt others may
yet be added which from their scarcity are
seldom seen. Not many changes have of late
years taken place in the number or distribution of
the birds of Ontario though we can in fancy look
back to the time when the country, being only
partially cleared, the number of meadow larks,
bubuliiiks, ami s<jine others which frequented the
grass fields would be fewer than at present, while
such species as the large black woodpecker and
some of the birds of prey have since moved farther
north.

The only marked change of recent date has
been the almost total disappearance of the blue-
bird, once so familiar arouiul our homes and a
{jeucral favourite everywhere. The only explana-

tion given of the absence of the birds from the
points where they used to be so regular in their
visits is that two years ago therecame asevere frost
along the line which for many years they had
adopted as their southern habitat and very many
of them fell victims to the unusually intense
cold. If this be the true explanaticjii of the case it
is the first of the kind I have noticed on record
and I trust it may be the last for many years to
come. The chief addition which has recently
been made to our list is (/'jnmt domcsticm) the
European house sparrow, an imported species
which many people thought would not be able to
stand the severity of our winters, though that ques»
tion has now been settled by experience. The
sparrows are here for good or for bad as the case
may be viewed. Those who wish to have them
will soon have more, as they are rapidly increas-
ing, and those who desire to have the numbers
reduced do not at present see how this is to be
accomplished. They keep mostly to the towns
and villages where they find food enough in the
streets, and though the introduction of the trolley
car system has seriously affected this section of
their feeding ground, they still seem to get suffi-
cient to keep them alive. During the summer
they are met with all over, but in winter they cling
more to the centre of the cities where they can be
seen nestling around the sunny side of the house
chimneys, grim and sooty, but full of life and ready
at any time for a fight.

Referring more particularly to the birds of
Ontario, it is not to be expected in a paper of this
nature that a full description of every species can
be given, but the attention of the reader may be
directed Uy one or two of the leaders in each order.
Following the arrangement in the new list, we
find the first group mentioned is the Order
Pyf^opodes — Diving Birds. These are mostly
northern, and therefore well represented in
Ontario, though the fad of their being unsuitable
for the table saves them from the gun of the
hunter. The Loons are the most conspicuous
of the group, and their fine coats of black
spotted with white are greatly admired. They
go as far north as Alaska to breed, where their
skins are much used by the Indians in dressmak-
ing. The Grebes also belong to this order, and
of these we have four species which are well known

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CANADA; AN' l'',\CV(l.()l' I'.DIA.

353

l)y the tiiio silky coats uiice somiR;li uscil in triiii-
iiiiiij,' ladies' dresses. '1 lio lilack Ciiiiileriiot ami
PuHiiiarei)C(;ii.si()iial\vaii(lerersl!otn the sea-coast,
but their vi.iits are iit<wtl\ ,:,o. r. suit of stormy
weather, and are of Imt sliort duration.

Order LoH'^i[)cniic\ Lonf^-Winm ,1 Swinnners.
These are mostly birds of tiie sea-coast, but even
from them we t,'<^t a call when they are on the
move. The (juIIs are the leadinLj nu inbers
of this fjroiip, and diirinfj the winter tlu\' wan-
der at will in searcii of supplii-^. Hamilton Hay
lieing frozen over it this season, they do not ap-
pear there, but, aioiind the west end of Lake On-
tario, the great Hlack-backed Gull, Ivory Gull,
Glaucous Gull a ndothersare often observed. Seven
dift'ereiit species of the beautiful Terns appear on
tlie Hay early in sprinj];, just as the ice is breaking
up, and give life to the scene by their shrill cries
and light, graceful flight. Of the Oriler Tubin-
ares — Tubi'-nosed Suininiers — I have only one
specimen to report, \\z., that of a Ulack-capped
Petrel, whose botly was found on the shore of the
Island, near Toronto, its usual haunt bring
along the sea-coast farther south.

Order Slci^aiiopodcs — Totipalmate S\\ immcrs.
We have not many sp(;cies to rei)ieseiit tiiis group,
the Cormorants being the only iiuinbi^rs whieh
a[)pear pretty regularly in springand autumn while
not engaged in family duties, which are carried
on along the sea-coast. Tiie Solan Goose has
also been observed occasionally after a northeast
storm. In 1864 five white Pelicans took shelter
in Hamilton Hay, one of which came into my
possession, and in iN8() a female was shot at the
mouth of the Grand River, near Diimivillc, wliii h
completes the recoid for Ontario so lar as know 11.

Order A itsc res — Laniellirostral Swimmers. This
order includes a large nuinber of species, many
(jf which are well known throughout Ontario, but
of the group none are so hijdily pri/od as the Grey
ami Hlack Ducks. In the spring th(;y are now well
piotected by the Game Act and its oilicers, but in
the autumn tlu-ir numbers are greatly rediiceilat
thedifferent shoot ingstatior.s throughout tin; coun-
try. Of the two species the Grey Duck is the more
numerous, and is much pri/ed for the table. The
lUack Duck is also well rejiresented, but its line of
migration is nean r the sea-coast. Tlu^se birds
possess a strong migratory feelin::. which, when

the season arrivs, is hard to ovc'rcoiiie. ,\ few
years ago a fanner residing on the Hay shore
wonndr<l a Hlack i)ii. k in the wing as it Hew |)a3t
him one evening in tlie antiiinn. It fell in the
marhh, and he did not take the trouble to search
lor it. Soon afterwards, wh<:ii the inlet, and lin.illv
the Hay, were coated with ice, it came into the
barnyard in company with the d Jinestio Ducks,
and there quietly spent the winter, but when the
springcame round it wasaniinated withthe strong
migratory im|)ulse. It becamerestlessande.xcited,
tr\ing the power of its wings, stretching it? neck
tipwaids, and calling loudly to the passing Hocks,
which it evidently lon'.,'ed to join in their annual
journey. As the season adva iced this feeling
passeil off, and it remained contentedly about the
place, and even raised a brood of young onc^s, but
as long as it lived it was seized in spring and
autumn with these migratory parox\ sins, and had
it been able wonhl certainly have gone wilii the
Hocks, despite family and other ties.

The most g.iily-attired of all our waterfowl is
the Wood Diii:k, the male of which is beautifully
marki'tl with vaiions colours ami carries a hand-
some crest. It is a gentle, timid bird, not very
alHindanl, and does not travel so far north asmany
of the others, it takes its name of Wood Duck
from its habit of building its nest in a tri.e, usually
in a deserted squirrel's hole, or a natural cavity,
where the female sits her appointed time. \V1ien
tliesliellsbreak and the duckliugsappear she keeps
them carefully for a few tla\s. Then she takes
them, one at a tune, by the nape of the neck in her
bill and drops them lightly into the water, where
she attends them faithfully till they are able to
shift for theniselves. Another much admired
member of this Order is the Hooded Merganser,
not so showy in colour as the ^^^)od Duck, but
V( I )• handsome in figure. His head is adorned with
a line, regular crest of white edged with black,
which IS raised or depressed at pleasure This
species resembles the W'ooil Duck in buikliiig its
nest in a tree, but it belongs to quite a different
class. r>eing a saw-bill, and living on fish, it is not
sougiit after for the talkie. The Order .l».stT^i in-
cludes manv other interesting speciesthat visitour
waters, but space will not admit of more than the
naming of a few whose history is well worth n;-
cording. The two Teals. I'iulail, Shoveller, Gad-

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w.iU, Canvas-biick, Rcil-lu-ail, H.il.l-pate, Scaiip-
l),u:k, Kiii^-iiei-.k, an. I ollicis are all spriiif,' and
aiitmiiii visitors, ami dm inj; the latter se.isoii an;
sent to tlie in.iiket ill t;iiat luimlior. Geese are
sti'ii cverv spring and aiiliinin iiassinR north and
south in their usual V'-shapcd tlocks, hut theyare
very carerul where lluy alight, and are seldom
taken. A few Swans are seen iiow and tlu'ii,
usually duriii)^ a storm.

Order IIc>t)dioiics — Herons, Storks, Ihises, etc.
These are niarsh-fretiuentiiif,' birds and there
being ample aecomniodatiun for them in Ontario
we have our sh iie of the northern spt'cies. They
are not an abundant class and as tluy do not
travel in flock.s we are accustomed to see onlyoiu:
or two at a time. The Great Blue Heron from its
large size is the most conspicuous of the group.
It seems slow and clumsy in ilight but taki'S good
care of itself. When wounded, if approached bv
a dog, it strikes with its sharp-pointed bill direct
for the eve, and lias been known in thi ; way to
ile|)rive its adversary of sight. The Common Bit-
tirn IS generally distributed ihruugliout the
marshes but having nothing to commend him to
public favour is treated with something like con-
tempt. The Least Bittern is also here and though
a tender species, many of them not coming north
of New York State, the species has been found
breeding in Manitoba. They arc seldom seen on
land and their flight seems weak and uncertain,
but in their favourite marsh, when near their nest,
they show a groat deal of life and activity, run-
ning like rats through the roadways among the
flags.

Order Piiliidicolcc — Cranes, Kails, etc. The
Sandhill Crane is a wi.'stern species, seldom com-
ing east of the Mississippi v:dley, but it has been
found once or twice in Western Ontario, which
gives me the privilege of including it hen;, though
oidy as a rare visitor from the west. The Rails
and Coots aregenerallydistributed throughout the
marshes, but their haunts are not easy of access
and their bodies not in demand, so tl'-at they are
allowed to pass except In' collectors who like to
have all classes represented.

Order Limicolie — Shore birds. This order in-
cludes a very large number of species, n'aiiy of
which pass through Ontario in springaiid autumn,
thou''h most of them breed farther north. The

I'halaropes, as a class, arc quite interesting, form-
ing, as they do, the connecting link l)etween the
Wadii s and S\\ iminers. Tlu'y associate with tin;
W.idi IS but havi' web feet that enable them to
swim giacefiilly and swiftly. The Red Phalarope
IS a norlheiii species which raises its young on the
shoies of the Arctic Sea and is seen in Ontafio
only in wiiit<r when it conies south for a change.
The Northern I'halarope has much of the same
range, imt Wilson's I'halaroix- is <piite a different
bird, larger in size and more southern in its habitat.
None of the SDecics is rommoii, but nil have been

ilioiiia.s A\cliwr.ijlii

found occasionally in Ontario. Wilson's Phala-
ropt; has some peculiarities which make it remark-
able. The female is larger in size than the male, is
more gaily attire Land, what is even more unusual,
the male incub; cs the eggs. In some other
respects their relations are unusual, but they seem
to understand each other and live hapi)ily to-
gether— so we will not interfere. This group in-
cludes many species of Sandpipers and Plovers.
Order Cmlliiuc — - (ialliuacious birds. This
includes the Turkey, Pheasant, Grouse, Quail,

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CANADA: AN KNCVi I.OIM'.DIA.

3SS

«tc. We have now come to tin; s|)<)rtsiii,iii's i l.iss
wliicli is by no inuiuis nctjIcctLiI lliroiiKli lluir |)iii -
suit is attended wit!) considerable hard work and
the " baf,'s" are not often very larf,'e. The wild
turi<ey in former years was often met alonj; our
southwestern frontier i)Ut it did not ),'et iniich
fartiier north on account of tlie severit) of the
climate. Now it is so closely followed by the
gunners wherever it appears tli it it may soon lu;
placed amon},'st tin; extinct si)eries in Ontario. In
Kent and I'-ssex, where they used to be foinul,
the* farmers have a race domesticated which is
supposed to be descended from the wild spe<:ies
and is said tobcinu(h superior in flavour to the
ordinary stock. Two species of l'tarmi{,'an visit
our northern border in winter — the Rock Ptarmi-
gan being the more northerly <jf the two and
raising its young as far up as Hehring Strait.
The Willow Ptarmigan does not go quite so far
north but both contribute largely to the food
supply of the Eskimo and the Indians.

Nature has made a wonderful provision for their
protection in the colour of their plumage which
during the summer months is brown barred with
black and closely assimilates with the scrub bush
which they frequent. But when the snow falls
and every dark spot becomes visible, the plumage
of the Ptarmigan changes to white so that at a
distance they cannot be observed. Notwith-
standing this, the Indians, knowing their 'labit
of flying in large flocks close over the snow
in the evenings, have a way of spreading a
net by which large numbers are captured. The
Canada Grouse is a plump handsome little bird
that sometimes visit us in Southern Ontario,
though its home is farther north, it also breeds
abundantly in Alaska and is common in the
Muskoka district of Ontario. The species is not
inigratorv, but generally remains all the year in
the ilistrict selected.

Order Columba; — Pigeons. There are several
species of Doves and Pigeons disti ibuted over the
continent, but we have only two in Ontario, viz.,
the Passenger Pigeon and the Mourning Dove.
The c<Mning of the first of these used m lornier
years to be looked forward to with a ^reat deal of
interest by the Hamilton boys as one of the aimual
holiday seasons. The flight was from east to west
and usually commenced in April — chiefly in the

morning. No sooner were they observed than the
word was passed around, " The pigeons are fly-
ing," and every old gun in the town was scoured
and made lit for use. The biids came up over
the lake and were nearest the ground just where
they rosi! over the erlge of the mountain. There
the boys were stationed in groups and often had
good bags before the flight stopped in the fore-
noon. This sport was at its height in 1854. The
season was very hot and the pigeons had never
before been so numerous. They kept on flying at
all hours of the day until June. Large numbers
were killed ami taken to the market where they
were sold for what they would brmg.

The flocks passing over the place seemed so
we;ik and weary that they could scarcely clear
the chiiimey tops, indeed, in many places boys
armed with sticks were stationed on the house
to|)s wlii;re they knocked down many as they
passed over. So abinulant was the supply that
for a time pigeons were on every table in the town,
but in that year cholera was epidemic in the coun-
try, and, fortunately for the birds, a report was
spread that eating pigeons had caused it. This
brought the slaughter quickly to an end, and since
that time there have been no flights of pigeons in
Ontario, though an odd pair is found now and
then breeding in the Province. In the far north-
west tliey are still found in gri;at numbers in re-
served localities, but it looks as if this is one of
the t;r(Mips which will die out with the advance of
civilization. The Mourning Dove is a quiet, timid
little bird which we sometimes meei. in thewoodst
but it is so small in si/e and its numbers are so
few that it is little ninlested.

Order Raptures — Birds of Prey. The Eagles
take the hrst place in this group in regard to size
and of these we have two s()ecies which visit us,
mostly "'n winter. The Bald Eagle is readily
recognized by the white head and tail that in
immature birds are uniform brown. For many
years this species used to frequent the banks of
the Niagara river below the Falls where they
would pick up the dead bodies of such animals as
came ihjwn the river, but their skins came to have
a market value and soon the birds were picked
off by the rifle no that their formor haunt is to a
great extent deserted. The Golden Eagle is not
so often seen as the bald-head but it is found

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CANADA A\ rA'CVCI.OI'.MDIA.

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breuiliii); in tlie rutirud putts ol tlicroiiiili) , wluMt;
it excites I In." no nf the faiincr by uciisioually
uppropiiiitiii^' Diic uf his laiiiUs. Anions tliu
h.iwks, ihc l\!H'j,'rino P"iilcitn is the uiie \vhi( ii
attracts most :u)ticu, tliuiij^h he is not seen so
often us some of the others. He is a refill. ir
visitor at the sliootin^ stations ni the nntiirnn,
when he shows f^icat dexterity in striking; ilown
ducks whilu on tlic win^'. Il<: is said to be identi-
cal with the fak-un which in Eiiro|)e in the oldin
time was trained for the chase. Here he t.iki s it
in his own fasiii on, and li.is the proceeds for him-
self and fainilv. Tiic Goshawk is another nnuii
admired ineniber ol liie j,'ri)iip, and a ni.ile of that
species in autumn plumaj,'e is certaiidy a very
handsome bird. In spirit he is more d.irin^' and
regardless of his safety than any of the olliers.
He will often dart down and carry off a fowl from
the very feet of a farmer in his barnyard, and the
peculiar siiapc of his wind's and tail give him the
ability to turn and alter his course within a very
small spiuc. The species is not ahnmlant, but
by the farmer lie is not regarded as a fiieiid.

Of tile Owls we have quite a goodly number on
the list, some bein^ migratory, wiiile others are
resident. Perhaps the liiiest of the group is tlie
Great Grey Owl which visits us from the north in
winter. It is not so strong nor heavy as some of
ilie others but its loii;^ hjosc plumage of marbled
grey and its tine full face give it a very dignilie<l
presence. The Snowy Owl is tiie lii-riviest (jf the
group. It comes down from tiuMiorlli in Novem-
ber and six'IkIs some time (if allowi.il to do so)
about the shores of tile Lake, where it picks up any
fish that may have been cut out of the nets. In
some seasons they are quite plentiful, while in
others only one or two are seen, 'i'lieir skins
also have now a money value, so that fi-w which
come so far south are allowed to ntiirn. The
Great Horned Owl is j)robably the most numerous
and destructive of the large owls. During the
summer they have good shelter and plenty (jf fond
in the woods, but in winter they come about the
farm houses and workmischiefamongstlhepoiiltrv.
They are of a fierce, vicious disposition and will
even attack and eat hawks, crows and other owls.
Theref(jr2 they arc no favourites in the country
and their carcases may often l>e seen nailed up
on the end of a barn. The sm.illcr owls are more

in l.ivoui, and aie i:iicomagcd to take up their
winter (piartets in the uut-houKcs on the farm,
wheie they do good servue in killing off the mua;
that are so destructive to thegtain, ami in tins way
the little ScreecliOwl becomes Hemi-iloiiiesticated,
as he is iMt annoyed and is allowcil to catch all
the mi(-e he can ; but (ui the reiiiiii of spring he
a.;ain betakes himself to the woods ami is seen
no iiiok; lor the season. The l>ai ii ()\\ 1, which is
by many believed to be identical with the Ihitish
bird of the same name, has recently been found on
one or two occasions in Ontario. It iscpnte ccjin-
moll farther south and has the reputation of living
almost exclusively on small (jiiailrupeds, rats and
nine being specially preferred. On this account
he is welcome wherever he appears and we would
gladly see his numbers increase. Hut our climate
IS too severe for his delicate constitution.

Order C'(^tc;_VA,''''> — Cuckoos, etc. This is but a
small Order of which we have three sjjccics in
Ontario, vi/., the Black- billed and the Yellow-billed
Cuckoos, and the Helted King-fislier. Of the two
CuckooM,tlieHlack-billed is the hardier, but neither
is very common, and both retire to the south early
in the aiitumii. The King-hsher arrives from the
south e.irly in the si)riiig, and his rattling call is
heaid along the shores of our lakt s and streams
all through the summer. He remains with us in
the autumn till the ice interferes with his oper-
tions, when he ri tires to the south.

Order Pici — Woodpeckers, etc. This is a numer-
ous group wliiih is well represented in Ontario,
where there is abundance of wood to furnish sup-
plies and ample shelter where the young can be
raisi d in peace, TIk; I'lleated Woodpecker, or
large black Log Cock used to be a resident insouth-
ern Ontario, but as the lie.ivj' timber was cut
down he m.ved farther north, and is now found
in Muskoka. Wealso liave the Hairy, the Downy,
theKed-hi'ad, the Gobi- winged, the Yellow-bellied
(]uite commonly, while occasionally in winter the
two spei ii'S of the Three-toed Woodjjeckei are
foimd in Muskoka. It is somewhat singular that
this species, so like the rest in other respects,
should lack the hind toe. Most likely the arrange-
ment is suited to travelling m the bark of the
pines, amongst which it is most frequently
observed.

Order .VcU/'w/iurs —Goatsuckers, .Swifts, etc.

CANADA; AN i;N(V( I.olM.DIA.

.•?<:

etc.

Tlio Swifts an- well known in Onlaiin, afl ar(' also
the Ni^lit Hawk and Whip-pixii-will, tliuu^li tliu
latter in niorc fuMpuintiy Inanl than Hocn. 'Ihis
Kioiip inchnlt's also the Iliininnn^ Mini, of wliicli
wo h,i\c only oiic si)f( its, tin: I\iib)-t lima ted,
which, though small in si/c, finds its way iiii north
to tlie fnr-coiintrii!S, and has eviii been observed
biri'din^' in Labrador. It is ratln r sin^Milar that in
tins lar^i; f.iiniiy, in whicdt tin; individuals r«'Sein-
lil(; e.udi other so closely, only this one npecii;s
comes so tar noith, hut such is the case, and,
thonj^h w(! cannot seewh\, it innst probably he
bist fitti;d by nature to withstand the changes of
temperature.

Order I'asseres — Perching,' Birds. This is the
laiL,'est ord'T In the arranj^euK.nt, and tin: indi-
viduals it contains, thoii^'h ( umiiaratively small in
size, are highly prized by the collector — many of
thcin beiiif,' handsome in form, rich in colour, anil
exceedinf,dy rare. A ),'ooil many of these beloiii,'
to the south and west, but Ontario has lu'r ful]
share. The Kiii^,'-bird stands in this group, and
so does the Pee- wee and the Git.-at Crested Fly-
catchiT. The last is seen only in the woods,
where his loud, harsh cry is often heard during,'
tile summer, The list also includes the Meadow
LaiU, Cow-bird, Red.winf,'ed blackbird, IJobo-
liiik. Oriole, lUue Jay, Canada J ly, I'ln pte-linch.
Crossbill, Red i'oll, Goldluicli, Siiow-l)ird, Lon^'-
spur, Tree Sparrow, Son^ Sparrow, and a whole
crowd of other sjiarrows, each of tln'in with a
history of its own worthy of brin;^ recorded. The
Shrikes are also included in the group. Of these
we have two, the Cireat Nottheni, as a winter
visitor, and tlu' WhiU' Riimped, as a summer
resident.

Reference lias ;ihi;a(ly been made to tlie regu-
larity with which tile migratory birds arrive year
after jear at the same time and place, but occa-
sionally, though rarely, circumstances arise which
cause them to deviate from their usual course. A
case of this kind occurred with the Evening Gros-
beak, which is a western spec ies, its usual line of
migration being alongthe Mississippi Valley in the
United States, In l)er<Miil)er, iS(jo, 1 was told
that in one of the cemeteries wiiicli is near tlie
Hamilton Hay shore, wiiere the banks are grown
over with bushes of tin- red cedar, a number of
birds with thick bills ami sliort tails were seen,

differing from any which had ever been observed
there before, I was at the place indicated early
next inotning, .ind was ilelighted to find a lluckof
twenty-five or thiity ICveiiin^; (Irosbeaks feeding
on the berries which siill liiiii); to tliect:dar bushes.
They were in hill vigour and lin^; plumage ; |)re-
senting a grand sight to a lover of birds who had
never seen the species in life before. When dis-
turbed they passed on to the east, but their place
was soon taken by another Hock, and this went on
day after day, for two weeks. Of course many
were collt.-c ted, of wiii( h I got my share. I
leirned afterwards that a succession of strong
gales hoin the north-west was the cause of this
diviMgc'iii e from their usual route, and that they
went as lar eist as (^Jiiebi c The n^tiirn trip b( ;,'.'in
early in Marcit by the s init.' route as belore, but
the birds passed rapidly, as the berries were mostly
gone, and the breeding se.ison being close at hand,
they Were, no doubt, anxious to get bai-k to their
summer haunts. Siiuc that time none of this
species has again been observed in Ontario.

The most interesting family of the group arc
the Wood Warblers, all (»( tlK.ni light and graceful
in their movements, and many of them beautiful
in coloiii. Whervi all are so rich, it W'liiM seem
iieediess to Select, but 1 cannot help giving the
ii.imes of a fev/ which many collectors woukl travel
milis to sec. The Cape M.iy, Mourning Proth-
onot.ir\-,IIo(ulcd, Connecticut. and Golden-winged
Warblers are all found here oc^asinnalU.and there
are otiiers which, tliuigh iiuno common, are
equally beantiiiil. Tlio Cerulean, Dlackburnian.
Uay-breasted, and Magnolia, are quite plentiful
liming the latter jiart of May. It is always inter-
esting to see a iiiuunted collection of these little
birds ill a museum, but how much more so to see
tiiem, male anil female, full of life and giving and
receiving the attentions of the season, their little
thioats swt lling with their love notes, anil all their
ch.irnis displaj-ed to the fullest advantage. The
Thrushes, of which we have five spt;cies as sum-
mer residents, are usually classed as songsters,
and those we h.ive are entitled to the honour, the
only drawback being tli.it the songs are not con-
tinuous, 'i'lieir voices are seldom heard save by
those who are in the lialiit of visiting the woods.
Tiiere t lie noti'S of I he Wood-thrush, loud and clear,
vet dill of t( ndciness, are occasional!)' heard from

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358

CANADA: AN KNCVCLOr.-TCDIA.

the top of a low growing tree. W eagerly listen
for a continuation of the music, but it stops sud-
denly short as the musician drops into the bush
and becomes silent.

Others of the class have clear, flute-like voices,
but their notes are few in nu-nber, and hardly take
the form of a song. About the blue-bird, whose
gentle disposition and familiar habits made
him such a general favourite, I would fain say a
word in closing the list, but his case has already

been referred to, and I can only now express the
hope that his numbers may soon increase, so that
we may again hoar his soft warbling notes around
our homes. I have glanced but lightly at a few of
our more interesting species of birds, with the
hope that others of our people may be led to
pcrsue the study They cannot find a more
elevating subject, nor one which, if followed in the
woods, will be productive of more enjoyment and
good health.

I

i

The Hon. T. D'Arcy McGee.

THE BIRDS OF THE PROVINCE OF QUEBEC

SIR JAMES McPHBR;, ^ I.cMOlNE, F.R.S.C.

'i'f

ONE of the most attractive branches of
Zoology is that treating of birds —
termed Ornithology. It has been,
one regrets to have to admit, com-
paratively neglected for a time, as a study, in
several jf the Provinces of our nascent Dominion.
Of late, however, an awakening has undoubtedly
taken place. Credit is due for this onward move-
ment to the recent researches, field-work and
publications of several students of bnd-life ; to
the action of the Dominion Government ni the
formation at Ottawa of a National Museum ; to
our Universities for the formation of collections
of specimens of our avi-fauna. Though our
young and sparsely inhabited country is not yet in
a position to point amongst her sons to brilliant
naturalists such as Audubon, Wilson, Allen,
Merriam, Ridgway, Couiis, Brewster, Bendire —
still she is, I think, producing some who will
"leave their foot-prints on the sands of time."

An incident which recently took place beyond
our border, by its far-reaching aims as well as
through the brilliant array of talent wliich gave
it birth, is likely to promote powerfully on this
continent the study of bird-life under its various
aspects. I allude to the foundation in New York,
in September, 1885, of tiie American Ornithol-
ogists' Union, whose labours appear quarterly in
The Auk, its accredited organ. The Bird-Con-
gress embraced among its members leaiiing
amateurs and professional ornithologists of the
United States and Canada. It was presided over
by an eminent naturalist, J. Alien, of Cambridge,
Mass., and had for its Secretary the learned and
acute observer. Dr. Hart Merriam, of Washing-
ton. At its very first meeting it set forth for
investigation several most important subjects:
the nomenclature, classification, migration, oste-
ology, distribution of species and faunal ireas

of the entire continent. It must bo admitted
that Ornithology has made great strides since the
writings of the great ornithologist J"hn Wilson,
as appears by the following table of North Amer-
ican species known to and described by him, and
by others :

1814 Wilson 283 birds.

1838 Bonaparte 471 "

1840 Brewer 491 "

1844 Audubon 506 "

1859 Baird 738

1874 Coues 778 "

1881 Ridgway 930 "

1882 Cones 888

1884 Coucs 902 "

1886 VO.U. Committee 960

1887 Couiis 960 "

1887 Ridgway 1,028 '«

"This list", remarks Mr. Chamberlain, " re-
quires some e.xplanation, for the apparent
increase has not been wholly due to the discovery
of new species, as might be inferred. A portion
of the increase is due to the extension of the
territorial limits embraced under the term
' North America ' when used for ornithological
purposes. Lower California, Greenland, Guade-
loupe, were included in some and excluded in
other lists ". The earliest ornithological record
in Canada, I might say, possibly in America,
occurs in Jacques Carticr's Voyages up the Gulf
of St. Lawrence. In Chapters 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 of the
Narralh'C of his first voyage in 1535, as well as in
an entry in the log of De Roberval and his first
pilot, Jean Alphonse, in 1542, mention is made of
the myriads of gannets, gulls, guillemots, puffins,
eider-ducks, cormorants and other sea-fowl nest-
ing on the Bird Rocks, and on the desolate islands
of the Labrador coast. Jacques Cartiergoes so
far as to say that the whole French navy might

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^60

CANADA: AX KNCVCI.Ol'.KDIA.

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be fiei^hted with these noisy tioiiizi'iis of tliat
wild rcf^ion without an a|)()arciit diiiiiniuioii in
their numbers. (C!iia|). 1-2, I'oyagcs.) Keliahlu
American natnrahsts siicli as Henry Bryant, of
Boston, who visited the Bird Rocks in I1S60, and
Ciiarles A. Cory, in 187S, confirm these state-
ments of early discove'i;rs as to the number and
species of birds frevjuentinfj the Lower St. Law-
rence. The Jesuit Le Jeune, in the Relations dcs
Jisnitcs, for 1632, dwells on the midtitude of
aquatic birds on Ile-i'ux-Oiea ((".ountv of Moiit-
maf;ny), and to be found on the shores of our
noble river.

Iiere Gabriel Sagard-Theodat in the same
year furnished in his Grand Voya(!;e an Pnysdcs
Iliirons a list of Canadian birds. In i6j6 he
mentions, among other things, some of the lead-
ing species, such as jay, eagle, crane, etc., and
has li.ft us a lovely piece of word-painting in "his
glowing description of the humming-bird. In
iG6j Pierre Boucher, Governor ofTluec-Kivers,
in an agreeably written memoir, addressed on the
Stii of Ocioi)cr, i66j, to Minister Colbert, at
I'aris, depicted the l)Uiis, mammals, lisiies, etc.,
of New l''rance. In \'oluiiie l, of Baron La
Hontan's ]'oya,i^'cs a V Aiiui-ique, published in
France, in 1703, there occurs an annotated "List
of the Fowls, or Birds, that frequent the South
Countries of Canada " and also a second "List
of the Birds of the North Countries of Canada."
I'"atlier Charlevoi.x, in 17.^5, devotes a few pages
of his voluminous history to the Canadian fauna.
Peter Kahii, the Swedish savant, the friend of
Governor Le Galissonniere, and his guest at the
Chateau St. Louis, at Quebec, in 1749, in an
edition of his Travels republished in London in
1777, furnishes plates of American birds and
mammals, Thomas Jefferys, Geographer to His
Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, in an
elaborate folio voliune issued in London, in 1760,
devoted a few pages to the avi-fauna of Canada.
The year 1831 gave us Swainson's and Richard-
son's standard work on the birds of the fur
countries : Fauna Boreali- Americana.

In 1853 the Hon. George W. Allan, of Toronto,
furnished a list of the land birds wintering in
the neighbourhood of that city. In 1S57 a Com-
mittee of Canaiiian naturalists, Messrs. Billings,
Barnstoii, IIall,Vennor and D'Urban founded in

Montreal a monthly magazine, the Canadian
Xaturalist and Geolof^isl. This valuable store-
house of many good things flourished for twelve
years and 1} still of daily reference. Three years
later, in 1S60, I piiblishetl, at (Jmhec, under the
title Ornifltolu^ie du Canada, in two volumes, the
first i'"runch work edited in Canada uptm Can-
adian birds. Professor William Ilincks, of
Kingston, furnished, in 1866, a list of Canadian
birds observed by Mr. Tiiomas Mcllwraith
around Hamilton. In i8b8 an industrious
entomologist, the Rev. Abbe Louis Provancher,
started at Quebec a monthly publication, Le
Xaturaliste Canadien, wiiich, with the aid of a
Government subsidy, he kept up for fourteen
years. Canadian birds often found a corner in
it, though not a large one. The work has since
been continued up to the present time. Mr.C. E.
Dionne, the Ta.xidermist of the Laval University,
Quebec, brought out, in 1883, a useful volume,
I.es Oieaiix du Canada. Si.\ years later, in 1889,
he supplemented it with -a Catalogue dcs Oiseanx
dc la Province de Quebec, a carefully prepared
record. We owe to Messrs. J. A. Morden, of
Hyde Park, London, Ontario, and W. E.Saunders,
also of London, Ontario, well prepared notes on
the feathered tribes of Western Canada, whilst an
erudite FYllow of the Royal Society of Canada,
the latj Dr. J. Bernard Gilpin, of Nova Scotia,
drew attention to the birds of pr-.y of his native
Province.

In IMS I the late William Couper edited, in
Montreal, a valuable little monthly journal.
The Canadian Sportsman and Naturalist, to which
for three years, our leading field-naturalists and
amateurs generally contributed useful notes and
observations. Among other reliable records, it
contained Mr. Ernest T. Wintle's list of birds
observed round Montreal. Mr. Wintle has since
published this list, with most valuable annotations,
in a se|)arate volume ; thus rendering yeoman's
service to the cause of Ornithology in Canada.
In 1886 that veteran field-naturalist, Thomas Mc-
llwraith, of Hamilton, Ontario, put forth his
excellent treatise. The Birds of Ontario, and re-
edited it in 1894 witii elaborate notes. It is tiie
standard work for the avi-fauna of Ontario and
was published by William Briggs, Toronto. In
1887 Montague Chamberlain, late of Si. John,

CANADA: AN KNCVCI.UI'.KDIA.

361

N.li., published his useful Calulo^iie of Ciinadiiin
Birds ; ami in iHHH this industrious writer, one of
tiie founders of the American Ornithoiogisls'
Union, published his elaborate work, .1 System-
atic Table of Canadian Jiirds. I must not omit
mention here of my former neighbom* at Sillery,
tlie late John Neilson, 1 rovincial Land Surveyor
and a zealous student of the bird-world.

Canadian Ornithology is also indebted to the
late Dr. T. 1). Cottle, of Woodstock, Ontario,
fur a List of tlie Birds found in Upper Canada in
1S59. To H. Hadlield, " Ijirds of Canada ob-
served near Kingston during the spring of 1858 " '>
to A. Murray, "Contributions to the Natural
History of the Hudson's Bay Territories," 1858 ;
to J. F. Whiteavls, "Notes on Canadian Hirds,
1870"; to A. L. Adams, "Field and Ft)rest
Rambles, with Notes and Observations on the
Natural History of Eastern Canada, 1873"; to
the late Dr. J. H. Gamier, of Lucknow, Ontario ;
to Professor Macoun, of Ottawa, Ontario; to
Professor J. I. Bull, of Kingston, Ontario; to
Ernest E. Seton Thompson, Toronto, Ontario,
(now of New York); to \V. A. O. Lees, of King-
ston, Ontario ; to John I'^annin, of Victoria, B.C.;
to W. L. Scott and George R. White, Ottawa,
Ontario; to Harold Gilbert and James W. Banks,
St. John, N.B.; to A. H. Mackay, of Halifa.x,
N.S.; to Napoleon A. (Cornea u, of Natasquhan,
P.Q.; to the Kev. Duncan Anderson, Chaudi(5re
Basin, P.O.; and to others whose names escape
me, due credit must be given for their contribu-
tions to Zoology, etc. The Bulletins of the
Natural History Society of New Brunswick and
the Transactions of the Ottawa Field Naturalist
Club have also proved usefid auxiliaries to the
cause of natural science in Canada.

Such are some of the materials available to
stuiients of Canadian bird-life. Such, 1 may
add, is the ornithological outfit of our vast Do-
minion for the prosecution of research in this
attractive branch of human knowledge. I-'or the
present, I purpose to confine myself to enumer-
ating the birds found in the Province of Quebec.
The avifauna of Ontario in the main is similar
to that of the Province of Quebec, with the ex-
ception that the severity of our winter and our
proximity to salt water brings us occasionally
accidental visitors of the bird world, hardly met

with in Ontario. Subjoined is a list of 54 species,
among tlie 317 mentioned in Mcllwraith's iiin/s
of Ontario, i8()^, und which also belong to Que-
bec— with the exception of the Meadow Lark,
one of which Mr. Dio;.ne, Taxidermist, mounted
in the flesh, at Quebec, in 1S96 ; and the other,
the levelling Grosbeak,one of which was brought
to him to be mounted in 1895, and one in 1897.
These latter are recorded as pertaining to the
avi-faun.i of Ontario and do not appear in Dionne's
Catalof^itc \nti[)arcd in 1889:

HiKus Common to Ontauio and QiKBiic.

A. o. I', t iiKCK List.'

Brunnich's Murre 31

Laughing (iuU 58

Franklin Gull 59

Caspian Tern 64

Cabot's " 67

Foster's " 69

American While Pelican 125

Trumpeter Swan , 181

Glossy Ibis 1S6

Snowy Heron 1(^7

Whooping Crane 204

Sandhill Crane 206

Black Rail 216

Purple G alii mile 218

American Avocet 225

Stilt Sand-piper 233

Baird's " 241

Curlew " 244

Willet 258

Ruff 260

Long-billed Curlew 264

Bob-white (quail) 289

Richardson's Grouse 297b

Prairie Hen 305

Wild Turkey 310

Turkey Vulture 325

Swallow-tailed Kite 327

Western Red-tail 3J7b

Audubon's Caracara 362

American Barn Owl 365

Screech Owl 373

Red-bellied Woodpecker 409

Scissor-tailed Flycatcher 443

• Noi K. These numbers ate those given in the American Orni-
ihologisls' Union Club List.

r

362

CANADA AN KNCVCLOI'.KDIA.

i ^I

I

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I

Acadian I'ly catclier 465

Muadowlark 501

Orchard Oriole 50b

Eveninj; Grosbeak 514

Greenland KeilpoU 5^7

Hoary Redpoll 5-27 a

Grasshopper Spairow 546

Lark Sparrow 552

Cardinal 51)3

Dickcessel 604

Rough-\vin{;eil Swallow 617

Prothonotary Warbler 637

Golden-winged " ()4^

Orange-crowned " 646

Cerulean Warbler ()58

Lousiana Water Thrush 676

Connecticut Warbler 67S

Yellow-breasted Chat 683

Hooded Warbler 684

Mockingbird 703

Carolina Wren 718

Blue-grey Gnatcatchcr 751

Dionne's Catalo'^ue records the occurrence of
273 species of birds in the Province of (,hiebec,
whilst 317 are credited to the Province of Onta-
rio by McIKvraith. Owing probably to the more
genial temperature of that Province and to the
existence of the Great Lakes within its borders,
so attractive to beach birds, several southern
species sojourn there, without extending their
spring migration as far north as Quebec. On the
other hand our northern latitudes and greater
proximity to the Gulf of St. Lawrence and sea
shores bring us many intertisting members of the
feathered tribe not met with in Ontario.

The Birds ov tmk Pkovinck 01 Oukukc.

A. O. U. Check List,

Western Grebe i

Holbocll's " 2

Horned " 3

Pied-bill " 6

Loon (Great Northern Diver) 7

Black-throated Loon 9

Red-throated " 11

Common i^uffin 13

Black Giiillciiiot 27

White-breasted Guillemot 30

Brunnicli's Murre 31

Razor-billed Auk

Gieat Auk

Dovckie (Sea Uove)

Pomarine Jaeger

Parasitic "

Long-taileil "

Ivory Gull

Kittiwake

Glaucus Gull

Icehuul Gull

Great-black-back Gull

American Herring "

Ring-billed "

Siiort " "

Bonaparte's

Casp m Tern (Sea Swallow;...

Common "

Arctic "

Least "

Black Tern

Yellow-billed Albatross

Black Puffin

Stormy Petrel

Gannet (Solan Goose)

Cormorant

Double Crested Cormorant ....

Man-of- War Bi rd

American Moi ganser

Red-Breasted "

Hooded "

Mallard

Black Duck

Gad wall

Baldpate (American Widgeon).

Green-v.'inged Teal

Blue " •'

Shoveller Duck

Pintail "

Wood "

Red-head "

Canvas-back"

American Scaup Duck

Blue-billed Lesser Duck

Ring-necked Duck

Golden Eye Duck

Barrow's Golden Eye Diirk....

Buffalo-headeil Duck

Old Squaw (Kowheeu) Duck.
Harlequin Duck

32
33

34
36

i7
?8

39
40
42
43
47
51
54
55
60

64

70
71
74
77
«3

97
106
117
119
120
128
129
130

131
132

I3i

135
^2,7
139
140
142
M3

M4
146

147
I.; 8
149
150.
151
152
153
154
15s

CANADA : AN ICNCYCLOI'/KDIA.

3^',?

Northern Elder Duck 150

American " " (Mouniac) i<)()

King " " i()^

American Scoter " . i6j

White-Winged " 165

Surf Scoter " lUG

Ruddy " i()7

Greater Snow Goose i6(j.i

American White-fronted Goose 171a

Wild Goose, Canada 172

Brant 17J

American Swan 180

Glossy Ibis iMC

American Bittern 190

Least Bittern Kjia

Great Blue Heron 194

American Egret 196

Blue Heron 200

Black-crowned Night Heron 202

Virginia Rail 212

Sora " 214

Yellow " 215

Florida Gallinule 219

American Coot 221

Red Phalarope 222

Northern Phal.irope 223

Wilson's " 224

European Woodcock 227

American " 228

Wilson's Snipe 230

Dowitcher 231

Red-breasted Snipe 234

Purple Sand-piper 235

Pectoral " 239

White-rumped Sand-piper 240

Least " 242

Red-bricKed " 243a

Semi-palmated " 246

Sanderlinfi " 248

Marbled Godwit 249

Hudsonian Godwit •. 251

Greater Yellow-legs 254

Yellow Legs 255

Solitary Sand-piper 236

Bartamian " (Field Plover) 261

BufF-breasted Sand-piper 262

Spotted " 263

Hudsonian Curlew 265

Eskimo " 266

Black-bellied Plover »...,! 2*/0

American Golden Plover 2^2

Killdeer " 273

Semi-palmated " 274

Piping " 277

Turnstone 283

Canada Grouse (Spruce Partridge) 298

Ruffed " 300

Willow Ptarmigan 301

Rock " 301

Sharp-tailed Grouse 302

Passenger Pigeon 315

Mourning Dove 316

Marsh Harrier 331

Sharp-shinned Hawk ^^2

Cooper's Hawk ij,i

American Goshawk 334

Red-tailed Hawk ]]y

Red-shouldered Hawk 339

Swainson's Hawk 342

Broad-winged Hawk 343

American rough-legged Hawk 3^7a

Golden Eagle 349

Bald " 352

White Gyrfalcon 353

Black Hawk 354

Duck " 356

I'igeon " 357

Sparrow " 360

Osprey 364

American Long-eared Owl 366

Short-eared Owl 367

Barred " 36S

Great Grey " 370

Richardson's Owl 371

Saw-whet Owl ]J2

Screech " ]j\

Great Horned Owl 375

Dusky " " 375c

Snowy Owl 376

American Hawk Owl 377^

Yellow-billed Cuckoo 387

Black " " 38S

Kingfisher 390

Hairy Woodpecker 393a

Downy " 394

Arct ic-three-toed Woodpecker 400

Great American three-toed Woodpecker ... 401

Yellow-bellied Woodpecker 402

«•

i=

r

.V'4

JANADA : AN KNCYCLOl'.KDIA.

!

Pilenteil \\'oo(l[)i;ckcr 405

kcd-lictuicil " 4i)()

I'lickur Golden-winced Wooc' pecker 412

Wliip-poor-vvill \ij

Nij,'lif: Hawk 4J(,

Chiiiiney Swallow }jj

Kuby-throated Hiiniiiiiiijjbird 4^8

Kiiifjbird-Tyraiit I'Mjcatcher 444

Crested Flycatcher 45J

Pluebe " 456

Olive-sided Flycatcher 459

W'oo.j IVwee " }()i

Yellow belliLHi " 463

Alder " jfjGu

Least " 467

Horned Lark 474

Prairie " 474b

American Maf,'pie 475

nine Jay 477

Canada Jay 4S4

Northern KavtMi 4h6a

American Crow 4S8

Bobolink 494

Cowbird 495

Yellow-headed Blackbird 497

Ked-winged " 498

Meadow Lark 501

Baltimore Oriole 507

Rusty Blackbird 509

Bronzed Grackle 511b

Pine Grosbeak 515

Purple Finch 517

American Crossbill 5-''i

White-winged Crossbill 522

Redpoll 528

Holboell's Redpoll 528a

American Goliitinch 529

Pine Siskin 533

House Sparrow

Snowflake; Snowbird 534

Lapland Longspur 536

Vesper Sparrow 5 40

Savanna " 542a

Acadian sharp- tailed Sparrow 54')b

White-crowned Sparrow 554

White-throated " 558

Tree " 559

Chipping " 5bo

Field " 563

Slate coloured J unco, (Wilson's Snowbird) 567

Song Sparrow 581

Lincoln's Spat row 583

Swamp " 584

I'""X " 585

Towhce 587

Rosc-brcastcd Grosbeak 595

liluu Grosbeak 597

Indigt) Bird 598

Scarlet Tanager (jo8

Vermilion Tanager (Summer Redbird) Oio

Purple Martin 611

Cliff Swallow 612

Barn " O13

Tree " O14

Bank " 616

Bohemian Waxwing 618

Ced.ir " 619

Northern Shrike 621

White-rumped Shrike 622a

Reil-ejed Vireo 624

Yellow-green Vireo 628

Warbling " 627

Yellow-throated \'ireo 628

JUue-headed " 629

lilack and White Warbler 636

Orange-crcjwned

Nashville

Tennessee

Parula

Cape May

Yellow

Black-throated blue

Myrtle

Magnolia

Chestiuit-sided

Bay-breasted

Black Poll

Blackburnian

Black-throated green

Pine

Yellow Palm

(^43
645
647
648
650
652

654
655
657
(>59
660
66 1
662
667
671
672a

Oven bird ; Golden-crowned Warbler 674

Water Thrush 675

Kentucky Warbler 677

Mourning " 679

Maryland Yellow-throat 681

Wilson's Warbler 685

Canadian " 686

CANADA; AN HNCVCI.OI'.KDIA.

^'S

' *

American Rt'dstart 6.S7

Aiiu.'rican I'ipit ()M7

Catbird 704

Thrasher (Brown Thnisli) 703

House wren "jii

Winter wren 722

Long-billed Wren 725

lirown Creeper yiU

White-breasted Nuthatch 727

Red " " 728

Black-capped riiiekadee 735

Hudsonian " 740

Golden-crowned Kinglet 74.^

Ruby " " 74<j

Wood Thrush 755

Wilson's Thrush 756

Grey-cheeked Thrush 757

Olive-backed " 758a

Hermit Thrush 759b

American Robin 761

Stonechat 7(>5

Bluebird 766

The Laval University Museum contains a
specimen of tlie Yellow-billed Albatross, a strag-
gler, no doubt, from the Pacific coast. It was
shot on the 22nd August, 1885, at the mouth of
the River Moisie, on the North Shore of the
Lower St. Lawrence. In the Natural History
Museum at Montreal may be seen a specimen

of the Labrador Duck, a species nearly extinct.
It was shot at I.aprairie, opposite Montreal, in
the spring of iHf)2 and is figured in Mr. ICrnest
T. Wintle's liinh of Montreal, i8()f). My own
collection at Spencer Grange cmilains a hand-
some specimen of the Glossy Ibis, siiot in a flock
of live on the beech of Descliiimbault, by I'aul
J. Charlton, of Quebec, in 1X04. The King
iCider, Sharp-tailed (iroiise, 151ue Grosbeak, Man-
of-war IJird and Fhiiadelphia V'ireo, which liave
been met in the Province of Quebec, are not
quoted in Mc II wraith's Birth of Ontario. The
Dusky Horned Owl (375, A.O.U.), of which Mr.
Wintle purchased at Montreal a specimen in
1892, shot at Boucherville, P.Q., has not been
met around Quebec. Of the five varieties of
humming-birds preserved in the Geological and
Natural History Museum at Ottawa, \\z., the
Ruby-throated, Black-chinned, Rufus, Allen's,
and the Calliope, one variety only, the Ruby-
throated, visits the gardens of the Province of
Quebec during the summer months. Specimens
of the birds of the Province of Quebec are avail-
alile for inspection at the Geological and Natural
History Rooms, Montreal ; in Ernest T. Wintle's
collection of skins, Montreal ; in Laval University
Museum, in Quebec; in the private collection of
C. E. Dioniie, Curator to the above; in the
Spencer Grange Museum, Sillery, Quebec.

" *•

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i

v.,

CANADIAN ENTOMOLOGY

BV

The RRV. C. I. S. HETHUNK, M.A., D.C.I.., F.R.S.C., Hditor of the l \iii,i,/i,in i:ntuinologist.

THE liistory of LMitomology in C;iii;i<i;i
covers a i)eri()(l of very little more than
half a century. The early settlers of
this country were too much occupied
with the labourious task of cleariiif^ the forests for
cultivation to pay much attention to its natural
history. The fur-beariujjanimals ami tjaine birds
were always objects of {jreat interest, and their
habits were well known, but the lesser creatures
that peopled the woods and swamps and fields
were little regarded, except when they made
themselves obnoxious in the form of mosquitoes
and flies. The first person to draw attention to
the beauties of nature in Canada was Mr. Philip
H. Gosse, an Englishman, who tried his hand at
farming at Coinpton in the Eastern Townships,
P.Q., and in the winter taught the little country
school. In 1840 he published The Canadian
Naturaliat (Van Voorst, London), in which he
most delightfully described the natural history of
Lower Canada. The work is in the form of a
series of conversations supposed to be carried on
between a father and son during each month of
the year, and describes, in a most charming
manner, the ever-changing beauties of the land-
scape, the woods and fields, rivers and brooks,
flowers, trees and plants, insects, birds and lessei
beasts, as they come and go. Many a lover of
nature has had his interest quickened and his
knowledge increased by the perusal of this book,
and from its pages most of our earlier Entomol-
ogists learnt the names of some of our commonest
butterflies, moths and beetles. There were not
very many insects described, but stili it was a
beginning, and, undoubtedly, it encouraged others
to study and observe for themselves when the
way was thus charmingly pointed out. Mr. Gosse
subsequently returned to England, and became
a naturalist of distinction, and the author of

:ii>*j

many popular books on natural history subjects.

While I reganl Gosse as the first Canadian
Entomologist, inasmuch as he lived in the country
and described what he saw and collected in his
own neighbourhood, it must not be overlooked
that travellers had made collections in purts of
Canada even before him. The most notable ex-
pedition, as far as entomology is concerned, was
under the command of the famous Arctic explorer.
Sir John Franklin, k.n., who came to this country
in 1825 and made a scientific exploration of the
almost unknown regions from the head of Lake
Superior to the Mackenzie River. A consider-
able number of insects were collected, chiefly
beetles, and were subsequently described, most
of them being new to science, by the Rev. William
Kirby, k.k.s. Four large quarto volumes, hand-
somely illustrated, were published by Sir John
Richardson, one of the party, on his return to
England. The first three volumes were published
in London in 1S29 and contained descriptions of
the vvild animals, birds and flshes collected during
the two years spent in the North- West ; but the
fourth volume did not appear till 1S37 and was
published at Norwich. It is entirely devoted to
the descriptions of the insects found throughout
that region of country. The whole work bears
the title of " Richardson's Fauna Boreali-Ame-
ricana." Very few copies reached Canada, and
the fourth volume was consequently so scarce
and unattainable by students that it was reprint-
ed in the Canadian Entomologist in 1870-76 with
notes on synonymy, etc., by the Editor and after-
wards issued in book form.*

In 1848 Professor Louis Agassiz, the famous

*NoTK. Insects of the Northern parts of liriti.sh America, com-
piled l)y the Rev. C.J. S. Hethune from Kirby's Fauna Boreali-
Amerieana: In.secta; with a supplement on the Coleoptera by Dr.
Oeortje II. Horn, of Philadelphia. Published by the Entomolo-
gical Society of Ontario. I vol. 8vo., pp. 170.

CANADA; AN' KNCVCI.OP.r.DIA.

3«7

iiiittirulist, formed u party fur tliu sciuiitil'u:
exploration of the northern sliorcs of Lake
Superior, and afterwards piiljlished a voliune on
its " Physical character, vegetation and aniinals."
Dr. Jolin L. Lu Conte, the eminent Coieopterist,
who was one of the party, rnado a lar^je collection
of beetles, and coiitrihiited a chapter to the work,
in wiiich he^jave a li;U of several hundred specitis,
many of which he described for the hist time.
The few butterflies and moths collected were
dcscrihed by Dr. T. W. Harris, author of the
well-known "Treatise on the injurious insects of
Massachusetts." The next evimt in the annals
of Canadian entomology was the publication of
a series of papers by Mr. William Couper, in the
Canadian Journal, Toronto (Vol. II., 1855-4), en-
titled " The Naturalist's Calen.lar." . In these
the author Rave the dates of appearance of a
number of butterflies, moths and other insects
during the spring and summer, and notes on
winter collecting. In the succee<ling volume
(i'^55) he began a series of valuable papers on
Canadian Coleoptera, in which he described a
large number of the more conspicuous species of
beetles. They were found very useful in later
years by the writer and other young collectors,
who were enabled by their means to identify their
captures. Mr. Couper's pioneer work was sup-
plemented by Professor Croft, of the University
of Toronto, who gave a list of the beetles he had
collected in that neighbourhood, and by Mr. F.
H. Ibbotson, Assistant Commis .^ry-General,
Montreal, who added the names of the species
that he had obtained in Upper.and Lower Canada.
It is significant that the latter was only able to
give the names of 120 species out of the 780 that
he had collected ; so little was known at that time
of the insect fauna of this country. In the same
magazine (April, 1854) there also appeared an
article by Dr. Thomas Cottle, of Woodstock,
•'On some of the Canadian Saturiae, and sugges-
tions on the possibility of using their silk for
textile purposes." For this paper the distinction
may be claimed of being the first Canadian con-
tribution to economic entomology.

While a few enthusiastic naturalists were thus
beginning to extend the knowledge of systematic
entomology, the whole community were com-
pelled to turn their attention to the economic

importance of insects by the terrible r.ivages
inflicted upon the grain crops of the countiy by
two minute foes, the Wheat Midge and the
Hessim I'ly. The Win-it Miilgo (Ccculomytn
trilici), tlu)ugh long known in Europe for its
destruetivo powers, was not observed on this side
of the Atlantic till the year iHio, when it appeared
in north-western Vermont. It had probably been
brought over a few yi'.irs earlier by shipping to
Quebec or Montreal, but was umioticed untd its
ravages became serious. In 1828 it became so
numerous and destructive as to cause considera-
ble alarm in Lower Canaila and the neighbouring
State of Vermont, and from that year onward it
continued to increase and spread till it gradually
swept over almost all the wheat-producing regions
of North America and became a frightful scourge
to the whole community. In 1S54 the loss caused
by this tiny insect in the State of New York alone
was estimated, after placing everything at the
losvest figure in order to avoid exaggeration, at
fifteen millions of dollars. Three years later it
destroyed one-third of the entire wheat crop of
the Province of Upper Canada, amounting to
upwards 01" eight million bushels, and it continued
its work of destruction, varying slightly from year
to year, down even to iSOS, when its ravages
were reported to be " something frightful to con-
template." Since that time it has ceased to be
a serious pest in this country, ov/ing largely to
improved varieties of grain being sown and more
intelligent methods of farming being employed,
as well as to the counteracting influences of its
natural enemies.

The Hessian Fly {Cecidomyia destructor) received
its name from the popular belief that it was im-
ported from Europe in straw brought by the
Hessian soldiers during the War of Independence
in 1776. Its injuries were first observed in Lower
Canada in 1816, and it was not till thirty years
later that it became troublesome in Upper Can-
ada. Since that time it has continued its ravages
upon the wheat crops, and seldom a year passes
by that we do not sea mention made in the crop
returns of Ontario of damage done here and
there by this very destructive insect. In 1856 so
serious was the loss occasioned by these two
insects to the farmers, and consequently to the
whole community, and so widespread was the

'! I

36I

CANADA AN KNCYCI.OI'.F.DIA.

alarm crc.itcd liy tlu-m tli.it tlic (ii)vcMiiiii(iit of
Canuda was iinpellcd to taku uctioti and tlic
Hiiroaii of A^i icultiiri! olTen-d prizes for tiu; tliito
brat Kssa\sotl tliiisc ami any otlier iiiscits that
affi!Cli'd tlu: wlu-at crops. Out of tui-iuy-two
coinpctitois Professor II. V. Iliiid, of Trinity
Colk'^^c, 'rnroiito, w.is awardt'd tin; first |)ri/.: of
forty pounds ciirnnu y, and ins ICssay w.is pnh-
lislu'd l)y tliu Department aiul widely distril)iiteil
tlirougliout tliu two Provinces of Canada. The
second jirize of twenty-lis'c pounds w.is aw.irdcd
to tho Rev. (ieorj^e Hill, Rector of Markliani,
who puhlisheii his I'-ssay at his own expense.
These Wire the first pnhlic.itions on economic
entomoloj4y appearing; in this country and they
thus mark an epoch in tlu; history of the scitine
in Canada. The excellent Essay of Profissor
Hind hroiif^ht into a convenient and accessible
form all that was known at that time repardiii),'
the life histories of these two formidable pests
and the best methods of dealing with them ; it is
still a useful work of rt'ference and may be con-
sulted with advantage by any one interested in
the habits and ravaf^es of these insects.

It seems stranjje that the Government of the day
were content merely tnpublish and distribute this
Essay, when the losses annu.illy caused by insects
wore amounting to many inillons of dollars. We
should naturally have expected that they would
have followed the example of the neighbouring
State of New York and appointed a competent
Entomologist to study the life histories of the
injurious insects affecting not only grain but other
field crojis, and fruits and vegetables as well.
But nothing further was done and it was left to
private indivitiuals in later years to do the work
and supply the information that was so badly
needed then. In February, 1857, Mr. K. Hillings,
who subsecjiuMitly became eminent as a paleon-
tologist, began the publication of a bi-monthly
magazine at Montreal called " The Canadian
Naturalist and Geologist," which proved to be
of the utmost interest and value to all those who
paid any attention to the living or fossil remains
to be found in this country. In the second vol-
ume attention began to be paid to entomolog),
and a st.ries of papers appeared by Mr. W. S. M.
D' Urban on the Butterflies of Canada, and by
Mr, William Couper on the distribution of insects

iiid the muthwds of cullecling aiul preserving
tiicm. These were followed in Hubse(|iient years
by a steadily increasing number of papers by ad-
ditional writers, among whom may be mentioned
the f.iiiiiliar names of I >r. I.cC'onte on " I'iie Co|-
eoptera of Hudson's May Territory " ; Mr. I). W.
Hi'adle, " List of the Coli-optera of St. Ciithar-
iues"; .Mr. William Samiilers, " List of the But-
terllies of London, C. \\."; Dr. R. Bell on "The
Natural History of the Ciulf of St. Lawrence."
Tliese entomological contributions wcio hi/^hly
valued by Canadian collectors and aided many a
young student in the identification of his speci-
mens and a systematic knowl(;dge of the subject.
Tho study of insects gradually became more
widespread, and enthusiastic colleclois w< re en-
couraged to persevere in their isolat(d efforts.

Wo now come to tho most important event
in the history of this branch of science — the for-
mation of the Canadian Entomological Society.
In l^(>4 Mr. William Saunders and the writer
prepared a list of the Entomologists in Canada,
which was published in the Camuliun Nalitralist
and (ic'ol(i<;ist. It contained only thirty-six names,
but it led to great things in the future. The
iinme<liate result of the publication was the
determination to hold a meeting in Toronto and
to make some effort for the establishment of a
society, in onler to bring together the isolated
workers in this department of science, and
unite them all in friendly co-operation. A meet-
ing was accordingly held on the 26th of Septem-
ber at the residence of Professor Croft, at which
ten gentlemen were present. They were all very
enthusi.isfic, and determined upon the formation
of a Canailian Entomological Society, but, owing
to the smallness of the number present, df finite
action w.is postponed till another meeting could
be held. On the 16th of April following (18G3)
the Entomological Society of Canada was duly
organized, Dr. Henry Cr(jft, Professor of Chem-
istry in the University of Toronto, being the first
President, Mr. William Saunders, London,
Secretary-Treasurer, and the Rev. Professor
Hubbert, of Knox's College, Toronto, Curator;
about twenty-five persons we;e enrolled as
original members. Regular meetings were held,
and a series of useful papers were jmblished in
the Caiuiiliait Jvuriial, Toronto, the first of these

I

i. t

«

fANADA: AV KNCYCI.OI'.KDIA.

.V")

buiii^ " NDClurii.il I^piilopterii loiiiid in Cniiiid.i,"
by tliu K»!V. (". J. S. liuttidiit;, siiid !i " Synopsis
of Ciiniidiaii Arcti.itiif," by Mr. Willi. uii Saun-
dern.

The Society Krew rapidly and atlriu^tt'd into
its ranks all wiio wcru iiitcrusti.d in collcctiiiK or
stiidyinfi iiism ts in Canada. At tlu; clusc of its
first yi:ar its niiniburs wurc nioiu than <|(iiil)lc-d
and uctivu branches \V(;ro forniud at London and
yuobcc. In lS()4 it issued its tirst publication —
n label list of C'lnadian Lepidoptera which con-
tained the names of I44 species of iUittertlies,
Hawk Mollis and Honibyces. This was followetl
during the next year (iHf)5) by 11 fnrtlu^r list of
350 species, which included Noctinnal Moths
and Geometers. In 1867 a label list of Canadian
Coleoptera was pnblisheil, containing' the names
of 55 families, 4.}^ fji^nera and 1231 s|)ecies. The
l»rogrcss thus effected may be nnderstood when
it is mentioned that this was a number nearly
ten tin)es as (;reat as that f,'iven by Mr. Coiiper
in 1S55. ICntomolo^jical work, however, was not
confined to collecting, naming and arranging
specimens; a begiiming was made in its practical
and more generally popular aspect. The Hon.
George Hrown, Editor and pro[)rietor of the
Toronto Globe, had i)egun the publication of a
fortnightly periodical. The Canada Fanner, and in
1865 engaged the present writer, then Secretary
of the Entomological Society, to take charge of
the department relating to noxious and beneficial
insects. This he conducted for eight years and
treated of insect friends and foes in a popular
manner for the benefit and instruction of the
farmers and fruit-growers of Canada.

The year 1868 marks another epoch in the
annals of Canadian entomology. In August the
Society issued the first number of a monthly
magazine. The Canadian Enlomologht, which, as
stated in the introductory article, was to "con-
tain original papers on the classification, descrip-
tion, habits and general history of insects; the
transactions of the Entomological Society of
Canada ; short notices of new books on entomol-
ogy; accounts of the capture of new or rare species,
etc." . It was to be published " not oftener than
once a niontfi, and only when there should be a
sufficiency of suitable matter for publication."
The writer of this paper, at that time Secretary-

L'l

Treasurer of the Society, was appomted Editor,
and conducted the maga/ine during its first six
volumes, lb: was thi-n obliged to resign owing lo
the pressure of other duties, lie was succeed-
ed by Mr. William Saunders, of London,
who edited the next twelve volumes, but was
compelled to ri liiH]uish tlie task in iNSf), when he
was appointed to his present high and anluotis
position of Director of tin: ICxperiinental I'arins
of the Dominion. Tin: first Editor resumed the
position, and has continued to the present time.
At the close of i.SijH ho issued the last number
of his eighteenth volume, the thirtieth of the
Canadian liiitiDHnloi^ist, I'lie magazine long ago
won for itself a high rt^pntation in its own di;|)art-
ment of science, and has attracted contributions
from all the most eminent writers on eiitoniolugy
in th<' United Stales ami Canada. It circulates
through all the civil'zed countrier. of the world,
ami has occasionally published articles by writers
of South Africa and Australia, as well as of Eng-
land, Germany and France. The volinne com-
pleted in 1897 — the twenty-ninth of the series —
contained over three hundred pages of entirely
original matter, and was illustrated with eight full-
page pl.ites, and thirty-six wood cuts ; forty-four
writers contributed to i's pages. It is the only
monthly publication on inse> is in America that
has so long a record of years, and few in any
country can boast of so eminent a list of contri-
butors and a reputation so well maintained.

Very soon after the first issue of the Canadian
Entomologist the late Abbe Leon Provancher
began (in 1S69) the publication of a French mag-
azine which devoted a large portion of its space
to entomological matters. It was called Le Nat-
uralist Canadienne and was maintained by its
zealous Editor, almost single-handed and in
spite of great disadvantages, down to l8g8, when
he completed its twentieth volume. In 1874 he
began a more distinctly scientific work, the Faiine
Entoinologiqiie dn Canada, on which he spent six-
teen years, finishing the first volume, with its
three supplements on the Coleoptera, in 1880;
the second on the Orthoptera, Neuroptera and
Hymenoptera in iSSj; and the last on the Hein-
iptera in iSgo. This earnest naturalist devoted
the greater part of his life to his scientific pur-
suits, and laboured hard and diligently in the

•V

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CANADA: AN KNCVCLOI'.KDIA.

1

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1 /

h

^

K

'■ \

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1

V.

r ,■,

i ';.

r,

1

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L

jj^,^.,;

effort to attract liis fcllow-countryinen m tlio
Province of yimboc to pay more aitcnlion to the
wonders and bc.iuties of nature. In tnis design
he met with much disappointment and httle
encouragement, but still belaboured on, an ardent
votary of science for its own sake. He died at
Cap Rouge, near Quebec, in 1892, in the seventy-
second year of his age. IIis published works,
however defective they may be in some respects,
will prove an enduring monument to his memory,
and will, it is to be hoped, eni;ourage other
French-Canadians to cultivate tl'.e fields of natu-
ral science that he tried so long and so well to
till.

To return to the Entomological Society. By
the year 1870 its work and usefulness had suc-
ceedcil in attracting attention, and were sub-
stantially recognized by a grant of $400 from the
Board of Agriculture and Arts Association of
Ontario. This was given on condition that it
"furnished an annual Report, formed a cabinet
of insects useful and prejudicial to agriculture
and horticulture, and continued the publication
oi the Canadian Entomologist." Tiuis originated
the series of annual Reports of the Society which
have done so much to disseminate throughout
the country a knowledge of our many insect
ericmies and the best methods of dealing with
them. The first Report was issued early in 1871,
and contained essays on the insects affecting the
Apple, by the Rev. C. J. S. Bethune ; the Grape,
by Mr. William Saunders; and the Plum, by Mr.
E. Baynes Reed. The writers confined them-
selves to these three subjects in order to render
as complete as possible an account of all the
injurious insects to be found at that time on these
important fruits. The volume contained 63
octavo pages and was illustrated by 61 wood-cuts,
a figure being given of nearly every insect referred
to. As these illustrations involved an expense
beyond what the limited funds of the Society
could bear, a grant of fifty dollars was made by
the Fruit Growers' Association of Ontario, and an
additional sum of $100 by the Agriculture and
Arts Association. Three thousand copies were
printed and distributed, and so constant has been
the demand for it since that it was reprinted in
1895 bv order of the Minister of Agriculture of
Ontario. That a Report of this kind should be

reprinted at the public cost twenty-five years
after its hrst issue is not only a notable event in
tile annals of the Society but a remarkable testi-
mony to the value and usefulness of the work
done by its members in those early days of its
history.

Entomology was now recognized as a very
important adjunct to agriculture and horticulture,
and its practical usefulness was established. It
not unnaturally followed then that the Society
which did suc-.h good work should receive public
recognition, and accordingly it was incorporated
by the legislature of Ontario in 1871 under the
title of " The Entomological Society of Ontario,"
and given a grant of $500 per annum ; its Presi-
dent, by the same Act of Parliament, became an
ex-officio member of the Bf.ard of Agriculture and
Arts of the Province. The next year the Legis.
lature made an additional grant of $200 for the
purchase of wood-cuts, etc. Up to this time the
Society had no dwelling-place of its own, but was
kindly allowed to make use of the rooms of the
Canadian Institute in Toronto. As this became
inconvenient, the headquarters were removed to
London, which already had a flourishing branch
of the Society, and a room was rented and fitted
up with shelves and cabinets for the accommoda-
tion of the growing library and collections. This
was followed the next year (1873) by an extra
grant of $500 from the Legislature, and the
annual grant in 1874 was increased to $750, at
which sum it continued until 1880, when it was
finally raised to $1,000.

By its constitution, under the Act of Incorpora-
tion, " branches of the Society may be formed in
any place within the Dominion of Canada on a
written application to the Society from at least six
persons resident in the locality." As already men-
tioned, a branch had been early formed at London,
and continued in vigourous life till 1881, when it
was found more convenient that it should be
merged in the parent Society. In 1871a branch was
formed at Kingston under the auspices of Mr. R.
V. Rogers, and continued in active operation for
some years. In October, 1873, a branch was
organized at Montreal, with Mr. William Couper
as President, and has continued to flourish down
to the present time. For many years past it has
owed much to the ability and generosity of Mr.

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CANADA: AN ENCYCLOIMCDIA.

371

Henry H. Lyman, its President, at whose house
most of its meetings have been held. It has
recently celebrated its tweaty-fifth anniversary by
a general meeting of the Society, a conversazione,
etc., in Montreal (November 8th and gtii, 1898),
and Mr. Lyman was deservedly elected I'resident
of tile parent Society at the annual meeting in
1897 in recognition of his services to tiie branch,
and of his attainments in scientific entomology.
Very early in the history of the Society a branch
was formed at Quebec, but it ceased to exist in
1872, when its President, tiie lat^a Mr. G. J.
Bowles, removed to Montreal. It was revived
again last year as the result of a series of lectures
on natural science given in Morrin College by the
Rev. T. W. Fyles, who was very properly elected
President. Almost at the same time a branch
was formed at Toronto by the affiliation of a local
Societyunder the Presidency of Mr. E. V. Rippon.
Both these new branches are very vigourous and
doing much good work. Thus has the influence
and usefulness of the Society become more and
more widely diffused.

Returning to our annals we find the year 1876
marked by the exhibit of a largecollection of insects
formed by the Society at the Centennial Exhibi-
tion at Philadelphia, U.S. To aid in its prepara-
tion the Society had received an extra grant of
$500 from the Legislature of Ontario during the
preceding year. The collection consisted of
forty-five cases of butterflies and moths; twenty-
seven of beetles and fourteen of insects of other
orders ; eighty-six in all, which formed a double
row upon a table over seventy-five feet long, and
attracted very great attention. This collection
was subsequently exhibited at Ottawa, in 1879,
when it was awarded the Dominion Gold Medal,
and in 1883 at the Fisheries Exhibition in Lon-
don, England, for which the Society received a
silver medal. Since then it has been kept in the
rooms of the Society in order to avoid any risk
of injury from transportation or exposure. Dur-
ing the year 1883 there was published an admir-
able work by Dr. William Saunders on " Insects
Injurious to Fruits." It contained the results of
twenty years' study of entomology in both its
practical and scientific aspects, combined with
an extensive knowledge of fruit culture. The
book has been highly appreciated by fruit-growers

and gardeners in Canada and the Eastern and
Middle States of North America, and its useful-
ness has been attested by the publication of a
second edition in 1892. It is enough to say that
it is thti best manual of the kind in the English
language.*

The history of entomology in Canada becomes
now the record of the work of the Entomological
Society of Ontario, inasmuch as it includes with-
in its ranks all the students of this department of
science in the Dominion. What this work
means is chiefly manifested by the goodly array
of thirty volumes of the monthly magazine, the
Canadian Entomologist, and twenty-eight volumes
of the annual Reports. There are also to be
found in the rooms of the Society at London a
large number of cabine ■« filled with specimens
of insects of ail orders and a valuable scientific
library containing over 1,500 volumes. The
annual Reports were for some few years prepared
by the three writers already mentioned, Messrs.
Saunders, Reed and Bethune. Other contributors
gradually made their appearance and in course
of time over fifty Canadian writers are found to
have furnished articles, besides many from the
United States. Among those who have contrib-
uted important papers may be mentioned G. J.
Bowles, Quebec; Dr. W. Brodie, Tor nto; F. B.
Caulfield, Montreal; W. Couper, Montreal ; J.
Dearness, London ; Dr. James Fletcher, Ottawa ;
Rev. T. W. Fyles, South Quebec ; Captain G.
Geddes, Toronto ; W. H. Harrington, Ottawa;
J.G.Jack, Chateaugeay Basin; Henry H. Lyman,
Montreal; J. A. Moffat, London; Professor J. H.
Panton, Guelph ; R. V. Rogers, Kingston ; Rev.
G. W. Taylor, Victoria, B.C. The Reports have
contained full and complete papers on the life
histories and best modes of dealing with the
insects injurious to the apple, grape, plum, cur-
rant and gooseberry, potato, cabbage, strawberry,
wheat, hops, maple and other trees, domestic
animals, also on beneficial insects, spiders, ants,
locusts and grasshoppers, blistering beetles, wood-
borers, silk-producers, scale insects and numer-
ous others. In fact all the insects that from year
to year have forced themselves upon the attention

'Insects Injurious to Fruits, by William Saunders, ll.d,
F R.s.c, P.L.S., F.C.S., Editor of the Canadian Ente.nologist, e\c.
Illustrated witti 440 wood cuts. Philadelphia : J. B. Lipp ncott
Company, 1883, I vol., 8vo., pp. 436. Second Eldiiion, 1893

'mS

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CANADA : AN EXCVCLOIM-IDIA

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of farmers, fruit growers and ganlenors liave been
dealt with in an able and exliaustivo manner in
these voliiiiifs. The result har been the dissemi-
nation throughout the community of a general
knowledge of insect friends and foes and the
best nu'lliods of dealing with them, in place of
the dense ignorance that formerly prevailed. The
financial saving to thecotnitrj' in consequence of
the intelligent use of reiiicclies, such as spraying
witharsenicals, washing with kerosine emulsion,
etc., is beyond calculation, but must in the aggre-
gate amount to an immense sum. The aid given
to the Society by the Legislature has been
amply justified and abundantly repaid.

While the Society is essentially devoted to
entomology, it has attracted to itself a number of
persons interested in other departments of science
and in consequence series of sections have bee.i
formed at London which meet in the rooms of
the Society and devote themselves to Botany,
Microscopy, Geology and Ornithology. The
head-quarters have thus become a centre of sci-
entific work for South-Western Ontario. It is
noteworthy also that five of the more prominent
members of the Society have been elected Fellows
of the Royal Society of Canada. Before closing
this record I must not omit to mention the
recognition of the importance of entomology by
the Government of the Dominion of Canada. In
1S85 Dr. James Fletcher, one of the most active
and distinguished members of the Society, was
appointed Honourary Entomologist of the De-
partment of Agriculti reat Ottawa, and two years
later his present position of Entomologist and
Botanist of the Experimental Farms of the
Domi.iion was conferred upon him. His work
extends from ocean to ocean and he is compelled
to travel in the discharge of his duties over all
the Provinces from Nova Scotia to British Col-
umbia. With very little assistance in his office
he conducts a voluminous correspondence with
farmers and fruit-growers all over the Dominion,
gives lectures and addresses on Insects, plants
and weeds all over the country and at the same
time carries on much careful scientific work. His
name and reputation are widely known not only
in Canada but in the United States as well, and
no one stands higher in the estitnation of compe-
tent judges as a thoroughly able, practical and

scientific Entomologist. From this necessarily
brief record it will be seen that entomology in
Canada has made remarkable progress during the
last five and thirty years, and has proved to be
of the utmost importance to all who are interested
in the products of forest and fiild, orchard and
garden ; to all the people in fart who inhabit the
fertile lands of the Dominion of Canada.

To give any detailed account of the insects of
Canada would be a formidable task and one that
would require v<ilumes for its fullilment. More-
over comparatively little is yet known of the ento-
mological fauna of the vast region stretching
from Lake Superior to the Pacific Ocean. In
the Eastern Provinces, that is in Ontario and
the country between it and the Atlantic, much
collecting has been done and great attention has
been paid of late years to the economic aspect of
entomology; its insects consequently are fairly
well-known and a great mass of material has of
course been published regarding them. Confin-
ing his attention to this portion of the Dominion
the lover of nature will soon find that he has a
vast field before him and many years of work and
study if he wishes to form some acquaintance
with its insect inhabitants. The first to attract
his attention on account of their beauty would no
doubt be the butterflies, a list of which, published
by the writer a few years ago, contained one hun-
dred and seventeen species, and one or two more
have since been discovered. Among the more
striking forms may be mentioned the Danois
A rchippus, a handsome red and black species which
abounds in the summer time and often appears in
swarms in autumn ; ten species of " Silver
Spots" (Argynnis) ; several Graptas, marked
with a silver sign on the under side, and includ-
ing G. iH/cr/'o^rti/o)»s, which is remarkable for its
dimorphic forms Umbfosa and Fabricil ; i\\(iVunes-
sas Antiopa and Milberti, which hibernate in tli ;
perfect state and come out very early in spring ;
Ataliinta and Cardui,\\\w.h are common also in
Europe; the white Admiral, Limenitis Arthemis
and its congener L. Disippus which so strangely
mimics the Archippns ; various "Meadow
Browns" (Safyrits); " Hair streaks" '(T/jfc/ai ;
"Blues" Lycicna); the familiar and destructive
cabbage butterfly (Pieris rapiv) and other white
and yellow species {Colias) of the same family;

CANADA: AN ENCYCI.OP.r.DIA.

.573

the inafjiiiriceiit " Swallow-tail? " Papilio Turnus,
Troilus, Ajax, Oresphontes, Philenor and Asterias;
"Skippers" (Hcspcrids) in great number and
variety; the list closiuf,' with the large and hand-
some EudauiHS Tttyrns, a black, broad-tailed
species ornamented with patches of pearly white
on the under side.

The number of moths is legion, and we have
in this country some magnificent species, both as
regards size and beauty of colour and markings,
but, being for the most part nt.cfurnal in habits,
they are not familiar objects to those who do not
look for them. The exhibition of a good collec-
tion usually excites the wonder and i dmiration
of the belujlders, who seldom have seen any of
the specimens before, and generally have no idea
that such are to be found in this country. The
swift-flying Hawk-Moths may often be seen at
dusk hovering over flowers like humming-birds ; of
t liese we have more than thirty species, one of wliich
in the larval state is known as "Tiie Tomato
Worm," and often proves very destructive to this
useful plant. Our most magnificent moths, as
well as the largest, are the Emperor Moths
{Satuyniadcc), of which we have five species con-
spicuous for their size and beauty, and some
smaller ones. Our handsome Cccropiu is a giant
among moths, its wings expanding six inches ur
more; the tawny Polyphemus with tlie peacock eye-
like spots on the lower wings ; the Promethea and
Columbia, somewhat smaller ; and the Luna,
"Queen of the Night," lovely in its pale green
colour, and the beautiful curves of tlie long tails
that terminal:^ the hinder part of the wings. As
the caterpillars of moths are vegetable feeders
for the most nart, many species are only too
well-known in consequence of their destructive
habits; among these may be mentioned the Tent
caterpillars of the orchard and forest {Clisiocampa),
the numerous species of cut-worms, the Army-
worm, the Fall web-worm, the Tussock Moth,
the Peach-tree and Currani borers, the Codling
worm, which makes its home in the fruit of the
apple. Canker worms. Leaf-rollers, Bud-Eaters,
grain and clothes Moths.

If we turn to the beetles of the Eastern Prov-
inces of Canada, we are still more embarrassed
by the number and variety of forms that we meet
with. Some years ago a list was published of

those found in Ontario and Quebec alone; it
contained 2,300 species, distributed amongst
sixty-six families. Since that time a considerable
number of species have been found and every
year many more will no doubt be added to the
list. In the first great division, Adepha^a, or
predaceous beetles, we have several species of
the active and graceful tiger-beetles {Cicimlcla),
which may often be found frequenting sandy or
open spaces ; they are beautifully marked and are
brilliant in the sun with their handsome metallic
colours. The ground-beetles (Carabidce) are
exceedingly numerous, but as they live for the
most part under sticks and stones and shelter of
various kinds, and are generally of sombre col-
ours, they are not conspicuous and are little
known except to the collector. Our handsomest
species are the " Caterpillar hunters," one of
which {.Calosoma Scrutator) is a magnificent
metallic greiMi creature, and another (C Calidum)
is black, ornamented with rows of sunken copper
spots. A variety of species of large water-
beetles belong also to this division, which is com-
posed almost entirely of useful insects wiiose
function it is to prey upon other more or less
injurious kinds.

The next great division — the beetles with
clubbed antcnna^iClavicornia) — is well represented
with us. The first two families are aquatic,
including the water-scavengers, one species of
which {Hydrophilus triaw^ularis) is a large boat-
shaped creature, and the whirligigs, which may
often be seen disporting themselves on the sur-
face of the w.iter in large clusters. The useful
burying-beetles or "Sextons," come next; we
have a number of species which employ them-
selves in burying small dead animals in order to
provide food for their larvae, or in devouring such
carrion in both the grub and perfect states with-
out waiting for the operation of burial. Our
curious " Rove-beetles " {Staphylinidce) are repre-
sented by a large number of species, individually
small as a rule. They may be found in all sorts
of decaying animal and vegetable matter, and in
fungi, taking their share in the important work
of nature's scavengers. The " Lady-birds " {Coc-
cinellidic) we have in great variety. They are
familiar to everyone from their bright colours,
red or yellow with black spots, or black with red

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CANADA: AN RNCYCLOP.KIHA.

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ones, and their shape oval or round like a split
pea. These ayain are most nsefnl insects, as,
with few exceptions, they prey iipim the destruc-
tive plant lice and scale insects. To this division
belong also some very obnoxious creatures, the
"larder beetles " {Dennestes) which feed on any-
thing containing grease or fat, and are often a
grievous trouble to the Entomologist, whose
collections they devour if they can obtain access
to them.

The Scrricorniii, consisting of beetles with
serr.ited antenna;, forms the next great division.
Threeof itsfanilies maybe mentioned on account
of their great importance. The Elators, or
" spring-back beetles ", of which \vc have a large
number of species, are more widely known in
their larval state, when, as "wire worms", they
often prove extrom<.'ly destructive to the roots of
vegetation of all kinds. Our largest and most
remarkable species, the " Eyed Elater " {Aiuua
ocnlatus), feeds upon decaying wood and is not
therefore to be included amongst the farmer's
foes. The second great family, Dupnstidte, is
very largely represented in Canada, its larvie
being wood borers, distinguished by tluir large,
flat heads. One species {Clnysobothris fcmurata)
is especially injurious to young apple trees,
others, Diccrca and Chahopliora, U) a great variety
of forest and cultivated trees. Tliey are for the
most part handsome insects, resembling bur-
nished copper of different hues on the uutler side
and sometimes of a brilliant metallic green above.
Another genus, A^rihis, contains many very
destructive species, some attacking raspberry and
blackberry canes, and others the trunks of fruit
trees. The third family, Lainhyiiduj, includes the
sparkling fire-flies which in damo situations afford
a pretty spectacle on a summer's night. They
are soft-bodied creatures and in the larval state
are decidedly beneficial from their habit of feed-
ing upon the eggs and grubs of several injurious
insects.*

The fourth great division, Lamellicornia, is dis-
tinguished by the club of the antenn.e being

•NdIK. The Kntomi)li)jjicaI render will understand that no
attempt has been niadu in this paper lo t;ive a seientilio account of
the insects of this eiiuntry, liut merely a j;eneral idea of the more
common and conspicuous forms. On this account the writer has
made use of the old division of seven orders, instead of the more
recent classification, in order to make the record as simple and
easily intelligible as possible.

divided into a series of thin leaves. All the
species are vegetable feeders, and many of thenj
are most destructive; the Scarabaida, however,
form an exception, as they have the useful habit
of feeding upon tiungor decaying vegetable mat-
ter, some of them, like the Egyptian Scarabajus,
roll up balls of manure which they bury in the
ground after depositing an egg within the mass.
The most notorious evil-doers are the many
species of "May-beetles" or "June-bugs" as
they are commonly called {Lachnostcnia),vj\\ose
larvie are the destructive " white grubs " of
fields and gardens; the " rose bug "(.)/«c>W«c()7»s
siibs/>inosns); the " vinechafer" {Pclidiiola punctata);
and many others. These beetles are very inter-
esting to the collectoi for their curious form?, as
the stag-beetles for instance (Lucanus) and often
for beauty of colour, as in the Cctunias. The Pliy-
topha^^a form the fifth great division. Its mem-
bers, ns the name implies, are all plant feeders,
and are divided into two immense families, the
long-horned beetles {Ccrambyicidic), which are all
wood-borers, and the leaf-eaters {Chiysomelidce).
The former family contains many of our largest
and handsomest species and many beautiful
beetles of a particularly graceful shape. The
pine-borers (Monohaminus) are remarkable for
their immensely long antennse ; they attack the
timber wherever it has been damaged by forest
fires, and the huge round grubs make their bur-
rows in all directions through the solid wood.
Fruit, forest and shade trees are alike attacked
by borers of this family and as might be expected
in a country once covered with forests the num-
ber of species is very great. The members of the
other family are much smaller Insects, but they
are equally injurious, if not more so; they include
such familiar pests as the Colorado potato-
beetle, the cucumber beetle (Diabrotica I'ittata),
the tiny flea-beetles of the turnip, grape, and
many other plants, and a vast number of other
leaf-eaters.

The sixth division, Heteromera, has not many
representatives in this country, but is remarkably
rich in species in the Western States. The meal-
worm (Tencbrio Molitor) is our most familiar
species, being commonly found in barns, stable
bins and flour-mills. We have also a blistering
beetle. ^^'jtcflM/rt t/»^yert, which occasionally becomes

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CANADA: AN ENCYCLOPi*:niA.

375

very injurious to potatoes and Windsor beans,
and the very curious " oil beetle " {Mcloc), vvliose
larva is parasitic upon bei-s The last division,
Rhyncophora, includes a number of families whose
members are ail distin{,MiislR'd by the beak or
snout which terminates the head. Among our
most familiar and injurious species may be
mentioned the Plum-Curculio, tiie while pine
weevil, ihe strawberry weevil. There are also
species which attack clover, stored grain, acorns,
nutsof different kinds, and those which form their
galleries underthe bark or in tiie solid wood of trees
(Scolytus), whose curious habits have recently
been described in the most interesting manner.
Of the other orders of insects, it is not neces-
sary to say much anil it would be tedious to en-
deavour to give even a bare idea of the infinite
variety of species with wliich earth, air and water
teem. The Hymenoptera include our most remark-
able insects, when we consider their intelligence
and social organizations. To this order belong
the bees, wasps and ants whose colonies are so
familiar and whose interesting habits have been
so often and so well described. The destructive
saw-fl'es are also members of this order; their
larvae are well known under the names of cur-
rant and gooseberry-worms, rose and pear slugs,
and the various species that attack grape-vines,
raspberries and many other plants. But these
are more than set off by the great family of /c/jwcir-
woMs, whose function it is to maintain the balance
of'iature by destroying, as parasites, insects of
every description. But for these useful and often
most minute creatures all vegetation would dis-
appear from the face of the earth under the com-
bined ravages of the myriad kinds of destructive
insects. The order Diptera (two-winged flies) is
fully represented by the ubiquitous house flies,
the worrying mosquitoes, black flics, horse flies,
horn flies, gnats, midges, et hoc genus oinne. In

many place:, they are incessant tormentors during
the summer months, and render life a burden to
both man and domestic animals. Other kinds such
as the Hessian fly and Wheat midge are exces-
sively injurious to grain crops, but it must not be
forgotten that most of the maggots of two-winged
flies perform a useful work as scitveiigirs in re-
moving decayed and offensive m itter from both
land and water.

The order Ncnroptcra contains some splendid
creatures, the dragon-flics lliat hawk !il)out in
the bright sunshine seeking their prey, of which
we have a number of very handsome species
belonging to several genera. The " stone flies "
(Perlidie), the huge Ctn-ydalk, the useful lace-
winged flies, ant-lions and caddis-flies also belong
tothisorderin itsold unrestricted sense. Theorder
Orthopterci inrludi'S such familiar and obnoxious
insects as cockroaches, crickets and grasshoppers
or locusts and the quaint walking-sticks {Phasmi-
da). With tile exception of the last mentioned
they are individually so numerous and so familiar
to everyone that it is unnecessary to enter into
any details regarding them. The remaining
order, Heiiiiptera, includes all the vast army of
true "bugs" — insects wiiose heads are prolonged
into a beak and which live by the suction of vegeta-
ble juices or tlie blood of animals. Plant-lice ami
scale-insects are of vast economic importance, as
they attack every form of vegetation and multiply
with excessive rapidity. The grotesque leaf-
hoppers {Cercsu), the cicadas, water-boatmen,
(XotoHccta), the huge water-bug {Belostoina Aincri-
caita), commonly called the electric light bug
from its being attracted in large numbers to the
arc-lamps in streets, the destructive Chinrh-bugs,
the squash bug {Anasa tristis), the bed-bug and
the great variety of ill-smelling bugs that fre-
quent plants of all descriptions, are members of
this order.

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ZOOLOGY OF THH MARITIME PROVINCES

11 V

K. K. McLEOD, of Halifax, Nova Scotli.

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1 PROPOSE to fjive here a suinmary account
of tlio birds, mammals, fishes and reptiles
of Nova Scotia. With s<jme little adjust-
ments here and there New Brunswick
could be included. A portion of their shores
are washed by the same narrow bay. An imag-
inary line separates them, and they form one
Zoologic;il Province, although man has otiierwise
delimited them. For a better understanding of
the summary, it will be in order to give, in brief
outline, some of the leading physical features of
Nova Scotia. Its geographical position suggests
a bleak and ungenial climiite. Viewed on a map
of North America, appearances are against this
peninsula, but an acquaintance made on the
spot dispels all imaginary pictines and reveals a
land rich in animal and vegetable forms, as it is
in metals and minerals and weaUh of forests and
sea. Jutting into the ocean like a wharf, the
little Province of 18,000 square miles is one of
the ancient geological landmarks of the ages,
presenting to the waves of the Atlantic a frown-
ing wall of silvarian strata. From Cape Nash
on the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Cape Sable on
the Bay of P'undy is a distance of 300 miles as
the crow flies, and extends through three and
one half degrees of latitude. This north and
south direction counts for much, other things
being equal, in the variety of llora and fauna.
The average width of the peninsula is only 60
miles. The breath of the Gulf Stream tempers
the southwestern shores ; and flotillas of icebergs
in summer, and piles of ice in winter, beset the
northern coasts. The interior is diversified with
low ranges of mountains, a great number of
lakes and streams, and extensive tracts of conif-
erous forests. Bogs and meadows and "barren "
grounds afford food for browsing animals.
"Hardwood" hills, formed from glacial debris.

.171)

offer opportunities to the former, and afford food
and shelter to the birds and beasts to be herein
described.

In tiie matter of systematic names of birds, I
have followed the nomenclature of the "American
Ornithological Union " as set down in their
" Check List of N. American Birds." As this is
not a formal treatise but a summary, there will
be no attempt to indicate the orders and families
and sub-families, etc., but the common names
alone will be given. Following the designation
of each species, there will be such word of com-
ment as seems most instructive. Science has
not yet decided to what family of birds belongs
the first place, when structure and intelligence
are considered; so I shall not violate proprieties
if I follow my inclination and begin with the
Thrushes, a bright, pretty, tuneful group widely
distributed over the world :

TIIKi:SllKS.

Hermit Thrush, the sweetest singer of our
woodlands, coming in April and remaining till
the last of October, or later in open seasons;
Olive-backcil Thrush, not so common as the
Hermit, but not at all rare; American Robin,
very common in villages and clearings, but
exceedingly rare far away from such localities ;
Cat-bird, common.

WARBLliRS.

The loosely arranged group of birds known as
Warblers is well represented in Nova Scotia.
About the first of June, the deeper woodlands are
vocal with the notes of these gems of bird-life.
The most domestic and therefore well-known
are :

The Summer Yellow-bird ; Black-throated
Green Warbler, one of the commonest of the
family, much oftener heard than seen; Black-

iiU

,' 1
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CANADA: AN KNCVCI.OP.KDIA.

.577

thrualcd Hluo Warblci , not very cotiiiiioii ; IMack-
polled Warblur, fairly common; Yellow-crowned
Warbler. As far as my observations (;o, this is
the most common of all the family, frequenting
orchards and bushy roadsides in spring and
autumn. Ciiestnut-sided Warbler, one of the
smallest and most common of the group; Hay-
breasted Warbler, not common ; Cape May
Warbler, rare; Black and Yellow Warbler or
Magnolia Warbler, common ; Parula Warbler,
common; Yellow-red-poll Warbler, not very
common ; Hlackburn's Warbler, fairly common
and the most beautiful of the family in North
America ; Pine-creeping Warbler, fairly common ;
Maryland Yellow-throated Warbler, very com-
mon ; Mourning Warbler, not common ; Con-
necticut Warbler, very rare; Nashville Warbler,
not very common ; Tennessee Warbler, not
common; Canadian I"ly-catcliing Warbler, fairly
common; American Redstart, very common;
Black and White Creeping Warbler, very
common; Black-capped Fly-catching Warbler.
Among the Warblers is classed the Oven Bird, a
Golden-crowned Thrush ; Water Thrush, not so
common as the precediiij;.

SI'AKkuWS.

The Fiinj^iliidic, m Sparrow family, is well
represented by the following species :

Song Sparrow, common ; Swamp Sparrow,
common; Snow Sparrow, very common;
Savannah Sparrow, not very common; East-
ern Fox Sparrow, common; Tree Sparrow,
fairly common, winter; Chipping Sparrow,
not common ; White-throated Sparrow,
common in certain localities; White-crowned
Sparrow, rare spring visitor; Grass Sparrow,
very rare ; Yellow-winged Sparrow, very rare
occurrence ; Rose-breasted Grosbeak, fairly
common bird in districts he likes; Pine Gros-
beak, common in cold seasons, some all the
year; Blue Grosbeak, occasional, very rare;
Snow Bunting, common in winter; American
Crossbill, common; White-winged Crossbill,
common; Pine Finch, Pine Siskin, common;
Red-polled Linnet, Lesser Red-poll, common ;
Purple Finch, common ; Lapland Longspur,
occasional in winter; American Goldfinch, fairly
common ; Indigo Bunting, occasional, very rare.

FLYCATCHEU lA.MILV.
Water Pewce, rare ; Olive-sided I'lycatcher,
common; King-bird, very common; Traill's
Flycatcher, fairly common ; Least Flycatcher,
common; Wood Pewce, common; Yellow-
bellied I'lycatcher, rare.

VIRi;o FAMILY.

Red-eyed Vireo, common ; Solitary Vireo,
common in certain favourable localities; Yellow-
throatetl Vireo, not common: Warbling Vireo,
rare; Hairy Woodpecker, common; Downy
Woodpecker, common ; Arctic Three-toed Wood-
pecker, not common ; Red-headed Woodpecker,
very rare ; American Three-toed Woodpecker,
rare; Yellow-bellied Woodpecker, common;
Pileated Woodpecker, not very rare in timber
country; F'licker, Yellow-ammer ; Belted King-
fisher, common ; Yellow-billed Cuckoo, very
rare; Black- billed (aickoo, fairly common.

I'AMILV COKVin.IC.

Common Crow, common ; the Raven, not
common; Blue Jay, very common ; Canada Jay,
common; Cow- pen Bird, rare ; Rusty Blackbird,
common; Red-winged Blackbird, not common;
Crow Blackbird, rare.

MISCELI.ANEOLS I-AMILIKS.

Several families are included in the following
group of species. To separate the various
members requires more space than can be af-
forded :

Bobolink, common in some parts, absent '"n
other districts; Meadow Lark, not common;
Bobolink, common in some localities; Baltimore
Oriole, rare straggler ; Mourning Dove, rare ;
Wild Pigeon. Fifty years ago this was a common
summer resident, now it must be reckoned a very
rare bird. Humming-bird, common ; Cedar Wax-
wing, common resident, sometimes in winter;
Wheatear Stone Chat, very rare visitor from the
north ; Scarlet Tanager, a few stragglers ; Titlark,
Pipit, sometimes common ; Belted Kingfisher,
very common; Night Hawk, very common;
Whip-poor-Will, not common ; Chimney Swift,
very common; Butcher-bird, rare; Ruffled Grouse,
common ; Spruce Grouse, not common, when
compared with the preceding. They subsist
almost entirely on spruce and fir leaves, of which

w

37«

CANADA: AN KNCVCI.OI'.KIHA.

I I

'i I

i

'it

there Iah supcniburiLlancu ; but tiicy are fi)r thut
very reason on tho w.iy to extinction at a rapiJ
rate. They arc stupid, and becotiie the reaiiy
victims of owls, hawks, wild-cats, foxes and
wcasles. Tlio demands of hun(,''T are gratitied
witlioiit exertion of body or exercise of mental
faculties. Tlie ability to live en such coarse and
simple diet carries a fatal penalty. The path of
ease is the way of death. Uluc-bird, not com-
mon. I have observcil thum nestinjj in (Jiieen's
County. Golden-crowned Kinylet, a common
resident all the year; Ruby-crowned Kinglet,
common resident all the year; Chickadee, very
common in all seasons; Hudsonian Chickadee,
not so common as the precedinj,', but not very
rare at any time; White-breasted Nuthatch,
common all siasons; Red-breasted Nuthatch,
fairly cominon all the year throu-jh ; Hrown
Creeper, common through the year; Winter
Wren, rare in Nova Scotia, common on the
eastern boundary of the State of Maine, and
doubtless in adjacent portions of New Hrunswick ;
House Wren, very rare occurrence.

