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Maps, plates, charts, etc., mey be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames ss required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: Les csrtes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent Atre filmAs A des taux de rMuction diff6rents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seul clichA, il est film6 A partir de Tangle supArieur gauche, de gauche A droits, et de haut en bes, en prenent le nombre d'images n6cesssire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la m6thode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 s 6ctqe*s ^bucatiouitl Scries. THE ELEMENTS or STRUCTURAL BOTANY WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE STUDY OF CANADIAN PLANTS. TO WHICH IS ADDED ▲ St:LECTION OF EXAMINATION PAPERS. BT JOHN MACOUN, M.A., F.L.S., Pro/easor of liotatiy in Albert University. AND H. 13. SPOTTON, M.A., Head Master of Barrie High School. ILLUISTRATED BY THE AUTHORS. TORONTO : W. J. GAGE & COMPANY, 11 WELLINGTON ST. WEST. 1879. / P\ri - % » * c • « Entered accordiiif? to Act of Parlianipnt of Canada, in the Offirc of tlie Minister of Agriculture, by Adam Mii.lrk & Co., in the year 1879 I « P R K 1' ACE. The work, of which the present httlo vohime forms the first part, has been undertaken, at the suggestion of several eminent educationists, to supply a pali)al)le want. The works on Botany, many of them of gr(>at excellence, wliich have found their way into this country, have been prepared with reference to climates differing, in some cases, very widely from our own. They consequently contain accounts of many plants which are entirely foreign to Canada, thus obstructing the search for descriptions of those which happen to be common to our own and other countries ; and, on the other hand, many of our Canadian species are not men- tioned at all in some of the Classifications which have been in use. It is believed that the Classification which is to form the second i)art of this work will be found to contain all the commonly occurring species of the Provinces whose floras it is designed to illustrate, with- out being burdened with those which are either ex- tremely rare, or which do not occur in Canada at all. The present Part is designed to teach the Elements of Structural Botany in accordance with a method which is believed to be more rational than that commonly adopted; and it will be found to supply all that is requisite for passing the examinations for Teachers* Certificates of all grades, as well as any others demand- ing an elementary knowledge of the subject. It contains familiar descriptions of common plants, illus- trating the chief variations in plant-structure, with a view to laying ft foundation for the intelligent study of Systematic Botany with the aid of the second part; then follow a few lessons on Morphology ; and the 1 1 3701 IV PREFAGB. j I Elements of Vegets.ble Histology are treated of in as simple and brief a manner as was thouglit to be con- sistent with the nature of the subject. The Schedules, the use of which is very strongly recommended, were devised by the late Professor Hens- low, of Cambridge University, to fix the attention of pupils upon the salient points of structure. They will be found invaluable to the teacher as tests of the accu- racy of his pupils' knowledge. The cost of striking off a few hundred blanks of each sort would be very trifling, and not worth considering in view of the resulting advantages. The wood-cuts are from drawings from living speci- mens, except in two or three instances where assistance was derived from cuts of well-known excellence in standard works on Botany. It need hardiy be said that the engravings are not in any sense intended to take the place of the living plants. They are designed chiefly to assist in the examination of the latter, and whilst it is hoped that they may bo of service to those who nay desire to read the book in the winter season, it is strongly urged upon teachers and students not to be satisfied with them as long as the plants themselves are available. The works most frequently consulted in the prepar- ation of the text are those of Hooker, Gray, Bentley and Oliver. Finally, the Authors look for indulgence at the hands of their fellow-teachers, and will be glad to receive sug- gestions tending to increase the usefulness of the work, and to extend a taste for what must ever be regarded as one of the most refining as well as one of the most practically useful of studies. September f 1879, DESCRIPTION OF CUTS. P«B. PAge 1. Fibrons root; ol Bottoronp 2 2. Magnified tip of rootiot B 3. Stem of Buttorcup 4 4. Radical leaf of Bauie 6 5 B.ick view in one of the fluwrrs of paiiio o C. St'ctiou of flower of Kaiue 7 7. Stamen of annie 7 8. Stamen discharging pollen 7 9. Head of citrij»)l8 of 13utteicup 7 10. A carpel inat^'uiTied, and showing ovule 7 1 1. Stigma of Buttercup, greatly uiagnilied M 12. plan of Btam 16. Section of a seed, showing position of emhi yo 10 17. Pollen -grain developing its tube 12 18. Section of ovule, showing micropyle 12 19. Hepatiea " U 20. Siugln flower of fiuine, witli bracts underneath 15 21. Hold of carpels of same 1 (5 22. Single cxrpel 1(» 23. Marsh-Marigold 17 24. Head of carpels of same 18 25. Single carpel of same, split open 18 26. Shepherd'd Purse 21 27. Flower of same 22 28. Tetradvnanioue stamens of same 22 29. Pistil of eanio 23 30. The samo with onel-ibe removed to show seeds 23 31. Kound-leavcd Mallow 2i 32. Section of flower of ?ame 24 33. Pistil of same 24 34. Ring of carpels and persistent calyx of same 24 35. Flower of Ci^ai'deu Pea 27 36. Front view of same 27 37. Diadelphous stamens of same 27 38. Pistil of same 27 39 Section of pistil 27 40. Flower of (heat Willow-herb 29 41. Pistil of same bursting open 30 42. Section of same 30 43. Sprig of Sweet-Brier 32 14. Section of flower of same 32 t5. Section showing carpels and hollow receptacle of same.. 33 ♦6. Flower of Crab-Apple 33 vx DK8CRIFTTON OF CTTTS. 47. Section of same 88 48. CroAB section of Crab- Apple 84 49. Compound umhol of Wiiter-Parsuip 85 60. Single flower of Haino 86 fil. Section of pistil of Hame 85 62. S'ction of flower of Dtuitlolion 67 6H. Single floret of Daudelion 37 64. Li^'lllllte corolla of Hame with opipettildiis HttuiKMiH .... 87 66. Syugonesicjua Ktamens of Dandelion HA 6fi. Pappose peed of same 88 67. Single nowor of Catnip 8J) 68. Front view of same, showinK didynaraous Ktaiuens .... ."'.) 69. Pistil of pame ." 89 60. CiirpoJs of Ramo 4i> 61. Fertile £ower of Cucumber 4! 62. Sterile flower of same 41 63. Sterile catkin of Willow 43 64. Fertile catkin of same 43 65. Sin^jle Btundnatc flower of Baiuo 43 66. Single fertile flower of same 44 67. Pumpkin seed 45 68. Same showing cotyledons 46 69. Same showing plumule 45 70. Bean showing cotyledons and radicle 46 71. Same showing plumule 46 72. Dog's-tooth Violet 47 73. Pistil of same 49 74. Section of ovary 49 75. Trillium 60 76. Section of ovary of same 60 77. Net veined leaf of same 60 78. Indian Turnip 51 79. Spathe of same 62 80. Fertile spadix of same 62 8 1 . Sterile spadix < f same 62 82. Spadix and spathe of Calla 64 83. Lenf of same 64 84. Perfect flower of same 55 86. Showy Orchis 66 86. Single flower of same 66 87 . Pollen-mass of same 67 88. Single flowe* ol Timothy 68 89. Same opened to show parts 68 90. Section of a grain of Indian Corn ... 60 91. Embryo of same 60 92. Section of embryo 60 93. Tap-root of Dandelion 63 94. Tap-root of Carrot 64 95. Fascicled roots of Peony 64 96. Secondary roota of Verbena , . . , , 64 DESCRIPTION OF CUTS. VII • . 83 ■ 97. .. 84 m 98. 85 W 99. . . 96 1 1011. B5 fl 101. 87 fl 102. ^^ 9 103. H7 9 104. Hf^ 9 105. 8H 9 106. • * • • * •' fl 107. *»•• a 108. H«> 1 109. 40 1 110. 41 M in- 41 1 ns. 4"^ fl 136 48 1 137. ... 43 188. .... 44 ; 139. .... 45 140. .... 45 141. .... 45 142. .... 46 143. .... 46 144. .. . 47 145. .... 49 146. 49 147. 50 148. ... 50 149. ... 50 150, 51 152, 52 154. .... 52 155. 52 156. .... 54 157. .... 54 1 158. ..... 55 159. .... 56 1 160. .... 56 1 161. 57 \ 162. .. 58 163. "..... 58 164. ... 60 B 164. .... 60 9 165. .. 60 9 166. .... 63 9 167. 64 9 168. .. 64 9 169. 