HAWKS, i;tc.
The I'amily FaUonidu, including,' hawks, buz-
zards, eagles are represented by the following
species :

Sharp-shinned Hawk, common; Cooper's Hawk,
not common ; American Goshawk, not common ;
Marsh Hawk, rather common; Si)arrow Hawk,
common; Pigeon Hawk, not comm(jn; Duck
Hawk, very rare ; Red-tailed Buzzard, common ;
Rough-legged Buzzard, rare ; Broad-winged Buz-
zard, not very common; Red-shouldered Hawk,
common; I?ald Eagle, rare ; Fish Hawk, com-
mon.

THK OWL I-AMII-V

Great Horned Owl, common ; Mottled Owl,
Screech Owl, very rare ; Long-eared Owl, rare;
Short-eared Owl, rare ; Barred Owl, most com.
mon of owls; Hawk Owl, veiy rare; Great Grey
Owl, very rare ; Saw-whet Owl, fairly common ;
Richardson's Owl, very rare; Snowy Owl, rare.

THK HKRON FAMILY.

Great Blue Heron, common; Night Heron,
rare; Green Heron, rare; American Bittern,
common.

I'HALAKOI'liS, KTC.

The following shore birds are representatives
of three famdies, Phalaropes, Snipes and Plov-
ers. Many of them, or most ol them, arc mi-
grants :

Upl.inil Plover, not common ; Golden Plover,
common ; Wilson's Plover, very rare ; Kiuleer
I'lovcr, not common; Semipalmated Plover,
common; I'ipiiig Pit)ver, common; Black-bellied
Plover, common; Turnstone, rare; American
Avocet, veiy rare; Northern Phalarope, rare;
K(d Phalarope, rare; American Woodcock,
common; llnglinh Snij)e, common ; Red-breasted
Snipt', Robin Snipe ; Purple Sandpiper, common ;
C'uilew Sanilpiper, very rare; Jack Snipe, rare;
Least Sandpiper, Peep, very common; White-
nnni)ed Sandpiper, common ; Red-backed Sand-
piper; Sanderling, common; Semipalmated
Sandpiper, common.

DUCKS AND lilihSL.

The family of Ducks and Geese has a large
representation as follows :

Shoveller Duck, rare ; Canvas back Duck, rare;
Greater Blackhead Duck, not common; Little
Blackhead Duck, not common; Redhead Duck,
very rare;; Ring-necked Duck, not common;
N'elvet Scotar Duck; Surf Duck; Surf Scotar;
Black Scotar Duck; Eider Duck; King Eider;
Gatiwall Grey Duck, very rare; Baldpate, Wid-
geon Duck, common, migrant; Summer Duck,
common in some localities ; Barrow's Golden Eye
Duck, rare; American Golden Eye Whistler
Duck, common ; Butter-ball, Dipper Duck, com-
mon ; Harlequin Duck, common, migrant; Old
Squaw Duck, common; Ruddy Duck, conunon ;
Shelldrake, common ; Red-breasted Merganser,
very common; Hooded Merganser, migrant;
Mallard Duck, not common ; Green-winged Tea),
rare; Blue-winged Teal, not common; Black
Duck, very common; Canada Goose, common;
Snow Goose, rare ; Brant, not common ; Whist-
ling Swan, very rare.

Loons.

Loon, common; Black-throated Loon, rare;
Red-throated Loon, fairlv common.

GUliHKS.

Red-necked Grebe, very rare; Pied-billed.
Grebe, not common ; Horned Grebe, rare.

li

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOI'/KDIA.

379

SKA lUKIi».

The following arc represniitativos of Bcvoral
families, but they must in this suminury be
lumped as seu-binls :

Brunich's Murre, not uiicointnoii ; Sea-dove
Dovckie, common ; Ciaimet Solan Goose, com-
mon ; Col inorunt, Shag, not very common ;
Double-crested Cormorant ; Leache's Petrel,
common ; Wilson's Petrel, common ; Lesser
Fulmar Petrel, common ; Cireater Shearwater,
common ; Sooty Shearwater, common ; Huffon's
Skua, common; Pomarine Jae},'er, occasional;
Parasitic Gull, Sea Falcon, occasional; Ka/or-
billed AuU; Puflin, Sea Parrot, conmion ; Sea
Dove, common; IMack Guilhimot, common;
Common Guillemot, common; I'oolish (iuil-
lemot.

ClULLS AND TKkNS.

Ivory Gull, very rare ; White-winged Gull,
common; Great Black-breasted Gull, common;
Herring Gull, very common; Kinf,'-billed Gull,
common: Laughing Gull, not common; Bona-
parte's Gull, common ; Kittiwake CiuU, common ;
Wilson's Tern, common ; Arctic Tern, common ;
Roseate Tern, rare ; lil.ick Tern ; Ihown Peli-
can, occasional, very rare.

If it had been an object with me to introduce
as many species as possible to swell the list,
then a few stragglers and waifs might have been
added — some from Europe, st)me from Green-
land, some from far Soutlurn regions. The
foregoing list will, I believe, be found to contain
all that can fairly be claimed as birds of the Prov-
ince. Much of the material of foregoing is the
result of my own observations during ten years
in central Queen's County, a district of the south-
western portion of the peninsula. Doubtless
there are species of birds in that locality not to
be found in the extreme north. Various other
sources of information have been consulted and
drawn upon. So far as species are concerned,
the list will apply to New Brunswick also ; but
some will be common there and rare in Nova
Scotia, and T'tccw>'s«

MAMMALS.
The following list of mammals will, I believe,
be found to include all the terrestrial, if not all
the marine, mammals. Of the Turtles, Salaman-

ders, Frogs and Serpents about all are included.
The more common fislies aie named, but no
attempt is made to give a i:oni|iletu list of buch a
numerous race within these narrow limits. Nova
Scotia is far-famed f<jr lur iisheries, and from
the oceans she obtains rii:li harvests of wealth:
Moose Deer, oominon in districts remote from
setllements; Woodland Caribou, many herds in
northiin Cape Breton and southwestern counties
of (Jueiii's and Shelburiu; ; Otter, not common,
rare; Mink, common; Weasel, not often to be
seen; American Sable or Mai ten, rare; Pekaii, or
Fisher, rare; Porcupine, common; Bear, com-
mon ; Raccoon, ran: ; Miiskrat, common ; Heaver,
not common; Pine Scjiiirrel, common; l-'lying
Squirrel, not very crminon; Striped S(iiiirrel,
common; While-fooled Deer Mouse, not very
common; Meadow Mouse, common ; Hare, very
common; Hoary Bat, common; Red Bat, com-
mon ; Slar-nosL'd Mole, C(jininon; Common Mole ;
Coniiiion Shrew ; Mole Shrew ; Wild Cat, com-
mon; Loup-cervier, rare; Red F'ox, common;
Harbour Seal, Hooded Seal, Right Whale, Hump-
backed Whale, Fin-backed Whale, Blackfish,
Porpoise.

IKIISII WATI.K KISU OK NICW HKINSWICK ANU
NOVA SCOTIA.

The American Yellow Perch, common ; the
Common Pond Fish, the Yellow Shiner, com-
mon; the Chub, common; the Brook Minnow,
common; Common Cat-tish, Horn Pout, the
Brook Trout, common; the Salmon, the Com-
mon Eel, the American Lamprey, White Bass,
White Perch, Spinous Dogfish, Thrasher
Shark, Basking Shark, Little Skate, the Skate,
Co:nmon Herring, Alewile, Summer Gaspereaux,
Common Shad, Meiihaiien, Capelin, Bill Fish
Sword l*"isli, Common Mackerel, Tinker Mackerel
Harvest F'ish, Siin-tish, Sea Perch, Cunner, Black
Fish, Norway Haddock, Long-spined Sculpin,
Lump Fish, Butter-fish, Eel Pout, American
Hake, Cusk, Haddock, Codfish, Tomcod, Pol-
lock, Silver Hake, Halibut, Sand Dab, Winter
Flounders.

TURTLES.

The Mud Turtle, the Snapping Turtle, the
Wood Turtle.

Any other species are rare.

f ^'^'

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f»r

J«o

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOP^:i)IA.

SERFUNTS.
The Striped Snake, the Riband Snake, the
Green Snake, the Water Snake, thi: Ring-necked
Snuki-.

FKOGS AND TOADS.

The Hull-rrii;,', tlie \ llow-throated Green
Frog, the Pickerel Frog, the VVnnd Frog, the
Leopard Frog, the Tree Toad, Common Frog.

SALAMANUBKS.

The Rcd-bncked Salamander, the Blue-apotted
Salamander, the Handed Salamander, the Violet<
coloured Sidamaiider, the Urown-spotted Sala-
mander, the Painted Salamander, the Salmon,
colourrd Salamander, the Crimson-spotted Tri«
ton, the Syfnmetrical Salamander, Striped-back
Salamander.

CANADIAN NATURAL HISTORY -EDITOR'S NOTES

i ,

"H

' i?
j I;

The Animals of Canada. I'lu ic is very little
availal)lu iiifortnatioii regarding the Maininalia uf
Canada. What tlure is is scattered through
many and varied vnluiiies. Tlie noble aiiitiials
which roamed the vast forests or prairies of lirit-
ish America have, in too many cases, been ruth-
lessly destroyed by the hunter or trapper, and
then forgotten. The buffalo is practically extinct,
the wapiti was supposed as early as iSjj to have
disappeared, the elk became so rare as to have
been lost sight of. Lately, howcvci, under
more efficient game laws, the two latter animals
have appeared again very numerously in Eastern
Canada, together with quantities of moose
and caribou. During the session of iSS8 in the
Canadiati Institute, Toronto, a valuable paper by
J. H. Tyrrell, n..\., F.G.s.,tipon " The Mammalia of
Canada exclusive of the Cetacea," was rem].
From its pages (Proceedings. Thud Series. Vol.
6) Some facts regarding the chief animals now
existing in Canada are here compiled, while other
works which may be consulted for scattered
information upon the same subject, may be
mentioned as follows :

John Richardson Fauna Boreali-Americana, London. . 1829

AuJubon and Bachman. .Quidiupeds of North America,

New York 1856

Spencer K. Baird Mammals, Washington 1837

Bernard II. Rus9 List of Mammals, etc., observed in

the Mackeniie River Di<trict.
Natural History Review, pp.27l-6. 1862

II. Allen Monograph of the Bats of North Ame-
rica, Smithsonian Institute, Wash-
• ingtun 1864

John Keast I..orJ The Naturalist of British Columbia,

Luniion 1866

J. Bernard Gilpin On the Mammalia of Nova Scotia,

Transactions Nova Scotia Institute
Natural Science, Vol. 3 187 1

Coues and Alle Monographs of North American Ko-

dentia, Washington 1877

Dr. I'.llia'.t Couc< I'reciiisdry Notes of American Insec-
tivorous Mammals, Bulletin U.S.
Geological Survey 1877

Dr. Elliott Coue Furltearing Animals, Washington . 1877

Joel Asaph Allen North American I'innipeils, Wash-
ington 1880

M. Chamlietlain List of Mtmmals of New Biiinswick,

Bulletin Natural History Society,
New Brunswick 1884

K. S. ■I'homp<on A list of the Mammals of Manitoba,

Transactions Manitoba Science
and Historical Society 188(6)7

I). N. SaintCyr The I'innipcd M.immalla o( the

River and Gulf of S'. Lawrence,
(,)uebec 1887

The principal divisions and popular names
only ate given — the Uiijitilata being the Hrst :

Moose. Common in the forest regions from
Nova Scotia and New lirunswick westward to
the Rocky Mountains, and north-westward to the
mouth of the Mackenzie River and Alaska.
Rare on the west side of the Rocky Mountains
in southern British Columbia, but reported as
far west as the Gold Range.

Woodland Caribou. Formerly abundant in
Nova Scotia, but now almost extinct there. Com-
mon in the more thickly wooded parts of northern
New Brunswick, Quebec and Ontario, the North-
West Territories and British Columbia, but very
rare in north-western Manitoba.

Barren Ground Caribou. In all the northern
parts of the continent with the adjacent islands
in the Arctic Ocean.

American Elk. Up to a hundred years ago an
inhabitant of Eastern Canada, but now only
occasionally met with from Manitoba westward
to the Pacific Coast, as far north as Lat. 57°, and

t

CANADA: AN KNCYCLOIMDIA.

jHi

also on Vancouver nml some of thr. adjacent
islands. Hcing easily approached it is becoming
rapidly cxtertninated.

Virginia Deer. Soiitli-vvestern New Hriinswirk
and central Quebec ami Ontario. Anotlier vari-
ety from tlie IM.ina of tlie Saskatcliewan west-
ward to the Pacific coast and Vancouver Island.

Mule Deer. HIark-lailed Deer. Plains of the
Saskatrliiwan and wtjstward as far as the Cas-
cade Kan^c in liritish Cohimhia.

Dlack-t.iilcd Deer. Westward from the Rocky
Mountains to the islands off the coast of Hritish
Cohnnbia.

Antelope. Cabree. Plains south of the North
Saskatchewan eastwanl to the Missouri Ccjteau,
and occasionally to the banks of the Assiiiiboiiie
in the vicinity of P'ort ICIlice. Amoiif; the Cavi-
cornia this animal is peculiar and resembles the
deer in annually shedding the outer corneous
portion of its horns.

Rocky Mountain Citnit. I'rom the Rocky
Mountains westwartl to the Cascade Ranyc and
as far northward as the Arctic Circle.

Mountain Sheep. Hi^j-horn. Rocky Moun-
tains to the Coast RauKC in Hritish Columbia
and as far north as the Arctic Circle.

Musk Ox. HarriMi grounds west of Hudson's
Bay, to near the eastern boundary of Alaska.
Not found farther south than Lat. 59°.

Buffalo. Bison. Formerly living on the plains
from the Red River to the foot-hills or occasionally
in the Passes to the west of the summit of the
Rocky Mountains; chielly found south of the forest
line but some used to stray as far north along the
Mackenzie River as Lat. 64°. Now practically
extinct in Canada. A few are still in existence
in the basin of the Mackenzie River, and these,
which never migrate to the south, have come to
be known as " Wood Buffalo."

CAKNIVORA.

Cougar. Panther. Puma. Mountain Lion.
Found in rough-wooded regions in southern
Quebec, the Rocky Mountains, British Columbia
and Vancouver Island.

Wild Cai. Common in Nova Scotia, New
Brunswick, southern Quebec and parts of Ontario.
On the western side of the Rocky Mountains
it is represented by the variety fasciattis. ., ^,,_^.

Canada Lynx, in wooded' country from the
Atlantic to the Pacific, ami in summer migrating
down the M.k k<ii/ie River to the Aictic Ocean.

Wolf, Rare in Nova Scotia and New Bums-
wick, but still occasidiially s<'eii in tin; wooded
parts of Quebec, Ontario and North-Wcht Terri-
tories and British Columbia.

Grey Wolf. Is the common form east of the
R(jcky Mountains.

White Wolf. On the northern Barren Grounds,
and on the islands in the Arctic Ocean, and
occasionally further south.

Blaek Wolf. I'rom I lie Mackenzie ami Saskatch-
ewan Rivers to the P.ieilic ("oast.

Coyote". Plains and partly wooded country
throughout Manitoba and the North West 'lerri-
tories, though niiuli more pleiuifiil on the Upper
Saskatchewan than elsewhere; also on the
plaiiisin the southern portionof British Columbia.

Eskimo Dog. Among the F.skin.o on the
north coast of America, and on the islands of the
Arctic Ocean.

Hare Indian Dog. Among the Hare Indians
on the banks of the Mackenzie River.

Red I'ox. Cross I'ox. Silver or Black Fox. All
these varieties are more or le-^s common in the
wooded or partly wooded countries from the
Atlantic to the Pacific.

Prairie P'ox. Plaiiisof southern British Colum-
bia, and also on Vancouver Island.

Kit Fox. On the plains and prairies from
Manitoba westward to the Rocky Mountains.

Arctic Fox. White Fox. Blue P'ox. Barren
Gromuls and northern shores of the Continent as
far south into Hudson's Bay as I'ort Churchill,
and very far north on the islands in the Arctic
Ocean. Mr. J. W. Tyrrell states that the blue
variety breeds true to its own colour, and remains
of essentially the same colour throughout the
year. One that he trapped in January, 1886, on
the north shore of Hudson's Strait, and wdiich is
now in the Geological and Natural History
Museum in Ottawa, is of a beautiful dark bluish
grey colour.

Wolverine. Carcajou. Glutton. Formerly'
found in New Brunswick, and now occasionally
met with in the northern parts of Quebec and
Ontario. Found principally in the wooded parts
o( the North- West Territories to the northern

■ «•

w

s«>

CANADA; AN KNCVri.OP.VDIA

.,1

I

limit of trucfi, aiiil in liiitisli I iiliiin(>i.i mititli of
tli<! houiidiiry line.

Pfkiiii. iMshcr. Novii Scotiu, Now IkiiiiHwick,
and wcHtsvaril in w(>oilt*i| (niintiv to tli<! I'aiitic,
bfin>» foiiml as f.ir north as dnrat Sl.ivc; I.aki*.

Martian. l'ino-Mart«?n. I'loin tin; Atlantic to
tlur Pucific as far north as tin; nortlmrn limit of
trees.

Wi'nsel. Imoiii tlu; Atlantic to tlu; I'-uiru-. at
Uaat as far north as (irnat Slave Lake

Erniinu, ICvitj wlu-re; in Canada from tin- At-
lantic to the I'ai'ific.

Lout,' tailed W'lMscl. I'l om the I'laiiis <if tliu
Saskatchewan we8t\var»l to the I'acitic.

Mink. Tliiiiinlioiit the whole of ( aiiad.i from
the Atlantic to the racitic.

Skunk. Aliiiiidant inwooilcd ami partly wood-
ed country from the Atlantic to the Pacific, as far
north as Great Slave Lake.

Little Slri|iud Skunk, J. K. Lord records it
from southern British Columbia.

Hadf^'cr. On the pliiiis and prairies from the
Re<l River wt stward to the Rocky Mountains, as
far north as the Saskatchewan and probably as far
north as Peace River. Also on the Plains in
southern I^ritish Columbia. Rapidly becoming
extinct.

Otter. l''rom Nova Scotia and New Hriins-
wick across the continent to Vancouver Island,
and northward to the Arctic Circle, or into the
Barren-Grounds,

Sea Otter. Western coast of British Col-
umbia.

Raccoon, Nova Scotin, New Brui.swick and
westward to the west side of Lake Manitoba.
Vancouver Island and southern British Columbia.
Grizzly Bear. Formerly when buffalo were
plentiful, an inhabitant of the plains along the
Saskatchewan, but now confined to the moun-
tains through which it roams northward as far as
the Yukon.

Barren-Ground Bear. On the Barren-Grounds
in the northern parts of Canada,

Black Bear. Brown Bear. Found through-
out Canada from the Atlantic to the Pacific, as
far north as the northern limit of trees.

Polar Bear. White Bear. Along the shores
and on the islandsof the Arctic Ocean, sometimes
straying about loo miles inland.

nNNiri'.iXA,

Wnlriis. Ill comp.irativcly recent tiinen it
inhabited the shores of Nova Scotia. Now it it
contiiH'd to the sliotrs of Labrador, Hudson's
Strait and Hay and Divis Strait, as far north as
explorers have reached. It appears to be very
rarely met with between Melvillu P(;ninsuln and
Point Barrow.

Sea Lion. Shores of the North Pacific from
Mehring's Strait southward to California.

Nt)rthern l*'ur Seal. .Sea Bear. West coast of
British Coluinbia from Alaska to the International
Boundary.

Harbour Seal. I'^resh-water Seal. This species
inhabits both the Atlantic and the Pacific coasts
>>f Canada and ascends maiiy of the larger rivers.
It has been known to ascend the St. Lawrence
to Lake Ontario, and the Ottawa River to the
foot of the CliaiidicMu Falls at Ottawa. Found
in Hudson's Strait, though not very abundantly,
at Ashe's Inlet, but in considerable numbers
around the miildle Savage Islands,

Ringed S«'al. From the coast of Labrador
aroiirnl the north shore of the continent to
Alaska. In Hudson's Strait it is tne commonest
species and is the principal food of the natives.

Harp Seal. It sometimes strays as far south
as Nova Scotia, but is especially abundant off the
shores of Newfoundland and alonj; the coast of
Labrador into Davis Strait. In Hudson's Strait
it is common on the south shore, but on the
north shore it is rarely met with.

Bearded Seal. Square-flipper. This species
occurs in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, on the coast
of Labrador, and on the shores of the Arctic
Ocean, extending far north among the islands.
The young have a soft grey coat cf a little darker
shade than that of the old ones.

Grey Seal. A rare species confined to the
North Atlantic, where it has been found as far
south as Sable Island, Nova Scotia, whence it
ranges northward along the coast of Greenland,

Hooded Seal. Jumping Seal. Shores of the
Gulfof St, Lawrence, coasts of Newfoundland and
Labrador, and far northward into the Arctic Seas.

ROniiNTIA.

Bushy-tailed Wood Rat. Western and North-
western Canada, from the Rocky Mountains
westward to the Pacific coast.

CANADA: AN ENCVri,Or,1-:i)IA.

V<3

* il

WhilO'fooiiil .11 Deer Moiihc. P'roin NtivaScotiii
and New liruiiswK.k to thu I'.icitic Cdast niui
northward to tliu Arctic Oce.in. Anntlicr vuriuty
from IIiidsoirH Hay to tlu; I'acitic coast, uikI as
faif north us thu mouth of the Mackonitie
Kiver.

Muhif^an Mouso. Recorded by Thompson
iioiii Maiiitolia.

Missouri Moli;-Motise. Found l)v Dr. E.
Coniis on thu Red Kivur, no that it wdl doubtless
be foimd in Manitoba.

Lon^j-earod Moiisi-. Nrw Hmnswick to thu
west coast as far north as I''urt Goo<i Hope on
thu Mackenzie KiviT.

Rud-backud Mouse. Has been found in Nova
Sc(Jtia, Manitoba, and on tiie west coast of
Hudson's Hay. General ran(,'e south of that of
true rittilus.

Meadow Mouse. I'Vom Nova Scotia and New
Brunswick to thu Rocky Mountains, and, doubt-
less, also in Hritish Columbia.

Little Northern Meadow Mouse. North-
western America, especially in the Mackenzie
River region.

Chestnut-cheeked Meadow Mouse. In North-
western Canada from the Hudson's Hay to thu
Pacific.

Large Northern Meadow Mouse. Kanyu
essentially the same as the preceding.

Oregon Meadow Mouse. Southern Hritish
Columbia.

Sharp-nosed Meadow Mouse. On the eastern
slope of the Rocky Mountains about the head of
the Athabasca River.

Grey or Norway Rat. Throughout the more
settled parts of the Dominion. In the North-
West Territories, found sparingly along the lines
of railway.

Black Rat. Recorded from both the Atlantic
and Pacific sea-boards, but it has never reached
far into the interior.

House Mouse. Common in all the more
settled parts of the country, but in Manitoba and
the North-Wust Territories not yet found away
from the lines of railway.

Tawny Lemming. Found around Great Bear
Lake, and in the Rocky Mountains as far south
as Lat. 56*.

Hudson's Bay Lemming. From Labrador

around thu nortliLiii iDasi of thi; continent, and
oil thu isl.inds in the Arctic Ocean.

Jumping Mouse. Nova Scotia and New
HniiMwii kand westward along the Sask.itchcwan
to Hritish (oliiinbia, reaching as far north us
l''ort Simpson on the Mackun/ii; River.

Mnskrat. Tliroiii,dioiit thu whole of Canada as
far iinilh as thu Arctic Odsm.

I'oi.ir lliiK!. Barren (inninds in northern Can-
ada as well as on tlui shores of thu Arctic Ocean,
reaching as far south into Hudson's Hay as lM>rt
C'.hurcliliill.

I'rairie Hare. "Jack Rabbit." Plains from
thu western limit <>f Manitoba westward to the
base of the Rocky Mmintainrt as far north as
thu .Saskatchewan Kiver. Also on the plains in
southern Hritish Columbin.

Varying, Hare Uabbit. l''onnd throughout the
northern part of tiiu Continent as far north as the
northern limit of trues.

Wood Hare. Grey Rabbit. Becoming cpiitu com-
mon throughout Ontario.

Californian Hare. Mentioned in J. K. Lord's
List of Mammals from Hritish Columbia.

Canada Porcupine. New Brunswick and Nova
Scotia north-westward to Hudson's Bay, along
its wuslurn shore to Fort Churchill and westward
to the Mackenzie River.

Yellow-haired Porcupine. On the Pacific
slope, and m thu Rocky Mountains northward to
the Liard River.

Little-chiuf Hare. North American Pika.
From the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains
westward along the International Boundary Line
as far as Chilukweyuk Lake, and northward to
Lat. 60.° Lord found his L. minimus near the
banks of the Similkameun River, on the eastern
side of the Cascade Range, and at an altitude of
7,000 feet.

Beaver. Throughout the whole of Canada to
the northern limit of trees.

Mountain Pocket Mouse. Recorded by J. K.
Lord from southern British Columbia.

Pouched Gopher. Originally described from a
specimen brought from eastern Canada.

Northern Pocket Gopher. Very numerous in
rich alluvial meadows from Manitoba westward
along the Saskatchewan to the base of the moun-
tains. The surface is in many places undermined

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CANADA: AN KN'CVCI.OI'.KDIA.

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,

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:.i 3

by tliis species to siicli an cxIlmU that a horse will
repeatedly breakthrough, thus making travelliiiK
both tedious aiui unpleasant.

Pacific Pocket Gopher. Southern portion of
British Columbia.

Northern l-'lying S(]uirrel. l-'roin the Atlantic
to the P.iiific as far north as Hudson's Haj-,
Great Slave Lake and I'ort Lianl.

Red Squirrel, Chickaree. I-'roin the Atlantic
westward to the Rocky Mountains and northward
to the northern limit of trees. Another variety
from the Kocky Mountains to the Cascade Range
in the vicinity of the International Houndary
Line and another on the coast of British
Columbia.

Grey Squirrel, lilack Squirrel. I'rom west-
ern New Brunswick, through southern Quebec
and Ontc:.rio as far west as the north shores of
Lakes Huron and Snjierior. Lspecially abun-
dant, however, in the wooded parts of the western
peninsula of Ontario.

California Grey Squirrel. Given in Lord's
List of Mammals from southern lirilish Col-
umbia.

Striped Squirrel. Chipmunk. Common from
the Atlantic coast westward to eastern Manitoba.
Not foumi west of Lake Manitoba.

Northern Chipmunk. Ranges from the western
side of Hudson's Bay, on the Churchill and Nel-
son Rivers to the north shore of Lake Superior,
westward to the Rocky Mountains and northward
on the Mackenzie River to the Arctic Circle.
Another variety, Rocky Mountains and moun-
tains in British Columbia in the vicinity of the
International Boundary Line. Another on the
Coast of British Columbia.

Say's Chipmunk. Rocky Mountains from the
International Boundary north to Lat. 57° .

Parry's Spermophile. Barren Grounds fron".
the east side of Hudson's Bay to Alaska, as far
north as the Arctic Circle. Another variety in
Rocky Mountains from the Boundary Line north
to Lat. 57°.

Richardson's Spermophile. Grey Gopher.
From the Pembina escarpment in Manitoba to
the base of the Rocky Mountains, and noithward
to the Saskatchewan. Another variety in south-
ern portion of British Columbia.

Grey-headed Spermophile. Western Manitoba

northward to the Saskatchewan River, but none
were seen as far west as I'ort I'itt.

Strii)ed (jopher. I'rom Rtd River westward
to the base of the Rocky Mountains, as far north
as the North Saskatchewar.

Woodchuck. Ground-hog. Nova Scotia and
New Brunswick and westward around the shores
of Hudson's Bay to the Mackenzie and Liard
Rivers, as far north as Lat. 62°.

Hoary Marmot. Rocky Mountains westward
to the Cascade Range and northward to the Arctic
Circle. Often seen among heaps of angular
masses of Ijose rock.

The Birds of British Columbia. The particu-
lars which follow regarding the Birds of the
Pacific Province of Canada are compiled, by per-
mission, from the Check List first prepared in
1S91 and largely added to and revised in 1898, by
Mr. John Fannin, Curator of the Provincial
Museum, Victoria, B.C. The division is simply
that of Orders and no attempt is made here to
be scientific in designation or description.

OKDliK I'YGOPODliS. DIVING BIRDS.

Western Grebe, numerous ; Holbcell's Grebe,
fairly numerous; Horned Grebe, fairly numerous;
Pied-billed Grebe, numerous; Loon, numerous ;
Black-throated Loon, not common ; Pacific
Loon, not common ; Red-throated Loon, fairly
common ; Tufted Piifiin, fairly common ; Horned
Puffin, not "ommon ; Rliinocerous Auklet, numer-
ous; Cassin's Auklet, fairly numerous; Ancient
Murrelet, not common ; Marbled Murrclet, nu-
merous ; Pigeon Guillemot, numerous.

ORDER LONGIPENNES. LONG-WINGED SWIMMERS.

Parasitic Jseger, not common; Long-tailed
Jsegar, not common ; Ivory Gull, not common ;
Pacific Kittiwake, not common ; Glaucous Gull,
not common ; Glaucous-winged Gull, numerous;
Western Gull, numerous (during winter months);
American Herring Gull, nuir.erous ; Calirarnia
Gull, numerous; Ring-billed Gull, fairly numerous;
Short-billed Gull, fairly numerous; Heerman's
Gull, not common ; Bonaparte's Gull, numerous;
Sabine's Gull, not common; Common Tern, not
common; Arctic Tern, fairly numerous; Black
Tern, fairly numerous.

CANADA: AN KNCYCLOI'/KDIA.

3S5

OUULK TUlilNAKKS. TL'UE-NOSKI) SWIM Ml. US.

Black-footetl \lbatross (west coast of Vancouver
Islanii) ; Sliort-tailed Albatross, tolerably com-
mon ; Pacific Fulmar, not coininon ; Black-
viiited Sliearwater, not ct)mmoii ; 1> irk-boilieil
Siiearwater, not common ; Slemlcr-billed Sliear-
water, not common ; Forked-tailed Petrel, fairly
luiinerous ; Leach's Petrel, not common.

OKOKK STliCiANOPODKS. TOTlI'ALMATi: SWIMMHKS.
Wiiite-crested Cormorant, tolerably commoi. ;
Hrandt's Cormorant, imt common ; Violet-green
Cormorant, numerous; American White Pelican,
not common ; California Hrown Pelican, not com-
mon.

OKUKR ANSEUES. LAMELLIKoSTKAI. SWIMMERS.

American Merganser, nowhere cdihiuoii ; Krd-
breasted Merganser, numerous; H>i(uii'd Mer-
ganser, numerous ; Mallard, numerous ; Gadwall,
rare; American Widgeon, numerous; Green-
winged Teal, numerous ; Blue-winged Teal, very
rare ; Cinnamon Teal, rare summer visitant ;
Shoveller, numerous summer resident ; Pintail,
numerous; Wood Duck, summer resilient, no-
where abundant ; Redhead, not common ; Can-
vas-back, nowhere abundant ; American Scaup
Duck, numerous ; Lesser Scaup Duck, not com-
mon ; Ring-necked Duck, not common; Ameri-
can Golden-eye, numerous ; Barrow's Golden-
eye, not common; Bufifle-head, numerous; OKI
Squaw, numerous; Harlequin Duck, numerous;
American Scoter, not common ; White-winged
Scoter, numerous ; Surf Scoter, numerous; Ruddy
Duck, not common ; Lesser Snow Goose, toler-
ably abundant ; Ross's Snow Goose^ not common ;
American White-fronted Goose, numerous ; Can-
ada Goose, numerous; Hiitchin's Goose, toler-
ably abundant ; White-cheeked Goose, not com-
mon ; Cackling Goose, common winter resident
on coast; Black Brant, numerous; Emperor
Goose, straggler from the north; Whistling
Swan, not common ; Trum|)eter Swan, not com-
mon.

ORDER HERODIONES. HERONS, ETC.

White-faced Glossy I his, not common ; Amer-
ican Bittern, numerous ; Great Blue Heron,
abundant on the coast ; Snowy Heron, rare.

ORDER PALUDICOL^E. CRANES, ETC.

Little Brown Crane, not common ; Sandhill

2J

Crane, tolerably abundant ; Virginia Kail, not
cominoii ; Carolina Rail, common east of Cas-
cades ; American Coot, niirreroiis.

ORIMCR EIMICOL^E. SHORE HIRDS.
Red Phalarope, not common; Nortiiern Phala-
rope, niiin;rous during spring and autumn;
Wilson's Phalarope, not common ; Wilson's
Sni|)e, tolerably numerous; Long-billed Dowit-
clier, tolerably numerous ; Knot, numerous dur-
ing migratory period; Sharp-tailed Sandpiper,
not common; Pectoral Sandpiper, not common;
]>airii"s Sandpiper, rot common; Least Sand-
piper, ':ouimon and migratory ; Red-backed
Sandpi[)er, numerous; Western Sandpiper, nume-
rous ; Sanderling, not common ; Marbled God-
wit, numerous; Gicater Yellow-legs, numerous
during winter; Yellow-legs, tolerably common;
Solitary Sandpiper, not common ; Western Soli-
tary Samipiper, not common ; Western Willet,
not common ; Wandering Tatler, tolerably com-
mon; Bartramiam Sandpiper, not common;
Buff-breasted Sandpiper, tolerably common;
Spotted Sandpiper, not common ; Long-billed
Curlew, not common; Hndsonian Curlew, not
common ; Black-bellied Plover, numerous and
migratory ; American Golden Plover, common
summer resident ; Kildeer Plover, not common;
Semipalmated Plover, not common ; Surf Bird,
numerous; Turnstone, fairly numerous; Black
Turnstone, tolerably common ; Black Oyster
Catcher, numerous.

ORDER GALLIN.E. GALLINACEOUS BIRDS

Mountain Partriiige, common on Vancouver
Island; California Partridge, Vancouver Island;
Sooty Grouse, nume-ous west of Cascade Moun-
tains; Richardson's Grouse, numerous east of
Cascade Mountains ; Franklin's Grouse, numer-
ous on Mainland ; Canadian Ruffed Grouse, num-
erous ; Gray Ruffed Grouse, not common; Ore-
gon Ruffrd Grouse, not common ; Willow Ptar-
migan, not common ; Rock Ptarmigan, not com-
mon ; White-tailed Ptarmigan, not common;
Columbia sharp-tailed Grouse, not common-
Sagt; Grouse, not common ; King-necked Peasant,
fairly numerous.

ORDER COLUMB.ii. PIGEONS.

Baud-tailed Pigeon, tolerably common; Mourn-
ing Dove, not common.

6

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C:.\NAnA : AN ICNCYCLOl'.KDIA.

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[

OKUEIl RAPTOKKS. HIKDS Ol' I'UEY.

California Vulture, nut connnon ; Turkey Vul-
ture, not common ; Marsh Hawk, numerous on
Mainland ; Sharp-shinned Hawk, fairly numer-
ous; Cooper's Hawk, fairly numerous; American
Goshawk, fairly numerous ; Western Goshawk,
fairly numerous; Western Red-tailed Hawk,
numerous; Red-bellied Hawk, not common;
Swainson's Hawk, not common ; American
Tougli-lef^f^cd Hawk, rare ; Golden Eaf,'le, not
common ; Bald Eaj,'le, numerous; Grey Falcon,
to be found on Island and Mainland; Prairie
Falcon, not common ; Duck Hawk, not common;
Peale's Falcon, not common ; Pigeon Hawk, not
common; Black Merlin, fairly numerous; Rich-
ardson's Merlin, not common ; American Sparrow
Hawk, numerous ; American Osprey, numerous
in summer; American Long-eared Owl, rare;
Short-eared Owl, numerous; Great Grey Owl,
rare; Saw-whet Owl, not eouinioii; Kennicott's
Screech Owl, nuiiurous ; Macl-'arland's Screech
Owl, not common ; Pu^et Sound Screech Owl,
not common; Great Horned Osvl, not common;
Western Horned Owl, numerous; Arctic Horned
Owl, not common ; Dusky Horned Owl, numer-
ous; Snowy Owl, not common ; American Hawk
Owl, not common ; Burrowing Owl, not common ;
Pygmy Owl, numerous; California Pygmy Owl,
not common.

OUDliK COCCYGES. Tllli CUCKOOS.

California Cuckoo, fairly numerous; Belted
Kingfisher, numerous

ORDER PICI. Tllli WOODPECKERS.

Northern Hairy Woodpecker, fairly numerous ;
Harris's Woodi)ecker, fairly numerous; Gairdner's
Woodpecker, not common ; Batclielder's Wood-
pecker, faiily numerous; White-heatled Wood-
pecker, not common ; Alaskan Three-toed Wood-
pecker, not common ; Al{)iiie Three-toed Wood-
pecker, not common; Red-naped Sapsucker, not
common ; Red-breasted Sapsucker, not common;
Williamson's Sapsucker, not common ; Pileated
Woodpecker, fairly numerous; Lewis's Wood-
pecker, not common; Flicker, very rare; Red-
shafted Flicker, fairly numerous ; Nortn-western
Flicker, numerous.

ORDER MACROCHIRES. GOAT-SUCKEKS.

Nighthawk, not common; Western Nighthawk,

not common ; Poor-will, not comknon ; Black
Swift, not common ; Vaux's Swift, not common ;
Black-chinned Hummingbird, not common ; Ruf-
ous Hummingbird, not common; Allen's Hum-
mingbird, not common ; Calliope Hummingbird,
not common.

ORDER PASSERES. PERCHING HIRDS.

Kingbird, not common; Grey Kingbird, not
coMiniou ; Arkansas Kingbird, not common;
Say's Plicebe, not common; Olive-sided Fly-
catcher, not common ; Western Wood Pewee,
not common; Western Flycatcher, not common;
Trail's Flycatcher, not common; Hammond's
Flycatcher, not common ; Wright's Flycatcher,
not common ; Pallid Horned Lark, not common ;
Streaked Horned Lark, not common; Dusky
Horned Lark, not common ; American Magpie,
fairly numerous; Steller's Jay, numerous; Black-
headed Jay, not common ; Rocky Mountain Jay,
not common ; Oregon Jay, numerous ; Northern
Raven, fairly numerous; California Crow, not
common; North-West Crow, not common;
Clarke's Nutcracker, not common ; Cowbird, not
common ; YoUow-headcd Blackbird, not common ;
Red-winged Blackbird, fairly numerous; Senora
Redwing, not common ; Western Meadowlark,
numerous; Bullock's Oiiole, not common; Brew-
er's Blackbird, fairly numerous; Western Evening
Grosbeak, not common ; Pine Grosbeak, not
common; California Purple Finch, numerous in
summer ; Cassin's Purple Finch, fairly common;
Ami;rican Crossbill, numerous; White-Winged
Crossbill, fairly numerous.; Grey-crowned Leucos-
ticte, not common; Hepburn's Leucosticte, not
common; Hoary Ret'poll, not common : Redpoll,
fairly numerous; American Goldfinch, not com-
mon; Pine Siskin, numerous; Snowflake, numer-
ous; Lapland Longspur, not common; McCown's
Longspur, not common ; Western Vesper Spar-
row, not common ; Sandwich Sparrow,^ not
common; Western Savanna Sparrow, not com-
mon ; Western Grasshopper Sparrow, not com-
mon ; Western Lark Sparrow, not common ;
Harris's Sparrow, not common; Intermediate
Sparrow, not common; Gambel's Sparrow, fairly
numerous ; Golden-Crowned Sparrow, numerous,
migratory ; Western Tree Sparrow, not common ;
Western Chipping Sparrow, numerous in sum-

V

CANADA: AN ENCYCL0P/I':DIA.

387

J'.
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mer ; Brewer's Sparrow, not common ; Slate-
coloured J unco, not comtnon ; Oregon Junco, not
common; Rusty Song Sparrow, numerous; Sooty
Song Sparrow, fairly numerous; Lincoln's Spar-
row, not common ; Forbush Sparrow, not com-
mon ; Townsend's Sparrow, not common ;
Slate-coloured Sparrow, not common ; Spur-
red Towhee, not common ; Oregon Towhee,
not common; Black-headed Grosbeak, not
common; Lazuli Bunting, not common;
Louisiana Tanager, numerous in summer;
Purple Martin, fairly numerous; Cliff Sparrow,
not common; Barn Swallow, numerous in sum-
mer; Tree Swallow, numerous; Violct-grcen
Swallow, numerous in summer ; Bank Swallow,
fairly numerous ; Rough-winged Swallow, nume-
rous ; Bohemian Waxwiug, not common; Cedar
Bird, numerous in summer; Northern Shrike, not
common;\Vhite-rumpedShrike, notcommon; Red-
eyed Vireo, not common; WarblingVireo, not com-
mon ; Cassin'sVireo, notcommon; Plumbeous Vi-
reo, not common ; Anthony's Vireo, not common ;
Calaveras \\''arbler, not common; Orange-crowned
Warbler, not common; Lutescent Warbler, not
common ; Yellow Warbler, numerou.; in summer;
MyrtleWarbler, numerous in summer; Audubon's
Warbler, numerous in summer ; Magnolia War-
bler, not common; Black-throated Grey Warbler,
not common; Townsend's Warbler, not com-
mon ; Hermit Warbler, not coi\imon ; Grinnell's
Water-thrush, not common; McGillivray's War-
bler, not common ; Western Yellow-throat, not
common; Long-tailed Chat, not common; Wilson's
Warbler, fairly numerous ; Pileolated Warbler,
notcommon ; American Redstart, not common;
American Pipit, numerous ; American Dipper,
fairly numerous ; Catbird, not common ; Rock
Wren, not common; Vigour's Wren, not common ;
Parkman's Wren, not common ; Western Winter
Wren, numerous; Tula Wren, fairly numerous ;
Rocky Mountain Creeper, not common; California
Creeper, not common ; Slender-billed Nuthatch,
not common; Red-breasted Nuthatch, not com-
mon; Pygmy Nuthatch, not common; Long-
tailed Chickadee, not common ; Oregon Chicka-
dee, not common ; Mountain Chickadee, not
common ; Columbia Chickadee, not common ;
Chestnut-backed Chickadee, not common ;
Western Golden Crowned Kinglet, numer. is in

Western Cascade District ; Ruby-crowned King-
let, numerous in Western Cascade District;
Townsend's Solitaire, rare; Willow Thrush, not
common; Russet-backed Thrush, not common;
Olive-backed Thrush, not common; Dwarf Her-
mit Thrush, not common ; Audubon's Hermit
Thrush, not common ; American Robin, not com-
mon; Western Robin, numerous ; Varied Thrush,
fairly numerous; Western Bluebird, fairly numer-
ous ; Mountain Bluebird, not common.

The Birds of Manitoba. On January 27th, 18S7,
Mr. Alexander McArthur read a paper before the
Historical and Scientific Society of Manitoba on
the Winter Birds of that Province — see Tram-
actions, 1887— in which he described the following
as natives of tiiat season and as being fairly com-
mon in the Province :

Goshawk, Golden Eagle, Snowy Owl, Great
Horned Owl, Grey or Barred Ovvl, Great Grey or
Cumereus Owl, Hawk Oil, Pilliated Woodpecker,
Three-toed Woodpecker, Willow or White Ptar-
migan, Dark or Spruce Partridge, Ruffed Grouse,
Prairie Chicken or Sharp-tailed Grouse, Pinnated
Grouse, Raven, Bohemian Chatterer or Wax
Wing, Snow Bunting, Evening Grosbeak, Pure
Grosbeak, American Cross-bill, White-winged
Cross-bill, Black-capped Titmouse or Chickadee,
Canada Jay, Blue Jay and Lesser Red-poll.

Mr. George E. Atkinson, of Portage la Prairie,
read a paper before the same Society on April
14th, 1898, upon the Game Birds of Manitoba —
— see Transactions, i8g8 — in which he gave the
following list of Birds known in or common to
the Province :

OKUEK ANSERES.

American Merganser, Red-Breasted Merganser,
Hooded Merganser, Mallard, Black Duck, Gad-
wall, Widgeon or Baldpate, Green Wmged Teal,
Blue Winged Teal, Cinnamon Teal, Shoveller,
Pintail, Wood Duck, Red Head, Canvas-back,
American Scaup Duck or Big Blue Bill, Lesser
Scaup Duck or Little Blue Bill, Ring-necked
Duck, American Golden Eye or Whistler, Bar-
rows Golden Eye, Bufflehead, Cowheen or Old
Squaw, Harlequin Duck, American Eider, Amer-
ican Scoter, White Winged Scoter, Surf Scoters,
Ruddy Duck, Lesser Snow Goose Wavy, Blue

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CANADA: AN I'-NCVCLOIMDIA.

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Goose, Wliite Fronted Goose, Ciiiuidii Goose,
Hntchin's Goose, Hrant Goose, Whistling Swan,
Trumpeter Swan.

OKUEK LIMICOL/K.

Northern Phalarope, Wilson's Fhalarope,
American Avocet, American Woodcock, Wilson's
Snipe, Dowitcher, Long-billed Dowitcher, Stilt
Sandpiper, Knot or Robin Snipe, Pectoral Saml-
pipur, White-rumped Sandpiper, Baird's Saml-
piper. Beast Sandpiper, Red-backed Sandpiper
or Blackheart, Semi-palmatcd Sandpiper, San-
derling. Marbled Godwit, Hudsonian Godwit
Greater Yellow Legs, Lesser Yellow Legs, Soli-
tary Sandpiper, Willet, Bartrainian Sandpiper or
Quail, Buff-breasted Sandpiper, Spotted Sand-
piper, Long-billed Curlew, Eskimo Curlew, Black-
bellied Plover, American Golden Plover, Kill-
deer, Ring-necked Plover, Piping Plover, Turn-
stone.

OKIJEK HALLIN.H.

Ruffed Grouse, Grey Ruffed Grouse, Willow
Ptarmigan, Rock Ptarmigan, Pinnated Grouse,
Sharp-tailed Grouse.

Sketch of the Flora of Canada. The following
description of the flora of the Dominion was
written by Professor John Macoun, Naturalist of
the Geological Survey of Canada, for the British
Association Meetmg Hand-book in 1897 : " In a
general sketch of the flora of the Dominion of
Canada, the whole northern portion of the North
American Continent must be considered, includ-
ing Newfoundland on the east and Alaska on the
west. This immense region, extending from
Cape Race, the ruDst easterly point of Newfound-
land, to Behring Straits on the west, is in round
numbers 3,500 miles wide. On the south, the
forty-ninth parallel forms the boundary from the
Pacific Ocean eastward, to the Lake of the
Woods, from thence, to where it cuts the forty-
fifth parallel, it folhnvs a tributary of Lake Supe-
rior, the great lakes, and the St. Lawrence River
itself. The northern boundary of New York,
New Hampshire, Vermont and Maine, forms the
southern boundary to the sea at St. Stephen,
New Brunswick.

The chief features of the northern and eastern
sections e.xtending westerly to the Mackenijie

River are its plams, lakes, rivers and forests, and
the paucity of its flora as regards species, the
greater number of which are identical with those
of northern Europe or very closely related to
them. The south-western or praiiie region has
a flora which is quite distinct both in origin and
appearance from that of the forest egion to the
north and east. South-western Ontario has a
flora that in greater part has a southern origin,
and which in very many rispects differs from that
of all the other parts of the Dominion, and
includes many species of shrubs and trees that do
not grow naturally outside of its limits. The
whole of the Dominion east of the Rocky Moun-
tains maybe called a plain, as it rises in no point
into anytlung that could be called a chain of
mountains. The only chain of heights are tlie
Laurentides, extending up the St. Lawrence and
along the Georgian Bay and Lake Superior.
West of Quebec City to the Rocky Mountains
there is no point above 2,000 feet until the high
plains become an elevated plateau, but altogether
destitute of mountains. The source cf the St.
Lawrence (Lake Nepigon), i,goo miles from the
sea, is less than 800 feet above tide water. The
Rocky Mountains, e.xtending in a north-westerly
direction from latitude 49° to the Arctic Sea, are
both a barrier to the western extension of the
prairie flora and a means of extending the distri-
bution of the Arctic, for many species found on
the Arctic coast are found in the Rockies at alti-
tudes ranging from 7,000 to 9,000 feet. British
Columbia consists of a series of mountains, plat-
eaus and valleys, that have a very varied herba-
ceous vegetation, and as a consequence we have
on the mountain summits an Arctic flora with a
marked change to Alaskan species as we ascend
the Ct)ast Range and the Mountains on Vancouver
Island. On the dry region about Kamloops,
Okanagan, and Spence's Bridge, there are many
species that have their home to the south in the
dry districts of Washington. On theother hand,
the coast flora, and especially that of the vicinity
of Victoria, has much in common with northern
California and Oregon.

From the foregoing it may be seen that our
flora is made up of series of fragments that have
had each a different origin; the more noitherly
and liigh mountain species being circumpolar or

CANADA: AN KNCYCLOIMIDI A.

,?^'J

derivatives from those of nortiiern Europe ami
northern Asia, Tiie species in the coniferous
and poplar forcFta are also of northern origin, but
those in the deciduous-leaved forests of the East-
ern Provinces and Ontario are undoubtedly
characteristic of America, and have a much
greater development to the south. Genera that
are characteristic of these forests are Dcsmodinm,
Uviilaria, Trillium, Podophyllum, Hydnnlis, Phlox,
Dicenlra, Sanguinaria, Mcdeola, and many others.
In the prairie Provinces the species are of south-
westerly origin, thou<jh many are identical with
the mountain species of that region of the United
States. Eastern species of herbaceous and woody
plants extend far to the west in the stream valleys
and wooded ravines, and do not finally disappear
until the more arid districts are reached. In the
foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains many western
species find a hofne, and they too descend to the
plains, and spread themselves eastward until
stopped by the light rainfall of the prairie.

The European botanist when first landing on
our shores, or entering the country by any of the
United States railways, will be struck by the
similarity between the plants he meets with and
those of his own country. This seeming re-
semblance only extends to the roadsides and
cultivated grounds. What he sees are immi-
grants, and it is only in the forests he will see
indigenous plants. In trying to get a knowledge
of the native flora no person should collect any-
thing along the roadsides or in cultivated fields,
because not ten per cent, of the species he sees
are natives. Our native species seldom become
weeds, as they were chiefly forest species, and
with the forest many of them disappear.

Lying between Hudson's Bay and the Gulf of
St. Lawrence is the extensive tract named Labra-
dor, the interior of which until lately was quite
unknown- The area of this peninsula is over
500,000 square miles, and the paucity of its flora
may be learned when it is known that the flower-
ing plants and ferns that occur in it number less
than 1,000 species. It is only on the coasts and
the more elevated moiintains that the true Arctic
flora is found, and even this only in the north-
eastern part where the Arctic ice is forced on
shore. The characteristic Arctic species found
here are Ranunculus pygmaus, Wahl, and R. nivalis.

L. ; Piipaver itudicaulis, L. ; Draba alpina, L., I).
stellata, Jacq. and D.aurcu, Walil. ; Silcne amulis,
L., Lychnis alpina, L. and l..apetala, L. ; Polcnlilla
uuiculata, Poir. ; Saxi/raga oppositifolia, L., S.
rivuhiria, L., 5. cernua, L. and S. nivalis, L.;
Sedum rhodiola, Db. ; Erigcron unifiorum, L.,
A nlennaria alpina, Gaertn. ; Campanula unijlora, L.
Ledum palustrc, L. Rhododendron Lapponicuni,
Wahl. ; Diapensia Lapponica, L. ; Pcdicularis Lap-
ponica, L. P. hirsuta, L., and /'. flammea L.
Numerous willows, sedges and grasses which are
Arctic or mountainous in their general distribu-
tion are to be met with, but the bulk of the flora
is identical with that of tiie sub-arctic or boreal
2one of the forest belt that extends to the
Mackenzie River. None of the enumerated
plants have been observed in the interior of Can-
ada, but all with one or two exceptions are to be
found near the snow line in the Rocky Mountains.

Prince Edward Island has nothing peculiar
about its vegetation except that both the sea-
weeds around its shores and its land flora indi-
cate greater warmth in its coast waters than we
find on the coasts of Nova Scotia. There is a
marked absence of species indicating a boreal or
frosty summer climate, while there are undoubted
indications of a moist and cool one. 'One sum-
mer spent on the island revealed very little of
botanical interest, but showed that Prince Ed-
ward Island was climatically the "Green Isle"of
the Dominion. Owing to the position of Nova
Scotia it has more the characteristics of an
island than a continental mass, and hence a
number of species are found there and on the
coast of Newfoundland that are never met in-
land. The general flora, however, is seen to be
in general the same as that of the Provinces of
New Brunswick, Quebec, and the greater part of
Ontario. A few notable species are Calluna
vulgaris, Salisb, Alchemilla vulgaris, L., Rhododen-
dron viaxinium, L., Jlcx glabra. Gray, Hudsonia
ericoidcs, L., Gaylussacia dumosa, T. & G., and
Schizcea pusilla, Pursh.

Passing to New Brunswick we find a marked
change in the flora, which now takes on a more
exclusively American facies, and as we pass
westward this becomes more marked until
scarcely a trace of the European flora can be
detected except on the higher summits. Gradu-

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300

CANADA: AN i:\CYCLOI'.KI)IA.

M

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ally tlic eastern species drop out and arc replaced
by immigrants from the south or the advance
guard of the western flora. In the deciduous-
leaved forest many species arc found that are
rare or absent in Nova Scotia but which are
common in Western Quebec ami Ontario. OwinR
to the position of Quebec its flora varies greatly,
for, while on the shores of the Gulf and the lower
reaches of the St. Lawrence many Arctic and
sub-Arctic species may be found, the conditions
have so changed when- Quebec City is reached
that the Wild Grape {Vitisriparia) and the Silver
Berry (Hlcvgitiis argcntcii) grow liixiiri(>i"~ly on
the Isle of Orleans, and the valley of the St.
Lawrence westward shows aconstantly increasing
ratio of southern forms. Along the shores of the
lower part of the river the writer has collected
Thiilictrum alpiiiuiii, L., Vcsiavia aniica, Rich-
ards, Ccrastiiiin alpinum, L., Anibis alpina, L.,
Saxifraga caspilosu, L., and S. oppositifulia, L.;
and on Mount Albert, one of the Shickshock
Mc)untain&, Silcne ucaiilis, L., Lychnis alpina,
L., Rhododendron Lapponicum, Walil., Cassiope
hypnoidcs, Don., and many others. On the sum-
mit of this mountain at an altitude of 4,000 feet
were collected Vaccininm ovali/uUiiin, Smith,
Galium Kamtschaticum, Steller., Pellcea densa.
Hook, Aspidium aculeatum, Swartz. \aT.scopiilinum
D. C. Eaton. The two latter have no other
known stations east of the Pacific Coast Range
and the other two are western species. Montreal
Mountain, on the other hand, may be said to be
an eastern extension of the southern flora, as
here we have the first assemblage of the represen-
tative Ontario flora.

No other Province of the Dominion has such a
diversified flora as Ontario, caused by the great
influx of southern forms in the south-western
peninsula bordering on Lake Erie, and the exten-
sion of the Province westward to Manitoba and
northward to James Bay. To speak in general
terms, that part of Ontario north of the Canadian
Pacific Railway and north and west of Lake
Superior has a flora in no respect different from
that of the boreal sections of Quebec and the
Maritime Provinces. Along the Ottawa and the
St. Lawrence, from Montreal westward, the
country gradually improves in climate, and cor-
responding to this change the flora takes a more

southern asjiect, and trees, shrubs and all herb-
aceous plants not hitherto seen become common.
In the vicinity of Toronto a marked change takes
place and Scarboro' Heights and the Humber
Plains seem to be the gathering ground for many
species tiiat do not occur in a wild state farther
to the east. Yonge Street, which was the great
northern highway 100 years ago, is still a divis-
ional point for various reasons, but in none
more so than in a botanical sense. West and
south of this line a new forest with new shrubs
and herbaceous plants meets the eye of the bot-
anist and tells him with unerring certainty that
he has entered on a new field for his labours, and
if ho be a practical man he will soon see that the
capabilities of the country increase with the
change. All points are interesting to the botan-
ist, but none more so than from Kingsville to
Sarnia, taking in Pelee Island, where vineyards
rivalling those of Europe are seen in perfection,
Ainherstburgh, Windsor, Chatham, and Sarnia
are easily accessible, and at all these places rare
and beautiful species can be obtained.

While the shores of Lake Erie are clothed with
vegetation that needs a high winter temperature,
the east and north coasts of Lake Superior have
a boreal vegetation that shows that the summer
temperature of this great lake is quite low. It
was the boreal species along the cliffs and near
the water that led the early travellers, and Agas-
siz, to carry away such erroneous impressions of
the Arctic climate of the Lake Superior region;
a region which we now know is not climatically
unsuited to agriculture. It may not be uninter-
esting to know that the Great Lakes have, with
the exception of Lake Superior, a much earlier
growth in spring on the north shores than they
have on the south. Passing out of the forest
region, we enter on the vast expanse of natural
meadows which constitute the prairie region of
the travellers and the Provinces of Manitoba,
Assiniboia, Alberta pud part of Saskatchewan.
The eastern border is about thirty miles east of
Winnipeg, and the western border, the foot-hills
of the Rocky Mountains 900 miles to the west.
This vast region has in many respects a flora
quite different from that of the east, north, or
west, in which species of the forest zone predomi-
nate. As mentioned in another place, the eastern

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOP/ICDIA.

39t

flora extotuls westerly ia ravines and river bot- o( I'riinns. I'ragaria, Rosa, Rubiis and Ainelanchin'
toms for 150 or 200 miles, but finally disappears, produce fruits which serve as food for both birds
and the true prairie flora is found everywhere ex- and men.

cept in a few localities where the conditions are
favourable to the {growth of a few moisture-loving
herbaceous species of the forest re{,'ion.

The advance of the northern forest species is

There are a few species found in and around
water that are worthy of a passinjj glance. Old
Wives' Lake is saline, and in its waters we find
Ruppia maritima, L., and alonjj its shores Ht'/w-

checked by the encroachment of the prairie tropiitm Ciirassavicnin, L., both natives of the

caused by fire in former years, and the inter- Atlantic coast, and numerous species of Cheno-

mingling of species peculiar to prairie and forest podium, Alriplex ami allied genera. On an island

is well known in the district between Prince in the same lake we find breeding the King-billed

Albert and Edmonton. To the west the advance Gull that winters on the Atlantic coast. In

of prairie species on the eastern slopes and foot- boggy ground near Crane Lake a species of

hills of the Rocky Mountains is no less m.irked, Dowuingia is {onnd in profusion. If not new, it

and the day is not far distant when the whole has no relatives nearer than California. In the

eastern slope and many interior valleys will be same bog the Californian Grebe was breeding in

given up to pasturage and the growth of hay for numbers. Still more extraordinary, on Sheep

the immense herds and flocks that will feed in Mountain, close to Waterton Lake, near lat. 49",

summer on the high slopes, and find food and at an altitude of 7,500 feet, was gathered a

shelter in winter in the valleys. Much has been mountain poppy which, when submitted to

spoken and written about the nutiitive quality experts at Kew and Washington, was pronounced

of the grasses of the foot-hills in Alberta, but to he Papaver Pyrenaicnm. How did it get there ?

the same may be said of the whole prairie Leaving the prairie let us turn eastward to the

region. Atlantic coast and follow the forest belt from lat.

The same species are common over nearly the 46° north-westerly to where lat. 54^ strikes the

whole area, and indeed the only coarse grasses of Rocky Mountains, and we will find a flora that

the dry prairie Fcstnca oviiia, L., and P. scabrella, does not vary ten per cent, in the species that

Torr., have their greatest development in the inhabit either forest, swamp, lake or stream. In

foot-hills where they, with certain species of this distance of 2,500 miles the hygrornetric con-

Danthonia, are cut in large quantities for hay. ditions seem the same and the apparently severer

Parts of six seasons spent on the prairie, collect- winter of the west is offset by the universal

ing natural history specimens, give as the grasses covering of snow. It might be as well to

of the prairie no less than forty-two genera and remark here that accurate meteorological data

one hundred and fifty-six species. 0( Agropyrum, have shown that Edmonton, in northern Alberta,

Elymus, Stipa, Bromiis, Agrostis, Calamagrostis, in lat sj** 30', has almost the winter climate of

and Poa, the best hay and pasture grasses, there Ottawa in lat 45" 25'.

are fifty-nine species, so that without the aid of The eastern ranges are included in the term

cultivated or foreign species — with the aid of Rocky Mountains, and in these we have most of

irrigation — we can have hay and pasturage for all our higher summits. The vegetation of the ele-

purposes. The genus Carex furnishes much of vated prairie (alt. 4,000) near the eastern base or

the summer food of the native ponies and one fool-hills of the Rocky Mountains is exceedingly

species C. aristata, R. Br , has always been their rich and consists of a very varied and most luxu-

summer food when Indians and half-breeds were riar^t growth of herbaceous plants, including a

on the march. Besides the grasses the prairie number of rare and interesting Umbellifers. As

produces many leguminous plants that are valu- the slopes are ascended the species of the plain

able for pasture, especially of the genera yls^m- gradually disappear and at 6,000 feet many

galus, Vicia (Wild Vetch), Lathyms (Wild Pea), boreal plants show themselves, and as greater

of which we have twenty-eight species. The heights are attained the vegetation becomes more

Rose family is well represented and many species Arctic, so that from 7,500(0 9,000 feet in the

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CANADA; AN KNCYCLOP.KDIA.

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Rocky Moiiiitiiiiis neatly all the species are iden-
tical or closely related to those found on the
Barren Grounds and along the Arctic coast east
of Mackenzie River. The Peace River vegeta-
tion differs very little from that of Quebec and
the northern praires, and as far north ns lat. 6i'
these species predominate and apparently all tlu;
country needs is drainage to give it a climate
suitable for all kinds of crops.

The western slopes of the Rocky Mountains
begin to show a mixed flora and b.)th herbaceous
and woody growths have a noticnable increase of
western forms. Both the valley of the Columbia
River and tiie mountain sides bordering it show
by their fli)ra that we have now passed from a
comparatively dry climate into a damp one, and
the corresponding change in both the flora and
avian fauna becomes apparent. Anyone enter-
ing the woods along the river or up the sl()i)es
will not fail to notice the thick carpet of moss
and the general dampness, and at the summit of
the Selkirks he will learn that the average snow-
fall is not less than thirty feet. This fact will
account at once for the great number of glaciers
at comparatively low altitudes in the Selkirks,
and their total absence in the Rockies below 8,500
feet. Owing to tiie humidity of the atmosphere
the flora of the Selkirks differs greatly from that of
the Rocky Mountains, and has much in common
with that of the Pacific Coast towards Alaska.
Collections made at Banff, at an altitude of 7,000
feet, will he quite different from those made at
tlie same altitude at Glacier in the Selkirks.
West of the " Great Bend " of the Columbia
River, British Columbia becomes a high plateau
studded with mountains and cut into deep nar-
row valleys. In some instances, as in the case
of the Okanagan Valley, this plateau has an outlet
to the south, and it has therefore a flora which
in part is peculiar to the American desert, and
such species as Purshia tridcntata, D.C., and Ar-
temisia tridcntata, Nutt., and species of Gilia,
Aster and Erigonum are found that are met with
nowhere else in Canada. The reptilian and
avian faunas partake of the same character, and
rattlesnakes and lizards, with rare southern birds,
are quite common.

Owing to variations in altitude and the direc-

tion of the prevailing winds, British Columbia
varies from the ariility of the region just spoken
of to the almost constant rains on the coast, and
while in the Fraser River valley below Yale the
vegetation partakes of the character of the tropics,
in the same valley, fifty miles above Yale, at
Lyttoii, aridity and an almost total absence of
rain give almost the same flora as we found
about the southern end of Lake Okanagan.
The Coast Range, which extends from the
International Boundary to Alaska, shuts out the
humid winds of the Pacific and at the same time
confines many western plants to a narrow strip
along the ci^ist. These, with those found on Van-
couver Island and the ishuuls in the Gulf of
Geor.,'ia and Queen Charlotte Islands, constitute
a distinct flora in many respects. Many genera
peculiar to the west coast, both to the south and
north, and numerous species of other genera fill
the woods and open spaces with beautiful flowers,
and the spring months, April and May, are a sea-
son of continual bloom. Liliaceous flowers are
abundant, and Erythonintns, Trilliitms, Alliums,
Brodiaas, FiitilLiriiis, Liliums, Camassias and
others arc in great profusion "

I'or very full and scientific information upon
this subject, and the orders, genera and species
of Canadian flora, reference may be had to
Professor Macoun's Catalogue of Canadian Plants,
1883-6. U[K)n Nova Scotia flora much special
information may also be obtained from the Trans-
actions of the N.S. Institute of Natural Science,
1875-6. In New Brunswick the Rev. James
Fowler, m.a., published a valuable Catalogue in
1878-9, while the Btillefin of the Natural History
Society of N.B. for 1882-3 contains further data.
Quebec has had partial lists made from time to
time by Dr. And:ew Holmes, Dr.Thomas, L'Abb6
Ovide Brunet, W. S. M. D'Urban and L' Abb*
Provancher. The science in Ontario owes
much to Dr. James Fletcher, the late Judge
Logie, the late Principal J. M. Buchan, Dr.
William Saunders, Dr. Thomas Burgess, Mr.
H. B. Spotton. Their lists of localities are
valuable. Dr. Robert Bell, Dr. G. M. Dawson,
Sir John Richardson and others have done
great service in the North- West or British
Columbia.

ii^

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SECTION VI.

CANADIAN CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT.

■■^i'ih

If

REVIEW OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF CANADA

«v

TUB liDITOK.

Win UN thu cuiiiiiics of ii huiuJiLiI
ycuis tliu I'roviiucrt now forming,'
part uf tlio Dominion of Canada
have passed tliroui;li almost every
variety of constitutional experience. Tliey have
been ruled directly by tliu Crown without even
the intervention of the Imperial Parliament.
They have been administered and ruled by Gov-
ernors with full and autocratic power ; by a com-
bination of GovtTnor, Executive Council and
Legislative Council ; by Govt^rnors in continuous
conflict with their Legislative Assemblies ; by
Governors with a Cabinet whose advice was
rejected or whose decisions were over-ruled ; by
Governors with an irresponsible Ministry which
may have represented public opinion or with a
responsible Ministry which may have represented
only a small minority. They have had every
degree of limited and unrestricted self-j;overn-
ment ; the narrowest and the fullest scope of Par-
liamentary control. They have in later days
evolved a system which is unique in history — a
federal monarchy in form, a crowned republic
in fact. From all these complex conditions has
therefore come a constitution which works out a
curious mixture of British principles and practice
with American political methods and party
ideals. Upon the whole, however, Canadian
government in both form and fact is far more
British than American and this, to the student of
national conditions and the influences to be ex-
pected from contiguity and the pressure of a great
inter-changeable but alien population of similar
language and rac*, will make the result seem
one of the marvels of the nineteenth century.

The prefont system has been a slow growth.
It is almost entirely a product of the British re-
gime. From the prolonged period of French per-
sonal rule and brilliant struggle with Indians, and

395

Mnglish armies, and English colonists comes
only tile present-day practice of certain Trench
laws, the partial use of tlio I'rench language, and
the ntentioii of delined religious privileges.
Through all the years stretching between the
founding of (Juubec by Chainplain anil the death
of Montcalni (i(jo8-i75(j) tlure can hardly be said
to have been distinct political development. The
rule was that of autocratic monarchy contcoUed
too often by the commercial greed of individuals,
but redeemed in some measure by the never-fail-
ing presence ofeither great personalities or bril-
liant achievement — represented in such names of
varied nature as Brebeuf, Laval, Daulac, Talon,
Frontenac. There were popular but suppressed
protests and there was factional lighting from
time to time. But the troubles were more
personal than political, and party government
can hardly be claimed to have existed in even an
incipient stage. From i6j2 to 164S the Governor
ruled absolutely. In the latter year his consul-
tative Council enlarged its bounds and its func-
tions. From 16G3 to 17G0 the Colony was ruled
by a Rojal Governor, an Intendant, or financial
administrator, and a Supreme Council which
included the two ofidcials named and practically
exercised executive, legislative and judicial
powers. If the Governor was a strong man such
as Frontenac he ruled Canada. If he was v.'eak
and the Intemlant was a force for good such as
Talon, or for evil as in the case of Bigot, then the
latter official was the practical ruler. If neither
of these personalities was of a strong nature then
the Government was one of class supremacy, con-
trolled by warring personal interests in the Coun-
cil itself.

Under British administration the change was
very gradual. From 1764 to 1774 the military
influence was practically supreme. Then came

•i."

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CANADA: AN KNCVCI.Ol'.KDIA.

tlic ^iicIk'C Act, in tlie lattiT your, CDiistitiitiiif;
tin- ll-dsoiTH M.iy Slope, I.,il)ia<l(ii , tilt; Oliioaiiil
tin; Mississippi as tliu buiiinjai u-h of (.Jui'licc ;
jjiviiiK the (iovfriior an AilvisMiy C'.oiiiumI ; ullow-
\nH Koiiiaii Catholics tiliuKI public utlicu and tlic
ilcr^^V to culluct tit Ill's; ami fstaMislnn^j tliu
l''iciirl) civil code and tlio l{riti;%li ciiiiiiiial law.
Hy this nio.tsiiro thu i'Vuiich Catholic population
of Oii<l)i-c vvaa pl.u atcd, thu linj'lish Protestant
population of thir Atlantic Culonios inccnsfd. So
was the small band of r.ipidly increasing ICiit^lish
Loyalist settlers of uhateainu to bo culled Upper
Canada. They did not like the Sei;,'iieurial Ten-
ure, first established in l66j, by wliiili certain
j»entleincn had Inren f,'iven large grants of land
by the I'^eneh King and which continued to be
held under certain feudal customs native to old
l'"ranif. Nor did t!iey like the rule by an irres-
ponsible Councd and the preservation of I'rench-
Canadian rights and privileges under the Quebec
Act. And, when the Loyalist refugees poured into
the country in 17S4 it became necessary to in
some measure meet their wishes. Hence the
next important Imperial measure.

The Constitutional Act of 17(^1 divided
the two Provinces and appointed u Covernor
for each, with an Executive Council, a Leg-
islative Couiuil, and a Legislative Assembly
— the members of the latter beinfj elect-
ed for four-year periods, and possess! n^j a prop-
erty or rental qualification. A provision was
inserteil by the wish of Pitt and against the
advice of Lord Dorchester and others, making it
lawful for the Governor-General to attach an
hereditary right to membership in the Cijuncils.
lUit this power was never exercised. The Impe-
rial Government regulated the amount of the
Customs duties, the Lower Canada Governnieiit
collected them and Upper Canada received oiie-
eigiith of the total. Each Legislature had power
to levy taxes for public works, but the (iovcrnor
and Executive Council alone had control of the
disposition of the revenue. The Hritish criminal
law was to be in force, but the French civil code
was maintained in Lower Canada as under the
Onebec Act. Upper Canada was accorded the
freehold tenure of iand, while the Lower Province
maintained its seigiieurial system. One-seventh
of the Crown Lands of Upper Canada were set

apart for thu "Hupport of a Protestant Clergy,"
and were noon called the Cleigy Reserves —
while the P'rench-Canadiait clergy weru allowed
to collect their tithes and other " ncciistoined
dues" rioii) their own people. Nfeanwhile thu
Maritime i'roviiices had be(;n also evolving thu
beginiiiligs of 8ell^;ovei iimeiit. A Kepieseiilaf ivu
Assembly was grunted to Novii Scotia ill 17^^, to
Prince Edward Island in I7<hj — which ilid not
meet iititil August, 177.} and to New Brunswick
in 17^\, upon its separation from Nov. i Scotia,
The granting of these Assemblies, either in thu
Canadas or down by thu sea, was only a prepar.i-
tory step to popular government. It was one
thing to elect repitseiitatives by a limited popular
vote, quite another for those representatives to
control the policy of the Government, mould
the /)i'rvo«;it7 t)f the Executive, or exercise power
over the finances an<l Customs of thu Province.
The chief constitutional events in Hiitish America
which followed these measures and the Act of
171JI, were, up to the Union in 1841, as follows:

I'irst Parliament in Upper Canada i7(ja

P'irst Parliament in Lower Canada I7()4

Slavery abolished in Upper ('anada 179J

Slavery declared illegal in Lower Canada ...ihoj
Cape Hretoii Island united to Nova Scotia... 1820
Ninety-two Resolutions passed in Lower

Canada 1834

"Meeting of the five Counties" at St.

Charles, L.C 18.^7

Rebellion in Ui)|)er and Lower Canada 1837

Resolutions by Legislatures of New Hriins-
wick and Nova Scotia offering support

to Canadian authorities 1837

Mission of Lord Durham liljS

Special Council for Lower Canada 1839

Mr. Poulett Thomson (Lord Sydenham) ap-
pointed Governor-General 1 839

Act of Union of Upjx-T and Lower Canada

passed by Iinjierial Parliament 1840

It is sometimes forgotten in connection with
the struggles which prevailed during this period
that Great Uritain incurred heavy liabilities for
the Colonies in their early years and paid out
large sums for ordinary Governmenc expenses,
such as salaries, public works, &c. Until these
current expenses were fully met locally it was
hardly fair to demand complete local control,
lietueen 1791 and 1841, when Upper and Lower
Canada were re-united, the constitutional and

I'' ■<

CANADA; AN KNCYCI.OIM-.DIA.

397

puliliciil ciiiiIIk ts uiii> li pii'v.iili'd wi're Vfry ilif-
femit ill till! two I'toviiii't's in mhik! icsikkIs,
very liiiiiil.ir in utIicrH. So witli (lu; Maritiniu Col-
unit!*. Ill all uliku, liovvuvcr, tiuru woro two din-
tiiu'.t prim i|ilc-s involved iiiid to iiiiilfrstainl tin su
is worth iiioiL' to tin; stiidrnt ol ('.in.idiati liistoiy
than thu roadini; of many voluiiii.-8 of political
declamation on cither or hoth sidrs. 'Ilic dov-
cinors iuid thu Tory party wire fii^htiiij,' in the
main fortii'.-priiici|)lcof ISrilish connect ion — which
tliuy bchfveil to be involved in tin; maintcnancu
of till! (jovcriior'rt intliH-iicc and iHcro^'ativu and
in the politu'al doinni.iiH c of thi; laMir as his
advisers. This broad ba-^is for tluiir policy was
cotnplicatcd by thu distinct lines drawn at tiiiics
between I'lciicli and ]tiitisli inlcusls in I^owcr
('anada, and by tiu; fait that al other times
parties iiiid party lines tliictiiated so that Kurdish-
speakin;; Keformers, I'rench-Canadians and re-
piililiciins in the same Province wt ru all mixetl
up to^illier in combined op[)osilion to tho Tories.
Everywhere, too, thire was tho charge a>,';iiiist
the latter of oli^'archii:al and official seltislniess.
No one can doubt that it was freipiently true.
Etpially ceitain, however, is tho fact that eacli
Ciovernor in turn was honestly desirous of doing
his duty by the people aloii|; lines whic li would,
according to tlio lij^lit ^jiveii him in those days,
prevent them from practising radical principles
which were considered, even in Eiij^land, to bu
much the same as republican ones and to there-
fore involve in thecaseof Canada probable annex-
ation to the United States. This somewhat
natural dreatl of American continuity and inllii-
ence was the dominating factt)r in the policy of
the Governors and of the Tory paity for a perio
of more than fifty years. To the same party in
()uebec the political dominance of the vast
French majority, led by men like Papineaii,
Chenicr or Kric Dorion, seemed to involve the
local suppression of liritish institutions, the vic-
tory of I'Vench republicanism, laws, religion,
langnaj,'e and government in eveiy detail. In
Ontario the bitter radicalism of (loiiriay, Mac-
kenzie and other leailers meant to them the
gradual Americanizing of public life and inst'tu-
tions. This to the immediate descendants of the
United Empire Loyalists was naturally as evil a
thing as the execution of Charles I. was to his

devoted Cavalieis. In the Maritime Provinces
the feeling on m ither Hiile was so keen. Nearly
all —settlers and politii iaiis nlike -were LoyaliHts
and thus tu Komu extent the Htriiggln was plainly
a coii'-litutional contest. ICveii there, Ihiwi ver,
thu issu(S Were complicated, tlioiigli in a minor
degree, by simil.ir charges and fears.

Upon the Liberal side there wen;, of course,
many gentiim; grounds of complaint. Thu chief
issue w.is till! (]iiesti<in of how fir a Colonial
Assembly could imitate in its local powers and
functions the Impetial House of Commons. Uii-
emit lolled expend I tines, t hi! distinct domin.i nee <t
a class, the exclusion of in my de serving mun Irom
share in tho Government of tho country, were
geiiei.d and easily mideistooil grievances — com-
plicated by local issues such as tho administration
of the seigneiirial tenure or feudal land system in
Lower Can.id a, the religious controversies con-
iiiitetl with the jMotmont of Government reserved
lands to tho Clu i of England in Upper Can-
ada, or tho (juestii f Government patronage in
all the Provinces. A nd then, after the Rebellion,
came the long disj . as to the mode of applying
the principles of sell-governnu!iit siipposeil to
have been recognized and conceded. Unfortu-
nately, prior to 1S.17, both Mackenzie and Papi-
neau had furnished a substantial basis to those
who charged them with being re|)iil)licaiis and
annexationists. If it had not been for the
continuous introduction of this spectre into the
controversies, conciliation would have been
easy on the one hand, and compromise on the
other. Had there been that moderation in the
po|)ular leaders of the thirties which characteri/;cd
Baldwin, Lafontaine, Howe ami Fisher in the
controversies of the forties, no rebellion would
have taken j)lace, responsible government would
have come with ecpial certainty and in more
effective and kindly operation, and a dark page in
our annals would have never h^cn turned over.
To say that the Rebellion brought freedom to our
people has been a most inaccurate, though com-
mon statement. Popular government was inevit-
able here as it was in Fngland. Hut it was hardly
developed in tlu! Mother Country itself to the
degree which some demanded m Canadian pre-
rebellion days, wiiihe the whole question
vas complicated to the Imperial authorities by

..%

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398

CANADA: AN ENCYCLt)I\i;i)IA,

I I '

the existence here of a great French party of, at
tliat time, doubtful loyalty, of a railical English
section with declared American views, anil of the
clearly-expressed belief aiiioiigst tl'.e ruling
classes that too much concession of self-scnern-
nient to such eleiiKiits in the population would
involve ultimate separation. It was all very
natural uiu'er the circnmstancts. Out of the
whole prolout,'ed controversy our present consti-
tution has fortunately evolved, but only throuj^h
long years of that conciliation and compromise
whicli Foiiie Canadians refused to practisa in 1S37.

CliarlcS I'tiulta Thoiiisnii, 1st Lord Sydenliam.

Following the Rtbellion came Lord Duiiiani's
visit to Canada in iNj8 audits famous Report,
recommending that the two Provinces of Upper
and Lower Canada be re-united, with one Li'gis-
lature ; that the Maritime Provinces be induced,
if possible, to join thf'in in the eventual creation
of a wider Union, having Provincial Legislatures
and a Federal Parliament ; and that, meantime,
the policy made possible th'-ough the appointment
of Provincial Executive Councils under the Act
of 1791 be carried out by the making of those

bodies fully responsible to the Legislatures con-
cerned. An Inter-colonial railway and a system
of municipal self-government were also advised.
In 1840 the Union of Upper and Lower Canada
wi'S effected under the wise supervision and active
labours of Lord Sytlenham, with a Governor
appointed by the Crown ; an Executive Council
of eight members responsible (nominally) to the
Assembly; a Legislative Council of, at least,
twenty members appointed for life by the Crown
(changed to an elective system in 1856); a Leg-
islative Assembly of 84 members — 42 for each
Province — elected by popular vote foi a maximum
period of four years and with the requirement of
a high j)roperty qualification from each member.
It was understood that the Assembly was to con-
trol the revenue in return for providing all the
iiecessaiy expenses of Government, and that
Judges were not to be dismissed upon political
grouiuls. In the operation of this system the
I'rmich (juestion came in once more. The Can-
adians of that nationality had long been angered
at theit complete, and then partial, exelui^ion
from the Government of their own Province and
they now found themselves for a short time in
much the same condition as regarded the United
Provinces. The position soon changed, however,
and it was not many years before Upper Canada
was crying out against alleged French "domina-
tion". The hrst Ministry under tlie Union, at
the meeting of Parliament on June 14th, 1841,
was as loUows :

William Henry Draper. Robert Haldwin.

Robert Baldwin Sullivan. l)(.-niiiiick Daly.
SaiiuK.1 Bealey Harrison. Charles Richard Og-

deu.
C.liailes Dcuey Da}-. J"hii Henry Dunn.

Hamilton Hartley Killalj'.
It did not last very long in this form, and dur-
ing the next fjw years the changes in personnel
were innumerable, although a few men usually
dominated the situation more or less. With the
appointment cf the first Baldwin-Lafontaine
Ministry (1842) a new struggle for responsible
government commenced — complicated by the
political position of the French-Canadians in the
Union. Lord Sydenham, during the brief period
ended by his death, had fully recognized the gen-
eral principle though he can hardly be said to

:7F

1:

CANADA: AN ENCYCI.OIM'.DIA.

399

have practised it. His personality uiul influence
was perhaps too strong. His successor, Sir
Charles Bagot, during a short administration
faithfully endeavoured to carry it out. Sir Charles
(Lord) Metcalfe could see no place for the
Governor-General in the proposed system
and maintained a gallant struggle for his prerog-
ative and prestige against the growing power of
his Council. D:ring the following two decades
the functions and nien^.bership of this Executive
Council, or Mii'istry, were in a continuous state
of change. There was no Premier, as now under-
stood, though after a time the Attorney-General
East (Lower Canada) and the Attorney-General
Wost (Up()er Canada) came to be recognized as
tile practical leaders and chiefs of the Council.
In 1848, the important Reform Administration of
Robert Baldwin and Louis Hyppolite Lafontaine
was formed and lasted three years with a full
and final recognition of responsible Government.
The Ministries which followed were successively
under the dual control of Francis Hincks and A.
N. Morin ; A. N. McNab and A. N, Morin ; E. P.
Tachti and John A. Macdonald; George Brown
and A. A. Dorion (two days) ; George E. Cartier
and John A. Macdonald; J Sandlield Macdonald
and L. V. Sicotte ; J. Sandfield Macdonald and
A. A. Dorion ; E. P. Taclii: and John A. Macdon-
ald ; Sir N. V. Bclleau and John A. Macdonald.

In the Maritime Provinces the recognition of
responsible government came to Nova Scotia and
New Brunswick in 184S, and to Prince Edward
Island in 185 1. In Nova Scotia the men who
constituted the first Ministry of this nature
(January 28, 1848) were James Boyle Uniacke,
Michael Tobin, Joseph IIowc, James McNab, Her-
bert Huntingdon, William F.DesBarres, Lawrence
O'Connor Doyle and George R. Young. James W.
Johnston was the eloquent and able leader of the
Conservatives. In New Brunswick the principle
was differently administered, even when fully re-
cognized,and for years there was no Cabinet as now
understood. The Ministers in 1848, however, were
George Shore, H. Johnston, Edward Barron
Chandler, R. L. Hazen, C. I. Peters, T. Baillie,
A. Rankin and G. S. Hill. Neither Charles
Fisher nor L. A. WiImot,the two great leaders in
the movement, was a member of the Government
until 1849. In Prince Edward Island George

Coles, James Warburton, William Lord, Charles
Young, Stephen Rice, George Birnie, Joseph
Pope, John Jardine and Edward Whelan held
office during 1851.

Meanwhile, in the Canadas, the French-Cana-
dians had obtained their full share of control
in the Government, and Sir C. Metcalfe, writing
to the Colonial Office as early in the history of
the Union as April 25th, 1S43, declared that :
"The parties into which the community is
divided are the FreiuliCanadian, the Reform
party and the Conservative party. The Reform

Tlie Hon. Sir Etienne I'aschal Taclic.

party are by their opponents branded as republi-
cans and rebels, and the Cop='-rvativcs by them
as Tories and Orangemen. The French party is
the strongest from being thoroughly united." It
was little wonder that he <^onnd it difBcult to
combine the maintenance of high ideals of vice-
regal right with the practice of popular Govern-
ment amongst such shiftingsandsof party faction
as here had to be dealt with. But Lord Elgin's
coming put an end to this struggle with the diffi-
culties incidental to an untried constitutional

'■■>■

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400

CANADA: AN KNCV(L0IM:I)1 A.

11

experiment, and uiidur liis able hand ami adminis-
tration the question was solved, and the Ministry,
as above noted, made finally ami fully responsible
to the Assfinbly. Willi the SLtliemcnt of this
problem came a peculiarly difficult phase in the
current conflict of racial and reliijious interests.
Upper Canada wanted larjjer representation in
the Lef^islature because of its increase in popula-
tion, and this the Lower Province resisted as
being an infraction of the terms of Union.
Representation by population becanii- the battle-
cry of Ontario Reformers, coupled with denuncia-
tion of I'Vench-Canadian denomination. C"abinets
rose and fell, parties split into fraj;ments, coali-
tions were formed and broken, dead-lock finally
reigned suprcnif. Tiien came the American
abrof,'ation of the Reciprocity Treaty, the threat
of coercinj; Canada into annexation, the supreme
effort at recovery bv a faction-torn people, and
the final achievement of Confederation in 1867.
During tlie twenty-six preceding yeais the fol-
lowing had been the chief constitutional and poli-
tical events :

First United Parliament meets at Kingston. .1841

Municipal Act for Upper Canada 1841

Sir Charles Bagot Governor-General of Brit-
ish America 1841

The Asliburton Treaty 1842'

The first Liberal Executive Council in the

Canadas formed 1842

Executive authority in Nova Scotia separat-
ed from the Legislative Council ..1842

Lord Metcalfe, Governor-General ^^-i^

Resignation of Canadian Liberal Execu-
tive 1844

John A. Macdonald enters Parliament 1844

Montreal the capital of the Canadas 1844

Earl Caiiicart, Governor-General 1845

Oregon Boundary Treaty 1846

Repeal of Imperial Preferential Duties 1846

Lord Elgin, Governor-General 1847

Canada given coptrol of its Customs ^^47

Responsible Government granted New

Brunswick and Nova. Scotia 1848

Dual language system introduced in Ciiiadi-

an Pariiauient 1849

Canadian Amnesty Bill pardons the rel)els

of 1857 1849

Rebellion Losses Bill pa>s(;s Canadian Par-
liament 1S49

Parliament Biiikiingsat Montreal burned 1849

Toronto the capital of the Canadas 1849

EirstGovernor of Vancouver Island appointed 1850
Control of Postal matters accorded Canada.. 1851

Responsible Government granted Prince Ed-
ward Island 185X

Municipal Loan Fund Act in Canada 1852

Canadian Legislature increased to ijo mem-
bers 1853

Reciprocity Treaty with United States 1854

Sir Edmu!id W. Her. I, Governor-General.... 1854

Clergy Reserves (U.C.) abolition Act 1854

Seigneurial Tenure (L.C.) abolished 1854

Volunteer system introduced in the Canadasi854
Canadian Legislative Council made elective. 1856
Ottawa selected by the Queen as the future

Canadian Capital 1858

Decimal Currency established 1858

E.\ecutive Councils appointed by CJoveruors
of Vancouver Island and British ("ol-

umbia 1858

Double majority principle, by which the Can-
adian Executive was supposed to re-
cjiiire a majority from each of the two

Provinces, abandoned 1858

Quebec the Capital of the Canadas 1859

\'isit of the Prince of Wales to British Ame-
rica i860

Corner-stone of Parliament Buildings at Ot-
tawa laid i860

Lord Mot ck, Governor-General 1861

Trent Affair and troubles with Uniteil States. i86r
Political deadlock and coalition Ministry in

Canada 1864

Abrogation of Reciprocity Treaty 1866

Fenian Raids 1 866

Canadian Parliament first meets at Ottawa.. 1866
Union of Vancouver Island and British Col-
umbia 1866

A variety of causes brought about Confedera-
tion. In a sense deadlock was its parent in the
Canadas where the strife between parties had
reached a stage in which the separation of the
two Provinces seemed the only means of placat-
ing troubles arisiii^^ out of intense racial and
religious feeling. Yet, disruption of the Union
meant increased weakness of organization, policy
and influence at a moment when United States
hostility was being actively expressed in the
abrogation of the Reciprocity Treaty; tacitly
sliown in the toleration of the Fenian Raids; and
pleasantly pictured forth as to possibilities by the
evolution of a million soldiers from the recent
Civil War. So it was that external pressure
largely helped to avert internal disintegration and
to bring about closer Provincial union. And the
kindly help, advice and co-operation of the
Mother-Cc itry must not be forgotten.' In the
Maritime Provinces the practical application of

'

■\%, }

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOIMIDIA.

401

the principle first arose in the form of a proposeil
local union, and here tiie name of Sir Charles
Tupper stands out foremost amongst the Fathers
of Confederation and second only upon the Can-
adian canvas of historic fame to that of Sir John
A. Macdonald. After these two come Gcorf^e
Brown, of Upper Canada, Sir George Cartier, of
Lower Canada, and Sir Leonard Tilley, of New
Brunswick. The steps leading up to this great
solution of the diffici'.liies of governmenl, trade,
finance, defence and tariff in the British American
Provinces are of much historic importance and
the genesis of the idea may be traced as follows: '

1. General Francis Nicholson proposes the

union of all the Anglo-American Colo-
nies i6(ju

2. Pownal, Hutchinson and Franklin pro-
pose a Confederation of the same Colo-
nies 1754

3. William Smith (afterwards Chief Justice

of Quebec) suggests a plan of Union but

is iorced to leave the revolting Colonies, 1775

4. Colonel Morse proposes a Union of the
remaining British possessions in Noith
America 1783

5. K. J. Uniacke favours the idea in the
Legislature of N ova Scotia 1 809

6. Chief Justice Sewell outlines a scheme
of federation in a letter to the Duke of
Kent 1814

7. Sewell, John Beverley Robinson and Dr.

Strachan, propose a plan in a pamphlet
addressed to the British Government ...1824

8. Robert Gourlay advocates the idea in a
published pamphlet 1825

g. William Lyon Mackenzie supports it in
a speech 1831

10. Resolution passed in favour of the prin-
ciple by Imperial Parliament 1837

11. Recommended by Upper Canada Assem-
bly and Council 1838

12. Dr. John Strachan writes in favour of it. 1838
J 3. Lord Durham's Report favours it as a

solution of current difficulties 1839

14. George R. Young, of Nova Scotia, writes

a favourable pamphU-t 1840

15. Major Warburton, M.i>., in his HocheUif:;a,
favours it 1846

16. Major Robinson and Captain Henderson
in report on Intercolonial Railway favour

it upon military grounds 1848

17. Legislative Council of Canada advocates
Union in an Address 1849

* NoTR. I have consulted various authorities in this table, but
the chief is an elaborate statennent by Mr. George Johnson in his
First Things in Canada.
26

iS. Meeting in Montreal, attended by Hon.
John A. Macdonald, passes a favourable
resolution 1 851

19. Earl of Derby, in Imperial Parliament,
urges action in this direction 1851

20. Hon.,W. Hamilton Merritt, in Canadian
Legislature, proposes a Convention of
fifty persons to frame a constitution 1851

21. Colonel Rankin supports Federal Union

in the same Legislature 1851

22. The Hon. J. W. Johnston, Conservative
leader in Nova Scotia, advocates Union

in that Legislature 1854

23. P. S. Hamilton, Nova Si otia, writes a
strong pamphlet in favour of the idea ...1855

24. The Hon. J. H. Gray supports the prin-
ciple in the New Brunswick Legislature. 1856

25. Hon. J. W. lohnston and Hon. A. G.
Archibald, at the instance of the Nova
Scotia Government, press the policy
upon the Colonial Secretary's attention. .1S57

26. J. C. Tach^ writes a series of favourable
articles in Comrier du Canada 1857

27. The Hon. A. T. Gait advocates Federal
Union in speeches at Toronto, Sher-
brooke and in the Legislature 1858

28. The Hon. T. D'Arcy McGee favours it

in the Canadian Legislature 185S

29. The Governor-General (Sir E. W. Head)

in his speech closing the Session of Can-
adian Legislature proposes to communi-
cate with the different Governments
concerned 185&

30. The Hon. G. E. Cartier, Hon. Joiin Ross

and Hon. A. T. Gait sent to England to
propose the Imperial appointment of
delegates from all the Provinces to dis-
cuss the question 1858

31. The Hon. Alexander Morris lectures in

its favour at Montreal 1858

32. Liberal Convention in Toronto passes a
resolution against Union 1859

33. The Halifax AV/)or/e»' publishes elaborate

editorials in favour of Union — one being
approved by the Prince of Wales during
his visit i860

34. Canadian Legislature disciisst-s the mat-
ter in connection with the Seat of Gov-
ernment question i860

55. Hon. Charles Tupper lectui es in its favour

at St. John, N.B ..i860

36. Hon. John A. Macdonald favours it
stronglv in an address to the electors of
Kingston r86r

37. The Hon. George Brown reports from a

Committee of the Canadian Legislature

in favour of a Federal Union 1864

38 Delegates from Maritime Provinces meet

at Charlottetown to consider Maritime

6

m

402

CANADA: AN ICNCYCLOIMiDIA.

ii

Union and delegates from Canada appear
and apply for permission to discuss the

larger union 1864

39. Tlie Hon. Joseph K. Cauchon writes a

favourable pamphlet 1 865

The result of the last mentioned RatrtcrinRwas
the meeting of delegates at Quebec on October
10, 1864, from all the Provinces of British
America — including Newfoundland, whose rep-
resentatives were the Hon. (Sir) F. B. T. Carter
and the Hon. (Sir) Ambrose Shea ; and Prince
Edward Island, whose delegates were Colonel
Gray, Hon. E. Palmer, Hon. W. H. Pope, Hon.
George Coles, Hon. T. H. Haviland, Hon. E-
Whelan and Hon. A. A. Macdonald. From
the otiier Provinces came what are commonly
known as the " Fathers of Confederation," as
follows :

Canada. The Hon. Sir Etienne P. Tach^, Hon.
John A. Macdonald, Hon. George E. Cartier,
Hon. William Mac.dougall, Hon. George Brown,
Hon. Alexander T. Gait, Hon. Alexander Camp-
bell, Hon. Oliver Mowat, Hon. H. L. Langevin,
Hon. T. D'Arcy McGee, Hon. James Cockburn,
Hon. J. C. Chapais. Nova Scotia. The Hon.
Charles Tupper, Hon. W. A. Henry, Hon. Jona-
than McCully, Hon. Adams G. Archibald, Hon.
R.B.Dickey. New Brunswick. The Hon. Samuel
Leonard Tilley, Hon. John M, Johnston, Hon.
Peter Mitchell, Hon. Charles Fisher, Hon. K. R.
Chandler, Hon. W. H. Steevcs, Hon. John Ham-
ilton Gray.

The result of the Conference at Quebec was
seventy-two Resolutions which practically consti-
tute the British North America Act of 1867 — so
far as the terms and conditions of that measure
are concerned. But there was to be a long
struggle before complete success came. The
Union Resolutions were adopted in the Canadian
Assemblj-, in 1865, by gi to ^^ votes and in tin;
Council by 45 to 85 — fifty-four from Upper Canada
and thirty-seven from Lower Canada constituting
the favourable vote in the Assembly. After two
general elections in New Brunswick, and a change
of Government, the Resolutions were approved
in July, 1866, by good majorities. In Nova Scotia,
as in Canada, the Resolutions were adopted by
the Legislature — on motion of the Hon. Dr. Tup-
per in the Assembly and by a vote of ji to 19 —

without a general election. Prince Edward Isl
and and Newfoundland refused to come into the
Union, while British Columbia and the North-
West were not yet in a sufficiently organized and
populated stage to deal with the question. In
December, 1866, delegates from the four Provinces
met in London to make the final arrangements.
Mr. John A. Macdonald was appointed Chairman,
and of the Quebec Conference members Messrs.
Macdougall, Cartier, Gait, McCully, Tilley, Fisher,
Johnston, Mitchell, Archibald, Tupper, Lange-
vin and Henry were also present- New names
amongst the delegates were those of the Hon.
J. W. Ritchie, Hon. W. P. Howland and Hon.
R. D. Wilmot. The final details were settled
and on the 28th of Manh 1867, the Resolutions,
after passing through the Imperial Parliament as
the British North Ameiica Act, received the
Queen's assent and became the constitution of
the new Dominion of Canada on the ensuing
First of July. Under the terms of this Federal
co.istitution, or by virtue of British precedent
and Canadian practice, the following system was
then established or has since evolved ;

1. A Governor-General representing the Queen,
appointed by the Crown for five years, and holding
practically the same place in the Canadian con-
stitution as the Sovereign does in Great Britain.