64 9 170. Tendril of Grape 66 Leaf-tendril of Pea 67 TuborB of Potato 67 llbizome / 68 Section of Onion bulb 69 Lily bnlb 69 Spino of Hawthorn 70 Prickles ol Sweet-Brier 70 Whorloil leaves of Galium 71 Simple radiate-veined leaf of Mallow 71 Compound leaf of Clover 71 Maple leaf 72 Digitate leaf of Virginia creeper 73 Acicular leaves of Pine 74 -134. Various forms of leaves 74 — 79 Form of a Corymb 83 Compound raceme 83 Form of Cyme 84 Petal of Garden Pink 86 Tubular corolla of Honeysuckle 87 Funnel-shaped corolla of Braoted Bindweed 87 Salver-fibaped corolla of Phlox 87 Labiate corolla of Tiirtlo-head 87 Personate corolla of Ti)iulrtax 87 Stamen with atlnate anther 88 Stamen with innate anther 88 Stamen with veisatile anther 88 Anther opening*along margin 89 Anther of Blue CohoBh with uplifting valves 89 Anther of a Heath with pores at the apex 89 151. Ovary of Mignonette with seeds on the walls 91 153. Ovary of Pink with seeds on a central column. . . . 91 Cone 92 Single scale of same 92 One of the winged seeds of same 92 Fruit of Blackberry 94 Section of unripe Strawberry 94 Legume of Bean 95 Silicle of (rarden Stock 96 Pyxis of Portulaca 96 Samara of Maple 90 Loosely packed cells of the pith of Elder 99 Hair from leaf of a Petunia, showing cellular structure. 99 (a) Hair from leaf of Geranium 99 Tapering and overlapping cells of woody tissue 102 Dotted duct 103 Section of a young exogenous stem 104 The same at a later period of growth 104 Section of an eudogeuoua 6tem 105 Leaf-stomate , 107 CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGE r.xaunnfttion of fi Bnttrrcup 2 CHAPTER II. Functions of the Organs of the Flower 11 CHAPTEU in. ExHUiination of Ilepatica and Mixrsh-ManVold — Res<>niblanoefl l»fctw»H'ii their llowt'js and that of Jhitterciii) l?t CHAPTEU IV. Examination of other comniov phiiits with hypogynt»u8 htameufi — Shef-htird's Purse — Kouud-leuvod Mallow.... 21 CHAPTEl! V. Examinatiou of common plants with pfriRvnous ntauiens — (l.iid* u I'eu — ljrt!iit Willow. lull) — Sweet- Britr—Crab- Applo 26 CHAPTEIi VI. Examiuatiou of a plant with cpigynons etamens — Water- Parsnip 36 CHAPTER VII. Exauiination of common ))lant3 with epipetalous Btamena — Dandelion — Catnip 36 CHAPTEIi VIII. Examination of plants with Mouuioious and Dioecious Howers — Cucumber — Willow 40 CHAPTER IX. Characteristics possessed in common by all the plants previously examined — Structure of the seed in Dicoty- ledons 45 CHAPTER X. Examination of connnon plants <;ontinued — Dog's-tooth Violet — Trillium — Indian Turnip — Calla — Orchis — Timothy 47 X CONTENTS. CHAPTER XI. PAc*: Common rharnrtrristics of fli(> )il)iiitH jiit^t. r\nminod — Structure of Mic srcd in Moiiocotvlcilous 59 ('llM^Tl.R XII. Morphology of Roots, Slciiis mihI l-'oliiif^'c-Ijeaves 62 CllArTHK Xlll. MorphoIo>.'y of riowcr-LotivrB — T^o (^ilvx — The Corolla — ThoStauH'Ms- TIm* I'i-lil 'I'Ik- I'ni'it Tlir Sci-d (Ici- luiiiiitiou 81 cn A rn: II xiv. On tlio miunto strnotnrc of I'iniits - KNM"f>rioir". ari'l F.fido. gi'iious Str'Mis — l''o(i(l of IMiii'ls 1)H ciiArrKi! XV. ClaHsificutioii of IM.'iuis Mcc.irdiu^: to tin; Natural Systrin . . . . Idll Tho IIrrl),iriuiii 11.') luilcx and (ilos^ary 1 1 R Esamiuation Questions I'M i i V — 59 — 62 Ill - (ll'I- TABLE OF THE COMMON PI.ANTH EXAMINEP, TO- OETFIER WITH THE FAMILIES TO WJIICII THEY BELONG. ndo- .... '98 I . . . . lni» .... llf) . . ■ • 118 • • • • i:^4 I^utttTcuj), Hepatica, MHrKli-Mari<.;itM.('K()W'ri)()T F\mii8C before he is in a position to do any practical work for himself. In accordance witli the usual plan, some months are spent in coumiitting to memory a mass of terms descriptive of the various modifications which the organs of plants undergo ; and not until the student has mastered these, and porha))s been initiated into the mysteries of the fibro-vascular system, is he permitted to examine a plant as a whole. In this little work, we purpose, following the example of some recent writers, to reverse this order of things, and at the outset to put into the learner's hands some com- mon plants, and to lead him, by his own examination of these, to a knowledge of tlicir various organs — to ! I III •■ , 2 ELEMENT.S <;F STULCTIHAL liOTANY, cultivate, in sliort, not merely liis memory, but also, and chieily, liis j)owers of ol)servation. It is desirable that the beginner should provide him- self with a magnifying glass of moderate power for examining the more minute parts of specimens ; a sharp penknife for dissecting ; and a couple of fine ueedles, Avhich he can himself insert in convenient handles, and whicli will be found of great service in separating delicate paits, and in im])nling fine portions for examination with the aid of the lens. CHAPTER T. EXAMINATION OF A nUTTERCTP. 2. To begin with, there is no plant quite so suitable as our common Buttercup. This plant, which has conspicuous yellow iiowers, may be found growling in almost every moist meadow. Having found one, take up the whole plant, loosening the soil a little, so as to obtain as much of the Kuot as possible. Wash away the earth adher- ing to the latter ]>art, and then proceed to ex- amine your spec- - imen. Begin- ning with the Root, ( Fig. 1) the Fig. 1. first uoticeablf' thing is that it is not of the same colour as the rest of EL3MENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 8 the plant. It in nearly white. Then it is not of tho Bamo f-\:jL^^v^ whilst the liigher ones may be called ~-^ '^ cauJ'ue [ciudia, astern). The broad part of a leaf is its UmU'. In the plant we arc now examining, the blades of the leaves are almost divided into distinct pieces, which are called hthcs, and each of these again is more or less deeply ciit. Both })t'tioles and blades of our leaves are covered with minute hairs, and so are said to be hdiri/. Hold up one of the leaves to the light, and you will observe that the veins run through it in all directions, forming a sort of net-work. The leaves are therefore net-reined. The points along the stem from which the leaves arise are called noiles, and the portions of stem between the nodes are called inlemodeii. T). Let us next examine the Flowers. Each flower in our plant is at the end either of the stem or of a branch of the stem. The upper portions of the stem and its branches, upon which the flowers are raised, are called the pedunelea of the flowers. Take now a flower which has just opened. Beginning at the outside, you will find five little spreading leaves, somewhat yellowish in colour. Each of these is called a sepal, . g and the five together form the calyx of the i:^^. 6 ELEMENTS OF STBUCTURAL BOTANY. flower. If you look at a flower which is a little older, you will probably not find any sepals. They will have fallen off, and for this reason they are said to hedficidu- 0U8. So, in like manner, the leaves of most of our trees are deciduous, because they fall at the approach of winter. You will find that you can pull off the sepals one a+ a time, without disturbing those that remain. This shows that they are not connected together. They are therefore said to he free, and the calyx is described as pobjsepalous. Inside the circle of sepals there is another circle oi leaves, usually five in number, bright yellow in colour, and much larger than the sepals. Each of them is called a petal, and the five together form the corolla of the flower. Observe carefully that each petal is not in- serted in front of a sepal, but in front of the space be- tween two sepals. The petals can be removed one at a time like the sepals. They, too, are free, and the cor- olla is poll) pet ahus. If you compare the petals with one another, you will see that they are, as nearly as possi- ble, alike in size and shape. The corolla is therefore reaular. 6. We have now examined, minutely enough for our present purpose, the calyx and corolla. Though their divisions are not coloured green, like the ordinary leaves of the plant, still, from their general form, you will have no difficulty in accepting the statement that the sepals and petals are in reality leaves. It will not be quite so apparent that the parts of the flower which still remain are also only modifications of the same structure. But there is good evidence that this is the case. Let us, ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. T\K. fi. \\ liowever, examine these parts that re- main. There is first a large number of Uttle yellow bodies, each at the top of a little thread-like stalk. Each of these bodies, with its stalk, is called a stamen. The little body itself is the ant Iter, and the stalk is its filament. Your magnifying glass will show you that each anther consists of two oblong sacs, united length- wise, the filament being a continuation of the line of union. (Fig. 7.) /|\ 4T\,. If you look at a stamen of a flower which ( J 1 1) ' ^^^^ ^^^" o\>Qn some time, you will find that ^ Y t;^ch anther-cell has split open along its outer edge, and has thus allowed a fine yellowish dust to escape from it. (Fig. 8.) This dust IS called pollen. A powerful Fir. 7. Fig 8 magnifier will show this pollen to consist of grains having a distinct form. As the stamens are many in number, and free from each other, they are said to be poh/omhous. 