2. A Cabinet composed of members of the
Queen's Privy Council for Canada, who may be
chosen from either branch of Parliament, and

..whose chief is termed the Premier. He has
usually been Leader of the House of Commons
as well as Leader of his party. The Cabinet
must command the support or confidence of a
majority in the Commons. There ara twelve
Ministers and usually one or more without office.

3. A Senate whose members are appointed for
life by the Governor-General-in-Council. It is
composed of 78 members who must possess
property qualification, be thirty years of age, and
l^ritish subjects. They receive $1,000 for a Ses-
sion of thirty days, with travelling expenses.

4. A House of Commons composed of mem-
bers elected for a maximum period of five years
by popular vote^ — from 1898 under the franchise
of the respective Provinces. There is no prop-
erty qualification but members must be 21 years
of age, British subjects and not dis(^ualified by

CANADA : AN ENCYCLOI'.KDIA.

403

law. There are 213 members and the Sessional
Allowance is $1,000.

5. The Provincial Governments are composed
of the Lieutenant-Governor, appointed for a term
of five years by the Governor-General-in-Council ;
the Cabinet or Ministry, composed of depart-
mental officers Selected from cither House of
the Legislature, and often additional members
without office; a Lef;;islative Council in Nova
Scotia and Quebec composed of members ap-
pointed for life by the Provincial Government or
Lieutenant-Governor-in-Council, and in Prince
Ldward Island elected by tiie pecjple ; and a
Lej^islative Assembly elected for four years by
popular vote. In all the Provinces manhood
suffrage, limited by residence and citizenship, is
the law except in Prince Ldward Island.

6. Under the Union the Dominion Parliament
was to have control of the general affairs of the
Dominion, including matters not specifically
delegated to the Provincial authorities. The chief
subjects were :

(i) The regulation of trade and commerce.

(2) The postal system.

(3) The public debt, public property, and bor-
rowing of money on public creilit.

(4) The militia, and all matter connected with
the local defence of the country.

(5) Navigation, shipping, quarantine, and the
coast and inland fisheries.

(6) Currency and coinage.

(7) Banks, weights and measures, bills and
notes, bankruptcy and insolvency.

(iS) Copyright and patents of invention and dis-
covery.

(9) Indians, naturalization and aliens.

(10) Marriage and divorce,
(ii) Customs and e.Ncise duties.

(12) Public works, canals, railways ami peni-
tentiaries.

(13) Criminal law and procedure,

The Provincial Legislatures were to have con-
trol of certain specified subjects, including:
(i) Direct taxation within the Province.

(2) The borrowing of money on the credit of
the Province.

(3) Tiie management and sale of public lands
in the Province, and of the wood and timber
thereon.

(4) The establishment, maintenance and man-
agement of prisons and reformatories, hospitals,
asylums, and charitable institutions generally.

(5) Licenses to saloons, taverns, shops and
auctioneers.

(6) Control of certain public works wholly
situated in the Province.

(7) Administration of justice, including the
organization of Provincial Courts.

(8) Education.

(9) Municipal institutions.

Under the terms of the British North America
Act, Ontario has 92 representatives in the House
of Commons, (Quebec 65, Nova Scotia 20, New
Brunswick 14, Prince Edward Island 5, Mani-
toba 7, British Columbia 6, and the North-West
Territories 4. Tiie basis, acc<M(ling to popula-
tion, is that of Quebec with its 65 members, and
a re-arrangement takes place after each decennial
census. The average population to each repre-
sentative is 22,688. On July ist, 1867, the first
Dominion Ministry was formed by Sir John A.
Macdonald. His colleagues were the Hon.
Alexander Tilloch Gait, Hon. William Mac-
dougall, Hon. George Etienne Cartier, Hon.
Samuel Leonard Tilley, Hon. Jean Charles
Chapais, H^n. Alexander Campbell, Hon. Peter
Mitchell, Hon. William Pearce Howland, Hon.
Adam Johnston Fcrguson-Blair, Hon. Edward
Kenny, Hon. Hector Louis Langevin and Hon.
Adams George Archibald.

Following til is union of the four older Provinces
of British Aiiieiica under the commcm name of
Canada — Upper Canada becoming the Province
of Ontario and Lower Canada the Province of
Quebec — came a period of continuous territorial
expansion. The vast Hudson's Bay Company
possessions were purchased by the Dominion in
i86g and on July 15th, 1870, a portion of that
country entered Confederation as the Province of
Manitoba — after p.issing through the storms of the
Ktd River Rebellion. On July 20th, 1871, British
Columbia followed the example thus given. A
Resolution in favour of Confederation had passed
its Legislature during 1867 but had encountered
some opposition from Governor Seymour and his
Ministers. On January 29th, 1868, a large pub-
lic meeting was held in \'ictoria and an active
agitation started by the Hon. Amor de Cosmos,
and others, which resulted in the formation of a
League on May 21st to advocate the policy of
union. J. l*". McC'reight, John Robson, Robert
Beaven, Hugh Nelson, H. P. P. Crease and other
afterwards prominent citizens also joined in the
movement. The chief opponent of the scheme

m

404

CANADA: AN HNCVCI.Ol'.KDIA.

was Dr. Helinckcn, who seems to have had a
strong American, if not annexationist, feehng.
A great debate on the question commenced in
tlie Assembly on Marcii 9th, 1S70, anci a favour-
able Kosolution based upon arrangements pro-
posed by Covernor Musgrave was finally carried
unanimously. Messrs. Helmcken, Carrall and J.
W. Trutch were then sent to Ottawa and the
terms finally settled — the principal item of dis-
cussion, tlien and afterwards, being a pledge by
the Dominion to construct the Canatlian Pacific
Railway. By such means only could the Province
be brought into Confederation in any other
than tlie barest technical and constitutional
sense.

In 1876 the great unorganized territories came
up for arrangement and Keewatin was first formed
into a District under the Lieutenant-Governor of
Manitoba. In 18S2 Assiniboia, Saskatchewan,
Alberta and Athabasca were organized under a
Lieut. -Governor with a capital at Kegina and
institutions which slowly developed until in 1898
they might be termed fully self-governing. There
were various phases in this progress. A Lieut. -
Governor and Crown-appointed Council ; an
Advisory Council of four members chosen from
an electeil Assembly of twenty-two members ; an
Executive Council and Legislative Assembly with
full provincial powers — except as to borrowing
nioneyand control of the Crown Lands. Then, in
i8g8, came complete responsible government. On
Oct. 2nd, 1895, by a Dominion Order-in-Council
the still unorganized territory of a million square
miles had been formed into the Districts of
Ungava, Franklin and Mackenzie and placed
under the Kegina Government. In 1897 there
was another change and the District of Yukon
was created and in the following year taken under
Dominion jurisdiction. Meanwhile, in 1873, the
Island of Prince Edward had entered the Union*.
During the years following Confederation the
Governors-General of Canaila were as follows:

Dale of
Ap|X)jiMiicnt.

Assumption
of Office.

Viscoimt Monck June i, i8!J7...July i, 1867

Lord Lisgar Dee. 29, iS^S-./Feb. 2, 1869

Marcjuess of Diiffcrin

*NoTB. See Senator Macdonald's article elsewhere in this
Section.

and Ava May 22, i87J...Junc25, 1872

Marquess of Lome. ..Oct. 5, 1878...N0V.25, 1878
Marquess of Lans-

downe Aug. 18, 188}. ..Oct. 23, i88j

Earl of Derby May I, i888,..Junel i, ittgH

Earl of Aberdeen ....May 22, 1893. ..Sept 18, 1893
Earl of Minlo July 25, 1898... Nov.12, 1898

The constitutional questions marking the thirty
years following 1867 were those naturally con-
nected with the working of a new I'ederal
constitution and its application to varying
Provincial conditions and ideals. The experience
and advice of the Queen's Representatives from
time to time were of immense service in smooth-
ing over difficulties, in soothing racial or religious
prejudices, and in keeping all things within their
power along the stable lines and dignified formulas
of the historic Imperial system. The Governors-
General had to individually evolve from precedent
and from common-sense practice a position in
which their duties as the responsible representa-
tive in Canada of the interests of the Empire
should not conflict with their dtities as the head of
a limited monarchical system pledged to take the
advice of Ministers responsible to the Canadian
people. It was a difiictilt task, but upon the whole
has been admirably worked out.

In his iirst Speech to the Dominion Parliament,
8th July, 1867, Lord Monck outlined some of the
subjects which had to be moulded into shape.
They may be mentioned as illustrating the work
of a constitutional nature coming before the early
legislators of the Dominion. AssimilaticMi of
Provincial laws relatiUj^ to Currency, Customs,
Excise and Revenue ; the preparation of a uni-
form Postal System and of uniform laws respect-
ing Patents, etc.; assiimption and management
of Public Works and properties; organization of
the Militia; organized administration of Indian
affairs ; regulations for the naturalization of
Aliens; assimilation of the Criminal law and of
laws affecting Bankruptcy and Insolvency. Time
passed on, and the troubles over the Hudson's
Hay Territories and in connection with Nova
Scotian protests against Confederation were sur-
mounted ; the Canadian Pacific Railway was
built, and Canada united from ocean to ocean;
the " National Policy " of protection was estab-
lished. The chief constitutional and political
events of the period were as follows:

CANADA : AN KNCYCLOI'.KDIA.

405

4l,

'Sir John Macdonald, Prime Miniiter lit July, 1867

Cleneral Elections Auguit, 1867

Ketolutioni favouring acquitition of North-Wekt

Territories passed Dec. i ith, 1867

Independence of I'arlianent Act 1868

Nova Scotia granted better terms January, 1869

Tae lion. Joaepli liowe enters Dominion Ministry " 1869

Red Kiver Retwllion Uctuber, 1869— September, 1870

Dr. Tapper join* Dominion Government June 3ist, 1870

Manitoba created a I'rovinoe 1870

First General lilections in Manitoba January, 1871

Joint Higli Cjminisiion meets at Waihingtun,

Feb. 35ih to March 27th, 1871
Resolutions admitting British Columbia to the

Union pass Parliament by large majorities.. . . March, 1871
New Brunswick Legislature practically abolishes

Separate Schools April, 1871

New Brunswick Legislature asks " better terms ".May 3rd, 1871
Treaty of Washington accepted by Canadian Par-
liament May, 1872

Motion discussed in Parliament asking disallow-
ance of New Brunswick School Act May, 1872

Pacific Railway Parliamentary controversies. .April to Nov., 1872

Parliament dissolved July 8.h, 1872

Oath's Bill disallowed by (he (^ueen as being ultra
vrVMiifthe British North ykmerica Act, and

disallowance proclaimed July ist, 1873

Lord Dufferin refuses to interfere in Pacitic Rail-
way matter against the advice of h s Min-
isters Aug. 13th, 1873

Resignation of Macdonald Ministry Nov. 5th, 1873

The Hon. Alexander Mackenzie, Prime Minister.. " 7th, 1873
Dual Representation— Provincial Legislature and

D.iminion Parliament — abolished April, 1873

Parliament Dissolved Jan. and, 1874

Ballot Act passed by Parliament 1874

Supreme Court of Canada established 1875

North-Wesl Territories ^cpurattd from Manitoba 1876

Legislative Council in Munitotia abulisihed 1876

Royal instructions to Governor-General altered 1877

Halifax Fisheries Commission meets and awards

Canada 8s,5oo,ooj June-November, 1877

Scott Act, or Canadian Temperance Act, p.assed . . March, 1878
Lieut.-Governor Letellier de St. Just of Quebec

dismisses his Ministry March 4th, 1878

Debate on Letellier case in House of Commons. ..April, 1878

Award regarding Boundaries of Ontario Aug. 3rd, 1878

Parliament Dissolved -Aug. l7lh,iS78

Sir John Macdonald, Prim; Minister Oct. 17th. 1878

House of Commons Resolution censuring Lieut.-
Governor Letellier Mar. 14th, 1879

Appeal by Lard Lome to Colonial Ottice regard-
ing Dominion Government's proposed dismis-

salof M. Letellier 1879

Important Despatch from Sir M. Hicks-Heach in

reply July 3rd, 1879

M. Letellier de St. Just dismissed from office July 25th, 1879

Sir Leonard Tilley introduces "National Policy"

Budget March, 1879

Dominion Disallowance of Ontaiio Streams Bill.. May 19th, 1881

Deceased Wife's Sister Bill passed April, 1880

Arctic ArchipelajTO transferred by Brila n to Canada 1880

The Redistribution of Cjiistituencies Bill May, 1882

Parliament Dissolved May l8lh, 1882

Ontario aryi Manitoba Boundaries defined by Im-
perial Government 1884

North-West Rebellion March-July, 1885

Dominion Franchise Bit |)assed [uly, 1885

North-West Territories given representation in

Federal Parliament 1 886

Parliament Dissolved Jan. isth, 1887

The Atlantic Fisheries controversy with United

States commences 1888

Quebec Legislature passes Jesuits' Estate Bill 1883

Agitatioti in favour of its disallowance throughout

the Dominion commences 1889

Parliament refuses to censure Government for non-
disallowance March, 1889

Abolition of Provincial Separate Schools by Mani-
toba Legislature, 1890

Parliament Dissolved Feb. 3id, 1891

Sir John Abbua, Prime Minister June-December, 189J

Behring Sea controversy with United States com-
mences 189a

Sir John Thompson, Prime Minister, Dec, 1893 — December, 1894

Intercolonial Conference at Ottawa 1894

Sir Mackeniie Bjwell, Prime Minister, Dec, 1894— April, 1896

Manitoba School (Question becomes acute 1896

Remedial Order issued bv Dominion Government
commanding Manitoba to restore the Roman

Catholic Schools 189^

Sir Charles Tupper, Prime Minister May — July, 1896

Parliament Dissolved April a4lh, 1896

The Governor-General refuses to sanction certain
Orders-in Council and compels Sir Charles

Tupper's resignation July. 1896

Sir Wilfrid Laurier, Prime Minister July, 1896

Settlement of the Manitoba School Question 1897

Franchise Bill adopting Provincial Franchises for

application to Dominion elections passed .... May, 1898

III Canada, as in all young countries, political and
constitutional questions have often been so inter-
twined in cause and effect as to have made distinct
popular consideration difficult. This fact can be
illustrated almost at random. In the Canadian
Pacific Railway political controversies of 1873 the
qiiestioiiof Lord Diiffcrin'sconstitutional relation-
ship with his Ministry was a pivotal point. In the
New Hrunswick School question ; the Jesuits*
Estates agitation and fierce discussions; the
Manitoba School prt)blem in all its prolonged
and varying phases ; the constitutional and really
more important point was often lost sight of in
the stormy religious or racial controversies en-
gendered from time to time. The Redistribution
Bill and the I'Vancliise Bill and, indeed, most of
the laws for regulating, arrangingor widening the
franchise — Provincial or Federal — have been made
the subjects of violent political discussion. In this
respect, however, Canada is not different from
older countries. The question raised in 1SS5
regarding the carrying out of the sentence of
death upon Louis Kiel, for his part in the North-
West Rebellion, was in its inception and influ-
ence largely political, in its progress racial and
religious, in its issue emphatically constitutional.
Had the Dominion Government given way to the
clamour raised against the e.xecution — a clamour
based partly upon his being a French-Canadian
and a Roman Catholic, partly upon the claim that
the Rebellion was due to careless Dominion
administration — all Federal authority over the
Provinces in a national and constitutional sense
woulil have been weakened. It would have
meant the domination of a race in one Province

mW^

406

CANADA: AN KNCVCLOl'.KDIA.

over any other section of the Doininion iti which
local issues iiiiglitbu raised; ''i>i|4, or siipposuii
to affect, sotnc iuiiividual int uf that particu-

lar portion of the people.

In the Si-liool questions which arose — first in
Niw Hriinswick ami then in Manitoba — the
deniand was for Federal intervention in behalf of
a Koiiian Catholic Provincial minority which con-
sidered Itself entitled to Separate Schools and
objected to what are termed "national" or
mixed schools. In the former case the Dominion
Government resisted the demand as well as the

r^

The lion. Sir Narcisse Fortunat Belleau.

additional pressure whicli nuturally came from
F'rench and Catholic Oiuliuc. Tiie case was
relegated to the Courts and went through the
usual channels to the Imperial Privy Council
where the appeal was dismissed. Tlie Mamtobaii
case in different forms was twice appealed to the
Judicial Committee of the Imperial Privy Coun-
cil. I3y the terms of the first decision it was
practically declared that the Manitobau legisla-
tion of liSrjo was not unconstitutional. Py the
second decision it was made clear that the

religious tninority in Manitoba had the right
of appeal against any alleged ill-treatment b\
the majority, to the (lovernor-Greneral-in-Council.
I'rom this latter decision resulted the Remedial
Order of the Howell Cabinet and the unsuc-
cessful Remedial liill of theTui>per Ministry.
The former was defied by the Provincial Gov-
ernment, which declined to restore the Separate
Schools on any terms, and the latter did not
prove acceptable either to Parliament, or to
the people in the ensuing Federal elections.
Hy the compromise effected under Sir Wilfrid
Laurier the schools were not restored, though
various meliorating regulations were arranged.

The boundary question was, of course, a distinct
issue between the Provincial and Federal authori-
ties, and the dispute at one time assumeil
serious dimensions. Ontario was, in the main,
successful through the decision of the Imperial
Privy Council ; as it also was in several other
matters of disputed powers or jurisdiction, such
as the appointment of Queen's Counsel, and the
Streams and Rivers' Hill Disallowance Case. The
Rtil River Valley Railway dispute of 1888 in-
volved the serious question of the right of a local
Manitoba!! railway under Provincial auspices to
infringe clearly defined Federal arrangements
guarding the Canadian Pacific Railway against
competition in certain directions. The dispute
became very acute, and at one time the scene of
construction at the place where the one road was
to cross the other was a point of possible conflict.
The Supreme Court of Canada decideti in favour
of the constitutional right of the Province, and
ihe Dominion difficulty with the Canadian
Pacific was settled by an outside irrangemenl.
In the Jesuits' Estates question " Provincial
rights" were, curiously enough, asserted and
maintained by the Federal authorities ratherthan
by those of the Province. The demand from
people in other Provinces— especially from the
aggressive Protestant section of sentiment in the
Dominion — was strongly in favour of the dis-
allowance of the Quebec measure by which the
Mercier Government had undertaken to pay
$400,000 in restitution of the old claims of the
Jesuit Order in that Province. The Dominion
Government declared the legislation to be legal
and within the rights of the Province, and, despite

CANADA: AN' KNCYCLOIVKDIA.

407

much oiitsiilc agitation, was supported by a very
largo ParlKiimjiitary tniijnrity — iXN against 13.

The Province of ^hicbcc since Confederation
has also been the scene of two interesting cunsti-
tutional discussions concerninfj the rij^ht of a
Lieutenant-Governor to dismiss his Ministers.
As usual, however, they became so complicated
with the party pomts involved tliat the people in
some measure lost si{;ht of the more itnportant
matter. In the first case, Lieutenant-Governor
Letellier de St. Just — a Liberal in his personal
opinions — dismissed his Conservative Ministry,
headed by M. de Boucherville, for allet;ed failure
to submit important documents, etc., (or his con-
sideration and si};[nature. He called in the local
Liberal leader, M. Joly de Lotbiniere, who man-
aped to hold office for some three jears. The
Conservatives of the Province appealed to the
Dominion Parliament against what they termed
a partisan action by the Lieutenant-Governor
and the lattei's cause was in turn championed by
the Liberal party at Ottawa — then in power under
Mr. Mackenzie. Sir John Macdoiiald took the
old Liberal f^round that the dismissal of the Min-
istry was an infraction of the principle of respon-
sible government — under which the advice of a
Ministry possessing a Legislative niiijority is
supposed to be binding upon tlie Governor-
General or Lieutenant-Governor. The present
contention of the Liberals, and later that of Lord
Lome also, was, that when M. Joly took and held
office he assumed the responsibility for his pre-
decessor's dismissal and thus relieved the Gov-
ernor entirely. There can now be little doubt —
apart from the original cause of the trouble — that
this was the correct constitutional position.
When Sir John Macdonald came into power in
1S78 the Dominion Parliament passed a resolution
by a party vole censuring the Lieutenant-Gov-
ernor of Quebec, and the Cabinet decided to
dismiss him from office. This was done in the
following year despite Lord Lome's objection
and an appeal by him to the Colonial Office
which resulted m his being practically told to
follow the advice of his Ministers. This action,
as the Governor-General pointed out, nii;,'lit have
had the effect of degrading tiie office of Lieuten-
ant-Governor from a position representative of
the Sovereign in a Province to that of voicing

the wishes of a partisan I'ederal majority. For-
tunately it has not done so. Time brought to M,
de Boucherville one of the most remarkable
revenges in all history. In December, l8(jl,
Lieutenant-Governor A. R. Angers — a Conserv-
ative— dismissed the Liberal Ministry, headed by
M. Ilonore Mercier, under direct chargesof serious
corruption, and called upon M. de lioucherville
to form a Government. The latter did so and
swept the Province in the ensuing elections.
The Conservative party was in power at Ottawa,
but, needless to say, M. Angers was far indeed
from any danger of dismissal under the precedent
previously set. From a constitutional standpoint
the party questions at issue in either case were
immaterial so long as the Legislature or electo-
rate approved the action of dismissal by support-
ing the succeeding Premier. But from a
national point of view the two controversies show
the desirability of divorcing constitutional from
political considerations, just as they also prove
that the two things are very often inextricably
mixed up in Canada.

Looking over the whole field of Canadian his-
tory during the thirty-two years since Confedera-
tion, however, it appears evident that there has
been a gradual but marked change for the better
in this respect. .Mr. Poulett Thomson, afterwards
Lord Sydenham, wrote to the Colonial Secretary
on November 20th, 1839, that " the state of things
here is far worse than I expected. The country
is split into factions animated with the most
deadly hatred to each other." Out of the then
existing faction-feuds, as a result largely of Lord
Sydenham's skilful manipulation, tlie Union of
the Canadas was born, only to be plunged into a
quarter of a century of further conilict — racial,
religious, constitutional and territorial. Out of
another constitutional deadlock came (in part)
the Dominion of Canada. The inevitable disputes,
incident probably to all Federal unions, have
followed, but as time passes on a growing national
unity has steadily soothed Provincial rivalries
and obliterated ditf:culties, while the ever-present
Imperial and impartial power expressed through
appeals to the Privy Council, or the Colonial
Office, has contributed greatly to the settlement of
controverted constitutional points. The Provinces
are losing their fear, or jealousy, of the central

-..I J

rr'^

r

408

CANADA : AN ENCYCLOI'.EDIA.

i,i.,i'».

•luthority in a wiilesprend fcclin},' which now
tn!ikc9 thu welfaru of Canada, as a whole, nioru
important to a Canadian than some fancied
rifiht or privdc^e of a particular portion of it. If
there is an clement of danj,'(r in tiiis otherwise
patriotic evolution it may he found in the alliance
of Provincial ami I'^eileral parties for some com-
mon purpose, infringinK, perhaps, the wise separa-
tion of the two jurisdictions. On the other hand,
this development may help in a future lessening of
the Government machinery in the Provinces. A
legislative union of the Maritime Provinces would
bea great financial benetittothe population locally,

while another legislative union of Ontario and
Quebec, under new and happier auspices, would do
much to consolidate Canadian nationality, and
moderate Provincial expenditures and growing in-
debtedness. Hut this impurely theoretical. Thefacts
of recent constitutional development in Canada
remain to be once more finally summarized as
having produced a condition where national
unity is slowly rising superior to provincialism, or
racial and religious prejudices, and where the
Provinces, working within thoroughly-well under*
stooil and defined spheres, are losing the fears of
Federal authority which once prevailed. '

i

i

1 '',

i ^^ I

The Hon. John Robson,

Prime Minister of British Columbia, 1889 02.

CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF NEW BRUNSWICK

S. U. scon, M.A., Editor i>f tht St. John Sun.

THE constitutional history of the Province
of New Brunswick does not abound in
spectacular features. Nu New Uruns-
wicker ever thou(;ht it necessary to
take up arms in defence of his constitutional
liberties. No popular leader in the Province at
any time engaged in a series of violent personal
disputes with the representatives of the Crown.
The Province began its career with the same
system of Crown Government and the same aris-
tocratic administration as did the older Provinces.
In the process of time it obtained the same self-
governing machinery as they have done. Hut in
the case of New Brunswick the process was
more gradual and less exciting than in either
Nova Scotia or the Canadas.

For many years after the establishmont of con-
stitutional government in New Brunswick the
dominant influence was highly Conservative.
Set off from Nova Scotia the year following the
Loyalist immigration, the Province of New
Brunswick passed directly into the control of the
United Empire men. Numerically a large
majority of the population, the Loyalists were
for a time socially, commercially and politically
almost the whole community. A considerable
proportion of the few previous settlers from New
England, who lived on the St. John River or
near Cumberland, had not, however, been in
sympathy with the Crown in the great American
conflict. The Yorkshire, Scotch and German
colonies comprised merely scattered settlements,
while the Acadians, though more numerous, were,
for half a century a neglected quantity in the
government of the country. When the Loyalists
came to New Brunswick in 1783 they came to
rule themselves, except so far as the Colony was
controlled from England. They began by pro-
testing against the domination of the senior

1(10

colonists in Nova Scotia and of the ruling class
in Halifax. Governor Parr, of Nova Scotia, was
surrounded by a Council composed chiefly of
Halifax men, and the Loyalist settlers in the
northern part of the mainland were impatient
over the ineffective, and apparently negligent
methods of the Administration. Their speciflc
grievance was the delay of the Governor and his
Council in surveying the land grants and issuing
patents, but they also demanded proportionate
representation in the House of Assembly.

In their firs<: Address of welcome to Governor
Carleton they referred to the " arrogance of
tyranny." which he was expected to check, and
"the growth of injustice" which was about to
be crushed. The Nova Scotia Government was
at the time embarrassed with the arrival of
Loyalist immigrants looking for land and help,
and perhaps it is not surprising that within a few
months of the evacuation of New York the new-
comers had not been provided with their patents
of land nor allowed their full representation in the
Legislature and Government. But it appears
from other evidence that Governor Parr had not
the energy and business gifts required for the
emergency.

Had the Home Government risen to the occa-
sion and grasped the fact that the new settlers
would comprise a large majority of the whole
population and that it was desirable at the earliest
possible opportunity to get the immigrants on to
the land ; had the Colonial Office seen the need of
more energetic administration and made the
Council and Legislature represent, in their fair
proportions, the newcomers as well as the older
settlers ; the history of the Maritime Provinces
might have been widely different from what has
been written. The immigrants to New Bruns-
wick saw no hope of such appreciation of their

l,f

410

CANADA: AN F.NCVCI.OIM.DIA.

iKcils ami positiuii, and took tlic (-oiiist! that
uflctud tliu ItcHt availablu u-iiknIs. liny h.iil
Uitfio inlliicncc, ami, in spitd of Guveriior Purr's
strtMiiHMis (i|)|>(isili()ii, acc(>iii|)lisl)cJ their dcsii;!).
It w.is ill fatuiiruf tlii'irdcriiaiui that the ('i)loiual
poiiiy of tliat lirno siuiiuiil to padr small nijonics
to lari^o ones. Prince Kdward Island had bci-n
cicatoil a separate Province; fifteen yiarshefoie,
wlieii tliu inhahitants niinibcrcd only a few hun-
dred!*. Capo Urcton, with a few thoinaiul inhabi-
tants, was set off from Nova Scotia at the same
time as New Hriiiiswick. Seven years later the
Canadas were divided. This is not the place to
discuss the wisdom of these divisions, hut the
statesmen of Eastern Cauail.i have many times
dunii(» the last hundred years sought to re-unite
the Provinci'S which were then divided.

The I'roviiice of New Brunswick was estab-
lished by letters patent issueil in Auj;ust, 17N4.
The commission and instructions to Thomas
Carletoii, the first Governor, are in all essentials
the same as those given to Governor Cornwallis,
who was sent to Nova Scotia thirty-five years
before. The first Executive Council called by the
new Governor was also a Legislative Council.
The members composeil one of the ablest adminis-
trations that ever had charge of the affairs of an
infant colonv. Several of the Councillors had held
high positions in the Executive or Judiciary of the
revolted colonies. Elevenof thetwelve were Loyal-
ist refuj,'ees,C)r had been actively engaginl as mili-
tary otlici rs under the Crown. The twelfth had
come to the Province before the war, having ren-
dered active assist nice to the Empire, and been
plundered more than once by Continental expedi-
tions. It would a[)pear at a first glance over the
list that the military element predominated in the
Coiimil.but these revolutionary soldiers were not
all profes>ional soldiers. They had been leaders
of the luirand prominent business men in the
(jther colonies before they took up arms for the
King, and were prepared to resume their voca-
tions when the fighting was over. Tiiis Council
included tlie whole of the Judiciary, and the Pro-
vincial Secretary was a member of it. One of the
Councillors became the first Ma\(<r of St. John
by the appointment of the Crown. Others held
various lor;d offices.

Within a few iiKJiiths after the first Council

was sworn in an Assembly was called. As there
was no franchise law in existence ull freeholders
were invited to take part in the election, which
took place ill I7'^5. The Piovince had been
provisionally divided into constituencies. Tins
gcMieral Assembly met in St. John in January,
1786. A large body of stututo law had been
drafted, and the session was fruitful in legisla-
tion. The first measure was the establishment
of counties und parishes, or townships. It is
noticeable that in .rlier legislation in New

Hrunswick the En^ ai and American terms fur
these divisions are inter-changeable. Put after
the establishment of the Province we find little
trace of the perpetuation of the New England
town government system as it had exist<' I in the
settlements on the St. John River bifore the
Revolution. At first the relations between the
Assembly and the Council appear to have been
cordial. Both represented the same elements
and the Loyalist settlers had at this time no
disposition tu accept the catch-words of
democracy.

The first Legislature continued six years and
passed an Act fixing *he franchise l.iw, scitingoff
the electoral dii % and establishing the

methods of elect The spectacle was here

presented of a House, elected by all the adult
free-holders, limiting the franchise to the free-
lioKler having real property in the ctMistituency
valued at twenty-five pounds or of twice that
value if he were not himself a resident. An
exception was made of St. John City, for whose
two members all fieemen with personal property
valued at twenty-live pounds were entitled to
vote. Almost the first act of the new Govern-
ment was tlie organiiJation of the oldest incorpo-
rated city in British America. It may have bf,en
due to the American training of the membeis of
the Council that it was deteriiiiriuu .v.i tlie begin-
ning to make St. John an incorporated city. The
charter was given in May, 1785, hardly a
year after the establishment of the Province,
and it is known that its preparation was be-
gun in 1704, and that the appointment of the
Mayor was determined before the end of that
year. The charter was prepared by the Attorney-
General, Ward Chipman, and was confirmed at
the first session of the Legislature. No other

CANADA: AN KNCVCI.Ol'.KDIA.

4«»

city wan iiu orporatiMl iii Uiitisli Ainciica for
iiL-aily half a cciitiiiy utlcrwaiilM. 1 lur htioinl
charter was tliatf^ivuii to Toronto in i>^.)4. Hali-
fax liail luiii cstalilislH'il tl>irty-fi)iir y( ars when
St. Jxliii was fouiult;(l, but lialf a. ci.-ntiiry after
St. JdIiu was an incorporated city Joseph Ilowu
bc<){an his career as a reformer by (leniaiidiiii^' tiie
incorporation of Halifax, and it was not until
1841 that liis dcHiru waH accomplished. The city
Government was from lliu fust ahiiost as demo-
cratic as it is now. Tlie Mayor, it is true, wad
appointed by the Provincial (iovernnu;nt,l)iit tlie
ahieniiin and assistant aldermen weie elected 1*)'
the freemen of tliu town. I may su far antici-
pate as to explain that from 1^50 to 1854 the
Mayor was elected by the City ('oumil, aii<i after
that by tliu people. The appoiiitnient of the
Recorder was reserved to the Crown, and this
feature has, straiifje to say, been retained to the
present time, thou^'h all other municipalities
in the Province app<iint their own le^jal advisers.

From 17S4 to i8j2 no important chantjc took
place in the politicalconstitutionof the Province.
New counties were established as settlement
advanced, and the House of Assembly became a
larger body. Occasionally the Assembly and the
Council came into more or less awkward collision.
The embers of the popular chamber, pr.utically
debai 1 from h' ding Provincial ofl'ice, had no
anthoius over the Ailministration, the command
of siipplu.'S affording at first no serious check.
Revenue and ai)propriation bills were at first so
small that they did not count for mm li in a con-
stitutional ciuiflict. The supply list from which
the general olVuials were paid was not in the
control of the Legislature, and, though during the
life of the first three Assemblies supply was
stopped for some six or eight years in all, the
(jovernmeiit went on without serious embarrass-
ment. The sufferers were the settKrs in the
country, who ought to have had the advantage of
road grants, but who got little assistance of the
kind during the first twenty years.

The revenue from laud grants and other terri-
torial sources were colU.'Cted by Imperial ofhcers
and expended by the direction of the Home
Government, to which the Altornex -Cieiieral,
the Judiciary, the Governor and other servants
of the Ciown looked for their pay. So small was

the local appropriation that when the members
of the second /Assembly voted themselves seven
shillings and six pence a day it was charged that
they had ai propriateil about all the road grant.
It was ovi r this indemnity matter that the lirst
collision Ix'tween the Assembly and the Council
occurred. When the Assembly voted pay for
the members the Council threw out the appropri-
ation. The Assembly then tagged the indeninity
vote to the revenue bill in accord with time-hon-
oured striitegy. To throw out this bill would
deprive the Province of a year's revenue, but
that consideration did not save it. A quarter of
a century later another collision occurred between
the two bodies on the same matter. The indem-
nities voted were larger, and so was the supply
bill, which by that time could not be thrown out
with the same cheerfulness as in the first decade
of N('W Hrunswick history. The Assembly got
the better of this conflict and the Council was
soon so far reconciletl as to accept a like indem-
nity.

I'-rom the establishment of the Province until
iiSj2 the Council was both an executive and a
legislative body, differing in that respect from
the Council in theCanadas, but resemblingthat of
Nova Scotia. The separation of the executive
and legislative functions was not the result of a
specific (leiiiaiid from within the Province for
this particular cliangir. It was never the habit
of the advanced or reform element in New
Hrunswick to agitate in f.ivour of changes on
theoretical grounds. Only when the pcojile con-
sidered that the prevailing system worked out
some distinct harm did those injured, or their
representatives, demand a remedy. So long as
the living memory of the revolutionary war re-
maiiu'il, the burden of proof in Ne\.' Ilriinswick
was strongly against any person who spoke of
the rights of men, or who claimed to be a
democrat. Yet the right of the people to know
how they were governed and to determine how
they should be governed gradually won its way.

P'rom time to time the Legislative Council re-
jected bills that the Assembly had passed and,
though their reasons may have been good, the fact
that the Council sat with closed doors gave an
occasion to think otherwise. So far as the finan-
cial affairs of the Province were concerned the

' •

KM'., -I-

FT

41 J

CANADA; ANT KNCVCI.OI'.KDIA.

. i

Imperial Governincnt had the chief management
down to 1S25 and large control for many years
afterwards. Imperial officers collected Imperial
duties at New Brunswick ports. Imperial Com-
missioners of Forests managed to dispose of the
Crown Lands. The Governor, the Judiciary, the
Attorney-General, the Provincial Secretary, and
other administrators were appointed by the Home
Government and paid cut of Customs and Crown
Land revenues collected by Imperial officers. It
was assumed that the surplus should be applied
for the benefit of the Province and that the Council
of New Brunswick should advise with the Colonial
Office on all these matters. But the impression
that prevailed in the Province was that the lion's
share of the revenue went to support an unneces-
sarily expensive local administration and that
some of the other uses to which the revenue was
applied were of remote benefit to the people.

So when the Crown Land regulations were un-
satisfactory, as they usually were; when the
amount returned to the Province appeared to be
small in proportion to the sums collected; when
the salaries paid to Imperial officers in the Col-
ony were judged to be excessive compared with
the rewards for analogous services under control
of an Assembly; tliere was demand for an account-
ing. In 1825 the Imperial Government conceded
to the Legislature the control of the net receipts
from Imperial Customs. It was not long before
the Assembly began to examine the mouth of
this gift-liorse and to point out that the exces-
sive cost of collection made the net revenue
smaller than it ought to be. An Address of the
House in 1S27 pointed out that it cost nearly half
the revenue to pay the salaries of collectors, one of
whom received ^Ti, 500 sterling, whilo at another
port the officers got ^2,300 sterling, for collect-
ing jTG.ooo. Two years later the House declared
in eff"ect that it was the only ju<lge of the salaries
which ought to be paid to the local customs offic-
ers. Finally an llowance was agreed upon for
the staff and iii i8^8 the whole of the control of
the customs passed to the Colony. It will be
observed that the period of self-government in
this respect was somewhat belated in comparison
with the progress of other colonies in British
North America.

A somewhat similar process of development

took place in the Crown Land management.
As early as i8ig the House adopted resolutions
against a regulation concerning the cutting of
pine timber and the exaction of a bond for the
payment of a shilling a ton by the lumbermen.
The Assembly claimed full information concern-
ing the Crown Land revenue and expenditure,
while the Governor, Sir Strathy Smythe, did not
see his way clear to give such information. The
confl' . became so sharp that the Governor dis-
solved the House only to find the next Assembly
still more determined to obtain knowledge. Sir
Howard Douglas, who succeeded to the admin-
istration in 1824, had more modern ideas of
Government prerogative than his predecessor
and furnished all the returns which were called
for. The specific grievance was first removed,
and, after some negotiations carried on by dele-
gations which the Assembly sent to England, as
well as with Governor Douglas and his successor,
an adjustment made in 1834 became operative
in 1837, whereby the Province took over the
Crown Land revenue and assumed the cost of
maintaining the Governor, the Judiciary, and
other branches of his Administration embraced
in a civil list of ^14,500. But this arrangement
was not wholly satisfactory, as the people began
to discover that the officers cost too much.
The complaint was perhaps not without ground
seeing that the officer in chnrge of the Crown
Lands had an official income equal to that of the
present Premier of Canada. Gradually the
Province was allowed to make alterations in the
civil lists and ultimately the whole control of sal-
aries passed to the local Legislature. The last
vestige of Imperial administration was in the
Post Office Department, which for Sf^me years
after self-government was supposed to be estab-
lished in New Brunswick, remained under Im-
perial control. Only a few months before this
article was written there died in St. John a
retired officer who in his day had been the
Imperial Deputy-Postmaster-General for the
Province of New Brunswick.

As these events proceeded, and the Provincial
autonomy became more pronounced, it was a
matter of importance that there should at least
be a good understanding between the Assembly
and the Administration. While there had been

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOP/KDIA.

4»J

occasioiiiil instances of friction there was no
explicit demand for the first important change
which was made in tlie machinery of Clovern-
ment. It has heen mentioned above that in
1832 tlie executive and lLf,'islative functions
were separated and that an Executive Council
was established which had not, as such, any leg-
islative power. This change was not specifically
asked for but was made at the instance of the
Imperial Government to brinj^ the Province into
harmony with systems adopted elsewhere, and
was intended to pave the way for the admission
of members of the Assembly to a place in the
Ministry. Yet it was six years befori; the 1-xec-
utive included a representative of the elected
Chamber. In the former mixed Council the
Judges had a large and sometimes almost pre-
dominant influence. Lord Glenelg had in his
message to Nova Scotia admitted the objection
to judicial control in purely political affairs but
long after the division of the Executive and
Legislative functions the Judges of New Bruns-
wick had a share in the proceedings of both
bodies. The Chief Justice was for several years
President of the Legislative Council after it
ceased to be an executive body.

New Brunswick was not then, as it is now, an
episcopal Diocese, but the spirit of the times
' seemed to require a spiritual influence in the
Cabinet, and as the Province was a part of the
Diocese of Nova Scotia the Bishop of Nova
Scotia had the privilege of sitting in both Prov-
inces as a member of the Council. He remained
a member of the New Brunswick Legislative
Council after th^ executive functions were taken
away and his name appears in the almanacs as
late as 1845. Mr. Hannay in his Life of Sir Leonard
Tilley says that the Bishop of Nova Scotia only
sat once as a New Brunswick Councillor.

The movement in the Province towards respon-
sible government, which gradually gained force
and direction until 1848, when the system was
in essential particulars recognized by formal
resolution, could not properly be called an agita-
tion. It was intermittent and unorganised, the
advancement being impeded at times by the con-
servatism even of the Reformer, and at times
assisted by the ambition and self-assertion of its
opponents. For example, nearly all the public

men who called themselves Reformers refused
for year., to give up to tli-; Executive the right to
initiate money grants, without which monopoly
responsible government, as now understood,
would be impossible. Some vague idea pre-
vailed that a Cabinet ni'ght be held accountable
to the :\ssembly for the administration of public
money and yet have no power to decide how
much money should be spent, or for what pur-
poses, or even to indicate in what way it should
be raised. On the other hand the strongest
advocate of the Vice-regal prerogative, within a
year after he had led a majority of the House to
vote for an Address to the Governor-General,
Sir Charles Metcalfe, supporting the extreme
views of the Royal prerogative which the latter
had taken in 1843, brought about a Government
crisis, because in 1845 the Lieutenant-Governor
of New Brunswick took their declarations seri-
ously. Lieutenant-Governor Sir \V. Colebrooke
appointed his son-in-law and private secretary,
Mr. Reade, who had accompanied him from Eng-
land, to the position of Provincial Secretary
of the Province, contrary to the desire of the
Ministers. Most of the Cabinet resigned and
sent home a strong remonstrance, which led to
the cancellation of the appointment. This dis-
pute brought a strong and effective argument^
with some Conservative support, to the Liberal
programme.

Charles Fisher, a clear headed man of strong
opinions and with the courage to follow them to
their logical conclusion, adhered from first to last
to the principles of responsible government — in-
cluding the surrender of the privilege of initiat-
ing money votes. L. A. Wilmot, afterwards a
Judge and Lieutenant-Governor, had perhaps less
original power but possessed the endowment of a
public orator and was probably the most effect-
ive propagandist of the new doctrines. Among
those who deserve a place v. ith the pioneers of
popular government in the Province are two Im-
perial administrators. Sir Howard Douglas and
Sir John Harvey, who, at a time when other
Colonial Governors were trying to impress upon
the Home Government the danger of yielding to
popular clamour, were disposed to assist the New
Brunswick people to obtain the fullest constitu-
tional privileges at that time exercised by the

(■•

414

CANADA : A\ ENCVCLOP.KDIA.

i' !

people of Eiiglaml, ami to prejiare tliem to adapt
themselves to the change.

While 1848 is supposed to be the beginning of
the modern system it was only in crude form that
the responsibility of government tinn existed.
The Ministers could not bring themselves to act
as a unit. Party government had not been intro-
duced and it was a common thing for one or two
menbers of the A<lministralion to vote against a
bill introilnced by a Minister apparently as a
Government measure. Not until after Sir Leon-
ard Tiiley bi'canie tlie Leader of the Government
was the development of Cabinet government
carried so far that the Ministers settled their
policy in the Council and acted as a unit in view
of the pulilic. The C>)nfe(!eration campaign be-
longs to the history of Canada and I pass on to the
development of the I'rovince as a part of the
Dominion of Canada. New Bi unswick started
in its career as a Canadian Province with a Legis-
lative Council and an Assembly, the latter body
continuing as largs as before the Union. The
principal constitutional change since then is
the abolition of the Legislative Council, which
was accomplished in i8c)2 after several motions

and resolutions and bills to that effect had been
rejected by the Council itself. New '.Brunswick
was the first Province which began its career in
Confederation with a by-cameral system and
changed it to the single system. The change was
effected by allowing the Council to diminish by
the death or retirement of its members until it
was possible, through the appointment of a
number of new members pledged to vote for abo-
lition, to carry the measure through. The Ad-
ministration, which was always heavily manned
considering the amoimt of business to be done,
has grown nn)re ponderous by the estal)lishment
of a Department of Agriculture and now com-
prises six Ministers with offices, and two with-
out. The Provincial franchise has been e^^'-nded
until it is now basjfl upon manhood suffrage with
conditions of resi ience, so that the last Assembly
was elected by about the same franchise as the
first one in 1785. The Assembly, whiih at Con-
federation was continued with the same Ministers
as before the Union, was increased by a re-adjust-
ment Act previous to tiie last general election.
Five members were then added and the number
of legislators is now forty-six.

The Hon. L A. Wilmot.

. I

CONSTITUnONAL PROGRESS IN NOVA SCOTIA

The HON. J. W. LONGLEY. M.A., Q C. M RP.

THE f,'overninf!; of Colonies — tliat is coin-
iniinities composed of persons who
bcloiif; to a parent State, and who, in
leaving;; it to seei< new fields, bear with
them allegiance to the conntry which they left —
is a comparatively new problem. In ancient days
when Greece and Rome had colonits neither
Greece nor Rome had popular government, and
the colonies were {governed, as the people at home
were, by military power.

The chief colonies of the world now are those
owning allegiance to the British Crown. The
British people before the beginning of the present
century can hardly be said to have achieved
popular government. They did not indeed reach
its full fruition until the end of the reign of
George III., but from that time until the present
the whole march of events has been in the direc-
tion of giving almost absolute and unlimited
power to the will of the masses of the people.

While wisdom in a very high degree has char-
acterized British rule at home and abroad, it
could scarcely be expected that the new probbm
of how to deal with communities of English
people located in new countries, which had been
taken possession of by themselves for the purpose
of founding new homes, could be worked out
without mistakes and difficulties. The earliest
experiments in the government of British colonies
applied to the thirteen provinces wliich ultimately
formed the beginnings of the United States
of America. The mistakes in the government
of these colonies arose from a variety of causes.
The initial difficulty was that completely popular
government had not reached its stage of perfect
development at home. The Crown exercised direct
control over the Government, and this was often
at variance with the popular will, while Ministers
did not always depend absolutely upon the voice

of public opinion for the maintenance of their
position. Beside this, the government f)f the
colonies was complicated by charters and conces-
sions which gave colourable right to the setting
up of claims and pretensions which were bound to
come in conflict with Imperial policy. Tiie result
of it all was a series of blunders and misunder-
standings which lost to the British Crown the
original English settlements \vhich have by this
time developed into a vast and powerful nation.
One-half the continent of North America by some
means failed to become absorbed into the new
republic, and m this northern half, at the conclu-
sion of the Revolutionary War, a number of small
but growing and developing British communities
existed, each presenting its own peculiar problems.
In Canada the bulk of the people were still French
and scarcely able to grasp or appreciate British
methods of government. Ultimately this race
difficulty led to the creation of two Provinces —
Lower and Upper Canada — the latter being
essentially British, and forming its institutions
upon British ideals.

Of these British North American Provinces
which remained loyal to the British Crown after
the Revolutionary War, Nova Scotia may be reck-
oned as the oKlest, and her system of developing
government one of the most interesting. Origin-
ally it had been a French colony with head-
quarters at Port Royal (now Annapolis) and
with settlements at Grand Pre, Windsor, and
Chignecto. .Vnnapolis was iiltiinately wrested
from the I'-rench by the determined efforts of the
British inhal)itants of Massachusetts, and then
Nova Scotia became a British colony, inhabited
chiefly by French and Indians, but maintaining
British authority at Port Royal — or Annapolis —
by means of a British Governor and a British
garrison.

Hi

mw'-^

4111

CANAOA; AN ENCYCLOP.KDIA,

V f

In 1740. 'in Kiiixlish expedition, under the com-
niaiid of J'Idward ("orinsallis, sailed into Chebucto
Hay, landed on the peninsula of Halifax, and
founded an English colony there. So successful
was the settlement that diirinf; the year the seat
of government was removed from Annapolis to
Halifax, ami the control of the Government
placed in the hands of Cornwallis. The f^overn-
ment of the Province, as a matter of fact, was
nothing more nor less than the arbitrary rule of
the Governor. He associated a number of
prominent men in the colony with him as his
Executive Council, and with the aiil of this Coun-
cil as his advisers and instruments, he enacted
laws and enforced reijiilations for the peace, order,
and },'ood Kc^i^rnment of the Province. The peo-
ple had nothing whatever to do with their own
government.

Hut it would be inconceivable that people
who had been trained in the maxims of govern-
ment which were then beginning to develop in
the Mother-Land could long submit to arbi-
trary government in any part of the world, and
the instinctive desire to have a participation in
moulding the policy and controlling the destinies
of the country in which they proposed to spend
their lives and bequeath homes to their children,
naturally made its presence felt in a. yearning for,
and a seeking after, some direct share in the
responsibilities of government. As early as 1755
Chief Justice the Hon. Jonathan Helcher made a
report to Governor Charles Lawrence that the
decrees issued by him with the concurrence of his
Council, and which were attempted to be enforced
as laws, had no legal sanction as laws under the
genius of Hritish institutions. This report, for-
warded to the Colonial Secretary, was submitted
for the opinion of the English law officers of the
Crown, who reported that the Governor could not
make laws, and that the only way in which laws
could be enacted in any Hritish community was
by a Legislature in which the people were repre-
sented.

Reluctantly, in response to this intimation, the
Governor made provisions for the holding of an
electi(3n in the year 1758, and twenty-two men were
chosen to constitute a House of Assembly for the
Province, and this boily held its first sitting in
October of that year. The upper branch of the

Legislature consisted of a Council of twelve, in
which were the Chief Justice, the liishop of the
iCngiish Church, the Attorney-General, the Pro-
vincial Secretary, and other high functionaries.
This Council exercised both executive and legisla-
tive functions. Every Act passed by the popular
branch had to receive the concurrence of this
body, which sat with closed doors, and the revenue
bills of the Province coiiKl not become effective
unless approved by this Council of twelve. The
popular branch had certain defined functions and
powers. Its consent must be obtained before any
law could be enacted. It could also refuse to vote
supplies for the Government, although this was
only a partial remedy, inasmuch as part of the
civil list was payable out of casual and territorial
revenue which was then under the control of the
Government, and most of the salaries of the other
high officials had already been fixed by statute.

This system of government bore the appear-
ance of having the concurrence and participation
of the people, but it was a very long way from
responsible government, that is, government ol
the people and by the people. Executive govern-
ment was carried on by a number of officials who
had control under the authority of the Governor
of all public affairs of the Province, and these
officials were net dependent upon the support
and confidence of the popular branch, but con-
tinued to hold office at the will of the Governor —
notwithstanding the fact that the majority of the
members of the popular branch were opposed in
the main to their policy, and hostile to the officials
themselves. The same condition of affairs existed
here as in the other Provinces, a condition which
must exist under such a system, namely, that
most of the offices, honours, and emoluments
would be divided amongst a few leading families
in the shire towns, while the rights, interests, and
aspirations of the masses of the people would be
almost completely ignored.

Objections to this system of Government be-
came very general in Nova Scotia as the popula-
tion expanded and the Province grew in import-
ance. After each general election it was found
that the House of Assembly contained many men
who were disposed to resist the overweening
power of the Governor, and especially of the
Council, and whose aim was to secure in a larger

CANADA : AN ENCYCLOIMCDIA.

4«7

dopreii the blessings of a system of government
really popular.

These men continued to speak and advocate
their views from stssion to session. They were
free in criticising the abuses which prevaileil in
the public service and disposed to adopt all just
and reasonable methods to secure an iuiprove-
iiient. Up to the year i8}6, however, they had
made but extremely small progress. In fact, in
that year no substantial improvement had taken
place over the original system of government
enacted in 1758. The year 1856 is especially
mentioned because it was then that Joseph Howe
iirst took his seat in the House of Assembly of
Nova Scotia, and became the supreme factor in
the stirring events which led to the introduction
of a complete system of responsible government
in the Province.

Joseph Howe was born at Halifax in 1804. His
father was a Loyalist, with all the instincts and
traditions of the British Tory who preferred to
leave his home to abandoning his allegiance to
the Crown. He was a Tory upon his arrival,
and very soon held the office of (Jueen's Printer
under the Tory government. All Howe's brothers
were Tories, and it is reputed that most of them
were accustomed to vote against him when he
■was contesting elections in the city and county
of Halifax. Although springing from a good
family, young Howe was brought up in compara-
tively moderate circumstances; and early in life
was apprenticed to a printer. In his boyhood,
although deprived of the advantages of even a
complete elementary education, he was a diligent
reader, and indulged in poetry, and as he
approached manhood his contributions to the
press in prose and verse became quite voluminous.
In 1828, Mr. Howe purchased the No-iui Scotia)i,
an established weekly paper, and became sole
editor.

In the course of time Mr. Howe began to write
upon political topics. Those who were seeking
for a better and more popular system of govern-
ment were S. G. W. Archibald, John Young,
Beamish Murdoch, Charles Fail bank, ■-, and AU'X-
ander Stewart, all of then men of markeii ability.
In the general election if iN.Jo, the Liberals, so-
called, were entirely successful, and continued
efforts in the direction of reform were made in the

•-'7

House of Assembly, but with no practical result.
Resolutions aflirniing certain abstract principles
were passed, but ihey were treated with contempt
by the Council of twelve, which really exercised
all the important functions f)f government, and
were able to do this in spite of anything the
popular branch might say or do. Mr. Howe had
watched these proceedings with interest and
written of t!;em with vigour for some years. He
first came into public note by a famous libel suit
in whic!i he was indicted for a very vigourous
arraignment of the representative body of magis-
trates who were managing the affairs of the
munici|)ality of Halifax, wiiich included the city
not then incorporated. He defended himself in a
magnihcent speech of over six hours, and, though
arraigned against him were the (iovernor, the
Judges, the magistrates and all the privileged per-
sons of the day, he succeeded in winning the
hearts of the jury, was triumphantly acquitted,
and at once became the hero of the masses in the
city and province.

In 183O he was first elected to Parliament and
instantly began to attack the whole system of
government which then existed. He had reached
the conclusion that it was idle to palter with this
question by soft and stereotyped methods. In-
spired with the true spirit of a reformer he real-
ized that to achieve something matters must be
brought to a crisis, and he inaugurated, prac-
tically, as a Radical leader, during the Iirst ensu-
ing session of the Legislature, a series of vigourous
and uncompromising attacks upon the old Coun-
cil of twelve sitting with closed doors, composed
of men holding their positions for life, amenable
to no one, and arrogating to themselves all the
oflices, all the emoluments, and practically the
exercise of all the power and patronage of the
province. His method so alarmed the more
moderate of the Liberal leaders that they were
driven to the ranks of the party of privilege, and
Howe created a new and advanced ]xirty, the
aims and purposes of which can be gathered best
at this date by some of the official utterances
which they put before tiie wt)ri(l. During his
first session in Parliament Mr. Howe moved
twelve resolutions ainuMJ at tiie existing abuses of
government. The most iiiiportaiit, as indicating
the radical defect of the system of government, is

u

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m-t: ■'

418

CANADA: AN KNCVCLOIMIDIA.

:

i ^

foiiii I (Miiliodiod in tlic iitli rosolution, wliicli is
as follow s :

" K('Sol\t'(l, That vvliilc tlu> lloiif.o has a duo
rcvriciicc- for Mritisli institutions, ami a desire to
preserve to themselves and their children the
advantai^es of that constitution, under which their
brethren on the other side of the Atlantic have
enjoyetl so much i)riisperity and hai)piness, thev
cannot but fi'el that tliosi- tiiey represent partici-
pate but slit,'luly m these biessint^s. Thev know
that tile spirit of tiuit Constitution — the genius of
those institutions — is complete nsponsibility to
the people, by whost^ resources and for whose
benetit they are maintained, lint sail experience
has tau^dit them that, in this colonv, the people
and their representatives are powerless, exercising
upon the local f,'overnmeiit very little intluence,
and |)ossessin^ no effectual control. In lCuf,dand,
the people, by one vote of their representatives,
can clianj,'e the ministry, and alter aii)' course of
policy injurious to their interests : here, the min-
istry are His Majesty's Council, combiniiif? le^'is-
lative, judicial and executive powers, holding
their seats for life, and treatinj; with contempt or
indifference the wishes of the people, and the
representations of the Commons. In lui^dand,
the representative branch can compel a redress of
grievances, by withholdinfj the supplies; here,
they have no such remedy, because the salaries of
nearly all the public ofticers beinj; provided for by
permanent laws, or paid out of the casual and
territorial revenues, or from the produce of duties
collected under Imperial Acts, a stoppaj^e of sup-
plies, while it inflicted great injur}' upon the
country, by leaving the roads, bridges and other
essential services unprovided for, would not touch
the emoluments of the heads of departments in
the Council, or of any but a few of the subordinate
officers of the government."

These resolutions were adopted by the House,
but they led to a great furore in the Council,
which positively refused to vote the supply bill
unless they were withdrawn. Mr. Howe, who
was a splendid tactician, at once moved to rescind
his resolutions, secured the passage of the supply
bill, and then threw the resolutions into the form
of an address to the Crown, ami had them
adopted at the last hours of the session.

At that particular period Lord John Kiisscll
was Colonial Secretary, and to liim Mr. Howe
addressed a series of letters opening up the whole
Colonial question, and tliese letters, f(jur in num-
ber, displayed a grip of the situation, and a we;dth
of valuable suggestion in regard to the system of
Colonial government that would secure pleasant

and permanent relations i)etween the Empire and
the Colonies, wliich, looiced at after tile lapse of
sixty years, seem to embody a wisdom and fore-
siglit that almost amounts to propiiecy. Just pre-
vious to tile writing of tiiis series of letters Lord
Durham liad been sent by the liritisii Govern-
ment to visit the Caiiadas. Tiiis was due to the
fact that the svstem of government applied to
those provinces iiad reached such an acute stage
that peace seemed impossible, and diiliculty and
danger presented tliemselves on every side. Lord
Durham's report was a magnificent state paper,
and pointed out in cK'ar and courageous terms
the only lines upon which a successful system of
colonial government could be administered. Mr.
Howe took advantage of tiie occasion w'hen this
report was engaging a large measure of attention
in (Ireat Britain to unfold liie principles of respon-
sible government from tiie colonial point of view,
and to endeavour to convince the Colonial Secre-
tary, and through iiim the IJritisii Ministry, that
not only were the views wliich Lord Durliam pro-
pounded, as the only safe basis upon which colon-
ial government could exist, sound and wise, but
that tiiey voiced the overwhelming sentiment of the
peojile of the British North .\nierican provinces.

The difficulty at this time was to make British
rulers understand that the principle of ai>solutely
popular government, wliich workeil so well in
England, could be applied with safety to these
rapidly-growing colonies beyond the sea. The re-
sult of colonial rule in the Thirteen Colonies, which
had led to the humiliation of their loss, had left
British statesmen in a somewhat confused condi-
tion in respect to true methods. Tliey feared, on
the one hand, that too much latitude would lead
to iirdependence ; and they feared, on the otlier
hand, that too much stringency would lead
to rebellion. Sometimes the simplest principles
of government are the most likely to be ignored.
What it was important to have established, ami
what Mr. Howe laboured with so much zeal to
achieve, was a recognition of the fact that Eng-
lisii people, planted wherever they might, couUi
be safelv entrusted with the duties of self-govern-
ment. The Colonial Office, like most other of
the great Imperial departments, has always clung
with unyielding tenacity to its tradit'ons of man-
ajremeut. What once has been done it is easv for

CANADA: AN liNCYChOI'.liDIA.

419

Englishmen to continue to Ho, but one of tiie
most (lilTuiilt things is to learn to adjust them-
selves to the clianj^Miif,' conditions of the world.
With dim and vagiir; ideas of the conditions pre-
vailinf,' in new and comparatively undeveloped
communities, tlie most that the Colonial Secre-
tary could hope to do was to select some one in
whom he had confidence, and to entrust to his
power and discretion chiefly the maintenance of
order and the working out of the processes of
government. The Governor naturally enjoyed
the confidence of his official ciiiefs. In assuminfj
control he naturally sought the advice and coun-
sel of the principal men of the place ; those who
had been accustomed in the past to exercise
authority. The views of these men would always
be in the direction of maintaining their own privi-
lej,'es, which could be best secured by maintain-
ing the power and prerogative of the Governor.
Althoufjh the masses of the b'nglish people have
successfully, in all climes, worked out the prob-
lem of self-government, yet from the parent state
to the smallest colony society has always been
pestered by the existence of a class of people who
regularly gather themselves together in a little
coterie and pass two resolutions with great unani-
mity : First, resolved that the world belongs to
the saints ; secondly, resolved that we are the
saints. That was the particular attitude of the
few leading families in the capital cities of the
various colonies in British North America. It
may also be easily conceived how strong the ten-
dency of the Governor himself wouUl be to listen
to those counsels which tended to magnify his
power and extend his control into the minutest
affairs of the state. It is a pleasant thing to
reign, but a still pleasanter thing to rule, and
these early colonial Governors were not content
to be constitutional Governors, doing as they
were advised by men who enjoyed popular con-
fidence, but they desired to be important persons,
having large powers and discretions, and with a
constantly exaggerated sense of the intrinsic im-
portance of their individual functions.

To overcome this prejudice on the part of
Colonial Secretaries on the one hand, and of
Colonial Governors on the other was a task
of no mean dimensions. This was the task
to which Joseph Howe especially and directly

devoted his attention. lie may be regarded as
having been a pioneer in the work of develop-
ing sound principles of colonial government
throughout the Empire, and the special merit of
his method was that while securing the just rights
of the people of Nova Scotia he was at the same
time educating the Imperial authorities in the
general question ; and also, that while he encount-
ered all the (lifiiculties and met all the rebuffs
which characteri;ced similar efforts in the direc-
tion of popular government in the Upper Prov-
inces, he was able to achieve his aims with
absolute and perfect success without shedding a
drop of blood, or without having the peace and
order of his province disturbed by one single
riotous act. The Upper Provinces were not so
fortunate. For lack of leaders as broad, as wise,
as judicious, and as tactful as Mr. Howe we had
rebellions in Quebec, and rebellions in Toronto,
property was destroyed, lives lost, and bitterness
generated. From his study in Halifax during
the very moment that Papineau in Quebec, and
William Lyon Mackenzie in Toronto were leading
those who were dissatisfied with the existing
systems of local misrule into rebellion, Mr. Howe
addressed a series of letters to the people of
Can:ida, in which he set forth in clear and elo-
quent terms the true principles for which the
people of these British North American Provinces
were contending, and the proper manner in which
the aims of the reformers could be accomplished.
He deprecated rebellion or the resort to meas-
ures of violence, and counselled the Liberal leaders
to adopt the sound and prudent policy of obtaining
by fair constitutional means the great ends they
had in view.

The result of Mr. Howe's correspondence with
Lord John Russell, conjointly with the broad and
liberal measures advocated by Lord Durham in
his famous report, led to an official correspond-
ence between Lord John Russell, as Colonial Sec-
retary, and Sir Colin Campbell, at that time
Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia. The gen-
eral terms of this despatch, while not conceding
that full and unlimited measure of popular govern-
ment which has since been conceded, were never-
theless distinctly in the direction of a fuller
recognition of popular rights, and an intimation
to Colonial Governors that thev should see that

4-'o

CANADA ; AN KNCYCI.OI'i;!)! \.

J \

CMii(i(lcnroexisti'il lietwpon tlicir Ministers and the
reprt'SiMitatives of the pcnple in the popular
branch. When these dcspatelies were made
piilihc the House of Asscnil)ly of Nova Scotiai
under the tlneetion of Mr. Howe, adoi)ted l)y a
very larf,'e majority an adiliess to the Ciovernor
askinj,' him to fjive practical effect to the wiiler
iiistnu-tions of I.onI Jolin Kiissell. Tlie (iovern-
or in his reply distinctly evaded this issue, where-
upon another and stron^'er adilress to the
Governor was adopted, on Mr. Howe's motion,
almost demandihf; in empliatic terms that tlie
("lovernor should regard Her Majesty's commands
to administer the government of the Provmces in
accordance with the well understood wishes and
interests of the people, and pa\ to their feelinf,'s,
as expressed throuf,di their representatives, the
<ieference that is justly due to them. In reply to
this the Governor said in effect as follows :

" Hy adopting; the course yon suf;f,'est I should
practically recognize a funchunental chanf,'e in the
colonial constitution, which I cannot certainlv
«liscover to have heen desif,Mied hy the despatch of
the Ri};ht Honourable the Secretary of State for
the Colonies, in the manner and to the extent sup-
posed by you."

The effect of this practical refusal on the part
of the Governor to make any concessions to the
popular liemand compelled Mr. Howe to take the
unpleasant step of movinj; an address to Her
Majesty setting forth fully tlie fjrievances of the
people of Nova Scotia, and demanding the recall
of Sir Colin Campbell. The result was that when
the Governor-General of I^ritish .\nierica, Mr.
I'oulett Thompson, arrived siiortly afterwards in
Halifax, Sir Colin Campbell was relieved of his
duties as Governor, and Lord I'alkland was
appointed to and assumed the duties of that
office. Lord l'"alklan(l arrivetl with the iiiteii-
tif)n of tJ'V'if,' effect in a certain measure to the
|)oi)iilar demands of the people of Nova Scotia.
In furtherance of this he notified four mem-
bers of the existing,' Executive Council that
their services were no loiifjer required, and he
invited prominent members of the Liberal j)arty
to accept seats in the Lxeciitive in the place of
the gentlemen wIkj had been retired. .\h.
Howe, after making certain conditions, af:;reed to
accept a scat in the l^xec utive, and assist the new

Governor m his efforts to secure a b^.'ttcr system
of government for the I'rovince.

This was not a recognition of popular govern-
ment by any means. It was an attempt to carry
on executive government, not by a homogeneous
administration of men with common aims and
common views in respect of public policy, but an
effort to conciliate both parties by having rep-
resentatives of each within the ICxeciitive Council.
Many as are the evils and objections to partj"
government, yet experieiuu; has shown beyond all
tpiestion or cavil that it is the onlv practical
system under which po|)iilar g(jveriiment can be
carried on. Nothing can be more conclusive than
the lesson which this attempt at composite admin-
istration teaches. No real contidencc existed
between the old Tory members of this government
and the new Liberal blood infused, in fact it
in time degenerated into a faction tight between
the two parties in the Lxecutive. It was soon to
become a question as to which party would
actually be governing the country and exercising
power, and this (juestion became settled in time
naturally, and as was to be expected in favour of
the old Tory regime. Indeed matters reached
such a crisis that the only alternative left to Mr.
Howe was to tender his resignation and ask
Messrs. Uiiiacke and McNab, who wert; associated
with him in the Coumal, to retire as well, and
when he retired it was for the purpost.- of leading
an agitation through the Province for t!u- down-
fall, by the agency of public opinion and by
carrying the country at the next general election,
of the then existing Government, and to secure in
its place an administration which would represent
actually and truly the voice and will of the people.
The three years of agitation under the leadership
of Mr. Howe, in which the contest was |)iactically
between the Governor and himself, were three of
the greatest years in his history. Lord b'alkland
was a proud and handsome nobleman of dis-
tinguished family.

There is always a halo surrounding (ioverii-
ment House in a new Province, es()ecially
when that Governor enjoys the prestige of direct
Imperial appointment, and adds to his other
sources of power the blandishments of high
sounding titles. Lord I'alkland visited different
parts of the Province of \ovaSf:otia and re-:eived

i: •

CANADA: AN KNCVCLUl'.KDIA.

4JI

loyal addresses from tin; rcpresciitalivts of tlu:
Tory f;ictii>n in the sliire towns. Mr. Howe
I'ollosvcd and received coniplinientary addresses
from tlie masses of the people, and to the dij^'nified
platituilis of tile LieiitenaMt-CiOvernor nspondcd
witii lury invective a},'aiiist the system which His
Lordship was attemptinj; to nphold. Tiie result
of the general election in 1H47 was that Mr.
Howe came hai k to Parliament with a splendid
majority in the jiopular branch. riil)li(; opiniim
had reached that stajje wlien it was no Imif^'er
pt)ssilile for a (iovei nmcnt to clinj; to olliic witli-

Thc lion. ,1. W. l.()m;l(.'>.

out the support of the Assembly, ami when at the
next session of liie Let,'islaturo a vt)te of want
of conruKnce was carried, the Tory I'.xecu-
tive resigned in a bodv, and a strai,i,'ht Liberal
administration was formed in iS_j8. The Govern-
or, Lord I'alkland, left tlie rrovinec in dis-^Mist; a
new Liiiitenant-riovernor, who was prepared to
canv out the views of the people was installed in
his place, and from that day to the present no
administration in the I'mvince has ventured to
hold (jffice for an hour without having' at its back

the support and confidence of the representatives
in the popular branch of tin; Legislature. This
was the achievement in Nova Scotia, by perfectly
constitutional means, of that system of full ami
unconstraiiii'd self•^,'overumeut which has been
freely conceded to all the colonies of any si/e
and importance eiijoyiiif,' the blessiiifjs of 13riti>ii
institutions, and under wiiich there has been
peace and contentment and continued prosperit\ .
Tile fidl measure of poi>ular f(overnmeiit, which
the Hritish pc'oplc have lon^ enjoyed at home, is
now the sacred herita>,'e of every Ihitish colonist
whi'fe the circumstances and conditions of the
l)eople make self-^'overnment either jiracticable or
possible. I-'ar from havinj,' a tendency to make
the people desire to ; "parate from the Lmpire tiiis
system of free popular fjnvernmeiit has been the
f^reatest possible bond in securini^ contentment to
the people and ensuriufj their unabated devotion
to the Crown and to the ICmpire.

Amouf,' all the names which stand forth con-
spicuously in this struj^ff^le for popular rif,dits in
British North America, none occupies a place to
be compared with Howe's, either in breadth of
view, profound grasp of the situation, resolute
and determined action, and at the same time a
tactful avoidance of all rash or violent measures
which would be certain to had to outbursts of
jiopular passion, and be liable to jeopardize the
loyalty of the people. A full record of his parlia-
mentary speeches and able state papers on this
^n-dt and far-reaching subject of colonial govern-
ment will be found embodied in his speeches and
public letters, in two volumes, edited by Hon.
William Aimaiul, and jiublishetl in iN,^''^.

Tiie growth of popular institutions through-
out Uritish North America went on with cijual
pace in all the provinces. Nova Scotia in point
of time and in methoil distinctly leading the
way. The full measure and recognition of abso-
lute independent self-govtrnmeut is to be found
in the British North America Act of 1867, in
which evervthing in tlu; line of popular government
is conceded without any limitation whatsoever
excei)t by virtue of the veto power reserved to Her
Majesty the (Jueen in respect of Federal legisla-
tion, a power which, during thirty years' experi-
ence, has never yet been distinctly exercised
to the detriment of the Provinces.

I <

t '

I

i

»

Jv^.■v:

Trrm-

m

THE ORIGIN OF CANADIAN CONFEDHRATION

BV

THK HON. MK CIIAKl.hS TIIPI'KK, IIAIU., (j.C.M G., C.B. lale I'rime Minlsttr ..f Canada

r

Till'l Cuiifcdtiratioii of Itritisli Noitli
Amcrii'ii may \n: ir^jatilcd as oiiu of
the must im|>i>rtaiit evunts that has
transpired cliiiiii;^ tliu Victorian era.
Its iiiiportaiice cannot be over-rated in con-
nection with tiie consolidation of a ^reat Domin-
ion on tiie nortliern half of tlie continent of
Nortli America, or in its effect in promotinj? tliu
unity of the Empire. This great work is about
to be followed by tiie important Australian ( on-
federalion and it is to be hoped at no distant day
the Confederation of South Africa will complete
the aciiievement tiius auspiciously bi-f^un

The d fficulties attending the uniting of a large
number of Provinces, eacli having autonomous
government, under one central administration,
can oidy be appreciated by those who have been
engaged in it. As lonj^ ago as 1S14 Chief Justice
Sewell, of Quebec, addressed a letter to His
Royal Highness the Duk'^ of Kent, in which he
proposed the federal union of British N'ortii Amer-
ica. The father of our Sovereign in the course
of his reply, dated at Kensington Palace, Nov-
ember jotii, 1814, said : " My dear Sewell, — I
have this day had the pleasure of receiving your
interesting note of yesterday. . . . Notiiing can
be better arranged than the whole thing is."
Similarsuggestionshad been madebythelate Hon.
.Mr. Uniacke, of Nova Scotia, some ten or twelve
years before, in 1822, Sir John lieverley Robin-
son, at the reipiest of the Colonial Office, siii)-
mitted a like proposal.

In 1839 llie Earl of Durham, after a careful
examiiialii^ii of the liritish Noitli American
Colonies, submittLii a masterly Report to Her
Majesty the Queen, in which ho advocated, in
the most conclusive manner, the advantage and
necessity of a Union (jf liiose Colonies under one
Government. This distinguished statesman oiit,-

lined a sciieme of Union very similar in ilsciiar-
acterisliis to tiiat subseipiently adopted at the
(Juebec Conference in iS')4. In 1849 the Hritish
American League, composed o( a large nimiber
of able and intelligent men, met at Toronto and
discussed the question of Colonial Union. The
SI bject was again discussed in the Legislature of
Nova Scotia in 1S51, when the late Hon. J. \V.
Johnston moved the following Resolution : " That
the Union or Confeileration of the Biitish Prov-
inces on just principles, while calculated to per-
petuate their connection with the Parent State,
will promote their advancement and prosperity,
increase their strength and influence, and elevate
their position."

In speaking of this motion Mr. Johnston refer-
red at length to the proceedings of tiie Hritish
American League before mentioned. In 1855-56
Mr. P. S. Hamilton, a barrister in Halilax, pub-
lished two forcible and well-written pamphlets
upon the Union of the Colonies. And again in
i860 he adiiressed a letter to His Grace the Duke
of Newcastle upon tiie same subjict. In 1857
Mr. Johnston and the late Sir Adams Arciiibald
Were appointed by the Government of Nova
Scotia to ci infer with the Secretary of State for
the Colonies upon the subject of Colonial Union.
In 1858 the late Sir Alexander Gait niMved in the
Canadian Legislature in favour of a Colonial
Fc deration and he, with the late Sir George
i-^ Cartier and the lale Hon. Joiiii Ross, were
deputed by the Govei noi -General to bring the
subject before the Imperial authorities. On
these occasions the Hritish Govi^riMiieiit refused
to ait because delegate s had not been duly auth-
oriiied by all the Provinces interested.

In 1861 the late Hon. Joseph Howe moved a
Resolution in the Legislature of Nova Scotia,
which passed unanimously, proposing a CvMisuI-

I

»llMHI^tf[llli«iH«l»ii

I •

ii.

CANADA; AN KNCVCLOI'.KIHA.

415

tatioii bulwci-n tlu; vorioMS I'roviHccs iipoei the
nubject. 'llio Duke of Nowcastle, tlnii Coloiiial
Secretary, ii'iilyiiiK to the (iovcriinr of Nova
Scotia, n.iiil ha cuuld sec 110 objection to any
cuiisiiUation upon the 8(il)ject umon},'st tht; Iciul-
iiiK members ol the Ciovfinmeiitrt concerned ;
but, whatever tiiu result of suiii consultation
ini^ht be, the most satisfactory nuulu of testing;
the opinion of the pfople of Hritisli North Amer-
ica would probably be by means of a resolution
or ailihtss proposed in tinj Le(,'islaluru of each
Province by itsown Governnient. The despatcli
of the Duke of Newcastle was forw.inli d by Mr.
Howe to the lion. A. A, Dorion, Provincial
Secretary of Canaila, at Quebec, anJ also to the
Provincial Secretaries of New Hrunswick and
Prince Kdward Island. No practical results,
however, followed from these efforts. The com-
munication between Canada and the Maritime
Provinces was so imperfect that but little was
known of the Provinces outsiile of their own
boundaries. In 1X64 the Government of Nova
Scotia, desiairing of seeinjj the Union of all the
British North Auic rican Provinces effecteil at an
early date, arranf;ed with the Governments of
New Hrunswick and Prince Edward Island to
pass the following Resolution :

" Resolved, That a humble address be pre-
sented to His K.xcellency the Administrator of
the Government, requesting him to appoint
delegates (not to e.xcced Hvc) to Confer with
delegates who n.ay be appointed by the Govern-
ments of New Brunswick and Prince Edward
Island, for the purpose of considering the subject
of the Union of the three Provinces nndcr one
Government and Logir.iature; such Union to
take effect when conhrmed by the Legislative
enactments of the various Provinces interested,
and approved by Her Majesty the yueen."

When the Union of Upper and Lower Canada
was effected in 1840, although the pojiulation of
Lower Canada was much larger than that of
Upper Canada, it was provided by the Act of
Union that each Province should elect the same
number of members to the Legislative Assembly,
In consecjuence of immigration in a few years the
population of Upper Canada became much
greater than that of Lower Canada. An agitation
then took place, and a demand was made and led
with great vigour by the late Hon. George Brown,

for a change! in the Constitution whiih would
give, throughout thcunilid Piovincct, ol Canada,
representation by population. This change In
the terms of the Union was strenuously resist«'d
by Lower Canada, the result being tli it effeelive
(jovernmeiit was r'^ndeied nnpossiblc by the
closely balanced condition of parties. N«) legii*
lati(jn could take place except asu matter of com-
promise nnd no less than five different Goviin-
nteiits \v( ii: called upon to (h al with the admin-
istration of public affairs between May 2i5t, l8fjj,
and July 1st, iS()(. The liade and 'ousiness of

Chief Justice, ttie Hun. Jonathan Sewell.

the country was paralyzed and its credit so injured
that the six per cent, debentures of Canada were
below 75.

Under the Resolution already referred to a
Convention had been arranged to be held at
Charloltetown for the purpose of considering the
question of the Legislative Union of the Mari-
time Provinces. About this time the late Alex-
ander Morris, then member for Lanark, in the
Canadian Legislature, sounded the late Hon.
George Brown, the Leader of the Opposition, a?

WH

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4:6

CANADA: AN ENCVCLOI'.KDIA.

to the desirability of a coalition being formed
that would relievo Canada from the grciit embar-
rassment in which it was placed by the inability
of either party to form a strong Government.
This resulted in the loadipfj men of the two
parties being brought together, who, after full
<leliberation, decided to form a coalition Govern-
ment based upon the policy of obtaining a Con-
federation between Canada and the Maritime
Provinces ; and, if tliat were found impracticable,
to separate Ujiper and Lower Canada and
then form a Federal Union between those Prov-
inces.

Application w^s then made by the Govern-
ment of Canada to the Governments of the
Maritime Provinces to recei'. e a deputation of
the members of the Canadian Government at the
Conference to bo held in Charlottetown in order
that the larger question might be fuhy discussed.
The ConfiTcnce met on the ist September in
Charlottetown and on the next day received the
deputation from the Canadian Government con-
sisting of the Hon. John A. Macdonald, Hon.
George Brown, Hon. Ale.\ander Gait, Hon.
George E. Cartier, Hon. William McDougall
and the Hon. D'Arcy McGee. After lull discus-
sion it was d'xided to take up the question of the
Federal Union of all the Provinces. This deter-
mination was announced at a banquet ^iven at
ihe Provincial Buildmgs at Charlottetown on the
iSth Septembei, The members of the Canadian
deputation were afterwards entertained at Halifax,
St. John and Fredericton and the proposed Union
was further discussed.

Formal invitations were then sent by the
Governor-General to each of the Provinces ask-
ing the Government to send delegates to meet
with the Government ot Canada at the City of
Quebec. There they met in Conferenc e accord-
ingly on the io;h of Oitober, at v/hich gathering
Nova Sccilia, New Brunswick, Newloundland
and Prince Edward Island were all represented.
.Mtlmugl! the pioceedings of the Conference were
naturally rdulidintial an opportunity was afforded
of discussing the bu'uject very fully in the pres-
ence of the people at a grand banquet given by
the Board of Tiade of Qdehec. After full delib-
eration, during eighteen d.iys, seventy-two Reso-
lutions were agi sed upon wliich foinn. d the ba is

of the Union. The spirit in which these Resolu-
tions were framed and the objects of the Cor fer-
ence are well described in the following extract
from a despatch of the Right Honourable the
Secretary of State n^r the Colonies, Mr. Cardwell,
to Lord Monck, under date of December 3rd,
1864 :

" Animated by the wannest sentiments of
loyalty and devotion to their Sovereign ; earnestly
desirous to secure for their posterity throughout
all future time the advantages which they enjoy
as subjects of the British Crown ; steadfastly
attached to the institutions under which they
live; they have conducted their deliberations with
patient sagacity and iiave arrived at unanimous
conclusions on questions involving many difficul-
ties, and calculated under less favourable aus-
pices to have given rise to many differences of
opinion."

It is important to notice the fact that, from the
Provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and
Prince Edward Island, the delegates represented,
not only the leading men in the Governments of
the day, but also the leading members of the
Opposition, so that the foundation of the Con-
federation of British North America was laid
strong and deep, not by members of one party,
but by the leading public men of both parties in
all the various Provinces, After the Conference
had closed, the delegates from the Maritime
Provinces were entertained at Quebec, Ottawa
and Toronto where the general features of the
arrangement were very fully discussed at banquets
given by those cities. The Legislature of Can-
ada, after an elaborate debate continued from
February 6th to March i^tli, 1865, passeil, by
large majorities in both Houses, an Addiess to
Her Majesty praying her to submit a measure to
the Imperial Parliament for the purpose of uniting
the Provinces in accordance with the provisions
of the Ouebec Resolutions.

Although it was arranged at the Quebec Con-
ference that the Resolutions agreed to shoiikl be
submitted to the vaiious Legislatures fur their
approval, a dissolution in New Brunswick took
place and a huge majority were returned pledged
to oppose the passage of the Quebec Resolutions.
Under tiiese circumstances the Governnieiit of
Nova Scotia did not consuler it judicious to sub-
mit the Resolutions to the Legislature in the
Session of 1863, as it was obvious there i oiild be

CANADA: AN KNCYCI.OI'.KDIA.

487

no practical Union with Canada without New
Brunswick being included. Tlie Government of
New Brunswick formed to oppose Confederation
committed themselves, however, to the policy of
Union in the Speech with whijh tiie Lej^islature
was opened in February, 1866, and the Legisla-
tive Councilor that Province passed a Resolution
approving of Confederation. It now being evi-
dent thatall obstructions in New Brunswick would
be speedily removed, the foUowinsj Resolution
was passed by the Legislature of Nova Scotia :

" Whereas, in the opinion of this House it is
desirable that a Confederation of the British
North American Provinces should take place :

Resolved, therefore. That His Excellency the
Lieutenant-Governor be authorized to appoint
dflegates to arrange with the Imperial Govern-
ment a .scheme of Union which will effectually
ensure just provision for the rights and interests
of this Province: each of the Provinces co-ope-
rating to have an equal voice in such delegation ;
Upper and Lower Canada being for this purpose
viewed as separate Provinces."

This Resolution was carried by a majority of
31 toig in the House of Assembly and in the
Legislative Council a similar Resolution was
carried by a majority of 13 to 5. In New Bruns-
wick, the Houso; of Assembly having been again
dissolved especially on this issue, 33 were elected
to support the Union and only 8, who were
opposed to it, could obtain seats throughout that
Province. The Union party having therefore
been returned to power a Resolution, nearly iden-
tical with that passed by the Legislature of Nova
Scotia, was triumphantly carried.

On the 4th December, 1866, the delegates from
Canada, Ntw Brunswick uiid Nova Scotia met
at the Westminster Palace Hotel in London and
the Lite Right Hon. Sir John A. Macdonald was
elected Chairman. After full discussion by the
delegates among themselves and frequent consul-
tations with the ("olonial Office, the Confedera-
tion Bill was agreed upon auu submitted on the
1 2th February, 1S67, to the Imperial Parliament,
where it was warmly supported by tlic leading
statesmen of all parties, passed without amend-
ment, and received the Ruyal A sent on liie 28th
March. The Act came into force on the ist
July, 1S67. The Confederation embraced in the
first instance only the four Provinces of Ontario,
(Jnehec, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, but

provision was made in the Act for the admission
of the other British North American Provinces
and also Rupert's Land and the North-West
Territories. Rupert's Land and the Nt)rth-\Vest
Territories were subsequently accjuired by an
arrangement with the Hudson's Bay Company
and the Imperial Government. In the session
of 1870 an Act was passed establishing the Prov-
ince of Manitoba, the representatives and Senat-
ors from which Province took their seats in Par-
liament at Ottawa in the session of 1872. The
Province of British Columbia also entered the

I.'

Tlie H.>n. Sir Adams G. Archibakl.

Union in 1871 and its representatives and Senat-
ors took their seats in the same year. Prince
Edward Island entered the Union in 1S73 and
the consolidation under one Government of all
British North America, wi'.h the exception of
Ni'wfouiuilanil, was accomplished.

Reference has alreadv been made to tlij ilit'ficul-
tics of iiidncin^ Provinces h.ivingaii independent
Government to surrender it and merge their
fortunes with larger Provinces and it has '-onse-
qneiitlv been found tliit tlie difficulty ot consoli-

i,

[^

mm-

,.'S

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOl'/liDIA.

I.

dating Provinces is in the inverse ratio to the
size of the Provincu. The ajjitutor lias an attrac-
tive subject to present to the masses when lie
iirj^es them to continue their independence and to
resist aiiial<;amalion witli a hir^er bmiy, depictinj^
in stailhn^' colours the conseqnu-iice of their
fjiving up complete control over piibHc affairs and
uniting; in a confederation in which tluir interests
may be neglected. Experience, however, has
shown that the greatest possible consideration
has been given to the smaller Provinces, The
obvious necessity for the Confederation of British
North America induced thinking men of all
parties to give it their support. The fact that
the old Province of Canada had no outlet to the
ocean except througli a foreign country for sev-
eral months -n the year and that for more than
25 years tiie efforts of all parties had failed to
secure railway coininunii-.ition between Quebec
and Halifix presented a striking evidence of the
absolute necessity of Confederation. The Mari-
time Provinces wtre separated from each other
by hostile tariffs and had no lield for development
of important industries. The desire of the old
Province of Canada to obtain connection with
the great West had no prospect of being realized.
The vast prairie country lying betwei.n the Red
River of the north and the Ro.-ky Mountains on
the west was only accessible from the great Re-
public to the south of it, while tiie Province of
British Columbia, cut off from all communication
with the east by tha Rocky M >init lins and the
Seikirks, was necessarily dependent, to a lai;4e
extent, upon the United States, which borders it.
The Maritime Provirues, having no connection
with Canada, were largely depem'ent for their
trade upon a foreign country.

Under these circumstances it was obvious that
the natural tendency of events must be t!iat
gradually these liritish North American Provinces
would gravitate to the great Re;)ul)lio to tlu
south. Isolated and separated as the various
provinces were, there was no meansof communi-
cation bv wliich they could get any practical su[)-
port from each otherin;inyei:vjrgeiicy fordefensive
purposes. The abrogation of the Reciprocity
Treaty of 1854 bv the United States, notwith-
standing the great advantages that they Ind
enjoyed iiniUr itsoperation for ton ye;irs, showed

Conclusively the desire to force the necessity c-<"
annexation upon the British Provinces. Under
those circumstances every sentiment of loyalty
to tlie British Crown, every anxiety to extend the
prosperity of the country and to assume some-
thing like national life, made it imperative upon
the old Province of Canada, and the Maritime
Provinces alike, to support the only means by
which they could attain any importance in the
eyes of the world, and by which inter-provincial
trade could be promoted and the means of inter-
course between the different sections of the
country opened up, enabling them to promote
effectively the (Jevelopnent of the northern half
of this continent and I ) hand down to their pos-
terity the glorious heritage of British institutions.
The Fathers of Confederation had the great
advantage, when called upon to deal with that
important question, of the experience of the
neighbouring Republic. They had witnessed
the disadvantage that the United States had
suffered from a constitution which necessarily
made the executive head of that country the
head of a party — a difficulty entirely avoided in
the Canadian Confederation by having its con-
stitution moulded upon the British principle
which makes the representative of the Sovereign
the executive head of t''e country — occupying
tiie same position in Canada that tiie Queen
does in Great Britain as an impartial executive
head receiving the ardent support of men of all
parties under the British constitutional principle.
Tiie delegates lia I also before them the terrible
internecine war wliicli had convulsed the United
Slates for several years, involving an eiioriiioiis
loss of life and money in preserving a Union
based upon the principle of forming a central
Government (jut of powers yielded by Sovereign
Stati.'S which retained all the powers not speciti-
cially given up to the central Government. In
the construction of our constitution specific
powers were given to the various Provinces to
deal with local atfiirs, and all matters of national
concern were assigned to the central Government
and everything not specifically given to the Prov-
inces was placed under the control of the central
authority. The question which had convulsed
the old Province of Canada — representation by
population — was disposed of by the adoption of

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOP.'KDIA.

42^)

that principle for the election of members to the
House of Cointnons, and complete security was
given to the Province of Quebec ana the smaller
Provinces in the constitution of the Senate.
The Hon. George Brown dealt with this ques-
tion in the discussion in the Lefjislatiire upon
the constitution for the Dominion in the follow-
ing clear and forcible terms:

"The very essence of our compact is that the
Union shall be P'ederal and not Legislative. Our
Lower Canada friends have agreed to give us
representation by population in the Lower
House on the express condition that they shall
have equality in the Upper House. On no other
condition could we have advanced a step; and,
for my part, I am quite willing they should have
it. In maintaining the existing sectional bound-
aries and handing over the control of local
matters to local bodies, we recognize, to a cer-
tain extent, a diversity of interests; and it is
quite natural that the protection for those inte-
rests, by equality in the Upper Chamber, should
be demanded by the less numerous Provinces."

Mr. Brown was quite right in saying that not
a single step could have been taken to establish
the sound principle of representation by popula-
tion unless it had been accompanied by this
solemn and binding pledge that for all time the
Province of Quebec and the Maritime Provinces
should have an equality of representation with
the great Province of Ontario in the Senate.
Twenty-four Senators were assigned to Ontario,
24 to Quebec and 24 to Nova Scotia and New
Brunswick until such time as Prince Edward
Island should be included, when each of the
other Maritime Provinces would lose two,' and
four Senators be thus given to Prince Edward
Island. In the three Maritime Provinces the
population was vastly inferior to that of either
Quebec or Ontario, yet they obtained in the
construction of the Senate this guarantee that
their rights could never be over-ridden and
justice denied thcin by the act of a majority of
the House of Commons, in which their voice
would be much weaker than that of the larger
Provinces. The fact that the Confederation of
Canada rests upon an Act of tin; Imperial Parli-
ament, passed at the rc(juest of all the Provinces
who were a party to it, made it absolutely certain
that this cardinal principle, this protection thus
afforded to the different sections of the Dominion,

never could be invaded unless this compact was
abandoned, not only by the House of Commons
and Senate of Canada, but by every Provmce
which was a party to the compact.

It is a remarkable fact that for several years
before the Conference at Quebec the Legislative
Council or Upper House of the Old Province of
Canada had been elective, yet, of the 33 delegates
representing both parties in ail the Piovinces, the
principle of havingSenators appointed by nomina-
tion by the Crown for life was adopted with the
utmost unanimity. In this, as in all other features
of the Canadian constitution, the British principle
was applied so far as the circumstances of the
country would permit, and down to the present
time no just cause for challenging the wisdom of
that arrangement has been shown. As there was
a Legislative Council in existence in all the Prov-
inces concerned, it was arranged that the first
nominations to the Senate should be made, so far
as was practicable, from the existing Legislative
Councils in the different Provinces, and in that
selection due regard should be had to the repre-
sentation of both parties — as had already been
shown in the appointment of delegations com-
posed of both Liberals and Conservatives to dis-
cuss the terms of Union.

Another great advantage that the Canadian
Constitution gives us is the right to appeal, on
all questions arising between local and general
Governments, to an independent and impartial
authority — the Judicial Committee of the Imperial
Privy Council. Nothing is more remarkable in
the history of the past thirty-one years of Con-
federation than the small number of cases that
have required to be dealt with in that manner, and
it would be difficult to suggest, in the light of past
experience, any material modification in the Con-
stitution of Canada, if the matter was being taken
up de novo. It would be safe to say that the most
sanguine expectations of every one engaged in the
constiuction of the Canadian Constitution have
been more than realized. It may, in fact, be con-
fidently said that from the shores of Prince
Edward Island on the Atlantic to Vancouver
Island on tl c Pacific no more happy, no more con-
tented, no more prosperous people are to be
found on the face of the globe.

The means of intercommunication of the most

m^

430

CANADA : AN KNCYCLOI'/KDIA.

complete character have been estahhsheil throiifjli-
out, biiuliiifj the Provinces to<jelhiT and (urnisli-
inj; a great hipfhway of easy and rapid intercourse
for the people ; and providing for the develop-
ment of the Dominion. Tiie status of our
country has been immensely elevated and the
powers of a practically independent and self-
governing community have been coiiftTred upon
us; not only in the management of our own affairs
but with a potent voice in arrangements with
foreign countries. At great international confer-
ences Canada takes her place side by side with
the other powers of the world upon equal terms.
The credit of our country has risen from the de-
plorable position in which it stood, as before
stated, when Canadian si.\ per cent, securities
Wire below 75, until it is now only second among
the nations of the world to that of Great Britain
itself. With uiirivailcd fisheries on the Atlantic

and Pacific coasts; with forests of boundless ex-
tent from ocean to ocean; with a climate of tiie
most invigourating character ; with an enormous
territory of soil which cannot be surpassed in
fertility in the world ; with the greatest inland
navigation to be found in any country, extending
from the Straits of Belle Isle to the head of Lake
Superior in an unbroken line ; with n. les of coal,
gold, silver, copper, lead, nickel, iron and almost
every other mineral, of a richness so great as to
give assurance that so far as mineral wealth is
concerned we shall soon equal any other country;
and above all, with a hardy, enterprising and in-
telligent population ; who can doubt that we must
steadily attract to our Dominion the best blood
of tne over-crowded populations of Europe and
rapidly rise to a position of permanency among
the nations of the world which will satisfy the
most ambitious cravings for national greatness ?

The Rigtil Hon. Viscount Monck.

THE CONFEDERATION MOVEMENT IN PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND

BY

The HON. ANDREW A. MACDONALD, Senator of Canada.

THE subject of a Union (/f the Maritime
Provinces of Hritish North America
was first brougiit officially to the notice
of tlie Legislature of Prince Edward
Ishmd in 1863, when the Secretary of State
for the Colonies transmitted to the Lieut-
enant-Governor a Resolution which had been
passed by the House of Assembly of Nova Scotia
in 1861 desiring to ascertain the policy of Her
Majesty's Government and the opinion of the
other Coll iiies on that subject. When this
Resolution was submitted to the Legislature of
Prince Edward Island it elicited a good deal of
discussion but the debate did not indicate a desire
on the part of the Island representatives for any
change in the constitution of the Province, though
it was decided to consider any proposition which
might be submitted from the neighbouring Col-
onies for a scheme of Union.

At this period of its history the financial condi-
tion of the Province was satisfactory. The public
debt was less than the revenue for a single year.
A system of responsible government had been
secured some years previously after a severe
struggle to obtain it, and it was working satisfac-
torily. The people had shown that they were
capable of managing their own affairs and up-
holding the supremacy of the law which had
guaranteed them rights and privileges denied
them under the old governmental system. The
Reciprocity Treaty with the United States had
opened that market to them, and the fish and
agricultural productions of the Province were
then realizing remunerative prices. The Island-
ers had at this time begun to prosecute the fish-
eries extensively and this business was quite
profitable while the Treaty existed. Ship-build-
ing was then also an important industry, some
25,000 tons valued at $625,000 being built and

i:ii

exported for sale in 1863. Taxation was low
and the chief cost of a system of free education
was borne by the Government. The franchise
practically extended to every permanent male
resident liable to taxation who was twenty-one
years of age.

Under such conditions it is not surprising that
the Islanders were contented with their form of
government and expressed no desire for a change
of constitution. The land question was the only
one with which the Government could not deal
successfully. The lands were held chiefly in
large blocks by absentee proprietors who would
not sell to the occupants on any reasonable
terms. The tenantry were averse to the rent
system and desired to become freeholders. The
Government had purchased some estates and was
re-selling them to the tenants at cost, extending
the payment of the purchase money over a num-
ber of years, and many of the tenants on these
estates had already become freeholders and com-
pleted their payments, but the principal pro-
prietors would not sell at any price. Such was
the situation of the Province when, in 1864,
Lieutenant-Governor Dundas submitted to the
Legislature a despatch from Lieutenant-Governor
Gordon of New Brunswick, enclosing the draft
of a Resolution which his advisers intended ♦o
submit to the Legislature of that Province
requesting him "to appoint five delegates to
confer with delegates who may be appointed by
the Governments of Nova Scotia and Prince
Edward Island for the purpose of considering
the subject of the Union of the three Provinces
under one Government and Legislature."

When this Resolution was submitted to the
House, the Leader moved that the Lieutenant-
Governor be authorized to appoint delegates tc
confer with those to be appointed by the twr

i* -

I.

a

43»

CANADA: A\ KNCYCLOI'.KDIA.