7. On removing the stamens there is still left, a little raised mass, (Fig. 9) which with the aid of your needle you will be able to separate into a number of distinct pieces, all exactly aUke, and looking something like unripe seeds. Fig. 10 shows one of them very much magnified, and cut through lengthwise. These httle bodies, taken separately, are called carj)els. Taken together, they form the pistil. T^ey are hollow, and each of them contains, as the figure shows, a little grain -like substance attached to the lower end of its cavity. This substance, in its present condition, is the ovule, and later on becomes the need. Fig. 9. Fig 10. 8 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. \\\\ Fig. 11. You will notice that the carpel ends, at the top, in a little bent point, and that tlie convex edge is more or less rough and moist, so that in flowers whose antliers have burst open, a quan- tity of pollen will be found sticking there. This rough upper part of the carpel is called ilh: stiiimottii. 8. Remove now all the carpels, and there remains nothing but the swollen top of the peduaclfi. This swollen top is the recepturle of the flower. To it. in the case of the Buttercup, all four parts, calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistil, are attached. When a flower has all four of these parts it is said to hejvwjjlcU. 9. Let us now return to our statement that the struc- ture of stamens and pistils is only a modi- fication of leaf-structure generally. The stamen looks less like a leaf than any other part of tlie flower. Fig. 12 will, however, serve to show you the jdan upon which the botanist considers a stamen to be formed. The anther corresponds to the leaf-blade, and the filament to the petiole. The two Fig. 12 cells of the anther correspond to the two ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANV. 9 halves of the leaf, and tiio cells burst open along what unHVvers to the luargiu of the leaf. 10. In the case of apoearpous pistiln, aH that of the Buttercup, the botanist considers each carpel to be formttl by a leaf-blade doubled lengthwlje until the edges meet and unite, thus forming the ovary. Fig. 13 will make this clear. 11. There are many facts which support this theory an to tlie nature of the different parts of the flower. Sufiico it to mention here, that in the white Water- Lily, in which there are several circles of sepals and petals, it is dithcult to say where the sepals end and the petals begin, on account of the gradual <^'liange from one set to the other. And. pj , j3 not only is there a gradual transition from se- pals to petals, but there is likewise a similar transition from petals to stamens, some parts occurring, which are neither altogether petals, nor altogether stamens, but a mixture of both, being, imperfect petals with imperfect anthers at their summits. We can thus trace ordinary leaf-forms, by gradual changes, to stamens. We shall, then, distinguish the leaves of plants as fol'u I ije -leaves, and jhiver-leareft, giving the latter name exclusively to the parts which make up the flower, and the former to the ordinary leaves which grow upon the stem and its branches. 12. You are now to try and procure a Buttercup whose flowers, or some of them, have withered away, leaving only the head of carpels on the receptacle. The carpels will have swollen considerably, and will now show themselves much more distinctly than in the 10 ELifiMBN'i'8 OF STRUCTURAL BOTANT. Fig. I J flower which wc have been exam- ining. This is owing to the growth of tlie ovules, which have now become Beeds. Remove one of the carpels, and carefully cut it through the middle lengthwise. You will find that the seed almost entirely fills the cavity. (Figs. 14 and 15.) This seed consists mainly of a hard substance called albumin, enclosed in a thin covering. At the lower end of the albumen is situated a very small body, which is the rnibn/o. It is this which develops into a new plant when the seed germi- nates. 