; I

otlicr Ciovcrmiu^iits named. This led to a debate
in wliicii very few uf tlie members expressed any
desire for Union with tlie adjoining Provinces,
bnt, in deference to Clovernor Gordon's despatch,
they consented to the appointment of the dele-
t,'ates, allliough opposed to any change in the
constitution. Flie Resolution was only carried
by a division on party lines. In compliance
with its terms. Colonel Gray, the Premier; the
Hon. E. Palmer, Attorney-General; the Hon. W.
H. Pope, Colonial Secretary; the Hon. George
Coles, Leailer of the Ojiposition, and the Hon.
A. A. Macdonald, M l.c, were appointed to
meet the delejjates from Nova Scotia and New
Hrunswick. The latter arrived at Charlottetovvn
on jist August, iSO^, when the Legislative Union
of the three Provinces was discussed, although
the majority of the Island delegates still con-
sidered it ine.xpedient. While the delegates were
engaged in discussing the subject a deputation
from the Canadian Government arrived at Char-
lottetown and was admitted to the Conference,
where they discussed informally the extension of
t!ie proposal so as to include the Upper Provinces
which they represented.

These meetings continued daily until the 7th
September, when, on the invitation of the Nova
Scotia delegation the Conference adjourned to
Halifax, where the further consideration of the
situation was resumed. The delegates then pro-
ceeded to Fredericton and St. John, N.B. At
each of these places informal conferences were
held with the delegates from the Upper Provinces
concerning the object of their mission. It was
at length resolved to postpone the further consid-
eration of the subject until a later Conference
wliicii the Hon. Joliii A. Mac ilonald announced he
w(Uild advise His Excellency the Governor-Gen-
eral to call at Ouebec as soon as practicable and
to which the Lieutenant-Governors of all the
Provinces would be invited to send di li.';4ales.
This Conference accordingly met at Oiicljec on
the litli October, 1864. Two additional mem-
bers were added to the first delegation from
I'rinre Edward Island, vi/., the lion. T, H.
Havil.md, and the Hon. Edward W'lielan, so
that the Province was nnw represented there by
four of the Government party and three members
of the Oppc^sition. The business of the Confer-

ence engaged the closest attention of its tnembers
for a period of seventeen days and resulted in a
Report comprising seventy-two resolutions pre-
senting a scheme for the Federal Union of all the
Provinces, and they are now, with a few verbal
and unimportant changes, embodied in the Im-
perial Act which is the constitution of the
Dominion of Canada. The doings of the Quebec
Conferences were taken up by the Island press
and the result was ably discussed both by the
few advocates of Confederation and by its numer-
ous opponents.

Public meetings of the electors were held
throughout the Province and a very strong sen-
timent of opposition to the scheme was aroused.
The electors calli 1 upon their representatives
to oppose it or resign their seats, and before the
next meeting of the Provincial Legislature the
measure was condemned by every constituency
in the Province. When the Report of the d* -
egates to the Quebec Conference was submitted
to the Legislature it was still more severely
criticised. It was contended that the insular
position of the Province would deprive it of all
direct benefit from expenditures by the P'ederal
Government in the continental Provinces of the
Dominion for railways, canals, and other great
public works which this Island Province did not
require, although its people would have to con-
tribute in an equal proportion to their cost and
maintenance. And the proposed terms did not
make any allowance for the exceptional position
of the Province in this respect. The Province
possessed neither public lands, forests, nor mines
nor minerals wherewith to supplement any allow-
ance from the Federal Government for local
purposes; so that a provision which might be
fair and liberal for Provinces possessing such
natural wealth m abundance would be quite in-
adequate for a small Province without such re-
sources. It was maintained also that in the
larger arena of the Dominion the wants of the
Islaiul would receive little attention when in
competition with those of the lar'^er Provinces
for appropriations frcMii tlie P'ederal Treasury.
The Island representatives, few in number, would
not make their influence felt and the position of
the Colony in the Confederacy would be insigni-
ficant and unenviable. Thus it was that tiic

CANADA : AN KXCVfM-OIVKDIA.

433

measure became so unpopular with tliii people
tliut it would have been impDssible at liiis time
for any of its advocates to secure election on the
question in any constituency of the Pnwince.
A Kesolution in tiie Le},'islaliue was earned by
23 to 5 eiiiphalically ileiliiiiii}; to join in the
Union, which it beiieveil would prove "politically,
commercially and financially disastrous to tiie
rights and interests of its people."

The other Provinces became confederated
on 1st July, 1867, and two years later proposals
were received for the admission of the Island on
more liberal terms, but public opinion was still too
strongly opposed to any change in the ccjusti-
tution to allow of favourable consideration for
any measure of Union. A general election in 1870
brought about a change in the local Government
and the Hon. James C. Pope, who had been
Leader m a former House from 1S65 to iSbS was
again in the same ptjsition. There was but little
change in the opinions of the people on the
question of Union but several causes were now
leading people who had at first opposed the
scheme to discuss it without prejudice. The
abrogation of the Reciprocity Treaty with the
United States had deprived the Province of the
full benefit of its best market and heavy losses
had been incurred by those who endeavoured to
hold it m the face of the duties they W(;re com-
pelled to pay. During the existence of the
Treaty the Islanders h id embarked extensively
in fisheries and while this proiiuction was free
of duties by the States they were successful and
the business profitable, but the abrogation of the
Treaty and the imposition of a high duty had
destroyed their prospects and ruined this enter-
prise. Ship-building could not be continued
when the forests were exhausted and those who
had been engaged in these two industries were
leaving the Province each year in increasing
n jmbers to obtain employment in a foreign coun-
try. Several Acts passed by the Provincial
Legislature respecting lands had not received
the Royal sanction, while agitation for the aboli-
tion of the rent system continued and the people
were beginning to realize that this could only
be effected by the assistance of the Federal
Government.

An Act was pasted in 1871 which authorized
•a

the Prtjvinci il (iovernment toconstruct a railway
to connect the outlying towns and villages with
the caj)ital, and also proviiliiig for the issue of
debentures to defray the coit and pay the con-
tractors. A contract was let to build and ecpiii)
ijo miles of narrow gauge road extending from
Georgetown in the east to Cascumpec in the
west. The work was going forward when in the
session of 1S7J the Government was placed in a
minority in the House and a m-w election was
held which resulted in a change of parties. The
new Government, under the leadership of the
Hon. R. P. Ha\tliorne and the Hon. K. Palmer,
met the House on the 2jid Ai)ril, 1S7.J. It
included amongst its members and sup[)orters
the j)rincipal opponents of Confederation and also
of the railway policy w'uch the previous Ministry
had introduced, but one of its first measures was
to provide for the immediate construction of
branch lines in addition to the contract for the
main line let by the late Government. Money
was soon required to pay for the right of way and
incidental exjienses of the railway, but it was
found that it was impossible to dispose of the
debentures to any amount except at an enormous
discount and the Government were therefore in
need of funds. If the credit of the Colony was
to be preserved the only means whereby that
result could be accomplished appeared to be
through opening negotiations with the Federal
Gov,nment at Ottawa.

I. V wnie of Council was therefore passed on
the i\ d January, 1875, wherein it was stated that
if the Uoininion Government conceded liberal
terms of Confederation the Council would advise
their siilimission to the people so that they might
have the option of choosing between the alterna-
tives before them. They also stated terms and
conditions which they a^ked the Dominion Gov-
ernment to concede tcj the Province. When this
Minute of the Provincial Council was submitted
to the Government at Ottawa a Report thereon
was approved by His Excellency the Governor-
General stating that some of the proposed
coiulitions were inailniissiblc, while others were
reasonable enough, and the Government of the
Island was invited to follow the same course
adopted by British Columbia and Newfoundland
and to Send delegates to Ottawa, where a Com-

rirr',

*,U

CANADA : AN ENCYCLOI'/KDIA.

mittec of tlic I'rivy Council would at once meet
iheni in Conference and igrL-u, if possible, on
terms for the admission of the Province to the
Dominion. On the 14th February, 1.S7}, the
Hon. R. P. lluytiiorne and thu Hon. David
I^iinl, both members o( the Government, were
deputed as delefjates to Ottawa for the purpose
of confcrrinjj with that Government on the sub-
ject of Union. After various interviews they
af,Moed upon terms which were sitjned by Sir
John A. Macdonald, the Hon. vS. L. Tilley, the
Hon. H. L. L.inf,'evin, the Hon. Joseiih Ilowe
and the Hon. Ch.irles Tnpper for the Dominion,
and by Missrs. Haythorne and Laird on behalf
of the Province.

The Provincial Government was immediately
dissolved and an a[)[)eal m.ide to tiie people for
approval of the terms of Union. The Opposition
claimed that the terms were in some respects
inadetpiate and that a more liberal allowance for
local government was recpiired in order to place
the Island in as independent a position as other
Provinces which had within themselves resources
from which their local revenue could be supple-
mented. Tiie election resulted in the defeat of
the Haythorne-Paliner Government and the
return of their predecessors with the Hon. James
C. Pope as Leader once more. The Lefjislature
met on the 2Jnd April, 1S7 5, and as the Revenue
Act expired on the ist of May their first duty was
to pass a R(!venue Bill. They then authorized
the appointment of delegates to proceed to
Ottawa and secure more equitable terms for the
admission of the Province to the Union. The
Hon. James C. Pojk;, the Hon. T. H. Haviland,
and the Hon. G. \V. Howlan were appointed,
and proceeded to Ottawa, where they finally suc-
ceeded in obtaining more favourable terms than
had been previously offered. When these were
submitted to the House they were approved and
an Adtlress to Her Majesty was passed prayinp
that an Imperial Act inif,dit be passed admitting
Prince Edw ird Island into the Union on the
terms stated. This was accordinf»ly done and
the Union accomplished with the approval of all
parties on the ist of July, 1873.

The Island has now been for over twenty-five
ycarsa Province ofthe Dominion. Theland ques-
tion has been settled by an Act which compelled the

proprietors of larKc estates to accept an equitable
l)rii;e awarded them by arbitrators chosen by the
interested parties, namely the Government, the
landlords and the tenants, and the purchase
money was paid to the proprietors from funds
for that purpose allowed to the Province under
the terms of Confederation. The lands have
been re-sold to the people at cost, or rather below
that figure, and the payment of the purchase,
in stnall annual instalments extending over a
.series (jf years, has enabled them to become free-
holders on easy terms, so that there are now very
few le.iseholders on. what were once the large
estates of the proprietors. Nearly all the farmers
are now in the enjoyment of a freehold property
which it is their interest to improve and beautify
for theniselvcs and their descendants. The Rail-
way has contributed in no small measure to the
advancement of the Province and a further exten-
sion of that work is now about to be uiulertaken by
the Federal Government. Steam communication
with the other Provinces across the Strait is regu-
li.rly maintained by the Dominion Government.
New mail routes have been opened and the
number of Post Offices in the Province has been
about doubled since Confederation. Money
Order offices have been granted wherever required.
These facilities could not have b.'i.'u afforded
unless this branch ofthe public service was con-
trolled by the Dominion. Lighthouses have
been erected on the principal headlands and
in the harbours, wherever required, so that navi-
gation around the Island coast is now almost
as easy by night as by day. Although the number
of representatives wiiich the Prijvince can send
to the I'eileral Parliament is small the fear ofthe
people that they would be without iniiuence there
has been dissipated, Several ofthe Island repre-
sentatives have been Ministers of State in impor-
tant departments of the Government, namely,
David Laird, James C. Pope, Donald Ferguson
and Sir Louis Davies. The people generally
feel that they are now citizens of a great and
growing country with vast resources and bound-
less possibilities. When young men leave the
Province it is not now to become residents
in a foreign land, but to improve their position
and prospects while building up the Dominion
in which they intend to Itve. /

HISTORY AND FUNCTIONS OF THF CANADIAN SENATE

nv

THE HON. LAWRENCE C. POWKR, Senator ,<{ C.aiiiKU

Till", constitution of tlie Suiiate, as the composition of tlic Canadian IIoiisi; of Conunons,

U|)|)cr House of tlie Canadian Parlia- doiis not prevail as to tiu' Senate, on llie otiier

nient is called, the qualifications of its liand, the tlieory ot the absolute equality of the

members and certain {general provisions several Provinces coinposin;^ the Union is not

as to its proceeding's, are to be foiiiKl in the recof;iiized by our Constitution, fs it is by that

British North America Act, iN(»7, from Section of tlie United States. The reasons for the pro-

21 to Section 36 inclusive. Perhaps I cannot visions of Section 2i of the Union Act arc to be

begin better than by quoting some of the Sections found in tiie circumstances existing at the time

in question, briefly discussing them and indicat- when it war. passed. The people of Lower

ing in what respect tiie Act of 1X67 has since Canada or Canada East, having concciled to the

been amended. Section 21 is as follows : Upper or Western Province *''e principle of rep-

" The Senate shall, subject to the provisions of resentation by population in the Lower House,

this Act, consist of 72 members, who shall be insisted u[)oa an equal representatiem with Upper

styled Senators." Canada in the Senate ; and tlie Maritime Prov-

Asa result of the union of British Columbia inces of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, whose

with the Canada of 1867, the erection of Mani- people were disposed to look askance at union

toba into a Province and the granting to the with Canada under any circumstances, found

North-West Territories of representation in the their objections diminished by the large repre-

Scnate, the number mentioned in this Section has sentation in the Upper House offered to them by

been increaseil to 81. the ^)uebec Resolutions of 1S64, upon which the

Section 2.J provides that : Union Act was based. While the ecpial repre-

" In relation to the constitution of the Senate, sentation with Ontario granted to Quebec was

Canada shall be deemed to consist of tliree intcixled as a safeguard to the peculiar interests

of the I'^rench population, the provision that
each of the Quebec Senators should represent

divisions —
I. Ontario ;

2. puebec ;

3. The Maritime Provinces. Nova Scotia and one of the old electoral divisions of Lower
New lirunswick ; which tiiroe divisions shall Canada was inserted in the Act primarily for the
(subject to the provisions of this Act) be equally purpose of securing adequate representation to
represented in the Senate as follows : Ontario ^,,^, ir„„iish-speaking minoritv of that Province,
by twenty-four Senators; Ouebec bv twontv-lour o .• r ^.i tt • ' \ .. -j ^1 ..
Senators; and the Maritime Provinces by twenty- Section 147 of the Union Act provides that,
four Senators, twelve thereof representing Nova "pon the admission of Prince Edward Island,
Scotia and twelve thereof representing New that Province shall be deemed to be comprised
Brunswick. In the case of Quebec, each of the in the third of the divisions mentioned in Section
twenty-four Senators representing that Province 32, and shall be entitled to four Senators. Con-
shall be appointed for one of the Electoral Divis- ^i m o t- 1 xt r? • 1

. ri *^^ ri ;<; 1 ;., i;^i,..,i.,i« •< A '• sequent y. Nova Scotia and New Brunswick are

ions of Lower Canada, specified in Schedule "A i y ,„•

to Chapter One of the Consolidated Statutes of now represented by ten Senators each. Prmce

Canada." Edward Island became part of the Dominion

It will be observed that while the principle of in 1872. Manitoba was admitted to the Union

representation by population, which controls the in 1870; and, by the third Section of Chapter 3

436

pr
1'^

H

A^f*

CANADA : A\ |;\(\(I.()IM:|i1A.

i)f the Stiitiitis ol" C'aiiailii Ini ili.ii \i,ir, ii was
pioviiU'tl as follows :

" Tliu sail! I'loviiKX- sli.ill bi; upn suiilcil iii the
Sunatc of Ciinada by two incinbtTs, until it shall
have, accoidiili,' to (Icciiiiiial (ciisiis.a |M)|>itlatioii
oi tifty thoiisainl souls ; and lioin llicnitlorih it
shall be rt'prescntcil by llin-c; iiii'iiibfis, until it
shall liavi'.aci-tJKlin^,' to dfiH-nnial census, a popu-
lation of lillv thousand souls, and from tlieni-e-
forth it shall l^' i ipicsi iilcd lluicin liy lour
incnilicis."

The third Senator provided for by this Scition
was added after the Census of i.SNi, and the
fourth after tli.it of l.S()i. By an Iinpei ial Order-
in-t'ouiuil, bearin^j date the sixteenth of May,
1871, and based upon Aildri'sses from the Parlia-
ment of Canada and the Let;islature of British
Coluud)ia, as provided by Section I.j6 of the
British North America Act, iNfi;, that Province
became a p )rtion of the Dominion on the twen-
tieth of July, iSji.and has since been lepieseiited
in the Senate by three members. I'liially, the
first section of Chapter 3 of the Statutes of
Canada for 1.SS7 provided that the North-West
Territories should be represented in the Senate
by two members. Appointments were duly made;
under that Act, since the |)assin}^ of wliicli no
change has been made in the law as to the com-
position of the Senate.

Section 2j of the Union Act sets forth the
qualifications of a Senator, who must be tlie full
age of thirty years, a natural born or naturalized
subject of the Ou'cn, the owner in his own ri;^ht
of real estate of tin; value of four thousaiul dollars
over and above all charj,'es or encumbrances
thereon, the owner of real and personal property
worth, toLjether, four thousand dollars over and
above his debts and liabilities, and a resident
within the Province for which he is appointed.
At a time when members of the Commons
are elected under what is very near to manhood
suffrafre, it would seem desirable that the prop-
erty owning and conservative flements of the
population should have special representation
in the Uiiper Mouse ; an<l, as a rule, the members
of the House represent these elements; but, as
a matterof fact, the loss of the property tpialifica-
tioii has rarely led to action being taken to vacate
the seat of the disnnalified Senator. Section
24 IS as follows :

" The (iovernoi-ticneral shall from time to liuur,
in the ^hiftn's Name, by instninunt tinder the
(ireat Se.d of Caiiadii siimnion cpiilified persons
to the Senate; and, subjc( t l<> Ilit; provisions
of this Act, every p<isoii so summoned shall b«!-
come and be a nuinber of the Senate, and
a Senator."

Sections 2<) and jo are as folh)ws:

" 2(). A Senator shall, subject to the provisions
of this Art, hold his jilace in the Senate for life.

\o. A Senator inav by wiitiiij,' under his hand
addressed to the (iovernor-( ieiieial resign his
place in the Senate, and tliereu|>on the satnc
shall \h: vacant."

The effect of Sections 2\ and 2() is that the
members of the Sen.ite are ap[)oiiited fur lift;
by the {loveriior-Cieiieral, that is, by the ( .d>inct
of the day. The mode of ap|)ointmeiit and tho
tenure of office of the members of an Upper
House are subjects which h ive been mii(d» dis-
cussed in various civili/ed countries. Without
undertaking to leiiew the discussion or to t-.vpress
any strong opinion, it may be well to refer tf>
some of the views expressed in iStJS, in the Legis-
latuie of the old Province of Canada, during the
debates on the ^)uebec scheme of C.onfederation.
The Hon. Mr. (aftcu wards Sir Alexander) Camp-
bell, for many years the leading member (Ml the
Conservative side in the Upper House, speaking
of the mode of a|)poiiitment said :

"If the elective piiiiciple were insisttd upon
in Canada, and the (iovernment bound over to
maintain it.even tliouj.;h another Coiilerence were
called, no agn.emeiit could bo expected, lor, as he
had already saiii, the delegates from other Prov-
inces would be sure to be charged \\ ith exactly
differ^Mit instructions." Dcluitcs on Confederation^

p. 2.1,

I'tirther on in the same page, the honourable
gentlemen is reported as saving:

"In Up|>er Canada, as had been stated lately
by an honourable memlKT, the population has iit-
creasi'd very rapidly, and would probably go on
increasing in a much larger ratio than that of
Lower Canada or the other Provinces, and, if the
Legisla'ive Council were elective, the time might
come when the people of that section might fancy
themselves cut ii led to an increased representa-
tion in the Council, and commence to agitate for
it. They might obji ct to the fishing bounties
jiaid the Lower Provinces, to the money ex|>ended
there in fortification, or to something else, and
claim a representation in the Council more in
accordance with t'heir population, to enforce their

CANADA AN KN( 'VCI.Ol'.KDIA

tl7

"views; luiil ID vimv of siicli contin^icncii's tin;
<lelK^;i(t'S lioiii tliosu PruviiiCfS coliccivtd it woiilil
nut b<} salu to triixt tlifir ii;^lits to iiii lUcctivc
House*. It was tli(!ti (|t!tt;rriiiiii^i| tliiil iit oiiu braiicli
thuru woulil lie a tixoii iiiiiitbci of iiiuiiiburs iioiii-
inaled by tbu Crown, to fnal)lu it tu net as a
coiintcrpoisu totho l)iaii(:b in which tlii- |>rin(;i|)lt:
of rcprusuiitatioii according' to popiilatiuii would
be rt:cu},'iii;5cd."

On pu(;u 23, the lioiiourablc (jciillciuuii is re-
ported an follows :

" The roal danj^er of colhsion wrxild Iw. where
ono Chamber invaded tiio prerojjativis ol tli<!
other, an>l that dan^'er, if it c-xistecj at all, would
be Kr«^itlly increa3(!d wort; the Lejjislatiye Council
macle elective. (Ile.ir, hear.) ll the inenibirs
w«;re elected they ini^ht say, 'we come from the
people just iis (lucctlv as the members <<f the
Assembly do, and uur authority is, there-
foie, as full and complete as theirs. Nay
more, for, where we (iac.h represent 1,000 electors,
they only each represent 300, and we have, there-
fore, as much ri^^ht to initiate money bills and
impost bills as they have.* Make the Council
purely elt'( tivi-, and he would not promise that
ail a^'itation of this kind wouM not spring up. It
hid not been a theme, as yet, on the lloor ol the
House, but it was well-known that it had betii
freely discussed in the corriilors, and, if the sub-
ject liad not been formally introdiiccil, it was
probably because it was tlioiif^ht by those who
<lebated it that they could not rely upon the life
members. (Hear, hear.) Let the Council pro-
pose to (leal with taxation — and the elective sys-
tem would be sure in the course of time to ur^'e
it on to do so — and immediately the spirit of the
Assemby would be aroused to resistance. This
would be the way to provoke collisions, and with
an elective Council it was not unlikely at all to be
resorted to."

In the Assembly the subject of the Upper
House was discussed at considerable length by
the well-known Liberal leader, the late Hon.
George Brown. He was stronj^ly in favour of a
nominated instead of an elective House. Speak-
ing of his own action when the Bill providing for
the election of Legislative Councillors was before
the Lower House he said : " I voted, almost
alone, against the change when the Council was
made elective, but I have lived to see a vast
majority of those who did the deed wish it had
not been done." Con/. Debates, p. 88. In addition
to the arguments against an elective Council used
by the Hon. Mr. Campbell, which Mr. Brown
4ilso put forward with his usual vigour and abil-

ity, the latter g<-ntl>'in. Ill laid considerable stroas
upon a practical objection to the clei:tive system
at that time in operation in Canada : " VVu must
all feel," he said, " that the election of members
for siiidi enormous districts as fori^i the constitu-
encies of the Upper House has become a great
practical inconvenience. I say this from personal
experiiMice, having long taken an active interest
in the electoral contests in Upper Canada. We
have found greater difficulty in inducing candi-
dates to offer for seats in the Upper House than
in getting ten times the nufiilier for the Lower
Hous'.'. The constituencies aie so vast that it is
diflic ult to Hud gentlemen who have the will to
incur the lai)i)iir of such a contest, who are
suH\cieiitly known and popular enough through-
out districts so wide, and who have niciiey
enough to pay the enormous bills, not incurred in
any corrupt way — do imt fancy that I mean that
for a mumeiit — but the bills that are sent in alter
the contest is over, and which the candidates are
compelled to p.iy if they ever hope to present
themselves for re-election." The following remarks
of Mr. Brown, on the subjict of the tenure of
office of the Senators, will be found interesting :

" But it has been said that, though you may
not give the power to the ICxeciilivi; to increase
the numbers of the Upper House, in the event of
a dead-lock, you might limit the term for which
the membeis are appointed. I was myself in
favour of that proposition. I thought it would
be well to provide for a more frecpieiit change in
the composition of the Upper House, and lessen
the danger of the Chamber being largely com-
posed of gentlemen whose advanced years might
lorbid the punctual and vigourous discharge of
their public duties. Still, the objection made to
this was very strong. It was said : ' Suppose
you appoint them for nine years, what will be the
effect? For the last three or four years of their
term they would be anticipating its expiry, and
anxiously looking to the Administration of the
day for re-appointment ; and the consequence
would be that a third of the members would be
under the influence of the Executive.' The de-
sire was to render the Upper House a thoroughly
independent body — one that would be in the best
position to canvass dispassionately the measures
of this House, and stand t.p for the public inter-
ests in opposition to hasty or partisan legislation.
It was contended that there is no fear of a dead-
lock. We were reminded how the system of
appointing for life had worked in past yf»f<rs,

s^ss

a

•«J«

C'ANAhA AV I'NCVCI.OI'.KDI.A

1'!

Ill

I

>. f

iiinct! Ki.'»|)<insil)li' (ioviTiiiiicnt w.is iiitroilucid ;
wc \v«Tc tnid that till! fomplaiiit \s.n not thin,
tliat tilt! U|)|)(r ('haiiilxr IikI Imcii too olistriic-
tivt; a liodv— lint that it liud sout^lit t(i ttHtiiiin
the popular will, hut that it had too faitlifiilly
reHi'ctid lli(;po[)Uiar will." Il>- f'f>. N'). *■'/

riii; viius III Ml. Kiouii and tliDsi! wliu itKrufiJ
with him prevailed niid nrc — as we have seuii —
emhiidifd in the British North Aimriea Act.
Nevertlu'liSM theio Wire ill iSi)^ atiil tlh re have
been situu many able and pioiiiiinnt piihin; tiieii
whudid nut approve of the iippointnunt of Sena-
tors for life bv the Cioverniiii'iit of theday. Somi-
years a^,'o, tin.' clectiiui of Si'ii.iiors fur a liniited
term, by the I'rovineial Lej;i>latiires, as the Seii.i-
tors of the iHif,'hboiiriii;j Kepiiblic are elected bv
the State I-r(,'isl.it iirrs, was rr^^aidi'd by soiiU! as a
niarki (I imj>nivemciit npnii the e.xistiiif,' system;
but the fact that the United States Senate, which
in 1867 was iouked upon as almost a imxlil
second Cliamber with no superior, if it had anv
eipial, in the world, has of late " fallen from its
hi^jh estate," and is now looked upon with neither
admiration nor res|)e( t by the |)eople of the ^urM
Republic, his probably left aiiioiif^st Canadians
little ilesire fur a chaiif^e of the character indi-
cated. Some thoiij,'htfiil men have been disposed
to believe that on the whole the wisest course
wou'.d be to revert to the plan in operation in the
old Province of Canada immediately before Con-
federation, under which members of the Upper
House were elected for larf^e districts and for a
term double that for which the members of the
Lower House were chosen. No doubt, a Senate
so constituted would fill a larger space in the
public eye than does that which actually exists ;
but the question is, woiiKl the substitution of the
one for the other tend to make the machinery of
government work more effectively or more
smoothly, or not ?

In connection with the question of the best
method of selecting the members of the Upper
House it is worthy of notice that, wheieas the
Australasian Federal Convention which rnet
at Sydney in 1891 decided that the members
of the proposed Senate should be chosen, as in the
United States, by the State I^egislatiires, the
Convention of 1897 adopted a different view and
provided that they should be elected directly
by the people of the several States of the

(dnimonweallh. This clian^e, it mav be assumed^
w. IS due at least in part to a kiiowled^^t! of the
detenoral loll whiili had t.ikeii place in the
character of the United Slates Senate. It also
seems appropriate to c.dl atieiition here to cer-
tain disi iissions w liic.h took place in the Canadian
IIi)ii8o of Commons, in which opinions as to the
charactiT and romposiliun of the Senate, were
expressed by several inenibers, diff -ring very
widely from those set forth in this paper. These
discussions arose upon reMiiulions introduced
by the lion. Daviil Mills, now Minif.ter of justice
and a membi^r of the Seii.ite. The tirst ri solu-
tion, so far as the writer has been abli: to iind
out, was moved during the session of 187^ and
was voted down. On the tliiiteeiith of April,
187.1, Ml. Mills moved the following resolution:

"That the |insent mode of constituting the
Senate i.i iiu oiiMsleiit with the I'edei.d principle
in our system of government ; makes the Senate
alike independent of the people and the Crown ;
is in other material res|>ects defective ; and that
our constitution ought to be ;iiiiended so as to con -
fi.-r upon each Province the power of appointing
Its own Senators, and to deline the mode of their
appointment."

This resolution failed to pass during the session
ol 1S74 but was again introduced during that
of 1^75 and was adopted by a vote of yy to y^.
No further action was taken upon the resolution.
Mr. Mills, at the time of its adoption, was in fav-
our of the United States system of electing
Senators by the Local Lejjislatures ; but I am
disposed to think that the effect of the past few-
years u|)on the character of the Senate at Wash-
ington has probably modified his views, and that,
if he is still in favour of electing the mem-
bers of the Upper House, he would prefer
election by the people of the several Prov-
inces to choice by the Legislatures. The
writer, before parting with this branch of the
subject, may be allowed to say that, since the
Union, a weakness has shown itself in the nomi-
native system, which did not, at that time, seem
to occur to any public tnan, namely, the tendency
on the part of the I'.xecutive to make appoint-
ments to the Senate on other grounds than that
of special qiialilication for the position. He may
also add that, in order that a Second Chamber
may discharge its duties independently, it is, in

I

CANADA: AN KNCYCI.OI'.KDIA.

4S9

hiii liuriibli: opinion, aluioHt ncccssiiry that ltd
nicniliciH sliouM not look Inrwaid to il>-i lection
by any « onstitiirm \ , any nion: (liau to tc appoint-
nient by lliu ICxucMitivo ; and that, thtTcforc, if tlic
Sinati: wcru ni.ulu elective, its inetiiberB slioiiM
bu cli^'iblu for only onu tci ni or Blionid bu chcti il
for life, htfoiu linally patting with tin: Iti ili li
North ^tnerica Act, in this connection it may hi;
well to (^i\u fonr more short sections of a practi-
cal chaia'Jtei :

"3.}. If any (jnestion arisen respeclin^ the
qn.ililicalion ol a Seii.itoi i<v a vacancy in the
Senate, tlio same shall b(.' heard and delurinined
by thu Senate,

34. The (iovornor-Gcneral may from time to
time, by iiisti iinieiit iiii<lir tliu (ireat Se.d uf
Canada, a|)|ioint a Senator to he Si)eakcr of the
Senate, and may remove him and appoint
another in his sii .id.

35. Until the Parlianu'iit.of Canada otherwise
provides, liie presence (jI .it le.ist lilleen ^en.ilois,
inchidiii)^ I he Speaker, shall be necessary to con-
stitute a meetinj,' o( liie Senate (or the exercise
of its powers,

36. ^Jiiestions arisinj; in the Sen.ite shall be
decided by a ii.ajority ol voices, and the Speakir
sliall in all cases h.ivc a vote, and when the
voices are eipial the decision shall be deemed in
the nef^ative. "

Up to a very recent date, pnblicists and prac-
tical statesmen weie with a few or no exceptions
believers in the superiority of a bi-cameral Lej^is-
lature over one composed of a single chamber.
The fact, however, that the experiment tri;d by
the Province of Ont.irio has met with marked
success, and that British Columbia, Manitoba
and very lately New Brunswick have been cn-
conraj^ed to follow the example of the Premier
Province and to content themselves with a sinj;le
House, renders it peiliaps desirable to consider
briefly the general question as to whether ot not
a secoiul chamber is necessary or even desirable
in a country like Canada. Upon this point the
writer may be permitted to quote at some length
from a paper of his own published seventeen years
ayo. The only observation with which he cares
to preface his quotation is that the experience
of those years has not in any way modified the
views then expressed.

"To judge correctly as to what Parliament
should be we must look at the work which it has
to do. What are the duties of Parliament ?

Stated in u few words, they are to adcjpt ineaHureii
and |>ass l.iws for the welf.tiii and gnod guveiii-
nieiit of thu piioplu of the counti)'. I hu tliic
performance uf these duties is iin<luubtedl/ tliu
highest earthly work of man, n work calling for
the exercise, in a great degree, of the noblest
human (pialities. In a perfect I'aihameiit we
should find, in lli< ir highest development, the
following (pialities : |)alriotism, wisdom, stability,
justii e, independence, energy, patience, industry,
and a si'iiso of responsibility to the people. Arc
all these qiialiti'S likely to be found in a single
House ? If men wcie jjcrfect, if Adam had never
sinned, it might be so ; but, if human naliire were
faultless, government would be unnecessary, or at
most nothing further would be required than one
benevolent riihr of the patriaichi.d type. Und<;r
the present dispensation it is in thu last degree
improbable that any body of im n h.iving all these
qualities shall be found. Is the House of Com-
mons siirli a body? The warmest admirer of
that House will not venture to say 'yes.'

ICxperieiiee has slmwii that a popular house,
that is, one chosen by an electorate embracing
tli(! bulk (jf the adult iiialu population — is likely
to be inniieiiced by panic, popular delusion, party
prejudices and corruption, to mistake temporary
.idvantage for permanent good, to be fK'klc and
unstable, to be feeble in resisting vicious mea-
sures, to be unjust to the opponents of the
majority and to favour their partisans, to follow
the paity leader even when he is believed to be
in the wrong, to be impatient of details, ami to
forget the public in the party. The popular
branch of the Legislature being imperfect —
wanting in some of the (pialities which I have
named as being essenti.d to good law-makers —
its measures will necessarily partake of the same
character, and be defective, and will therefore
need to be submitted to the scrutiny of a second
body, i)y whom, if decmetl unw ise or mischievous,
they may be hindered from going into operation,
or if imperfect may be amended. Pew would be
prepared to entrust this delicate and most impor-
tant duty to any individual. This is one of the
cases in which most people believe that there is
salety in a multitude of councillors; and conse-
quently a second iiidepeii lent House is needed to
check and revise the measures of the Commons.

4(o

CANADA: AN ICNCYCI-OIVKDIA

IK

If llio second House lioes not possess the lcf,'islii-
tJve qiialilicatioiis in a K'"^iit'-'r tle^rt^tJ tlian the
first, still, its intli:peiulent c<)nsi(ii;ration ami
revision of tneasiires will be most btiielicial in
themselves, and will also cause tlie Adiniiiistra-
lion of the da}- and the niend)ers of the lower
Branch to he mon; careful as to the ciiarucfcr
and details of the legislation which they intro-
duce and adopt. Uesidesall this it is much more
difficult to corrupt, or deceive, or intimidate two
separate and independent bodies of Mien than a
single one, and in this way a second House is a
most valuable seciiUty against pernicious legisla-
tion. If we now go back and take up tlie list t)f
qualities whii ii I iiivesaiil the law-making power
should have, and try to see in wliat proportions
they are severally possessed by the two Houses
of Parliament, we shall find that the Upper is
not a mere reflex of the Lower, but that, if in
some respects it is less qualified, in otliers it is
better qualified, to share in the task of making
l;.ws."

I claimed that the result of the enquiry was
to establish pretty clearly the proposition ' laf
a second House of Parliament is caileti for
bv a due regard for the welfare of the country.
An Upper House, constituted generally as our
senate is, possesses as many of the cjnalities of a
law-making body as does the Lower Chamber.
Some of thesi; (]iialities it possesses in a greater
and others in a less degree th..n the la'.ter body. •
It, to a certain e:;tent, supplies the deferts_of the
popular House, and mav be regarded as being
what scientific men term, " complementary " to
the Commons. It has, tc a considerable extent,
the qualities necessary for checking hasty and
aii. ending inperfect legislation. My considera-
tion of t!ie general quesi'in of secotid cha. .bars
may be c'osed with one furtcT-r quotation :

" '.Vhen we come to lot'k al^ the cxperi, nee of
ot!er times and places it will be found tliat our
faith in the truth of this (.tnclusion will be
strengthened. ' History,' it has been well said,
'is philosophy teaching by example,' and on
looking into history we find no instance of a single
popular legislative chamber which was long-
lived. The defecl' inher.'ut in such a body have
always ltd to its early destruction. In Greece
and Pome democ. acy gave place to despotism ;

in England the Long Parliament made way for
Oliver Cromwell; and in !■" ranee the Convention
was followed b)- Napoleon. I do luii purpose to
go into detail, and speak of other European States
where freedom perished for want of the safe-
guards afforded by an Upper House. I can-
not call to mind any country in Europe, which
can i)e regarded as enj(;yingconstitutional govern-
ment, where, at the present time, there is but one
Chamber. Of course, it may be alleged, and with
much truth, that most other countries have only
followed the example of England. By so doing
they have paid the highest possible tribute to the
excellence of her Parliamentary institutions.
Wherever the English tongue is spoken we natur-
ally expect to iind what has been called the bi-
cai.'ieial system. In the United States we find
it — m perhaps a more highly developed form than
in England — not only in the general government
but in tlie constituti(-ns of the various States. At
t!ie time of the adoption of the Federal C'onstitu-
tion, two States — Pennsylvania and Cieorgia, if I
remember rightly — had only a single House each,
but before many years both introduced the
second.

It is instructive to observe with what care our
republican neighbours have tried to prevent the
evils arising from the haste and other defects
which are incident to the legislation of a single
popular House. In the first place, there is a Con-
stitution, adoptetl by not less than a two-thirds
vote of the electors, laying down certain funila-
mental principles, which the Legislature cannot
violate; tlijn there are the two Houses, both
elected, but, as r rule, for widely different ^.eriods
and by distinct electoral bodies, the Upper Ctiam-
ber being more independent and iniluential than
under the British sy:.tem; and there is, beside?,
the Governor, or Executive, wdio is independent
of both Houses, and who — unlike the English
Sovereign or tiie Colonial Governor — ^exercises
very freely the right of vetoing measures passed
by the two Houses. According to the theory
of the idvocates of a single legislative chamber,
there is in all these American constitutions
a vast amount of unnecessary macl inery; but
those perverse cousins of ours do not think soand
do not feel that they have too many safeguards
against unwise or vicious legislation In most

in

mm

CANADA: A\ ENCYCLOIVKDIA.

441

of the States the people have become convii\ce(l
that tlieir Local Le^'islutiiri'scost tl.ein too tiiuch,
and have taUin steps to rciuhr tlu-iu less expen-
sive. How h'VLi they done this? Hy abolishing
their Senate ? Not at all. ' Ephraiin is joined
ti his idols ' ; the Senates must remain iintouilied;
and inonfy is saved by having but one session
of tlie Legislature in tsvo years. In all the
importuut liritish ("nldnics, wiiere there is a large
English-speaking poi)uhition, we also find the
two-house system.

All the weighty precedents, as I have aireaily
said, are on one side. The only ease which can
be cited on the other is that of Ontaiio; for no
one will say that those of British Columbia, Man-
itoba, and certain of the West India Islands are
anything more than experiments upon a decidedly
small scale. The sphere of the Local Legislature
(if Ontario is not very wide. Between the
County Councils on the one siile and the I'eder.il
Parliament on the other, the held for legislation
is much contracted ; and then fourteen years is a
very short period in national life. The Constitu-
tion of the United States has existed for almost
one h jndred years, that of England for over six
hundred years ; and both have withstood political
tempests and earthquakes from which Ontario
has been free. The exiieriment in that Province
has been conducted under exceptionally favour-
able circumstances. The constituency is an ad-
mirable one, conservative in disposition, intelli-
gent, and keenly watchfid oviir tiie doings of
those who administer its affans. The Province
has also been singularly fortunate in its rulers.
The English Constitution during its life of six
centuries has withstood the effect of the arts of
wicked, foolish and tvrannical monarchs, of tur-
bulent, feeble, indifferent and dissolute nobles, as
Well as the effects of popular ignorance, frenzy
and corruption and of foreign and domestic war
and strife ; and it stands now as firm and vigour-
ous as evei, with the separate estates of Sover-
eign, Lords and Commons still flourishing^
although their sev^^ral functions have altered to
suit the changed circumstances and sentiments
which have grown up around them in the long
lapse of eventful ages. Similar statements are
true, to a less extent of course, of the Constitu-
tions of our neighbours in tin; L'nited States.

Can yon put the little experiment in Ontario —
made under such exceptionally favourable cir-
cumstances— against precedents like these?
You might as w«ll say that, because Hanlan
can safely and comfortably cross Toronto Hay
on a calm day in summer in one of his racing
skill's, therefore the same craft might undertake
to carry freight and passengers over the Atlantic
in mid-winter, as to say that, because a single
Cliamber has not failed tluring the past fewyears
in Ontario, we would be safe in entrnsting the
destinies of our whole coiintrv, with all its various
and conflicting interests, to one House chosen by
popular election."

It has been alleged that the Senate does noth-
ing and therefore should be abolished as imrely
cumbering the Parliamentary ground, and it has
also been alleged that the ?iaine House manifests
a pernicious activity in thwarting the will of the
people as voiced by the Government for the time
being. The two charges cannot be true of the
Senate at one time ; so that the true meaning of
the accusers is that the Senate does nothing
when the party to which the great majority of its
members belong is in power, and that its perni-
cious activity is shown wlien the other j any is
charged with the government of the country.
Without going minutely into the history of the
Upper House, it may be said that the charges
are, to say the least, exaggerated. Many meas-
ures introiluced by Conservative Administrations
hav2 been amended and some rejected, wliilethe
number of Government Bills thrown out during
the five sessions of Mr. Mackenzie's Administra-
tion did not average more than one for each
session. For some years the feeling was strong
amongst the members of the Senate that their
House was not dtimg as much of the work of
Parliament as it couKl do; and the matter was
discussed more than once.

In tile Session of 18S5 attention was called to
the then condition of things by the late Honour-
able J. B. Plumb. In the course of the discussion
the late Sir Alexander Campbell matle a speech,
one Sentence of which m av be quoted as showing
why, in the opinion of that able and experienced
Parliamentarian, a larger proportion of the public
business was not initiated in the l^pper House:
"Taking all things into t onsideration, tlie s\-5-

44 ^

CANADA : AM ICNCYCLOl'/KDIA.

: 1

teni of icsponsible goveiiimcMit, the fact that a
large majority of the inoinhL-rs of tlie GovcrmiiLiit
must be in the otliur Hoiisr, the power of that
House over the fate of Goveniiiients, tlie neces-
sity of tiuancial and trade measures and impor-
tant tilings of that kind originating there, I do
not think that anything more can be done in tiit;
direction of bringing business to this House
further tlian that which I took occasion to men-
tion in the Report of 1868, which was, that it
must rest with the Goveinment to do this."
(Senate Hansard, 1SS5, p. 650.) In the Session
of iS()o, on a motion of the lion. Mr. Poiner for
an Address to the Queen praying for the appoint-
ment of Senators by tlie Provincial Legislatures,
there was a Imig discussion, in the course of
which Mr. (afterwards Sir John) Abbott made an
important speech. The whole speech will well
repay reading — Senate Hansard, liSqo, p. 557,
s(j.- — and it maj' bewail to give tlie following
extracts here :

" What duties are properly attributable to us
under the British Constitution, which we live
under, tliat we d^) not do ? We liave, in the first
place, to examine and revise carefully the legisla-
tion wiiich ccjiiies to us friiin tile other House,
and the legislation which we introduce ourselves.
We have to scrutinize carefully the general
policy of the Govurnment, so far as it dimes
within our purview under our constitution.
These are two of the most important functions
that we pel form, if not the most important
of them. Hut we have another; and it is no
less vital to order and good government. We
must stand in the way when hasty, inconsiderate
legislation or some popular paroxysm or excite-
ment leads to measures which are injnrioiis and
disadvantageous to our country. If we do these
three things, what more does our country demand
of us? V\'hat more have we to do than those
tb.ee classes of things ? N(nv have we performed
chose duties or have w.' not ? I think 1 can show
you in a moment that we have done them most
■fficiently and effectively', and I say that has been
the course of the St iiate from the fhst. It has
gradually taken up its position in the C( iintiv
and it is filling that position effectively and with
dignity. . . Every private 15iil that conies
up receives the clo-r attention of this House and
main ofthemareameiidi-d by pruning siipei tluons
clauses, altering them 01 adding to tb 111 in tlu'
interests of the public. . . They (the public)
would ap(ir(>ve of us if we talked for davs and
days witlioiit any results, probably, but the

quiet unobtrusive labour which this House goes
through in supervising and perfecting the legisla-
tion of the country, I have no doubt they would
appreciate if they knew of it ; but they do not
know of it. It is not the kind of labour which
presents itself before the eyes of the public
in every newspaper of the Dominion. And great
numbers, a large majority probably of our people,
iov whom we are earnestly, honestly and diligently
working in this House and in our Committee
rooms, day after d.iy, never know that we
are engaged in seeking to lurther their welfare
at all.

I hear on all hands, and especially I hear from
gentlemen in another place, of the benelit which
we confer by the care which we take with the
legislation; and I was asked this very day where
tile lt;gislation of the country woiiKl be if the
Senate were gone, by one of the very men who
were engagecl 111 creating that legislation in
another Chamber. Instead of being, as is sup-
posed by some, mere registrars of the will of the
Government in another House, bound by grati-
tude to vote exactly for what they desire us to
do, we find that last year we passed through this
House twenty-live Hills introduced in the house
of Commons,' of which thirteen were amended,
many of them in a material degree', while the
House was in session. We have already dealt
this year with twenty-seven of these Bills, of
which sixteen have been amended, and every
honourai)le gentleman knows that there aie one
or two important measures we have gone thiough
with enormous care, which it is admitted on all
bands we have benefited to a most important
extent, but which are not included in this list,
not having been finished in this House. In the
past y ear, from the House of Commons we took
up and disposed of thirty-seven public Bill.^. of
which fifteen were materially amended in this
Heuse, ai.d we disposed of fifty-nine private
Bills, of which twenty were materially amended
in the Senate; making a total last year of 121
Bills considered by the Senate, of which forty-
t i_;ht Bills were materially amended iv the course
of their passage through the House. This year
the number is not so great, because they have
III it all coine before the Senate, but we ha\'e
already disposed of eighty-eight Bills, of which
fnrtv-two have been materially amended in this
Hnlise.

Now, of .ill the Bills that have thus been
amended wiMch had first passed through the
crucible of the House of ComiiK)ns and were
sent back to that House with amendments made
by us, we have never had a:iv hesitation shown
by tlie Lower Hoii-e in concurring in the amend-
ments that we made, except in one instance.

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOP/KDIA.

443

Last year wc received a message from tlie lower
House informiiif^ us that tliey could not concur
in one of our amendments for reasons wliicli they
gave. Our Committee met and exannned the
message and the reasons, and they sent to the
Lower House an answer to tliose reasons, as
being the reasons wliich had induced tliem to
make the amendment. The House of Connnons
immediately accepted the reasons vvliicli were
given to them in reply, and adopted the amend-
ments without further discussion. So, in point
of fact, of tliis immense number of Hills care-
fully gone through ami amcndeii in this House,
every one has been accepted by the Lower House
without objection except one, ;ind in that case,
alter consideration and lu^uiingthe nasoiis which
had prompted this House to make the amend-
ment, that one was accepted also, without fur-
ther objection. We nerfonned another brancii
of our duties last yea. -it was not particularly
agreeable to me, but on the whole I respected the
Senate for doing whiit the niajoiity considered
to be its duty on that occasion, and I am bound
to believe that the majority was right. A Gov-
ernment Bill, passed by the House of Commons,
which the majority of this House disapproved of
was brought before th '.ji/rte and was uncere-
moniously rejected. I J'd my best to carry it
through; I thought it ought to pass; I thought
we were pletlged to it in many ways. I gave
various reasons why it ought to have passcvl the
House, and I think, abstractly speaking, it ought
to have passed the House, but the majority of
the Senate were opposed to it, and notwithstand-
ing their gratitude to the gentleman who ap-
pointed them they rejected the Bill after a com-
paratively short discussion."

The following tables, illustrating the part taken
in legislation by the Senate, may be of interest.
The first is a fairly complete l-st giving the titles
of the several Government Bills introiiticed in
the Senate and amended in tliat House from the
Union io the present time ; the second is a sum-
mary of the first — the titles being omitted ; and
the third is a memorantltim of Bills originating
in the House of Commons and amended in the
Senate :

Government liilis l-'irst Introduccil in the Senate ana
A mended in that ] louse,

1. Agricullure Deparlment Hill. !

2. Alien l.aws Hill.

3. Canadian Waler^NaviRiitiDn Hill.

4. Oaihs of Office Hill.

5. Copyright Hill.

6. Deiiarimcni of Justice Hill.

7. Kvideiict in Canada Hill.

8. Incorporated Couipaiiiesi Hill.

t. Marine and I-'i-tlierio Uepartnicnt
Hill.
111. Oaths to Wiiness Bill.
11. OlVw.-is' Secu'i:)- Hili.
IJ. l'.iti.nlsof Invfiilion Hill.
i;t. IV»tal Servi e Hill.
11 (,)iiiranti c Hill.
I.'i I rade Marks Hill.

IKOU.

1. Animals Contagious DiMasei Hill.

2. Cruelty to AnimaU Hill.
H. Uuminiiin Hank Hill.

i. J >int Stuck L'umpaniei Bill.
a. Letters Patent Hill.
11. Justices of the Pe.ice Hill.
7. Summary Convictions Hill.

1. Bills of Rxchaniie Hill,
'i. Coastiiii; Trade Hill.

3. Lighthouses Bill.

1. I* ishing by horeign Vessels Bill.
L'. North West Territories Govern-
ment Bill.

H. Juvenile OtTinders' Bill.
U. I'atenlsor Invenliun Hill.
M). I'eace Preservation Hill.

11. Registration of Vessels Bill.

12. Shipwreck.) Investignliun Biii.
111. Steamboat Inspection Bill.
II. Vagrants H.ll,

l«7(l.

4. Masters and Males Hill.

5. Secretary of State Uepi.rtmenl

Bill.

1871.

187:

1. Copyrights Amendment Hill.

2. Public Lands Hill.

3. (^»uehec T'linity fl jiise OlTicers

Hill.

4. Railway Companies Exemption

Hill.

3. (Quarantine 1 • :.

4. Statutes of Ctnada Hill.

187;).

1. Aliens in B.C. and Manitoba 3. Department of the Interior Bi

Hill. 4. I>oinininn Lands V-^t B.ll

2. Criminal Procedure Amendment 6. Manitoba Claims to Land i.

Hill.

None.

1. Cc)pyrii;hts llill.

2. Irilerprelatioii Act Hill.

1, Common Carriers Liability Hill-

1871.
1H7.>

3. Defective Letters Patent Bi".

IH7H.

Thrown out.

1.S77

No (tovernment Bills seem to hive been introduce. 1 in the Senate this year.

187S.
1. Liquor 'I'ralTic ReKul.-tion llill.

This appears to have been the only Act introduced by be OovernmenI
in the Senate.

1870

1. Banking Laws Amendment Bill.

2 Census Hili

18811.

1. Dominion Lands Act Amendment 4. Militia Laws Amendment Bill.

Hill. :y Savini;, llank Hill.

2. Domini jn Lands Act KxtensionBill. U. Temperance Act Aiuendment Bill,
3 Indian l.aws Cunsolit'ation Bill.

1880-81.

1. Consolidated Railway Act Amend- 4. Manitoba Boundaries F.xiension

ment Bill. Bill.

2. Government Railway Laws Con- 6. Naturalization and .Aliens' Hill.

so'idalion Bill. 0. Patent Law^ .-Xmendment Hill.

3. Inland Revenue Amendment Hill. 7. Petroleum Inspection Hill.

8. Prije-fighiing Bill.

1. Bridges over Navigable Waters 4. In.solvent Banks, Sic, Bill.

Bill. .'i. Petroleum Inspection, &c., Bill.

2. Criminal Justice in Territories (i. Sfamens' Couit Judges Hill.

Bill. 7. County Court Judges Hill.

3. Ilarbuur and River I'olice Hill.

i.s.s:t

1. Bills of Kxcbange in 1'. K. 1. 4. Lotteries Act Hill.

Bill. ;'i. ''eniientiary l.tws Hills.

2. Booms in Navi(;able Waters Hill. ti. Superannuation Hill.

3. Civil Service Bill.

1881.

1. Disputed Territory Kill.

2. Dominion Lands .Act Bill.

3. Ii .-Went Hanks Hill.
i. Manitoba Lands Bill.

5. North- West Territories Act Bili,

n. Prisoners' Transfer Hill

7. Temperance Act, IH78, Bill.

M4

CANADA: AN KNCYCLOIMDIA,

I

1

1880.

1. Adulteration of K^iod Hill. 4. OfTcncei •(.linit t' ' Person Rill.

'J. Cinned O Kxlt Hill. j. Preiervation uf Peace II II.

;i. Not th West Terril.iriel JlKllte ll. Real Pnperly ill the N..rlh

llin. Wett rerrit.iriet Hill.

I.SSII.
I. Interpretatijii Act Ainciiilineiit Hill.

18M7.

None.

IStW.

1. Siil>in.irine TdleKraph Cables Hill.

IRS9.

1 Dimiriori I.andt Mill.

'J. l''.xp:opri.ttion of l.-inds Hill.
3. Interest Act Amendment Hill.

1. Agricultural Kerlilizcra Hill.

2 (Geological Surveys Hill.

3. (feiieral Inspection Act Aiiiemi-

nient Hill.

4. Indian Ac*. Amendment Hill.

0. I. merest Act Amendment Hill.

1. Hills of F.xcbanKC&c, Hill.

L'. Ff.-inds upon (Government Hill.

4. North. West Mounted Police Hill,
.'i. Summary Convictions Bill.

IS'.N)

IS'.H.

ti. North. West Territories Amend.

merit liill.
7. [Mjt;ige Act Amendment Hill.
S. K.iilw.iys Hill.
*.). .S4vin;;s Hank in (Quebec Hill.
10. Steamboat Inspection Hill.

.

'X Settlements of Accounts Hill.
4. I.idians Lands Act Hill.

1. Cieneral Inspection Amendment '.i. Winding up Ait .Amendmcnl

Hill. r,:ii

2. "irants of Land Hill 4. Criminal Cu<le Hill.

isii:t,

1. Cinned viood^ Act Hill. I. Joint Slock Compaiies, Ac, Hill.

'2. (le'ieral Inspection Amemlminl .1. K.iilw.ty Act Atnendiiient Hill.

Act Hill. li. .S|ieaker of Senate Hill.

3. Holidays Amendment Act Hill.

lhl»l.

1. Haptist Church Hill.

2. Voulhful OfTemlcrs' Hill.

3. Nor;h-West Game Hill.

4. Gener.nl Trusts Hill

5. 1 0 iurance HilL

J. Civil .SerM e Hill.

a. I.an<l in Territories Hill.
7. Lighthouses, etc.f Hi 1.
((. 1'. K. I. Railway ami Ferry Co.
Hill.

ISIli.

2. Female niTendeis Hill.

IKJUl.

1. Debenture and Loan Companies .'t. N'likon and Hril'\h ('olumbia Trad-

Hill, ins Co. Hill.

2. Railway Act Amendment Hill.

IKIIH. .Second .Sctaion.

None.

I.SII7.

1. Forged Endorsement, etc., Hill. 3. Savings Hank ((juibtc) Hill.

2. Interest Act.

Suinmnty of Govcrninent Bills Orif^^iiiatitif^ in lite
Senate and A mended in that House.

Year

18)17

18UU

1870

1S71

1872

1873

1874

1875

187(J

1877

1878

1870

1880

1880-

1882

1883.

1K8I

Number of nilL.

I.'>

Year.

188,1

Num

>er of mill.

188(1

1887

1,S,S8

1881)

ISIMI

10

18iU

18112

LS'Ct . . .

18111 . ...

18U,->

i8!tn

3

18!NI

0

18I»7

1

U2

The Bills brought up from the House of Com-
mons and amended in the Senate and amendments
:iccciitc(l by the House of Commons were as
follows :

Veai .
I,SI)7 IW..
I.StJ!)
1870
1871 . . .

Niiml)er oT Hills.

14

I.'i

8

9

29

1873 .

1874.

1875 .

1870

1877.

1878.

1S79.

1880.

:9

;n

17

40

17

28

24

1880-81 . 9

1882 11

1883 28

^'ear.

1,884

IS?!.-.

ISSi

I.S,S7

IS88

ISS'.I

isa;i

ISIIl

1,S!)2

1893

1894

1895

1898

18!)!!, Last Session
1H97

Number of Bills
SO

37
31)
29
20
2S
23
13
21
21
1j
4

0

THE PROVINCIAL LEGISLATIVE COUNCILS OF CANADA

ALPREl) A. STOCKTON I'll. I)., LU)., D.C.L., Q.C., of St Joliii, N.H.

FOR three centuries, liiiglaiui Ii;is been the
grout coloni/i;r ainoiisj; tlio nations of
tlie worlil. And, in piaiitiiif^ licr C"oI-
onii's in all ijiKirtcis of the {.jiobe slie
has soiipiit to < iiiiow the inhabitants of those
Colonics with political institutions for self-gov-
ernment similar to tluise in the Mother- Land.
Tiie political institutions of Enjjland, in the
C(jurse of time, have been reformed and perfected
to meet the needs and recjuirements of advan(-ing
civilization, and the aspirations of the people for
a full measure of civil and rehgiois liberty. The
present constitution of Parliament with its three
integral parts, "the Crown ; the Lords Spiritual
and Temporal forming one A.ssembly ; and the
Commons, i.e., kniylUs, citizens and burgesses,
forming one Assembly," has been maintained for
full si.\ centuries. Thi re may, at important
crises in our history, have been violent departures
from the established methods, but they were
only temporary. The Enijlisii model has been
granted by the parent state to the Colonies. It is
not contended that colonial constitutions of to-
day are identical with those of a century ag(>,
but it can be successfully maintained that exist-
ing political conditions in the Colonies have been
naturally and logically developed from the system
which w.is originally granted to them. The pur-
pose of this article is to give a concise view of
the Legislative Councils of the different Prov-
inces of the Dominion of Canada from the earli-
est times to the present.

Provinces were originally formed and consti-
tuted by virtue of the Knig's Ccjinmission and in-
structions, and it was only necessary tlu't each
Province should refer " to these instruments for
a correct knowledge of its constitution, and for
the enjoyment of every privilege and advantage
of the I^ritish Constitution, which is compatible

with the relative situation of a colony and the
parent state." As wo shall see later, the Lieu-
tenant-Ciovernor, or other officer, charged with
the duty of organizing the ("oiony and admiii-
is:ering its government by his commission and
instructions, had authority to a[)p.)int a Council
and give directions for the election (;f members
to compose a House of Assembly. The bi-cam-
eral system of Goverriment, it has been observed
by a distinguished writer, " accompanies the
Anglican race like tlte common law." The uni-
formity in this respect, in Great Dritain, the
United States, and the Colonies of the I'.mpire,
is noteworthy. It may be found in the deep ami
profound desire for liberty. It is different from
that unity of power characteristic of old Rome
and the nations derived from Rome. It is a
system " which implies safe guarantees of undis-
turbed legitimate action and efficient checks
against undue interference. But when the whole
power of the State rests undivided and unmodi-
tied, whether in an individual, or in a body of
men, or in the whole community, there is not
libeity but absolutism. The true merit, then, of
the bi-cameral system, is that by dividing a
power that would otherwi.se have been be^'ond
control, it secures an essjritial guarantee for
freedom."

It must not be understood that the people of the
British North American Colonies at the start had
a system efficient and satisfactory to the people.
The framework of efficient popular gt)vern-
meiit was conceded to them, but it took many
years of agitation to bring about the required
changes. At Inst, the Legislative Ctnincil e.ver-
cised both legislative and executive powers. It
advised the Governor as to administration, and
was also i>art of the legislature to enact laws.
Tlie anonial} , if not absurdity, of this system

446

CANADA: AN HNCVCLOl'.KDIA.

roiulered it impossibia for a member of tlie popu-
lar braiicli of tlie Legislature to have a scat iiitlie
Governiiient of tlie Province. The representa-
tives of the people checked and controlled the
grant of supply for the public service, but they
were po\vi:rK'ss to advise the Crown upon <pies-
tions of administration. In promoting legislation
they had but limited control. The Legislative
Council sat with closed doors, and bills sent from
the popular branch of the Legislature fur con-
currence were frecjuently not again beard of by
the latter body. The history of the Legislative
Councils in Canada naturally embraces four dis-
tinct periods : —

(i) From tile organization of the Council,
when its powers were both executive and legisla-
tive, till tiie time when those poweis were sepa-
rated, and there was an Executive Council
separate and distinct from the Legislative Council.

(2) From the last-named period to the adop-
tion of responsible government.

(j) From the adoption of responsible govern-
ment to the Act of Union, KS67.

(4) From the Union to the present time.

These divisions are given to enabie the reader
more clearly to carry in his mind what is to fol-
low, rather than to form a basis for discussion.
It will better accomplish tiie purpose in view to
take the different Provinces in order, and to give
a rapid glance at the Legislative Council of each,
its organization, its composition, the changes
which have taken place, and its present position.

Nova Scotia will first demand attention, as it
is the oldest under British rule. This Province,
except Cape Breton, was ce<ledto Great Britain,
in 1713, by the Treaty of Utrecht. From that
date till 1758 the Proviticial Government con-
sistc'l of a Governor, or Lieutenant-Governor,
and a Council — "the latter body supposed to
possess legislative and executive powers." By
the Commission from George tiie First to Gover-
nor Phillips, dated July, 1719, ho was empowered
"to appoint such fitting and discreet persons as
you shall either find there or carry along with
you, not exceeding the number of twelve, to be
of our Council in our said Province, till our
further pleasure be known, and five whereof we
do hereby appoint to be a quorum." Governor
Phillips continued in office till 1749, when he was

succeeded by Cornwallis. In May of the latter
year, (■ommission was issued to Cornwallis,
appointing him Captain-General and Governor-
in-Chief of Nova Scotia. By the terms of his
appointment, he was authorized "to choose,
nominate and ajipoint such fitting and discreet
persons as you Shall either fiiul tlu.re or carry
along with you, not exceeding the number of
twelve, to be of our Council." The same autho-
rity to appoint a Council was given in turn to all
the (Governors.

Chief Justice Belcher, in 1755, raised a doubt
as to the power of the Governor and Coimcil to
enact laws, without tlie co-operation of a Legis-
lative Assembly. The question was submitted
to the Fnglish law officers of the Crown for their
opinion, when they gave it as their opinion that
the Governor and Council had no such right.
As a result of this decision tlie English Govern-
ment instructed the Governor to take the neces-
sary steps for the election and assembling of a
Legislative Assembly. Charles Lawrence became
Governor in 1756. The instructions to Lawrence
to conv(!ne an Assembly were reluctantly com-
plied with by him, and the first Assembly met at
Halifax on the second day of October, 1578.
From that time till i8j8 the Council continued
to exercise legislative and executive functions.
No member of the jjopiilar branch of the Legis-
lature could under such a system become an
adviser to the Governor. Dissatirifaction, dis-
content, agitation against the evils of the s\stem,
were rife throughout the Province. It was
pointed out that only members of the Church of
England were appointed to the Council, and that
the Bishop of Nova Scotia and the Chief Justice
of the Province should not be members. The
leader of the popular movement for redress of
grievances was Joseph Howe, a man of rare
endowments and great eloquence. In 1837 an
atldiess from tlie Assembly was passed, and
sent to England asking for needed reforms. The
address was from the pen of Mr. Howe. After
referring to the complete responsibility of the
Government in England to the people, it shows
tiiat, in Nova Scotia, the Ministry are " Your
M.ijesty's Council, combining legislative, judicial
and executive powers; holding their seats for
life, though nominally at the pleasure of the

CANADA; AN KNCVCI.OIM'.DI A.

447

Crown; and often treatinf,' with indifference the
wishes of tlie people and the representations of
the Coiuiuons."

Tiiis address eloses hy ilechirinf; tliat "As a
remedy for tliese jjrievancc^s, we implore Yixir
Majesty to grant us an eli;ctive Lc^jislative Coun-
cil; or to separate the l-.xecntive from the Lef^is-
lative Council ; providinj^ for a just represtnla-
tion of all the fjreat interests of the Province in
both ; and by tiie introihu.tion into the former of
some incMubers -f the popular branch, and other-
wise, securiu},' icsponsibility to the Commons ;
confer upon the people of this Province, what they
value above all other possessions, the blcssinj^'sof
tijc Hritish constitution." Although Mr. Howe
subsequently carried a motion in the Assembly
resciniiiiif^ these resolutimis, they had been sent
forward to the Colonial Secretarv, Lord Glenelj;,
and were not witiiout effect. His Lordship, by a
despatch dated April 30, i8j7, to the Governor of
Nova Scotia, practically conceded the demands
of the House of Assembly. Wlien that House
assembled in 18.58 tlicre were two separate and
distinct Councils — the Legislative Council of
nineteen members, sitting with open doors, and
the Executive Council of twelve members, having
four members of the House of Assembly among
the number. The Chief Justice had disappeared
from the Legislative Council, and it had been
declan il by Lord Glcnelg in his despatch that
the Chief Justice and his brother Judges shouUl
not Jake jiart in legislation, as the "adoption or
rejection of a law may involve some question of
party politics."

Instructions were issued, February 6, 1S3S, to
Lord Durham as Captain-General and Governor-
in-Chi(ff>f Nova Scotia, conliiiniiig Lord Glenelg's
despatcii.declaiiug it to be Her Majesty's pleasure
" that there shall be, within our said Provmce of
Nova Scotia, two distinct and separate Councils,
to be respectively called the I^egislative Council
and the Executive Council of our said Province."
The Executive Council, h )wever, was not at any
time to have more than nine members, and the
Legislative Council was not to have more than
fifteen members. In i86i a clause in the com-
mission to Lord Monck gave authority to increase
the member? of the Legislative Council to twenty-
one, which was the limit at Confederation in

1867, and it remains unaltered to the present time.

The old Pro.'ince of '^)u(.bec, comprising the
pres..ni Provinces of Ontario and Quebec, was
cedrd to Engl.uul by t lie Treaty of 1763. The
proclamation, which was issuecl by the King,
O(toi)e.- ;, I7'J3. was declared by Lord Mansli :ld
to be the Imperial Constitution of Canada iq) to
the time of the passing of the Quebec Act, 1774.
Prior to the last date, the government of the
country Iiad bei.'U carried on by the Governor and
a Council. It was impossible to convene an
As-^Liubly, as the oath recpiired to be taken pre-
cluded the French Catholics from (pialifying.
The Oucbec Act of 1774 was designed to concili-
ate His Majesty's French subjects in Canada,
and to throw upon them a share of the responsi-
bility of government. Hitherto, under and by
virtue of the Royal Prerogative, authority was
given to the Governor of a Colony by his com-
mission and instructions, to organise Councils,
convene Assemblies, and generally to put in
motion the machinery f(jr establishing and main-
taining government. l>ut in the case of Quebec
the Imperial Parliament directly intervened by
the .'\ct of :774. Those who have read the
Cai'endish Debates need not be told how strong
was the opposition to the measure in the English
House of Commons.

Hy the terms of the Act, it was stated that "it
is at present inexpedient to call an Assembly";
but His Majesty with the advice of the Privy
Council was authorized " to appoint a Council
for the affairs of the Province of Qm bcc to con-
sist of such persons resident there, not exceeding
twenty-three, or less than seventeen, as His
Majesty, His Heirs and Successors shall b>; pleas-
ed to appoint." This Legislative Coimcil vas
forbidden to levy rates and taxes upon the inhabi-
tants, except for roads and public buildings with-
in the town or district. All ordinances made by
the Governor and Council had to be transmitted
to the King within six months, and the same
could be disallowed. N<} ordinance could be
passed at any meeting of Council unless a major-
ity of the whole Council were present. Two
years after the passage of the Quebec Act the
thirteen New England Colonies declareil their
independence, which was acknowledged by the
Mother-Country in 1783. The effect of the war

^T

448

CANADA: AN KNCVClXU'.KDl A.

I

n

hi
i

was a lar^c iiiuiii^ratioi) of Hritisli subjects into
that part of tlie old Provimu of ^jucbtn;, now
known as the Piovinceof Ontario. Tlic inctliodsof
government obtaining; dul not satisfy tlicsc people,
accustomed as tiiey had been to the then prevail-
inj^ furms iif I'ni^lish .idniinistiation. 'I'liis a^iia-
tion brouf^ht about the Constitutional Ac:t of 171JI,
which made two provinces — U[)per Canada and
Lower Canada — where forineily there was but
one. The Hill was introduced into the luif^'lish
House of Commons by Pitt. It was strongly
opposed by l'"ox, on the ground tluit the separa-
tion of the lln^lisii and I'rciieh inhabitants was
not desirable. The l.ij^islative Council o( Upper
Canada was t(j consist of not less than seven
members and that of Lower Canada of not less
than (iiteeii. It was competent, however, for
the Kinjj; from time to time to authorize the
Governor or person ailministering the Govern-
ment in each of the said Provinces respectively, to
summon to tlio Le{,'islative Ci;uncil S'lch other
persons as His Majesty mi^ht think lit. Lef;is-
lative Councillors under this Act held their seals
(or life, subject to certain limitations.

The Constitutional Act of i/iji did not yield
the anticipated results. Serious difficulties arose,
and these culminated in the Rebellion of 1837-8.
The constitution of Lower Canada was suspend-
ed, and the government of the Province was com-
mitted to a Special Council. The Imperial
Government sent Lord Durham out as Governor-
General with instructions to study the situation
and report. The result was his famous Re])iut
and the Union Act of 1N40, which afjaiii united the
two Provinces into one, under the name of the
Province of Canada. Tiie Legi.-lative Coiiiu il
was to consist of not less than twenty meiiibi rs
and the tenure of office was for life. Tiie chief
difficulties in Canada from 1791 to 1840 arose
from the exclusion of the members of Assembly
from their proper slnre in government. Tiie
Legislative Council stood nearest to the Govern-
or and assumed the functions of responsible ad-
visers to the Crown, and of the Assembly in
granting supply. These evils were remedied by
the grant of responsible government as the out-
come of Lord Durham's Report.* Under the

'ICdhok's Noii;. From 185610 1867 the L'-ftislalive Council
in Cinadi was tiective. This (act did nut, however, serve to
ameliorate the discoiils of the day.

terms of the Pritish North America Act, 1867,
tlie Province of C'anada became the Provinces of
Ontario and yuebet. My that Act the Legisla-
tive Coiiniil w.is abolished in Ontario, but con-
tinued in yuebec. In the latter Province it was
to consist of twi:nty-four tnemb.-rs, to be appoint-
ed by the Lieutenant-Gt)vernor in the yiieen's
name under the Great Seal of the Province, ami for
life. They are appointed to represent the twenty-
four electoral districts, referred to in tlie Act.

Prince Edward Island and C.ipe lireton were
confirmed toGreat IJritain by the Treaty of 1763,
ami, by Royal Proclamation of that year, they
were annexed to Nova Scotia. The lirst was
known as the Isl.ind of St. John until 1798, when,
by Act of Assembly, it took its present name in
honour of the Duke of Kent, father ol (,Jueen
N'ictoria. Prince Kdward Island w.is organiiied
into a separate province, August 4, l^Cxj, when a
Commission and Royal instructions were issued
to Walter Patterson, appointing him the first
Governor. The Council poMsessi:d both executive
and legislative powers. In 1839 the separation
of powers took place. Since then there have
been two Councils, a Legislative C'ouncil and an
Executive (^)uncil. The Legislative C(nincil,
composed of thirteen members, by a law of 1862,
became elective, and li.is so contiiiiieil to the
present. Prince lidward Island became a Prov-
ince of the Dominion in ICS73. Those voting lor
Legislative Councillors recpiire a higher electoral
qualification than tlo those voting for members
of the .Assembly, and the electoral districts are
different.

New Brunswick formerly was a County of
Nova Scotia. It was organized into a separate
Province in 1784 — Thomas Carleton, a brother
of Lord Dorchester, being the first Governor.
His Comiiiission is dated August 16, 1784, and
his instructions two days later. Twi^lve names
were inserted in the instructions, as members ol
C(juncil, and ...... )ng tliein were included the

Chief Justice an . llie judges of the Supreme
Court. It was alf provided that the number
should not be less than nine. The Council exer-
cise I both legislative and executive functions,
and continued to do so until 1833. At the very
beginning of Provincial life difficulties arose
between the Council and Assembly over ap[)ro-

CANADA ; AN I;NCM l.( )IM.I)I A

•U9

pi iutioii bills ami tlic u.\|)unditurc of public iiioney.

The disputed points wire ri'firiiil by tlu! (lov-
eiiior to tliu Duke of I'ortlaiui, at that tiniu a

mciuber of Pitt's Cabinet. His (}iacf, in a
despatch dated Whitehall, J iuumj.ijcj}, laid down
the rule, "tint tlu- votin-,', iind if the Assembly
think pi()i)er, the appiupriation of mnm-ys voted,

is peculiaily within its province." On l'"ebriiary

II, l8jj, the H(JUSo of Assembly was informed
by messa(,'e from the Cioveriior, "'Ihat His Ma-
jesty has been pleased, by His KovalCommission,
to appoint two separate an<l disimct Ciuincils in
this Province, to be respectively called the Lejjis-
lative Council and the l'2xecutivi; Council ; and
has vested in the Le^jlslative Councd all the
powers heretofore given t>) the Council of this
Province as far as re^'anls the enactni^,' of laws,
and to the Executive Councd all the other jiowers
hitherto exercised by tlie Council orij;inally
appointed." Two days later another messaj,'e
was communicated, statni},' that a despatch had
been received from Lord (.iodericb cxpressiu),' the
opinion that the expenses of the Legislative
Council should be paid in the same manner as
the expenses of the members ot the Assembly,
and that provision should be made for such pay-
ment. The House, however, refused to concur
in any such recommendation.

In iM.}4 the Lef,Mslative Council addressed the
Throne, prayinj,', among other thiii},'s, t'lat the
appointment be for life. The answer of the Sec-
retary, Mr. Spring Rice, was that " His Majesty
would not be advised to accede therett)." In the
same communication the reasons are assigned for
the divisions of the Councils. They are judicious,
and cover the field of dispute between the (\juiu:il
and Assembly. " His M,ij(.'st\'s decision was
mainly iutlutnced by the rellection that this new
arrangement might enable him to bring the
Executive (iovernment of the Province into that
free communiialioii with the House of Assembly,
which is on every account so desirable. l\y call-
ing some members of that House to the F-Xecutive
Council, a channel for constant and unrestrained
intercourse was opened, from which it seemed
reasonable to anticipate very consitlerable public
benefit. Nothing has hitherto occurreil to s'lake
the fouii'iation on which this opinion proceeded."

While the Councils were combined no member of
S9

the Assembly could be a member of the Executive.
In those d.iys of Provincial history the political
reformer had no easy or enviable t.isk. The
King's directions to make a seoaralion of Councils,
so as to bring the Assembly into greater h.irnioijy
and closer touch with tin; l!.\eeuti\i:, were
thwarted as far as possible. ,\ii " olig.irchy "
held swav, and the Cloveinor, as :i general rule,
sympathi./ed with this boily. The aj)poiiitments
to both Councils for many years kept ficiii active
jiartiiipatioii in government the men liaviuy the
coiilideiice of the people.

Although two Councils hid been organized,
there was yet no respoiisil)ility on the part of the
l-xecntive to the A-.seiiibly. The members of the
Government did not pretend to initiate or control
the gr.iiit of supply for public services. The pro-
posal to grant aid or vote money was left to any
member of the Assembly, and in consequence
there was no system, no economy, no responsibil-
ity. People liad not fully grasped the idea of
responsible government, but many reformers,
sensible of existing evils, were pushing forward,
in the face of varied obstacles, to a better system.
Lord Stanley, tlie Colonial Secretary, in a des-
patch of July II, 1S4J, in answer to an Address
of the Assembly, directed a revision of the instru-
ments by which the Legislative C\)uncil was con-
stituted. He ilirected that the number should be
incri.ased to twenty-one, and of that number only
seven should hold office at the pleasure of the
Crown, and that the quorum should be eight.
In a further despatch of December 30th
of the same year, directions were given as to
suspension of members on sufficient cause, and
the declaratif)n that "they alUiold their oflices a:
tlu; (.Jiieen's pleasure." After a great struggle the
Asseii'bly obtalne^l control of the Casual and
Territorial Revenues in 1837, for which an
atlefjuate permanent civil list was provided. This
change iiuule the Executive more depeiuieiit upon
the power which liel 1 the puisi; strings. The
number of members of the Legislative Council
was afterwards reduced to eighteen, and so co.i-
tiiiued until its abolition in 1892. The names of
L. A. Wilmot and Charles Fisher will ever be helil
in grateful remembrance for the part they took in
advancing the cause of representative government
in New Brunswick.

It' I

4S»

LAN.\I)\; ANf KNlVCI.OI'.MDIA

S I

IJritisli (.Dlimibi.i was crecteil into ii Province;
ill iiSjS and Viiicoiivcr Island in iH.\(). Tlii-y
wcro jjiivcriicd liy a (iovcinor ami Council. Tiic
Governor of Hriti>il> Columbia ItRisiatt'd l)y pio-
(l.iniation niitd i>sr).|. Me tlu-n liad tin- advico
and aid of a Lff,'islativ(! Council of liftccn nicni-
l)i'i3 Id frami; ordinanct-s for tlit; jjovci ninorit of
llic Fiovinr*;. Vancouver Island was made a
Crown Ci>lonv in iS^f), jjivtii a {invcinor and
( oijncil in 1850, was united Id liritish Cuiiimbia
in iSf)f), and an part of that I'rovincc entered tin;
Dominion in iS;i. After the two Colonies
united tile nnmhir of l,e),'islative Coniicillois was
iiicri-ased to twt nt\-tliii('. No fnitlur chauKes
Wire made, and tin; (ioverninriil cf the rrovince
was in tiie iiands of thi! Goseriior and Cniincil
until th(« nninii with the Dominion. Since then
there lias l»Li.n no C'ouncil and only a Lef^islulive
AsscniMy.

Manitoha became a Province of Canada in
1870, and had a Lej^islative Council of seven
mcmbeis until 187b, when it was abolished.
The North-West Territories mvei had an Upper
House.

Ill the older Provinces of Canada, the sei)ara-
tion of lef;islative and executive powers was a
step in advance but it did not terminate the
period of disj)iitc between the Let,'islative ('oiin-
cil and the As.sembly. Many addresses were
sent to Downing Street, and many despatches
were received from Colonial Secretaries befi)re
tlio cystem of responsil)le fjoveriiment was fully
established. Tiiat system was established in
tile Canadas. Nova. Scotia and New llniiiswirU
by iS.pS, ami in Prince Kdward l-^land by 1851.
The Provimi! of New P>runswicU, up to 18.(5, was
mclnded in the Diocese of the IJishop of Nova
Scotia. Ill tiiat jear it was set off as a separate
Diocese of tlie Chiirdi of l"nf,'land. Tlie first
Bishop of Nova Scotia was consecrated at Laiii-
l)etii, Siindax-, Aiit,nist 12, 1787, by the Archbishoj)
of Caiilei 1)111 \-, and be was suoin in as a member
of the Council of Nova Scoiia, M.iy 26, i8o(j.
Ills seat wa.sto be ne.\t after the Chief Justice,
i>ut be was not to administer tiie {government in
ihe event nf tiic death or absence of the Lieuten-
ant-(iovri nor. When the son of the first liishop
became Bisiiop in 1825, lie also was appointed
to tiie Council. As his Diocese at that time

iiK liided New Mrunswick, lie ( l.iimed tiie ripht
to take his seat in the Coiin.il of tiia iProvince,
and tlid so upon one occasion.

Ail we have Reeii, there w.is a separation of
k^^islative and executive fiinrtioiis in Nova
Scoii.i in l8j8. In the additional Kiiyal instruc-
tions f,Mven to Lord Durham of Man li ytli, i8j8,
for the ortJHni/ation of the Lej;islativo Council,
hi; was direct id to appoint " (liir ti 11 ^ty and well-
beli'ved, tlie Ibsiiop nf No\a Si'i'ti.i," one of the
membeiH thereof. An aj.;itatioii bc^an aj^ainst
tlie Chief Justice :ind the I)islio|i Imldin),' seats
ill tin; I,et,'islative Coiineil. It was felt tint the
Judiciary should imt be placi'd in a position to
become nii.\ed lip in poiitK:al differences; and
tiiat it was unfair to otiiir Denominations of
Christians to have tin; representative of one in
Coiiiiiil, while the others were excluded. These
views I'mally prevailed, and, since the introduction
of res|)onsii)le govt rnmeiit, tliese oniciiils have
ilisappiared from jxiiitieal life in the Lej,'islature.

Ill both Nova Scotia and New Hrunswick
before the introduction of responsible povernment,
suf,'jjesf ions had bnn made by the Assemblies to
have the Le(.jislative Council elected, asa solution
of the difficulty between the Council and the
Assembly. Tho Colonial Secretary, however,
never tlioiifjlit favourably of any such ch.inge,
while the friends of the Council opposed it
stronj^lv. as radical and wholly unconstitutional.
A war of p.imiiiilets over the proposal took place
ill New P.runswick in 1855, and one writer, in the
fervour of his indii^'iiation, declared, "that the
projeit of an elective Council would be rejected
witii tlie scorn and if,'nomiuy wiiicli it deserves."
Another question which it took some vears to
settle was the payment of members of the I.e-jis-
l.itive Council. Wliile tiie Council exercised
lej,'islative and executive functions, tiie question
could not well arise, as till! members were officials
dischaigiii}^ dutiesto which salaries wereattached.
I!ut, wiieii the sepir.ition took place, manv of the
iiiembeisof the I.ef,'islative Council had no offi-
cial duties beyond seats in the Council. To
require them to serve {gratuitously and |)ay their
own expenses, while nieiiibi is of the Assembly
were |)aid, would be manifestly unfair. And yet
strong opposition was made to the proposal on
tiie j^'round that tlie Council corresponded in the

w

CANADA; AN KNCVCIOlMlDI A.

45 «

Colony to the IIousu of Lords in ICn^^laml, and
that tho honour of having a suat iit the Council
wasaiiiplu rocuin|)L*nsu for tlio lalioiir and outlay
involved.

As lato as iiS.j7 Mr, Charles T'isIum, one of tlu:
cliaf advocate's of ri'sponsihlu jjoveinnicnt in New
iJrnnswick, in o|)|iosin)4 tim proposal, said " that
h»; coiilil iuv(!r a;;ii'i; (o pa^inj,' tin; Cunncil.
Tills hill struck at tln' vital principle of the con-
stitution." II(! claimed that tiu: thicc hranches
ol the l.cfjislaturo Wck; int'Midcd to represent
monarchy, aristncracy and democracy, and that
tho " second hranch should 1»: composed of nun
of sufl'ieiciit wealth aM<l iudepcmh ueo to support
tliu anslocralic diaiaitur which ou'^ht to heloiij,'
to them, ami whic h they were intended to repre-
sent ; and certainly such men could i>e toimd in
this I'rovime in sullicieiit numher to compose a
House, accordiii},' to the true intent and spirit of
their constitutional character. ' These difficulties
in time were surmounted ; the mcnihers were
paid in the same way as the nieinhiTS of the
Asseml)lv, ami without »letrinient to the safety or
stahility of the Ihitish constitution. A cpiesfion
of coiisiderahle importance arose in Nova Scotia,
a few yi'ais aj^o, as to tin; tenure of ofiice of a
Legislative Councillor. Without entering upon
a discussion of this (juestioii, it is manifest that
Lord Stanley, then C'olonial Secretary, in his
reply to the Lcf;i.slative Council of New Uruns-
wick, Au^^iist 2.5, iS.t-(,and to tin: Le^'islative Coun-
cil of Nova Scotia, August 20, l8.}5, was of the
opinion that a Lej;islative Councillor in cither
Province held his seat only at the pleasim; of tho
Crown. How far that tenure of office has heeii
changed, il at ;dl, hv suh-^t 'picnt event---, it is not
necessai)' in this cnimeition to det<-i iiiiiie. 'llu;
late Sir Adams (1. .Aichihald, Lieuteiiant-C,o\ei -
nor of Nova Sroli.i, h.is sanl tliat " the constitu-
tion of Nova Scotia h.is always bcei; considered
as di rived from the tcim.sof the Koyal Commis-
sions to the Cjoveinor an I Lieuteiiaiit-Ciovernors,
and from tin; instructions which accompanied
the same, moulded fnun time to time by des-
patches from Secretaries of State, convcyin;^ the
will of the Soverei^^n, and by Acts of the Local
Lef,'islatmc, assented to by tiie Crown ; the
whole to some c.\teiit interpreted by uniform
usa;;e and ciHtoiu in the Colunv." This state-

ment i.s e(|iially applicable to all the Provinces of
(.'aiiada.

A remedy was found for colonial (,'rievanre3 by
the adapt.ition of liritish constituti nial prmcipleH
to the nffairs of the Colonies. The principle of
self-iiovernmcnt in all matters of local concern,
with the application of resijoiisihie ^jovernment,
or ministerial re^.ponsli)illty, to the As.->einhly, has
everywhere brout;lit h.irnioiiy where jneviously
there was discoiil. The fuiiclinnsof a Lej^islativo
Council, within Provincial limitations, are now
similar to those: of the Senate of Canada and the
House of Lords. The Council cannot amend any
appropi i.itioii bill sent ti|) from the Lower House.
It h.is the power of rejection, a power rarely used.
It cannot initiate any measure whereby taxation
is imposed. And, for the piir|)ose of pri'servinx
intact ministerial responsibility in lioth i'"ederal
and Provincial affairs, it is expressly provided by
the Pritish North America Act that the House
of Commons and Provincial Assemblies shall not
adopt or pass any V(Jte, resolution or bill for the
appropri.ition of public money unless lirst recom-
mended by the Crown.

There is, no doubt, a stronij feeling in many
(piarters that each Province of Canada should {,'et
alonj.^ with a siii^de chamber. Tiie chief reason
assi<,'ne(l is that of economy. Hut there are other
considerations (>f^re. it importance which should
not be lost sif^ht of in the admmistralion of pub-
lic affairs. Mr. Todd, an Ucknowledf,'ed constitu-
tional authority, has well said that : — " In
Colonies entrusted with the ]^owers of Iccal self-
goveriinient, ami where the policy of administra-
tion, as well as the makin;^ of general laws h)r the
welfare and good government of all classes in the
community, arc under tiie control of a local Leg-
isl.iture, a second chamber is a necessary institu-
tion. It is a counterpoise to democratic ascend-
ancy in the jiopularand most powerful jissembly ;
it aflords s iiiie protection against hasty and ill-
coiisiilered legislation and action ; and serves to
elicit the sober second thought of tiie peojile, in
contradistinction to the impulsive hrst thought of
the Lower House." Our system of government
is a growth, a development, adapting itself from
time to time to tiie needs ami circumstances of
the occasion and, upon the whole, working out
a siiccesslul result.

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MUNICIPAL INSTITUTIONS IN CANADA

BY

K'JBCKT STANLhY WEIK, U.C.

i

U.\I)ER the Old /u^'/;»f. I'or tlic beyin-
iiin','s of our iminicipal institutions wo
do not need to antedate the Cession —
tliere are no links tliat connect our
nuniicipal institutions with the Old Regime.
iMunicipal institutions in Canada are the outcome
of tl'.e largest possible exercise of political libert}-,
and are incompatible with the autocratic sway of
a Colbert or a Richelieu. And yet, as municipal
affairs of necessity deal with the common require-
ments of communities in township, village or
settlement, it is manifest that even under the
centralizing sway of the Old Regime, they must
have possessed certain recognizable features that
cannot have wholly escaped the attention of the
antiquarian or I'istorian and must therefore pos-
sess interest for the student, even though they be
radically different in conception and structure
from those that obtain to-day. Many of the
streets of Montreal and Quebec bear witness to
the manner of life of the dwellers in those cities
under the Old Regime, and any review of Cana-
dian municipal institutions that should pass over
this earlier period would be imperfect.

Samuel de Cliamplain who constructed the
Abitation de Quebec in 1608 informs us that he
published ordinances for the good government of
the Colony. M. de Montmagny, who succeeded
Champlain, repaired and strengthened the de-
fences of Quebec. He also traced a plan of the
town, marking out the streets according to a
system. Those who know the narrow and tortu-
ous way in which the streets of the lower town
of Quebec are grouped will conclude that this
system, while not without its picturesque featurer,
was not remarkable for symmetry. De Mont-
magny also erected a pillory which served for the
publication and proclamation of public notices as
well. The energetic Frontenac some years later,

applied himself to the task of giving municipal
government in Quebec. Reordered the election
of three aldermen, the senior of whom was to be
Major. One of the thiue was to retire annually ;
his place to be filled by a new election ; the Gov-
ernor reserving the right to approve or veto the
same, l-'rontenac also, in conjunction with the
chief inhabitants, framed regulations for the
administration of the town, destined, as he often
declared, to become the chief city of a mighty
empire. Meetings were also to be held semi-
annually to consider matters of public welfare.
Colbert, however, shattered all these fine projects
and democratic germs by a sharp rebuke which
seems to have been effective in its influence, not
only upon Frontenac, but upon his successors.
At Montreal, De Maisonneuve, as local Governor
administered local affairs in his own person.
Nominally he was subject to the Governor at
Quebec, but distance made him practically inde-
pendent. Ten local ordinances promulgated by
De Maisonneuve have been preserved ; four relate
to the sale of liquor, three to the defence of the
town, and the others to the construction of a
church and the administration of justice. A
general review of the condiiions and characteris-
tics of municipal affairs at that time can perhaps
be best obtained by summarizing what is known
of certain offices and customs, the names of
which have come down to us.

The Syndic d' Habitaticm was an official well
known in France where he represented popular
rights before the administrative tribunals. There
are records of the election of Syndics in Quebec,
Montreal and Three Rivers. These officials
appear to have been entrusted with certain local
authority and represented the community in ita
dealings with the Governors. The office did not
commend itself to Colbert, who instructed Fron-

452

CANADA: AN F,N(:V( LOl'.KDI A.

4.3

te.iac to suppress it {gradually. At Montreal,
however, tlie office seems to have been one of
importance. The duties of tlie Syndic in that
place were, to administer the affairs of the Island
by the just employment of the money given him
for its requirements, subject, however, to the
approval of the local Judge and the Procureur
Fiscal. He also levii;d taxes for the support of
the garrison.

The Grand Voyer was he road surveyor under
the Old Rjf^'ime, and the Captain of the Militia
was a sort of constablr and local chief of the men
available for light '.iig. He also acted as the
deputy of the Gra-.d Voyer whose special duties
were the supervision of roads and bridges, the
line of streets, buildings iu danger of collapse, and
like matters. This oflice existed long after the
Cession; and in 1777, 7778 and I7(j6 legislation
upon reads and highways refers certain duties to
an official who is also styled the Grand Voyer.
Twenty-four feet was the required width of roads
under the Old Regime, but the Legislative Council
in 1777 enacted that thirty feet be the minimum
width.

The Corvee was the systein under whichthe Seig-
neurs, or tiie community, were entitled to a certain
amount of nianual labour from tenants or censit-
aiies for the maintenance of roads and bridges.
It was introduced from France, and was usually
stipulated for in deeds of concession. In 1716
Michel Begon, lutendant, issued an order forbid-
ding the insertion of such stipulations in future
deeds of concession. The system, however, had
taken deep root and traces of it have existed until
very recent times. Parliament, in 1796, sanctioned
the system in an effort to improve the frightful
condition of the public highways, and the Act was
not repealed until 1854(18 Vic, Cap. lOO).

The lutendant, however, was the official who,
as the head of civil administration throughout
the Colony, comprised in his own person all that
is now entrusted to Mayor, Aldermen and Com-
mon Council. The ordinances of the Intendants
relate to a great variety of subjects. The inhab-
itants were forbidden to place traps on their
lands; they were ordered to erect fences; regu-
lations respecting negroes and slaves were made;
pigs were not allowed to wander thiough the
streets; the order of precedence in church was

established to be thut laid down by the Sovereign
Council; the habUants were forbidden to gallop
their horses and carriages on leaving church ;
missionaries were authori;ied to receive and exe-
cute wills; a lengthy and elaborate ordinance
was issued respecting the building of hous.^s; this
wassuppi- iiu in.jd by another ordinance requiring
builders to t,il» '' ir alignment from the Grand
Voyer or Road Surveyor; regulations against fire
were made and against nuisances; children and
grown persons were forbidden to slide in any
manner on the different hills in the City of Que-
bec— " ce qui expose les passantes a des acci-
dents "; weights and measures, the value of
coinage, the buildingof churches, the observance
of Siinday, the preservation of timber, seigneurial
rights, the settlement of boundaries and many
other matters were determined by the lutendant.
He presided at meetings of merchants and trad-
ers held for the election of a Syndic ; determined
the limits of private lands; issued instructions to
the neighbourhood for the repair or construction
of a road; recpiired the luibiiaitts to exhibit their
titles uiKJii occasion ; forbade those who dwelt
on farms to visit the cities without special j er-
mission, and punished all violations of his
ordinances. De Tocqueville says that the Cana-
dian lutendant had much greater posver than the
French lutendant. As to the power of the
latter we have the testimony of the great financier.
Law, that all France was really governed by its
thirty Intendants. "You have neither Parlia-
ment, nor estates, nor Governors" he declared to
the Marquess d'Argenson, "nothing but thirty
Masters of Requests, on whom, as far as the
Provinces are concerned, welfare or misery,
plenty or want, entirely depend."

The division of the Colony of New France into
parishes was effected on the 2nd of March, 1722,
by an edict of the Council of State, adopting a
schedule drawn by Michel Begon, lutendant. By
this edict Canada was divided into what was
called the Government of Quebec, with forty-one
parisl^^s; the Government of Three Rivers, with
thirteen parishes ; the Governiuent of Montreal,
with twenty-eight parishes. These parishes were
all fully described by their boundaries. They
were primarily ecclesiastical parishes, many of
which had an anterior existence as such, but

I

T

w

454

CANADA: A.\ KXCVCLOI'.KDIA,

Wire f()r the fust time recoKiiiiJcil by civil author-
ity in the Edict of 17^2. The beginiiinjjs of par-
ishes may be traced to the habitations or settle-
ments of the Colonists. The Sci;,Mieur was the
social head of these cotnniiinities, administering
justice anionj^ his censitairos in the absince of
other jurisdiction ; receiving tlu-ir fealty and
homage, mutation fines antl rentes; and taking
the place of the Syndic d' Habitation. No other
recogiiitionof these parishes than that of the Edict
of ijj^ was made by civil autiiority until the
year iNji, wlien a Commission by the Legislative
Assembly was appointed to establish their limits
for civil purposes. The Consolidated Statutes of
Lower Canada enib(,ily still later legislation on
the subject ; tiic ecclesiastical parish forming in
most instances the actual boundaries of the civil
parish. This illustrates the close connection
which existed between the civil ami religions
administration of the Colony.

Since llic Cession in J oivcr Ciinnda. When the
British flag repl.iceil the standard of France upon
the citadel of Quebec the autocratic rule of In-
tendants ceased and the movement of a freer life
was felt throughout the Colony. For three years
after tiie capitulation, affairs municipal, as well
as those of larger import, were administered by
military officers. General James Murray was
stationed at Quebec ; General Thomas Gage at
Montreal, and Colonel Ral,»h Burton at Three
Rivers. General Murray as Governor-General
administered municipal affairs with the assistance
of an Executive Council composed of the local
Government of Montreal^and Three Rivers, the
Chief Justice, the ^^mH^^^ Customs, and
eight leading residents. *^^5 Council performed
for Montreal and other towns the duties that now
are entrusted to aldermen. Ordmances were
passed relating to the baking and selling of bread,
police, markets, roads and highways in Ouebec
and Montreal. For instanc
the Governor and Com
six-penny white loaf should weif
and the brown loaf six pounds, SO"^ong
as flour sold for fourteen shillings per cvvt.
The clerks of the peace were instructed to in-
spect markets and bakeries once in three months
at least, and to stamp and brand all weights and
measures. Every loaf of bread had to be stamped

with tlie baker's initials, and tlie clerks had
authority to stop waggons on the streets for
inspection.

On March ajtli, 1766, an ordinance was passed
for repairing and amending the highways and
bridges in the Province, " which," said the ordi-
nance, " for w.int of due and timely repairs and
amendments are become impassable." In 1768,
to provide against cimflagrations, the Coun-
cil ordered that, in Montreal and Quebec and
Three Rivers, chimneys bo cleaned once in four
weeks dining the winter, fiom the 1st of October
to the ist of May. Every householder was
re(juired to be provided with two buckets for
water, nuule either of leather or sealskin, or of
canvas painted without and pitched within,
and holdmg at least two gallons each. Every
housekeeper was required to keep a hatclut ir>
his house to assist in pidling down houses to
prevent tiie spreading of the flames, and two fire-
poles of specified length and design, to knock off
the roofs of houses on fire or in danger of becom-
ing so. Every housekeeper was also required to
keep on the roof of his house as many ladders as
he had chimneys, so placed that easy access
might be had to sweep the chimneys, or carry
water up to them in case of fire. Hay or straw
in a house, ashes on a wooden floor or in a
wooden bucket were forbidden under penalty.
Wooden houses were thereafter forbidden, and
restrictions were placed upon the use of shingles,
and the manner of placing stovepipes from roon»
to nxjin. Overseers were appointed, and th»
Justices were empowered to enforce penalties.

The next controlling power in municipal affairs
was the Legislative Council, appointed under the
provisions of the Quebec Act of 1774. This
Council, which was first presided over by Guy
Carleton, afterwards Lord Dorchester, whose
name is preserved in the stately Montreal street
that bears his name, consisted of twenty-three

mbers. Montreal continued still to be gov-
ned from Quebec, the Council sitting with
closed doors in the Castle of St. Louis, on the
citadel rock, and deliberating, as the records
show, with a good deal of practical wisdom.
For some time after its appointment, however^
municipal affairs received but scant attention
owing to the excitement caused by the Quebec

c;anai)A: an kncvci-oim'.dia.

45J

Act. About the same time the whole Province
was agitated by the Ainericaii iiiviisioii. Mon-
treal capitulated on November 13th, 1775, Mont-
gomery's forces marcliinj; in by tlie Recollet Gate,
and himself occupying the Forr^tier House on
t'le corr.cr of Notre Dame and St. Peter Streets.
Emulous doubtless of the great exploit of Wolfe,
Montgomery pushed on to Quebec and on Dec.
31st made his vigourous attack upon the citadel.
But ere the New Year dawned he was cold in
death. His dtscomlitcd forci.'s withdrew, leaving
Montreal and the Province once mure free, and
the Executive Council able to devise measures
for goDtl government. Amongst the mimicipal
ordinances enacted we find regulations for mar-
kets, and penalties against buying in the roads or
streets. Butchers and huxters buying to sell
again were forbidden to do so before ten in the
forenoon in summer, or noon in winter, under a
penalty. Provisions and proveuvler and live-
stock brought by schooners or such craft could
not be disposed of until an hour's notice had been
given to the inhabitants by the bell-man, so that
all might have equal chance in buying. (17 Geo.
Ill, cap. 4).

In 1791 the Constitutional Act was passed,
which divided Canada into Upper and Lower,
and gave each Province Parliaments and Legis-
lative Councils. The Parliaments continued the
paternal oversight of our local affairs that the
Councils had previously exercised. Every mun-
icipal statute or ordinance defined and explained
the duties of the magisuates in relation to it.
At first a good deal of jealousy existed between
the Justices and the military, which culminated
in an attack upon TlunnasWalker, a Justice who
had given offence to the military, the affair
causing great excitement at the time. It gave
occasion to Chief Justice Hey to present a
special report, and in 1769, in a second repoit,
to declare that the authority given to the Jus-
tices had been too largely and too confidently
entrusted to them in judicial matters. The
ample powers originally intended to facilitate the
course of justice became the instruments of
oppression in the hands of men who regarded the
office as an opportunity for private emolument.
Tlie Chief Justice's vigourous protests procured
an abridgment of the Magistrates' powers, not

without loud remonstrances from the latter. As
the population increased, however, a better selec-
tion was possible, and powers o*" local and muni-
cipal administn'tion were entrusted to them.
They formed the local administative body which
carried into effect the ordinances of Councils or
Parliaments. This is indeed the characteristic
feature of the municipal administration of Mon-
treal and (,)uebec from the time of the Cession
uncil the cities obtained their first Charters in
1832. Thesj Charters were limited to a period
of four years and at the en<l of that time, owing
to the disturbed cnnilition of the country, were
nut renewed. Montreal and Quebec received
their second Charters in 1S40, and since that
time, in common with the leading towns and
cities of the Prcr-iiice, look directly to the Legis-
lature for any increase or modification of their
corporate powers and are not governed under the
provisions of a general Act as are the towns and
cities of Ontario.

During the administration of the Special
Council in Lower Canada, consequent upon the
suspension of the Constitution, an ordinance was
passed (4 Vic, Cap. 4) " to provide for the better
internal Government of this Province by the
establishment of Local or Municipal Institutions
therein." The Province was divided into Dis-
tricts, each of which was constituted a body cor-
porate with special but limited powers. It was
enacted that each District should have a Warden
appointed by the Governor, and Councillors
elected by the inhabitant householders. Every
parish and township with a population of 3,000
and upwards elected two councillors ; every parish
and township having a poiTulation less than 3,000
elected one councillor, subject, however, to the
Governor's proclamation in such matters. Muni-
cipal service as a councillor was compulsory
under pain of a fine. One-third of the Council
retired annually. Eour quarterly meetings were
held in the year, but special meetings might be
held under the authority of the Governor, who
also determined the place of meeting for each
Council and appointed the district clerks and
treasurers. It was re<piired that two auditors,
one named by the Warden, the other by the
Council, be appointed annually. These District
Councils were empowered to make by-laws for

45"

CANADA: A.N KNCVCI.OIM'.DIA.

> I

roads, briilgfs aiul public buildings, tlit; purcliase
of real property, schools, assessments, penalties
for refusal to take municipal office, parish ofhciais
and police. No by-laws for the erecting of any
pul)lic work was valid witl.out a previous esti-
mate and report as to expeiulilure, and all by-
laws were subject to disallowance by the Gover-
nor. These District Councils were authori/etl to
exercise all the powers and duties of the Grand
Voyers, who were thus virtually abolished, but
provision was made for inilemnitication of
these officials. No councillor received an)'
emolument for his services. TheGovernor mifjht
dissolve any Council at pleasure, but in such case
the Warden had powers to cause a new election
to be held. By a special clause this ordinance
was not to be construed as applying to the Cities
of Quebec and Montreal. The foregoing ordi-
nance was ccjriiplementary to one which v. as
passed at the same time by the Special Council
(4 Vic, Cap. 3) '• to prescribe and regulate the
election and appointment of certain officers, in
the several parishes and townships of this J'rov-
ince, and to make other provisions for the local
interests of the inhabitants of those divisions of
the Province." The ofiicials mentioned in this
ordinance are three assessoi i, one collectc^r, one
(If more persons to be surveyors of highways ani
briilges, two or more fence-viewers and inspectors
of drains and one or more persons to be pound-
keepers, but certain of these offices might all be
filled by one person. The control which the
first of these ordinances so ccMispicnously reserved
in the hands of the Governor was doubtless due
to the troubled condition of the country and
doubts as to the wisdom of entrusting larger local
liberty to the District Councils. In 1845, how-
ever, this ordinance was repealed by an Act (8
Vic.;, Cap. 40) which constituted every township
and parish a municipal corporation represented
by an elected Ccnincil of seven, whose head,
styled the Mayor, was also elective. Two coun-
cillors retired each year. A very considerable
measure of authority was confided to the Coun-
cils in 24 classes of subjects detailed in the stat-
ute. Provision was also made for the incorpora-
tion of villages or towns. Any three land-owners
of a village containing sixty houses or upwards
within a space of 6oarpents might requisition the

Senior Justice to call a meeting to consider the
advisability of petitioning the Parish Council to
fix limits ami boundaries for the village or town.
If the decision was affirmative, the boundaries
were fixed and the election of couneillors and in-
corporation followed, the councillors electing the
Mayor.

Two years later (10 and 11 Vic, Cap. 7) the
parish and township municipalities were abol-
ished and county municipalities were substituted
— the Municipal Council consisting of two coun-
cillors elected by each parish and township of the
county for two years, one-half retiring annually.
In the event of a ly parish or township refusing
to elect their cou. cillors the Governor was em-
powered to appoint them. Any town or village
comprising at least forty houses within an area
of not more than thirty arpeiits might be incor-
porated as a town or village and elect a Council
of seven, the specified powers of the Council
relating chiefly to fires, nuisances and matters of
public order. The usual assessors, collectors
and overseers were appointed under this statute,
and the office of Deput v Grand Voyer was created.
The powers of the Council were not materialK'
altered but additional powers were given which
included the right to impose fines for contraven-
tion of by-laws ; to compel circus companies,
showmen and liquor dealers to take out licenses ;
and to contract for the maintenance of summer
and winter roads. In 1850 (13 and 14 Vic, Cap.
34) Municipal Councils were permitted to amend
their assessment rolls if in their opinion the valu-
ation already made was insufficient ; they were
also permitted to levy a rate of one-half penny in
the pound upon the assessed value of rateab e
property for general purposes. Any township
containing 300 souls was by this amendment
permitted to elect councillors, and to be consid-
ered a township or parish for ail municipal
purposes. This statute also contained provisions
for the sale of lands upon which taxes were due,
for the construction and maintenance of roads,
bridges, fences; forthe imposingof penalties and
for other matters.

I" 1853 (16 Vic, Cap. 138) an Act was passed
to empower the municipalities of the Counties of
Two Mountains, Terrebonne, Rouville and Mis-
sissquoi to take stock in any .railroad companies

CANADA; AX F, NCVCI.OP.KDI A.

457

for the construction of railways passing tliroiigh
thu said counties respectively, and to issue bonds
to raise funds for the payment of the same.
During the same session another Act (Cap. 215)
was passed extending these provisions to the
Councils of all county, town and village miinici-
palilies in Lower Canada and to tlie taking ol
shares by the same in the capital stocks of rail-
way companies. A provision in this Act, exempt-
ing by-laws for railway enterprisesand investments
from be'ng submitted to the people, was repealed
in 1854. By Act in 1854 (18 Vic, Cap. 13) a
Consolidated Municipal Loan Fund for Lower
Canada, similar to one enacted for Upper Can-
ada, was established. This fund was limited to
j^ 1,500,000 for each Province, and was managed
by tiie Receiver-General umler the direction of
the Governor-in-Council. It was provided that
any incorporated city, town or village might raise
money on tlie credit of this Fund for gas or
water-wi>rks, drainage or roads, to an amount not
exceeding 20 jier cent, on the aggregate assessed
valuation of the property affected by any by-laws
that might be passed in any municipality.

In 1S55 (18 Vic, Cap. 100) a most important and
elaborate Act — liie Lower Caiuula Munici[)al and
Roads Act — was passed. It reformed the munici-
pal system of the Province and established therein
(i) county, (2) parish and township, (3) town and
village municipalities, all of which were repre-
sented by elective Councils. This statute was
amended and classified (by 197 20 Vic, Cap. loi)
and by a later statute (22 Vic, Cap. 101) which
permitted appeals from the discussion o*' Councils
in certain cases. Thi^ Act must be co'isidered
as the basis of the aeUial municipal system in
operation at the present ♦ime. In 1876 (40 Vic,
Cap. 29) the Town Corporation General Clauses
Act was passed. In 1888 the statutes of the
Province were revised and under the title of
Municipal Matters (Acts 4178 to 4640) are to be
found the legal enactments that apply to every
town corporation or municipality established by
the Legislature, unless expressly modified by a
special charter. It may be stated that Quebec,
Montreal, Sherbrooke, Three Rivers, St. Hya-
cinthe and other cities and towns have preferred
and have obtained incorporation by special
.statutes or charters which from time to time, on

petition, the Legisiaiure amends. By the general
clauses above referred to, a Municipal Council
has jurisdiction throughout the entire extent of
the municipality and beyond these limits, where
special power is conferred.

By-laws, resolutions, and other municipal orders
mint be passed by the Council in session, and, to
be authentic, the original must be signed by the
presiding officers of the Council, and by the sec-
retary-treasurer. Loans, whether by the issue
of debentures or otherwise, can only be made
under a by-law of the Council to that effect,
approved by a majority in number, and in real
value, of the proprietors wtio are municipal elec-
tors. The Council has the right to make, amend,
repair or revise, in whole, or in part, from time
to time, by-laws which refer to its officers, or the
municipality, upon the following subjects: gov-
ernment of the Council, its officers, aid to public
works, public markets,sale of intoxicating liquors,
masters and servants, public health, indemnities,
relief and rewards, decency and morals, public
nuisances, sewers, ditches and water-course?,
streets and higliways, carters, lighting and water
supply. Annual valuation rolls and municipal
lists are made, and special powers are given to
exempt from, or commute, taxes in favourof indus-
tries, and also to expropriate land for municipal
purposes.

The Province of Quebec also possesses a special
Municipal Code which applies to all the territory
of the Province excepting the cities and towns
incorporated by special statute. This territory
is divided into county municipalities which in-
clude county, village or town municipalities.
The inhabitants and ratepayers of every county,
country, village and town municipality form a
corporation or body politic which under its cor-
porate name has perpetual succession and may
exercise all the powers in general vested in it or
which are necessary for the accomplishment of
the duties imposed upon it. The Code recog-
nizes municipalities in the form of parishes, town-
ships, united townships, towns, villages or coun-
ties, and contains provisions common to all these
various kinds of municipalities, such as the rej)-
resentative and executive character of the Muni-
cipal Council, the ilelegation of its duties to com-
mittees of its members, the judicial revision of

458

CANADA : AN KNCYCLOPi^lUIA.

; !

its resoidtiuiis niid by-laws, the swearing in of
Its ineiiiburs, the duties of its head, whether
Mayor or Warden, tliu conduct of its sessions,
tile obligations of its olViccrs.

Under tlie Municipal Code the County Cnuneil
is composed of the Mayors in oilice of all llic
local municipalities in tiie countv. Such Mayors
bear the title, in Councd, of "County Cuuncii-
lors," Tlie head of the Council is calU-d the
" Warden," in I'rench " Prelet," and is cliosen
from amonjj tiie members of tlie County Councd
during tlie ininith of March in each y<'ar. The
ordinarj' or f;eneral sessions of County Councils
are held on tiie second Weilnesday in the months
of March, June, Sejitember and December in
each year in the chcf-hcii of the county. The
Board of Delegates is composed of the Wardens
and two other delegates from each of the county
municipalities, the inhabitants of which are in-
terested in some work or matter which may fall
within the jurisdiction of the councils of such
municipalities. The Local Council consists of
seven councillors elected throughout the Prov-
ince on the second Monday of evtMV January ;
nominations may be verbal or v/ritten and the
voting is open. In the event of tiic municipality
faiung or neglecting to fyle the recjuired number
of councillors, the Lieutenant-Governor of the
Province may appoint them. The second part
of the Municipal Code treats of the powers of
the Municipal Council. Each one has the right
to make, amend, or repeal by-laws wiiich refer to
itself, its officers, or the municipality, upon the
following subjects : the government of the Coun-
cil and its officers ; public works ; aid to coloniza-
tion, agriculture, horticulture, arts and sciences;
the acquisition of property and public works ;
direct taxation; loans and issue of debentures ; a
sinking fund for liquidating debts; a census;
rewards for discoveries; j)cnalties and other
objects.

The special powers of County Councils to
make by-laws relate to the chef-licuoi the county ;
the location of the Circuit Court and registry
of!ice ; roads and bridges; fires in the woods;
indemnities to members of Council. Every by-
law which orders or authorizes a loan or issue of
debentures must before coming into force and
effect, be approved by the electors of the munici-

pality, when the taxable property of the whole
municipality is subject to the payment oi the
loan or debentures, and in all cases by the Lieut-
enant-Governor-in-C"ouncil. By-laws may ^be
attackeii on the ground of illegality by any muni-
cipal elector. All real estate is taxable except
Government, religious and educational holdings
and (to a limited extent) rilaway companies.
The valuation roll is made in the months c:f June
and July biennially, is revised by the Council
ami is open for inspection during a specified
delay. The Municipal Code next deals with the
all-important subject of roads ; of those persons
liable to render service on roails in the absence
of a proces-verbal or by-law; winter roads — the
line of which is marked by means of biili::cs of
spruce or cedar; front ro.ids, b\ -roails, winter
r(jads on rivers, municipal bridges, ferries and
water-courses; expropriations for municipal pur-
poses; aj peals from the passing of by-laws by a
rural municipality to the County Council; the
collection of taxes, municipal debts and sale of
laiuls for taxes; and appeals to the Circuit Court
from decisions by Justices, or the County Council,
in municipal matters.

The special powers of local Councils to pass
by-laws relate to : public highways, roads and
bridges, public places, sidewalks and sewers,
ferries, plan of the municipality, sale of liquors,
limitation of licenses for sale of liquors, storage of
gunpowder, sale of bread and wood, personal
taxes, indemnities and relief, public nuisances,
decency and good morals, public health. Town
and village Councils have additional powers with
regard to masters and servants, public markets,
water and light. In Quebec there are 67 county
municipalities named and described in the Pro-
vincial Statutes (R.S.Q. 73), which also mention
the cities and towns especially incorporated.
(find. 75).

Since 1763 in Upper Canada. After the Act of
Union (3 and 4 Vic, Cap. 35) by which Upper
and Lower Canada were united into one Prov-
ince, under the name of the Province of Canada,
there was passed (4 and 5 Vic, Cap. 10) " An
Act to provide for the interior government " of
Upper Canada, by establishing local or munici-
pal authorities therein. It enacted that from ami
after the first Monday of January, 1842, all the

?

•^.

CANADA; A.\ KNCVCLOI'.KDIA.

45'>

inhubitunts of each district of tliu lieietoforc
Province of Upper Canada, and of eaclj distri.;t
therein and hereafter to be cstablislied, woiiKl be
constituted into a Corporation and as siicli be
capable of perpetual succession, of having a
coniiiion seal, of taking and defending snits, and
acqniiing and possessing iniinovab'.es within the
respective districts for the use of the inhabitants,
and of joining in such contracts as were neces-
sary for the exercise of their coi por.ito fnnctions ;
and that the said powers should he exercised by
the Council and in the name of the Council of
each respective district. It created for every
district a District Council, to co.isistofa Syndic,
named and appointed by the Governor of the
Province by letters-patent, whenever occasion
required, and holding his position during tiie
Governor's pleasure ; and one or two coimcillors
f(jr each of the townshi[)s in the res|5ective dis-
tricts, according to their population, elected
annually by the freeholders and heads of families
in the district. Evi^ry township of more than
300 inhabitants had two councillors. The prop
erty qualification of the councillors was real
estate in the district, or an adjoining district,
worth £soo. No person attainted of treason or
felony by any Court of Justice in any part of the
Empire could act as councillor. Those elected
were obliged to serve under pain of a fine and
were obliged to take an oath of office. One-third
retired annually. Four meetings were held in
the year and majority of the votes decided all
questions.

In 1846 (9 Vic, Cap. 40) the statute creating
District Councils was amended. An allowance
of six shillings and three pence for each day's
actual attendance at Council meetings was sanc-
tioned. The councillors were permitted to elect
their own Wardens and District Treasurers. In
May, 1849 (12 Vic, Cap. 80), a praiseworthy
effort was made " to provide by one general law
for the election of municipal corpor.itions and the
establishment of regulations of police, in and for
the several counties, cities, towns, townships and
villages in Upper Canada." To this end all the
Acts in force in the Upper Province were repealed,
and for certainty a schedule was appended to the
repealing statute including enactments from the
date of 3 Geo. iii., Cap. 10 and onwards. This

elaborate Act laid the basis of municipal institu-
iions in Upper Canada. It incorporated (a)
townships, detailing in thirty-three paragraphs
the jxjwers of the Township Council — constituted
by five elected councillors who chose a Town
Keeve from their number, and where the resident
freeholders numbered five hundred a Deputy
Town Reeve also. This important Act also incor-
porated (b) comities, the Municipal ("ouiuil for the
county being composed of the Town Reeves and
Df'piity Town Reeves of the several townships,
villages and towns within the limits of each
county; (c) villages, with a Conned of five coun-
cillors and a Reeve whose powers to pass by-laws
were caiefiilly enumerati'd ; (d) towns with a
Council composctl of three councillors for every
ward and presided over by a Mayor; (e) cities
with a Council composed of one alderman
and two councillors for each ward, the Mayor
being elected from among the aldermen. The
Act also made provision for police in villages and
the appointment of three police trustees to en-
force regulations concerning fire, furnaces, refuse,
nuisances, etc.

In 1851 the Statute of 1849 was amended (14
& 15 \'ic.. Cap. 109) to adapt it to changes in the
assessment laws, and in 1852 (16 Vic, Cap. 22)
was passed the Act to establish a consolidated
Municipal Loan Fund which was reproduced in
Lower Canada and has already been referred to.
In 1858(22 Vic, Cap. 99) the growth of munici-
pal institutions called for a further legislative
expansion of powers and rights in a still more
elaborate and complete form. Twenty-four years
passed before the Province felt the necessity of
exercising its powers, definitely reserved to it by
the Confederation Act, with respect to municipal
affairs. The Act (46 Vic, Cap. 18) consolidated
all previous Acts and in turn has found a place
in the Revised Statutes of the Province
(Cap. 184). The Province of Ontario now pos-
sesses a system of municipal institutions admir-
able in itssymmetry and efficiency (R.S.O., Chap.
184). Provision is made for the incorporation of
(1) villages, (2) towns and cities, (3) townships, (4)
counties, (5) provisional county corporations;
all of which are represented by elected Councils.

A population of 750 established by census
within an area of not more than 500 acres enables

4(io

CANADA; A\ KNCYCI.OI'.KDIA.

r:

U\

i

a County Council, on petition, to incorporate the
iiiliabitants a^ a vilUif^'e and to inaugurate pro-
ccciiings for tlie elcclioti of u Council. A jxipu-
lation of ovcT 2,000 in an incorporated villaf,'e
enables such village to he erected into a town ; a
population of over 15,000 entitles a town to be
erected into a cit)'. A township beyond the
limits of an incorporated county may by procla-
Illation be attached to an adjacent incorporated
county and erected into an incorporated union of
townships with some other townsiiip of such
incorporated county; a junior tosvnship contain-
ing loo resident freeholders and iiouseholders
may, upon the passage of a by-law to that effect
by the County Council, be separated from such
union and in certain cases this may be accom-
plislieil (such as where the public convenience is
tliereby promoted) when the number of fice-
holdcrsand householders amounts to 50. New
townships, not already within the limits of an
iiicorpor.iied comity, may by proclamation be
formtid into a new county and a separation of
united comities may be effected wIkii the junior
county is shown to contain upwards of 17,000
inhabitants. By formal enactment the inhabi-
tants of every county, city, town, village, union
of counties and union of townships, already incor-
porat(;d, continue to form a body corporate within
the limits of their established boundaries.

County Councils must consist of the Reeves
and Deputy Reeves of the townships and villages
within the county and of any towns which have
not withdrawn from the jurisdiction of the
county; the head of the Council is styled a War-
den and is elected from their number by the
Reeves and Deputy Reeves. The Council of
every city consists of the Mayor and of three
councillors for every ward where there are less
than five wards, and of two councillors where
there are five or more wards. The Council
of every incorporated village consists of one
Reeve and four councillors ; the Council of
a township consists of a Reeve and four coun-
cillors. The ofBcials of municipal corporations
consist of a head officer (Warden, Mayor
or Reeve), clerk, treasurer, assessors and collec-
tors, auditors and valuators. The head of the
Council is its chief executive officer and it is
ills duty to be vigilant and active at all times in

causing the law for the government of the munici-
pality to be duly executed and put in foicc; to
inspect the comluct of all subordinate officers,
and to cause all negligence, carelessness and
positive violation of duty to be punished; to
commimicate to the Council from time to time
all suih information and to recommend such
measures, within the powers of the Coimcil, as
may tend to the improv(!inent of the finances,
health, security, cleanliness, ct)mfort or ornament
of the numiciiiality.

The jurisdiction <jf every Council is confineil to
the nuinicipalty it represents, except where
specially extended, and its powers are exercised
by by-law when not otherwise authorized,
('ouncil is deemed a continuing botly notwith-
standing any annual election of members. The
Ontario Act contains full and particular provi-
sions respecting the authentication, confirmation
and quashing of by-laws, objections thereto by
ratepa\ers, by-laws creating debts and yearly
rates and anticipating appropriations. The
powers of Councils, qre detailed in the statute by
special description of the by-laws which may be
passed with regard to various matters; these
practically include every possible emergency of
municipal life. No general clauses granting
general powers such as are frequently seen in the
charters of English and German cities have been
enacted by the Legislature in respect to munici-
palities ; the principle adopted being that of a
special delegation of powers and the assumption
of the i)ossil)ility of prescience as regard the
necessities of municipal legislation and adminis-
tration. Reference should be mads to the
Assessment Act (Chap. 193 R.S.O.), in virtue of
which all municipal, local or direct taxes or rates
may be levied equally upon the whole rateable
property, real and personal, of the nmnicipality,
according to the assessed value of such property
and not upon any one or more kinds of property
in particular, or in different proportions. The
exemptions include property rested in Her
Majesty's Indian Lands, places of worship, public,
educational and municipal buildings, and various
other real and jiersonal holdings. For municipal
purposes the Province of Ontario is diviiled by
statute into forty-three counties, certain of these
being united for municipal and judicial j)urposes.

CANADA: AX I:N( A CI.OIMIHA.

461

The viirioiis towiisliips, towns aiiii incorporated
vilhifjLS wiiliiii till) bounds of lliusc counties arc
also ruco/,'ni/u(l by statute. (K.S.CX Chap. 5.)

A more extended analysis of tho niuniiipal
system of Ontario woidd extend beyontl thu lim-
its of the s|)ii(H: lierc allottrd, and it must, tiicre-
fore, snITue to say tliat probably no part of the
world lias as yet witnessed so complete and
autonomous an extension of the principle of local
government, blending in the most harmonious
manner with the higher functions of Kovernment
in t!ie spiieres of Provincial and Federal admin-
istration, and affordiiifjso unsurpassed a method
of tramin{» the citi/en in the appreciation and
drtermination of public questions, whether of
local or of national import.

J'roviitce of Manitoba. The riovernor and Com-
pany of a<lventurcrs of ICnj^land tradinj; into
Il'.idson's Bav, commoidy called the Hudson's
Bay Company, incorporated by letters patent
granted by His Majesty KingCharlesthe Second,
having in consideration of certain local and com-
mercial privileges and of ^(^300, coo in cash, sur-
rendered to the Government of Canada all their
rights and interests in Rupert's Land and the
North-West Territories, the Province of Mani-
toba was carved out of that enormous tract of
land, and by an Imperial Order-in-Council was
united to the Dominion of Canada on the 15th of
July, 1870. Provision for the Government of the
new Province had previously been passed by the
Dominion Parlianv.iit in accordance with the
British North American Act. By the Revised
Statutes of Manitoba (Chap. 100) which revised,
consolidated and amended previous Provincial
legislation, and has in turn been amended, an
aggregation of over 500 persons may, upon peti-
tion to the Lieutenant-Governor, be incorporated
into a village ; over 1500 persons may likewise be
formed into a town, and over 10,000 into a city.

The Council of every city consists of the Mayor
and two aldermen for every ward ; of every town,
of a Reeve and two councillors ; of every village,
of the Reeve and four councillors; and of every
rural municipality, of a Reeve and not more
than six nor less than four councillors, as the
nmnicipality shall by by-law decide. The prop-
erty qualification of Mayor, aldermen, Reeve and
councillors is, in cities, freehold to the value of

$2,000, or leasehold to the value of $4,000; in
towns and villages freehold to the value of $500
and in rural munii ipalilies ownership of real
estate. The other qualilicalions common to all
Canadian nnmicipalities, such as British allegi-
ance, residence in the municij)ality, niascidine
st\, and the attainment of majority, also obtain in
Manitoba. McMnbers of Council may by by-law
be awarded a salary or indcmmty, which in Winni-
peg is fixed at $300 prr amnim. Nominations for
the C'lmicil are luld annually on the "econd
Tuesday of Decendjer and the elections two
weeks later. In cities aldermen are elected for
two years and voting is by balldt.

Within one year from the passing of any by-
law, resolution or order, tho same may be at-
tacked by petition of any municipal elector pre-
sented to a Judge of the Court of Oueen's Bench
asking for the issue of a rule nisi. The famous
Manitoba School case was instituted by such a
rule requiring cause to be shown why a by-law
whereby the City of Winnipeg imposed a tax on
Catholics and Protestants, indiscriminate!)-, for
public school purposes should not be quashed for
illegality and uncf>nstitutionality. The municipal
i istitutions of Manitoba are obviously borrowed
and based upon those of Ontario and ensure a
like amplitude of power in matters of local
administration.

Province of British Columbia, Prior to Con-
federation what is now the Province of British
Columbia comprised the separate Colorties of
Vancouver's Island and British Columbia, and
the united Colony of British Columbia. In lieu
of statutes, ordinances were promulgated by the
I'xecutivc Council. The earliest of these relat-
ing to municipalities was passed on the 28th of
March, 1865, and authori^ced the Governor, on
the petition of what, in his own opinion, consti-
tuted a sufficient number of residents in any town
or place in the Colony, to grant mimicipal insti-
tutions by charter. In every such charter the
Governor might define the limits of the munici-
pality, divide it into wards, prescribe the mode
of elections, the qualification of voters, the
manner in which the revenue should be collected
and convey such corporate powers as might be
necessary. In 18S1 the Municipal Act was passed
by the Legislature of the Province confirming

i»«i

46i

t:ANAI).\: AN KNCYCI.OI'.KDIA.

(hi! lij^lils of fxistinf,' iiiiinicipiilitirH. This Ait
;iutli(tn/t(l the Lii-iitotiaiit-Cjoveriior-iii-Couiicil,
on the petition of a majority of frcoliolilcrs,
householders, free minors, pereniptora and leusc-
holdiMS, Ix'inj,' of thi! full ajM! of majoritv, com-
prisiii;,' not liss than thirty niiirs, to issue letters
patent incorporating siit-h lucahty as n mtinici-
|)ality. The Act further prescril)ed the mode of
election to the Municipal Council, which in the
cities was composed of the Mayor and aldcrimii,
and, ii! other municipalities, of the Reeve and
ciiiinciilors. The powers of the mniiicipalities to
communicate an>l enforce by-laws are spicifically
detailed, and tluy are restrained from incurring
liabilities beyond the revenue of the current year.
Province of Xeu> Ihiiitswick, The Kcvi-^ed Stat-
utes of New Hrunswick, published in 1H54,
contain, under various titles, a record of the
manner in which munici|)al institutions were
established and maintained prior to that date.
The Province was divided into fourteen counties,
each of which was divided into various parishes,
and certain towns were distiiiuuished as shire
towns. The earliest statutory provision for
constitutiufj a nuinicipality provided that, when
at least fifty resident freeholders, housholders
and ratepayers of any county petitioned the
Sheriff to that effect, a public nieetiiifj should be
called by him at the Court Mouse to determine
the propriety of incorporating the county, and if
not less than loo householders were present, and
if of these two-thirds were in favour of the cor-
|)oration, then upon the Sheriff's certihcate to the
riovernor-in-(x)Uncil, a charter of incorporation
was issued, conveyiiifj the rii^hts of municipal
govi'riimeiit, limitiiif;^, however, the holding of
real estate by the municipality to an annual value
of not more thcin ;r5oo. Provision was made for
the election of councillors, and the Chaitiiian of
the Council was styled the Warden. The vari-
ous by-laws which the Council might make were
described in detail. Provision was also made for
the election by the ratcjxiyers vii'a voce, of various
town and parish officers, viz., three overseers f(jr
the poor, two or more constables, three commis-
sioners of roads, one or more collectors of rates,
a town or parish clerk, two or more fence reeves,
pound keepers, a clerk of market, hog reeves,
boom masters, surveyors of dams, an inspector of

butter, tiralcTH of Icither, surveyors of giin<l-
stones, assessors of rales, surveyors of roads, field
ilrivers and timber drivers.

It is enacted that the election of these officials
should be confn iiied by the justices of the Peace
in Sessions. This latter body was authorized
to ap|)oint a county treasurer, county auditor,
trustees of schools, overseer of fisheries, port
warden, h.irbour masters, pilots and lire-wa»ds.
The ^jrrat roads and highways of the Province
were described, and regulations made for their
proper maintenance. It is noteworthy that,
whereas in the early days the formation of muni-
cipalities was optional with householders of the
county, later legislation formally enacted that in
each county there shall be a County Council
which shall exercise all the powers of a body
corporate.

The Statutes of the General Assembly of New
Hrunswic k for the year i.SijH, pagi; 34, contain a
consolidation of the law relating to municipalit«
ies. In each county there is a County Council,
the number of councillors for each county being
determined. It is noteworthy that the principal
cities of the Province, such as St. John, Moncton,
St. Stephen, Campbellton, as well as certain im-
portant parishes, besides having their local Coun-
cils are also represented in the larger County
Councils. The City of St. John, for example,
is represented in the County Council, and the
City and County of St. John by its Mayf)r and
fifteen aldermen who are ex-ojficio county council-
lors. The County Councils meet twice a year,
and meetings may be adjourned from day to day
for eiglit days, but for no longer pc riod. The
consolidation still contained the provisions re-
lating to the appoint ineiit of parish officers, but
these are now el(;cled at the general meeting of
the County Council instead of by the ratepayers.
The powers of the municipalities are exercised
through the County Council, by means of by-laws
specified in detail, no general grant of powers
being conveyed by the Legislature.

Prince F.ihvard hluiul. The Province of Prince
Edward Island has not felt the necessity of
developing municipal institutions to the same
extent as other Provinces vaster in extent and
relatively more sparsely settled. The Legislature
has largely performed the duties of a Town or

CANADA: AN KNCYCLOI'.KDI A.

K.J

Ciiiinty Council. In 1870, however, an Act wan
passfil for tliu better (jovorntntMit of risinn towns
and villages in this Ishnu!. Tlu; pruutnl'lu dc-
dared tliat " it is cxpudicnt tliiit iniiiiuipal
authorities bo established in ccit.iin towns and
villages." The rcsidciil;^ of any town or vill.i^ji;
desiring incorporation may petition tiic Lit iiti-n-
ant-Governor for such inc()r|)oration, whereupon
a Justice of th(! l\;acu is .'oixjintcd to lay out tlic
buiinds of the new niiiiiicipahty and to ciinvoi<c a
public meeting of the freeiiolders. Iftwo-thiids
of those (pialilied are in favour of tlie proposed
incorporation, a report to tiiat effect is made to
the Li( uteiiant-Ciovernor, who may tliereupon
issue his I'ricept to any Justice directing the
election of thice Wardens. The Wardens may
■ippoint a secretary-trcMSurer and assessors.
After incorporation any Ai Is of tiie Legislature
arewithoiit effect, but by-laws retjuire theapproval
of the Lieutenant-Governor before going into
effect. The by- laws that the Wardens may pass
are such as pioviile for the imposing and collect-
ing of assessments and for the government and
general management of affairs, but the assess-
ments are limited to one shilling in the pound on
the annual value of real estate. This statute,
however, has never been taiieii advantage of,
although still in force. Charlottetown and Suni-
merside arc the only incorporated towns 'n the
Island and are so constituted in virtue of special
Statutes which provide for the election of a Chair-
man and town councillors, ami enumerate the
various matters within the scope of the powers of
Councils.

Province of N ova Scotia. In this Province, as
appears from its Revised Statutes, the Grand Jury
and the Sessions of tlie Peace for many years
possessed powers of administration and control
in municipal matters. Chapter 57 of the Revis-
ion of 1S84 contains a permissive statute which
enabled counties and townships to obtain incor-
poration, and to exercise thereafter the powers
entrusted to Grand Juries and Sessions. Tlie
Town Reeves as heads of Townsiiip Councils
formed the County Councils and tiie heads of tiie
latter were called Wardens. In 1M79 an Act was
passed providing for the incorporation of the
counties with powers similar to those exercised in
the other Provinces. Members of the Council

are not coinposetl of the Town Reeves as formerly,
but aie elected dnectly by tin; ratepayers; the
councdIeiH thus elected tiien ciionse a Warden
from among their number. All by-laws, however,
must be laid before the Legislature within tiio
fust ten days of the next ensuing Session and are
sul)je(t to its ap|>roval.

In iS(j5 the Legislature amended and consoli-
dated the Acts relating to tiie incorporation of
towns. A town is not considend to be such
whose popnlalion witiiin an area of 500 acres does
not exceed 700 ; and can only be incorpcjratc.d
when the iniiahitants take steps to that end. Tiie
election of Ma) or and councnliors takes place on
the first Tuesday of each year, and provision is
made for the aiMiiial retirement of three council-
lors. The Town Council, in each incorporated
town, has the sole power and authority, subject
to the approval of the Governor-in-Council to
make by-laws and onliiiances for the good rule
and government of tiie town, and may from time
to time revise or amend tlie same. These powers
are more particularly detailed in upwards of
sixty special clauses. Towns may also maintain
Municipal Courts, police and fire-wards ; and
have also full control over all pul>lic streets, pub-
lic highways and lands, and all drains, sewers and
ditches. Broad powers of assessment are in-
trusted to the Council, who may annually assess
whatever sums may be necessary to defray the
current expenses of the year, and any deficit for
a previous year. Hut the inhabitants of the
towns are exempt from county rates. An inter-
esting provision, which recalls the old system of
the New England States, provides that before
applying to tlie Legislature to make any extraor-
dinary expenditure the Couiuil shall call a public
meeting of the ratepayers of the town, to whom
the proposed expenditure shall be submitted for
approval.

Suininary. The delimitation of powers by the
British North American Act reserved to each of
the Provinces the right to legislate with regard
to municipal institutions. Nowhere are the
rights of local governuKnt more freely conceded
or more generally exercised than in Canada. The
conspicuous features of our municipalities may
be summarized as an elective Council over which
presides a Mayor, Reeve or Warden with super-

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CANADA: AN ENCYCI.Or.F.DIA.

visory functions — all sworn to allegiance and to
faithful performance of duty. The powers of
Councils and the organisation of the inunicipaU
ity are usually detailed by statute, general clauses
conveying municipal powers not being consid-
ered sutiliciently definitive. Municipal Councils
are continuin}if boiiics notwithstanding interven-
ing elections and changes in pcrsoimd resulting
therefrom. The iiumicipality is represented by the
Co.incil. The Legislatures maintain a control over
all the municipalities. In two Provinces, Ontario
and Manitoba, the Legislatures i)rovide a general
Act which governs all municipalities, but in the

other Provinces special charters are granted to
towns and cities which do not desire to place
themselves umler the general laws also pro-
vided in s'ich Provinces. The occasional
complaint that Canada is thus too much gov-
erned by F"ederal, Provincial and Municipal
authorities need not occasion concern. The
vast e.xtent of our territory compels a generous
concession of local po.vers, while the free-
tloin and independence thus developed prove
ill the highest degree promotive of the comfort
i^i our citizens and their attachment to their
eouiitry.

V

v<

D'Altoii MfCartliy.Q.C, M.P.

THE ELECTORAL FRANCHISE IN CANADA

HV

THOMAS HODGINS, M. A , Q.C.. MasterinOrdinary of the Supreme Court of Ontario.

ELECTORAL franchise, or suffrage, is the
political privilege of the people to par-
ticipate in their own government, by
voting for such Parliamentary represen-
tatives or public officers as are requisite for the
efficient execution of the governmental powers
and functions of the nation. This right of voting
is for the purposes of preserving the vigilance
and continuity of the national sovereignty, of
pcTpetuating political liberty and for the protec-
tion of individual rights. The purposes therefore
being political and national, the right of voting
exists for the general and public interest of the
;hole community, and not for the benefit of the
individual voter. Political liberty and public
rights are defined and limited by the legal re-
straints of positive law, and net in any institu-
tional sense by nature. Positive law prescribes
the purposes for which the suffrage, or right of
voting, is to be exercised, and the conditions and
qualifications necessary for its enjoyment, and
the causes for which it may be forfeited.

Suffrage is the political right of government
which every free community or nation grants to
such number and class of its members, and with
such limitations, as the national and political in-
terests of tlie community or nation require. Mr.
Justice Blackstone in his Commentaries, has defined
franchise and liberty as synonymous terms ; and
says that the theory of the British political sys.
tem is that the ultimate sovereignty of the
nation is in the people, from whom spring all
legitimate autliority ; and that as the people
cannot debate or legislate in a collective body,
but by representation, this sovereignty consists
in the election of representatives for legislative
purposes. Therefore, in the election of knights,
citizens and burgesses to Parliament consists the

exercise of the democratical part of our consti-
99 4r)5

tution and it is. consequently, of importance to
regulate by whom and in what manner the
suffrages are to be givf^n.

In Saxon times when legislation was the pre-
rogative of the Sovereign and his \\ itan, their
legislative acts did not become operative until the
consent of the people was given in their general
assemblies, which were usually held in open and
uninclosed places, where the exclusion of per-
sons, who, under our modern political rules would
have been disfranchised, was impnicticable. And,
when the Crown conceded to the people the right
of electing Parliamentary representatives, the
elections to the House of Commons were made
by a popular assembly of the inhabitants called
the County Court. Both the early statutes and
the King's writs required that the member should
be elected freely and mdifferently by all the peo-
ple {o'niias inhabitantes) there present, who should
attend on the proclamation — the only statutory
qualification then prescribed being, that "the
choosers of knights of the shire be resident within
the same shires." There was no procedure for
having a scrutiny of votes ; and the only recog-
nized way of determining the election of the
member was by "voices or a show of hands."
What is known as the common law of England,
the lex lion scripta, derives its obligatory force
from the sponta-^eous observance of certain
usages and customs which public experience had
found to be practical and beneficial ; and the
general acceptance of certain precepts and max-
ims which had been -evolved from the principles
of common justice and right, and which without
any Parliamentary or regal process of legislation,
had spontaneously become interwoven with the
written laws of the nation.

The political right of franchise above described
had been exercised by all classes of the people.

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466

CANADA: AN ENCYCL0P/I:DIA.

whetlier freeholders or not, and including persons
of the hnvcst class but of free condition ( f life, at
Parlianieiitarv elections from a period prior to
the couiinencement of the recognized code of
English statute law in 1225 (20th Henry 3) until
1429 (8th Henry 6), when a property qualification
was, for the first time, required of Parliamentary
electors. Thus by the process which crystallizes
long usage and general customs, adopted without
executive compulsion, into the English common
law, and by the recognition of that usage and
custom in the statutes of the earlier Parliaments
and in the writs of election issued by successive
Sovereigns prior to 1429, a Pailiamentary fran-
chise, or political right of voting, had been spon-
taneously legislated into the Common and
Parliamentary law of England. This in modern
days would be described as " Universal or Man-
hood Suffrage "; while by restricting such political
right of voting to residents of the county it may
be said to have originated the so-called modern
politiciil doctrine of " one man, one vote."

The historic facts respecting this early franchise
are confirmed by writers on the election laws, one
of whom says : " When the elective system was
adopted in counties, the common law immediately
conferred the right of electing representatives
upon the community at large, to be exercised by all
free and lawful men." And in Prynne's " Drevia
Parliamentia " (1662) the former right of votingvvas
thus stated : " Every inhabitant and commoner in
every county had a voice in the election of Knights,
whether he was a freeholder or not." The Act
which abolished this early or common law fran-
chise, and prescribed that the elector's political
mtelligence and right to control the governmental
policy of the nation should depend upon the
value of the landed property he possessed, was
passed in 1429 (Stli Henry 6, chapter 7), and
was intituled : " What sort of men shall be
choosers, and who shall be Knights of Parlia-
ment ? " Its enactment is said to have been due
to the influence of the aristocratic element then
in Parliament. It disfranchised large numbers of
persons who had theretofore exercised the right of
electing members of the House of Commons, and
restricted the future exercise of that right to
".people dwelling and resident in the counties,
whereof every one of them shall have free land or

tenement to the value of 40s. by the year, at least,
above all charges." One of its provisions empower-
ed the Sheriff to take a scrutiny of the votes by
examining the voters upon oath as to the value of
their freeholds. The Act, however, only applied
to shire or county elections, and left the franchise
in boroughs and towns to be regulated by the
common law, or the local charters. Prom that
time to the present the voters for members of
the Imperial House of Commons are required
to possess a property qualification.

The political right of electing representatives
to a Colonial Legislature was in the early-formed
American Colonies regulated either by the Royal
Instructions to the Governor, or by the Royal
Charter establishing the Colony, or by a common
agrceir.vjnt among the founders of the Colony.
Some Royal Charters prescribed the English
statutory rule of a property qualification of the
value of 40S. sterling a year for the electors. But in
the New England and some other Colonies, the
right of election was vested in the " freemen."

In the former Provinces of Upper and Lower
Canada the Constitutional Act of 1791, 31 Geo.
III., c. 31, which granted to each Province a
Parliamentary constitution, prescribed that voters
in counties should be: Owners of lands held in
freehold, or \nfief, or in roture, or by virtue of the
Governor's certificate of the yearly value of 40s.
sterling ; and that voters in towns should be (i)
Owners of dwelhng houses and lots held as afore-
said, of the yearly value of ^^5 sterling ; and (2)
Tenants, residents of the town for twelve months
before the election, who had paid a year's rent of
/^lo sterling. The further qualifications for all
voters were: (rt) the full age of 21 years, and (6) sub-
ject of the Crown by birth, naturalization or con-
quest.

The disqualifications were : (a) being attained
for treason or felony ; (A) being within the des-
cription of persons disqualified by Acts to be
passed by the Provincial Legislatures. The dis-
qualification of voters prescribed by the Upper
Canada Acts were : (i) Persons who had sworn
allegiance to a foreign state, and had become
residents therein (40 Geo. III., c. 3; 4 Geo. IV., c.
3) ; (2) Persons (a) whose deeds of land had not
been registered three months before the election,
or (b) who had not been in the actual possession

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOP/KDIA.

467

■or receipt of the rents and profits of their land for
twelve months before such election (4 Geo. IV.,
c. 3). In 1820 a member for the proposed Uni-
versity of Upper Canada was provided for, the
electors of which, besides the qualifications re-
quired by law, were to bo those entitled to vote
in the Convocation of the University (60 Geo. III.,
or I Geo. IV., c. 2). In Lower Canada the dis-
qualifications were : (a) not bcinjj in receipt of
the rents and profits of his land for six months
prior to the election, unless within that time the
land came to him by descent or marriaj^e (2 Geo.
IV., c. 4); {!>) fraudulent grantees; and (c) persons
guilty of perjury (5 Geo. IV., c. 33). By the
Canadian Union Act, 3 & 4 Vic, c. 35 (Imp.), it
was declared (S. 27) that, until otherwise pro-
vided by the Legislature of United Canada, the
existing laws of Upper Canada, and the laws in
force in Lower Canada in 1838, relating to the
qualification and disqualification of voters, should
be continued. The United Legislature of Canada
made no provision respecting the qualification of
electors until 1849, when the prior Acts were
consolidated in 12 Vic, c. 27, and the property
franchise defined by the Imperial Act was con-
tinued. In 1853 and 1854 the franchise was ex-
tended to three classes of persons — owners, ten-
ants, or occupants of lands : in townships, of the
assessed actual value of $200, or the assessed
yearly value of $20, and in towns, of the assessed
actual value ot $300 or the assessed yearly value
of $30 (16 Vic, c 153 ; 18 Vic, c 7 ; iS Vic, c
87). In 1858 provision was made for the prepa-
tion of certified lists of voters with similar
qualificationsto those previously defined; all of
which provisions were subsequently consolidated
in C.S. C, c. 6. In Nova Scotia by R.S., N.S., c.
28 ; and in New Brunswick by the Act 18 Vic,
c. 31, a property qualification was required in
voters for members to their respective Legisla-
tive Assemblies. By the British North America
Act of 1867 (S, tji), and until the Parliament of
Canada otherwise provided, these Provincial laws
relative to the qualification of voters at elections
of members of the Legislatures in the several
Provinces, and the oaths to be taken by voters,
were made applicable to the election of members
of the House of Commons. Subsequently tem-
porary Acts, adopting the Provincial franchises

for the Dominion elections, were passed by the
Parliament of Canada ; in 1871, 34 Vic, c. 20,
amended by 35 Vic, c 13; and in 1873, 36 Vic,
c. 27. The Dominion Elections Act of 1874
superseded these temporary Acts and provided
(S. 40) that all persons qualified to vote at elec-
tions for the Provincial Legislature, and no others,
should be entitled to vote at the elections of
members of the House of Commons; and that
♦he lists of voters prepared for such Provincial
elections (where such lists were rccjuired to be
made) should be the lists of voters for elections to
the House of Cotnmoiis.

The Dominion Franchise Act of 18S5 repealed
the above provisions, but (S. g) adopted for Domi-
nion elections the Provincial manhood franchises
of British Columbia and Prince Edward Island,
and prescribed for the other Provinces an elabor-
ate Parliamentary franchise, classified under a
series of ten electoral titles, and combining, with
a minimised recognition of a real property quali-
fication, a manhood qualification dependent upon
certain family relations and residence, and also
giving recognition to a personal property qualifi-
cation dependent upon certain occupations,
residence and racial descent. The voters were
classified as (i) owners, (2) tenants and (3) occu-
pants of real property, (4) income voters, (5) real
property owners' sons, (6) farmers' sons, (7) ten-
ant farmers' sons, (8) fishermen, (9) annuitants
on real estate, and (10) Indians (except in Mani-
toba, British Columbia, Keewatin and North-
West Tcrritori<':i) in possession of a distinct and
improved lot of land on a reserve. This Fran-
chise Act was repealed in i8g8 by 61 Vic, c. 14,
and the Provincial Franchises for Provincial
elections wore again adopted for Dominion
Parliamentary elections, excluding, however, the
electoral disqualification of officials and others
under the several Provincial statutes. Such per-
sons on taking the following oath, in addition to
the electoral oath, may vote : " I (A.B.) do swear
that I am legally qualified to vote at this election,
and that I verilybelieve my name was omitted from

the list of voters by reason of my being

at the time such list was prepared, and for no

other reason." The Act disqalifies criminals,

lunatics, and paupers receiving charitable support.

In each of the several Provinces the primary

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468

CANADA: AN liNCYCLOIVKUIA.

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M' .

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5f

qualifications required of voters are (1898) as
follows :

1. Male persons whose names are registered or
entered on the list of voters for Provincial Legis-
lative elections.

2. Of the full af,'e of 21 years and

3. British subjects by birth or naturalization.
The Provincial or local qualifications are as
follows :

Ontario. 1,1) Residents (a) within the Province
for twelve months, {b) within the municipality for
which the voters' list is prepared for three
months, and (c) within the electoral district for
thirty days prior to tlie sittinf,'S for re},'istrationof
voters; or (2) Residents within the Province,
municipality and electoral district for (a) nine
months prior to the day fixed by statute or by-
law for beginning to make the assessment roll;
or (b) for twelve months prior to the last day for
making complaints to the County Judge under
the Ontario Voters' List Act. (See R.S.O.
(1897), c. 9. form No. 16.) Special provisions
enable the following to be registered as voters,
(a) members of the permanent Militia Corps,
(6) students attending educational institutions-
(c) enfranchised Indians, and (</) unenfranchised
Indians if the latter are entered on the Assess-
ment roll for real property in cities and towns of
the value of §200, or in villages and townships
of the value of $100. (R.S.O. (1897, c. 8.)

Quebec, (i) Owners or occupants of real prop-
erty of the value of $300 in cities, $200 or yearly
value of $20, in other municipalities ; (2) Tenants
paying an annual rent of $30 in citic<5 or $20 in
other municipalities; (3) Retired farmers, or
rentiers of tlie jearly value or equivalent of $100 ;
(4) Residents in the electoral district for a year,
having an income of $300. Special provisions
enable priests, cures, vicaires, missionaries and
ministers of religious Denominations, teachers
in public and separate schools, fishermen and
the sons of farmers and of proprietors to be regis-
^' rea as voters. Indians are not mentioned.
(59 Vic, c. 9 ; aiul 60 \'ic., c. 21).

iV '^':vlia. (i) Persons assessed for real

pro ' (including such as are exempted from
taxation) to the value of $150, or real and per-
sonal property to the value of $300; (2) Yearly
tenants of such property, (rt) where the owner is

assessed, or (i) who are assessed for real and
personal property assessed to the value of $300;
(3) Persons assessed for yearly income of $250
who are residents for one year prior to the 1st of
January next preceding the meeting of the re-
visers ; (4) Pishertnen owning boats, tackle and
real property to the value of $150; (5) Workmen
occuj)yiiig houses valued at $150, belonging to
the company employing them, if such workmen
have resided in such houses for a year from the
1st January next preceding the meeting of the
revisers. Special provisions enable the sons of
persons, or widows, whose properties are assessed
to an amount sufficient to give each son a prop-
erty qualification as above, to be registered as
voters. Indians are not mentioned. (52 Vic,
c. I ; 53 Vic, r. 3 ; 55 V.c, c. 8, and 55 Vic, c 9.)
Xcio Ihuusu'ick. (i) Owners of real estate of
the value of $100, or of real and personal prop-
ert)^ of the combined value of $400; (2) Persons
assessed for $400 yearly income, '\[ bona fide resi-
dents in the electoral district ; (3) Priests or other
Christian ministers or teachers in charge of con-
gregations; (4) Teachers and Professors em-
ployed in any school or college within the elec-
toral district ; (5) Residents in the electoral dis-
trict for twelve months next preceding the 1st
May of the year in which the voters' list is made
out. Special provisions enable students not
registered elsewhere to be registered as voters.
Indians are not nrentioned. (52 Vic, 3 ; 54 Vic,
c 10.)

Manitoba. (1) Residents {a) in the Province
for twelve months and (b) in the electoral district
for three months, prior to the date of the pro-
clamation appointing the registration clerk for
registering manhood suffrage voters. But Indians
and persons of Indian blood receiving annuities
within three years prior to the date of registration
of voters arc disqualified. (R.S.M., c. 49; and 57
Vic, c 9.)

British Columbia, (i) Residents (a) in the
Province for twelve months, and (i) in the elec-
toral district for two months, immediately previ-
ous to their claiming registration as voters.
Indians, Chinamen and Japanese are disqualified.
(C.S.H.C. 1897, c. 67).

Prince Edward Island, (i) In a toivn or roy-
alty (excepting Princetown and Royalty) persons.

CANADA : AN ENCYCLOIMCDIA.

469

who, for six months before the teste of the writ
of election, are {a) owners of freehold estates of
the yearly value of $6, or (b) occupants of houses
or lands of the yearly value of $6, or (c) occu-
pants of 8 acres of reserved land on Cardigan
Point in Georgetown ; (2) In an electoral district,
persons who for six months bi;fore such writ are
owners or occupants of buildings or land of the
yearly value of $6 ; (3) In a town or electoral dis-
trict, (a) twelve months* residence therein, and
(b) performance of statute labour, or payment
of commutation money for the preceding year
(unless exempted) ;(4) In Charlottetown and Sum-
merside, {a) twelve months' residence in the
electoral district, and (b) payment of Provincial
or civic poll-tax of not less than 75 cents for the
preceding year. Indians are not mentioned.
(53 Vic, c. I.)

North-West Territories. The qualifications for
voters in the Territories of Albcita, Assiniboia
and Saskatchewan are, (i) male persons; (2) of
the full age of twenty-one years ; (3) British sub-
jects, and (4) rusiclents, (ti) in the North-West
Territories for twelve months, and (/;) in the
electoral district for three months. Indians are
not entitled to vote (58 and 59 Vic, c 11 D.).
This is the only express provision in the Dominion
h'atutes respecting the disqualification or right
Ok Indians to vote.

In several of the Provinces persons holding
certain official positions, or engaged in certain
employments, or belonging to certain classes, are
disqualified from voting at Provincial elections,
but by section 6 of the Dominion Franchise Act,
1898, the following persons, if disqualified by
Provincial laws, may vote at Dominion elections,
on taking the prescribed oath : " No person pos-
sessed of the qualifications generally required by
the Provincial law to entitle him to vote at a
Provincial election shall be disqualified from
voting at a Dominion election merely by reason
of any provision of the Provincial law disqualify-
ing from having his name on the list, or from
voting — (a) The holder of any office ; or (b) Any
person employed in any capacity in the public
service of Canada, or of the Province ; or (c) Any
person belonging to or engaged in any profession,
calling, employment, or occupation ; or {d) Any
one belonging tc any other class of persons, who.

although possessed of the qualifications generally
required by the Provincial law, are, by such law,
declared to be disqualified by reason of their
belonging to such class." There is no provision
in the Dominion Franchise Act allowing persons
found guilty of corrupt practices {inauamvres
electorates), and therby disqualified from voting
at Provincial elections, to become qualified to vote
at Dominion elections.

Provincial General Elections since Confedera-
tion.

ONTARIO. gUKHEC.

Sept 1867 Aug. and Sept 1867

14th March 1871 June and July 1871

nth Jan 1875 30th June 1875

5th June 1879 24th April 1876

27th Feb 1883 25th November 1881

28th December 1886 14th October 1886

nth June 1890 17th June 1890

19th June 1894 8lh March 1892

1st March 1898 nth May 1897

NOVA SCOTIA.

September nth. ...1867
May 1871

December 1874

loth September ...1878

NEW BRUNSWICK.

June 1870

June 1874

June 1878

15th June 1882

13th June 1882 26th April 18S6

15th Junp 1886 2ist January 1890

2ist April 1890 22nd October 1892

15th March 1894 i6th October 1895

20th April 1897 February 1899

MANITOBA. HRITISH COLUMBIA.

27th December 1870 October 1871

23rd December 1874 September 1875

i8lh December 1878 April-May 1878

i6th December ...1879 June-July 1882

23rd January 1883 7th July 1886

13th June 1890

July 1894

July 1898

9th December 1886

nth July 1888

23rd July 1892

15th January 1896

NORTH-WEST TERRITORIES.

1888; 1891 ; October, 1894; November, 1898.

PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND.

April 1873 30th June 1886

10th August ...1876 30th January 1890

and April 1879 13th December.... 1893

ist May 1883 2Sth July 1897

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CANADA : AN ENCVCLOPiliDlA.

Canadian Parliaments during^ the Union.

Frotn 1841 to Confeilcratiou the Legislature
of Canada (Upper and Lower) met as follows:

First Parliament, 8 April, 1841 23 Sept., 1844.

1st Session 14 June, 1841 18 Scjit., 1841.

2nd do 8 Sept., 1842 12 Oct., 184J.

3rd do 28 Sept., 1843 g Dec, 1843.

Second Parliament, 12 Nov., 1844. 6 Dec, 1847.

1st Session 28 Nov., 1844. 29 Mar., 1845.

2nd do 20 Mar., 1846. g June, 1846.

3rd do 2 June, 1847. 28 Julj', 1847.

Third Parliament, 24 Jan., 1848. 6 Nov., 1851.

ist Session 25 Feb., 1848. 23 Mar., X848.

2nd do 18 Jan., 1849. 30 May, iS-jg.

3rd do 14 May, 1850. 10 Aug., 1850.

4th do 20 May, 1851. 30 Aug., 1851.

Fourth Parliament, 24 Dec, 1851. 23 June, 1854.
1st Session, 1st part, ig Aug., 1852. 10 Nov., 1S52.
1st do. 2n1l.part.14 Feb., 1853. 14 June, 1853.
2nd do 18 June, 1854. 22 June, 1854.

Fifth Parliament, 10 Aug., 1854. 28 Nov.. 1857.
1st Session, 1st part 5 Sept., 1854. 18 Dec, 1854.
1st do. 2nd part 23 Feb., 1855. 30 May, 1855.

2nd do 15 Feb., 1856. ist July, 1856.

3rd do 26 F"eb., 1857. 10 June, 1857.

Sixth Parliament, 13 Jan., 1858.... 10 June, 1861.

1st Session 25 Feb., 1858.... 16 Aug., 1858.

2nd do 29 Jan., 1859 4 May, i85g.

3rd do 28 Feb., i860 ig May, i860.

4th do 16 Mar., 1861 18 May, 1861.

Seventh Parliament, 15 July. t86i. 16 May, 1863.

1st Session 20 March, 1862. g June, 1862.

2nd do 12 Feb., 1863. 12 May, 1863.

Eighth Parliament, 3 July, 1863.... 15 Aug., 1866.

1st Session 13 Aug., 1S63....15 Oct., 1863.

2nd do ig Feb., 1864.. ..30 June, 1864.

3rd do ig Jan., 1865.. ..18 Mar., 1865.

4th do 8 Aug., 1865.... iS Sept., 1865.

5th do 5 June, 1S66... .15 Aug., 1866.

Canadian Parliaments since Confederation.

Se»ion.

FIKST PARLIAMENT.
Opening.

ProroK*(ion.

1st Session 6 Nov., 1867 22 May, 1S68.

2nd do 15 April, 1869 22 June, 1869.

3rd do 15 Feb., 1870 22 May, 1870.

4th do 15 Feb., 1 87 1 i4Aprii, 187K

5tli do II April, 1872 14 June, 187a.

Dissolution July 8, 1872.

SECOND I'.VULIAMENT.

1st Session 15 March, 1873 13 Aug., 1873^

2nd do 2 j Oct., 1S73 7 Nov., 1873.

Dissolution Jan. 2, 1874.

THIKU PARLIAMENT.

1st Session 26 Mar., 1874 26 May, 1874.

2nd do 4 Feb., 1875 8April,iS75.

3rd do 10 Feb., 1876 12 \pril, 1876.

4th do 8 Feb., 1877 28 April, 1877.

5th do 7 Feb., 1878 10 May, 1878.

Dissolution Aug. 17, 1878.

EOURTH PARLIAMENT.

1st Session 13 I'eb., 1879 15 May, 1879.

2nd do 12 Feb., 1880 7 May, 1880.

3rd do g Dec, 1880 21 Mar., 1881.

4th do g Feb., 1S82 17 May, 1882.

Dissolution May 15, 1882.

FIFTH PARLIAMENT.

1st Session 8 Feb., 1883 23 May, 1883.

2nd do 17 Jan., 1884 ig April, 1884.

3rd do 2g Jan., 1885 20 July, 1885.

4th do 25 Feb., 1886 2 June, 1886..

Dissolution Jan. 15, 1887.

SIXTH PARLIAMENT.

1st Session 13 April, 1887 23 June, 1887.

2nd do 28 Feb., 1888 22 May, 1888.

3rd do 31 Jan., i88g 2 May, 1889.

4th do 16 Jan., i8go 16 May, 1890.

Dissolution Feb, 3, 1891.

SEVENTH PARLIAMENT.

1st Session 20 April, 1891 30 Sept., 1891.

2nd do 25 Feb., i8g2 9 J'dy, 1892.

3rd do 26 Jan., i8g3 i April, i8g3.

4th do 15 Mar., 1894 23july, i8g4,

5th do 18 April, i8g5 22 July, i8g5.

6ih do 2 Jan., i8g6 23 April, 1896.

Dissolution April 23, i8g6,

EIGHTH PARLIAMENT,

1st Session ig Aug., i8g6 5 Oct., 1896^

2nd do 25 March, 1897 24 June, 1897.

3rd do 3 Feb., i8g8 13 June, 1898,

SECTION VII.

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT, FORESTS AND FISHERIES,

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THE INDUSTRIAL HISTORY OF CANADA.

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J. J. CASSIDRY, Editor of tlie " Canadian Mamifaclurer."

IN reviowinp; the history <>f tin; industrial pm-
Rress of (".anada since it came under the
British lli^ in 170,5, it may he expedient to
divide tliat history into four periods, hecause
of the varying political and liscalconditions which
existed (hiring thos(! epochs, and which exercised
very material inlhii-nce on that development.

lurst, the period from 176J to 1842. In 17^).},
by the Treaty of Paris, Canada was cedeil to
Great Hritain. In 1774 the (Juehec Act, pro-
claiming the Provmce to be under the British
flag, was passed by the Imperial Parliament. In
1701, the Constitutional Act was passed by the
same authority, under which the frrritory was
divided into two Provinces called Upper Canada
and Lower Canada. In 1841, the union of these
two Provinces was consummated under the name
of the Province of Canada, and its Legislature
granted responsible government, which, however,
was not definitely established until 1847.

Second, the period from 1842 to 1855. During
the earlier part of this period Canada enjoyed
great benefit from the preferential treatment
accorded to its products in the British market ;
but in 1846 the Corn Laws were suspended, and
in the following year all the tariff preferences
which Canada and other Colonies had enjoyed in
the British market in grain, lumber, timber, ani-
mals and their products, etc., were swept away.
The reciprocity treaty between Canada and the
United States was signed in June 1854, went into
effect in Canada in October of that year, and in
the United States in March 1855. This Treaty
expired on March 17th, 1866, under denounce-
ment by the United States.

Third, the period from 1855 to 1870. During
this period the Provinces of Upper Canada, Lower
Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia were
united under the Act of Confederation, as the

Dominion of Canada ; the names of U|>per Can-
ada and Lower Canada being changed to Ontario
and (,)uebec respectively. During this period the
industrial progress of Canada was largely aftected
by the eleven years of the operation of the reci-
procity treatv with the United States.

Foiiith, the period from 1870 to 1897. In 1871
the Province of Prince Edward Island, with its
population of 94,021 ; British Columbia, with
36.224; and Manitoba, with 18,995; were brought
into the Confederation. In 1875 Rupert's Land
and the North-West Territories were detached
from Manitoba and placed under separate juris-
dictions as the provisional districts of Assiniboia,
Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Athabasca. This
brought the population of the Dominion up to
3,6j5,ooo. By this union, all of the British
possessions in North America, except the Island
of Newfoundland, became included in the Domin-
ion of Canada, and these accessions e.xercised an
important influence on the fiscal policy and con-
sequent industrial progress of the country.

As introductory to the period from 1 763 to 1842,
one or two facts of commercial interest may be
noted. In 1736 about 80,000 minots of wheat
(the equivalent of about 90,000 bushels) were
exported from Canada. Dr. Lillie, in his work
upon Canada, refers to the arrival in 1752, at
Marseilles, 'France, of two ships laden with
wheat from what was then called New France.
During the enjoyment of the special advantages
which Canada derived as a Crown Colony, from
the preferential treatment accorded to her pro-
ducts in the markets of the Mother Country, its
industrial energies, up to 1842, were largely de-
voted to farming, lumbering, and ship buildinjj.
Besides these there were numerous flour and oat-
meal mills, saw-mills, asheries, tanneries, brew-
eries, distilleries, carding and fulling mills, foun-

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474

CANADA: AN KNCYCI.OI'.KDIA.

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dries, a^rictilturHl imi)li'fnctit works, wuroii and
Ciirria(,'e works, etc. Most of these industrial
establislnneiits, apart from inillnin and sliip-l)iiild-
ing, were small concerns of local character, de-
peiidinj,' for their supplies of material upon their
immediate vicinity, and m.iiiily upon ((iniitry
roads for tiie transportation and distributi(jn of
their products. Up t<j iS^j there was only one
railway in operation in C'anada, that between
Laprairie and St. Jolm's, Hue., its len{,'th heiiiLj
si.xteen miles. The water comtnunicatioii between
Upper Canada and .Montreal was very defective
because of the small ( a|)acity of the batteaii canals
between I'rescott and Montreal, and tiie cost of
transportation was in consetiuence enormously
high. With such defective facilities for com-
merce between the two 1 rovinces.or even between
different sections of the same Province, it would
have been impossible to undertake manufacturiiij,'
on any extensive scale.

The statistical history of tluise eif,dity years is
mainly a record of tlie increase in population, the
extension of at,'riculture, and the |)rogiess made
in lumberiiif,' and ship-building. A few statistics
affortl a fair description of the expansion of Can-
ada during the period under consideration. In
1784 the population of Lower Canada was iij,-
012 ; number of arpents of land under cultivation,
1,569,818. In 18.27 the population was 47i,.}7(j;
number of ar|)cnts under cultivation, in crops,
i,oo2,igH, and under pasture, i,()44, j()7.

Many incidents which occurred during these
eighty years bear testimony to the enterprising
spirit of the merchants of Lower Canada — espe-
cially Montreal. In 1764 only 67 vessels arrived
at the city of Quebec from the sea, with an aggre-
gate tonnage of 5,500 tons; while in 1841 1,221
vessels arrived there, having an aggregate of
425,148 tons. In 1809 the second steamboat
ever constructed on the American continent was
built at Montreal by Mr. John Molson, and was
named Accummodaliou, her maiden trip being
made to yuebec. The first sod turned towards
the construction of the Lachine canal was on July
17th, 1821. In 1825 this then small canal was
finished at a cost of $440,000, but it soon proved
inadequate to the requirements of trade. In the
same year efforts were made to induce the Gov-
ernment to deepen Lake St. Peter so that vessels

of 250 tons burden might reach Montreal from
the sea. In iS^i the steamer Royal Williniii was
towed up from Ouebec, where it was built, to
Montreal to receivi- its engines. This steamer
made a voyage to Halifax and Moston, and was
the first ocean steamer that ever crossed the
Atlantic.

Shipbuilding was a nourishing industry 111
Lower Canada in the middle of the last centmv.
In 1752 ten slii|)s were built at Quebec, of from
forty to one hundred tons burden each, while in
184 1 sixty-four shi|)s were built there, aggreg.it-
ing 2 J, 122 tons. In 1850 nine ship-yanls in <,_)u( -
bee employed I,.?,j8 men; in addition to which
there were a numbiir of smaller establishments.
The quality of the ships built was good. Messrs.
Tonge cV Co,, of Liverpool, in their circular for
1852, say : " We have much pleasure in noticing
a marked improvement in the model, material,
and finish of Canadian ships, the majority of
which have been constructed to class for six or
seven years, and to which a decided preference is
given by buyers over the spruce ships, or those
classing for but four or five years, even at a much
increased price. .\mong those which have
arrived within the last eight months will be found
some as fine specimens of naval architecture as
has ever been produced, combining both carrying
and sailing properties of no ordinary kinds."

The period from 1842 to 1855 was a critical
one in the history of Canada's commercial and
industrial development. Hy thvi suspension of
the Hritish Corn Laws in 1846 — soon after fol-
lowed by their permanent repeal, and by other
Acts involving the almost total abolition of
the Imperial duties on grain and animal pro-
ducts, timber, and ships — all the valuable ad-
vantages which Canada had enjoyed in the
British market for so many years under the
preferential duties granted to the Colonies, were
suddenly swept away. For years the financial,
commercial, agricultural, manufacturing, and
other industrial interests of Canada were vir-
tually paralyzed. Referring to the disaster that
had overtaken the country. Lord Elgin, the then
Governor-General, wrote : " Peel's bill of 1846
drives the whole of the produce of the country
down the New York channels of communication,
destroying the reveuue which Canada expected to

CANADA : AN KNCYCI-OIM-.DIA

475

derive from Canal (liicn, and rniniti^ at once mill
owniTS, forwarders, and int'rrhants. The conse-
qiKMKo IS lliat private property is iii)sal(Ml)lo in
Canada, and not a sliillin(; can Ix; raised <>n the
credit of tin; Province." And a^jiin he wrote :
"What makes it more serious is that all the pr)p-
erty ;)f which Canada is thus rohlxd is trans-
planted to the other si<le of the line, as if to make
Canadians fetil more liitterlv how mm h kinder
England is to the children who desert her than to
those who remain faithful."

As the condition of Canada mider the Acts of
the Im[)erial Parliain('nt prior to and afler 1846
was so radically altered, this (,'reat diffi.-rence
should be stat(!(l so us to show how disastrous
were the immediate effects of the fiscal policy
which dreat Britain had adoptcni. Without ^'oiiif,'
further back than 1842 to illustrate the workm^j
of the Corn Laws it may be stated that in April
of that year, an Imperial Act was|)assed to amend
the laws for the importation of corn, under which
heavy duties, on a sliding; scale, were imposed on
all grain. Hour, and meal imported from foreifjn
countries ; and the duties were increased or de-
creased accordiufj; to the price of wheat as report-
ed in the wet^kly official returns in the British
markets. A nnich lower stated amount of duty
was to be levied on wheat or flour imported from
any of the British possessions. In this latter
case, the duty was fixed at five shilliiifjs per Im-
perial quarter for wheat, and the duty on the
barrel of if)6 pounds of flour was to be equal to
the duty on 38.^ gallons of wheat. The Canadian
Government was given to understand that even
this reduced rate of duty wouKI not have been
imposed but for the fact that Canada admitttid
United States wheat free of duty, which wheat, or
the flour made therefrom, might fnul its way into
British ports at the Colonial rates of duty.
Learning this, the Legislature of Canada passed
an Act imposing a duty of three shillings sterling
per Imperial quarter on all wheat imported into
the Province. This was done with the hope or
expectation that Great Britain would remove or
reduce the duties on Colonial wheat and flour,
fixed by the Imperial Act above alluded to. The
Canadian Act was reserved by the Governor-Gen-
eral for the consideration of Her Majesty. The re-
sult was that in July,i843,the Imperial Parliament

passedan Act reducing the duty on wheat and flour,
the produce of Canada, imported thence into the
United Kingdom; under which Act, all wheat
and flour, the produce of Canada, imported into
the I'mle.l Kingdom for consum|)tion there,
should he a(liiiitt(!il sul)j(!ct to a duty of one
shilling |)er <piartcr of wheat, and to a duty on
flour |)er barrel of i()6 pouiuls equal to the duty on
38.J gallons of wheat.

This was a g(!nerou3 and welcome concession
to Canada, and imparted a vigoiiroiis stimulus to
two of its most important interests, milling and
forwarding, and was eminently calculated to
largely increase the revenues derived from the
canals and harbours. An avenue was thus open-
ed for a large traile in flour maoe from American
wheat, as the flour tluis mamifactiireil was
admitted into ICngland on the same terms as if
made from Canadian wheat. With wheat valued
at lifty shillings in ICngland, the case stood thus :
The Canadian miller who imported wheat from
the United States, paid the Canadian duty on
4A bushels, the equivalent of a barrel of l()6
pounds of flour, or 40,^ cents. If the flour was
shipped to England he paid the duty there, 14^
cents, or a total duty of 55 cents. With wheat
at fifty shillings in ICnglaiul, United States flour
there would pay $1.00 per barrel duty. Under
this favourable legislation a large amount of
Canadian capital was invested in new flouring
mills of large capacity, in enlarging and improving
old mills, in buililing warehouses and elevators,
and in constructing sailing vessels, steamers and
barges for lake and canal navigation, of tnuch
greater capacity than had been formerly in use.

Nor was it only in wheat and other grains and
flour that Great Britain discriminated in favour
of her Colonies, but also in cattle and their
products, and in timber and ships. The duties
on horses, cattle, and sheep, when imported from
any of the British possessions, were only one-
half of the rates levied on similar foreign animals ;
the duties on hams, bacon, and meats, salted or
fresh, were only one-fourth of the rates on similar
foreign products, and clover and grass seeds and
hay were rated at half the duties imposed upon
similar foreign articles. A duty of twenty-five
per cent, was levied on foreign-built ships, but
not upon colonial ships. The duty on square

476

CANADA AN KNC^VCI.UI'.KDIA,

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tirnhor, if from foroi(»n cniintries, was twctity-ftve
sliilliii),'s per loud of (ifly iMibic feet. Imt if from
Mritisli posscflsioim, oiiu shillinK per load; on
dttids, if from foreit^n coiintrieH, twcnty-fi),'ht
sliiiliiifjs per l<vid, if from Uritish possessions, two
shilliiiKs; oil stiivus, if from foreign eoiintries,
twenty-eiKlit sliillin>,M, if from Mritish |)ossossi()ns,
two sliilliii|^;s pur load; on liiml)er when planed
or otherwise prepared for iisi-, if from forei^jn
countries, ten per cent., if from Hritish possessions,
five piT cent. Still another advuntiif^u which
Canada enjoveii was the control of the supply of
flour and lumher for the liiitish West luilies,
these l)cin;j suhjcft to he ivy duties there except
when imported from liritish possessions. An-
other indirect advantajjc conferred upon ("anada
by (ireat Uritain was throuKh an Imperial Act
puarantecin^j the payment of interest on a loan of
;f 1, 300,000 to be raised by the people of Canada.
This enabled the Canadian Government to bor-
row this amount of money on v'ery favourable
terms, and to proceed at once with many im-
portant public works which were urgently required.

These iire some of tlie valuable advantaf,'es
which Canada derived from its Imperial connec-
tion. The disadvanta>,'es were unimportant. The
Hritish (Government exercised sovereifjn control
over the customs tariff and the ctjUectcjrs of cus-
toms, which was not fully relinquished until 1^47.
It also controlled the post office service, estab-
lislu;d post offices and mail routes, and fixed rates
of posta{,'e. It had also, through its navigation
laws, the monopoly of all the shipping; trade by
sea, which included that to and from Canada,
These last two matters of control were not sur-
rendered until after 1H47.

Up to 1846, although the cost of transportation
of af^ricultural products from Upper Canada to
Europe, via Montreal, was much f,'reater than
from the Western States via the Erie Canal and
New York, this disadvantage was more than
counterbalanced by the difference between the
duties levied in Great Hritain on United States
and on Canadian products. Under such circum-
stances Canada was enabled not only to forward
all its own products by its own St. Lawrence
route, but had good reason for expecting to divert
a large proportion of the trade of the Western
States to the same route.

In if^.\i>. however, the position of Canada was
completely changuil. In that year an Imperial
Act was passed to amend the laws relating to the
importation of corn, by which, until tin* tirst day of
I'Vbniary. tM4(), the duties on all gr.iins and Hour,
foreign and colonial alike, were fixed at one shiU
ling per Imperial quarter for wheat, and four
pence halfpenny per hundredweight on tlour and
meal of all kinds. Appended to this Act was a
schedule of the duties charged on wheat, which
had been in force, but were now repealed at
follows :

If valiii'd under 48 shillings per cpiarter, to pay
a duty of 10 shillings per (]uarter.
If 4H/. and under 4()/. to pay a duty of <)/. perqtr,

4<J/- " 50/. " »/. "

50/. •' 5'/. " 7l' "

51/. " 5J/. " 6/. "

52/. " 5.}/. " S/. "

5 i/. and upwards. " 4/. "

On wheat tlour the iliity per barrel was e(|ual to
the duty on jSj gallons of wheat. Owing to the
failure of the potato crop in Ireland in 1846, and
the lamentable famine which followed. Imperial
Acts were passed early in 1H47, suspending until
September of that year the duties on buckwheat
and meal, Indian corn, and cornmeal and rye;
and allowing the importation of any of these
articles from any country in foreign ships, any-
thing in the Navigation Laws to the contrary not-
withstanding. In 1846 an Act had been passed
which reduced the duty on foreign timber. The
suspension of the duty on wheat was soon fol-
lowed by an Act imposing a duty of one shilling
per quarter on that article, generally described as
a registration duty, which was continued for
about twenty years, after which grain of all kinds
and tlour and meal, were made entirely free of
duty.

By this legislation all the preferential advant-
■ ages which Canada had enjoyed in the markets of
Great Britain were abolished, but it was not
until June, 1847, that the effect of these Acts was
fully realized. Owing to the failure of the potato
crop in Ireland there was such a demand for
foreign breadstuffs that prices during the winter
of 1846-47 advanced rapidly, and continued to do
so until the following month of May. The
exhaustion of the Government appropriation

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477

to help the <l<*«titnte p«»opl« of In-Iaiid t«'n<l('<l ti)
iniikc tnoiiry dciir ; tlu! i;i^'aiiti(' railway Imhlilo
which IIiiilHon, tin* so-calliMi railway kiii^, hail
ititlutvil, 8ii(l(ii!iily burst undor the pressure of a
tight money niarket, and a (iiiaiuial panic follow-
ed throiif{h which even iCast India Iximls d<-( liiicij
rapidly. Hrtindsttitts of all kimU were then flow-
in^ i'lto liritish pnits in vast i|iiantitii's, attracted
thither by the very hi^h values that had prevailed,
and these, owin),' to the linancial troubles, were
sold ut ruthlessly sacrihced prices.

In Canada an unusually lar^'e stock of bread-
stuffs had acciiiiiiilaled, and all the inland lake
and river craft available |)roved totally inadi^quati;
to move the quantities ofh-rin^ for transportation ;
warehouses were filled with wheat and Hour, and
the ocean fleets at Montreal and (hiebec were
hcin(^ loaded and despatched as rapidly as
possible. With such a rush of business, and with
hif,'h prices prevailinvj for everythini,', Hour havinj,'
advanced to $8.50 per barrel in Montreal, very
little apprehension was felt ret'.irding the newly
introduced free trade po'icy of Ciieat Hntain.
Those were the days of only fortnii,'htly mails from
Europe. The last mail from l'Iiif,'land, received
in May, had brought most encoura^iiif,' news for
owners and shippers of breadstuffs ; the first mail
in June brun^ht intelli(;cnce of the financial panic
there, the collapse of value of all kinds of secur-
ities, and the frightful decline in prices of bread-
stuffs. The value of flour in Montreal immedi-
ately declined $4.00 per barrel, and all other
breadstuffs in proportion. The losses sustained
by exporters, merchants, nullers, grain dealers,
and others were enormous, and failures were
numerous. Then arose the ipiestion as to what
would become of all the investments which the
Imperial policy of 1843 had encouraged in the
building of new warehouses, mills, elevators,
vessels, etc. !

To add to the general embarassment the
timber business, which had then grown to one of
great magnitude, became suddenly and distress-
ingly depressed. In 1845, which had been a very
prosperous year for the lumber and timber trade,
the quantity of square timber received in (Quebec
aggregated 27,702,344 cubic feet, of which
24,223,000 feet were exported, the exports 7'ia the
St. Lawrence being valued at $5,587,452, to

which should be addaH $1,200,000 for iiaweil
lumber exported to the United States, the total
valiii! being fb, 787,452.

This year of Ruccessful tri<lc led to an immense
increase of production during the following
season. The <pianfity of septan; timber received
in (Jiiebec in 1846 was 37.300,643 cubic fe-et, of
which only 24,242,689 feet (about the same
quantity as in 1845) was ex|)orted. In the
succeeiling ye.ir (1847) the ipiaiilily rfceive<l in
^hiebec, including the stock hel I over from 1846,
was 44,q27,253 cubic fe( t. Tin' (inantity |>r<)-
diiced below 'Jiiebec, and in New Hrunswick, had
also been largely increased. The over-prodiii.tion,
induced largely by the |>rotitable business of 1845,
was attributed in part to an injudicious regulation
of the Crown Lands Dep.irtment reepiirini', that a
stated quantity of timber should be cut on every
limit in each season. The abolition of the
preferential duties on timber in (Ireat Mritain
occurring at the same time as the over-pnxluciion
in Canada, placed the timber interests of the
country in a disastrous condition, from which it
recpiired many years to recover.

When the conditions of the two chief industries
of Canada — the agricultural and timber — in 1847
are consitlered, together with the frightful losses
sustained by the banks, the lumbermen, merch-
ants, millers, forwarders, and others, it is not sur-
prising that a feeling of sullen and gloomy
despair prevailed where but a short tunc before
the prospects had been bright and satisfac-
tory.

Up to 1847 the revenues of Canada had been
derived chielly from customs duties, which were
iin|)osed partly by Imperial and partly by Pro-
vincial statutes. The collectors of customs acted
under instructions from the Home Government,
and were independent of the Provincial Govern-
ment, and the revenue was apportioned between
the two Provinces by a Board of Commissioners.
In i83() the proportion was fixed at three-fifths
for Lower Canada ;md two-fifths for Upper Can-
ada. This method of collecting revc;nues, ami
the apportionment of them, was a cause of fre-
quent friction. Upper Canada was in debt and
required money for the construction of public
works of pressing necessity, and desired an in-
crease of revenue. Lower Canada had ample

"Til

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CANADA. AN ENCYCLOIVKOIA.

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revcmip and objected to any increase of customs
duties.

Under authority of an Act of the Imperial
Parliament, to enable tlie Legislatures of certain
l^ritish possessions to repeal or reduce certain
duties, the control of the customs tariff pas;,ed
into the hands of the Canadian Legislature. In
July, 1847, this Legislature passed an Act repeal-
ing the Imperial Act and various Provincial Acts,
and imposing certain duties in lieu of all other
duties. Under the customs tariff then passed,
higher duties for revenue purposes were imposeil
than had been previously authorized by the Im-
perial Parliament, no distinction being made
between Hritish and foreign merchandise. This
new power in the hands of a Canadian Parliament
was destined to have a close connection with, and
to exercise an important inilueiice iijxjn, Canadian
industrial eiiterjirise.

With all preferences in the British markets
abolishe<l, the question of cheaper inland and
ocean transportation pressed itself upon the at-
tention of the Canadian Legislature. The Rid-
eau Canal was opened in itS 52, ami the W'elland
Canal in 1833, but the Cornwall Canal not until
1842; the Heauharnois Canal in 1845; the Wil-
liamsburg Canals in 1847 ; and the enlarged La-
chine Canal in 1848. These latter completed a
much more efficacious means of transportation
between the Western Lakes and Montreal than
existed in 1842, but proved inade(]iiate to estab-
lish any superiority in point of ciieapness over the
route 7'ia the P>ie Canal to New York. In 1850
the work of deepening the ship channel between
Montreal and (Quebec was assigned to the Har-
bour Commissioners of Montreal ; the work was
commenced in 1S51, and before the close of that
season the depth of the channel had been in-
creased from II to 13 feet, the cost of which was
not at the expense of the revenue ot the country,
but of the trade of the port. In 1850, for the
first time, foreign vessels ascended the St. Law-
rence to Montreal to take in cargo. In 1853 the
ship channel had been deepened to 15 feet, and
the steamer Gcno:'d arrived in Montreal, being
the first ocean steamer ever to reach that city.
She was followed by the Sarah Sands and twice
by the Lady E^liuton, but these were compara-
tively small vessels and larger ships were required

to conduct a profitable ocean trade. In 1855 the
ship channel had been lieeptMied to i6 feet 6
inches. Between 1842 ;ind 1856 the wharfage
accommotlation in Montreal Harbour was in-
creased from 4,f)50 to 8,440 lineal feet. In ad-
dition to the improvements at Montreal and
on the ship channel below that city, large sums
were expended on light-houses and piers on the
lower St. Lawrence. Ihe cost of transportation
between Montreal and Lurope was being greatly
reduced, and so also were the rates of ocean in-
surance, through the lessened dangers of naviga-
tion.

In addition to a vigourous policy looking to the
reduction of cojt in ocean transportation the
Legislature appropriated very liberal sums in aid
of railway construction and other internal im-
provements. Towards railway construction it
agreed to lend §12,000 per mile for all railways
completed in such thorough condition as to pass
the inspection of the Government engineers. In
order to enable municipalities to undertake or aid
needed local public works and improvements, a
loan fund of ten million dollars for each of the
two Provinces was established, through which
municipalities might obtain Government deben-
tures in exchange for their own, on condition that
the projects to be assisted should be approved by
the Governor-in-Coiincil. All of the fund of
Upper Caiiada was quickly taken up, also part of
that for Lower Canada, .jiit the greater part of
this latter was cancelled in consideration of the
amount of public funds which were appropriated
to the redemption of the Seigneurial Tenure in
that Province.

In 1842 there were only sixteen miles of railway
in operation in Canada; in 1847, fifty-four miles;
in 1855, 877 miles, with a large number of miles
under construction. In July, 1854, the first stone
of the Victoria Bridge, which spans the St
Lawrence River at Montreal, was laid. In the
same year Mr. John Redpath established an
extensive sugar refinery in Montreal, an industry
which resulted in tlie establishment of a direct
trade between Canada and the West Indies and
other foreign sugar-producing countries.

It may be thought that Canada was somewhat
rash in undertaking such extensive projects and
incrirring so much debt. A few of the enterprises

CANADA: AN liNCYCLOP/KDIA.

479

may have been in advance of thoir immediate re-
quirements, and not warranted by a consc-zative
estimate of their probable advantages. Hut
under the depression which followed the repeal of
the Corn Laws a vigourous development policy
was absolutely necessary. Not only did the
expenditures on public works greatly alleviate
this depression, but the good judgment of those
who promoted them was fully justified by the
results. On frequent occasions the charges for
transportation and sale of a bushel of wheat from
the time of its delivery from a farmer's wagon at
ports on Lake Ontario to receipt of returns from
England amounted to seventy-five cents, which
was more than the price obtained in England in
some subsequent years. Frequently during the
past few seasons this service has been transacted
at a cost of about fifteen cents per bushel.

In the early part of the period from 1855 to
1870 the prosperity of the country was greatly
promoted by the high prices obtained for wheat
and other farm products during, and for a short
time after, the Crimean war, and this prosperity
was further promoted by the large amounts
expended in the construction of the Grand Trunk
Railway and other similar enterprises, which
created a large demand and good wages for
labour, and a great demand for horses, lumber,
timber, hay, oats, potatoes and other farm pro-
ducts.

In 1857 the Russian war had ceased to
influence prices, the Grank Trunk Railway had
been completed, and there was a general failure
of the wheat crop throughout Canada. These
incidents tended to create a depression in all the
industries of the country, from which the recovery
was slow until 1S61 when the war of secession
in the United States broke out, which, for the
following four or five years opened up an extensive
demand in that country, and at good prices, for
all kinds of Canadian products, which were
admitted there duty free under the Reciprocity
Treaty then in force.

It is not intended to here discuss this Treaty
at any greater length than may be necessary to
show its influence upon the industrial progress of
Canada. Co-incident with the abolishment of
the preferential duties with which Great Britain
had favoured Canada, occurred the beginning of

the shipment in bond through the Un'ted States
to Europe of a large proportion of the surplus
products of Upper Canada, the cost of transport-
ation of which was frequently less than by the
St. Lawrence route. This American route pos-
sessed the advantage of having sea-board ports
open at all seasons of the year, and in addition
to this there was quite a large market in New
York, Boston, and other American cities, for
Canadian wheat, flour, oats, seetls, fish, lumber,
etc. On the other hand Canada imported largely
from the United States of corn and cornmeal,
hog products, coal, etc.

Soon after the passing of the Canadian Tariff
Act of 1847, under which there was no longer to
be any disc-.iiuinatioii in favour of British goods,
a considerable and luiniially increasing trade in
general merchandise became established between
Canada and the United States. In some lines of
manufactured goods, such as heavy cottons, boots
and shoes, machinery, hardware, glassware, musi-
cal instruments, books, household furniture, etc,
American goods were preferred to others, partly
because of their cheaper prices, but largely
because of their better adaptation to Canadian
styles and requirements. Not only in manufac-
tured articles, but also in groceries, sugars, teas,
coffee, tobacco, naval stores, dried fruits, spices,
etc., a large business was carried on by American
merchants with Canada. By removing the re-
strictions imposed by the bonding system and of
customs duties upon the interchange of raw
products, a much larger commerce between the
two countries might have bc^n transacted to
mutual advantage, because, owing to differences
in soil and climate, each cumitry was better
adapted than the other for the production of
certain articles. The loss of revenue a*^^ the
moderate rates of duty then prevailing would not
have been a very serious matter to either country.

In Canada public feeling was strongly in favour
of free trade in raw products. In both com-
mercial and manufacturing circles, particularly in
the eastern cities of the United States, there was
also a very general desire to cultivate trade with
Canada. New York was specially interested
because of the considerable revenue it derived
from its canal tolls on Canadian produce, which
in some years amounted to between three and

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480

CANADA: AN RNCYCI-OP.4':niA.

four hiindrcc] thousand dollars. Tlie time was
opportune for ne^jotiating a liberal reciprocity
treaty, and Lord I'llRin, the then Governor-
General of Canada, accompanied by two Commis-
sioners appointe<i by the Canadian Government,
proceeded to Washington for that purpose. A
treaty was there arranged establishing free tnuio
between the two countries for ten years, in tiie
raw products of the farm, the forest, the mines,
and the fisheries. It secured for the United
States the use of the St. Lawrence River and the
Canadian canals on the same terms as were
enjoyed by the people of Canad.i ; and it granted
to Canada the right of navigation on Lake
Michigan on equal terms with American shipping.
The Treaty was signed in Wasiiington on June 5,
1854, and was proclaimed there on March 16,
I'^^SS- 1 '>e necessary notice of the abrogation of
this Treaty was given by the United States, and
it was terminated on March 17, 1.S66.

During the first eight years of the Treaty there
was ample time for the development of the natural
free interchange of raw products between the two
countries. The limit of this interchange appears
to have been about $20,000,000 per annum on
each side. It cannot be contended that the in-
crease between 1856 and 1866 afforded a fair
basis for expecting a proportionate increase in
future years. During the civil war the with-
drawal of hundreds of thousands of able-bodied
men from the field of American industry to the
field of battle, and the waste and destruction of
property which always accompany warfare, cre-
ated an exceptionally large demand for Canadian
products. During 1865-66 and for some time
after, the United States was undergoing a process
of recuperation. In evidence of its previous
exhaustion of domestic supplies, and of the extra-
ordinary requirements made upon Canada, the
following figures speak clearly enough : In 1859-
60 the value of live animals imported from Can-
ada was $1,658,970 ; in 1865-66, $8,057,460. In
1859-60 no barley is reported as having been
imported, but in 1865-66 the value of imported
barley was $4,896,799; in 1859-60, wheat, $1,784-
847; in 1865-66, $3,584,082; in 1859-60, flour,
$3,008,175; in 1865-66, $4,498,824; in 1859-60,
butter and cheese, $511,916 ; in 1865-66, $1,977,-
437; in 1859-60, lumber and timber, $3,416,481 ;

in 1865-66, $5,003,040. These are all reported as
having been imported from Canada by the United
States under the Reciprocity Treaty.

The British North America Act followed the re-
peal of the Reciprocity Treaty in 1866 and provided
for the confederation of the Provinces of Ontario,
Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick under
the name of the Dominion of Canada. In 1871
the following other Provinces were brought into
the Confederation ; Prince Edward Island, with
a population of 94,021 ; British Columbia, with
36,224, and Manitoba, with 18,995, making the
population of the whole Dominion, 3,635,000.
In 1875 Rupert's Land and the North-West Ter-
ritories were separated from Manitoba and placed
under distinct jurisdiction.

Under the Act of Confederation, three princi-
pal objects were held in view "and were to be
consumm;ited as soon as possible: (i). The
bringing into the Dominion of all the British pos-
sessions ill North America, including the acquisi-
tion of the North-West Territories, and their
development by inter-railway connection. In
1871 the surveys for the Canadian Pacific Railway
were commenced, and in 1880 the contracts for its
construction from ocean to ocean were signed, and
in 1881 were ratified by the Dominion Parliament.
The work of construction was prosecuted with
great vigour, and the road completed in 1885.
(2). The construction of the Intercolonial Railway
to connect the western with the maritime provin-
ces. The necessary funds for this work were
secured on very favourable terms through a loan
granted by the Imperial Government. This
railway was completed and opened for traffic from
Oiiebec to Halifax in 1876. (3). The enlargement
and deepening of the St. Lawrence and Welland
canals, togLtlier with such corresponding improve-
ments in the channels between Kingston and
Montreal as might be found necessary.

Mr. R. Montgomery Martin, in his work on the
British Colonies, gives the following interesting
figures regarding early Canadian development :

Inipurts. Kxp.)Tts, I'optilatinn. Tons of shipping;

1784 £ 500,000 £ 150,000 113,000 95,000

1836 2,588,000 1,321.750 1,200,000 348,000

He reports the exports by sea during the year
1840 as follows : ashes, barrels, 24,498 ; flour,
barrels, 356,210 ; wheat, bushels, 562,862; peas,

CANAIU: AN ENCYCl,OIVKI)I.\.

481

bushels, 50,878 ; butter, pounds, 211,497. As far
back as icSo.S there were exijorteci from Uiiebec oak
and pine timber, staves, ships' masts, etc., valued
at $62(),440, and 3,750 tons of new ships valued at
$150,000.

In 1842 there were in the Province of Upper
Canada 414 flouring mills, 6j oatmeal mills, jjo
card in;,' and fulling mills, 14 paper mills, 897 saw-
mills, 1,021 asheries, 261 tanneries, 96 breweries,
147 distilleries, and 22 foundries. The census for
1851 shows *hat in the preceding ten years the
population had increased to 952,000, or about
95 per cent., and the increase in acres under
cultivation about 112 percent. There were in the
Province at the time of taking that census 692
flour and oatmeal mills, 1,567 saw-mills, 221 card-
ing and fulling mills, 74 woollen mills, 51 asheries,
232 tanneries, 50 breweries, 102 distilleries, 97
foundries, 8 shipyards, and j88 other industrial
establishments.

In Lower Canada in the decade from TS41 to
1851 the population increased to 890,260, or
about 28 pjr cent., and the increase in acres
under cultivation about .55 per cent. In the
latter year there were 541 grist mills, 1,065 saw-
mills, 19.5 carding mills, iS woollen mills, 13
breweries, 7 distilleries, 12 shipyards, ,58 foundries,
186 asheries, 204 tanneries, and 123 other indus-
trial establishments.

The census returns relating to the industrial
establishments in Canada previous to 1871 are not
very complete, nor do they afford any reliable
comparisons of the progress previously accom-
plished to the different periods of years in which
they were taken. The census of 1871, being the
first taken after the confederation of the four
Provinces, affords a fair starting point from which
to follow up the progress of the manufacturing
industries during three decades. The following
figures will illustrate this progress :

Year 1871 :

Ont

pue

N.S

N.B

Number of es-
tablishments.

Capital invested.

Amount paid in waces.

Number of hands
employed.

87,281
66.714

15.595
18.352

Value of raw material.

Total value products.