13. Wo have seen then that our plant consists of several parts : (1). The Root. This penetrates the soil, avoiding the light. It is nearly white, is made up of fibres, from which numbers of much finer fibres are given off, and is entirely destitute of buds and leaves. (2). The Stem. This grows upward, is coloured, bears foliage-leaves at intervals, gives off branches from the axils of these, and bears flowers at its upper end. (3). The Leaves. These are of two sorts : Fo^^Vr7(?- Icavcs and Flower-lcavea. The former are sub-divided into radical and caidine, and the latter make up the flower, the parts of which are four in number, viz. : calyx corolla, stamens, and pistil. It is of great importance that you should make your- selves thoroughly familiar with the different parts of the plant, .as just described, before going further, and to that end it will be desirable for you to review the pre- sent chapter carefully, giving special attention to those KLEMENTB OP STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 1) parts which were Hot perfectly plain to you on your first reading. In tlie next chapter, we eh all give a very brief ac- count of the usfH of the different parts of the flower. If found too difficult, the study of it may be deferred until further progress has been nuide in plant examination. CHAPTER II. FUNCTIONS OF TIIE ORGANS OF THE FLOWER. 14. The chief use of the calyx and corolla, or Jlorav enrelojjfs, as they are collectively called, is to protect the other parts of the jhmer. Tliey enclose 'the stamens and pistil in the bud, and they usually wither away and dis- appear shortly after the anthers have shed their pollen, that is, as we shall presently see, as soon as their ser- vices as protectors are no longer required. 15. The corollas of flowers are usually bright-colour- ed, and frequently sweet-scented. There is little doubt that these qualities serve to attract insects, which, in search of honey, visit blossom after blossom, and, bring- ing their hairy limbs and bodies into contact with the open cells of the anthers, detach and carry away quan- tities of pollen, some of which is sure to be rubbed off upon the stigmas of other flowers of the same kind, subsequently visited. IG. The essential part of the stamen is the anther, and the purpose of this organ is to produce the pollen, which, as you have already learned, consists of minute ijrdins, having a definite structure. These little grains are usually aUke in plants of the same kind. They are 12 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTUllAL BOTANY. *ti|!ll| ill ! I m » i ■ furnished with two coats, the inner one extremely thin, and the outer one much tliickcr hy comparison. The interior of the pollen-grain is filled with liquid matter. AVlien a pollen-f^rain falls upon the moist stigma it bi'i/ins to ifroiv in a curious manner. (Fig. 17). The inner coat pushes its way through the outer one, at some weak point in the latter, thus forming the hcgiuning of a slender tube. This slowly pene- trates the stigma, and then extends itself down- FiR. 1. wards through the stylo, until it comes to the cavity of the ovary. The licjuid contents of the pollen- grain are carried down through this tu*i)o, which remains closed at its lower end, and the body of the grain on the stigma withers away. The ovary contains an ovule, whicli is attached by one end to the wall of the ovary. The ovule consists of a kernel, called the nucleus, wjiich is usually surrounded by two coats, through both of which there is a I' jJ] minute opening to the nucleu's. This opening --W' is called the vvirnqnih', and is always to be Fi". la found at that end of the ovule which is not ! attached to the ovary. (Fig. 18, m.) About the time the anthers discharge tlieir pollen, a little cavity, called the crnhr^iD-suc^ appears inside the nucleus, near the micropyle. The pollen-tub(% with its liquid contents, enters the ovary, passes through the micropyle, penetrates the nucleus, and attaches itself to the outer surface of the embryo-sac. Presently the tube becomes empty, and then withers away, and, in the meanwhile, a minute body, which in time develo2)es into the embryo, makes its appearance in the embiyo- sac, and from that time the ovule may properly be called a seed, ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 13 17. In order that ovules may become seeds, it is always essential that they should be ftrtiUzed in the manner