20,961

14,079

4.887

3.S29

43.756

23,070

15.763

5.493

3.005

47.331
1,617

344
196

24

$ 37,874.010

28,071.868

6,041,966

5.976,176

$

21,415,710

12 389,()73
3,176,266
3,869,360

$ 65,114,804

44,555,025
5,806,257
9,431,760

$114,706,799
77,205,182
12,338,105
17,367,687

Totals.
Year 1881:

Ont

(,)ue

N.S

N.B

$ 77,964,020

$ 80,950,847
59,216,992
10,185,060

H,42J,282

$
$

40,85 T, 009

30,604,031

18,333,162

4.096,445

3,866,011

187,942

118,508

85.673
20.390
19,922

$124,907,846

$ 91,164.156
62,563,967
10,022,030
11,060,842

$221,617,773

$157,989,870

104,662,258

18,575.326

18,512,658

P.K.I

Man

B.C

N.W.T...

$158,776,181
2,085,776

i.3''<3.33i

2,952,835

104,500

$ 56,899,649
807,208

775.507
929,213

35,425

244,293

5.767
1,921
2,871

83

$174,810,995
1,829,210
1,924,821
1,273,816

79.751

$299,740,112
3.400,208
3,413,026
2,926,784

195,938

Totals.
Year 1891 :

Ont

pue

N.S

N.B

49.512

32.151

23.037
10,496

5.429

$165,302,623

$175,972,021

118,291,115

19,821,986

15,821,855

$
$

59,447,002

49,733.359

30.699,115

7,240,611

5,970,914

254,935

166,326

117,389

34,955

26,675

$179,918,593

$128,142,371
85.630,496
16,099,229
12,501,453

$309,676,068

$239,871,926
153.255.583

3i,043,.592
23,849.655

P.E.I

Man

B.C

N.W.T...

2,679

1,031

770

375

$329,906,977
2,911,963

5-684,237
14,404,394

1.713.179

$

93,643,999

1,101,620

1,905,981

3,586,897

425.153

345,345
7,910

4,403

11,507

1,081

$242,373,549
2,092,067
5,688,151

5,119.258
846,017

$448,020,556

4.345,910
10,155,182
11,999,928

1,827,310

Totals.

31

75.968

$354,620,750

$

100,663,650

370,246

$256,119,042

$476,348,886
5

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CANADA: AN ENCYCLOIVEDIA.

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yf

It will be observed thnt the progress in indus-
trial enterprise durinj; the last ten years was
nuich fjreater both n\ proportion and in extent
than in the preceding decade. That this was
brought about by tariff protection, or what is
j,'enerally known as the National Policy, which
was adopted in li^Jf), may be admitted. I'rom
1873 I0 1878, Canada, in common with other
countries, suffered severely from the commercial
depression that prevailed all over the world.
Under the moderate tariff which had previously
been in force considerable progress had been made
in many of our manufacturing industries. In the
older settled sections of the country the greater
proportion of the farming lands had been cleared
and fenced and equipped, and there was no longer
any large employment for farmers and farm
labourers. Farming had ceased to be the profit-
able operation it had formerly been, and the fac-
tories which had been and were being established
drew from the country all the employees they
required. During the depression Canadian manu-
facturers suffered severely because of the large
imjiortations of the surplus products of similar
establishments in the United States which were
forced upon the Canadian market at sacrifice
prices. Many of our manufacturers were ruined
and went out of business, and others were unable
to retain the usual number of employees. Owing
to the unfavourable prospects of agriculture as an
occupation, to the disinclination for farming, and
to the inadequacy of other industries to afford
employment for all seeking it, there was a large
and steady outflow of emigrants from Canada to
the United States. With a view to retaining as
far as possible these dissatisfied Canadians in
their own country, the Government adopted the
policy of tariff protection to home industries, in
the expectation that manufacturing industries
would so extend and multiply as to afford employ-
ment for all who desired it. It cannot be con-
tended that this policy was successful in the
degree anticipated, for emigration to some extent
has still continued. But it is equally clear that it
largely mitigated that evil ; for if there has been
a reduction of the rural population, there has been
a large increase in that of the cities and towns,
evidently owing to the wide expansion of manu-
facturing and other industrial enterprises. To

statesmen must be allotted the task of deciding
the question whether the advantages claimed for
the National Policy by its supporters compensated
for the disadvantages which its opponents allege
have resulted from it.

It is not pretended that the excess in total
value of the products of the industrial estajlish-
ments of Canada in 1891 over that of 1881 repre-
sents a like increase in the value of the home-made
articles, as some of the material employed was
probably valued more than once during the various
processes of manufacture. But the tables show
that during the decades there must have been a
very large displacement of some foreign manufac-
tures in favour of similar Canadian products, and
that this displacement was much greater in the
decade ending in 1891 than in that ending in 1881.
A striking feature in connection with the largo
increase in the production of Canadian manufac-
tures is exhibited in the fact that it was not
accompanied by any falling off in the export and
import trade of the Dominion, as is shown from
official figures ; the average for the previous de-
cades being as follows : —

Imports entered Ini(iort«

for consumption. Population. per captta.

187: $ 86,947,482 .}.4«5.7^>i $24.04

1S81 100,821.5.57 .{,<J05--''^5 25.82

i8(ji 109,054,998 4.369,202 24.96

Kxports par
Kx|>orts. I'opulation. capita.

1871 $74,17.5,618 .5.4''<5.7''i $21.28

18S1 85,552,752 .5.905,285 21.34

1891 93,019,360 4,369,262 21.29

The census returns show that during the ten
years from 1881 to 1891 there was an increase of
115, 21 in the number of people employed in
what was called " Industrial Establishments," or
46 per cent. Taking the fo.ir original provinces,
Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Bruns-
wick, the increase in the number of hands em-
ployed in industrial establishments from 1871 to
i8gi was 157,413, or about 84 per cent. ; increase
in capital, $251,942,957, or 323 per cent. ; increase
in amount of wages paid annually, $52,792,990, or
129 per cent. ; increase in total value of pro-
ducts, $226,312,783, or abjut 102 per cent. Tak-
ing the value of the total products of all the in-
dustrial establishments in Canada in 1871 and
dividing it into the number of the population.

t»

f ^^

Ini[>ortft
per capita.

25.H2
24.96

Kxporlt par
capita.

$21.28

-ii-34
21.29

CANADA : AN liNCYCLOP/KDIA.

483

this value is found to be $95.80 per capita ; and,
by like method, the per cajiita value for i8gi is
found to be $98.54. Tai<ing all imports and
home manufactures together, the purchasinp
power of the country in 1871 was $120.74 per
capita ; and in iSgi, $123.50. Perhaps this may
be considered an over-estimate, because, as has
been shown, the value of the materials of many of
the manufactures of Canada were probably in-
cluded in the returns more than once, passing
as they do in a more or less finished condition
from one process to another under different clas-
sifications ; but the proportion thus treated would
be the same in both years. Without pretending
:to be able to arrive at an exact estimate of the
consumption of manufactured products in either
of those years, the cortclusion seems to be justi-
fiable, in view of the very great reduction in the
prices of all commodities during the past twenty
years, that there has been a very large increase
lin the annual quantity of merchandise purchased
.by the people.

In many lines of Canadian manufactures the
products are equal, in point of excellence and
cheapness, to those of any other country. Not
only in flour, cheese, bacon, canned meats, fruits,
and other articles closely connected with our
agricultural and farming industries, but also in
many manufactures which require much skill and
■experience. Among these may be mentioned
agricultural implements of all kinds; engines;
boilers and machinery ; all kinds of iron and
wood-working tools, and tools for workmen ;
stoves, radiators, and iron castings generally;
many descriptions of cotton and woollen goods;
leather, and manufactures thereof; doors, sashes,
matches, wood pulp, and other manufactures of
wood ; organs and pianos, etc.

In evidence of the excellent quality and cheap-
ness of Canadian manufactured products, the
Trade and Navigation returns for 1896 show the
following values for exports for that year : Agri-
cultural implements, $595,000, chiefly to Great
Britain and Australia, but some to France, Ger-
many, Holland, and Russia ; cottons, $823,338,
of which $549,000 went to China ; leather, and
manufactures thereof, $2,000,000, most of which
went to Great Britain and Newfoundland ; musi-
cal instruments, $346,000, chiefly in organs sent

to Great Britain ; wood pulp, doors, sashes,
matches, spools, furniture, and other manufac-
tures of wood, $1,495,000, most of which went to
Great Britain ; and whiskey, $377,863, nearly all
of which went to the United States ; in addition
to which there was exported a large value of mis-
cellaneous articles. The total value of manufac-
tures, the produce of Canada, exported during
the year amounted to $9,365,384.

A very fair test of the excellence and cheap-
ness of some articles of Canadian manufacture
may be found by a comparison of our export trade
with that of the United States. In agricultural
implements the manufacturers of both countries
have an extensive home market, but they require
outlets to foreign countries for their surplus pro-
ducts, The value of the exports of all kinds of
agricultural implements from the two countries
compare as follows :

From Unilcd States. From Cnnnda.

1894 $ 5,027,915 $ 46f>.477

1895 5.4i.5."75 665,667

1896 5.176,775 595,-277

Total $15,617,765 $1,727,421

In proportion to the population of the two coun-
tries, the exports from Canada are about 55 per
cent, larger than from the United States. Nor
does this show the full percentage in favour of
Canada, A large number of Canadian imple-
ments are shipped to New York, Boston, and
other Atlantic seaports in the United States, for
re-shipment to Australia, Argentina, and Europe,
and are included in the United States returns of
exports. A similar result is found in a com-
parison of the exports of the two countries
in leather and manufactures thereof, and in
musical instruments and many other articles.
With regard to foreign commerce Canada
largely exceeds the United States in per capita
value of imports and exports, assuming the popu-
lation of the United States to be 70,000,000, and
of Canada 5,000,000. This excess should steadily
increase as the Dominion and its products be-
come more favourably known in Great Britain,
which is, of course, the market for Canadian as
well as American staple products. The official
returns of the two countries give the following
recent figures as to their commerce :

\'y

484 CANADA : AN ENCYCl.Ol'/KniA.

Total value of the import and export tiaile of . „ Total f..reiRn

' ' ItnpnrtH. Export*. coiiim'-n:u.

the United States : 1894 Ti:; 3,474.9.(0 .'1117,524,949 $34(),9'W,«S9

To,-,lf.,m8n ''^'^' iio,7Hr,f.H2 I 1 V.lMo. I 2J.|.4J",4«5

Imporl!.. Exports. c..m.n.rcc. ' ^9^ I|S,0II,50« 121,013,852 2yj,02S,y>0

\lli ^ ^^\-^'^V'^:J- 5 ■VM4o,;72 f.,547,..^>.'M '""'%,,, .f^r^si^ $^2,"'.77/'04 $7^,'445',734

I0Q5 73i,9f>9,o65 ^07,538,165 i.;39,5o7,23c) •'■' ' -' •'■' ' ^ ' ^'^•'''J'»

iSyO 779,724,674 «.S2,6o6,93.S 1,662,331,612 Annual avcr.iyc $234,815,245

"'"'"aV-". ..,$^166,688,361 52,582,285,675 li77.»^s.9A^y36 According,' to tlicsc fiKiircs th« value of the

Annuel avcrui^c $1,582,991,645 forci^Mi coinincrre of the United States averages

Total value of the import and export trade of $2^ 61 per cajiita, and t!:at of Canaila, $46.96

Canada : pi r c;ipit:i.

I I

|[-

^•fl'mm^i^

{< ■:

The Hon. Sir Antoine Aime Dorion,

Chief Justice ufihe Cciirt of Queen's lieiicli, (Jueliec, 1874 91.

tu

Tolnl rureinn
coiiim'*iru.

2J.|.4Jo,485

1704,445,734

15.245
no of the
averages
a, $46.96

PROGRESS OF CANADIAN INDUSTRIES

IIY

E. B. BIGGAR, Kditor <if (lie I'liiiadian J.uinial of lutbiiis ar.d nf {he Ctinai/iaii /'.in; i 11 it r.

r" I SHE growth of the textile trades of C:iiiaila
I is a fair measure of tiio ilevelopment of

I Canadian nianufiictuics in gi:neral,

from the hand worii of tlio j)riiiiitive
times to the factory nietliods of niodurn days.
Textile manufacturing in Canada began as a
domestic industry and continued so almost till
the present century ; and those wlio survey with
pride its present magnitude and tiigh cliaracter
must not forget how much we are indebted to the
skill, patience and deftness of the Trench-Cana-
dians for its early success as a native industry and
for its later achievements under the modern fac-
tory system. If the French Canadians had not
become a strong element in the poptilation of
Canada the cotton, woollen, silk and oilier textile
industries of Canada could not have become what
they are to-day, nor could our boot and shoe and
other branches of the leather trades have attained
their present enviable position. Indeed, the
United States itself could never have gained its
prominence in cotton manufacturing and in boot
and shoe manufacturing had it not been able to
draw upon tlie Province of Quebec for its factory
hands.

It was not without effort that the textile trades
were planted and nourished both amoiit^ the
French and English Canadian people, aiidsiiccial
proviilences mark the history of this as of all
other departments of industry. From the period
of the first colonization of Ciinada to nearly the
close of the iSth century, it was the policy of
Governments to regard Colonies as existing com-
mercially for the benefit of the Mother Country,
and local nianufactnring w:is prohibited as far as
possible in order that factory owners at home
might grow richer and maintain their prices. But
the very exactions in prices and the further extor-
tions of the Colonial companies, to whom the

trade of the country was farmed out. drove the
l'"rench-Canadian colonists fust into smuggling
and then into making cloth for themselves, in some
cases with the consent of the French- authorities,
in other cases in spite of them. The Intendant
Talon, for one, realised that the planting of do-
mestic industries was for the benefit of the colon-
ists and in times of need would be a relief to the
Government at home; and in 1671 wrote that
he had caused druggets, coarse camlet, bolting
cloth, serge, woollen cloth and leather to be made
in the Colony, adding: "I have of Canadian
make wheresvithal to clothe myself from head to
foot." The Ursuline Nuns willingly assisted him
in this policy and taught the girls of the Colony
to spin and weave while at their schf)o!s; and
these gills going out into the world as wives
of farmers and hunters carried their knowledge
of their art all over the Colony. The llax spin-
ning-wl.eel, the wool spinning-wheel and the
clumsy loom were a part of the furniture of almost
every house, and in cou'se of time these indus-
trious women provided every fabric needed for
the household, from the clothes they wore even
to the towels used in the kitchen, the carpeting
on the floor ami the bed clothing under which
they slept. Of their costumes Roberts, in his
recent History,* says:

" Out of doors, and in the winter especially,
the costumes of the nobility were more distinctly
Canadian. Overcoats of native cloih -vere worn,
with large, pointed hoods. Their pattern is pre-
served to the present day in the blanket coats of
our siiowslioers. Young men might have been
seen goin* about in colours that brightened the
winter landscape. Gay belts of green, blue, red
or yellow enriched the waists of their thick over-
coats ; their scarlet leg£;ings were laced np with
green ribbons ; their moccasins were gorgeously

*N'OTK. History of Canada by Charles G. D. Roberts, .m.a

4R')

486

CANADA: AN KNCVCI.OI'.KOIA.

If s

i

H.-

embroiilercd witlj dyeil porcupine quills ; tlicir
caps of buavcr or marten were soinetitnes tied
down over their ears with vivid handkerchiefs of
silk. The habitants vvi're rougher and more
sombre in their dress. A black homespun coat,
^rey K'^Kin^s, grvy wollcn cap, heavy moccasins
of cowhide -this grave costume was usually
l)riRhteiud by a belt or sash of the liveliest col-
ours. The country women hud to content them-
selves with tiie same coarse homespuns, which
theywoiein short full skirts, but they Rot the
pay colours, wliich tiiey loved, in kerchiefs for
their necks and shoulders."

As staled, these fabrics were woven on hand
looms, made entirely of wood, even to the loom
reeds, wliich were formed of thin reeds of hickory
and stood a surprising amount of wear. The
preparatory processes were of course done by hand,
the carding being done on two hand cards about
nine inches square and in appearance not unlike
a curry comb used for grooming horses. From
butternut wood and the berries and roots of wild
plants dyes were obtained and much knowledge
was obtained from the Indian in this branch of
the work. On these primitive looms not only
were the various cloths made but also the cata-
lonucs or rugs and carpet (so-called from Catalonia
in Spain), the homespuns and linens, which are
still a feature of home industry in many parts of
rural Quebec. The making of such an article as
the ccinture flcche (the bright coloured sash worn
hy ihe habitant, v^rxd still surviving as a part of
the snow-shoe costume of our winter sports) was
by a different process. This article, so-called
from the arrow-head figures in the pattern, was
made by braiding, the strands out of which it
was formed being tied at one end to a pole, which
was suspended to the ceiling, while to the other
end of each strand was attached a weight. As
the threads were braided into each other accord-
ing to the colour the tension produced by the
weight not only avoided tangling but enabled the
braider to obtain that hard compact fabric which
is peculiar to the genuine ceinture flkhe^Lnd which
has not been successfully imitated on a loom.
As it took about two weeks to mak? a single
sash, and the work was very tedious, it is not
surprising that these articles were always rather
expensive. This work became localized about
Indian Lorette, the most expert operators being
Indian women and, as it is now almost an cxtinrt

industry, the genuine sashes are highly prized,
a good ceinture flkhe with long tassels sometimes
bringing as much as $50.

As a complement to a native woollen industry
the grazing of sheep and the growing of flax and
hemp for linen cloth and cordage was attempted
with more or less success in the early period of
the French Regime in Canada. The Jesuits'
Relations in 1668 show the existence of hat and
shoe factories and speak of proposals to establish
manufactures of linen cloth and leather ; and the
Census of 1G81 showed that in a total population
of 9.677 there were four weavers of cloth, one
carpet weaver, one ribbon weaver, four rope
makers, six hatters and one carder. The Census
of 1671 showed that there were 407 sheep and 36
goats in Canada, but in 1683 the goats had
diminished to 14, while the sheep increased to
787, and in 1695 there were 918 sheep. In Aca-
dia, in i6gj, there were 1,164 sheep, which steadily
increased in numbers till, in 1827, in Nova Scotia
alone there were 173,731 sheep. In New France,
in 1720, the number of sheep reported was
12,175, while by 1765 these had increased to
28,022. In 1719 it was recorded that 45,970 lbs.
of flax and 5,080 lbs. of hemp were grown in New
France, these products having, in 1734, increased
in the case of flax to 92,246 lbs. and diminished
in the case of hemp to 2,221 lbs. The sheep-
raising industry continued to develop steadily in
Canada, following the advance of colonization in
all the Provinces, till, in 1851, the numbers were
as follows: Upper Canada, 967,168: Lower
Canada, 647,465; New Brunswick, 168,038;^
Nova Scotia, 282,180; Prince Edward Island
about 80,000 ; Red River and Assiniboia about
2,000. Newfoundland had also in 1857, 10,737.
The last Census, of i8gi, showed the number of
sheep in the various Provinces to be as follows :
British Columbia, 49,163; Manitoba, 35,838;
New Brunswick, 182,941 ; Nova Scotia, 331,492;
Ontario, 1,021,769; Pri.ice Edward Island, 147,-
372; Quebec, 730,286: North-West Territories,
64,9:20; making a total of 2,563,781 head, from
which were grown 2,665,976 lbs. of fine wool and
7,365,994 lbs. of coarse wool.

It was not only in Quebec but in Acadia that
the Canadian settlers learned to clothe them-
selves with fabrics, of their own makmg. Ville-

CANADA : AN ENCYCI^OF'.KDIA.

4S7

ily prized,
sometimes-

n industry
if flax and
attempted

period of
e Jesuits'
f hat and
> establish

; and the
)opulation.
:Ioth, one
"our rope
le Census
lep and 36
foats had
Teased to
In Aca-
h steadily
)va Scotia
w France,
rted was
reased to
5,970 lbs.
'n in New-
increased
iminished
be sheep-
eadily irt
i^ationiu
jers were
: Lower

168,038-
d Island
oia about
7* 10,737.
umber of

follows :

35.838 ;

3.31.492;
nd, 147,.

Tritories,
:ad, from
wool and

idia that
le them-
;. Ville-

bon, wiitiiit; in lOcjy from Fort St. John, describes
the settlement at Port Royal, and says " Tlio
people feed themselves and have a surplus to sell.
Flax and hemp prosper. Some use no other
cloth but homespiin. The wool is fjood anl
most of the inhabitants are dressed in their
woollen homespun." Aiiioug tiie sc^ttlers who
came out with Governor Coruwallis to found the
City of Halifax in 1749 were three glovers, three
needle makers, four weavers, one liat maker and
one wool comber. Lieut. -Governor Francklin,
of Nova Scotia, m a letter to the Earl of Shel-
burne in 1766, says " The country people in gen-
eral work up for their own use into stockings
and a stuff called by them homespun, what little
wool their sheep produce; and they also make a
part of their coarse linen from the flax they pro-
duce. The Townships of Truro, Onslow and
Londonderry, consisting in the whole of 694
men, women and children, composed of people
chiefly from the north of Ireland, make all their
linen and even some little to spare to the neigh-
bouring towns. This year they raised 7,5.24 lbs.
of flax, which will probably be worked up in their
several families during this winter." This and
the information given in previous letters appears
to have stirred up the jealousy of manufacturers
at home, who looked upon the Colonies as exist-
ing for the benefit of their own class, and enquir-
ies were made as to the extent and nature of this
development.

Francklin, who was evidently in sympathy
with the coloni.sts and who at the same tiuie had
the confidence of the Home Government, there-
fore allays this jealousy by writing subsequently,
" I cannot omit representing to Your Lordship
that this Government has at no time given en-
couragement to manufactures which could inter-
fere with those of Great Britain nor has there
been the least appearance of any association of
private persons for that purpose, nor are there
any persons who profess themselves weavers, so
as to make it their employment or business, but
onlywork at it in their own families during the
winter and other leisure time. It may also be
proper to observe to Your Lordship that all the
inhabitants of this Colony are employed either in
husbandry, fishing or providing lumber, and that
all the niaiuifactures for their clothing and the

utensils for farming and fishing are made in Great
Britain." This may have merely meant that all
the trimmings re<]uired for the completion of the
colonists' clothing were imported from Great
Britain, but it either satisfied the official mind
at home, or else what went on in Nova Scotia
was unnoticed in tlio rumblings that preceded
the revolution in the larger American Colonies.
Commenting on Governor Franckliii's letter,
Murdock, the Nova Scotia historian, says : " It is
obvious from this as well as from a multitude of
other facts that a close jealousy existed among
the manufacturers of Enghind against any at tempts
in America to do anything in that line; and this
narrow policy, influenced by a few avaricious cap-
italists engaged in manufactures, did more to lose
the old Provinces to England than any other cir-
cumstance."

Woollen Manufactures. The manufacturing of
textile fabrics remained a domestic industry, and
was carried on by hand down to the first quar-
ter of the present century. In the wool industry
the first application of power was in the depart-
ment of carding and fulling, in the former of
which the narrow carding machines of American
design were introduced, and were operated chiefly
by water-power. The fulling mills were also
mostly of American design and manufacture. In
1827 there were 91 carding mills and 79 fulling
mills in Lower Canada, and in Upper Canada, in
1842, there were 1S6 carding mills and 144
fulling mills. In 1844 Lower Canada had 169
carding mills and 153 fulling mills, while in
1848 Upper Canada had 239 fulling mills
and 65 establishments enumerated as wool-
len mills. In New Brunswick, in 1847, accord-
ing to Abraham Gesner, there were " a few
machines of simple construction for carding wool
and fulling cloth." The Census of 1851 gave 52
carding and weaving establishments in the same
Province. In Upper and Lower Canada and the
Maritime Provinces at this time there were in all
about 3S5 carding and fulling mills, and about
250 establishments where weaving was carried on,
apart from the hand-loom weaving done in the
homes of the people. No record was kept of the
latter industry, but from the fact that in New
Brunswick there were 5,475 hand-looms and in
Nova Scotia 11,096, and, assuming the average

%' ■

w

4M

CANADA: AN KNCYCLOI'/KDIA.

hi

■ £ ,

' 1'

■<«V;

prodiu't (if ii loom lo 1)0 IK) yarils pur yuar, it is
pruhahlu tlioru wcio in Upper aiul Luwur Cuii.ula
at tliat ilatu about -{.wjoo hutul-looiuH. At all
events the Census of 1X51 sliowcil that then; wore
proiliicii! in that year 6^i,i\y yaids of home-
made cloth in New Ilnmswick ; 1,1^9,154 yards
home-made llanncls and fulled and unfiilled cloth
in Nova Scotia; and .j, 7(15, 000 yards of liomi-
niadu Hannel and cloth in the two C'.inadas.
Uj>per Canada exceeded her sister Province in
the prodnctit)n of llannel but Lower Cana.la
prodnceil more of the other woollen cloths.

The era of the factory system in textile manu-
facturing,' in liritish America had now fairly
befjun, and the liand-iooin industry no lon;,'er
increased. I'dr a period of ten or fifteen years it
barely kept piice with the increase of pcpulalion,
the Census of 1S71 fhowintj a yearly production
of 7, 64 1, (J 1 7 y irds of home-made cloth in the four
IVoviiices then coinposiiifj the Dominion. The
prodint of Prince Edward Island, with Red
River and the Territories, would make a f^raiul
total of about 8,500,000 yards, but when we come
down to 'lie Census of 1891 we find the product
of home-made cloth and flannel had dwindled in
every Province till the total for the Dominion is
only 4,3^o,Rj8 yards. Of this total about one-half,
or 2,205,014 yards, is made in Quebec, where old
customs have been cherished more reverently
than elsewhere in Canada, and where economy
and simplicity of life still mark the rural popula-
tion. It is only in that Province and in parts of
the Maritime Provinces that the spinning-wheel
and hand-loom are still common features in the
furniture of a household. The manufacture of
woollen goods on power-looms may be said to
have be[;un about the time of the Canadian
Rebellion, thoiifjh one mill in Quebec dates back
to 18^6. This was started at L'Acadie by
I\Iahlon Willett, father of S. T. Willett, woollen
manufacturer of Chambly. This mill was equipped
with a twenty-four inch carding machine, a
" Billy " for making slubbing, a spinning Jenny
of seventy-five spindles and two hand-looms —
power-looms not yet having been introduced. It
was operated at L'Acadie till 1830, when it was
moved to Chambly, where water-power was avail-
able. On this scale it was carried on till 1837,
when the new " Golden " process — that is, a first

and sect)nd " Hreaker," an>i the eonden.scr or
modern systuin of carding — was introduced,
along with a spinning Jack and four power-luoma.
The " Chambly llaiinels" produced at this mill
became celebrated in later years. In Ontaiio the
factory systuin of woollen niunufactnring was
instituted by Haibef Bros., of West I'lamhoro,
wlio, aUer operating a paper and woollca mill at
that village for some years, moved to Georgetown,
purchasing a small mill from a man named Com-
fort, who found himself ostracised owing to his
active sympathy with the rebels. Later on the
liarber Bros, removed to Strectsville, where the
business was conducted on a much larger scale,
the mill producing etoffes, tweeds, shirtings,
flannels and Kiilderminster carpets. A report to
the Journal of the Board of Arts and Agricul-
ture on this mill in 1862 showed that it had
2,000 spiixlles, employed ninety han Is, with a
monthly wa;.;<s bill of $1,600, and produced 18,-
954 \ards of cloth in August of that year.

I'raser and Crashaw's mill at Cobour*;, which
had been established about 1849 as a .satinet
mill, hail at this time grown to be a mill ojierat-
iiig 45 looms, producing 800 yards of tweed per
day, and em[>loying loo hands. A I'rench dyer
had been imported and here we have the first
record of aniline dyjs being used in a Canadian
mill (1864). A writer of the time grows elocjiient
over the modern and intricate niachineiy used in
this mill, which had its fearnoughts, scribb'ers,
spinning mules, twisters, spoolers, warpers, rot-
ary fulling mills, scouring »nachines, gigs and
finishing machinery. " Our grandmothers," he
says, "could spin but a thread at a time. That
had been done ages before, perhaps by the Queen
of Sheba, Scmiiamis and Cleopatra, and it was
all that Ilercuii'S could do, inspired by the Lyd-
ian Queen, Omi)Iiale. Now one man, inspired
by ,\rkwright, spins with a two-thousand Her-
cules power". Andrew Paton, who had come
to Canada from Scotland in 1855, established in
Gait, in partnership with a man named Patrick,
a woollen mill which produced the first Scotch
tweeds made in this country. In 1^566 Mr. Paton
moved to Sherbrooke, Quebec, and there started
the mill which afterwards became the largest
woollen factory in Canada, a concern now widely
known as the Paton Manufacturing Company.

,\-

CANADA; AN KNCYCLOI'.KDIA.

4»y

In tliu euMtcrn part of the Province the County
of Luiiiirk curly bccaiiie u cuiitiu uf wouUeii man-
iifactiirin^r, wliic.h has (icvuloped till now that
county may bo callol the YoiUshire uf Canada.
Settleil by a hardy class of Scotch weavers ami
intersected by streams of very pure, soft water,
affordiiifj {jood water privile^'es, woollen manu-
facturint; be^'an as naturally as dyko building
did when the Acadian dvke budders from
Rochello sailed up the Hay of I'uuily and provi-
dentially landed on the marshes of Cumberlan<i
in Nova Scotia.

Many of the Scotch weavers who had turned
farmers on landing in Lanark took to the loom
again when opportunity offered and the pioneer
in the business in Eastern Ontario was Jauu-s
Rosamond, who started a mill in Carleton Place,
in l'S-|5, with three looms and ijlo spindles, inaU-
ing grey cloths, "satinets" and flannels, and
later on blankets and dress IhiMiiels. In 1S57 he
moved to Almonte, starting a two-set mill in
wliichGeor^'eStephen (now Lord Mount-Stephen)
took an interest, and so good were the products
and so energetic was Mr. Stephen in pushing
Canadian-made goods that by the year iS()4 the
capacity of this mill was doubled, an.l two years
later the present large mills of the Rosamond
Woollen Company were built. These were the
halcyon days of the ("anailian woollen manufac-
turer. He was not yet forced by the demands of
the trade to use shoddy, and the consumer was
generally content to pay even more for home-
matle gooils than for a foreign article — knowing
that he got better value m cloth made from Can-
adian wool. The dealer was also contented with
hut few patterns, houses like George Stephen &
Company frequently ordering from one mill a
thousand pieces of the same pattern, whereas a
wholesaler now wants hundreds of different pat-
terns from a mill and only one to a do^en pieces
of each pattern. Thus, by long runs on one
pattern the expenses of designing were compara-
tively trifling while the cost of production was
reduced generally. The manufacturer had not
only these things in his favour, but he had that
precious advantage which his successor of this
generation can but envy, in dealing with whole-
sale firms who espoused the cause of the home
manufacturer, who rejoiced in his prosperity, and

helped him to uphold prices to the point of good
living prolit. lly tins confraternity of inti.rest
th(! manufacturer in those days throve wi;ll under
a nominal protection of 17 per cent, and many
new mills sprang up throughout the country,
greatly diversifying the |)rcMlucts, while the "cus-
tom " mills and carding mills still made a good
living.

The Census of I.S71 showed J70 establishments
where wool cloth-making was carried on in the
f)ur Provinces of which the Dominion was then
composed, the annual wages being $iji7,S_>7 and
the amjual value of the products being $5,507,5 pj,
and thehantis cinployeil, 4,453. Of these estab-
lishments 2J3 were in Ontario, 2J in Onelxc, 6
in New Hrimswick, and 8 in Nova Scotia. There
were besides these, r)50 carding and fulling mills, of
which 158 were in Ontario, 3^5 in Quebec, 70 in
N(!W Hrunswick ami <jq in Nova Scotia, the total
annual wages being $146,570 and the value of
products $2,J5j,7()4, 'I'l^l hands employed, i,J^^.
There were also 11 hosiery factories of which ten
were in Ontario and one in Quebec, employing
245 hands, paying $.5), -2.5.} in wages and produc-
ing ^i.jij, 122 worth of goods. The dyeing and
scouring establishments were 35 (of which 19
were in Quebec) employing ioGIkuuIs and paying
$20,947 in wages, with atotal product of $124,871.
IJi.'sides this there was still pr(jduced 7,641,917
yards of cloth made in the homes of the people
on hand-looms. The Census of 1891 gave Canada
377 woollen mills i)ossesscd by the Provinces as
follows: liritish Columbia I, Manitoba 2, New
Ihunswick 7, North-West Territories i, Ontario
303, Prince Edward Island 7, Quebec 39, and
Nova Scotia 17. The total hands eniployed were
7, 156, annual wages $1,884,483, and total products
$8,087,871, Five other concerns mistakenly
classified under other headings should have been
added to the list.

The knit goods branch of the woollen trade
began in Belleville in 1857 when W. E. Adams
started a small factory with three hand machines.
In the following year a man named Crane start-
ed a knitting factory at Ancaster with power
niachines, supplying his own yarn with a one-set
yarn mill. Thisestablishment afterwards became
known as the Ancaster Knitting Company, with
which the late James Watson, father of E. P.

4')o

CANADA: AN KNCIVCI.OIMDIA.

\l'

W.itsoii ami U. McD. Watson, wlionc kniltiriK
faitory has lately l)ccii removed from St. latlia-
riiiL'i to Paris, wan coiincctrtl. In 1867 Mr.
Ailams, after liavinii woikcil somu time for Mr.
Crane, went to I'lris .md startcil a factory in
liartiKTslnp with John Penman, as tliu Pemnan
iSc Ailams Knitting; Mills, thus K'^i'iK A start to
tliu knittiiif; businesH which lias ever uiiicc been
tliu speci.il iiidnstiial feature of Paris. C'iieiilar
knitting frames were fnst introduced into a mill
started by the late Joseph Simpson in ^'monto
in 1S65. I'lill f ishioned wool uinierwear was I'nst
made in (j.dt by K. Tiunhiill, founder of the
business now carried on by the C Tiirnbull
Company of that town. The knit goods trade of
Canada has developed steadily. The Census
taken in 1891 put "knitting; factories" and
" hosiery factories" under two separate heads,
and gave under the former head 58 establish-
ments and uiuler the latter 2Jj. Putting the
two together we have 281 factories, divided as
follows : New Brunswick 1, Nova Scotia 100,
Ontario loij, Prince ICdward Island 5, ynebcc66.
Those witii tiie most superficial knowledge of the
trade know there is something wrong here, but
taking the ti;,"jre3 for what they are worth we
have :j,I4J hamis employed in knit goods, with
annual wa^'cs of $464,121 and an annual product
of $1,91-, 057.

Carpet MiinufacturiHf;. The manufacture of
carpets on power-looms appears to have had its
beginning in the woollen mill of liarber Bros., as
before mentioned, some time in the forties, but
it was not till the seventies that the industry bc-
camo specialized. The first edition of the Canadian
Textile /i/>-t'c/o»3» ( I R85)sh<»wi;d that, apart from the
haiid-looin weavers, there were seven carpet fac-
tories in Canada, all in Ontai io, with a total of 1 55
looni>, of which about loo were still operated by
hand. These all manufactured ingrain carpets,
except the factory of William Mitchell, Cobourg,
which was engaged in jute and cocoa mattings
and rugs. With this very modest and modern
beginning the reader will be surprised to learn
that according to the Census of 1891 Canada
had 557 carpet factories employing the very
humble complement of 915 hands with annual
wages of $150,734 and prcjilucts of $54S,6i9.
The industrious census-taker evidently included

all till! hand loom and rag ourp<>t weuVorM. Ah a
matter of fuct the CatuiJian lexttle lUrttlory uf
i8(;j recorded 18 factories with a total of 2ja
loiims, of which t»6 were p-iwer-looma. The protl-
iicls were as in 18S5, but one concern essayed
to make KiddermiiiHter carpets. The hist Ax-
niiiiHtercarpetsand rugs were made by the Toronto
Carpet Manufactiirinf( Coni|)any, and in 1895
tile first lirussels carjuits weie made at ICIoia. A
Brussels loom had been imported about 1^91 at
Markham but never operated. Associated with
this branch is the manufacture of Il(>r)r orl cloth,
the first factory for which was started in 1872
by the Dominion Oil Cloth Company of Mon-
treal; and of hair cloth for furniture coverings,
etc., the first factory for which was startid in
Toronto in 1882, There are now two factories
in this lino in Canada — the Canada Hair Cloth
Company and the Dominion Hair Cloth I-'ac-
tory — both at St. Catharines, the former having
been established in 1886.

Before dismissing woollen fabrics it may be
interesting to note that experiments have been
made from time to time in Canada with fabrics
made from other animal fibres than wool.
Sample pieces of cloth have been made from
cow's hair and from the fur of the rabbit (wild
hare) and other wild animals, but the most note-
worthy experiment of this kind was in the man-
ufacture of cloth from the wool of the buffalo.
In the year 1822 the Hudson's Bay Com|)any
and the North-West Company, having made
peace with each other, planted a ccjluiiy on the
banks of the Red Kiver. Amoii^ the servants of
the Company, whose energies were now turned
into the occupations of peace, was John Pritcliard
who conceived the idea of gathering up the wool
of the thousands of buffaloes whose dead bodies
were scattered about the plains in those days of
wanton buffalo slaughter, and of making it up
into cloth. The proposal caught the imagination
of a good many eniploytis of the Company, now
settled there with both time and money at their
disposal, and a Coirpany was formed with a
capital of £'2,000, the factory to include a tannery
for working up the hides as well as the wool. It
was assumed by the promoters that buffalo hides
and wool could be had for the trouble of picking
them up, and that little capital or skill would be

» . h

CANADA. AN KN(V( I.OIM.DIA,

■V)i

rcqiiireil in tliu fubricutiim u( tho kuu«I!<> Skilleil
opi'iativiH Hiu'.h as wool druHHcra, ciinicra aixl
luatlicr workers wcru imported from ICiiKlaixi
and n factory built, wliilu womun were viicoiir-
a^L'd to ^o out wo(il-^'iulu;riii)« and huntcrit wciu
exiiorti-il to prcscrvu tliu liidcH of biiffalncs tliey
shot and luin^^tluMn to tlu: fa(!tory. To tin; nan-
Kuino mind uf the projui.tora tlicru appeared to
bu fortnni'S in tliu bti»iness iiml ^'oodcmployineiit
fur half tliu coNiiiy. Hut on f^ettiiiK' down to
business it was found that it cost soiiietliing to
gather tliu wool scattered over tho wide plains
aixl tliiit tint price of a hidu when broti^'ht to the
factory ran^^'cd from eight to tun shillings sti t-
ling, lieforu tho wool could bu freed from tlu:
hidu it had to be soaked, heated mid pulled by
expert hands, and even boys thought tluinselvts
ill-paid at four ur Hvu shillings n day. Women
who took the woo! home to spin weru paid for
spinning at the rate of a shilling a |ioiiikI. Some
leather and cloth weru produced at tliu new fac-
tory but it was found that these proiliicts could
not compete with fabrics impcjrted from thu Old
Country. liiit what boded still worse for the
enterprise was the drunkenness and disorder
amongst thu factory hands. Kutn was to be had
in unlimited quantities at the establishment, and
for days at a time the workmen, from the Mana-
ger down, did nothing but drink and carouse.
Hides were allowed to rot, wool to spoil and
nniterial to go to waste, and when in iSj5 the
concern was woundup it was found that not only
was the wluilu of the original capital used up but
the Company was indebted to the Hudson's Hay
Company to the extent of 3^300. This loss hniig
over thu heads of the shareholders in the " Huf-
falo \Vool Company" for several years, till at last
the Huiison's Hay Company generously relieved
them by cancelling the debt. An interesting
account of this curious venture is j^ivcn in Alex-
ander K(jss' description of the Red River Settle-
ment.

The Cotton Industry. It has been frequently
stated by lecturers and writers on trade topics
that ct)tton manufacturing in Canada began in
the early sixties, and the honour of pioneer
operations has been variously awarded to the
Parks Mill at St. John, the Lybster Mill at Mer-
ritton, and the Dundas Cotton Mill. Hut there

weru at luaHt ihruu nnlls long antvdaiing any of
these, thu first having been erected in Shurbruoku,
^iielxrc, ill iX\.^. This null was noteworthy in
moru than onu rus|>ect. It was the HrHt limited
liability company in Canada, and in its introduc
tioii into the Legislatiitc wu havu one of tho first,
if not thu very first, tecoriled utterances of Sir
John Macdoimld in i'arliameiit. Those who
remember Sir John's enthusiasm for home manu-
facture will bu surprised to fiinl him on record as
an opponent (jf the Hill, but it was because this
was the first application of thu limited liability
principle to any manufacturing enterprise, and
Sir John evidently wished to bu cautious in the
interest of shaiuholders and thu public. Though
the Act was not passed till 1845, the mill was
built in 1844, and onu of its promoters was the
latu Sir A. T. Gait, who presented thu petition in
favour of the Hill. The Committee to wlii.h the
Hill was referred reported in its favour on account
of the large amount of capiL>^ rr,|iiiri:d to start a
cotton factory. The capital \\ i iixed at jT^'u.ooo,
and the mill hnd a capacity 1 uo spindles. It

manufactured grey sheutings, us inana;;er being
Adam Lomas, father of the present proprietor of
the Lomas Woollen Mill at Sherbrooke. It ran
successfully for several years, when it was burnt
down and never re-built.

In thu same year in which this started a
petition was presented to the Legislature by
Thomas Miles and others, asking for incorpora-
tion as the " Chambly Cotton Manufacturing
Company," but the project appears to have fallen
through. The next mill was established at
Thorold In Upper Canada in 1847. For an
account I if this the writer is indebted to John H.
Tlmmpson, publisher of the "History of
Thorold," recently issued under the auspices of
the Thorold and Heaver Dams Historical Society.
Of the original promoters of the mill the only
one still living is James Munro, of Thorold, who
was treasurer and secretary of the Company.
The capacity in spinilles is unrecorded, but the
mill operated fifteen to twenty looms, and made
grey sheetings and other plain goods, along with
cotton batting. When the mill began operations
Kerr, Brown & Company, a wholesale firm of
Hamilton, bought the entire output. Owing,
however, to lack of capital, and probably lack of

I

li

U

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If "

> ■

49«

CANADA: AN ENCVCLOI'.KDIA.

}/

technicul skill among the uperutivus, the mill was
not a financial success, aiiU closed down after a
couple of years, to the loss of all concerned.
After lying idle till 1856 two Americans named
Niitley, and Willard, from the Southern States,
undertook to operate it, but after two more years
their management was cut short when it was
discovered that they had not only forged the
name? of several individuals with whom the; had
business relations, but had forged Government
orders on which they got bales of cotton released
from the customs. Mr. Munro again took hold
in the interest of the creditors, but fate was
against it, and the factory was destroyed by fire in
1S64. A third and more successful cotton mill was
started in Montreal in 1853 by F. W. Harris. This
mill had a capacity of 1,500 spindles and forty-six
looms, and made tickings, denims and seamless
bags. Two years after its establishment a bat-
ting ar .adding mill was added. An account
of this mill in a pamphlet now out of print states
that the cost of the machinery was ^(^6,500, and
that it employed seventy hands, mostly wonren
and children, whose wages amounted to ^"2,000
annually. About 300 yards of denins and ticks
were made per day. The account went on to say :
"The denims are of the same weight and quality
as the well-known Amoskeag denims, finished
without starch or other stiffening. The ticks are
of the same quality, and have been sold here a
penny a yard less than the same goods cost in
Boston and New York." The bating and wad-
ding branch cost ^3,000, and had thirteen card-
ing machines. It turned out 6,000 yards of wad-
ding, and 1,200 lbs. of batting per day, which was
said to be rather more than the home market
could absorb. These mills, which afterwards
were confined to the manufacture of pL^in grey
cottons, existed down to the year 1870 or later.

Meantime, in 1S61, William Parks and Son
started at St. John, N.B., a mill which remains
as the oldest of the existing cotton mills of the
Dominion. In the same year a mill was started
at Dundas, in Ujiper Canada, by Joseph Wright
from England. The capacity of this mill was
stated to be 6,000 lbs. of yarn and 120 bales of
batting (6,000 to 4,000 lbs.) per wetk. After-
wards it made cotton cloth as well as yarn, and
in 1866 it employed 150 to 200 hands. When

the stupendous character of the civil conflict in
the United States became realized throughout
the world, disturbances were felt in the textile as
well as other trades and the immediate effect in
Canada was .0 give an itnpetus to both cotton
and linen manufacturing. The cotton industry
was paralyzed over the border, and many in the
European trade believed that the United States
would never regain its lost position in either
cotton growmg or manufacturing. Between i860
and 1865 the number of mills in Canada increased
from one to five, their locations being at Dundas,
Merritton, Hastings, Montreal and St. John.
Their total capacity was about 40,000 spindles,
and their protlucts were chiefly grey cottons,
sheetings, shirtings, yarns, bags and batting and
wadding. When the war closed and trade began
to resume its old channels, prices fell and a check
was put upon further extensions in cotton manu-
facturing in Canada for some years. The Census
of 1871 showed only eight mills in the whole
Confederation, of which five were in Ontario.
The total hands employed were 743 and, though
the capacity of the mills was not stated in the
returns, it is estimated at about 95,000 spindles.
In 1878 the Government inaugurated the National
Policy, by which the duties on cotton goods were
increa'^.ed from 17^- per cent, to a range of 20 and
35 per cent., and this gave such a stimulus to
home manufacturing that by the Census of 1881
there were reported ig cotton mills in Canada,
employing in all 3,527 hands. As a matter of
fact five mills, reported in this Census, were only
under construction and not yet in operation in
any department, and of the 14 mills actually run-
ning the spinning capacity was about 243,000
spindles. The first edition of the Canadian Tex-
Hie Directory, published in 1885, showed that,
besides those engaged in the manufacturing of
wadding and batting, there were in all Canada
25 mills with 9,702 looms and 461,748 spindles.
The second edition, published in 1880, showed
the same number of mills, but with an increased
capacity, namely, 11,282 looms and 519,700 spin-
dles. When the third edition of the Directory
was published in 1892 the number of mills was
still the same but the capacity had increased a
little further, there being then 12,288 looms and
546,700 spindles.

/

CANADA : AN KNCYCLOP/EDIA. • .^(,3

' TJic fact that for ;i period of twelve years there chants that considerubK: shipments have bm:n

was no increase in the number of mills and a very made every year since. The subjoined table shows

small increase in the productive capacity of those the amount in pounds' vvei^'ht of the Canadian

already built is to be accounted for by the cottons and of American cottons that have been

over-investment of capitalists in mills equipped shipped to China over the C. P. R. since this

for good. s of the same class. For the common trade began. Practically all the Canadian-made

class of cottons most easily produced the mills in goods pass over the C. P. R. and are shipped in

existence in 1S82 could supjiy a population twice the steamers of that Company from Vancouver

that of Can ulii, and the mill owners were forced to China. As these gftods average 3|to 3 J yards

either to abandon their property or import ma- to the pound, it will be easy to calculate the

chinery by which to diversify their products, amount of this trade in yards. In 1SS9 a mill of

The latter was the policy adopted by some, and 12,000 spindles was built at Montmorency Falls

by 1S90 the Canadian mills were producing a especially for this trade, and the product of two

very v.: Jc :r.ngc cf j;c::Gds, Eoinf ''-f a fineness and or three other mills is devoted to the export trade,

quality that were not thought attainable a few which has since been successfully directed also to

years before, and comparing favourably in value Central and North Africa.

with any European or American goods of the shipments ok Canadian and American cottons

same class. In 1884 a factory for cotton print

, , ... . . , .. \ .^ . TO china, via C. I'. K. :
goods was built at Magog, Quebec, operating six

, . , r 1 • 1 . • 1 . Canadian American ~. , ,

printing machines (alterwards increased to eight Couons. Cottons. loiais.

machines) and this establishment absorbed from Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.

the home market a largequantity of grey cottons 1887 1,742,205 4.055.'J7'3 5'798.i75

as rawmaterial which would otherwise have main- i8^8» 2,009,974 6,816,798 8,826,772

tained a glut of common grey goods or have shut 1889 886,322 12,245,150 13,131,472

up some mills. Even with these changes the '890 2,279,150 17,079,730 19,358,880

competition of many of the mills was so reckless 1891 2,466,944 7,413,167 9,880,111

that events forced on an amalgamation of the 1892 1,825,259 4,322,452 6,147,711

great majority of the mills into two great syndi- 1893 1,742,312 9,321,205 11,063,517

cates, one of which has made a specialty of the 1894 3'770'34i 4. .303-701 7.074.044

manufacture of coloured goods of a high grade. 1895 3,521,00.^ 5,208,654 8,730,158

This syndicate, known asthe Canadian Coloured 1896 ^,392,042 11,834,372 15,226,414

Cotton Mills Company, is presided over by David 1S97 2,471,278 4,898,470 7,369,748

Morricc, Sen., of Montreal, who, during the long 1898 i,375.257 8,639,191 10,014,448

and trying crisis through which the cotton indus- The above figures do not include 36,727 lbs. of
try passed in the years under notice, guided the cotton duck shipped to China and 296,549 lbs.
affairs of the mills (for a large number of which shipped to Japan from Canada in 1897 ; and
he was agent) with a wisdom that has been justi- 63,648 lbs. of cotton duck for China and 211,683
fied by the subseouent progress of the industry, lbs. for Japan shipped from Yarmouth in 1898.
The over expansion of the industry and the ex- The fourth edition of the CaKfl^fiViw Textil' Direc-
cessive competition among the mills operating on tory just published shows that there are 22 cot-
grey goods led, however, to a development never ton mills in the Dominion with a total capacity
contemplated in the dreams of the promoters of of 15,557 looms and 643,312 spindles.
early cotton manufacturing — namely, the expor- Flax, L-inen and Hemp. The introduction of
tation of Canadian grey cottons to foreign linen and hemp manufacturing in Canada was
countries, notably to China. The first experi- contemperaneous with that of the woollen in-
mental shipment was made to China in 1886, on dustry. That mine of information on early Can-
the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway, ada, the Relations des Ji'siiitex, has records of pro-
and such was the favour with which Canadian posals to introduce linen cloth-making as early as
goods were received among the Chinese mer- 1668, and, as rope-makers were in the Colony in

m

-... it I'l I

4y4

CANADA: AN KNCYCLOlMsOIA.

\,

(•

{

mU

ifi

1681 it is evident that a certain amount of cord-
age was made at that date. That tlie industry
flourished and expanded is also evident from the
records of the production of flax and hemp. In
1 7 19 45.970 lbs. of flax were prown, which
increased tj 54,650 lbs. in 1721 and to 92,246
lbs. in 17J4. In 1719 5,080 lbs. of hemp were
grown but in 1721 the production had fsllen
to 2,100 lbs., while in 1734 it was 2,221 bs.,
showing an almost stationary trade m the home
product of hemp. It may here be observed that
although hemp growing was encouraged by Leg-
islative enactments and bounties and prizes, not
only under the French regime but under the rule
of Britain ; in most of the Provinces of Canada
the manufacture of rope and twines and other
hemp fabrics never seems to have become thor-
oughly naturalized, though the hemp plant both
in its wild and cultivated state grows well. Prof.
Macoun, the Dominion Botanist, reports seeint
hemp in the North-West growing to a height of
twelve feet and there are varieties of wild fibre
plants which should work up very successfully
into binder twine, if not into other twines and
cordage. Samples of binder twme nnade from a
wild plant growing plentifully in the Province of
Ouebec have been submitted to the writer within
the past two weeks by Mr. Kenny, of St. Vincent
de Paul, and have been very favourably reported
on by manufacturers of binder twine, so that this
industry, now rising in importance, may soon
derive a large part of its raw material from a
neglected wild weed.

As to the flax plant, three species are indigen-
ous to the North-West and other parts of Canada
— the Liituin perenna with blue flower ; the linttm
striatum and the linum rigidmn bearing yellow
flowers — and these, which all grow luxuriantly
over a vast area of country, may one day be util-
ized in the manufacture of twines when machinery
is invented capable of working them up to advan-
tage. As already mentioned, the true flax plant
has been grown in Canada for over 200 years, and
produces a fibre of excellent quality. If improved
machinery or cheaper labour could be applied to
the growth and manufacture of flax a large indus-
try could be developed in Canada, especially in
the North-West, where there is not only a rich
soil, but a vast extent of country lying beyond the

line of safe wheat growing, which would be a good
flax-growing region. Flax matures for linen-
making purposes in northern Russia nearly to the
latitude of Archangel (lat. 64) and planting it in
corresponding temperatures In the Canadian
North-West we could have an area of 100,000,000
acres capable of raising flax, entirely outside of
the great wheat belt. The Mennonite settlers in
Manitoba commenced the cultivacion of flax on a
rather extensive scale about twenty years ago,
but, except for the linen cloths they made up for
their own consumption, thnir principal object was
in selling the seed to linseed oil mills in the Un-
ited States, the fibre being left to rot on the
ground. It is worthy of note here that while
Ontario and Quebec seed is remarkably rich in
oil (about 14 lbs. to the bushel) that of Manitoba
and the North-West is still richer, yielding 16
lbs. to the bushel, which is probably the highest
yield in the world. The quality of the fibre from
Canadian-grown flax is equally beyond dispute.
In 1886 the writer sc nt a sample of Canadian flax,
grown in Prince Edward Island, to Belfast to be
treated and reported on. It was taken in hand
by David S. Thompson, the Manager of the
White-abbey Spinning and Weaving Company,
who had it woven into a piece of cloth and sam-
ples of yarn, which the Secretary of the Company
forwarded with a letter in which he stated that
" The spinning and weaving have been performed
under the personal superintendence of Mr.
Thompson, who was most particular in testing
the quality of the flax, yarns and linen. Mr.
Thompson is perfectly satisfied with the trial."
Another spinner to whom I submitted the sample
of cloth and yarn said he had never seen better
goods made from any selection of Continental or
Irish flax.

As regards ropes an extensive owner of both
'team and sailing ships told me that the value to
him and other owners of ships " could not be
priced, as they would be invaluablj and almost
everlasting if they could get ropes made entirely
from such flax yarns. You can exhibit your
samples with pride and satisfaction that such
results have followed your endeavours to prove
that Canadian soil will grow flax to suit any
manufacturer." Tlifeie is no difficulty, therefore,
about the grov/ing of the raw material. The two

i ■ ■■

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOP.KUIA.

495

problems to be surmounted are the invention of
improved machinery for the treatment of the tlax
und^iibre, and the training o/ cheap skilled labour
in the manufacturing processes. Two interesting
attempts to establish a Canadian linen industry
were made in Ontario at the time of the American
civil war. Then, as now, the chief centre of
British linen manufacturers was Ulster, Ireland.
As the American war dragged on the opinion
began to develop among Belfast mill-owners that
King Cotton was to be dethroned, and King
Linum set up in his place. The famine in raw
cotton raised theprice of linen goodsto suchapitch
that fortunes were made in tiie trade, and large
sums were spent in building new mills and extend-
ing the capacity of old ones. The enthusiasm
spread to Canada, and in 1864 a company was
formed by Andrew Elliott, James Hunt and
Calvin Claflin, of Preston, with George Stephen
(now Lord Mount-Stephen), of Montreal, who
started a mill at Preston, still standing as part of
the woollen mill of George T. Pattinson & Com-
pany. No better place in Ontario could have been
selected to make theexperiment, as the Countyof
Waterloo was almost exclusively settled by
German farmers who then made, and still con-
tinue to make, the raising of flax a leading feature
of their husbandry. Years before this M. B.
Perine had established large flax scutching mills
— afterwards manufacturing twines and founding
their present flax business — and a considerable
business was done besides in home-made hnens.
The scheme of the new Company was to manu-
facture linen goods and make also linseed oil and
oil-cake. The linen mill contained twenty-
six looms, six spinning frames, with two wet
spinning frames, and made seamless bags, towel-
ings and canvas for sacks, also ropes and twines.
But the mill had scarcely got into smooth run-
ning order before the war came to a close, with
the consequence of renewed attention to cotton-
growing in the south, and a fall in the price of
lineu goods. Fortunes were lost by Belfast linen
merchants and manufacturers as quickly as they
had been made during the war, and the Canadian
linen mill was doomed to failure also. After run-
ning about three and a half years the linen de-
partment closed, and most of the machinery was
sold out to parties in the United States at half its

cost, the wet spinnmg frames being sold as old
iron. The oil branch, however, paid well, and
was afterwards removed to Montreal.

The other venture was made at Streetsville in
1866, the capital being found largely by Gooder-
ham and Worts of Toronto and Mr. Perine of
Doon. The Company, known as the Streetsville
Linen Manufacturing Company, invested $100,-
000 in the business, having a five-storey mill and
employing 70 to 100 hands for a time. An
account of it in the Journal of the Board of Arts
and Agriculture stated that it was devoted chiefly
to making double webbed linen for seamless
bags, the cloth being cut to lengths of i^ yards
by machinery and hemmed by sewing machines,
after which the bags were pressed and put up
into bales, each containing loo bags. About
1800 bags were turned out per week, selling at
$10 to $15 per bale. The mill had a capacity
for making also 600 lbs. of twine and rope per
day. This enterprise failed from the same causes
which doomed the Preston factory, and no large
experiments have since been made at manufac-
turing linen piece-goods by machinery in Canada.
As before stated, a considerable amount of cord-
age and rope, made from home-grown and im-
ported material, has always been made in Canada,
a special feature being the manufacture of binder
twine by modern machinery, 10 factories being in
existence, operating about i,og6 spindles and
capable of producing about 14,850 tons of binder
twine per year. As for the domestic linen indus-
try it has from the earliest colonization of Can-
ada been an interesting feature of rural life,
especially among the French-Canadians. Long-
fellow speaks of the " kirtles of homespun "
worn and woven by Evanp;eline, some of which
would be of linen, and many writers allude to it
in all phases of French-Canadian history. Visi-
tors to the back settlements of Quebec, to the
Acadian settlements of Nova Scotia and those of
the North-West may to-day see the hand
scutcher, the hand-loom and the hand-spinning-
wheel in many a home; and the visitor to the
farmer's market in French-Canadian towns may
buy home-made sheetings and towellings made by
the same primitive implements as were used by
the peasants of Normandy in the middle ages.
Bouchette gave the quantity of flax raised in

.i, >

41,1.

CANADA: AN ENCYCL01M<:DIA.

fit

1:1

U;

Ml

Lower Canada alone in iiS27 as 1, 315,648 Ib.s.
and tliu lioine-niadu linen us 10,058, ()j() I'Vencii
ells. In tlie early part of this century societies
for tlic encouraf^einent of flax and hemp existcMJ
both in Upper and Lower Canada. In U|>per
Canada, in 1S42, 166,881 jards of hoine-inade
linen were made, and two years later 857,62.5
yards were made in Lower Canada. The Cen-
sus of 1861 gave 37,053 yards as the product of
the domestic looms of Upper Canada, and 1,021,-
443 yards as that of Lower Canada. Hy the
Census of 1871 it was 25,502 yurds in Ontario,
i>559.4io yards in (Quebec, 74,241 yarils in New
Brunswick and 111,987 yards in Nova Scotia — a
total of 1,771,140 y.irds. In addition to this
there was produced of dressed flax 1,165,117 lbs.
in Ontario, 1,270,215 lbs. m Quebec, 37,845 lbs.
in New Brunswick and 111,588 lbs. in Nova
Scotia— a total of 2,584,765 lbs. This material
was chiefly used for upholsterers' tow and for
export to the United States for manufacturing
purposes. There are now in Ontario about 45
flax mills proilucing "dressed line" and uphol-
sterers' tow for the home and export trade.
While this branch of the trade is well maintained
the manufacture of home-made linens is now
steadily declining — the Census of iSgi showing
0"'y 633,724 yards produced in the whole
Dominion, divided as follows: Manitoba 25
yards, New Brunswick 24,922, Nova Scotia 25,-
990 yards, Ontario 5,477 yards. Prince Edward
Island 8,951 yards, Quebec 568,359 yards. Of
the total production of 18,503,664 lbs. of dressed
flax and hemp recorded in 1891, no less than
17,887,489 lbs are crecdted to Ontario.

Silk Manufacturing, etc. The first silk spinning
mill in Canada was established in Montreal in
1876 by Belding, Paul & Company, under the
management of Frank Paul. This mill has been
phenomenally successful in itsspecialty of sewing
silks and silk twists, having taken the gold medal
at the World's Fair at Chicago in competition
with mills of the best reputation in the United
States and Europe. In 1882 a ribbon branch
was established and in 1885 the Company took
over the Corriveau Silk Mills plant, which had
been started two or three years before in the
manufacture of silk piece-goods, but which went

pany continuer, the manufacture of all three clas-
ses of goods. A secouil mill for the manufacture
of sewing silks has also been established at St.
John's, Quebec, by the Corticelli Silk Company,
uuder the managership of W. H. Wyman, which
has had a very successful career. In recent years
various industries, subsiiliary to the textile mills,
have sprung up in Canada, such as clothing f.ic-
tories, corset factories and factories forlhe mak-
ing of blouses, mantles, cloaks, and other articles
of ladies' and men's wear. The factories engaged
on shirts, collars and cuffs alone employ at the
present time about 5,000 hands, and the Canadian
clothing factories (which employ a still greater
number of hands) have not only obtained control
of the home market, but such firmi as Shorey &
Company, of Montreal, have done a large export
trade within the past few years io the West
Indies and other Colonies in competition with
the world.

The Paper and Pulp Industry, Paper manufacturing
began in Canadaearly in the present century. The
first mill of which we have any record was estab-
lished at St. Andrews, near Lachute, Quebec, in
i£o3. Bouchette, in 1817, makes the following
reference to this mill : "On the River Rouge,
or River du Nord, ... is a paper mill, the only
one, I believe, in the Province, where a large
manufacture of that article in all its different
qualities is carried on with much success, uuder
the direction of the proprietor, Mr. Brown, of
Montreal." The first mill in the Maritime Prov-
inces is recorded by Murdoch as follows: "The
first and, I fear, the only, paper mill as yet in
Nova Scotia was built and worked by the owner
of the Recorder, A. H. Holland, about l8ig, at a
little distance from Bedford Basin on the road
leading westward to Hammond's Plains." The
first in Upper Canada appears to have been a mill
at Ancaster, started in 1S20. In 1827 there were
three paper mills in Lower Canada, and in 1842
Upper Canada had 14 mills. At the Census of
1851 the two Provinces had five mills each, the
next Census (i86r) adding one mill to Lower
Canada. The Census of 1871 gave 12 mills to
Ontario, 7 to Quebec, i to New Brunswick, and
I to Nova Scotia — these 21 mills employing 760
hands, using material to the value of $522,573

into liquidation at the close of 1884. The Com- and sending out products to the total value of

CANADA: AN ENCYCI.OIMvDIA.

497

large

$1,071,651. The followiiitj is a comparison of
the returns of llie Census of 18S1 and of iX(ji :
Paper Mills. 1881. iSqi,

Number of mills ]G 3f

Number of liands em-
ployed I. 5-" ^'79^

Annual valueof material. $1, 409,-1-7 $1,^20,4:3

" " of products. j,44r),6()j 2,575,447

Pulp Mills. 1881. iS()i.

Number of mills 3 ^4

Number of hands i.i'-5

Annual value of material. 9,400 4'>').^45

" " ofproduct.s. (^J.jco i.ojr.'^^io

The increase in the pulp trade has bucu most
marked in the Province of Oiiebec, where the
number of mills in 1891 was seventeen, Ontario
having three, Nova Scotia two, an>i New Uruns-
wick and British Columbia one each. The
f,'rowth of the Canadian pulp trade is one of the
most remarkable features of our manufacturing
interests. In 1886, during the Colonial and
Indian Exhibition, a Canadian took some samples
of pulp made in Quebec, and submitted them to
English paper manufacturers, with the suggestion
that a trial should be made of Canadian pulp.
Some of them smiled pityingly at the idea that
Canada could compute with Norway, Sweden
or Germany in the pulp trade, but he predicted
that within ten years Canada would be regularly
sh'ppingpulp to Great Britain. The predictionhas
been fully realized, however, and to-day it is
recognized amongst wood-pulp users throughout
the world that the Canadian article surpasses
that of any other pulp-producing country. It is
admitted in Great Britain now that Canadian
pulp is as much superior to that of the United
States as American is superior to that of Norway or
Sweden. The fibre of the Canadian-grown spruce
and hemlock from which pulp is made has a finsr
texture, and is stronger and tougher than that of
any other country, e.xcept perhajis a very restricted
area in the United States. One of the reasons
suggested is the fact that in Canada the transi-
tion from summer to winter and from winter to
summer in the great sjiruce belts is more sudden,
while the cessation of vegetation is more complete
in winter than in other countries. In those
countries where the spring and autumn are long
drawn out, and the vegetable life is half dead

and half alive for a consiilerable time, the fibre of
the spruce is apt to be brittle and weaker ; while
the trees contain more knots. Whatever the
reason, the fact is now a<l milted by paper manu-
facturers and other users of wood-pulp. The
export of wood-pulp first figures in the Trade and
Navigation Returns of 1890, when the value of the
shipments was ijiiGS.iSo. This increased steadily
year by year till in 1S97 the export of Caiuulian
pulp amounted to $741,959, and in 1S98 to $1,-
210,421. There are now ab(jut a dozen pulp mills
in the country working entirely on exp<jrt orders,
and, considering the fact that large water-powers
are distriljuted over the spruce-bearing areas of
Canada, which aggregate over half a million
square miles, the paper and pulp manufacturers
are destined in the near future to become the lead-
ing feature of our many industrial activities. The
mills of Canada are likely within the next ten
years to supply a large part of the pulp, if not of
paper, to all the paper manufacturing countries of
the world. The chief destination of these exports
at present is the United States, Great Britain,
France and Germany — the first-named two being
our best customers. There are now fifty-five
pulp and paper mills in Canada, with a total
capacity of eight hundred and forty-four tons of
pulp per day, and three humlred and twenty-one
t(jiis of paper and card-board per day. Besides
tiiese about twenty new mills, chiefly pulp mills,
are in course of erection or in contemplation, in
Quebec, Ontario ami the Maritime Provinces.

The Boot and Shoe Industry. The leather and
kindred in lustries, like the paper and pulp trades,
are branches of manufacturing for which nature
has equipped Canada with special facilities. A
country of fine pasturage and with a providential
distribution of rainfall and water supply capable
of maintaining in the healthiest condition count-
less herds of cattle ; with unlimited quantities of
tanning material for the preparation of leather;
and with a skilful and reliable labour population
to work it up into all kinds of goods; there is
nothing wanting but rightly directed energy to
place Canada in the foremost rank of leather
manufacturing countries. Already Canadian
leather is gaining a reputation abroad, and even
our boot and shoe manufactures have within the
past few years begun to ship their products to

4y8

CANADA: AN K NCVCLOP.KDl A.

!

V

f .1

w

Im

1'^^;

J

p;

1 I

Great lirilaiii, Aiistralia aiul otlior roiintrics ; a
Montreal finij (to cite one instance) havinj,'
established u brancli in Pans, France, within tiie
past year. The first boot and shoe factory of
which we have any record was established in
Montreal in 1828, but this was bcft)ie the intro-
duction of any of the wonderful machines which
have revolutionized boot-making in half a cen-
tufv. Between 1840 and 1850 over half a dozen
small factories came into existence in Montreal,
the first of these to use machinery being Brown
dc Chillis, wlio established a three-storey factory
on Notre Daine Street, ami, in 1S47, imported
several Sinj,'er sewing m.ichines for putting
togetlur llie uppers of boots. The introduction
of these niacliiius was relented by all the work-
men in the various factories, and, when tiie mob
which burnt the Parliament Buildings in 1849
had accomplished that disgraceful act of incend-
iarism and were burning for more work of tiie
srjrt, one of them raised tlie cry of " On to Brown
& Chil.ls!" The cry was instantly caugiit up
and the mob rushed with one impulse towards
the boot factory. But the proprietors, knowing
the sentiment of the workmen on the sewing
machine question, had anticipated trouble and
when the mob arrived it found the building light-
ed up and constables posted inside and out,
while a detachment of the military appeared at
the factory and the rioters were compelled to fall
back b;iffled. The firm maintained their policy
of using machines and in a year or two started a
branch in Toronto.

Tiieintroductionofthe many ingenious machines
now in use in the boot and siioe factories was a
matter of evolution. The first McKay machine
for the sewing of soles — replacing the old pegging
system — was imported by Scholes & Ames, of
Montreal, about i860. Men had to be imported
to operate these machines, and, as they drew big
wages, they tried to perpetuate the notion that
the machines were of the most delicate construc-
tion and that only operators of the most consum-
mated skill could manage them. For several years
the machines were kept closeted off from obser-
vation and surrounded with as much mystery as
the Disappearing Lady on the Stage; and of
course the operators maintained the mystery as
long as possible. Ttie screw wire machine, the
Goodyear machines, and many other labour-sav-

ers followed the McKay machine, and it is worth
while noting that Canadian inventois have taken
a large share in bringing out new machines and
improvements on others in this line in the past
forty years. 'I he cities of the Province of Que-
bec, notably Quebec and Montreal, have become
pre-eminent in the leather imliistries, especially
in the boot and shoe making, as, out of a total of
76 establishments in Canada that may be called
factories, those two cities have together 47 estab-
lishmenfs, of which 29 are in Quebec. The Cen-
sus of i8(ji gave the number of liaiuls in the boot
and shoe industry of C.uiada as 18,041 and the
annual value of products as $18,990,381, but this
incluiled under the head of "boot and shoe fac-
tories" the cobbler in the back street, as well as
the factory employing a thousand hands, so that
no use canbemadeof them in calculating the real
factory work. No statistics that can be depended
on are available of the boot and shoe factories,
properly speaking, but some interesting figures
were prepared by the late \V. J. Patterson, of the
Montreal Board of Tra<le, showing the state of the
trade in that city in 1882. There were then in
Montreal 30 boot and shoe factories employing
3.500 persons of both sexes, while the nun Oc^ de-
pendent on this handicraft was put down at
10,000. The annual output was about 4,500,000
pairs valued at $5,400,000, and he estimated the
total product of the factories of all Canada at
6,750,000 pairs that year. The following
was a jiretty accurate list of the machines
in use in the various Mcmtreal factories:
675 si wing machines, 34 pegging machines, 28
sole sewers, 23 sole cutters, 8 heeling machines
(Bigelow and McKay), 45 e\ eleting machines, 28
punching machines, 23 skiving machines for sole
leather, 56 skiving machines for other purposes,
34 rolling machines, 23 heel burnishing machines,
23 edge burnishing machines, 28 sandpaper
buffing machines and 17 beating-out machines.
According to the Census of 1891 there were 802
tanneries in Canada (of which 354 wei'e in Que-
bec and 233 in Ontario) employing 4,263 hands,
the annual value of the output being $1 1,422,860.
The exports of sole leather and upper leather in
1897 to Great Britain alone were valued at $1-
258,043 and of manufactures of leather $10,581 —
about an equal quantity of the latter going to the
United States.

is worth
ve taken
lies and
the past
of Que-
I become
specially
I total of
)e called
47 estab-
riie Cen-
the boot
and the
, but this
ihoe fac-
3 well as
;, so that
:» the rtal
depended
factories,
g figures
)n, of the
ateof tlie
e then in
mployinj.;
in ocj. de-
down at
4,500,000
Kited the
Canada at
following
machines
factories :
hines, 28
niachines
:hines, 28
2S for sole
purposes,
machines,

nd- paper
machines.

were 802
fe in Que-

63 hands,
1,422,860.
leather in
:d at $1-
110,581 —

ing to the

CANADIAN INDUSTRY AND THE CHINESE QUESTION

sy

GEORGE H. COWAN, of Vancouver, B.C.

OUR national life is affected by our
international relations; from without
as well as from witliiu flow the life-
giving currents of a nation's energies.
Altliougli these currents spring larj,'ely from the
relations which our own citizens have with each
other in rendering; mutual bciielits and services
and sharing mutual interests, their purity is often
touched and sometimes tainted by the men and
things that reach us from other lands and the
associations we have with other peoples. Of
those who come to us from other lands, the
immigrants arc broadly divisible into ti>e natural-
izing class who don our nationality and the
sojourning class who remain alien to it. Of the
latter the Chinese labourers, notwithstanding
the Chinese Immigration Act, are continuing to
come in large numbers. Should this continued
coming be stopped, or given a more decided
legislative check? That is the Chinese Question.
Nothing more is meant— not expulsion nor
deportation. Being at peace and under treaty
with China, we engaged, by permitting her sub-
jects to enter, to protect them as our own
subjects in life and liberty, and in the right to
the exclusive disposal of what, under the law, they
have produced by their own exertions or received
by free gift or fair agreement. Expulsion, then,
is not an issue. The question does imply, how-
ever, that, having in the absence of express
treaty obligation to the contrary, the undoubted
right through our Government to annex what
conditions we please to the permission to enter
our territory, and even the right, when we think
proper, to forbid its being entered at all, we
should decide whether its continued entry by
non-assimilating Chinese labourers would not be
such a menace to our national life as calls for
prohibition, or, at least, a more stringent measure
of restriction.

i«i

First, then, as to the vital parts of our national
life, in order tiiat we may study how each is acted
upon by Chinese agency. Labour, the cause of all
value, is one ; commodities, the product of labour,
is another; capital, the savings from the sum-
total of our products, is the third ; and interna-
tional commerce is a fourth department of our
economic life. But the economic is not the only
phase of Canadian life. Of the other great
national life-spheres — the political, the religious,
the social, the domestic, art, science, education,
language — each may also feel the effect of Chin-
ese contact. And, if e.ich, then all ; for each of
tiier.e departments touches all others, modifies
and conditions all others, and ought to sub-
serve all other). If, then, we would not
sacrifice class to class, if wo would not im-
molate civilizing institutions at the altar of
material advantage to the few, but would obvi-
ate their certain decline, we must take into
account this intcr-dependence of these great
departments of our national activities and trace
through all, as vital to all, the present effects upon
each of continued Chinese immigration. Present
effects, I say, because, whatever new life for
decaying China there may be in the womb of the
future, it is in the present we live and with
existing causes and their present effects tliat we
deal.

These causes are to be found in certain Chinese
habits of tliought and action brought from China
and hardened by long centuries of isolation and
environment into permanent racial characteris-
tics. Man is the creature of environment and
nowhere has the law been better exemplified
than in China, Walled in by natural and artifi-
cial barriers from intercourse with any but inferior
tribes, the Chinese without help or hindrance
from abroad worked out, and, long prior to the
Christian era, had stereotyped almost in its pres-

'oo

CANADA: AN KNCVlhOI'.KDIA.

I;

I'

ifi

ent form, tlic wliule body of their law, literature
and customs. From remote antiquity t Mer.i-
tion of these unchan(;in^ institutions, this

isolation, upon Chinese <haracter, hive tl. pera-
tion of chmatic conditions upon Chinise colour,
has produced a type as ilifferi'Ut from our own as
the individuals of that type are like one another.
And in the Chinese of Hritisli Columbia we,
therefore, find certain in},'rained, indurated habits
of thouj^ht and action, alien, beyond the chance
of chanRo, to everything; Canadian; and find
these producing distinctive effects upon Canadian
interests.

Untiring industry is one of the features to he
found, not only in the type, but in almost unvary-
ing degree in the individual as well. Their
industry is of a domestic onler. Inherent in
their nature, it has bun fostered by their
idolatrous worship of ancestors, b'roin the time
of Abraham " down through the ringing grooves
of change" to the present hour, saerificial rites
offered at the Chinese family shrine to the tablets
of those " illustrious ones who have completed
their probation " have without change been one
of the chief formative principles in Chinese life.
It is not so much a religion as a ritual — a few
simjile, ceremonial acts of reverence before the
tablets erected to the dead. Its social incident
is a family feast. It begets a spurious patriot-
ism— not love of country, nor even love of home,
but a longing desire to become the patriarch of
his family and after death to be laid away in the
tombs of his ancestors, there to bo worshipped
in his turn. Hence it is that every Chinese
settler in Canada returns, dead or alive, sooner
or later — usually within a very few years — to the
homestead of his youth. His mission here is
not to colonize, but to caj)ture and decamp. Ndt
even his bones are left to fertilize our fields. A
western surgeon, not realizing the force of this
fatuous desire, recently cremated the amputated
arm of one of his Chinese patients. Reminded
of the awful consequence — the incomplete
anatomy of his patient could ncjt be canonized —
his action was prompt and along the line of least
resistance. Instead of converting the heathen
from his pagan beliefs he procured another arm,
which he palmed off as the genuine article upon
his unsuspecting patient! But, as this worship

has for its real motive and supposed result, not
the l>ivj or fear of an Unseen Power, but the
success of its devotees in worldly affairs alone,
they are led to look oidy to this world for their
rewards an 1 punisiiments and only to pleasures,
dignities and riches for their happiness.

Untrained in the higher intellectual, artistic
and literary pursuits and moved only by the first
law of nature and by that which soothes the
animal spirits and feeds the animal passions,
their pleasures are of the coarser kind to be
found in tiie dice-bo.\, the opium-pipe and the
lirothel. The dignities, on the other hand, are
tiiose of office under a despotic Government, few
in number, and only reached through public
examinations which few attempt to pass and
fewer still succeed in passing. Wealth is the be-
all and end-all of their existence ; not the wealth
of true kiKJwIedge and fine thoughts, for the si.\
ancient sjchool-books of Confucius teach neither;
not the wealth of political power, for all power is
in the Emperor, ttie vicegerent of Heaven, and
by him is deputed only to his chosen Mandarins
and graduates from the l-xaminalion Halls; not
the wealth of freedom, for liberty is a tiiinf* for
which the speech of China has not cvta a name.
It is material wealth. Not great material wealth
to enable its owner to embark on new enterprises,
|i>r the statutes forbid change of occupation;
"generation after generation they must not alter
or vary it," says Secti(Ui 76. It is bread, the
necessaries of life, enough to maintain himself
and the famil\', which circumscribes all his hopes,
aspirations and affections. Patient, plodding
toil to this end has with him become a habit, a
national trait, which, gr(jund into his character
by statute law and the iron law of custom and
cult, he takes with him into the mines of British
(■()liiml)ia or wherever else he goes, and of which
he could not divest himself if he would.

Another trait of the Chinese immigrant is his
low staniiard of living. By this it is meant that
his fixed, persistent, racial habits lead him to
choose a cheap house to dwell in, cheap clothes
to wear, cheap food to eat and beyond these
meanest wants to throw asiile every other weight
in the race of life. 1 he causes are not far to
seek. Kice, tlK-ir staple fooil, yields to labour
large returns. Tiie lo>.ss land in China is one

!^-

CANADA: AN KN( YCI.OlM.DIA.

50'

■of nature's plieiioiiicnu wliicli western science has
yet to explain. Tlieir loess-buds, covering an
immense tract, often to a great deplli, and terrac.
ing many of the mountain:., consist of a. powd-
ery, brown earth rendered extremely porous ami
fertile by the fact that every particle is peiforatcd
by minute cells lined with carbonate of lime and
always extending in the undisturbed stale in a
vertical direction, lixcept in seasons of drought
this deposit yields, and has for 4000 years yielded,
to Chinese industry two and somciimes tlireu
large crops of rice a year. The cost of produc-
tion being small, the wage of the producer is
small — merely enough to procure this cl'.eap foot!
and liis other necessaries; but the yield to his
labour being far beyond what he himself requires
for food, other mouths have increased up to the
number that can subsist on the surphis of the
yield. So that a dearer food has become to the
Chinese impossible and in their frequent seasons
of drought a lower and cheaper kind is often their
only means of subsistence. Habituated, as they
have become, to the barij subsistence of beggarly
food, scanty clothing and mean lodging, their
numbers have so increased under it that their
soil will not now yield to their 380,000,000 souls
that comfortable subsistence which we believe
the ordinary decencies of life require.

According to Tong, an educated Chinese offi-
cial, a workman in China with four cents a day
can find all his wants. True, it costs the Cana-
dian employer who boards his men abcjut ten
cents a day to supply each Chinaman with food
alone. But much of tliat food is wholes<jme
Canadian produce and, like that of the Chinese
domestic, dearer by far than what the vast major-
ity of Chinese settlers feed upon. As t'leir food,
so will their shelter be. Gicgarious in instinct,
they always huddle together indwellings that aie
cramped, filthy, foul and cheap. In the slums of
British Columbian t(nvns, and composLtl of the
meanest tenements, divided and subdivided into
rooms and stalls with tier upon tier of bunks not
much bigger than cofiins, the " Chinese Quarters "
arc often dens where, as Comniissioiier Chapleau
in his report upon this question has said, daylight
never enters, where one pure breath of air never
penetrates, where the stench is something between
a charnel-house and a wild beast's lair, but yet

where human beings are, as it were, packed away.
It is estimated that in Vancouver, in tlie wretched
hovels lining either side of Diijumt Street for 400
feet of its length, and standing, many of them,
on piles over the polluted waters of False Creek,
there are upwards of 1,500 Chinamen hording
together in scpialour. These buildings are valued
•it $.jJ,UJO.ind their sleeping air-sjuice is estimated
at J()j cubic feet per Chinaman. The inside
scenes aie a re-piodiiction in miniature of K)wer
life in China — a wilderness of untranslatable
sights, sounds ami odours, the last lazaretto of an
effete civilization. Less ofl'ensive but yet Very
cheap arc the clothes of a Cliiiiese settler, his
inner and outer tunics and his loose trousers.
In China the dress of civil and military officers in
all its minutest details of form, fabric and colour
is regulated by sumptuary laws ; and imitation,
the nearest approach to invenlivencis possible or
permitted to the common people, has led them, in
aping official fashion, to be less uncleanly in their
dress than in their dwellings.

The barbarous queue, worn at first as a sign
of allegiance under the compulsion of a death
penalty, is, under the galvanizing force of vener-
ated usage, now wot n as a sign of nationality.
The life-standard of this ill-fed, ill-clad, ill-housed
people is fixed — stationary in the habits of a
stationary race. It is iiut raised by contact with
our western way of life and for this reason :
Chinese life with us isa tide that ebbs and flows ;
it is a moving panorama, an ever-shifting scene ;
with the arrival of each steamer come fresh in-
crements to our Chinese colony, strangers to
our western wa\s, and with its departure leave
fresh <letacliiiieiits from that colony, those most
familiar wiih our ways. These arrivals, fresh
from China with Chinese ideals of life and com-
fort, act as a leaven upon the colonial lump to
check any tendency in their unprogressive minds
towards change. Indeed, so numerous and con-
stant are these arrivals and departures that the
wholii personnel of our Chinese population changes
every thieo or four years. Recruited, as this
population is, by immigration and not by birth,
it is important to look to its base of supply to
ascertain the cost there of producing the immi-
grant and the class of immigrants supplied.
The cost of rearing the Chinese immigrant in

ioi

CANADA: AN KNC VCLOI'/KDIA.

1 (

I-

I 1

['i

'It-'

Chiiui has almost, if not quite, as iiiiportant a
bearing as tliu cuat of luaiiitaiiiing liiiii iliiiiii^' his
slu-rt SDJouiii iiiic. l*"urtuii.ilily (ur the eiiqiiiiy
but uufottunatcly for tiic cause of fiucdoiii and
civihisation, thu coiulitions aie such as to enable
us to ascertain this initial cost with some ilc){iee
of accuracy.

Although with us fur obvious reasons the sale
of hiiiiian being's is not allowed, it is to a limited
extent permitteil and practised in China, even as
it was in the Southern States in slaviry days.
Parents may, and under stress of circumstances
do, sell their daufjhters and u iihiwed (lau),'hters-
in-lavv into prostitution and concubina^'e, and
their sons into slavery. Archdeacon C^ray, in his
excellent work on China, siiys the usual price of
an orilinary ablc-bodiiil slave is about $ioo.
liut, as the price usually covers the cost of pro-
ducing the thing sold, the cost of rearing an
able-bodied Chinese immigrant, in China, cannot
usually exceed $ioo, a conclusion which all ac-
counts of travellers coniirm. Again, with refer-
ence to the class of immigrants and the available
number at the base of supply, it is to be ob-
served that not all China has turned its face
towards Canada. The Province of Kwangtung,
lying on the coast in the south-east corner of the
Empire, being considered unhealthy, has with
Kwanf,'si and Yunnan long been used as a place
of banishment for criminals from other districts.
Many of its coast towns are surrounded by small
boats, or lankia, inhabited by whole families who
bef,'in and end their days on board and whose
scanty meal, we are told, is sometimes the nast-
iest garbage thrown from European vessels. To
escape punishment or poverty, many of the men
are criminals or their descendant?, most of the
women prostitutes. It is from this Province that
our Chinese immigrants co.me. So that, whether
we look to China or to British C(}luiiibia, it has
been observed of the Chinaman, and we shall find,
that "the long-continued, uniform operations of
overmastering external ccjiulitions has compelled
him, and it also has enabled him, to subsist on
the very least which in his case will merely main-
tain the nerve-force that diivcs his muscular
n;achiiiery."

A third disturbing cause is their dumb submis-
siveness to superiors. The influences that super-

infuse over Chinese character tills abject spirit,
as well us the spirit itself, .ire so entirely wanting
in our own institutions and people, that it is
tlifliciilt for us, and espt^cially for those of us who
are not e)e witnesses of its manilestutions in
liritish Columbia, to form an ailecpiatc cmiccp-
tioii of it. The placid self-complacency with
which tiiey accept their inferior station has no
analogue in Anglo-Saxon character. If allowed
to move along in their accustomed groove in the
(]iiest of wealth, they will suffer inulti])lied insults,
ojipressions and cruelties without resistance.
Not to a sense of iluty but to truckling fiar and
ignorance is this servility due. Confucius, their
great preceptor, taught subordination to super-
iors— chilli to parent, wife to husbaiul, siil)ject to
prince, minister to king — a subordination to be
attained only by strict observance of the conven-
tionalities and rites proper between man and
man. Upon these precepts their whole system
of government is built. The Emperor is the sole
head of the constitution, amenable only to
heaven, supreme in everything, without limit or
control. His powers are deputed, as we have
seen, only to ofhcers of his own choice, who are
answerable only to their superiors and to him.
The Code does not concern itself with the rights
or liberty of the subject at all, but is very minute
in defining his duties towards his superiors and
prescribing the outward ceremonial he is to
observe. The oflicers charged with the adminis-
tration of the law regard the masses, whose rights
are thus unsecured, as their legitimate plunder.
The latter, depriveil and ignorant of their rights
and confounding institutions with men, fear not
only the officers of the law but the law itself,
and either keep aloof from both, or truckle to
the former through the dwarfing ceremonial of
the latter.

So far, we have been considering the three
operative causes of iiidustiy, low ble-slandard
and submissiveness, all deeply imbedded, as we
find, in Chinese character. With these three
habits, bred in them by long use, our Chinese
labourers arc producing distinctive effects upon
Canadian life. Divided on the basis of occupa-
tion for the purpose of tracing these effects upon
our industrial life, they naturally fall into the two
classes of those who are their own employers

CANADA: AN KNCYCI.OIVl'.DIA.

503

suppurted by tliuir uwti capital and those who
arc cmpluycd by Canadian capital. Thu former
class recpiiru but little, nn we havu seen, to main-
tain them in their labour, and, as their industrial
undertakin{^'S are of the simplist, but little also
to supply their rude mechanical forces. Their
substitute for capital is their unceasinj^' toil and
low standard of life. Thu products of this self-
eniplojed labour are sometimes taken to China
and sometimes left in Canada. As an cxat^ipie
of those who ex|)ort their K'1''>s, Uaviny no
equivalent with us, the one thousand or mon;
Chinese mitiers, who line the banks of our gold-
bearing streams rocking for ^old and working
placer claims, may be cited. Maintained in their
labour largely by Chinese imports, tluy serve no
Canadian interests, whilst they abstract our
wealth and drain our resources fur the su|)|)ort of
Chinese life and institutions. Another Clhinese
industry attended by the same results is that of
salting salmon for export to China — results as
distinctly C'hinese in character as if a portion of
China herself had become detached and been
transplanted.

More niixed and varied are the results from
those industries wh'ch are passing or have passed
into the hands of Chinamen and in which the
finished product r;mains in Canada. They are
for the nwjst part uiuU rtakings in which large
capital and skilled labour, though an advantage,
are not indispensable. In illustration of the way
in which human exertion and inhuman living can
be made io do duty for capital, it is sufficient to
mention their first invasion and subsequent cap-
ture of the broom industry in San i'Vancisco,
U. S. Heing obliged to keep a horse for the bus-
iness, the six or seven Chinamen in it lived with
the brute in the stable, cooking, eating and
sleeping in the lolt. In the manufacture of
opium brought here in the raw state and the
milling of rice brought here in the hull the field
has always been all tln.irown. In manufacturing
charcoal for canneries and firewood for large con-
cerns, in clearing wild laiuls and in ilitching for
municipalities thty have, on the other hand,
driven, or almost driven, their white competitors
out of the field. In laundry work and market-
gardening they lead the race by many lengths and
in hog-raising and tailoring they are rapidly gain-

ing ground. It is becoming more and mure the
practice of our tailoiing houses, for inst.incc, to
give cut their custom work to Chinese tailors.
With untiring toil from eaily morn till dewy t ve
they ply the needle and tliuail, using, many of
them, the work-bench of the day for a bunk at
night and a breakfast table in the morning. livi n
the tailor-shops themsilves are passing into
Chini:se control. In all these industries aiul,
indeed, in all industries where a return from
labour-saving machineiy to physical labour is
possible, the tendency is strongly towards ("hinese
niono[K)ly. And with the monopoly conies, not
an increase in the sum of production, but a
decrease in the capital emplojed in maintaining
labour and supplying labour-saving machinery.

Industrial disturbances follow. The drive-
wheel of progress is reversed. Machinery and
the skilled labour needed to ri. . .taiid to improve
it cease to be agents of production, and bone-
labour with merely capital enough ta give it a
bare subsistence takes their place. Instead of
invention ami new tnechanical appliances, the
mill-horse round of muscular toil; instead of
labour-aiving machinery, living capital-saving
machines; instead of steam ami electricity, a re-
turn to man's nerve energies; instead of the
improvements of skill in productive and manu-
facturing methods, retrogression to the methods
of unskilled, ill-housed and ill-fed labour and
then stalionariness there ; instead of native capi-
tal, its foreign substitute; instead of a heaUliy
middle class, the lowest that China can supply;
instead of citizens, aliens; instead of Canada, a
part of the Chinese Eini)ire. In eastern as in
western Canada these results may on a small
scale be seen by the comparison of a white with
a ("hinese laundry. This reversal of the hands
on the dial of industry is the work of the two
much extolled virtues of Chinese cheap living and
unremitting toil. Until, like them, we have
stanched the llow of our energies in eveiy direc-
ticMi but that of toiling for bread and have
reduced the cost of vitalizing these energies
to the barest needs of manual labour ; until, like
them, we have coiujueriil every disposition to
reach out after and to realize the higher hopes
aini better ambitions of civili/ed life; we can-
not stand up against the onward, irresistible

I,

,1.

5r>l

CANADA : AN' LNCVCLOPIDIA.

fi-

lit

!.■

I

li

limrcli of the so-c-allcd Cluncsr itiduslr)' iiiid
friiK'nIitj.

Tlu! omploymfnt <if ("liiufsi! lalxuir l>y ("uiia-

lll.kll C.ipitll ptCSClltS IK \V (c.ltlllrH. Ill tlluSC

Hiiiallir iiKliislrit'ti \vl)iL:li Kiippoit a iniiUilc-cluss
ill wcateiii nations, thciu irt in Itritittli CuUiinbia,
.IS \vi! li.ivu st'Lii, a ^M.iilnal retreat of wliitc
labour and capital, and a Htcady advaiuu of
Chinesu, until the latturKaiii absulutu and exclu-
sive control. Hut in tiiu donicHtic Rervicc it iri
iinpossiblu for ('liincsu labour to combine with
(liim-su capital to oust its Cinadi.in ciiiployi r.
'I lu: (|uantity and kind of food tiic doniL'stic
servant eats and llie clollus be wears must also
I'U adapted to the tastes ol the home he enters.
The maintenance of all domestic servants beinf(
at the expense of the master, it does not enter as
an item into the (:omi)ut.ition of wa;,'es ; that
part of waye which in other empluyments is rela-
tive to food and maintenance is in domestic
service wanting, the food being paid in kind,
llecaiise of this and because it is with woman
that the competition is, the white and the
Chinese rates of wa{,'es are not so widely
different in the ilomestic as in other em-
ployments. Without his low standard of life
but witli bis industry, it is here th.it the China-
man is seen at his best. Apt at cookiny, willing
to work, and stronger than female lielj), he fills
the jdace of indoor anil outdoor servant about
the house. It will always be a (juestion whether
he asks less for a given amount of work than his
white C()mi)etitor; the fact that he h.is elbowed
her off tliree-fourths of the tield in British Col-
umbia would indicate that he does. But the
small economy he effects for his master cannot
bo allowed to wei|^h, if it is found to be at the
expense of otiier parts of our national life.

It is, however, in those larger enterprises of
greater complexity, those in which the European
because of his skill and capital is always the'
employer and the Chinaman becauje of his
cheapness is always an oiii|)loye, that the greatest
derangen\ents of our industrial society are taking
place. It is esjiecially in this relation that the
peculiar submissiveness of Chinese labour so
often plays with such telling effect upon white
labour. In many of these Chinamen their native
submissiveness is accentuated bv the circum-

Ktance that, in order to raise the hindri •.o got
here, they gave to laboiu -brokers in Cliiiuiu bond
on the 4' future lahoiii, secured bv mortgage of
iheir r< latives at home, and, to prevent ft)reclo.
sure of the mortgage and b.iIu of their relatives
into sliiery, they are obliged to live np to the
bond and be at tin; beck and tall of local
"bosses", the agents of ihese foreign mortga-
gees. It is seen in most of tlio sixty-two canne-
ries along the I'raser, Skeeiia ' Naas Kivers
and River's Inlet. These en i ach .«eason

some forty live hiindrei.1 Chinaman. The outside
work of fishing is done by Indians, J.ipanese ami
white nun, but the inside woik of raiining fioiii
the landing of the fish to the labelling of the
cases is the handivvork of Chinese cunning. The
whole is done under the supervision and control
of white employers, foremen and engineers. In
l8<j7 the output of these canneries was 1,015,. 177
cases. With the " boss Chinaman " every con-
tr.ut is made and to him every cent for Chinese
wnik is p.iid. By him the workman is put on
ami laid off without a moment's notice, lil;e "a
mechanized automaton."

In railway construction an pair the same
conditi(jns c>btaiu. The Chin e the navvies

of British Columbia. They u. . engaged, paid
and governed through bosses or head-men. In
China all government is through head-men, and
the government of Chinese labour here is pat-
terned after the same model. As one compact
body, obedient to the will of the boss, it is cer-
tainly not in a condition of free contract. Neither
is it in a condition of absolute slavery. S'lno of
the workmen, no doubt, are slaves, and others,
although not saleable chattels themselves, have
mortgaged relatives who might btteome so if
their bonds should become forfeit. Whatever
their condition, and it is probably one between
these two extremes, they are manned by these
bosses, who are quick to see the opportunities of
labour and by whom they are f.irmed out to do
the drudgery and the unskilled labour in the saw-
mills, the boats, the nines and other large ven-
tures of British Columbia. One manifest out-
come of tins relation is that there is a saving to
that part of capital engaged in the pavment of
wages, and well content it is with its increased
savings. But in studying the effects of Chinese

CAVADA ; AN KXCVCIOl' I'DIA

505

iinniiKr.'ituin iiilu Cunuila wc must reinciiiljur tliat
OUT iiiitioiial lilu nuithttr H|iiiii^-t alto^'utliur frDiii,
iiur fxists iiu'tdly for, tliu aci iiniiilati')ii of the
largest aiiKiiiiit of capit.il. Still less is its aim to
givu facilitit'H for tliin accuiiiiilatioii in favuiir uf
a frw piTsoiis, and tnotu t's|)(!ciallv, if with the
acLiiiniilatioii cuiiu; iiijiiriea to other interests.
How, tht!M, is the lahoiir interest afl'ecteil ?
Skilled wotknieii and those capable of tiianagin)^'
and overseein}; ("hiiu'se lahoiir au., like capital,
on the ri^ht side of the Chinese prohletn. Not
BO, liowever, with iniskiiied workmen. In some
of thesuini'nstries, nHin the c'nning, for exaniplr,
the Canailian workman has discreetly <|iiit the
fielil. To do otherwise, he mnst submit himself
to tiie hard conditions of Chinese labour; he
nuist live only I.' work with his hands and cat
only to Kt't slrenfjth for that work; worse still,
he must waive the rif,'lit of free contract and sub-
missively answer iiihinn to the roll-call of a des-
potic head-man. Thank God, his necessities
have not yet driven him to that.

Where, on the other hand, Canadian labour
remains in the held in competition with Chinese,
it is because of its greater efliciency in the higher
grailis of work, nd there the latter always com-
bines with capr d to force the wages of the
former down. 1 Eastern Canada, where the
imlustrial system .. '-,'iis labour to one class and
capital to another, llic two arranged on opposite
sides engage in more or less ecpial con. bat. Here
it is quite different, (\ipital has found in the
Chinese a new ally. As the Superintendent of
one t)f our coal-mines said on oath : " At the
tnne of their cominji here my Company had been
suffering from a strike of white labourers, and we
accepted the Chinamen as a weapon with whieh
to settle the dispute." As the Chinese can, and
the whites cannot lower their wages without
lowering their standard of life, it is, of course, the
aim of the Chinese bosses by undercutting the
whites to gain control of tiie labour mark,et,
which, notwithstanding the cut, yields what is to
them large returns. And capital is only too will-
ing to gain what labour loses by the reduction.
It is not the consumer that gains; lessened
though the cost of producing our coal, canned
salmon and luiiiber is by Chinese labour, their
price is not therefore reiiuced, because tiieir price

is determined by tliuir chief market, the marts
of the world. Capital aloiio is the gainer ; and
not cnly that capital whir.h employs Chinese
laboiii, but also th.it vshich engagt^s whitti labour
(■xcUisively, because of the general reduction in
wagis wliieh follows, and because of the ("hinese
"weapon" that hangs, like Damocles' swotil,
over the liead of while labour.

Where the whole Chinese contingent has gone
over to capital, labour cannot successfully organ-
ize to resist reduction. With less wages the
workman can do less work and procure less com-
forts ; his usefulness to the political, the religious,
the social and the dotnestic life of thecomnninity
IS impaired. It is idle to say that our industrial
need^ are beyond the skill or greater than the
supply of white labour: whatever the Chinaman
can do the Canadian can do better — except, per-
haps, to degr.ide his manhood for gain ; and with
our transportation facilities the supply will readily
answer the demand. Besides, the disproportion-
ate number of our idle, discontented, almost
anarchistic class, wedged out of employment by
Chinese cheap labour, i" the largest fact that
meets the e\u in a survey of the industrial con-
ditions in Hritish C'olumbia. In the argument
that labour begets labour, there is the fallacy of
the " uiiilistributed mi'JdI.e." Chinese labour
begets labour, not for all, nor even for the many,
but for the few overseers alone. For the masses
it displaces labour. The onlv industrial argu-
ment in favour of Chinese labour is tliat it possibly
increases the profits to capital owned largely by
ICiiglish ami American investors. What with
the wages of labour going to the west and the
profits of capital going to the east, there is but
little left for Hrilisli Columbians. Our imports
from China decreased from $1,1^^,954 in 1S86 to
§i,o46,jo4 in 1897, and our exports to China
rose from $j<j,Jo5 to $76i,i)7(), and this notwith-
standing the lu'ad tax of §50 imposed by us upon
Chinese labourers in the former year. And
naturally so. Having, themselves, laws restrain,
ing the emigration of tiieir labourers from China,
they do not resent our law restricting their immi-
gration into Canada. I'lom every economic
point of view, then, it is manifest that for in-
creased profits to those engaged in the larger
enterprises wliic'.i it is beyond the present i^kill

■■:!

5o(i

CANADA: AN KNCVCLOIM'.DI A.

:,

ami cupiial of the Cl'.inese to monopolize, ami for
the small economy which tlio ChincHo domestic
effects f(jr his master, we arc not only sacrilicing
our smaller industries and the middle-class they
support, hilt are driving out, keeping out and
impairing the usefulness of, what after all is the
chief factor of healthy j)roduction — a native
labouring class.

In the political relation not only are they unfit
to share in shaping Dur destinies but they take
the place of those vlio could help to form the
popular will, and they clog the machinery of
government as well. The general testimony of
our Judges is th.it they paraly/e the hand of
justice. It is next to impossible, for example, to
fasten crime on a Cb.inaman through Chinese
testimony. Accustomed only to oppression at
home, they come into a Canadian Court preju-
diced against its "foreign" Juilge and unanle
through Ignorance of its language and laws to
understand its even-handed justice. Lying, one
of their race characteristics and the ancestor of
all sin, is therefore stimulated, and there is no
form of oath to bind the conscience of a witness
with whom duplicity that attains its end is the
highest virtue and for whom there is no Unseen
Power to mete out punishment. Even their
resemblances work confusion. Their coarse,
black hair, their yellow complexion, their oblique,
ilmond- shaped eyes, their bridgeicss noses and
their round jowls, all uniformly " peering in the
meanest habit ", conspire to defeat the ends of
government. Where, for instance, licenses and
taxes are evaded by presenting tax-ieceipts
handed from one to another, it is difficult, if not
impossible, to detect the fraud ; where crime is
committed, t'icir "quarters" are its suitable
secreting place ; and, where crime is sought to be
proven, it is often laid at the door, not of the
guilty party, but of his substitute, who runs the
chance of conviction for siikeof the money rew.ird
levied upon the clan ftjr the e "devoted men."

With reference to tiie religious aspect of the
proI)lem, tiiere are many who think, and rightly
think, that, the interests of hiiinanity and of
Christianity being paramount to those of Canada,
we should be guided in Gealing with it by our
duty towards mankind and by the commaruls of
the Saviour b.imself. So guided, our duty as

employers of labour surely is to une the means
God has given us in employing by preference
that labour which supports the institutions that
make for higher civilization and for Christianity?
As evangelists, on the other hand, il is our plain
duty to see that the loss to Christianity is not
greater than the gain. The Chinese labourers
arrive here, almost every one of them full grown,
with his habits fmmed and his intention fixed to
make money a'" '. return. During his short
sojourn here he remains all but impervious to our
teaching, while he is multiplying the economic
forces that degrade and dechristiaiiize. His
return is not to cany the glad idingsof the Gos-
pel to his countrymen but to worship the sliades
of his ancestors. To teach this nation, there-
fore, we should plainly "go" to China, where
avarice is not stimulated by new prospects of
gain, where the plastic mind of youth can be
reached and where the good our message will do
will not be outweighed by countless countervailing
evils to ourselves. Of those Chinanien who are
already here and whom we could not deport, if
we would, our treatment should at the same time
hz more humane : not only for the purpose of
lessening the evils their industrial methods are
working to our civilization, but also for the pur-
pose of doing good unto all men " as we have the
opportunity" We should redouble our efforts to
let in upon them the light of Christianity, "the
summary of all civilization."

In the social sphere we find an effect, neither
Chinese nor Canadian in character, but a new
resultant from the contact of two non-assimilat-
ing races. It is the adder's egg out of which the
cockatrice of race-antagonism is being hatched.
Social equality and intermarriage are the pre-
recpiisites of race-assimilation, but not within any
ineasureable distance oi time can these two races
meet and mingU: on a footing of social or even
of political e(]iiality. Meanwhile, the mass of
race-antipathy is gathering volume and violence
and disintegrating the forces of our civilization.
It is a fad that we must accept and that no
amount of reasoning will change. It has been
well said of the Negro that he is God's image in
ebony and it may with equal truth be said that
the Chinaman is God's image in saffron. IJut
sentiment, the power that nun'es the world, is in

;f N

CANADA: AN KNCVCLOIM'-DIA.

SO?

both cases unreasoning and does not stop to con-
sider. The " negro pi obluni " of tiie Soiilli has
therefore appeared in Hritish Columbia in an
aggravated form ; for tlie Cliinaman, unlike the
negro, can outstrip his white competit(»r in the
chase aftT what is to l»im in very truth the
almighty dollar. This antagonism, along with the
other effects I have traced and with those in
the domain of art, science, education and huign-
age, forms a full, unchecked torrent of evils to
Canada of which an excessive statement can
scarcely be made or a parallel be foumi. It
seems unl'ortunate that the enquiry has by
self-seeking agitators been crowded with strifc-
stirriiig charges of immorality against the Chi-
nese, many of the charges being without verisi-
militude and much of the immorality merely the
re-appear.'Hice in Cliinese dress of our own human
frailties.

As to the remedy, it is j)lain, if my reasoning
is correct, that the labouring and small industrial
interests feel tlie bliglit of Cliinese contact to such
an extent that the general interests suffer, and
consequently plain that increased protection
should be given. It is only a question of the kind
and degree ; because, ever since Sir John IVIacdoii-
ald's Government introduced in 1885 the Hill im-
posing a head-taxof $50 on every Chinese labourer
landing on our shores and restricting the number
carried by vessels to one for every fifty tons of
the ship's register, the principle of protection to
labour has had legislative recognition. The
raison d' etre of that Bill was the protection it
would afford to labour, the revenue arising from
it being purely incixlental ; and in this it differs
from our present impost on imported commodit-
ies. The latter was at first merely a tax to raise
a revenue. Afterwards, in response to popular
appeal, and in order, as it was s;ii(l, to protect
our infant industries against the older-established
industries of the United States and of Europe,
the main burden of this tax was shifted to im-
ported commodities of a kind produced at home:
from being a tariff for revenue oiilv it becmie a

tariff for revenue with incidental protection to.
industries. liy tl e Hill of 1885, therefore, pro-
tectionism by a loi.g step came out into the open
and without the plea of revenue declared for pro-
tection, pure and simple, not to the commodity
the manufacturer had to sell, but to the com-
modity the labourer had to sell— his labour.

So that, to get relief we do not have to estab-
lish a new principle; as I have said, it is only
a (jiiestion of kind and degree. As to the kind,
it must cither increase the wages of home labour,
or increase the purchasing power of wages, or do
both. To raise wages it may either render labour
more efficient or diminish the supply of Chinese
labour; to increase their purchasing power it may
cheapen the commodities that labour buys with
wages by lowering the duty on these commodities;
to do both it may combine all these remedies.
It thereft)re falL to the local Legislature to render
labour more efficient by training our boys and
girls in mechanical, industrial and domestic
methods in the schools. To increase the pur-
chasing power of white wages the Dominion
Parliament, instead of increasing the duty on
cottons and other articles of white consumption
and lowering the duty on rice and articles of
Chinese consumption, should reverse that pro-
cess. Farliament should also diminish the supply
of Chinese labour by restricting still further the
cariving privileges of vessels and by increasing
the head-tax. As to the degree of increase, it
should be not merely sufficient to countervail the
natural protection against white labour which
the Chinaman has by reason of his cheaper trans-
portation to British Columbia; but it should be
sufficient also to counteract the decivilizing tend-
ency of his low standard of comfort. As an
effective metluul of exercising a discriminating
control over the class of Chinese labourers who
may still come under these increased restrictions,
it is suggested that there should be ex! ended to
them a passport system, similar to that now
applicable to Chinese merchants under the
Cliinese Immi''ration Act.

•r

i

THE CANADIAN IRON INDUSTRY

BV

,'!

GEORGE E. IlRUMMOND, President General Mining Association of llie Province of Quebec.

i')'

f :i

II

1 1

if

i ;
X ■ •

THE iron industry may well be termed the
industrial and commurci;d barometer of
nations. It has been said, and, histori-
cally speakinjj, amply dcmonstrateil,
that no nation has ever become truly great that
has failed, either from natural or othor causes, to
successfully develop an iron industry. Every
lover of history recalls historical data touching
work in iron by Chalybians, Eiryptians, Medes,
Persians, Parthians, Scythians and Africans, and
every lover of history will remember, with Swank,
that " with the fading away of Asiatic and
African civilization and magnificence the manu-
facture and use of iron in Asia and Africa ceased
to advance." With the decay in the East came
the more vigourous progress of the West, the
Western people proving, as they have repeatedly
done, their superiority over their Eastern breth.
ren — at least in all manly arts and industries.
And the utilization of iron is peculiarly a man's
industry.

The Romans, Greeks, Spaniards, Germans and
French, all in their turn madeprogressm the build-
ing up of iron industries in their respective coun-
tries (a position which the Germans and French
still, to a considerable extent, maintain), till the
westward march of civilization finally culminated
in the splendid develojiment, so far as Europe is
concerned, of the iron industry of Great Britain, an
industry which has added so much to the wealth
of that great industrial nation. Moving still
westward the seat of liie ircjii industry is now on
this Continent of America, where the United
States has risen to first rank amongst the iron
producers of the world. In both Great Britain
and the U.S. the " iron trade " is still regarded as
the barometer of national prosi)(Mity. When it
is depressed, all lines of trade and commerce are
iiiore or less affected, showing great shrinkage in

values, and a consequent restriction in the pur-
chasing power of the people. On the other hand,
when it is prosperous, almost every other line of
business is correspondingly so.

As to Canada's natural fitness for iron-making
there is no question. Tiiat has been amply
proved by investigations m.'.da by the officers of
our Geological Survey and by the pioneer adven-
turers in the enterprise of iron-making in the
Dominion- -brown and red hematite, magnetites,
spathic, bog and lake iron ores of almost every
variety being generously and widely distributed
throughotit the Provinces of the Dominion from
the Atlantic to the Pacific. In the extreme east-
ern and western Provinces splendid deposits of
mineral fuel and flux ire tound side by side with
the iron ore. In the central Provinces there is
an inexhaustible growth of wood, well adapted
for the maimfacttire of charcoal fuel, and almost
everywhere throughout the territory are also
present the necessary fluxes in abundance.
Nature has certainly been lavish in her gifts to
us, and it devolves r.pon capital and intelligent
Canadian labour to combine and develop the
really grand resources of the country in this
respect.

The pioneer stage of the Canadian iron in-
dustry dates back to the establishment of the St.
Maurice I^orges, by the F"rench Government,
about the year 1737. The record of the opera-
tions of that furnace affords perhaps the most
interesting reading in the industrial history of
this country. The work there was first carried on
by the French Government, and, after the con-
quest of Canada, by the British Government.
Later on it passed under the control of private
firms. All the records show that the physical
character of the iron manufactured from the bog
and lake ores of the district of St. Maurice and

MS «

CAN'ADA: AN I'.XCVCLOl'.KDI A.

509

Three Rivers was, as ii is to-iiay, in point of
value, of nn extraoniinary natuiL-, rivailiiifj in
quality the finest iron ever made in Sweden. The
work at the St. Maurice I'orges (the seat of
which industry was removed in tmdern days to
the Rachior Forj^es) was followed at various
periods by tiie erection of iron works at Batiscan,
L'Islet, Hull, IJaie St, Paul, and Moisic, in the
Province of (,Juebcc ; Furnace Falls, Norinandah',
Marmora, Madoc, and Houton, in the Province
of Ontario; Woodstock, in New Brunswick;
Moose River, Nictaux, and Bloomfield in Nova
Scotia. Labouring under many grave disad-
vantages, such as small outputs, lack of
capital, lack of shipping faciUtits and other
such good and sufficient reasons, the Cana-
dian pioneer furnacemen were forcetl, in almost
every case, to succumb to the competition
of foreign iron, admitted free of duty into
Canada in those earlier days. It is important
to mark, however, that in not a single case has it
been shown that lack of raw material necessitated
the closing down of a pioneer Canadian furnace.
Passing over the pioneer stage, I come to per-
haps the most important epoch in the history of
the iron industry in Canada, viz., the introduction
of thfe protective tariff on iron which came into
force in 18S7. This was the policy under wliich
the great iron industries of Great Britain and the
U. S. have been successfully cstablislied, and the
introduction of the same system of protection
has had a i^imilar result in Canada, for to-day we
hnd tiiat, while the industry in a modern sense
is yet in its infancy, there ate strong establish-
ments in active operation at the following points
throughout the Dominion : viz., the works of
the Nova Scotia Steel Co. at Ferrona and
New Glasgow, N.S. with an annual capacity
of some 30,000 tons of coke jiig iron; the
Hamilton Blast Furnace Co., at Hamilton,
Ont., with a cajiacity of some 40,000 tons of coke
iron per annum ; a charcoal furnace at Des-
eronto, Ont., with a cai)acity of 10,000 tons of
iron per annum; the works of the Canada Iron
Furnace Co., Ltti,, at Radnor Forges, Que., with
a capacity of 10,000 tons of special charcoal
metal per annum ; anil a charcoal furnace at
Drummondville, Que., with a capacity of about
4,000 tons per annum— the capacity of tiie com-

bined plants affording an output of over 90,000
tons of metal, \\iii(h is rapidly displacing the
product of American furnacis hitherto used in the
Canadian market. In additioi: to tiiese furnaces
the building of new plants is contemplated for
Midland, Out., wiicro it is expected that some
20,000 tons of chaic(ml pig iron will be manufac-
tured each year. And a still larger enterprise for
the manufacture of c()keirf)n is now being consid-
ered by American and Canadian capitalists, the
location of wliieh will likely be at Sydney, C,B.
The ores to be used at Sydney will come largely
fiom Newfoundland, but llie fiu.l will be the prod-
uct of Canadian mines, and it is expected that
tlie iron produced will find a market in Great
Britain and on the Continent of Europe.

In the face of all the diliiculties attending the
initial stag -s of the establishment of an iron
industry, much has already been done, but the
field for development, both at home and abroad,
is stHl very wide. According to the best author-
ities, Canada, at the present time, uses annually
upwards of 250 lbs. of the products of iron per
capita. This on a population of, say 5,000,000,
means, roughly speaking, an annual consum})tion
of 600,000 net Ions. In his Report of the Bureau
of Mines of Ontario for 1892, Mr. Archibald Blue
estimated the consumption to equal (after mak-
ing all due allowance for waste in converting pig
iron into finished iron and steel), say, 604,252 tons
for 1891-2. This consumption has been con-
stantly increasing ever since, and will continue
to grow even more rapidly than the population,
as this new country is opened up. To better
realize the accuracy of the figures Uientioned, it
must be remembered, for instance, that C:inada
possesses to-day cl(3se on 19,000 miles of railway
line, representing fully 2,000,000 tons of metal.
The average life of a rail is fifteen } ears, there-
fore renewals are being made annually, and as a
matter of fact the Dominion is using, in this
department alone, upwards of 150,000 tons of the
product of iron per annum. All the rails used in
Canada to-day are of outside make. As a further
illustration, the Rolling Mills at Montreal, Ham-
ilton, New Glasgow, N.S., and elsewhere, are
producing annually at a fair estimate 100,000 tons
of the product of iron. Unfortunately the raw
material for this special department of work is

^■^

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CANADA: AN KNCVCLOI'.KDIA.

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quite largely external, altlioufjli there is no good
reason why, within the next few years, every ton
of tliis should not be supplied by Canadian labour
from Canadian raw material. The Canidian iron
founders are using annually, at a low cstitnate,
loo.ooo tons of pig iron in ordinary castings, such
as stoves, agricultural iniplenients, and machin-
ery of all clisses — less than three-fourths of the
material used in this class of work being the
production of Canadian furnaces.

In the manufacture of railway car wheels,
where high class charcoal iron must be used, if
the lives of the railway passengers are to be con-
sidered, there is a very large field for the product
of Canadian furnaces. According to the returns
for 1898 there were in service in Canada 58,423
freight and baggage cars, under which there were
in service close on 500,000 wheels. Some thou-
sands of tons of charcoal metal are also required
in the manufacture of malleable iron, for which
charcoal is specially adapted. Aside from these
leading lines, the country consumes each year a
large quantity of such products of iron as band
and hoop iron, special quality bar iron, steel
boiler plates, steel sheets, siieet iron, chain
cables, slabs, blooms, bridge and structural iron,
railway fish plates, nail and spike rods, wire,
locomotive tires, iron and steel for ships, steel
ingots, bars, and other forms of iron too numer-
ous to mention, but now, so far as the Canadian
market is concerned, very largely the product of
external labour.

Aside from the home market, well- located
Canadian furnacjs should, before many years
pass by, be able to find a veryprotitable opening for
their products in the markets of Great Britain. All
familiar with the trade are aware that American
iron, largely that made in the Southern States, has
found a ready market during the past year
or two in Great Britain, and that this is
not by any means wholly due to the fact that
the British producers of iron were too busy
to take care of the demands made upon them for
metal for home and foreign consumption. The
British iron masters can no longer close their
eyes to the fact that the mines of their own
coimtry and of Spain, from which Great Britain
has drawn large supplies of late years, are in
many distric*s well nigh worked out, and that

they have to increasingly depei.d upon other
foreign sources of ore supply. The conditions
are such, theiefore, that the Canadian producers
of iron may, sooner even than many interested in
the trade suspect, become very important factors
in the life of the iron trade of the Einpire.

In the building up of the trade careful con-
sideration must be given to the proper locating
of coke and charcoal furnaces. These questions
will be settled by the natural fitness of each
Province for the production of coke or charcoal
metal, as the case may be. The furnaces to be
erected must be modern and possessed of the
latest appliances, for the time is past when iron
can be successfully produced without improved
appliances, both in construction and modern
methods of operation. The blast furnace must
meet consumers' wants in quality of iron, and
technical knowledge riid administrative ability
must be joined together to secure the increased
out-put and high quality of iron which the times
demand. To meet the large and increasing wants
of the Rolling Mills throughout the Dominion,
and thus secure for Canadian labour as much of
the trade as possible, the question of auxiliary
plants for the converting of pig metal into steel
must be considered by the blast furnace people or
the Rolling Mills, and this \vork must be under*
t iken promptly.

Canadian capitalists and men of affairs gener-
ally will do well to give the native iron industry
more attention in the future than they have in the
past. An industry that is peculiarly Canadian in
every branch, drawing its wealth from Canadian
soilandemployingmorelabour in proportion to the
value of the product than almost any other indus-
try, is surely worthy of their legitimate support.
The fact that the earlier iron industries of this
country failed to succeed under most adverse
circumstances is no reason why, under existing
conditions, undeniably more favourable,*- vhe
industry cannot be made a thorough success, not
only affording a great field for the safe investment
of capital, but indirectly benefiting other existing
Canadian industries and interests, and thus aiding
towards increased population and national wealth.
Let the Canadian Government and people go
steadily onward, and by all energy and sympathy
build up this great national enterprise and interest.

;!:

CANADIAN FORESTS AND TIMBER INTERESTS

BY

MISS CATHERINE HUGHES, of Ottawa.

IT is related in Norse Sagas that, in looo 000,000 in value. Hut then her forests are most

A.U., Lief, son of Eric tiie Red, was led by intelligently cared for.
his daring spirit to cruise southward from Until there are more perfect means than now

his home in Greenland. His boats eventu- exist of estimating the forest area of the Domin-

ally touched upon the shores of Nova Scotia, and ion, more particularly tiie amount of mcrchant-

the intelligent Norseman, looking on its wooded able timber growing thereon, all calculations

slopes, named it Markland, "Land of Woods." must be necessarily rather less accurate than

An appropriate name, significant of the valuable could be desired. The white pine is Canada's

heritage these woods have proven themselves great commercial tree. Its excellence proven in

within the past century! Hut not only Nova foreign markets has lent an enviable distinction

Scotia merited this enviable title. At that time to Canadian forests. It must be noted with

all Eastern Canada wac a land of woods. regret that but a small percentage — 5.6 — of the

Tlic Forest Area of Canada. When the French total forest area of Canada is known to be tim-

settlements first began a magnificent virginal bered with pine. In some localities the growth

forest extended from the Atlantic slope westward, is dense, while in others it is found mixed with

beyond the great lakes and out to the sparsely- less valuable varieties of timber. In the table

wooded central prairies. This forest, from the givin below no estimate has been attempted of

Atlantic to the Lake of the Woods, was 2,000 the pine remaining scattered throughout the

miles in length. It covered an area of 315,000,- Maritime Provinces. There is no pine (pintis

000 acres, less the area of the water surface of strobiis) in Hritish Columbia, in Manitoba, or in

innumerable lakes and rivers and streams. It the Territories.

A Stathtical estimate of the forest area of Canada.*

Pine l.inds,

Forest and Percent- white and Other

wutxlland. a^'e. rtd pine. woods.

Sq. miles. Sc|. mtles. Sq. iniles. Sq. mi!cs.

102 118 46.49 38,808 63,310

u6,S2i 51.22 31.46S 85,053

14766 52.55

6.464 31 45

797 39.85

25,626 40.

2-S5.i54 74-69

696.952 29.38

has bten statistically computed that, approxim-
ately, 30,000,000 acres of this land have been cut
out for agricultural purposes, and that about
20,000,000 acres have been for other and various
reasons almost denuded of their forest-trees. Of
the remaining forested land vast areas have been
ravaged by fire, and the merchantable timber
taken out of the bush by three generations of
lumbermen has left tracts of woodland of little
present value. In the five older Provinces there
remain, therefore, about 154,000,000 acres, or
240,000 square miles of forest area. This region,
which includes the four chief lumber-exporting
Provinces, contains now at least 45 per cent, of
forest. Austria-Hungary with only 30 per ceni.
of forest area supplies the home demand of about

Provinces.

Ontario

Quebec

New Brunswick .
Nova Scolia. . . .
V. E. Island....

Manitoba

liritish Columbia
The Territories .

Total
area.
Sq. mile<i,
219,650
227,500

28,iuo

20,550

2,030
64,066

382,300

2, 37'. 481

Total 3. 3'5.647 1.248798 35.63 70,276 148,363

There are, then, in Canada 1,248,778 square
miles, or 799,230,720 acres, of forest area. Taking
the population as 5,000,000, these figures give an

•I wish to .ncknowledge my indebterlness for thcie and other
statistics to Mr. (Jeorge [ohnson, F.s.s.. Dominion .Statistician,

42,000,000 people, while her net yearly exports whose Report on the Forest Wealth of Canada, issued in 1895, is
, , ^ J ^ . , ^ L * •" invaluable production, unique in its thoroughness as an Official

CI forest-products amount to more than $31,- keport upon Forest .

Ml

5>a

CANADA: AN KNCVCI.UIVKDIA.

i

area per licad of 159. iS acres, wliilst tlioro are in
Swiden y.jo ;icres per heaJ, in Austria-Hungary
1.04 acres, aini in tlie United States 7.05 acres
pii lieail. Canada's fort.'St area, liowes'er, is nut
all covered with niercliantabii: trees. A careful
approximate estimate of the (jiiaiitity of pine in
the Dominion ^Mves a total of al>out jj, 500,000,000
feet, bt)ard measure. This has been calcuhited
accordiiif,' to tlie Ontario Provincial estimate of
500,000 feet, H. M., to the mile, and assuming
one-tifth of tiie forest area in the Maritime
Provinces to he pine. If the present annual cut
continues — Mr. Julmson has ascertained that
1,000,000,000 feet, li. M., is a low estimate of it —
and the system of ft)rest protection is not
improved upon, our supi)l\' of marketable white
pine will be exhausted within forty years. This
is a very liberal estimate. There will then
remain only faulty trees and an amount of younj:;
f,'rowth. The forests of the Ottawa Valley con-
stitute Canada's great pine forest. Here the
hmihermen are approaching the head-waters of
the Ottawa's tributaries ; fire has in many places
been before them ; ami the end of this forest —
at one time consiilered inexhaustible — may now
be seen.

The forest area of British Columbia is 2iS5,554
square miles — nearly 75 per cent, of the wliole
area. The conditions there would appear to be
favourable for tree-ijrou-th, as tlie density of the
forests and the gigantic size of their trees are
world-famed. Along the coast the timbiT is uoi
of as fine a (jiiaiity as it is further iiihuui or in
the vallexs running back to the interior. The
central plateau possesses little timber of value.
The timber upon the Railway Kelt is estimated
at 3,000,000,000 feet, H. M. The Douglas lii', a
nati\e tree, is to this Province Nsliat the wiiite
pine is to Eastern Canada. Large quantities of
(ir saw-logs an; imported by the United States.
The cedar, of which there are two varieties,
yellow and red, is a magnificent tree, next in
commercial importance to the Douglas tii'.
Spruce, hemlock, tamar.ic and poplar abound.
Though the greater number of the forest trees are
coniferous, there are some excellent hardwoods,
oak, maple, etc.

In tiie Territories, according to the estimates
of officers of the Geological Survey and of Domin-

ion Land Surveyors, there are ()i)l),()^i square miles
of forest and woodland. Hut this land is usually
sparsely timbered. In the prairie region the
timber growing along the rivers ami upon hills
supplies in i)ait the local demand, but there is
none for export. In the districts lymg on the
eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains the British
Columbia varieties of fir ami spruce are being cut
by lumbermen. In the extreme north along the
coast there is no timber of commercial value.
Lying toward the nortii, in the basin of the Mac-
kenzie and its tributaries, the Athabasca, Peace
and Liard Rivers, is the grtiat forest of the North-
West. It consists chietly of poplar, banksian,
l>ine and a sujierior qn.dity of spruce. As this
lies on Arctic waters it is of no present commer-
cial value to Canada, but, when the country south
of it has been opened up by railways, it will be of
immense importance to Manitoba and the sur-
rounding Territories. In Manitoba the area of
forest ami woodland is 25,626 stjuare miles, or
about two-liftlis of the total area. The timber
growing here, however, is not of commercial
value. Spruce and poplar abound and are nseful
to the settlers. In the south-eastern corner of
the Province, around the Lake of the Woods,
tiiere are patches of piiu- and cedar, the fringe of
the Ontario forest.

Ontario's forest area is 102,118 square miles
in extent, 22,557 "f which are under license.
South of the Height of Land and east of Thunder
Bay district there are 64,762 square miles of
forest ; 24,850 in Thunder Bay district and
i^,5o() north of the Height of Land. Of this
last only 150 scjuare miles are j)ine lands. The
plateau of the Height and its northern slope are
well-wooded, pai'icularly the former. Spruce is
abundant, but there is very little pine. North
from llie Height to James Bay ami west from the
Albany River to the inter-provincial boiuulary,
there stretches a vast peat -bog or iitiiskcf:;, as the
Indians call it, with some good timber — poplar,
spruce, birch and tamarac — along the banks of
tilt rivers. Eastern Ontario has been cleared
of its forests many years. . In the peninsula
the old forests of pine and valuable hardwoods
have about disappeared. The forests of the
Cieorgian Bay district are rich in pine, but they
are being rapidly depleted to supply logs to Mich-

CANADA: AN KNCYCI.or.KDIA.

sn

i),'aii (U.S.) s;uv-mills, and will soon be of little
value. The districts of Nipissinj^and Alj,'onKi are
well-timbered vvitb pine, bircli, coiiar, maple,
spruce, poplar, tamarac, etc.

The portions of these districts lyinfj about
Thunder Hay, Raniy River, Spanisii River, and
Lake Tcmiscamin^'ue are extensively operated
by lumbermen. The TetniscamiiiRue pine-lands
lie at the western limit c)f the splendid Ottawa
Valley forest.

There arc in Quebec 116,521 s(piare miles of
woodland and forest; 46,550 scpiare miles of
which have been leased to lumbermen. That

of the St. Lawrence from tin: (iaspe peninsula to
the iiilematioiial boimdiuy only small scattered
forests of |)iiie remain. Spruce abounds, but the
supply is beiiif,' rapiilly exiiaustcd in fiirnishiuf;
pulp-wood to United States pulp-mills. A f,'reat
deal of hciiildck is cut for its tanbark ; maple, birch,
cedar and tamarac are also huf^'ely cut throiif^hout
the Province.

Labrador has not yet been completely sur-
veyed, but the basins of the explored rivers have
been found to be f;iiriy will tiiiil)tred with spruce,
birch and tamarac. Tracts of sphaf,'iiiim moss
are met with inland. In New Brunswick there

i<;e of

miles
cense.
1 under
es of
and
this
The
■)c are
uce is
North
)m the
iidary,
as the
loplar,
ks of
uared
linsula
woods
)f the
t they
Mich-

Timber Cove, near the City ot Quebec,

portion of Ouebec extendiiit,' north of the Ottawa
to the Heif^lit of Laii<!, and the districts watered
by the SaL;uenay, the St. Maurice and their
tributaries, have been covered witli pine forests
of immense value. They arc still valuable
although very nmch decreased in quantity by fire
and lumbering operations. The Lake St. John
and Saguenay rej^ion has been especially (^ver-run
by fire and few of its rich old pine forests remain.
North and east of this region there is little timber
of merchantable value ; spruce and birch and
tamarac constitute the ordinary growth. South

33

are i.\,ji>b sipiare miles of forest and woodland.
In i.'^iM, (),5i8 scjuare miles were leased to
lumbirmen. I'ine has almost disappeared, and
spruce IS now the staple of the lumber trade.
\'ery little timber remains along the Bay of
Fundy, but the north-western coriu;r of the
Province is well timbered. In the Kestigouche
tiistrict considerable virgin forest is left, and
excellent spruce and cedar are to be obtained
there. About the Renoiis and Dungarvon Rivers
virgin forests also remain. The Miramichi dis-
trict, so disastrously visited by ihe in 1825, is

5' J

c:.\NAl).\: AN KNCYCLOIVKDIA.

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covered now with a yoiiiif,' prowtli of red pine,
poplar anil spruce. The area of forest and wood-
land in Nova Scotia is 6,464 square miles — 6, }K6
of which are fjrante. 1 lands, and 7S ungranted.
It will be scxii that the Nova Scotian forests are
almost entirely in the hands of private owners.
Extending through the counties along the north
coast tlure is a belt of hardwood — oak and birch
and tnaple. Merchantable pine is about ex-
hausted, but a y Muig growth remains for future
use. Spruce and tamarac grow in abundance
and there is also an extensive well-wooded region
in the north-east oftiie I'rovinci-, about the head-
waters of the rivers flowing into the Atlantic.
There are 797 square miles of forest and wood-
land in Prince Edward Islaiul — 775 square miles
of which are granted and 22 are ungranted. The
timber, consisting of coniferous trees and some
good hardwood, which now remains upon the
Island Province, is not suflicient to supply the
local demand.

Canadian Forest Trees. There are more than
one hundred varieties of trees in Canadian forests.
The white pine — pinus strohits — the magniiicent
tree that has built up a reputation for Canadian
timber, is now principally to be had in the
Ontario and Quebec pine forest, extending from
the Tcmiscamingne region to the St. Mjiurice,
and in the Georgian Bay district. It is scattered
throughout New Brunswick and is in very small
<]uantities in Nova Scotia. The finest pine is
generally that found mixed with hardwoods,
rather than in a dense pine grove where the soil
is not so rich or nutritious. It is reproduced
slowly ; at least half a century's growth is required
to make a merchantable tree. Pine timber is
extensively used in finishing house interiors, and
providing material for innumerable articles of
every day use, as pails, boxes, matches, furniture
of all kinds, etc. The red pine, which is less
valuable than the white, is usually found growing
beside it. Toward the north it is iiKjre common
than its sister tree. Banksian pine is an inferior
species which extends even to the Mackenzie
Basin.

Spruce is met with in all the Provinces.
Because of its abundance and speedy reproduc-
tion and the growing demand for it, it stands
next in value to pine as an article of commerce.

It is a very light, strong ami elastic wood. The
while spruce of British Columbia is of excellent
(juality, superior to that of Eastern Canada. The
black spruce found in the interior of this Province
surpasses even the western white in excellence.
In Quebec, south of the St. Lawrence, and for
some distance back into the interior on the north
shore, the spruce forests are being exhausted to
supply the pulp factories of that Province and of
New York State. Nova Scotia, New lirunswick
and Ontario forests have also been extensively cut
into for spruce. The Douglas fir, known in
commerce as Oregon pine, is of immense value
to British Columbia's lumber trade. It is very
strong and large, ami is an excellent coarse build-
ing-timber. Dr. Nansen's vessel. The Fram,
was made of it. Good fir-trees average about
160 feet clear from the ground to the first limb,
and are from five to six feet in diameter at the
base. The finest specimens are over 300 feet in
height, with a circumference of 25 to 50 feet at
the base.

The density of growth is an important feature
of the fir timber limits. In consequence of this, a
British Columbian fir limit yields many thousand
feet per acre more than an Eastern pine limit. A
reliabiewriteris the authorityforthestatementthat
" a prominent firm of loggers cut and measured
508,000 feet of timber off one acre in Comox dis-
trict." The yellow cedar of British Columbia is a
beautiful wood. Like the pine it is well adapted
for joiner work. Red cedar is plentiful west of the
Rockies, and as it is very easily worked it is a
boon to the settlers there. Cedar of all varieties
attains a gigantic growth in this Province. The
cedar of Quebec ami New Brunswick is of com-
mercial importance, as there is a great demand
for posts made of this wood. It is common in
Ontario and is largely cut there for the home
trade, but it has not appeared to any extent in the
exports of the Province. Nova Scotia and the
Territoriis cont.iin very little cedar. It is a most
durable wood, and is used for exposed work.
Hemlock is commonly met with throughout
Canada, if the Territories, Manitoba and Prince
Edward Island be excepted. It forms an impor-
tant iti m in each year's cut in Quebec, Ontario,
New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. Its bark is in
demand for its tanning qualities. When cut for

1 1

c:ANAI>A: an KNCYCLOI'.r.DIA.

sn

this piir|)i).se, at an inconvenient distance from
mills, the loR is left in the bush to rot— a danger-
ous and wasteful practice. A cheap class of
lumber is inanufaitnriMl from the hemlock tree.

The poplar, of which there are many varieties,
is found in all parts of Canada. It is especially
abundant in the northern forests of the Terri-
tories. Poplar wood was used in the manufacture
of pulp when this industry was first introduced
into Canada, but it is now very little soufjht
for the purpose, as it is considered inferior to
spruce. The basswood, or hois blanc, is found
growing in all the Provinces except lUitish
Columbia. It is not known to exist in any part
of the Territories. In none of the Provinces
can it be said to grow in abunilance. It is a
desirable wood, of commercial importance, used
chiefly in the manufacture of carria;,'es and
furniture. It is lij,'ht and durable and admits
of a very fme finish. Tamarac is a common,
useful tree. It grows in all parts of Canada,
and is cut principally to supply local demand.
The balsam fir is a very common tree, used
in many ways by settlers in new districts, but
it possesses no commercial value. The hardwood
forests ot Canada contain many valuable varieties.
There are hardwoods in all the Provinces, but
only to a small extent in Manitoba and Prince
Edward Island. In Ontario, Quebec, New
Brunswick and Nova Scotia the hardwoods are
cut to supply both local and foreign markets.
Little has been yet exported from British Colum-
bia, but there probably will be when the Province
has been further developed.

Maple, the tree of Canadian song, gives a
very strong wood, of commercial value, and
is also a handsome sliade tree. The sugar
made from its s;ip is a toothsome dainty when
pure, and a market commodity of some impor-
tance in spring. The hard, or sugar, maple
grows slowly. " Soft maple " grows more
rapidly. The curly and bird's eye varieties are
eagerly sought after, as they afford a handsome
wood for furniture. The white birch, of whose
bark the Indian built his home in the forests
and on the lakes — his wigwam and canoe — has
of late been largely cut in Quebec and shipped to
England and Scotland for the manufacture of
spools. Black birch is often used for furniture

as a substitute for cherry. Hickory and beech
are highly valued as firewood. The relative fuel
value of shell-bark hickory (83. 11) is exceeded
only by that of Ontario's yellow chestnut oak —
8().()(). The nut of this tree is a pleasing edible,
anil if carefully cultivated would make a consider-
able article of commerce. Black walnut, at one
time plentiful in the peninsula of Ontario,
has almost disappeareil. It was most wastefully
used by the early settlers.

White ash is noted for the elasticity and strength
of its wood, and as it is easily cut into thin layers,
is used in making baskets, hoops anil staves as
well as cabinet work. The elm is a very handsome
tree. Waggons and hiravy furniture are made of
rock elm, a strong, tough wood. The oak is
chiefly of two varieties in Canada, the white and
red, the latter being more common. The white
oak of Ontario is almost unexcelled for ship-
building. Quebec's white oak is inferior to that
of Ontario. Beth red and white oak command
high prices when made into house furniture.
They are used in making waggons, floors and any
article requiring great strength.

Exports of Forest Products. Canada now ranks
fourth among the world's wood-exporting coun-
tries. Norway and Sweilen, Russia and Austria
export larger quantities. But the forests of
Austria and Sweden are systematically cared for
and protected, and, when Canada's forests have
been as well developed and as carefully guarded
as those of the older countries, she must take a
higher rank as an exporter. France early recog-
nized the forest wealth of her young colony.
Timber was shipped to France by the energetic
Intendant Talon in 1667. After the conquest of
Canada by the l^ritish, the Mother Country,
being well supplied from the forests of Northern
Europe, disregarded Canada's forests. But the
issuing of Napoleon's Berlin Decrees, forbidding
the continental nations to trade with England,
caused Britain to look to other and friendlier
sources for her timi)er supply. Then she saw
that the unheeded colony was richly forested, and
a steady trade in pine timber sprang up between
the two. Great Britain's demand for square
timber increased yearly until about thirty years
ago, since which time there has been more de-
mand for pine in smaller dimensions. This is

I >i

I; .

516

CANADA. AN ENCYCLOP^-IDIA.

fil'

i\

^r.

not to bu rej^rcttcil. It is .i financial benefit to
the country, for thcru is uii unavoidable waste in
making s<|tiare timber and many thunsaiiils of
Canadians, in consr(|U('n('e of the demand for
sawn lumber, arc ^jiven employment in llie sasv-
iiiills.

Tile Uniteil Kinf,'dom ami tlie United Stales
import now the f^reiter part of ("anadiun
lumber. Fine and spruce deals and deal ends
form about three (]iiart< rs of the total wood-
exports to the United Kingdom. In iS(jO the
total value of Canada's expoi ts of forest-|)r(idu(ts
was $27,i75,r)S6. The United Kingdom's impor-
tations amoiiiUcd to !? 1^,187,807 of this, and
those of the United States, $13,868,445. This
did not includt; ships, which were exported to the
value of $(j(j,}ijj. The remainiiif^ lumber was
shipped jiriiicipally to Newfoiiiulland, Australia,
British Africa, South America ami tlie West
Indies. The pine timber now bein^ shipped
from Canada is not as large or of as fine quality
as that shipped thirty years ago, because a great
many of the limits now operated have been pre-
viously cut over, and further, trees, which would
not have been considered sufficiently good for
timber tiiirty years ago, are now felled by a more
careful generation of lumbermen. The United
Kingdom still receives the finest of our pine,
while the large exports to the United States
include a great deal of inferior lumber. Tliis
country from its proximity and large wood-
consumption affords a ^ood market for second-
class Canadian pine. The following table shows
the development of the lumber-'.iade with the
United Kingdom :

Year. Amount.

1800. I 50.000 rilMf fret fspnilivl lliitliLT Iniin ('aii.i(ln.

iSln. 6,265,00) " " '

1820. i;,4oj,ooo " " " " "

1S50. 52.640,850

1859. 62,403,450

Canaila's percentage of the total wood-imports
of the United Kingdom, as also tiie amount of her
exports to that country, taken from the United
Kingdom's Trade Returns, have been, in certain
typical years, as follows :

Hewn. Per centage. Sawn. Per centage

1S72 . 22,174.200 cubic (1 24.87. 39,414,400 ciiliii: ft. .. 25.57

1876.. 23,527,450 '■ ....21.80.55,367,350 " ,26.99

1886,. 8,080,650 " 10. 21 . .47,672,000 " ..25.85

lUwn. Par ctntai*. .Sawn l'»T<rnia|a,

189J (i,«i«,jiiii " .... o,4i..55.7«3.7u<' " •»J41

lH.)4 . 5,<>i)7,4oo •• ...,$. ,.03,iHj,,|oo " . jj a

1K95.. 7,iju,.;oo " ....6.a 58,397,350 " .33.

ilcru a Steady decrease is found in theamnnnt
of S(|iiare timber and, while other e\|)ortH of forest-
products were greater in l8<j5 than in 187,^, yet
they formed a smaller percentage of Clreat
Britain's total wood imports. There has been
an iiK-naau in the exports of square timber in
i8(j5 aiiil i8()(). This was perhaps owing to the
excellent quality of timber that has been recently
cut in remote virgin forests. According to
the Census Returns, the total cut of the Dominion
ill i8(ji amounted to 2,045,07.5,072 cubic feet.
The total value of the forest products was
80,071,415, and the exports were valued at
:f27, 207,547, T about 30 pt<r cent, of the whole.
The home demand was supplied with the residue
of the home production, a value of $5^,8(1 5,868,
and, with imports to the amount of $.5,13^,516,
made a total of $55,<j</),384 for Canada's ) early
consumption. This consumption is at the rate
of $15.59 per head. The following table shows
the value of the average yearly export, by Prov-
inces, of Canadian forest products, in 3-year
periods, anil is compiled from the Trade and
Navigation Returns:

■ 877.79. iSdu Si. 1883-8;. 1886 1)8.

$ $ $ $

<Juel)ec 10031,968 9,849,699 10,835,735 9,149,048

Ontario 3.J''<'.J'>3 6.S4J.9-:4 7.605,820 7.05i.7S»

New Drunswick. 4, 453. "57 4,802,164 5,116,381 4,651,451

Nova Scotia 9j'>.57i l,29'i3i*' 1,4^3,311 1,504,866

Hritish Columbia 295,716 261,474 376.090 290,773

r. ]•;. Island ... . 55,.S47 3'.oS9 21,819 '5.394

Manitoba 121 337

The 'I'erritories.

Total 19,172,552 22,779,731 25,439,277 22,664,621

$ $ $ $

Quebec 10,087,240 9.306,913 8,490,445 10.946,151

Ontario 8,474,251 9,222,411 7.9-7.235 7.719,194

New Hrunswick. 5,174,245 5,075.757 4,033 'J' 3 5.543.f'i2

Nova Scotia 1,739.981 1,829,190 2,034.778 2,272,874

Hritish Columbia 38(),970 42(),()3o 5ijo,048 685,740

P. K. Island ... . 9,041 9,257 4,378 4,975

Manitoba 22 693 1,269 1.183

Th; Territories.. 45 119 1.957

Total 25,874,795 25,873,970 23,891,166 27,175,686

The values of pine, spruce and oak, according
to the Customs Returns of 1871, 1881, and 1891,

CANADA : AN ENCYCLOI'/KDIA

5'7

and tin; Triide aiiil Niivi^atioii Kftiirns <>f l8(jf),
were Its folluws :

Si|u*rt llfflb«r.

ind

l8.,6.

$
946,151
710.194

,272,874
685,740

4975
1.183
1.957

,175.686

ordinp
1891,

While (line, per Km .
Reil " "
Oik " .

I.n||l.

Pine, |<er ru<il

Spiuce, "

1971

lM\.

1441.

.S,>».

$

$

$

$

75"

KIJS

l.(..»)

l6.(x)

7-V>

8.J)

i| .Sj

12.11}

11 75

I7..»7

Jl IH)

it (K>

....

.H.I

..s,

.i|n

....

.50

Ak}

.56

As the j,'riMicsf amount of s(|ii:iit! titnlu-r was
e.X|ii)rti;il to (iicat liiitaiii, tliu prices n-ccivLcl
tlieif ill i8(jf) for pine and oak have been taken
from till! Returns. Tlu; prices quoted for l()f,'s
are those received in the United States. Duriiijj
the last year n.imed iMance iiiiporteil i.\y tons of
white pine, valued at iJkj.j.S per ton. An impor-
tant fact is to be noted of C.iiiada's relative wocnl
exportation to (ireat Mritain and the United
States. Canada shipp»d to Great Hritain in
1890 68.07 per cent, of Britain's total imports of
forest-products, and .n iNt)5 .^^4' P^-'^ '"*-'"'• ^'"-'
exported to the U.S. in l8()0 30.67 per cent, of
the Kepublic's total imports of forest produi'ts;
and in 189506.05 percent. The conditions e.vist-
ing in 1890 in the trade with the two countries
have been exactly reversed. The increase in
United States imports from Canada was due to
our export of immense quantities of pine saw-
logs, cut chielly in the Georgian Hay district. It
was as follows:

Canadian Export of Lo^s to ! nilcd Stales.

Kcet, It.M. V;i!iu-.

i88(j 66,035,000 $;o(j,447

l8go 103,416,000 681,275

i8g6 ^04,542,000 1,720,601

In 1886, 2,869,000 feet, h.M., of pine logs were
exported, at a v.iliie of $24,452, and in 1896
157,449,000 feet, B.M., of these logs, valued at
$1,423,989, were exported to the United States.

Canadian Industries dependent on Wood Supply.
From the forests to the shipping-ports, whether
floated down the rivers as timber, or passed
through mills and factories to be turned out
in wonderful shapes, Canada's forest-trees carry
with them national wealth ami varied employment
for the industri:il classes. There were in 1891
(from census returns) $99,637,522 capital invested
in wood-industries, paying $30,680,281 as wages
with an annual output to the value of $120, 415, 516.

Theaiii'iiiiit invested in saw-mills was $50,203,1 11
or more than one-half the total c.ipital. There
were 5,666 saw-miUs and 877 Bhiiigle-iiiilUi
employing an average number of 54,7|6 persons
andpiijing $1;, 242, 251 in wages yearly. Since
1891 there has been a gteiit increase in these
industries, but an exact estimate c.imiot now
be had. The greatest advance has no doubt
been made in the wood-pulp industry. The
products of the pulp mills in 1S91 were valued
at $1,057,810 and the exports amounted to
$i8,S,t9,S. In iN()6 tiie exports of pulp were
valuLil at $675,777, while the Canadian mills
also supplied almost the whole newspaper demand
in Can.ula, and furnisiied inateri.il for the various
maniilacturis of pulp, vi/., buttons, pails, car-
wheels, Collins, piilh'vs, rooling material, etc.
Wry little wmxl -pulp has yet been exported
to Gre.it IJritain but it has been must favourably
received there. Some prominent manufacturers
jironoiince it superior even to Norwepi.in pulp;
it is l)i:lter adapted for " milling."

I'lilp-makmg, because of the abundance and
excellence of Canadian spruce, promises to be one
of the leading industries of the Doinini)ii, when in-
stead of exporting 600,000 ilollars worth of pulp-
wood to the United vStatcs, as in 1896, CaiKula ex-
ports wood -pulp and i)aperandotherinilp manufac-
tures to the United Kingdom, France, Australasia
and the United States. Australasian importsinclude
large quantities of paper from the United Kingdom
and the Uniteil States; Canada, rich in fine spruce,
possessing mills and unsurpassed water-power
and with excellent facilities for trading with
Australasia, should be capable of su|)plving this
demand. Some of the more important of the
rem.'iining industries (thirty-eight in number)
are carpentering, tanneries, ship-building and
carriage and furniture factories. There is a con-
tinuous demand for ties and dimension-timber
for the raiKva\s. To siipjily the ties alone,
530,000 acres of strong, yoiyig forest- trees are
annually required according to an estimate by
Mr. Johnson. The large wood-exports from the
Dominion have greatly extended Canada's ship-
ping interests ; and the freights paid for their
carriage throughout Canada amount to nearly
one-fifth of the total railway freights, and more
than one-third of the canal freights.

lit

C.ANAIlA: AN KNCYCl.OI'/KUIA.

. ■■'<'

{

^1'

1^1

y .
ti ■

i

■r.

Fofcst I'reservalioii, Tho patriurclial willow or
biitterniit ^'lowiiif; riosc to the cottii^'i! thrusliuld,
nieii lovu to |ii('tiiri} in wnnlu us tlio "i^i.uit
fjiiiirdi.ui uf tliu losvly place. " With no utti-nipt
lit word-paititiiiK \vu may rail all our forest tn uh
" part ^tianliaiiH of our laud." Canadians havu
for years calmly luijostd all tin; advantages to ho
derived from tho priseiice of forests — natu)iial
wealth, the hei},'htened hiauty of natural sieiiery,
beixlicent climatic iulluencis, and a Kenned
water supply, liiit Imnher operations and lava^;-
in^ hush Arcs have lessened the Canadian forests
to such an alarmiu^j extent th.it we are bejjinriinj,'
to look toward ICurope for iiistriiclion in the
science of forestry. European Governments,
more particularly those of Ciermany, Austria,
and I'Vance, have expcn<led much time and
money in the developrneiit and proteilion of
their forests. Each successive gerreralion in
those three countries will find its wooded areas
more valuable than did the last.

As the Provincial Governments own most of
the timbered lands in Canada, the rritroduction
by them of this science will be rendered compar-
atively easy. I'ire Acts have been passed in all
the Provinces, imposinj;; penalties upon parties
who illegally hght fires in the bush in sunmier,
or without takiii},' necessary precautions, and in
Ontario and Ouebcic fire-ran;,'ers have been
appointed to {juard the timber limits of lumber-
men who are willin}^ to pay half the e.xpenses.
Ontario has made one larpe forest reserve, the
AI};oiiqiiin Park, in Nii)issiii},' District, and the
Quebec Govermiieiit has set aside the Lauren-
tides National Park in the Saj,Nienay re^^ioii,
and another reserve at Treml)lin;jj Mountain.
The other Provinces of the Uomiuion will doubt-
less soon recognise the need of like reserves, ami
will follow the wise precedent set by the older
Provinces.

These parks, and live others reserved by the
Federal Government along the head waters of
rivers in its principal forest tracts and the Kail-
way P>elt of British Columbia, afford excellent
opportunities for e.xperiments in forestry. liy
cutting out roads, clearing away underbrush and
caring for young trees, the forest wardens have
shown that destruction by fire may be lessened
to a great extent, and the growth of trees fos-

tered. In time it may be neccAsary to re-plunt
barren tracts unlit for ngriciilture. Along the
Height of Land and in the Ottawa Valley, IC. H.
Ilorron, Dominion Surveyor, reports uxtensiva
areas suitable for the reproduction of pine and
irnfit for anylliiiig but forest growth. The
Provincial (iovernments have legrslated in the
interests of forest preservation by limiting the
cut to tre«'S of certain tlefined measurements,
and in other similar ways. The l''eder.il (iovtrri-
ment has, by an intelligent imposition of export
duties, endeavoured to control the cut. If the
imposi Min or abolition of duties on exported
forest products has not always been to the forest's
greater interest it but remains for Canadian
statesmen to legislate in this respect with fuller
knowledge and with greater concern for the pro-
tection of Carrada's greatest natural resource.

The Lui)ibcriHf> InJitstry. The forests of Canada
are princi|)ally owned by the Provincial Govern-
ments. The Dominion Government owns the
forests of Manitoba and the Territories, and
those in the Railway Belt. NovaScotian forests
are almost entirely in the hands of private owners
ami the limited lumber operations of Prince
Edward Island are carrred on upon purchased
lands. Absolute possession of land and timber
is given in Nova Scotia to purchasers who pay
40c. per acre. There are no bonuses or ground-
rents asked by the Government. The total
annual cut of timber is somewhat more than
2,000,000,000 cubic feet, and the areas of timber-
lauds leased to lirmberinen throiighoiit the
Dominion wi.-re according to an estimate made
in i8(J4 as follows :

S<(uari.' Miles.

Ontario ^-.557

Quebec I' 1.55b

New Brunswick O.^iiS

Manitoba and the I tTi -^.707

British Coluni i>-'49

Total area li 'd 79<A^7

This estimate includes Indian lands. The
receipts by the various Gov'jrnments from these
licensed lands were as follows in 1896 :

1, 1 rcspasi .f

Int., cLl.

n Timber Ground

Provinces. „^,^.^^ j^^,,,^

Ontario... $1,017,176 $54>'»9 $75.«>5 Jy.'>'5$'.i,

gueb«c 705,^/60 143-4^6 87,495 14.850 951,0

CANADA; AN KNCYCl.OFMiDIA.

S»9

Tlmlwr

(IrimiMl

< >u».

KillllK.

V*,t"

I'.^id

•4,M

4'l<«l

Trxpiiu
liil., «ic.

lot*!.,

IJ"i'4"

7(.l'7

AyAfA

•lljttij

Nnw Bruntwii k

Brhiili (°iituiiilii>i*

Cmiail.i, Iiiinlcjf l>ipl.
C*iw<l>, liiiliari I>*|>|.. .

Toul tl.l41.'<M i'ThUti iifn,yti $<4<775 $>i4«J,SS>

Indian IiukIh in all tlic I'lovinccsarc conhollctl
by tile l)i)iiiini(>ti (tovcMntiiriit, and tin: in cipts
thcrcfroii) uru found in tlio $ii.),i,i!j collcitiil
by tliu Itiiliaii Di-paitiiKMit. In Nt w Uniiiswick
till! fonsts arc hrascul in blocks of one or more
B(|uarL- milus for a tiTtn of twenty-livo yt-ars and
(8 pur square tnilu is the up.srt price, vvliilu tlu;
blocks [^n ti) llic lii;,'Iicst biddor. Liniit-lioldtrs
I ay an annual rental of $4 piT s(]naru mile.
Stuiiipaj^e is charged according to tliu Govern-
ment scalers' ustiniution. Thechar^'es are $1 per
1,000 sup. ft. of spruce, pine and hardwood
logs, and $1 per ton of pine timber. In Ontario
and Quebec the tiniber-lunds are pnt up at
auction and are {^'ranted to those who tondrr the
hiRhest bonuses. In both Provinces tlu; licenses
are nni-wed yearly, and the limit-owner pays
an annual rental of $3 per square mile. In
Ontario the dues on pine timber are 2C, per
cubic foot and from 1 jc. to 3c. per cubic foot
of other timbers. Upon pine saw-logs and
boom timber, per standard of 200 ft., n.M., the
dues are 20c., and on hemlock, spruce, etc., per
standaiil of 200 feet, n.M., lo cents. In Quebec
the dues are 4c. per cubic foot of oak and walnut,
and 2c. per cubic foot of pine and all other
limber. The dues njion S|)riu-e, hemlock, ryjuess
and balsam sawlo^s, per standard of 200 f(,'ft,
are 13c-. ; upon piue and all other saw-lof,'S, 2r)c.
Transfers of timber-berths may be niaile, subject
to the ajiproval of the Commissioiier of Crown
Lands in e.uh Province. The forest-lauds of
British Columbia are leased for a period limited
to twenty-one years, and are fjranted to those
offering the highest bonuses. An amiual rental
of IOC. per acre, and a royalty of 50c. per 1,000
feet of logs, are jinid by limit-holders. They
are also obliged to t-rect mills capable of cutting
1,000 ft., daily, forevery 400 acres of land covered
by their leases.

The growth of railway scMvice has done iiuu h

*Year ended 31st December, 1S95.
tTotal on rents and on Timber.

to widen this iinlnslry. It has IcHsened the
expenses of lumbermen by affordnig speedy Iran-
mt lor ti'.en and provision.s to the lumlicr camps.
I*'i)r years after the first raft was taken down the
Ciatineau - in if^oft I.e (nmule Rixicre and its
tributaries, throughdiit all the nielhiw Autumn
days, were alive with gangs of woodsmen, rowing
iiiid f>()rlti;;in/^ the familiar "lumber-boats" ti>
their isolated wiiitei homes. Tlu; provisions
were drawn into the camps by tiams of horses
or oxen during tin; winter months, when the
lakes and streams weie frozen and the bla/t;d
bush-roads were jjassable. When sunny May
had (piiti! unlocked all the frozen streams ami
lakes, from these arteries came flowing down on
all sides to the St. I, iwrence the riclu^s of forest-
depths, the result of eight months' labour in
remote camps. Then, as now, the woodsmen
became river-men, hundreds of whom havenevi;r
returned to earthly homes from these dangerous,
fascinating " drives."

The Nalioiiid Iiit/wrtaiuc of Camulian Forests.
The forests of ("aiiada have, perhaps, aided more
materially in Canada's dcveln|)m( nt than any of
htr other resources. The fur-bearing animals
nourisned in their n^cesses formed tliegreates'
attraction in their new hoiiu; to the first settlers,
and eviiywhere, in pursuit of them, courcitra de
bois spread over the unknown country and learned
something of its physical features. In the wake
of the lumberman followed forest-clearings, tilled
lands, villages and busy towns. Ever further
into the interior the lumberman penetrated, and
Eastern Canada unfoliled and developed her
growlli of blossom and fruit, Ix.'r rich farmlands
and prosperous towns, behind him. And still
this work of development contimiis, opening up
new regions to settlers, giving thi.-m emplo\inent
and offering a market for their produce ; contrib-
uting, moreover, to four Provincial revenues more
than $2,000,000 yearly.

The export of forest products form one-fourth
of Canada's total exports. During the j)ast
thirty years alone Canada has exported to the
United Kingdom tind)er, loi;s and wood manii-
f.ictures to the value of about $.555,000,000, and
more than $280,000,000 worth to the United
States. Assuredly no other branch of Canadian
export can make a like brilliant showing! No

|r

520

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOIVKDIA.

:^'

accurate cstiinatc can be funned of tlie volue of
the laif,'i' amount of timber retained during this
period for home consumption. In tl\3 year
1^95-96 our total exports of foicst prodiuts
amounted to $27, 175.6X6. Aecordint; to the
Census of 1891, tlie exports are but 30% of tlie
total amiual cut, so that an approximate value
of the cut for that jear would be §90,585,229.
A depression has existed in tlie lumber trade
ilurinj^ the past few years, but there has been a
widening of European markets for our forest
products and a steady growth of demand for
them. When these markets have disposed of
some of their over-stock Canadian trade will
doubtless experienre a strong revival. The trade
with South America has increased very much,
and in Australasia, Canada wid fmd an excellent
market for her wood exports An official rcpo
of British Columbia states that in 1890 Australia

imported 300,000,000 feet of lumber from the
North Pacific Coast of America, and only 15,000-
000 feet of this were shipped from that Province,
There is room -here fo*- ,, owtli in Canadian
trade.

In view of their past and present value, and
of what we may reasonably expect from them in
the future, our forests cannot, in the interests of
national .".dvancement, be too highly prized or
too carefully guanieil. When vessels, built of
Canadian lumber and freighted with the forest-
protlucts of this strong, young nation, shall have
anchored in every foreign port of note, and on all
the high seas of commerce be recognized as the
Canadian lumber fleet, our forests will still have
fulfilled their destiny only in part. Toward
health and wealth and fertility of soil and beauty
of landscape the forest iniluence in a country
tends perpetually.

I

: i

:)

\ ■

V 1

il
i

The lion. Sir William Youni;,

Chief Jusiice of Nova Soiia, 180)-81.

fi

FORb:S r TRHE CULTURE IN CANADA

BV

The HON. SIK HENRI (j JOl.Y de I.OTBINIERE, K.CMG.M.P., Canadian Minister of Inland Revenue.

TDO not propose, in tiiesc sliort notes, to deal
with the forests wiiic.li liave survived to
I the present day, and upon wliich we have
to rely far the duration of such an important
industry as our timber trade, th(JU},'h from the
great revenue we derive from rhem they certainly
deserve much more care and attention than they
now receive from ns, and that they would cer-
tainly receive if, instead of findinpf them fMll-
grown and ready to yield their harvest without
any work on our part, we had to cultivate tliem
as the farmcL cultivates his wlieat ; if we had to
pre|)are tlie hare ground for them, as the forester
does in Fiance and Gjrmany ; and if we hail to
start tliem, and follow their growth, st(;p by step,
until t'ley were ready to reward our labour.

My present purpose is to deal with another
branch of forestry, which, so far, has met with
but little attention from Canadians, I mean the
restoration of the forest where it has been im-
prudently destroyed (especially on land unfit lor
agriculture) and to consider the best means for
repairing the injury likely to result from its
destruction. We all know how valuable the
forest is, intrinsically, supplying us with fuel,
with lumber for building houses and ships, for
making tools and so many useful articles. And
even if we could replace the wood it produces
with other material, as we have learnt, of late, to
do in so many cases, nothing can ever replace
the forest and fill the vital part which it plays in
the economy of nature as a collector and storer
of rain from heaven, dispensing it gradually to
the land, as needed, to maintain that fertility
upon which depends the existence of mankind,
instead of allowing it to run to waste in a few
hours, not only without profit but, too often,
as a torrent, destroying everything on its course.
Examples are found in manv regions, not only in

the Old World, but in ours, of the fatal results
following the ilestniction of the forest. Countries
once renownetl fur their fertility and the home of
flourishing communities are now transformed
into barren solitudes. New forests are now
being planted in Algeria, in the South of Europe,
as well as on our coutiueut — in Colorado, in
Idaho and other Western States — not so much for
the icodd tiiey will produce, however valuable
that may be, but principally for insuring a regular
suiijjly of water, so as to furnish to the soil, by
means of irrigation, the amount of moisture
necessary for the successful growth of vegetation.

In regions threatened witii long droughts the
forest acts as a screen against the iL'ssicating
wiiul which sucks up the moisture off the land. It
prevents floods, it keeps up streams and rivers to
their normal level. It is even claimed (though
this is not universallv admitted) that it causes
more frequent rainfalls, as the temperature, being
lower under the shade of the trees than in the
open country, the vapour in suspension in the
atmosphere becomes condensed and descends in
the form of rain. So far, we have not yet had
sufficient time to appreciate the change in our
climatic conditions which must unavoidably fol.
low the destruction of our forests, but, we must
expect to suffer, as older countries are now
suffering, if we do not profit by their experience.

For the general welfare of a country there
ought to be a certain proportion of its surface in
forest. Does that proportion exist in Canada?
Certainly not in the old settlements where the
forest has been, in so many places, imprudently
tiestroyed ; nor on our western prairies, where
it never existed — at least within the memory of
man. We need not go very far outside of our
cities, in the country, before meeting with exam-
ples of the ease with which nature, without our

s-^=

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOP/EniA.

i

■ >

fit

i

I 1^^

help, can build up u new forest. Cease to cultivate
a field, and, in a short time, it will be invadeii by
thousands of young trees sprung up from seed of
trees growing in the neighbourhood. As it hap-
pens that trees of inferior value, like poplar and
white birch, produce tiie most abundant crop of
seeiis, of great germinating power and so ligiit
that the wind can carry them to a great distance,
they generally take immediate possession of the
ground, to the exclusion of other trees, and pro-
duce a forest of comparatively little value. We
have only to profit by the lesson, and to help

Sir Henri li Joly de Lotbinicre.

nature by placing at lier disposal only the seeds
of valuable trues.

The cost of seed is merely nominal ; apart from
the nuts and acorns, which are heavier, there are
thousands of tree seeds in one pound's weight.
As f r the labour, a great number ol young trees
can be grown from seed and cared for in a limited
space of ground with comparatively little work.
Wlien they have reached a height of three or four
feet, more or less, they are ready for transplant-
ing, and it will take less time to take up one

hundred of the3e young trees out of the clean and
well prepared ground, without doing them any
injury, than it would to find half a dozen suitable
ones in the forest (if it is near enough to be
available) and to lift them up out of the confused
mass of roots of the large trees among which
they grow.

Those who have never tried it and have not
observed how rapidly trees grow from seed in
the abandoned fields as above stated, consider it
time lost to sow trees. They say that life is too
short for that (as if we were only here to work
for ourselves) and, in their has'o to show great
results, they nearly always pla.it their trees so
large that there is much less chance of their
surviving than if they were only one-third th?
?.\zc; those which do not die the very first season
linger for years before resuming their growtn, and
are overtaken and passed by the small trees
transplanted early, at an age when their growth
is not seriously checked by the operation, and can
continue steadily (growing without interruption.

The next question is : What trees should we
plant? This depends on climate, soil, situation
and other conditions, as well as on the special
purpose in view. If trees are wanted to supply,
under the short-^st notice, shade and shelter on a
barren spot, ash-leaved maples, poplars, willows
and other fast growing trees will do, but they
ought to be considered as only temporary, and
slower-growing, but more valuable trees, such as
maples, oaks, elms, white ash, butternuts and
black walnuts, should be started :it the same
time, to take their place when sufficientlyadvanced.
If we take the trouble to plant trees, we ought
to select the most valuable varieties. Once
started, it will not be more trouble to grow them
than poor ones, and as the great Scotch tree
planter used to say to his sons : " Sow trees, and
they will grow while you sleep." Among the
trees that we can grow in Canada, I think the
black walnut holds the first rank. It is a
beautiful tree; on the markets of Europe the
value of its lumber is about ecjual to that of
mahogany ; it grows more rapidly than either
pine or spruce; it begins to yield nuts when
about twelve years old, and these nuts mature
even as far north as Quebec, and produce
vigourous young trees.

■•^

CANADA: AN ENCYCL0P^:DIA.

5^3

Wlienevcr practicable it is better to sow lie
black walnut where it is destined to remain
permanently, as liiere is some difiiculty in trans-
planting, owing to the {,'reat lenjjth of the tap-
root. Experience shows that it is much better
not to try and preserve too great a length of that
tap-root ; cut it at about ten inches under-
ground, trim it and the other roots carefully, so
a;: to remove all the torn and wounded parts.
The head of the black walnut often dries after
transplanting, vvhich leads the beginner to tliink
that it is dead, but by selecting one of the buds
which invariably come out lower down on the
stem, and allowing it to develop itself, it will
absorb all the nutriment from the roots and
rapidly grow into a fine straight leader. In fact,
it is often advisable to remove the head, even
when quite green, if its shape is not found satis-
factory— when crooked or forked, or otherwise.

If the intense cold sometimes affects the
black walnut, in our climate, it is not the part
above ground which suffers to any serious degree,
as wouid naturally be expected, but the part
underground — I mean the roots. They are
so thick an<l sponj^y that they absorb a great
deal of moisture, and when the young trees
have been planted in a situation exposed to a
strong wind, which sweeps away all the snow
so as to leave the ground bare and unprotected
in winter, it often hapiiens that the water held
in the roots expands under the action of the
frost and bursts the bark which covers the roots,
and the tree dies. This can easily be remedied
by placing some obstacle, fence, hedge or brush
wood, to stop the snow. This simple and
I may call it natural precaution is the only one

I have ever found necessary for the preservation
of our young black walnuts, and only on spots
where the snow does not rest. Canadians
ought to know how much we are indebted
to our Lady of the Snows for spreading her
protecting mantle over our meadows and
pastures and orchards, which are liable to suffer
as much as the black walnuts and from the
same cause. I would never advise the growing
of these trees in wet soil; white ash and
tamarac can thrive there where such trees as the
maple will not live. Of course, it is perfectly
useless to start a plantation of trees if it is not
protected afjainst the inroads of the cattle.

Trees require some care, at first, after planting,
especially in the open. Planted in close order
and in great number, they will soon prune
themselves. In the open and isolated they
require prunnig, and it is painful to see how
carelessly that operation is generally performed.
In very many cases, when the branch is removed,
a stump is left which protrudes too far to allow
the new bark to grow over it and protect
it against the destructive effects of the weather.
Decay will soon set in on the unprotected stump
and following it will penetrate gradually into the
stem, reaching the heart and killing the tree.
Close pruning is the only safe pruning, as in a
surgical operation, and then the wound will heal
in a very short time and get covered over by the
bark, before decay can set in. In conclusion,
I will remind beginners in tree culture that
what is worth doing is worth doing well,
and that this rule applies to Canadian tree
culture perhaps more forcibly than to anything
else.

5-4

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOP^IDIA.

! ! !

1 !

I

■I t

Forest Wealth of British Columbia. Editor's

Note. Tlic I'acilic. Province ol Ciiiiuiia may ho
said to possess the greatest compact area of
mercliantable timher on iho North American
Continent, and, if it had not been for the {jreat
forest fires wliich ra^ed in the interior in years
gone by and during which a very hirge portion of
the surface wi\s denuded of its forest, the available
supply would be much greater than it is. How-
ever, as the coast possesses the major portion
of the choice timber and that which is most
accessible, the ravages of fire have not had, bv
reason of the dense growth and the humitiity of
the climate, any appreciable effect on that portion
of the sujiply, Mr. R. E. Gosnell, in his Year
Book of British Columbia (iSij;), gives much val-
uable data upon this subject and from that volume
the following facts are, with his permission, ex-
tracted.

As far north as Alaska the coast is heavily
timbered, the forest line following the indents
and river valleys and fi ingiiig the mountain sides.
Logging operations, so far, have extended to
Knight's Inlet, a point on the coast of the main-
land opposite the north end of Vancouver Island.
Here the Douglas fir, the most important and
widely dispersed of the valuable trees, disappears
altogether, and the cypress, or yellow cediir,
takes its place. North of this, cedar, hemlock
and spruce are the principal timber trees. It
will be of interest to know that the Douglas fir
was named after David Douglas, a noted botanist
who explored New Caledonia in the early twenties
of this century. It is a very widely distributed
tree, being found from the coast to the summit of
the Rocky Mountains and as far east as Calgary
and as far north as Fort McLeod. On the coast
it attains immense proportions, is very high and
clear of imperfections, sometimes towering three
hundred feet into the air and having a hose cir-
cumference of from thirty to fifty fe, : The
best averages, however, are one hundred and fifty
feet clear of limbs and five to six f ct in diameter.
This is the staple timbe"" f commerce, often
classed by the trade us Oregon pine. It has
about the same specific gravity as oak, with great
strength, and has a wide range of usefulness,
being especially adapted for construction work.
It is scientifically described as standing midway

between the spruce and the balsam, and in the
opinion of J^rof Macoun, the Dominion Naturalist,
is a valuable pulp-making tree.

Perhaps the next two most important represen-
tatives of the forest wealth of the Province are
the red cedar and the yellow cedar. The former
is foimd all over the Province, but reaches .ts
greatest development on the coast, where it out-
girths all others. In aiidition to its commercial
value for shingles and finishing purposes, it is the
friend of the settler, inasmuch as out of its
straight-grained logs he can build his house,
make his furniture and fence his farm, and that
with the use of tlie most primitive of tools only —
an axe, a saw and a froe. It is especially valuable,
however, for interior finishing, being rich in col-
ouring and taking on a beautiful polish. For
this purpose it is finding an extended market in
the east of Canada, and no doid)t its merits will
soon find appreciation far beyond these limits.
Important as the red cedar is, the yellow cedar,
though much more limited in area and quantity,
is still more important. It is very strong, com-
paring with the Douglas fir in this respect, is
wonderfully durable, finishes to perfection, and
grows to great dimensions. Lying farther north,
it will not be probably as soon in demand as the
more ubi(]uitous red variety, but is already occu-
pying attention. During 1896 an extensive timber
limit was disposed of in England, and a company
has undertaken its manufacture. The cypress,
which is found in great quantities in the interior
of Vancouver Island, and on Mount Benson, near
Nanaimo, comes within 1,200 feet of the sea.
On the north coast of the Mainland it is also
found lower down and is very plentiful.

Coming next in usefulness — and, economically
considered, this may be taken exception to, as
there are many who will class it as the most use-
ful of all — is the white spruce. Its habitat is
principally low, swampy and delta lands, usually
interspersing the forest of fir and other trees, but
in no place is it found in very large or compact
bodies. From its comparative scarcity and the
many uses to which it may be put, it is commer-
cially more valuable than the Douglas fir, to which
it is first cousin. It attains a circumference
almost equal to the latter, but does not grow so
tall or so clear of branches. It is utilized largely

mmm

CANADA: AM ENCYCLOI'/KDI A.

525

for making doors, finishing, saliiion boxes, bar-
rels, fruit cases, and many othe' similar purposes,
being the best adapted for these uses of all the
native timbers. It is par excellence, too, the wood
for pulp manufacture, which some day or other
will be one of the most important industries of
the Province. It increases in quantity towards
the north. Hemlock is a common timber, and
up the coast is found in considerable quantities.
It is a useful tree, and answers about the same
purposes as the Douglas fir. For that reason it
will not be in general demand until the latter has
become to some extent exhausted. White Pine
for cabinet purposes and general utility is very
valuable, but is limited in quantity. Balsam is
widely distributed, being found principally in
river valleys, but is commercially of little value
except for pulp. With the exception of the yew
and tamarack, of w liich there are several varie-
ties, the foregoing are the representatives of the
family of coniferous trees.

Of deciduous trees the large leaf maple, vine
maple, alder,crab-apple,oak,two varieties of poplar
or cotton-wood, aspen poplar, arbutus,birch, willow
andjuniperaretheprincipal. The maple, alder and
arbutusmake first-class cabinet woods.though they
are not abundant enough to be extensively used for
this purpose. They also make popular finishing
woods. Poplar, or, as it is more commonly called,
cotton-wood, has been principally used in the past
for the manufacture of "Excelsior," but itsgreatest
use will be in paper-making. The aspen poplar
is common in Vancouver Island and the northern
interior of the Province. It is also a good paper-
maker. The oak is mainly confined to the south-
ern end of Vancouver Island. It is a stunted,
gnarled species, of little use, but very picturesque.
Crab apple is plentiful in swampy places around
ponds, beaver meatlows and along river banks.
The hard woods are usually found in bottom
lands, and indicate fruitftilness of the soil. There
is no part of British Cuhiiubia where the timber
supply is not sufticient for local demands.

One feature of the forests of the coast is their
density. As high as 500,000 feet of Inniber have
been taken from a single acre, which seems
almost incredible to a lumberman of the east,
where 20,000 is considered not a bad average.
There are over eighty sawmills in the Province,

big and small, with a daily capacity of about
2,000,000 feet, mainly on the coast, but this limit
has never been reached, the annual cut running
between 50,000,000 dud 100,000,000 feet. Various
estimates have been made of the amount of tim-
ber in sight. These range between forty billion
ar.d one hundred billion feet, a guess that is
only practical in showing the possible limits of
supply as extremely wide. The acreage of timber
under lease is about 1,175 square miles, and the
total area of forest and woodland is put down by
the Dominion Statistician as 285,554 square miles,
but this must not be taken as all of commercial
value, as much of it is covered with small trees>
suitable only lor a local supply of fuel and lumber.
Economically, the value of the forests of British
Columbia could be greatly enhanced by diversi-
fication. There is such a wide area unsuitable
for any other growth than trees and grass that
there is almost illimitable opportunity for the
seeding and planting of trees on the summit of
hills and the sides of hills and mountains, and the
introduction of nearly all the deciduous trees of
the temperate 2one. The climate is favourable
to tree growth, and the experience of the Domin-
ion Experimental Farm goes to show that the
range of successfully acclimatized treesand shrubs
is very wide indeed. A careful estimate of the
aggregate cost of the mills in operation places
the amount at $1,500,000. This does not include
all the capital invested necessary to carry on the
industry, which would increase the amount to
$2,000,000. The investment in timber limits is
additional to this. Although the conditions are
hardly ripe for it yet, one of the most promising
industries in store for British Columbia is that of
the manufacture of wood pulp. Statistics of the
timber and lumber industry are not available
prior to the year 1888, when the Reports of the In-
spector of Forestry began to be published. Since
that time a very complete annual statement has
been included in the Report of th<j Chief Commis-
sioner of Lands and Works. 'However, a careful
estimate of the cut of timber in the Province,
since the commencement of the industry, made
from available data in various years, gives the
following result : to 1871, 250,000,000 feet ; 1871
to 18S8, 5()5, 000,000 feet ; 18S8 to iS()6 inclusive,
654,986,465 feet, or a total of 1,500,000,000 feet.

I; '

■ t

THE FISHERIES OF CANADA

av

THE EDITOR.

COUNTRY bouncied by three oceans; waters uiid the convenience of their undisturbed
possessed of more than 5,500 miles of ^^'^ are a necessary compensation for defects of

I

■

A(
sea coast ; and includingVithin its ter- ^oil and climate. On such grounds alone the sea
^;, ,^;^„ „,„,„ u„ :„!,„,! I i..„ »i,., '^"<^ inland fisheries to which British subjects

have claims on this continent are of peculiar
value."

Yet at that time the total export of Canada in
this connection was only $3,600,000. In 1897
spect that more than once the external policy of jt was $10,300,000, with still greater possibilities
its Government and the diplomacy of the Empire of increase. Of couise the exports do not give
as a whole have had to be exercised, through long a full view of the production or development in
periodsofstrife and discussion, for the protection this respect. The home consumption is very
of its fisheries on the Atlantic, in the Behring grrat, while the returns of the annual catch to the

sea coast; and including within its ter-
ritories or upon its inhnd borders the
greatest bodies of fresh water in the world; must
necessarily have great fishing interests. So vast
indeed is the natural wealth of Canada in this re-

Sea and, in a minor degree, on the great lakes.
Yet the possession of these immense resources is
hardly appreciated, to say nothing of being prop-
erly known, by the Dominion as a whole. In
Nova Scotia, where $1.24,000,000 worth of fish
have been exported since 1S68 ; or in British Col-
umbia, where $jo,ooo,ooo worth have been ex-
ported since 18S.J ; their value may be estimated
properly. But elsewhere such is hardly the case.
NVriting in 1S70 the Hon. Peter Mitchell, Min-
ister of Marine and Fsheries, declared that :

" As a national possession they are inestimable ;
and, as a field for industry and enterprise, they
are inexhaustible. Besides their general impor-
tance to the country as a source of maritime
Wealth and commerce, they also posse:>s a special
value to the iniiabitants. The great variety and
sn[)erior quality of the fish products of the sea
and inland waters of these Colonies afford a
nutritious and economic food, admirably adapted
to the domestic wants of their mixed and labouri-
oiis population. They are also, in other respects.

Department are always under rather than above
the mark. In 1884 Mr. L. Z. Joncas, m.p.,
estimated before the British Association at Mon-
treal that this local consuniption, apart altogether
from fish caught for export or the trade, was
$17,000,000, or double the amount exported, and
equal to the amount said to have been produced.
In view of the increase of pojuilation since then
it is now reasonably safe to place this figure at
$20,000,000, which added to the stated yield of
$20,400,000 in iS(j6 will sufficiently indicate the
richness of Canadian fisheries. Professor E. E.
Prince, Dominion Commissioner of Fisheries,
however, makes the estimate only $10,000,000
more than the officially stated production. The
fact that foreign nations cling tenaciously to
every privilege they may possess by treaty in
Canadian waters, and even try to assert rights
which they do not possess, helps to further indicate
the importance of our fisheries. A practical

specially valuable to such of our people as are proof of international interest was the Award of
engaged in maritime pursuits, either as a distinct 1S77, by which the United States had to pay

industry or combined with agriculture. The prin
cipal localities in which fishing is carried on do
not usually present conditions favourable to
husbandry. They are limited in extent and
fertility, and are subject to certain climatic dis-
advantages. The prolific nature of the adjacent

$5>50o>ooofor five years use of our Atlantic fisher-
ies. The following table gives the value of the yield
by Provinces since i86g — Manitoba and the Terri-
tories as well as Ontario being mainly inland
fisheries :

52(i

CANADA : AN KNCYCLOFVKDIA.

5»7

Ye«r.

OoUfio.

(Quebec.

1869

190,203

1,406,240

1870

264,982

'.'61,551

1871

'93.5*4

1,093,612

1872

»f>7/>33

1,320,189

'873

293,091

1.39 '.564

1874

446,267

1,608,661

•875

453. '94

'.596.759

i87()

437.229

2,097,668

1877

438.223

2.560,147

1878

348,122

2,664,055

1879

367- '33

2,820,395

1880

444,491

2,631,556

1881

509.903

2,751,962

1882

825,457

1,976,516

1883

',027,033

2,138.997

1884

','33.724

1,694,561

1885

1,342,692

1,719,460

1886

'.435.998

',741.382

1887

',53'. 850

'.773.567

1888

1,839,869

1,860,013

1889

i.9'i3.'23

1,876,194

1890

2,009,637

1,615,120

1891

1,806,390

2,008,879

1892

2,042,198

2,236,732

1893

1.694.93'

2,218,095

1894

1,659,960

2,203,386

1895

1,584.474

1,867,920

1896

1,605,674

2,025,754

Nova

New

Manitoba &

British

Prifice KdwarH

Total of

Scotia.

Urunawick.

Territories.

Coiumliia.

Inland.

Canada.

2,501,507

638,576

4.376,5»6

4-0'9,425

','3', 433

6,577,39J

5,101,030

','85.033

. • . . ■ . . t

7,573. '99

6,016,835

'.965.459

9,570,116

6,577,086

2,285,661

207,595

' 0.754.997

5.652,303

2,685,792

288,8f,3

11,681,886

5-573.85'

2,427.654

298,927

'0.350.385

6,029,050

'.953.389

:30,590

104,697

41)4,967

",147,590

5.527.858

2,133,237

24,023

583.433

763,036

'2,029,957

6,131,600

2,305,79°

925.767

840,344

i3,2'5,678

5-752,937

2,554,722

631,760

1,402,301

'3.529,254

6,291,061

2,744,447

7 '3,335

1,675,089

'4,499,979

6,214,782

2,930,904

1,454-P'

',955,2')o

15,817,163

7,131,418

3- '92,339

1,842,675

1,855,687

16,824,092

7,689,373

3,185,675

1,644,646

1,272,468

16,958,193

8.763.779

3,730.454

1,358,267

i,o85,(.i()

17,766,404

8,283,922

4.005,431

1,078,038

',293,430

'7,722,973

8,415.362

4,180,227

186,980

'.577,348

1,141,991

18,679,288

8.379.782

3,559,507

1 29,084

1,974.887

',037,42'>

18,386,103

7.817.031

2,941,864

180,677

1-902,11)5

876,862

17,418,510

6,346,722

3,067,039

167,679

3-348,068

886,431

•7.655-256

6,636,445

2,699.055

232.104

3-481,432

1,041,109

17,714,902

7,011,300

3-571,05'

33^969

3,008,755

',238,734

'8,978,078

6,340,724

3,203,922

1,088,254

2,84.;,484

','79-857

18,941,171

6,407,280

3-746,121

',042,093

4.443-9''3

'-'33-368

20,686,661

6,547,387

4,35', 527

787,088

3-950,478

',"9,738

20,719,573

6,213,131

4,403, '58

752,466

4.401,354

976,836

20,185,298

6,070,895

4-799,433

745.543

4,183,999

976,126

20,407.424

Totals.. 28, 1 5 7,0 1 4 54,161,745 180,543,876 81,578,900

5,609,550 45,458,908 25,042,094 420,168,045
Tliis result !';>> been achieved in the face of the

In the course of a quarter of a century during
which tliis vahie of $420,000,000 has becii taken greatest ditnc'i'ies. The fish were, and are,
out of Canadian waters — a verj' much greater there in untold qiuuitities and qualities of rich-
total if the local consumption be included — large ness. But this Canailian interest has had to en-
interests have grown up, and whole fleets of men counter a lack of capital, lack of facilities for
and ships have been employed. In 1879 there selling and shipment, lack of markets, in many
were 1,183 vessels of 43,873 tons, valued at cases owing to distance or to hosi'ile American
$1,714,917, with 8,818 men, en^'aged in the tariffs and ever-present American competition —
business. At the same time there were 25.616 not only in the British market but in the fishing
boats, worth $854,289, with 52,577 men, working fields of the Atlantic coast, the great lakes and
on the sea coasts or on our inland lakes. In 1895 the Pacific shores. In the United States, as in
(l6 years later) there were 1,221 vessels, of Great Britain, every encouragement is given the
37,829 tons, valued' at $2,318,290, with 9,804 fisliery interest. Bureaus of information encour-
men, and 34,268 boat:-,, worth .$1,014,057, employ- age knowledge and give practical help. Capital
ing 61,530 fishermen. During 1879 the total flows into the industry. Continuous improve-
capital invested was officially placed at $4,014,- nu;nt goes on in everything connected with it —
521. In 1893 it was estimated at $9,253,848. ships, boats, nets and methods. Yet despite all
Meanwhile the total number of fishermen em- these difficulties in their way Canadian schooners
ployed had risen from 61, 29^; to 71,334. to-day compare favourably with the American,

5»8

CANADA: AN KNCYCLOI'.EDIA.

i,

I

ill

while! methods of dshiii},' arc improving yearly,
and the Government of Canaila sees more and
more clearly the importance of its help in build-
ing lighthouses and harbours of refuge and in
granting bonuses to the fishermen. These latter
average $160,000 a year — paid in iScjO to 2(j,4S()
men. It was little enough, surely, to pay for the
promotion of those great maritime interests which
have in the cases of France, Holland and Great
Britain produced such striking national results.
It was the experience obtained in such fieKIs of
labour that helped to make the IJritish sailor
what he is to-day in reputation and in deed.

The ilcep-se.i ti.'iheries of Canaila are probably
the most important, although much of its five
thousand miles of coast has not yet been ade-
quately worked. The coast of Nova Scotia from
the Bay of Fundy, around the southern part ;
the coasts of Cape Breton, New Brunswick and
Prmce Edward Island — including the Bay of
Chaleur and the Gaspe Coast — and extending
tothe Island of Anticosti, the Labrador Peninsula
and the Magdalen Islands, are the chief Atlantic
points. Of these fisheries the largest single
product is the cod. This fish appears on the
Canadian coasts as a rule between the middle of
May and the beginning of June. Its production
seems to be diminishing. In 1883 the Maritime
Provinces prepared for the trade and sold
$6,591,555 worth, while in 1896 the total Cana-
dian yield was given as §3,610,935. The quantity
of cod along these coasts is very great and the
fishing is carried on either in vessels of 60 or 100
tons on the Banks or in open boats near the
shore. According to Mr. Joncas — already quo-
ted— the finest cod in all America is cured on the
coast of GasiJC, in Quebec Province. It is a
very useful cjinmercial fish. Oil is e.xtracted
from its liver; the head, tongues and sounds
make excellent food ; the offal and bones, when
properly prepared, make a fertili2er equal, it is
said, to the Peruvian guano; from the swimming
bladder isinglass is made ; while the roes are a
good bait for sardine fisheries.

The herring fishery is next in importance.
For many years past its value has been almost
stationary — in 1883 $2,135,000, and in 1896
$2,183,000. The Quebec coast has immense
resources in this connection, but they remain

largely undeveloped. As soon as the ice dis-
appears in the spring vast shoals of these fish line
the coasts, aiitl remain there into December —
some even through the winter. The mackerel is
a very valuable fish in these waters, but its pursuit
is described as ditficult ami pn-carious. Whatever
the reason, the proiluction seems to be diminish-
ing.

A very different industry is lobster fishing .and
preserving. To Prince Edward Island it has
meant much. In 1871 there was only one lobster-
canning establishment in the little Province,
while in 18S1 there were 120 of them putting up
5,200,000 cans. So in New Brunswick, which in
1870 had one factory prejuiring 2o,ooocans,an(l ten
years later sent out 6,000,000 cans. In Nova Scotia
there has been a similar result. In 1883 there
were 600 factories in these Provinces shipping 17,-
500,000 cans, or 52,000,000 lobsters, valued at $3,-
000,000. In 1 8()6 the amount had lessened by nearly
a million dollars. Between 1876 and 1898, however,
Halifax, from which,at least ahalf of the export is
shipped, had received from and for this one indus-
try over $21,000,000. Meanwhile the value per
case had gone up from $6.00 in 1884 to f 10.00 in
1898. In view of these facts, and the liiminution
in the catch, a Royal Commission has recently
been investigating the whole subject. It may be
stated here th.at the oyster fisheries of this part of
Canada are very rich, though they do not as yet
yield more than $200,000 a year. The Atlantic seal
fisheries of the Labrador coasts and the Magdalen
Islands are also rich in themselves, and are
largely developed by Newfoundland fishermen ;
but Canadians take little part in the work — per-
haps because of the hardships involved. Yet the
business is said to pay twenty-five, and sometimes
fortv, per cent, upon investment. Other fish
found plentifully in these Atlantic waters are
haddock, halibut, hake and white whale. In the
estuarine iisheries of the Maritime Provinces are
salmon, sluul, gaspereaux (alewife), striped bass,
smelts, an I in the lakes, wimiinish, or land-locked
salmon, lake trout, maskiiiDiige, etc.

Turning to the more important of the fresh-
water fisheries of Canada we find the great lakes
— Ontario, Erie, Huron and Superior- teeming
with fish, of every kind suit.ible for the table. So
with the immense number of rivers running into

CANADA; ANf KNCYCI.OI'.KDIA.

5»9

these vast bodies of wattr. Similar coiulitions
exist in the Lake of tliu Woods district, with its
many rivers ; in the marvellous chain of lakes and
rivers comprised in the Mackenzie system ; in the
Saskatchewan system ; and in the Pacific coast
system. Food fishes of the most delicate flavour
are simply innumerable. The whilefish, tin; sal-
mon trout, the stur},'eon, the pickerel, the pike,
the black bass, the perch, the carp, abomid in On-
tario waters, and most of them are also found in
those of Manitoba and the Norlh-West in much
the same measine. In IJritish Columbia the
staple is, of course, salmon, with a somewhat
decaying seal fishery and undeveloped resources
in whitefish, trout, etc. The following table
givesthe ofiicialand specific production of Canada
in l8g6, though as regards the fresh-water lakes
of the country the figures, as already indicated,
must be greatly understated :

Kindiof Kisli. fjiiiimi y. \aliie.

Cod Cwt. >Soy/)o8 $3,610,935

Herring, pickled Hrls. 490,171 2,1^3,559

" smoked l.l)s. 10,980,430 221,292

" frozen, fresh " 22,289,796 504,893

Ix)bsters, preserved in c-iiis. " 10,906,638 1,526,923

" in shell, alive, etc. Tons 8,988 678,834

Salmon, pickled Mris. 3,186 36,498

" fresh I.i)s. 5,439,94^ ^)f>S>°^9

•' preserved in cans. " 29,872,740 2,988,258

" smoked " 4'J,i33 ii,8<;4

Mackerel, fresli and pre-
served " 2,427,972 199.033

Mackerel, pickled lirls. 37-765 S^f^J'o

Haddock Cwt. 125,122 421,204

Hake " 94>8oS 241,687

Pollock " 88,781 221,118

Trout Lbs. 6,950,986 690,699

" pickled Hrls. 2,275 22,750

Whitefish Lbs. 13,374,000 773-345

Smelts ■ " 9,970,805 49«,53'J

Sardines Brls. 86,981 176,414

" preserved Cans 576,700 28,835

Oysters Brls. 4''^,574 i94,29'i

Hake sounds Lbs. (19,867 34,933

Cod tongue and sounds. .. brls. 845 8,450

Alewives " 52,616 209, 1 94

Shad, pickled " 8,586 87,370

Eels, " " 7.333 70,690

"fresh Lbs. 1,037,535 62,252

Halibut " 3,672,625 253,435

31

Kindi of Kith. <,iu*nlily. V'aiiie.

Sturgeon " 2,403,801 >S'.757

Maskinonge " 807,950 48,477

biiss " 1,294,590 9t.44»

I'ickerel " 6,897,810 274,931

Winninish " 90,00(1 S.400

I'ike " 3-594.799 99.008

Tom cod or frost fisli " 2,657,465 137,832

I'lounder.H 1 89, 159 9,6 1 3

Sijuid Hrls. 24,500 98,000

Oulachans Liis. 581,500 29,550

('lams Hrls. 19,791 70,960

I'ur Seal-skins in British

(.olumbia No. 55.677 501,093

Hair Sealskins " 16,808 '9,i57

Sea otter-skins " 23 4,025

Beluga skins (while whale). " 222 5,32"

Fish oils (lals. 557,140 224,633

Haddock, smoked (finnan

haddies) Ll)s. 1,116,000 72,180

I'crch " 1,333.550 38,840

(hoarse and mi.\ed fisli. ... Brls. 104,832 284,639

I''ish used as bait " 256,146 384,219

" mainire '' 127,658 '^..830

Ciuano Tons 3,416 49,540

Home consumi)tion not in-
cluded in returns Lbs. 1,894,856 287,896

Total $20,407,424

In Hritish ("olumbia the salmon is a great
economic factor. The Fraser River is the chief
seat of the industry, the sockeye salmon being
the favourite variety and its numbers prodigious
in the season, which lasts through July and
August. Ne.xt come the cohoes (in September).
The spring salmon is plentiful on the coast from
November to April. At the mouth of the P'raser
as many as 2,000 boats may be seen fishing at
one time and in big runs they will average 100 to
500 fish each in a night. Forty-two canneries
were situated on this river in 1896 and 20 upon
the others, including the Naas and Skeena Riv-
ers, Rivers' Inlet, etc. The industry began in
1S76 with a packof abmit 10,000 cases (48 lbs. to
a case), and has increased until, in 1S97, the pro-
duction was cstiuKited at 1,000,000 cases valued
at $^4, 000, 000. The following table from official
sources gives the total value of the fish product
of British Columbia in 1S96 and from 1S76 to
1S96 :

I

',

; ■"

Sjo CANADA: AN KNCVCLOP.KDIA.

Kind.. iHi«. frim wTu'riVm »''«' i'>^l"«try itsolf 111 no more daiiKcr of extinction

inciu.i«i. i|,;(|, l^ ,^ ,„,^v ^j tlic liiiiiils of till! American seal

Salmon in cnn« , . . $j, 1,85. 304.00 $j8,H7j,o8j.(;o liniitcrs. It m;iy bo ad.ir.l that tlic total capital

Salmnn.frisl. ami smoked i.'7,uy4..iu 2,915, 1 .^i.fx) invested in Hritisli Columbia fisheries was fa,-

Salmon, salted J.»,ijooo (..,.,,.<..(,.... o,S5,4 15 in 1S.J5, which two years later had risen

H.rnnn. all kmds w.HjSoo 3.^5S4oo to $ 'jSo.sSo. Away in tiio most northern part

1 rout ^>,4?<).()() ToA) jx.no c .1 i\ • • 1 1 • _ »i 1 r

'•' I > -t „f t|,g iJominion — borderiiifj on tho shores of

Sturkieoii iii.djs.oo 240,650. jo n ■ . ., 1 .i » . <-> ^i

„ ,., ^\ ' •♦ > 3 J Hudson s Hay and the Arctic Ocean— are the

Halibut 237,055,00 7 (11), 70 J no , , , , , • 1 1. . .

„ , , I u lust whaliiiR LMomids 111 tho worlil, and the

Ouiaclians 29.5S'>i'» i9i>.V>'.')" ^ ,, r.i 1 .. avi . ..1

(jy,^tLrs 1 ( (ti, 750.00 '''^' luiiiieof tliulevi itliaiis. Walrus, sea-trout, tlie

Clams [ 34,f).}o.on >'5,34y.oo inconim (a large river whitelish), pike, sturKeon,

Crabs and Prawns ... j I iy9,y2o.oo and oliiers also abound in these waters, or in the

Smelts 2,750.00 .^S.11500 rivers runiiiiif; into them.

Skil 35,642.00 To sum up, Canada has fisheries whose est:"-

'I'ooshiiua 72,157.00 niated annual production is now $.}o, 000,000 as

Cod 15,060.00 103,991.00 :ij.,'ainst $150,000 in 1H50, $11,000,000 in 1876

Fur Seal Skins 556,770.00 7,300,299.00 ^^^^^[ $18,000,000 in 1886. They are controlled

Sea Otter Skins 1,500.00 92,175.00 by a Government Department which makes regu-

Assorted or mixed fi.sh .. 21,270.00 29S,r.o4.5" Jations for close seasons; for fishing' licenses;

^"'''^''' i,i64,7i8..,o f^,r ji,g prohibition of obstructions, pollutions.

Fish products 834.00 298,921.50 , .^ .... ,r u u • 1 ^ •

,,.,,, , ■'^ , . «tc. : and for artilicial fish culture in order to in-

rish for home coiisumptn 250,000.00 2,160,612.50 . , , . , , , ■

troduce fry into new waters or for supplementing

$4,3.4,8s7c^ $45.9.2,686.30 P«-o'I''ction in old fishing grounds. These ope-

rations cost some $j5,ooo a year and in 1895
The seal fisheries are a famous and historical 300,000,000 of the fry of the lobster, salmon, lake
feature of British Columbian industry. There trout and whitefish were hatched and shipped
were in 1895 some 14,120 Canadians engaged in under the directions of the Department, It may
sealing, with sixty-one vessels and 638 boats and be said in conclusion that Canadian resources in
canoes, valued at $421,425. The product, as salmon, lobsters, ojsters, and the best fresh-water
above stated, was $7,300,000 during a term of fish are simply beyond calculation. The result-
twenty years. Had it not been for the harass- ing development must be more and more exten-
ments of American warships, and the bitter com- sive as the years go by until our fisheries take
petition of the Alaskan Company, the total would their full and rightful place with the forests and
have been infinitely greater, the profits large, and farms of the Dominion.

' «Hk'

m

&^i''T- ^si

■fi-J!
<?,■■'

■' ',

.'•r^ . <». '</■

i V

. ' ' , ' ■ 1 .1 V

' ' ^ •■' ■/• 1 '

, • ■ ' ■ '' 'S'.', '

i .

1

OS
H

en

CANADA: AN KNCVrLOP.KDIA. 333

Agricultural Implement Industry Editor's in.iclntwiv iuul hu yrlus. It tins two f.u-tnrics,

Note. In no 1)1. Mich ol ( .inadian iiidiistiy li.is uno ,d roroiito iiinl tlio other ut iirantluid, and

thuru been ainh marked duvulopnient as in that emplr)yii iiliout 2,300 men. It ha» branch hoiities

of making iiii|>leiiients and mac hincry for the in Winnipeg', Montreal, St. Jolin, N.M., London,

farm. I'Yoni the d.ivs of tsickh-s and s( ythcH and lui^land, and Mcllioiirm-, Aiislraha, to^'ether

cradles to those of re.ipeiH, mowetHund harvesters with a^^cncies an<l distrihiitin^ waiehoiist^s in all

theru is a consiilorable stretch of siuwuvohitiun — parts of the civilize.) world — excepting' the United

and anionf,'st the pioneers of our Canadian t'iclds States. To ^ive some idea of the extent of its

ihu cailicst implements used weiu of the most business and the bearing' this has on the ^'eiierai

simple and crude character. The first important prosperity of the country the followinf; ti^Mires,

chanf;cs upon this continent came in the United showing some of the approximate annual require-

States where, over II term of years, Mc t'ormick, ments of the Company, ma^ be given :

Miller, Whiteley, Wood, Deering and others Iron melted, about 10,000 tons

introduced a variety of successive and successful Malleable iron used^about 3,000 "

improvements. In KiiKland Hornsby, Nicholson Steel and iron bars used, about 12,000 "

ami otiiers followed suit. Nails, nuts, pipes, cVc, about 800 "

Canadian progress in this direction owes its Fuel — coke and coal, about 3,500 "

first impetus and its greatest development to the " oil, about 20o,ooogals.

late Hart A. Massey, of Toronto. His fa'.her, Lubricating oil, about 12,000 "

Daniel Massey, imported about iHjo for his farm Cotton iluck, about 200,000 yards

one of the first threshing machines used in what Lumber, about 12,000,000 feet

is now the Dominion, and in 1H47, under pressure Affiliated with the Massey-Harris Company are
from his son, established a foundry and machine the Verity IMow Company, Limited, of Brant-
shop at Newcastle, Upper Canada, which in time ford, Ontario, manufacturers of all kinds and
developed into the Massey-Harris Company of descriptions of plows, etc., and the Haiti Waggon
present-day fame. Mr. H. A. Massey at an early Company, Limited, of Woodstock, Ontario,
date took the management of the business and manufacturers of waggons, carts ami sleighs,
soon acquired complete control. In 1852 he com- The Company is also largely concerned in the
tnenced to tnanufacture the Ketchum Mower and sale and distribution of the goods turned out by
the liurrell Reaper; in 1856a combined reaper and Sawyer & Massey Company, Limited, of Hamil-
mower ; in 1862 Wood's Mower ; and in 1863, for ton, Ontario, manufacturers of threshing ma-
the first time in Canada, a self-rake reaper. The chines, engines, and load machinery. There are
concern moved toToronto in i87oandthererapidly a number of other more or less important firms
grew in the volume of its operations until, as the engaged in this business in Canada and including
Massey-Harris Company, I^imited, it has done the making of windmills, threshing-machines,
for some time past the largest business of its kind stump lifters, etc., — not only for the home mar-
under the Hrilish flag. The present Company ket, but for outside countries. But, in conipar-
was incorporated in i8gi, with its head office at ison, their output is small.

Toronto and was formed by the amalgamation of The Canadian exports of agricultural imple-
the following Companies: The Massey Manu- ments in 1887 amounted in value to $16,658, and
facturing Company, of Toronto; Massey & Com- in 1897 to $593,464. The imports were $149,-
pany. Limited, of Winnipeg ; A. Harris, Son & 877 in 1887, and $446,070 in 1897. These
Company, Limited, of Brantford, Ontario ; The figures of export are, however, very partial.
Patterson & Brother Co., Limited, of Woodstock, Large quantities of manufactured product go in
Ontario; and J. O. Wisner, Son & Company, bond by way of New York or San Francisco, and
Limited, of Brantford, Ontario. The capital never appear in Canadian tables of export. Of
stock is five millions of dollars (i8gg) fully paid the progress of the industry generally the follow-
up. This Company manufactures all kinds of ing table, compiled from the respective Census
cultivating, seeding, hay-making and harvesting returns, speaks much more adequately :

r •

S34

CANADA : AN ENCYCLOP/EDIA.

it\

'

l>;

H^ndiemplnyrd. Vfnrly Value of Val»r of

YiMir. Nu. Over tit. Ui.der 1(1. W.,gM. Raw MaltrUI. Aruclos.

Men, VVomett. Hovs> Ciirlt.

1S71 2.V2 '.'ittio 2ft i:n $ RWdsi $ imnn $2«s.-i3<)s
jKx. 2:11 it.is!) m \n 10 i.L'ii.27u is;iu.i't7 4i(i.v:i!i?

I«ll L'Jl «,:)72 11 lUO 1,81'.>(1.-|0 S,ll'(l,!Ki« 7.1113 UJl

Writirifjin 1889, Mr. E. H. Uigj^ar, who had
Studied the matter with some fuhiess, estimated
tK: capiial ciigaf^ed in this business in Caiiaiia as
I' ing about $10,000,000. The Census for i8iji
placeu the fixed capital engageil in the industry at
$345,948 ill land, §980,935 in buildings, $93 5,216
in maciiinery, etc., and gave the working capital
as $6,364,704.

Miscellaneous Canadian Ir.iiustries— Editor's
Note. riie returns of tlie Census of 1S91 show
75,741 industrial c^talih-hnients in Canada, an
invested capital of ■.5,;45, 5,26,259, employing 370, 1 04
hands, distributing to wage-earners !? 100,656,502 a
year, and producing articles valued r.t !?47(),iS3,-
356. The following tables indicate the growth of
industrial activity between the Census years iNSr
and 1S91. l^xeeptiiin has been taken to some of
the productions incliulrd as not being uistinctively
manufacturing intlustries, but they are given here
in accordanje with the Census returns :

Tahlic No, I, iSSi,

Induftry,

Arms and Ainmuniiion

H .oks and Stationery

Ctrriages, etc

Ctiemicals

Itrinks and Stimtttatits

I'ltjtous Material

K .ods— Venet.ible.. . . . . .

I'ods — .Atv'iua'

Furniture, House;* atid HuiU-

inRs .

G.'ld and Silver

Lealbei, B^ots umJ Shoes...

c

^■i

c1
>5 n

Capiul.

Jl

Wa^es.

V.ilue of
Output.

2

w

W

»

$

$

41

is!)r>.-.n

110

0.' .^17

31 KJ 7.'i5

4;)!»

ti (au..Mo

(i 117,7

2,l!,'iii,(i,'io

fi,7li.',8:tl)

aiiw

.'),u;ts!i;t

jr.piiu

;t,.".s:t.:i27

. ..WS 817

H'lO

i,:w.i,.siii

U.S1

:i-.'i.i!«

2,I.M'.77l

j:w

lO.JIMi .1-'!

7 -.".ti

2,.)'4..s:)2

2iP.'J7S3 6

IKI

itti-.'..Vil|

1 :',n:>

•-'(>.•( <ri:>

1 •Ja»Mi

3,!l.Vi

r, sii; 1:':!

I'.i 117

3 SKI lilW

.M.JS-.'.ilO

l.St

I'.JGS.I'.'U

a,i:ti

b.J,lll

U 81W,U0j

3ii!r> 7,.'>nnn>t vixm 3,('. i.i.'.f) i.i77:.;m

;iVI IMM.IIIIi !I18 3i|l)IJ l,17.'i..V,ll

o,bi;t ;i,3ji,ii3i 27„iKi n,7:;2,7:w y(i,ju.),272

108 7,874 a?7 2in9 611700 S,s«.61«

I.iKhlinK

Machines, Toolii and Impla-

menis 10,11(1 27,l(l!Mli:t 37,271 ll(i«7,7H7 SfLOM lOtt

N'all-rs— Animal. ,

I'.U III.'. 123 1.,V.2

:i!IS,lll'J i;.!HH '274

M.uler«-V.tjelal>le 11,1112 34 237 i;« (ili3.)l 11,!IX1I,21I0 63, 0^4 Sli

if '

Mathematical Iniirumanln,

etc

Musical Itistruilienis

Sliipn and Moats .

Stone, Clay and CilaitN

Textile Kal»ricHarnl l)re%>. . .
Misccll.^tleous

Industry.

10 h; t»)0

4 1 (Kill 3;<,)

fi3:i 2,Wlit,7."i2

m> '.'..'i.'Kl 317

74 2;i.lS0 08.2n(»

nil 417 833 1.22n,lU'k

,V-'7I l,3l<MI,'iil 4.31U,I)70

,72(i l,7.'i2(ilk'. iim.'Ml

C,2(k'. 20,21IS K.r. 44 3.17 7,7I(>.2JH 411 7(B,843.
21)7 1IJI»,781 1,8;)'J 3»j,ji3 1,7U0.I)OT

Arms and Ammunition .
Itooks and ^itatlonery .

Carriages, etc

C einicals

Drinks an4l Stimulants.

I'lbrous \l.itcrial

loods - V-t;ttable

Tablk

No. 2, iSyi.

i

i;

^i

"o S

° ?

O £

Capital. oi.

Zl

v^a

1

w

$

,'.i

1 1(17,1111 4!li5

7:'3

iii,oiii,i3i aiMin

Wage*.

Value nf
Output.

$ $

17A,.'MM MlfL^Ol

3,8rr>.,i 3 l(i„Vvt,487

!l3Sk lU.!ll8.2'<;i llilU .'i,:i)iU.!i4» I'.I.7II,.'W1

733 4,13S.I 7 2„S!l.i IWl (L'8 .'.,.Vl.i 4I»

'.(ill 27,<3lHI74 lli.'.CW 3(112 212 33,72!(.82tt

218 3,2;«,32,') 2iKil (i27.;)."i2 3(18971

•(.(uW 31,412,;(W I(!,".73 i.inil)..Vi3 Oil .SiKtIISIt

!•■ .oils -Animals 7,280 li;t;tit,57U 31.022 3.4uti,3;ia 2.i.8(il,30J

fruriiiture Houses anil

lluihiiiss 3 73S 18.712 irpft 19.181 6,r<\tJ!V> 2.\n0.i„%|

did and Silver (lill 2.!I8.'.I31 l.iei ',80,332 ;t,n!l() 401

I.CTther, Hoo's and Shoes, 7,773 18,8111 .VS.") 2>.a>'.> 7,,'i7l 770 :i,'),l<)3,!»8»

l.iahiing 22j 21,321,211 3,8!)2 1,2!I3 l(j 7,47.1,821

Macliitics, roois and Im-
plements 12,011 ,'•^(•84,129 4M22 17,.'l.i ll.'i 02 010178

Ma'icis Animal 2.> 1 1,030,737 L.^IO o2l,.'<,'l.! 3.3711,381

M.itiers— VeKct.iWe 11,71,') 78,380 lioO 8:i,22l> 2I,:i74,li(i; 81,548,742

Mathematictl Instrutnents,

.1= 18. 47. .V^') .W 10,410 74,1175

Musical Instruments 02 2,:Nni:!3 2 201 !i7:i ^23 .3„31t),213

Slops and Hoais 001 2,.Vm !I.>1 4.ll.> 1,213,122 3712,102

Si,.ne, ri:iy and Class ,. . 1.311 8 302 2.>.> 12,1(K) 3 .VSO O.'O 10 221207

'IVxiile Fabrics and Dress. 1,')1,VS 43 0.>il. I 111 71,817 l,i,.)l7,720 (17 172 0.34

Mt.-,cellarie..us 487 ',(,8 201 1,1118 318 133 1,1011117

It lay be added that dining these ten years
the niiiuber of establishmpnts increased 25,000 in
round iiuinbtMS ; the capital by $190,000,000; the
iiiimber of employes, 1 16,000 ; the wages paid»
$540,000,000 ; the ''alue of total output, $16,000,-
000. The t.ible wluch fidlows g'ves the position
of industrial activity in each ofth'. I-'rovinces as
shown by theCensusof iSgi.anil itacareful revision
by the Dominion Statistician for the Government
Year I'ooU of 1893 explains a slight discrejiancy
between the totals given below and those whicU
appeal on page 481.

InDLSTKIAI I'lsrAHLISHMliNTS IN CANADA (.1891).

i

I

>rovin

i

British C'>'umbla . . "^T'l

Manitobiv \MM

Wew i.ainswijk .'». IJl)

Nova S'-otu ri.i'.Hi

Ontario '.i'2 I.'O

P.fc Islaml JiiT'J

'^•utbcc '^'1,111'

'ieiritorie>i U7.'»

J

Fixrti Capital.

n

e

$ 2,1.'.. 100

3.Hi,JU

:M,ii"i

1 i:,v,,. (;2

K-,,,iis :«.-.

2,(i,'s(kS
10 110,0.8/

101 (Ml)

$ l,S3B,CM

'.lu.t:;!

3,101 732

4 072 7 0

27,01l3i.'ll

'1III.II3

21 IWi,,-i.-il

2.'8..VI0

.r.

♦3,-.'.')1.9'l0

1.823 720

.5.(i;)0,.M)il

.'1 003.!) I!»

38,301 )78

!!73 .V.I8

2(i .'8, o:.',

33i,31ii

6

.9

i 7,1.17.732
2 .'nil ,830
ft 801 CM
!),(i.Sl).7l!)

!)l,r.^l,7.8!t
l,.0il,O.)l

.li),;!!;!;..'!!!

1,1112 077

Hands Employed,

0"er 10 years. Under 10 years
Men. Women. 1 ays. (Jills.

1^

•8

■- a

n 4)

'At

t
11

n

HS.

0 015

3,720

ll)..il3

2.i 734

123.137

5,70i

81,s;iii

U.l>

l,.tt!
611

4.7.VI

0, ■>()(.'
32.73,-1

1 3>U
22,871

Oil

401

102

l.8tt

2.010

7,072

013

C,.'il7

31

l.i7 $ 3,."iS;,887 $ .■..ll!l,2'S $ 11,1)U'.I,9'>8

31 1.0ii."i.!)21 .1,088 l.il 10,1^1,182

5,''7.I,0I1 l-...«)l,4.i3

7,240,011 lOOiW, 2S)

4l),7.i2,;.':U lL'8. 1 |!l,;till

1,11)1(120 •.,0<»2,(K)7

30,072,1 .; 8j,,i«l„i7!)

42"i.l,>:) 840,017

,'i08
025

2 IS2
102

3,I)U7
3

2;t,849,(M

31,M43,;t«J

2:10 800, lOG

i,3io,UlU

l,.i,l,V)813

1,827,310

Canada 75,941 31,1,)5,358 00,325,583 8l,373,:i37 181 . 371,981 273,;«7 70,150 ljl,i"i6 7,005 10O,«£«,432 260060145 470,183.3«

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOIM-.DIA.

S3S

SOME REPRESENTATIVE CANADIAN
MANUFACTURERS.

Ezra Butler Eddy i:. the son of tlic late Samuel
Eddy, wliosu ancestors came originally from
Scotland, ')y Ids wife, Clarissa Eastman, a direct
descendant of Miles Standisli. Horn on his
father's farm near Bristol, Vermont, U.S., Aii;^-
ust 22nd, 1827, he was educated at the District
School, and conjmenced his business career in
New York City. Removin<^ to l>iirlinj;ton, Ver-
moiit, he embarked in the iiianufacturo of friction
matches, 1851. In i8;54 he came to Hull, P.Q ,
wh'jre he erected extensive shops and warehouses
and became tlie largest manufacturer of matches
in the Uritish Provinces. In 1856 he added to
his business the manufacture of wooden-ware,
and more recently (iS(_)2) tlie mmufacture of
paper. His comljined establishment is now
among the very largest and most flourishing in
the worUl, and furnishes emphnment to over
2,000 hands. In 1886 Mr. Ivldy found it desir-
able to form a joint stock company, since which
lime tiie various branches of his business have
been carried on under the name of " The E. B.
r-ddy Company," of which or<,'aui/ation he is the
President. Mr. Edily sat for Ottawa County in
the Legislature, 1871-1S75. He has also been
Mayor of Hull, and has held high rank in tlie
Masonic Order.

Andrew Frederick Gault was born at Stra-
ban(.', Ireland, in i8jj. He accompanied his
parents to Caniula in early i:fe, and was educated
at the Montreal High School. Turning his
attention to commerce, he obtained his business
training in the dry-goods firm of which the late
Walter Md'arlane was the head. In 1853 he
established the wholesale dry-goods house of
Gault, Stevenson & Co., his partner being the
late J. B. Stevenson. This partnership was
dissolved in 1857, when Mr. Stevenson retired.
His brotiur, the late Robert L. (iauit, then
became associated with him in the business, and
the firm of Gault Bro.s. and Co., which still
exists, was founded. Mr. Gault has been for
many years interested m the manufacture of cot-
ton and woollen goods, and, since the adoption
of the " National Policy " in 1878, has been

popularly called " The Cotton King of Canada ".
He is President of the Montreal Cotton Company,
of the Globe Woollen Mills Comjmny, of the
Campbellford Woollen Mills Company, of tin;
Dominion Cotton Mills Company, and of the
Canada Coloured Cotton Mills Company. A
prominent member of the Montreal Board of
Trade, he is also a Director of the Liverpool and
London and Globe Insurance Company, of the
Royal Victoria Life Assurance Company and of
the Bank of Montreal, and Vice-President of the
Manii.'^acturers Life Insurance Company.

William Watson Ogrilvle was born at Cote St.
Michel, Montreal, I'\;l)ruary 14, 1835. Educated
at the Montreal High School, he, in i860, entered
into partnership with his brothers Alexander and
John as grain merchants and proprietors of the
Glenora iMour Mills, on the Lachine Canal.
Subsccpiently they built mills at Goderich, Sea-
forth and Wmnijieg, and more recently a second
n;ill in Montreal, known as the Royal Mill
After the retirement of his elder brother in 1874,
and the death of his brother John in 18SS, the
entire business fell into the hands of Mr. W. W.
(^gilvie. The present (1S98) combined output of
his mills is estimateil at 8,200 barrels of flour
daily, made from 35,000 bushels of wheat, which
is supplied from his own elevators in Ontario,
Manitoba and the N( rthWest Territory. Mr.
Ogilvie was the pioneer wheat-buyer in Manitoba.
He possesses a thorough knowledge of wheat,
wheat-huuls and the [)roduction of flour, and he
was, according to Mv. Henry J. Morgan's Cinia-
diiin Men of the Time, the first to put into operation
in Canada theroller n;illingproce3s,aswellasmany
other of the latest methods of invention in flour-
making. He was on the Director ite of the old
Dominion Board of Trade; has served both on
the Conned and on the Board of Arbitration of
the Montreal Board of Trade, and was President
of that body, 1893-4 ; has been a Harbour Com-
missioner, and was for one or twj terms President
of the Corn Exchange.

Edward Wilkes Ratiibun is the eldest son of
the late Hugo ]>. Rathi)nn, founder of Deseronto,
Ontario. Born at Auburn, New York, he gained
his business training m the house of Storm,

■*

,» '

536

CANADA: AN KNCYCLOIM^DIA.

I I

I

Smith & Company, East India merchants of that
city, In 1861 he joined his father, who h;ul been
carrying un lumber operations at Deseronlo. He
toolv cliarge of the business under tlie firm name
of H. B, Rathbim & Company, which, in 1883,
by Act of Parliament, became "The Rathbun
Company." Oftiiis Company he is President.
He is also President of the Hay of Quinte Rail-
way Company, and has been Mayor of Deseronto.
The Rathbun Company, under his management,
has became a pioneer in many industrial enter-
prises in Canada, including the roller process
flour mill. In 1897 he was included in the Royal
Commission appointed to examine and report
upon the forests of Canada.

Alexander Gibson was born at St. Andrew's,
N.B., of Irish parents in May, 1819. Commenc-
ing life a poor boy, he found employment in the
lumber regions of his native Province. Advanc-
ing step by step, as a successful man of business,
he became lessee of what was then the finest and
fastest mill in the Province. It was situated at
Lepreaux, and was owned by the late William K.
Reynolds, St. John, N.B. Subsequently, about
1864, he acquired the lumber establishment of
Rankine, Ferguson & Co., on the Nashwaak,
about two miles from Fredericton, which had
fallen into decay. He at once began a series of
improvements which have since excited the won-
der and admiration of every visitor. The place

is now called Marysville, and here Mr. Gibson
has established saw-milla for large and small
lumber, cotton mills, brick yards, tanneries, etc.
In addition he employs in the woods about 1,000
men with 12,000 horses, for the purpose of getting
out lumber. He is an extensive shipper to
Europe, the lumber thus exported amounting to
a very large amount annually. Locally he is
known as the " King of Nashwaak." Within
the past two years, by the purchase of property at
Rlackville, he has extended his lumber operations
to Miramichi, and begun the development of a
new business in that region. His cotton mill at
Marysville is regarded as the largest in Canada,
and employs 700 hands. Mr. Gibson has like-
wise acquired fame in other fields. While attend-
ing to his regular business he found time, some
years ago, to build the North-western Railway,
running across the country to Miramichi, and in
its course opening up immense tracts of valuable
timber lands and promoting settlement every-
where. This road he still owns. He was also
instrumental in securing the construction of. the
New Brunswick Railway to Edmunston. Mr.
Gibson is regarded as one of the wealthir* men
in Canada. In 1897, owing to the great increase
in his business, which made it impossible for one
man to attend properly to all its complicated de-
tails, his large properties nasped into the hands
of a Company, of which he is the President and
Manager.

!l

GENERAL INDEX

SECTION L

AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES AND DE-
VELOPMENT.

Acadian Recorder, the, Influence of the lettera of

'• Agricola "in 86

Agriculture in the Maritime Provinces 41

Slow progress of II

Agriculture in Ontario, Various publication!*

issued to promote 01

Agriculture in Canada has been of slow growth.... 93

Agriculture in RriiiHh Columbia tis

Agriculture in Province of (^uebrc. 48

Affricultural Education in Ontario 1)11

Various forms of UJ

Agricultural resources and development, Editor's

notes on 1(J,

Agricultural losses by insects 38

Agricultural and horticultural societies, Interest-
ing statement of the 01

Agricultural sub-division societies, Figures con-
cerning, the 93

Agricultural College, Guelph, Establishment and

benefit of the 9t

Agricultural Societies in the Provinces 86

Agricultural Societies in 1830 receive liberal

money erants 00

Agricultural resources and development in On-
tario 3*

Boulton, Lt.-Col., Hon. C. A., writes on the re-

source.s and development of Manitoba J'*

British Columbia, Agricultural districts of 70i 71

A sea of mount.'ins 6ft

Facts and statistics concerning agriculture in . .88, 81)

Future affricultural prospects of. 71

Improved market facilities in 60

Poss bilities of farming in 60

Special products adapted to 70

Tbe place agriculture holds in 68

Value of farm (and in 71

British North America, Extent of .W

Canada and her sources ^f wealth 34

Ca:iada as a whole, adapted to wheat growinfi^ 27

Canada in the caily days, garrisoned by British

regiments 20

Canada one hundred years ago. Condition of 10

Canada's prosperity, Early source of. 19

Canada's wheat area and resources 27

Canada's wheat rPsource<i, Future prospects of. .31, 32
Canadian agriculture, Figures on the progress

of 40

Is benefited by txjtanistt 37

Canadian agricultural conditions /rom 182it to

1841 30

Canadian agricultural science. Date of. 37

Canadian bush farm. Cultivating an early 20

The clearing Oh' a 23, 24

Canadian cattle. Facts and statistics conce^'

ln«. V4,75

Great changes in treatment of 76

Various breeds of 75,76

Canadian cattle trade, Hrisht future of the 76

Wiih Great Britairi and the U.S . 75

Cinadian ontomoloKists render important service 38
Canadian farm horses in Canada, Statistics of . . . 73
Canadian farm improvement associations. Statis-
tics concerninK 39

Canadian farm clearins, choppini^ and loesing. . . 25

Canadian farming. Changes and improvements in 38
Canadian first-class roads. Building of the

early 20

Canadian horses, Different grades of 72

Export trade in 7.3

Canadian horse breeding, Progress of 73

Canadian live-stock, Development of. 72

Canadian manufacturers, The early 22

C&nadian Nntth-West, Artificial irrigation >n the. 62

Evly ranching in the tU

Extent and pnsMhilities of the 61

Ma'kets for the 62

PosMMtlities of rand. inn in the 62

Ranching facilities in the. 61. 62

Suited tn grain and mixed farming 63

Canadian Pacific Railway is projected. ■ . 64

Canadian pioneers, Early educational advantages

of the 22

Overcame obstacles 21

Religious advautages uf the early 2'f

Rfijuire saw and grist mills 21

Social enjo* ment of the early 23

Suffer from lack of markets 22

Suffered from lack of transportation 21

Were skilled in the use of thta axe 24, 2'i

Were heroes 20

Wives of the early . 21

Canadian wheat crop, Extent and distribution of

the SO

Canadian wheat productions, Statistics of 27

Canadian wheat growing. Cost of 31

Cattle ranching in North- West Territories. 76

Clydesdale Horse Association, Formation of tiie . . 74
Dairy Schools of Ontario, Good work done by

the 96

Dalhousie, Lord, assists the agriculture of Nova

.Scotia 86

Daritt, Michael, m.I'., and emigration to the

North-West 108

Dominion agriculture. Statistics of 1 13

Dominion and Provincial Ministersof Agriculture,

Interesting list of. 106

Dominion expe'imental farms 79

Experimental branch farm for B.C.. Work done

at the 84

*" ^"rimental farms, Good results from the var*

>U5. 85

It>' stigate the feeding value of Canadian fod-
der 82

Practical work of the ... 70, 80

The entomological and botanical work of. 81

The horticultural work of the 81

The poultry department of 82

TKc object and management of 70

Work of the chemical division of the 81, 82

Experimental farms in Canada, Establishment of 70
Experimental farm for N.W.T., Good results from

the 84

Experimental farm for Manitoba, Work done at

the 83

Expfrimental farm for Maritime Provinces, In-

struc.ive tests made at the Kl

Experimental Farm, the Central^ Botanic garden

of 83

Farmers and farming in Canada, Statistics con-
cerning HHi, 107

Farmers' Institutes greatly aid a^'iculture 04

Purpose of 01

Farm products and producers. Interesting figures

concerning 37

Gigault, G.A., writes on agriculture in Quebec

Province 48

Glendinning, Henry, writes on the Grange in

Canada 97

Grange, the, Educational and political relations

of 09

Grange in Canada. Planting of the 97

Preamble and declaration of tbe principles of

the 97, 98

Progress of tbe 99

Grange in the U.S.,_ Origin of the 97

Gosnell, R. E., writes on agriculture in British

Columbia 68

Governor's Road, the, Extent of. 20

C.uelph Fat Stock Show, Origin of 76

Hubbard, W. W., writes on agriculture in the

Maritime Provinces 41

Hudson's Bay and its possibilities of navigation . . 57
James, C. C, ma., writes on agricultur.il de-
velopment of Ontario 34

Writes on agricultural societies in the prov-
inces 8(i

T.tve-stockshipmeats to Canada, Beginning of.. . 7'J
Mackenzie River Basin, Some facts concerning..

no. Ul

Alackenzie River Valleys, the, rireat petroleum

deposits of 113

Mackenzie River District, Fish, found in the 1 '2

Statistics of furs from the 112

Whaling in the seas adjoining the 112. 113

Mallory, C. A., writes on the Patrons of In-
dustry 100

Ntanitoba, Facts and figures concerning agrlcul*

lure in 83

Manitoba and the Territories, Great wheat area

of 114

The wheat-producing power of 107

Whent-growing area of 28

Manitoba climate, Defence of the... 109

Manitoba Province, Rapid increase of wheat

grown in 114

Manitoba ^^heat, Quality of 20

Maritime Provinces. Agricultural and hortic<

tural schools in the ... 47

Animals and their products in the 47

11 lys of the 44

Crop statistics of the 46

Farming sea.'^on in 45

Fruit statistics of tha 48

Geugiaphically 43

(ieo)ogically considered 42, 43

Have great agricultural possibilities 47

Land grants to settlers in tbe 45

Meteorologically considered 45

Physical features of the 44

Rain and snow fall of the 45

Value of agricultural land in the 45

Mills, James, m.a, li..i>., writes on agricultural

education in Ontaiio 93

Mini'ter of Agriculture, Establishment of the

office of 01

McCrae, David, writes on development of Cana-
dian live st<M:k ... 72

McNaught, William K., writes on the Canadian

farm 19

New Brunswick agriculture greatly influenced by

the lumber trade 41, 42

New Brunswick as an agricultural provinca 42

Coal lands in 43

Fac^s concerning agriculture in 87

Noiquay, Hon. John, is for many years Premier

of Manitoba 54

North-West production, Dr. Parkin on 114

North-West resources and development 64

North West Territories, Agricultural products

of the 66

Be«t agrirultural districts of the 63

Characteristics of the 61

Facts concerning agriculture in the 8*4

Impressions of the 107

Latitudinal peculiarities of the 54

Not much ai predated 64

Statistics of land disposed a id undisposed of in

the 67

The districts of the 65,66

Wheat-growing possibilities of the 29

Nova Scotia agriculture assisted by the Legisla-
ture 86, 87

Nova Scotia* Adaptation and /products of 8t»

Colonization of. 8rt

First agricultural society formed in 86

The ^^•ork of agricultural societies in 87

Ontario Agricultural College, Course of study

pursued at the 95

Experimental work conducted at the 95

Founding and success of 94

Is liberany visited by farmers 96

Ontario and Manitoba wheat crop, Important

statistics of. 30

Ontario as a v. heat-producing province, Statistics

of.... 28

Ontario Province. Annual dairy product of 92

Is changinff from whrat to dairying 114

Ontario Province since Confede.ation, Farm and

dairy expenditure in 92

<'tntario wheat-growing receives a check 28

Patrons of Lidustry and the revision of the tarifl" 105

And their official organ 102

Desired in the Marilim-i Provinces 103

Enter commercial life and influence legislation 102

Form a new party , , 103

Influence of the ia5

Introduction into Canada of the , 100

Make progress sit). - 1802 102

Organization and management of the 100

Organize in M.nnitoba . . 102

Origin and object of the 100

Place candidates in the field , 102

S3i

CANADA: AN KNCYCLOI'^DIA.

■■f >

. I

i

I'

i

pAtrooA of Industry— Ci'M/mwi'i/.

Political platform of the \i\l

Sp< cial political principles uf the lo:<

Spread nipiUly in Ontario KH

The Order of lUO

Patron canJidaie'i and tli ir tucceu in ihe fed-
eral t:lcctiun!i lOi

PrincipleH subicilted to by the in|

Tioneer farm esthhii^hed in W stern Algonia... UJ

I'loneers t.f the Canadian fuini lU

i'oultiy CanadidHt ("it^t* and fixtures con:e.n-

iiiK, ■..■■ ; 7**

Powell, Sir Cieorge Haden, given hU opinion of
Manitoba 107, U»8

Prince Edward Klanu, Factn about aKriculture

^ in 87

Provnice of Manitoba in 18tiU-7U. The troublei of

the M

Province of Marutub.i, A^iicuhural resources of

the /i4

Anl connection wi'b Hudson's Hay ftS

Climate uf the , 68

Climatic cffectK olcul ivation in 6>

Culonel Wolseley leads n force into. 6U

Goudfamiing requiied in tlu 6S

Governnient estubU>hed in the h\

Great wheat yitld of WM 60

Is pre einitienily flfjricuiuiral 6U

Leadintf names in ihed .velop*ne. t of the 6^{

Milling cumpritrs uf the 6a

Mine al wea th of ihe 6.>

Mouiitainit of itie 6:i

Railway transp.rtaiiun of the ... 67

Water supply of the 6li

Province of Oiitariii, Causes that hava developed

atjrtcul uri' in the 3(5

Ag icuUurai epochs of the Jli

And live-Aiock rai>itig 3(i

And the dairyin.; busine -s 3(1

Karlv pruduciion and populatiDn of lOi

Extent of the 31

Is favourably situaltd 34

Statistics of It vt -stock in the i<{\

Tran^pvirtalioa r*evel>)pinent of the 37

Province of Qutuec C\>nimissiui> of Enquiry, Ke-
poit of the ol,

Province of (Jueb-c, Agricultural scloijIs in the. .

Ah;ricultur^l cen*>us of IS'JI

Climai-_(jf the

Coruitetitions of a;;ricultur.il nit-iit in the

I)airyinen'% Association funned in

First agriculiti al society e-^lablishcd in

Kiuits culiiv.iied in the

Journal of agriculture pult'islit-d iit ih*;

Object of f^iiiiiuk; tarings' Clubs in the

Sends a C)nin]i\>ii)ii abroad tug. in infurinaiion

on agricultuie

Soil a- d products uf the

Provincial a;;i icultural statistics. Some inleiti>-l-
.ing loy,

Quebec Province, Facts concerning? at;iicultuie
in

Ranrhinc in the Canadian Norih-Wes^t

Koper. Sydney C. U., writes on Canada')* wheal
area

Resources and development of Manitoba

Saurulcis, Wiiliarn, ll.d., k.k.s.c, writes on Kx-
perinienlal harms

Sheep, Canaitian, Knots and ti,;ures concernini;.7(v

Swine, Canadian, Kacti and fi<uies ruticernin(i.77|

Irant, William, writes uii North-West resources
and deV' loprncrii

United F.nipiie I. ''y»li>ts, Location of the

Uppei Canada in 17U2, Condition of a^iiculture

Vett-rinai y schools in Qaebec assisted by the (lov-
crnmcnt

Wevtern Stick .Association, Object of the

WinufieUI, Rowland, was the cattle pioneer of
(.uelph Uisirict ^

Youni;, Jihn J., writes on ranchiiii; in the

N \v: r

SECTION II.

CANADIAN LITERATURE AND JOUR-
NALISM.

Adam, Mr. G. Mercer, Valuable literary work

of , l'J3

Almanac, The firs' pu'di-'hed in C:.n ida 1<7

Aichiv«s d''varinicnt, Foundini; <»f an 2o8

Kain, I'ttnes, Ji., writes on tlic J'ulilic Librant-s

ofCati.ida 207

Rcrlinr|uei, Mrs. Amy M., Lileraiy work of 171

Uleweit, Jean, Liv^rary ability of 17->

liook. A noted, published in 181'J 110

Hoston AVtcs I.ett'-y^ *l he, and Mrs. Oraper \s\\

bo-.Jcbeltc, JosCf h, and his published works 157

Bourinot, Sir J. G,, k.c M.G.,wrilcii on the Royal

Society of Canada 21*2

llroddli<{ue, Eve, Literary sncceu c 17(1

llruoka, Mrs. Frances, publishes the first Cana-
dian novel 170

Uroiike, Mrs. (rancen, writes the first Quebec

novel I0'3

Prowui Hon. George and the iiioht IIKS

A<« a leader, Strength of MNl

Declines the honour of kniKhthotid 2<t6

Denounces William Lyon Mackenzie 'Jn4

Founds the Cfioht 11H>

Gives intense u|>iK>sition to Popery IfOl, 20*J

Great political work of ■ . . *ill3, 201

Has no ambition for Parliament after Cunled-

eratioi 20.">

In the vigour of his inaidiood. 1011

Makes vigourou« rep'y to Kcv. Dr. Byerson.. 2tN)

Parliamentary career of 202

Rapitl (>oliiicaI succes.H of 200

Starts the lUinntr in Toronto l!4]l

Strong personality of 2*>1

The father of Confederation 204. 20.-.

Tragic <icalb of 20 ., 20(1

Vigorous editorial, Siyle of 2(jO, 2oL

Brynnier, Dr. Douglas, Hi|;}ily valuable work

beini; done by . . 123

Buckinirhain, William, writes on George Itrown

and the f.lobe lOfl

Campli-tl, Wilium Wilfrid, and his poems l(i!)

Campbell, ^? iss Giace, Literary atnlity of 1.3

Canada occupies a uni>ine position Ittii

Cariadians are loyal to home newsp,^^>er^ lUl

Canadian BiLliouraphical literatuie, Some writers

of \\\

Canndian biu^rapbical wotks, A list of ... 121, 12>'>

Histo. ical value* of sone 12.>

Canauian books in the ei);hteenlh century 138

Canadian books and papers pulilislicd early in the

nineteerlh century 139

Canadian cuuiic literatuie, R^iaaiki concernirn;,

231. 235
Canadian constitutionanit«rature*ho!ds a promi-
nent place. r::)

Canadian corisliniional work.s. Some pruininenl. 12J
Canadian contributors on scienca funn tjuebec

Province 162, 1.'3

Canadian contr(.tvcrsi.d literature. Some cliain-

pions of l31

C.iruiiian daily newspaper"^., Keioidof l'.)3, lyi

Caiiadi&n ecclesiastical literature. Some wrileis

of i:;o

Canailian rji«Iish lifialure by Ani^lo-C'anndians l.V>
Canadian ficli ,n in Quebec Province, Qui nut of . 102
C:''iadian hisiojcal literature cvukcd by the Cabut

controvei -.y TJ4

Canndian historical societies, Valuable info ma-

tion furnish* d by the 123

Canadian historical works, A list of valuable

l.il. 122. 12:*

Snnie miscellane')us !■ H

Some authors of 118, 110

Various useful 123

Canadian hi-tuiical volumes. One of the earliest

native . 1I!I

Smuc of the early UU

Canadian history, A rich mine of literary ma-

t<.-rial UW

Canadian jouinalists on special subjects, Names

of 236

Canadian journalistic writers Some recent a;. 1

able ISn

Canadian journalism, Advance in the dignity of. llfc>

A review of 220

Iteginninfi of IM2

Checpiercd career of 223

Historical sketch of IH2

Improved facilitiesvfor conducting 1M2

Some w^fihy i.nmes in 2:^S

(Canadian leading journals. Daily circulation of. 2.'Ui

Canadian legal literature, some writers <jf lltO

Csnadian liljrrfries, '1 lie early, ilestroyed byfiie. 2o7

Canadian literature, A revievv of 117

A slumber in Hi*

A substantial fact lit.')

Hy Roman Catholics Ml

ICarly prominent historical works of .. 120

Historical ba-i-. of 118

liicieases ill ac.ivity after Confederation 120

III the line of biography 121

In the fut trade period. . . . . " ... 1 IH

On it . romantic sitle 120

Hrogrcss ol l-Dglish speaking 11!)

Rrmarkable leaune of . . 170

T lie rcconl of 117

The beginning of. 17

Ibereisno.. , iV-

Wriitcn on 'be North West 120. 121

i7r^4 to mA . i.vi

Canadian literary contributors of tlie forties and

fifties I.VI, Ijj

Canotiian Ata/^aMini, tbv, Success ar.J worth of 284
Canudiun inaga/ineM, Hi.otory and list of. , . . .

232, 23:1. 234

Short life of 234

Canadian magazine prcduction. Progress of 1^

CaHaiftitH AUtf^azinB and CaHatiian Kivtnv is-
sued in t^uet>ec Province 152

Canadian meuica) literature, Some writers on... 132
Canadian miscellaneuus liieialure, Some wiiteri

of 133

Canadian newspapers Some squabbles among

early 440

Some miscellaneous im, 105

Some short lived 4^

Sometimes lack in dignity JjjO

Statistic* of 492

Canadian newspapers, the firsts Chronological

order of IM

Stye of Jte

Can.idian news[)apers 1H24 to 1871, (ireat increase

of 153, 154

Canadii^n newspaper published in French, The

eirliest 221

Canadian newspapers in 18U6, Some figures con*

cerning 190

Canadian novel writeis, Some prominent |27

Canadian p'>ems, Wiiters of occasioiml 23S

Canadian poets. In politic**! life 12V

Name.4 ol prominent .127* 128

Of the last ihiriy years 129

Some miscellaneous 429

Some minor Idg

Canadian piet:* since Confederation, Remarkable

Kroup of 108,169

Caradiaii poetry, A itketch of IQQ

Trior 10 18,>7 I66

Since Coiiledernlion |ti7

The faults of 1H9

The place uccupit-d by 127

Canadian i>oetiy, Di^tinclive, A pioduct of re-
cent > ears. ... iflfl

Canadi.iii provincial, press, S ime facts concerning

the 18U. inO

Canadian pic-s, Character and position of the., I'.ll

Painphb IS during the lirsi jcnlnry of 159

I'lesent healthy condition and prosperous out-
look of 2:WJ. 237

Present and future prost)ects of the 192

Canadian Piess Asso<.iation, P.ist Presidents ot

230

162

Canadian publications in Quebec Province, Vari.

oiis miscellaneous

Canadian religious journals in 1Sj8, Some ol the

be t known . 2:^5

Cf'na<iian romantic lileratnie, Some works of... |2tS

v!anadian roniaii' e, The central work o'" 126

Canadian sciei tilic literature, Some writers of

129, 130
Cinadiar. weekly newspapeis, Some p'ominciu . 194

Canadian women writers, Seme lacis about 1 -O

Some very clever |76

Canadian writers ouisidn of Canada 132

Carman, tlliss, and his pietic works ft^

( ',itno( b.Lii, Miss Janet, Literary work of . . . . 173

(,'hauveau, Pieiie J.O., Liierary style of 142

Clesi.y, ,vlr-. Maiy lUissell. Literary ability cf i;2
Cll^i^tt^, Rcbc-rt, and bis history of Lower Can-
ada 159

Cnmmenis i n the cjTiclnsi'^n wf his woik IfiO

Writes the hisiury of Lower Canada 120

Clockmaker, The, by Sam S.ick J78

Colem.Mi, K.itbleeii I'llake, Literary ability of. . , 172
C*/. v/rf/ .■iif7(h,ti>\ I :ie, issued by William Lyon

.\U:ken/ie 189

Crav ford, Isabella Valancey, and her t>ook of

l^wms 170

Crofion, K. Itlake, h.a., writes a sketch of Tho<.

C. Halibuiton 177

Curz^n, Mrs. Sar.'-h Anne, Literary vork of 171

Day, ^I^s. C. M , publishes Pioneers of the East-
ern Tow n;.hip 161

Ivlolnie, Jean Iltpaste, wtite» on constitutional

aJminist.ati< n 138

Dt .^'illle, A. 'H., M.A., writes un Canadian

pxeiry _. 166

Dcwiirt, Rev. Dr.t and his »ielcciion* irum Cnn-

a'tiaii ^Hjels . . 163

Pulilishes his selections from Canadian poets. . 1^5
.t^oiiinion jonrnali-iin, Toronto the great ctntie of 192
Douglas, Mr. Jame^, Jr., wiitts on the intellectual

p'Og:es?i of Canada 153

Dramatic associations in Qu bee and M< n.real . 137
Duflcrin, Lurd^ makes valuable conti ibuiions to

Canadi.-n hfernture . . 238

Duncan, .'■ara Jeannette, Lterary success of, . 175

Wntrs "A -so-ial I), p.iriu^c" !27

Knglish literature i»n<i j tirtia! sm in Quebec,. .. 14^
Knglish and Krench lileratur-- in Canada, Laily

days of U7

Fabre. lion, HrcuT, writes on the possihitiiie^

uf Confederaiiun. .. 153

CAN \ DA: AN ENCYCLOIVEUIA.

539

I'lether, Mr*t, Helen (ire|ory, Uterary work ol. 17j

Freemuii, Miitt, Liieraiy ability nf 172

french Canailiun authors fruin 1H.'H) to tH80 ll.'>

Freiicli-Lunadinii bouk!! unJ pociiu, Suiiie early, l.'il

Kiench-(Ja(iadianc/i(iff(>n, Suiiiple of I(i7

Krem:h*C<irui(lian juurtmlimiit Seven reiiiarkalilt!

editor! in U'J, 1 IM

Krencb-Canadian literary institutes, Opening ur . lU

Krench-CaTiaUian literature and jourintliMn 13ti

Viench-Cauadian literaiuic, OitriuulitcH aiul *'l<iw

prugress of IIU, Uti)

OriKin and arrival of liKi

Revival of IM

Struggles under difDculties 1 1 J

'1 he niiancy of ..... l.til

Th^ secund a^c of 14 1

Frencb-Cunadiiin pjets, uf recent decadu WtH

Several yuun^ 1 VJ

Some early I(i7

Fiench-Canudian nia)[;i/iiit:>t fruni 18(10 o 18S() . U.'j
Fretich-Canudiun ntwsp.ipcrs sinLO IKtn, home

leading; Ul

French (Canadian pul>,l< aliuiis, Soiii- ejirly. .lltti, J.j7
French-Lanadiai) publicatii lis of lOI, .Some ini-

pjrtant UO

Freticli Canada, I'octical production ol liiT

l-'icnch-Canadian writers ilo not iitakenionty .. llli
Garneiiu, F. X., writes a history ufCanad.i. - 111

Ha>:iirly, Sir |ohn, The povnis of *j;iH

Halibiirtoit Chil>, l-uunding and work of the ... Itil
Halt bur ton, Thos, Chandler, Criticism on the

work and st> lo of 181

Fnters th« Inipeii.d House of Coinuioini 177

First and second work ol I7S, 1711

Is repiiiiian led by tliu House of Assembly .. . 177

Latesi work ol liU

I.oD^s for Inller hnpt:rial cill/etiship . . lSi>

Manner in whub I; >nl- , were constructed by • ■ . 17tl

Nut a great success on the platljrni 17S

Sketch ol 177

'I'ake^ np residei'ce in Fngluiid 177

The four books written by 178

'Ibinks politics a puor business Vit

Habf.ixi(f(i-t7/t', btiily sut>tcription list and ad-

Vcrtiscmt:nt!i ol the 183

Harrison, Mis. S. Fiances, I, iieiaty woik of .. . Ill

Heiiv\S'-^e, (. Iiaiirs, ai.d bis wuik.. I(i8

Jlcnslcyt Mi:», S.phia Almon, Literary Wuik ul'

17>, 171)
Ili-itory of Canada, by Ileriot, publt lied in IHmI . I,i7

lli'>lo.y (if tba prirssiu Western Ctiiada IDO

Howe, H>'ii. Joseph, and Canadian juurnalistii .. . 181

Wins u boel suit 1-1

Howe, JuliM, and eaily Canadian jouruali'>iii. 1><1

Johnson, Miss Helen Nl,, as n poei. llM

Jobnsuit, Miss K. Pauiine, Literary ability ol 171

joumalisin in Ontario, Progress ol 2J7

Journalism in iVovince ul (Quebec, btrngg'cs and

success of '.iill, 2'2'i

Joutn.dism in the iMaritiuie ProvinccK, History

and progress of 'J'JH, 2'JI

Jouriiabsiic ilavelopuRMit in Canada 'JJO

JuuintU and journali.sts ul Quebec Province,

\'arious iuipirtani 22U

Kingsfurd, Dr. William, completes a must valu-

ai>le History ol Citnada I'Jl

Lampiiian, Archiba'd, and Ins poetic style Kill

S|iei.nnen verses of 1-S, LJl)

Lawto'i, Mary Jane K., and her L.iterary woi k . . 171

letiifuiJiff, I'ouiiduig «.f the 1 ti

Legislative librnry in ALuiiioba, Fotinding ani

Uruwth ot the 208

Legislative Ibraries in I8i)7, Number of li 7

Lc^irohon, Mrs., and her liictary w»jrk 170

And her work* of licuon ... l(i;i

Libiary in Upper Canada, 'I'be first circulating. . 2M1I

Libi.iiy, Tue iiMt Canaaian 2U7

LiLinny scheme lor nchouls, Parli.tmt.nt assists

the 209

Libraries of Canada in 18J7, Figures conceri.ink;

2b>, 211
Libraries of Mechanics* Institutes, Figures con-
cerning 210

Libraries of the univeisiiies and colleges. Facts

ctinccrnin.; ihe 209

Libraries of Otitaiio and Quebec, Disposal of the 2i>8

Libraries uf Canada, the pnbtic, Sketch of 2u7

Liler.iture and pii iting ni Quebec:, the pioneers

of Ifi.'i

Ll'er.itnie ol a c.uni ry, the, On^in of 133

Literature of all N.ittons, The, begins with

poetry 13rt

Literature a<ul Joniiialisin, Editor's note on .... 238
Liteiaryaiid Historical Society of Quebec, Found-
ing uf the ... 1.V2

Work done bv the 15J

Lome, Maiuuess, h.is written much about Can*

ada 23S

Lower Canad.i Wati:hman, and its nuthor l.')S

Macilonncll, Mis*, Litcraiy W'nk of 173

M..char, Agnts Maule, Literary work ol 171

McDonnell, J. F,, ai a pnel .*

^lcllee, Hon. 1 hos. U'Aicy, and tiift Canadian

lullaUi

Afaii mid Atai/ ami Aw//i^*, History of the

.M.isdrck, Frain i^, Wiiiiiign and woiki of

Merril, IKkn M.i Literary woik of

Morgan, Henry J., Important works Wfiitcn by...
Motnine Ntwi, ih-s lirkt penny paper hi the lint*

'u\\ Kmpire

AUntteai Oat/y AUvtrtistr, The fin t daily piper

111 Catia a

MoHtrealiiazette, the. Career of

Origin and sketch of the

Peculiar origin ol the lS,i,

Montreal tyttfuss. Mural and religious influtncu

of the

Montlie, Susanna, and her literary wurk

Murray, IVliss Louisa, Liieiary work if

Natuial His.ory .Society, founded in M mtreal . . .
Newspapers, Americaut not popular in Canada ..
Newspa|ler^, Impurt.int, pul)lishi.d in Manitoba

and the N. W. T . . 2:iO.

Newspaper issued in Upp:r C.mada, History of

ihe (irst

Newspap-r issu<d in P. K. L, The fl^^t

Nvwsp.ipcrs in Canada, U.ITicnUirs in conducting

early

Imp trtant figures concemiag 221| 222,

Names of the cirlieU

Since the Kcbellion of 1837

The fust religious

New^papf r uf lUitish N'-rtb America, The first....
Newspapers of British Columbia, History of the..

231,
Newspapcisof Ontario, Many important weekly..

2 8, 22y,
Ncwpapers published in Toronto, Various impor-
tant daily 2-'7,

Newspaper, The first, issued in America.,

Ncwsjiaper woik in N>.w Itiunswick, Progress

of eaily

Og'lvy, Mi>s, LiLerary wuikof

O'Hagan, 1 honias, m.a., i'h.i>., wntts on Caim-

<lian women writei -<

Parker, (iilbert, and hii publislud wniks .

Pcttse, F<tward J. H.* writes on the Canadian

PresN

P tetr\, 1 he early ccniuiy of, in (Jutbec Provirx e

lfi.3.
IVinting establishment in Lower Canada, The

fir^t

Printing press, the first Canadian, Coniruvei.sy

a.< to _.

Printing', the ai t cf, Intiodnciion into C.irmda of

Pnhli: Library A< t of 1>1I.'>, Results of the

Piib'ic bbr.iry eat.iblislicd at Quebec in 17H.'i

Public and free lihraiies In Ontario, 1807, Sta>

ti^tics of.

Public liln;ity opened in (Jucl».c

i^u,-bec Gazette, the, Kiist np:>earance ol'

Origin ind early hisio y i,f the

Siylc and editorial in. liter o*" the

Quihec Mt-*cH>y founded in I80.'»

Queliec, Nl-w B^un^wick and Manitoba, an J free

bbrariei

Rende, John, K.K.s.c.^nnd Quebec juurna.i.-.m ..

Writes on English It crattue in Quebtc

Kii^harilson Maj >r lubn, and bis wuiks of fiction

Roberts, Cha^. li. O , and his p etic works

Roger, Cli.iiles, p,iblish.;s n w'<rk on Canada. ...
Rug'-rs, Mrs, Or.ice O. MacLeod, Literary woik

cf ^._....

Royal Society of Canada and Us published T<.' n-
saciions 217,

Coni position of ibc 213,

I )istinguished c )ntr'bii.in2 m nibtrsof the. . . ■

Lmi[)ent members of the

History and work of the

Object of the

Origin of the

Original members of the 212,

Outlook of the

Valuable work d*)ne by the . 2ll»,

Royal Society of Canada in 1898, List of nicnit.ers

of the .211.

Ryrr-on, !>.., and schoi.l and t -wnship librari. ^. .

.Saillter, Mrs. J;nnrs, and her wriittn sioilus

S..dlier, Mrs. Mary Anne, Liter.try work of

Sam Slick, Ilaliburton'i most noted creation, De-

sciiption of

Sangstcr, Ch.irles, h Ids the first place in Canadin
po*tic literature .....

The first Canadian poet who wrote in Kngli h..

Saundeis, Miss, Literal y work of ,

Slavery in Canada in the early d.tys..

S.nith, l>r. Gold win, and Canadian journalism . . .

And his p iblished wo:ks 12.),

Stiir, The, phetu rninal g;owih of

Sulie, Itenj.tmiii, k r.s.c, writes on French-Cana-
dian liiriature

Traill, Catherine Pair, Lite.aiy work of

232

23:)

228
LS2

is:

173

170
127

101

ItU

VM\

IIS

210

i;w

210
137
IS I
117
IS.-)
183

210
■J-li
117

ii;:t
im
t<;i

172

21S
211
217
212

21 (
210

217

21.>
2ii0

i<;3

171

180

1 28
108
172
ISS

22 \
12«
22ii

Mfi
171

Upper Cana«la in 1705 has hut one newspaper 138

Upper Canada, I7l)l to 170.), Itouks written in . . . 138
Wallis, Arthur .S., writes on Canadian journalism, 182
Ward, AriMiius, gives his opinion ol Halihurton.. 181
Willison, Mr. J. S., Journalistic abdiiy oi 2;^

SECTION III.

THK CHIEF CITIES OF CANADA.

lieaiy ^ames, g.c , d.c.l., writes on the history

of 1 oronto 284

Itegbie, Sir Matthew llaidie, has important con-
nection with Victoiitt 'jiiy.... 270

liell, Cnarlcs N., K.K.ii.s., wrtte» a sketch of Win^

nipegcity 278

ll.jrihw.tk, Rev. J. Dougias, Li-.u., writes a

sketch of Alontreal city 2A1

llritisli Coliiinljia, Rich possessions of 277

Hrown-Durion administration, Short lile of the. . 263

Ity* Colonel, is the lather uf Ottawa 2<)0

Canadian c ly Muytjrs, List of 205

Canadian civic statistics. Table uf. 208

Can <-r Macdonald administration, Formation of

the 253

Cartit r, Jiinnics, winters at Stadacona 212

Cbipnia 1, NV ard, Sonie factk about 2>'iU

Ciiics of Canada, Kditor s notes on 201

Dulf^riii, Karlof, takes great interest in (.>nel)t.c. 21l]
Lnglt>h conquest, Tne, tbu crisis of Canadian

history 212

Engli h nnlitary forces sent to Fort (larry 270

(ias (Company, the Consumers', Some facts abtnit 288
(ieorgti 111., King of England, i.ssues an impor-
tant prjcl.trnation 2ti5

Hahf.ixciiy, Climate and surroundings of. 2 '3

Eaily government of. 2ii2

Early history o' 2Ul

Libraries, ne\« spa per sand cbaii table institution i

of. 203

Mannracturirit; and eilticaiion in 2 2, 203

Mayors of, 2iHJ

.Mu.icipil revenue, L.vports nf^d imports uf . . , 202

Religions (ienominations of 1801 in. ... 201

Situation of 200

Sketch of 2tlO

Varions census t.ikint;s of. 201

Ilnnlan's Isl md, DosLnpiion of. 2S.'> 2811

Heiishaw, Mrs. F. G., writes about Victoria and

Vancouver 270

Hogan, John Shttidan, m.I'., Murder cf 21)0

Hudson's Hay Company collides with the North-

Wcst Company 278, 279

Oper.-tions ot the 278

Jack, 1. Allen, <,>.c., d c i.., writes on the h!s.

lory uf St. John, N.n 255

Laclrine Canal, IbiiUlitii; of thr . . 207

I.e .M'ine, sii J.mes M., f.k.s.c, writes on

annals ol Quebec city 211

Lome, Manniess of, and Princess Louise arrive

in .Mont eal 209

Lo\ckin, L. \. M., writes a sketcti of Ottawa

city 219

M.ickay. .\. H., n.A., i.l.d., writes a sketch of

Halifax city 200

Mel ite, Hon. Thomas U'Arcy, Assassination

of 263

.M tin street, Winnijeg, A fine description of,

2S3. 281
Montreal Li;y, antl improvement in navigation.... 201)

Kai ly laws enacted in.. . 2l).'»

l-.dilcr's notes on 2't4

Founding of 204

Held slavfs \\ I7tM 205

Hi'.toncal sketLh of. 20A

Is vl^itell by Lord Mon.k aiul the Pi.ince of

Wales 2r)8

M.-iyo.sof 200

Street lighting of 207

SutTers from cholera and " ship fever" 207

Suiters much from Indian raids 204

T;ie first peace court hu-ld in 205

Vi-itcil by a most dlstiii;;ni-hed company 208

Montre.il city dming the ccntiny, Pro^;ress of.. 205
M-jntreal city du'incj the last thiee decades.

Noiablc events in 209

Montreal city in ISOl, Piim.ip^l firm; of 207

M jiitrealcily siu'-e it was fotin led, G owthof.. 209
Alontreal and Quebec surrender to the Lriii^h

forces 2'11, 20.)

Mud<ty I.iiile Votk in the early days 260

Napolei lis war in Europe favourably afFfcis

Quebec 213. 2H

New Krance, from I(UJ8to Ifki.') 213

The era uf religious foundation in 213

The fond dre.tni regartbng 213

Ottawa city, after the building of the canal TA

Inconioratif n of 252

In 1S.VJ 251

Mayors of. 296

540

CANADA: AN KNCVCLor.KDlA.

t.

I

i

Ollawa ciiy—l'tiHtiHulii.

Pluneer reWN|irtpi;r» of.

I'uHiiiijn anil ur gin ot

Selecied as th« bt»l uf iiovernmcnt

Nkelchof.

Some pioneerN of

'i'hr cominurce o(.

The prchenl ami future of

'rbc Acat uf educutiunal anil charitable insii.u-
tions

Traditions concerning the settlement uf

Was the chiM "f bad parents 2I!»,

Ottawa City in 18117, KiRures concerning

rarlinment Huildin^sat Utiawa, Corner stune laid
Pa lianient of (^>uebec, tirave di^sen^ion in the. .

Honoured names on i he roll of the first

Clpc.iiiig of llie tir>t

Parliamentary struggle over the Seat of liovern-

nunt

Prince Arthur, H.R.H., visits Montreal

Prince Consort, the, Ueath of

Quebec city, A Ions period of pence in

Uouniifulty supplied with churches, banks, etc..

Capitulation of

Conspicuous modern buildingi of

Incorpoiation of ...

Is very famous in its annalt

Ma^oisof

Military regime nf

Modern pi ogres of. ,

Real estate and net revenue of

Several newp,ipers appear in

Suffers from fire

'1 he annals of

I'he ctntre of Canadian history

The five sieges of

The lolly sue of

Quebec city from 1KI5 to 1871. Progrewiva epoch

of

Quebec Act of 1774, Working of the

Quebec from 1814 to ISaa, I'lOgress of

Kuilw.iy^. Canadian, Increase of

Roman Ca:holij freedom, Tne Charter of

bi, John, N.B., Agreeable climate of

Beautiful situation of

Commercial aspirations of

Commercial conditions of

Distinguished citizens of

Early commercial progress ol*

Early railway connections of

Fluctuation* in the early prjgress of

French occupation of.

11 islory and prrgress of

Important buildings of

Leading pioneer citizens and ofTicials of

Mayors of

Royal Charter (iranted to

Statistics of the lumber and fishing trade of. . . .

Suffers severely from fires

Schultz, Late bir John, describes Main street,

Winnipeg

Schultz, Lady, writes a sketch of Winnipeg

Sealing industry of B.C., Statistics of,

Slavery abolished in Canada

Sparks, Nicholas, Some facts aliout

T'ay Canal, History of the celebrated

Toronto city, again visited by Koyalty

And Confederation Day

And early railways

And the Fenian Kaid

And the Queen's Diamond Jubilee

Area of

Boari of Trade and Stock Exchange crgan-
izedin.,

Commercial progress of. 'Jtll,

Early civic government of

Early municipal officers of

Early public men ol.

Electric street cars are introdu ^d in

First Industrial Exhibition held in

First Piovincial legislature meets in

First public election held in

History and progress of

History of the water supply of

History of the street railway in

Increase of population in

incorporation and first M lynr rf.

Is visited )y the Prince of Wiles

Lount and Matthews ex, cuted in

Mayors of

M unicipal government of.

0 itin and situation of

Receives various visits from Royalty

Remuneration to municipal ofTicers in

Sihool system an! municipel government o . .

Slaves loM in

Suffer* from cholera

Suffers froirx fire and fever

1 he chief journalistic centre of Canada

Tic debt and assessment o*

Under the Ai:.erican flag

•rii

L'lU
•J,.2
a 111

•r.i
'.',)i

'-•,VJ

2,Vt
L'l.l
'.'41

■iii

'.'ti8
'Jl>8
1'44
'J 17
!<44
'.'47

'.'14
2IK
'JI8
•2U
2 III
.HI
211
■241
■242

210

2mi

213
•JXi
■244
25o
2,V>
•2o7
'2i>8
'iVJ
2,i<
•2,i8
2.)7

Works teferiing to the i*r,iwth nf 2U4

Union of Upi>er and Lower Canada, Seat ur

Ifovernment after the 3H8

Vancouver city, and the C. P. K 271

Enjoys full legal facilities 'Jl6

Has seas iis of depre«si jn 2711

Ii liel|>ed by tiie Kloniliks boom '.'77

Mayors of. '.118

Origin, growth ami dilliculties of '27M

Sketch of '27,'l

Vancouver city in |h,S8 (^reat prr^gress of. ..'274, '27o
Vancouver city 1888 to 181)2, Rapid prugrese

■2oy
207

2.'.8
2J7

•283
282
•J71
■2lili
'2,-il
■IV)

'.'im

2IK)

2«il
'.111
28ti

'292
•2112
288
'.'IKl
•287
2N9
2'.ll)
■287
■-^87
285
■28 I
2-;8
2I«
2S8
28'J
'288
'2!l.i
'28!(
28.i
■287
2111
■2ilU
287
2'<8
■28!)
■2!)1
'2!);i
287

. 270

V.incouver city in 1898, Comlilion of ■■■ ■ 277

Victoria and Vancouver, Sketch of the cities

of ; 270

Victoria City, as a business and residential

centre '272

Commercial enterprises of '271, 272

Commercial irnfKirtance of 271

Educational advantages of 272, 27;i

Exten.ion and prosperity of 27ii

Mayors of '298

I'opul ition and important Matistics of 27,'l

Situation and early government of '271)

Splendid situation and buildings of '271

Transpirlatinn facilities if. '272

War against England declared by the U.S 21,5

Winnipeg City, as desciibed by Lady Schultz '282

A great natural trade centre '2811

Corfioration, police and public buildings of. . '281

De'cription ol '282, •28,'t

Early history and founding of 278

Educational and charitable institutions of. .. . 281

Financial in'^titutions of '281

Geographical posi ion of '279

Growth of the population of ... 28,'t

History of '278

Incorporation and rapid increase of. '279

Manly sports and social life of '28'2

Mayors cf '2',)7

Railway and steamboat connections of 280

Surrounding advantages and future prospicts

of '282

Water supply ol 283

SECTION IV.

FINANCIAL HISTORY, LOAN COMPANIES
AND INSURANCK.

Accident insurance in C.inada, Some facts concern-
ing 'M7, 348

AsMs-^inent and society insurance, nature niid
extent of [V.\2, :i33

Assessment life insurance, Passage of an Act to
regulate. :i3j

Hrili^h Americi Assurance Company of Toronto,

the oldest compiny in Ontario 3*.*f)

Canada a favourable Atld for life insurance ... . 3'Jo

Canada Life Insurance Company, ceases receiving

money on deposit

Progress of the

The pioneer company of Canada

Canadian banking system, Reviewof the . . 307,

Canadian Fire Insurance Co. of Winnipeg, Incur-
po ation of the

Canadi.iii finances prior to Confederation

Canadian finances since Confederation, Dispusi*
tion of.

Canadian financial history, Sketch of

Canadian fire insurance companies, not uniformly

succ'Stful 318

Operating under Provincial Iicpn»ies 3'2I

Canadian life insurance cHected 1875 !o 1897. .^I'i I, Xil
In force 1875 to 1898 .'CW

C'anadian Hie insurance companies, Ueath rate uf 331

Cnadianloan and sayings companies, A sketch

of 313

327

327
327
308

320
3111

301
301

Canadian loan companies, Prominent pioneers in 317

The object of. 'M.i

Canadian loans, Source and manner of. ... .30'1. 'M)4

Cannlian Mutual Aid. Or,^anization of the X\,'i

Canadian Otdcrof Foresters, Incorporation of th^ Xii

C.madian public expenditure. Increase of 30(i, ;U)7

On capital account [U\l

'I he nature of 'MKi IMH\

Ciinndian revenue, The sourre of . .301. 3*»,')

Cipital capacity of Canada. The enlarged. . . itOt, 3ii9
iJebt of C.anada, at and since Confederation .... ^{03

Causes of the . , 30J»

O itfin of the public 302. .S<i3

The future of the 3ol)

Terguson, John, M.A., M.D., writes on fraternal

insurance 330

Tire insurance, Canadian, History and progress nf 31>S
Fire insurance companies, LegikUtiuu Concernint;

321, 32^
Prjvincial license required by 322

Fire insurance companies In CanntUi Future of . . 33|

Important statistics concerning 3li3

Fire insurance in Canada, inaugurated by British

companies 3|g

Originuf. 3UJ

Fofctt;r, Hon. (ieor^e K., ii.a., li. d., writes on

Can:i<iian hnaiicinl hisinry 301

Fraternal iniurancr, Ancient urigin uf 33U

Fraternal in^urunce and sick benefit societie;*,

Sketch of. 330

Fraternal insurance in Canada. Interriting tiM?s

concerning. . 'Mo. o\t}, 317

Lapses of 3|3

The rates of 341, 3l*i

Valuations of 344

Fraternal insurance societies in Canada, Collapse

of .117

Fraternal societies regulated by the legislature.. 33tt
Fraternal societies in Canada, Si.-itistics con*

cerning... 340

Fraternal societies in Ontario, Cummcncemcnt

. of 339

Friendly societies of Ontario, The chief 33A

Halifax Fire Insurance Cuinpany, F>iunding uf

the 319

Independent Order Foresters, New premium

rates of 337

Success of the 333, 334

Total insurance in force by the 315

Industrial insurance. Legislation concerning 3112

Plan of, and companies working r3'J

Interest rate in Canada, Decrease in the .'t08

Kenny, L J., writes on Canadian tire insurance 318
Laud iNlorii^age Companies Asa'n of Ontario,

Formation and object of the 314

Life insurance and iru^t company, Defect of the

incorporation of a 320, 327

Life insurance companies in Canada, Date of the

establishment of 336

Progress of 328

Life insurance company charter, Earliest appli*

cation for a 325, 326

Life insurance in Canada, Early days of 325

History of 325

Manner of carrying on 325

Sound financial basis of 336

Life insurance in Canada 18t^ to 1897, Interesting

figures concerninif I^J8, 829

Life insurance in Canada 1897, Abstract of,

329.330
T<ife insurance company failure is generally a

crime 338

Life insurance companies report business since

Confederation 328

Life insurance statement presented to Parliament,

The earliest 326

Loan companies, lni[>ortant act affecting Can-
adian 3U

Luati companies, Canadian, Im}X)rtant service

rendered by 315

Loan companies of Toronto, Great amalgamation

of the 317

Loan and savings companies, Canadian, Classi-

catiun and statistics of 315, 316

Loan and savings societies at and since Conftd-

erntion 3ii

Loan and savings companies, Legislative enact-
ments concerning 313

Loans on real estate. Extraordinary demand

for 3U

I^ndon Mutual Fire Insurance Company, Incor*

poralion uf the 321

Mason, J. Herbert, a pioneer in loan company

establishment 317

McCdlie, William, t.L.n., writes on life insurance

in Canada 325

Mercantile Insurance Co. of Waterloo, Incorpor*

ation of the 320

Prosperity of Canada, A danger threatening the 310
Provincial Provident Institution, Record of the.. 335
Uuebec Fire Assurance Company, Organization

of the 319

Sun Life Insurance Company, Incorporation and

progress of ihe 328

Tonilinson, R. H., writes on Canadian loan and

savinizs companies 313

Western Assurance Cu. of Toronto, Incorporation

of the 320

SECTION V.

NATURAL HISTORY OK CANADA.

Animals of Canada, Dearth of, Information con-
cerning thd 380

Woi ks treating cf the 380

It -.-irs of Canada, Ditferenl species of 3^i2

l!e»rt!es in Canada, The large v.iriety of,. . . 373, 374
iieibun^, Rev. C J. S., m.*., k.k.S.C, writes on

Canadian tntoniology 366

CANADA: A\ KNCYCLOI :r.I)IA.

541

Birdi commun lo Ontario and QucUc, A li«t uf. ,

301, :m. a^L't, :u;4, m:>

Birdi fnunil It) Quahrc Province, Suina of tti j r.iru '^tit
Uinitof Hii i^tl Culuiiibia, S>'ine paiikului*i uf tlia ^Ni

Birdi, Nunli Aiuencan, 019 mi^raiuiy U>>1

Revi-. d lilt ul ;i.'>l

Birdit uf Maiiitubj, Uinereiit ipecieiof the,.. 38/, UK8

lliid<(uf Nuith Am-ncn, IHll .ulM87 :t'iD

Uirdiol Ontario, Mtetch ui the ;tJL

Suiiie miNce.l4neuuH \VH\^ ;{,>7

SuuK^i hy the spurlitnian :Uil, Il.')5

'ihe divirifi 3oJ, ^'>;i

Thd Ki'cat vatiely uf ;i,VJ

Ihe mar>h lrei|Ujiuiii^ 3<>l

The peichiiitf 3>'>7

The fthure 'Xti

Birdk ul the Mutiiime Fiovinceit, 'Ihe khore 37H

The MDgitiK :i7U, 377

VariuuK lanii.iesi uf 377. 378

Birdi uf ptey fuunil in OiitartJ 3o<), 35)1

Of Biit sh Culumbu m\

Birds in (Jucbcc Province, Early pul>li' aionH on.. 3(U)

In 1535 :V>U, »W

Sketch uftfc :i,VJ

Variuu-i cuntriliutions on the 3(tO, 3(il

Birds, the blue, l> sap caranLO uf 'S>\i

hirda, The grcnt va iciy ul ;Vil

1 ufTato, ox. (ont, etc., tuund inCanaiUi 3H1

Ituitetllicsin Canada, Sunie varieiit» of.. 37'J

Canaiia Farmer^ The, greatly aids Canadibii

I'.ntoiiiuK gy 3fJ9

Can.'*di^fi 1* hita, Sources of inforniuti> 11 on WM

( anadian Natural tlistu'y, Kuitoi'H Nuiei on ... 3SU

Cuckoos in Ontai in, Suine f p cies uf . . . 3o(l

Orerandkin rrd k)t cie» fuui d in (Jannda. . .IP40, 381
Uiviag auU bwiaiiuiniE biidn of Briiiah Culunilna.

381, 385

Ducks and geese of the Maritime Provinces 378

Ouck, The woud, is gaity attired 3<)3

Lntomology, Ctiriadian, Sketch i.i 3<iH

Valuable work published on 3(>(t

EntomoluRy in Canada, attracts other scii^nces. . . 372

Kecugnizf d by Government 37'J

The pioneer of .^ 3tiU

Entomological Society, Canadian, Formation of

Ihe . . 3fi8

Valuable publications of the 3tiU

Entomological Suciety of Ontario, Contributors

and cui.tributions to the 371

Exhibits at the U.S. Centennial... 371

Forms branch iocieiics 370, 371

Incorpoiatiun of ibe 370

Increase of grant to the 37U

Entomoiogiii^ 'i ht LanadiaH^ Fuundii.g and

tiucce^!i of S69

Receives a grant . ^ : 70

Entomcilogic.tTwrilint;>, Increase In M>7, 3(i8

Kish, The fresh wattr, of the Maritime I'rovinces 37il

FloraofCan.-ida, Sketch of the 388

Flora of l.abra>lor, 'ihe reinnrkable 389

Flora of New Hrunswuk, Nattiie of the ^W.l

Flo<aof Ontnrii), 'Ihe diversified 31M)

Flora of QueUc. Nature of the 3i»0

Franklin, Sir Juhn, and Canadian entcniology . . . 34'itl

(irosbeak^, the evening, Habits of 357

Uarei, purcupineri and guphers found in Canada.

3S3, 384
Hawks, owls and herons of the Maritime Pruv-

inces 37«

Hsssian fly, K.ivu^es i.f the . . 307

Insect-i and bu^s in Canaila, A tni&cellaneous let

of 375

Le Moine, Sii Janit-s M., » k.s.c, wti.es abuut

the birds of yueVec Province 359

L€ Natutaiist CaPtaJitMHe, Deserving siuxeis

of 3t:!»

T^ons and grt:bes (if the Maritime Pruviuccs. . . . 378
McUwraith, Thutnatt, writes about the binls of

Ontario 351

McI rod, K. K., wiitcH on the zoulogy of the

Matitiine Provinces 37G

Mamnutls of the Mavitime Provinces, The va-

riivus 379

Manitoba and thi N.W.T., Flora and climate

of 391

Mid^e, the wheat, Ravages of 307

Moths in Canada, DilTerent varieties of 373

Natural history in Canada. .\ sketch of 3IU

Nova .scuiia ni-d P. !•: I., FI ra of 3SU

Nova .Sc >tia, LeaHini; fraturfs of 3.0

Ornithology of Canatia, Various work:* on tiie. . ItOI
OrnitholoKV, The sluHy of. ncglerted in Cariinl.i.. ,*l.')8
Ornithological reci*nl in Canada, The earliesi . . 359
Ornitbulogists' Union, the American, Foimaiion

of. 351

Owls ill Ontario, Somf specif s of 3;'>0

Pffiching bi«ds of hrilish Cohimbia :tS(J, :hX7

i*iK«<>"^> ''he kinil of, found in 0;ilaiin 355

Pruvancher, Ah\>6 T.e<>n and bis \aiuable Ctir i-

buiions toentoni'M^fv ;iG9, 370

Rats and mice, ^unie Canadian varieties uf . .3fe'2, 383

Rocky Mountainv and Selkirk<(, Klura of the .... IV.tl

Sea birdk, ot the Mariiime Provinuea 379

Sea lion and walruH, iluuies cf ilie 38'J

Sealt louhd in C unuou, .Suine varitiie^ of . . , | . . 3HJ
Miore hiids, id Idiiikb C olumbia ...,'. .. 3tt5

Sparrows of the NLiritiine Pruvincei, Vayiuuit

vaiiclieiuf .'(77

Sparrows, the, Tmaciiy uf 3.Vi

Si|uirrets and k)ii<jreil aniniaU, of Canada ■ 381

lurtlei, herpentft, (iokh, etc., of the Murit mo

Irovinc* ., ;K9. uHO

Whe4t-dehtruyiiis insects. Prices offered lur cssiiVA

.on .. 3fi8

Wild carnivorous aniiiiuls found in Canada . ^181, ^IKL'

Wuudp cker<t in Ontario, Some VMrietiei ot 3<>d

Woud warbleri, the. Interest attaching lu 3i')7

Zuolugyuftbc Maiitiiie Provinces, Sketch uf the. 376

SECTION VI.

CANADIAN CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY
AND DEVKLOPMENT.

Abbott, Sir John, on the duties of the Senate ... Ul'
American invasiun of Canada by Montgumery . . . -155

Assesstiient Act, Nature of the -ItiU

Belcher, Chief Justice, reports against illegal

I.egislatiun 41ti

British Colunies, Oruwth of popular government

. in the 445, ifli

Biit'sh Colundiia, becomes a Province li'K)

M unit ipal regulations nf 4t}l

Uiiiish Nurth America Act embodies self<govern-

^ mem 421

Briiiih rule and popular government 415

luitish rule in Nurth America fails in part 415

Bruwn, Hon. Geurgc, demands representation by

population 425

On ibe tenure of Senatum 137

Strongly favourH a nominated Senate 437

Campbell, Sir Colin, Recall of 420

Canada, Dominion of. Constitutional experience

of the 395

Wor.dciful future of the iM)

Canadas, in the, Three political nartie* 31HJ

Canada, 1791 to 1841, Severe Kiiuggles of. . . 390, 31)7

Canada under Hritsh lule, 1704 to 1774 395

Canadian (iovernment, a product of the British

Regime 395

Frum 1063 to 1700 395

Canadiari .Senate, History atid functiuisif 435

Cnatuplain and Nlonimagny (unished municipal

ordinances 452

Colonial (luvernors and a velect coterie 419

Colunial Legislature, Political right of electing

representatives to 400

Confederation, Canadian, lleiuficial re&ults of

4'21», 430

Convening of Provincial Delegates on 42ti, V27

Karlv eflort»to*ard 422

Kxpansion of 403, 401

linpeiittive 10 national progress 42H

Importance of ^. . 422

Long struggle over 402

Matters to be adjused after 404

Origin of 422

.System of Govrrnment following -..492, 403

The fathers of 402

The prominent promoters of 401

Various steps leading to 401, '102

Various causes of . . 400, 40l

Confederation, Fathers of, Benefit by example of

the U.S. 428

Confe<)eration in P" K. I., First niove toward

the 431

Governm'-nt action loncerning the 431, 432

Confederation movement in P. E. I., Sketch uf

the 431

Constitutiun'.l Act uf 1791, disappointing in its

results . . 448

Nature of the. . SW, 455

Constitutional and political events 1841 to 180f>,

The chief 400

Constitutiunal and political events since Confed-
eration . 405

Cunstitutional and political questions in Canada,

Effect of 4(5

Constitution, Canadian, gives the right of appeal 429
Constitutional controversy, A marked lessening

of 407

Cun*>titutional tUvelupment of New Brunswick,

Sketch uf the 409

Constiiutional events in Briti-h America, li91 to

1841 396

Cunstitutiona) history of Canada, Review of

the 395

Con.'iitiitional progress in Nova Scotia. Sketch

of .,, ^ 415

General elections. Provincial, r nee Conffdera-
lioD ioy

Govert. >r-t;eneraU of Canada sioca Confeder*

»!'<' 404

Goviiniutnt, rekpoasiblt, Eany stiugglas fur,

398, 390
Gusetrment, second chamber of. Necessity uf a 451
Hudiiins, I hos., M.A. g c, wiites on the electoral

irarchise in Cu'iadu 403

Howe, 'oseph, accepts n scut in the executive. . 420
Addresses the co.unia) kecietury un Loluiiiul

refurin 419

And popular guvtrnment 4|6

And reKp nsiole government in N.S 417

CanicMhe couniiy and (urMs P«rliameiit 4^1

Elected 10 Paniameni 4I7

Has a yevere contest with the governor 420, 421

Muves siitring resulutiont 417, 418

Obtains partial redress 4iy, i'^i)

Sketch (jf. .. 417

Task undertaken by H^

Wins (Mpular guvci nnient. 431

Jesuits' estates question, Scttlemenl of the... 400, H)7

Legislative council and municipal affairs 454

Legislative councils in Canada, Divisicns and hiif

tory 01 440

Ih-" Provincial 444

LegiOaiive cuuncil functions within Provincial

linutations 451

Legislative council of N.B., Chief justice ai>(i

Bishop disappear from the 450

Legislati\6 cnu'icil in Cantda was elective from

1850tolS«7 448

Legislative Council in N.S., Tenure of cffice of a. . 451

Legislation iti Swxun times 465

Lucal cuunclK, Special powers of. 458

Longley, Hon. J. W., writes on the coi.stitutionbl

prugress of N.S 415

Lower Canada since the Session, Municipal life

in ... ; 454

Loyalists in N.B., demanded change?* in the gov-

ernment 400

Succeed in their demands 410

Macdonnld, Hon. A. A., wiites on Confederation

in P E.l 431

Manitoba, becomes a Pruvince ot Canada 450

Municipal ordinances of 401

Maritime Provinces and res))on>ib e governnicit. 399
Mills, Hon. David, moves on mode uf Senatorial

appointment 438

Munik.ipal Code, Special, of Quebec Province.. .. 457
Municipal (>overnment, Kaily atten.pts at Cana-
dian 452

Friction in early 453

Municipal Government in Lower Canada, Im-
provement in 455

Municipal in&tituticns, Sunimary uf Canadian

i03, 4G4

Municipal institutions in Canada, Origin o** -lo'i

Skrt.h of 452

Municipal ordinances under the old Rdginie... ... 453

MunicipFlilies of Lower Canada and railway con-
struction 450, 457

Mur icipal Roads Acts, Lower Canada, Passage of

Ihe 457

Municipal system of Ontario, Con.plfjteness of the lOl
National unity in Canada rising supetior to Prov-
incialism 408

New Hrun^'wick, becomes a separate Province 448

Clmnees in the goveri ment o( 414

Establishment and maintenance of municipal

insiituiions in the 403

First Kxecuiive Ci uncil of 410

First Parliament in 410

Friction between the Assembly and Executive in

413, 449

Goverrment ci isis in 413

La^t ot Imperial administration in 413

Municipal law of 403

Pioneers of popular y vernment in 413

Relation of the Executive Council to the

Assembly of 413

Under control ol the Loyalists 409

New lirunswick Asstniblye'issaiisfied with rev-
enue cKpenditure 413

New Hrunswick electors, Qualification uf 410

New Hinnswick, Province ol, Establishmcul uf . . 410

New f ranee i^ divided into Parishes 453

Ni ith-West Teiritoiics, Organic. i ion cf the 404

Nova Scotia, becomes a British Culuny 415

Executive Council establ>^htd in 447

!• irst As-rmblv elected in 416

First Liberal Government fuimtd in 437

Growth of popular government in 446

Nuva Scoiia, Executive Council of, antagonizes

the Assembly 416

Nova Scotia, Province of, Municipal Government

of 463

Parish and township municipalities nre abolished 456

Paliament^, Canadian, during the Union 47U

Since Confederation 470

Pajliiinient under the Unicn, Ministry of the
lirst 398

54J

CANADA: AN ENCYCLOIMCDIA.

I,

I.

^ir

I '

I

•i

i::

Puwr, lion. I^wrtnct O., wrltM on Iht Ciiniitl'jin

Seniiifl . 4W

Princt Kilwaril Ula'iil, iidniilted to tha Union AM

Hsi'Dinai n ittpiiraie iVovincr 4IH

Cha tie nf |[->v riiineni in i'X\

Cireatly hrtieAied liy C mledtriition i.'tl

l.niul i|iia«liim itelllcil in . i'M

Municipil inoiiiutiuni of 4tt2, 4i\i\

Op^nncd ti)Co .ft(1«ration i'.i'Z

S.tti>raoii>ry c<> iilttion of i'M

Sctul^drptilAt nn t* Ottawa un Confrdaration . . 4U4
Prince KdwtiU iHland ciectorK more lavoiirnble to

Cun(«drrali n 433

ProvincinI (iivcrnmeni^, Knrly tliffictdiie« of 447

Provi ice of Quebec, Conilitutioiial diRr.u»ioni in

the 407

Rebellion uf 1837 did nut bring popular gover''*

Mient 397

Repr icnlation by population wanted by reform*

er» 400

Representntive government in N.H., Promotors

of 440

Reipuntible government in Canada, Eitabli&h*

ment iif 4.V)

S, John, N , B., Incorp ration of. 41<>

Manner of the civi: government of 411

School que'ttioni, The, of New Brunswick and

Manit.»b;i, 400

Scott, S. I>.. M.A., writes on the constitutional

devel pnent of N H 409

Senate and Houte of Commons do not egree on a

Hill 412, 413

Senate of Canada, Charges asainst 411

Constitution and qualificalums of the 4'tA

Functions of the 412

Government bdla amended by the 443, 444

Government bills originating in the 414

Method of nominations to the 421)

Perso-ial qualiticaiionn for the 430

Ij e appointment of ihe 438

Stockton, Alfred A , ph. li..u, writes on Legisla-
tive councils of Canada 445

Tupp«>r, Sir Charles, Hart., and Confederation. 4"1

Writes nn Canadian Cfin'ederation i22

Union of Maritime Province:^, Discussion of the,

425 42fi
Union of UpTwr and Lower Canada was effected . 3'j8
Upper Canada since 17(KI, Municipal government

in 4.'>8

TToper Ca' ada Statutes, Amendment of variou*... 459
Upper House of Pailiamenr, adopted by leading

nations 410

Is it necessary I!i9, 4 10

Vancouver Nland becomes a Provinrr 450

Village town and ciiy incorporation, cond tiros

of 4.*)lt 400

Weir, Robert Stanley. n.c.L, writes oi municipal

institutions cf C nuda 452

SECTION VII.

INDUSTRIAL IIKVEI-OPMENT-FOREST
ANU KISHFRIES.

Acadia in the early day<), Home manufacturincin

4Sti 4S7
^'KBar, E. R., write* on Canndian intliMtri^*; .... 485
liuot and shoe ii)du>try, HrKinning and pTOf2rf«»

of the m, 4fl8

Inlerr-tinK figures concerning the 4!W

T)rtti«h Culonial LeKl.laturev, New p )wer of 478

llriti h duties favourable to Canada 475. 47(i

lluffalo wo)l, Attempts to make cloth from ....41N), 4!)1

Canada impi>es a duty on foreign wheat 4T5

Canada inaugurates a vigcuious development

policy 479

Canada, 17I& to 1812, Statistical history of 471

Canaila, 1842 to 18d5. Critical period for 474

Canadian and Ai erican exports compared ,. .483, 484

Canadian hreaHstuflr%, Disastrous drop in . . 477

Canadisn clothing in the early days 4^5, 480

Canadian development, Some facts concerning

early 480. 48l

Canadian fabrics, early, Manner of weaving 480

Canadian foreits and timber interests. Sketch of . 611

Canadian industries. Progress of 48,5

Cansd'an industrial statistics, 1871 to 1801 .482, 483

Canadian iron industry Ske'cd of the A08

Canadian labour should b« protected fi07

Canadian industries. Some early 473, 474

Canadian Legislature and improved (ransporia-

lion 478

Canad an rrannfactured products. Excellence of. . 483

Carad'an Ta \ff Art of 1817. Kesulti of Ihe 479

Canals, Canadian, Opening of 478

Carpet manafactiuing, Beginning of 190

Cauidey, J. J., wiiles on ihe liidU'tilal history nf

C'nnai a 473

C-dar wood. Value of AI4

Cttiuaman, The, TY.iMf the Negro A07

Chlnekeontacl, 'I herfTict of 4IK)

Chine«e " llossen," Shaip inelhudiof AOi

Chinese businesi method., I'llfecl of Ml3

Chinesa in C •ihifln alwavs work for Chica Att^t

Cliinese, The, and their racial charatteris.i, s 41HI, AMI

Ate lran>Jeni guests f>IK^

Are a P'jIiiicaldrAwhack AIH)

lUininets incihiKlH of i AlKt

Compete in domestic labour fx>l

<f jvernment of 6<>*J

I n Ihe social sphere 600

I'lca^urrs, tlignitiesand aim of 6"<)

Keligiou4 nsprct of 600

l/niii iiig industry of 601)

Chinese immigranls. Hase of supp'.y of 602

Leave China under llonds 6llt

Chinese immigrant, Cost uf rearing a 601, 602

Diesaofthe 601

Low living of the 600,601

Readily submits to his superiors 602

Reuieily for the evils uf 61)7

Chinese labour, n g lin to cnpital 6t),5

Crowds nut Ihe Canadian Workman 6><!i

Evil effects of 6<I.'S

Large cmplnyment of 6l>4

" Chinese qiiarlers," Appallin ' condition of the. . . 601
Chinese question in Ca'inda, Remarks on the. ., 4U9

('h'nese tguestion, What is the 409

Chinese workman can live on four cents a day .... 601
Cuntedcraiion, Canadian, Principal objects of ... 4tiO
Corn Laws, Repeal of the, seriously affects Can-
ada 476

Cottons, Canadian and American, shipped to

China 493

Cottons, Canadian grey, shippet) t<> China 4'.'3

Cottoi industry of Canada from 1871 to 1892 402

Origin ol Ihe 4U1

Cutlon manufacturing in Canada, Eirly stiug-

glesin 491. 49J

Cotton Mills Company, Cinadian, c >lored. S)riui-

cate of Ihe 493

Cotton mill at St. John, N.H., the oldest in the

Dominion 492

Cotton mills in Canada in 1871 492

Cotton mill in Monlieal, A successful 492

Cowan, George H., writes on the Chinese ques-
tion ... 499

Crimean War, Prosperity resulting from the .... 479
Urummond. George E., writes on Canatlian iron

ioduslry 608

F.liiii, Lord, on Peel's Hill of 1810 471

English and American nianufactureis. Jealousy

between 487

Factory system of textile manufacturing, Arrival

ofthe 488

Fisheries of Canada, Editor's sketch of Ihe ,'■211

(ireat future of the 6;tl>

Immense annual production of the 6.'iO

I iiteresting figures concerning the 620

Not appreciated 6.'li

The cod 628

The deep sea 6J8

The herring 628

The lobiter and oyster 6J8

Fisheries, Canadian, Difficulties in prosecuiii'g,

627, 628

Exceeding richness of. .'i2ll

Mrn and vessels entployed in 627

Tabulated yield of 527

Fishes of Canada, The v.irious fo- d tiM, 629

Kish production of Canada in 1890 629

I'i'h product of H.C., Valuable table ofthe 6;tO

Flax and hemp, Qn iliiy of Canadian-grown 494

FlaK and hemp in Canada, I mportani figures con-
cerning 490

Flax and hrmp growing in Canada in Iheeaily

days 480

Flax, linen and hemp manufacturing introduced

intoCanada 493

Forest area nf British Columbia, Extent and

nature of Ihe 612

Forest area of Canada, Quality of the 612

.Statistics of the 611

Forest area of Labrador and the Maritime Prov-
inces 813. 611

Forest area of Ontario, Nature of Ihe 512

Forest area of Msnitoba and the N.W.I., Nature

and extent of the 612

Forest ares of Quebec, Nature and extent of

Ihe 613

Forests, Canadian, Future importance of the 620

National importance of 619

Forest, Great importance of the 523

Foruts of Briiikh Columbia, Denr.ily of tb* 622

Knresi lands In Canada, Leasing of 6IQ

Forest pteiervalion, Uovsrninent elTurts toward. 618

Forest products, Canndim ixp >rlsof AIA

Forest trees, (anailian. Varieties (,f, 611

Forest tree culture in Canxla, .Sketch Of 6'i.|

l''oresl trees may be grown fri'in setd 6H

Forest wealth uf llritish Columbia, Editor's iioia

on 621

Great Utiiain guatanttts inlaresl on a Canailian

loan 478

Hughes, Misi Catharine, writei on Canaillun

tirnlter interests 611

Indian lands ill C'iinada, Miinn^rment of 619

liiduitriesof Cniiaila, Capital Invested in Ihe. . fi'M

Hands employetl in tha 6,'1.5

Pruductiuri of the 6!1S

Industrial history of Canada, Four periods uf

Ihe 4T3

Sketch of the 473

Iron In Cnnadii, Annual consumption of. 609

Iron indusliy^ and the protective taiifl 609

Canadian pioneer stage of tha 608

Natuial fitness of Canada lor 608

The bariiineler ofthe nations. 608

iron industry of Canada, Needs of the 61il

I'robable future ol Ihe 610

Iron manufactures in Canada, Extent of 610

Joly de Loibiniire, II in. Sir llenii G., writes on

forest tree culture in Canada 623

Linen industry, Canadian, Attempt to estab-
lish 49S

Linen industry, d ^mestic, Some remnants of ... . 49.5

Logs, Canadian, exported to the US 617

Lumber, Canadian, goes to (S, U, and the U.S., 616
Lumbering indastry of Canada, Figures concern-
ing the 518

Lumber trade, Canadian, with G.B., Statistics of

the 616

Massey, Daniel, imports early agricultural im-

p'em"nis 633

Massey, Halt A., starts the implement industry of

Canaila 534

Massey Harris Company, Ltd., and its ■fsimila-

lion of other companies 5.34

Business of. 634

Manufactures of Canada in 1891 635

National Policy, Success of Ihe. 482

Ontario, Woollen manufacturing introduced into. 48S

Oregon pine. Excellence of the 614

Paper and pu'p inilustry, Beginning ofthe 496

Growth of the 497

Imporinnt figures concerning the 490, 497

Patun Manufacturing Company, Beginning of

Ihe 488

Potato crop in Ireland, Failure of the 47H

Pulp nuking a lending Canadian industry 617

Rafting logs in the early days 619

Railway cnnstructiin encouraged in Canada 478

Railway mileage. Iron used on Canailian 609

Railway lies, limber annrally requited fo 617

Reciprocity Treaty »ith the U.S 479, 480

Can-iilian exports under the 480

Revenues of Canada, Some facts concerning

iKe 477

Rostmond Woollen Company, Beginning and suc-
cess of the 489

.Salmon inilu try of ll.C, The remarkable 6'29

Scotch tweeds in Canada, Introiluction of 488

Seal Fi'heries of B.C., the famous ,5,'iO

Sheep grar'ng in Canada in the early days 486

Silk manufacturing in Canaila, The beginning

of 496

Spruce wo<>d. Value of 514

Talon, the iiitendani, encourages domestic Indus-

iries 485

Textile manufacturing in Canada, Beginning

of. 485

Timber business in Canada, Great depression in

the 477

Timber, Canadian, exported during thirty years. . 619

Growing l''.uro[)ean demand for 620

Timber cut in British Columbia, Stali<tirsor 622

Timber of British Columbia, Various varie ies of

the 621

Trees to plant. The ' kind of 6'24

Trees, The growing ol, I ints on 625

War in Ihe U. S. increi s the demand for Cana-
dian go-^dt 479

Wbeat exported from Canada in the early

., <i«y« 47S

wood supply. The, Supv is Canadian Industries 617

Woods of Canada, Some miscellaneous 61.5

Wool cloth making in 1871, Census of. 489

Woollen manufactures. Early, in Ihe Canadas

and Maritime Provinces 48T

Woollen trade. Origin of the knit goods branch

of the ifts

Yorlubire ofCaiuuU, The m 489

:ri'