just described. . If we prevent pollen from reaching the stigma — by destroying the stamens, for instance — the ovules simply shrivel up and come to nothing. Now it is the business of the flower to produce seed, and we have seen that the production of seed depends mainly upon the stamens and the pistil. These organs may consequently be called the essential on/tois of he flower. As the calyx and corolla do not play any iliirrt part in the production of seed, but only protect the essential organs, and perhaps attract insects, we can understand how it is that they, as a rule, disappear early. Their work is done when fertilization has been accomplished. Having noticed thus briefly me part played by each set of floral organs, we shall now i)roceed to the exami- nation of two other plants, with a view to comparing their structure with that of the Buttercup. CHAPTER III. [EXAMINATION OP HEPATICA AND MARSH-MARIGOLD — RESEM- BLANCES BETWEEN THEIR FLOWERS AND THAT OF BUTTERCUP. 18. Hepatica. You may procure specimens of the [lopatica almost anywhere in rich dry woods, but you vill not find it in flower except in spring a,nd early >ummer. I.t is very desirable that you should have the plant itself, but for those who are unable to obtain 14 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. lil,., specimens, the annexed engravings may serve as a substitute. Beginning then at the root of our new plant, you see that it does not differ in any great measure from that of tlie Buttercup. It may in Uke manner be described as /ibrous. Fi«. 10. The next point is the stem. You will remember that in the Buttercup the stem is that part of the plant from which the leaves spring. Examining our Hepa- tica in the light of this fact, and following the petioles of the leaves down to their insertion, we find that they and the roots appear to spring from the same place — that there is, apparently, wo stem. Pipits of this kind are therefore called acaulesrent, that is, stenih'ss, but it must be carefully borne in mind that the absence of the fXEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL DOTANY. 15 stem is only a))i)areiit. In reulity tliere in a stem, but it is 80 sliort as to be almost imlistinguishablo. The leaves of the Hepatica are of course all tuulirnL They will also bo foiuul to bo net -veined. II). The Flowers of the IL^iatica are all upon long jicduucles, which, like the leaves, appear to spring from [the root. Naked peduncles of this kind, rising from tlie ground or near it, are called srapes. The flower- stalks of the Tulip and the Dandelion furnish other familiar examples. Let us now proceed to examine tiic flower itself. Just beneath the coloured leaves there are three leaf- lets, which you will be almost certain to regard, at first sight, as sepals, forming a calyx. It \\;ill not be difli- cult, however, to convince you that this conclusion would bo incorrect. If, with the aid of your needle, you turn back these leaflets, you will readily discover, between them and the coloured portion of .f-^v? the flower, (/ rer;/ sh'ort bit of stem (Fig. 20), the upper end of which is the receptaele. As these leaflets, then, are on the peduncle, heJiHv the receptacle, they cannot bo sepals. They are simply small foliage leaves, to which, as they are found beside the flower, the name bracts is given. Our flower, then, is apparently without a cahx, and in this respect is different from the Buttercup. The whole four parts of the flower not being present, it is said to be iiien)nplete. 20. It may be explained jiero thai there is an under- standing among botanists, tliat if the calyx and corolla are not both present it is always the corolla which is wanting, and so it happens that the coloured part of the flower under consideration, though resembling a Fig. 20. 16 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. '>- Fig. 21. corolla, must be rej^arded as a calyx, and the flower it- self, therefore, as /^?/>^fa/o/v.s'. ' 21. Remove now these coloured sepals, and what is left of the flower very much resembles what was left of our Buttercup, after the removal of the calyx and cor- olla. The stameus are very numerous, and are inserted ,. on the receptacle. The carpels are |'\ also numerous, (Fig. 21) are inserted on the receptacle, and are free from each other {ripocdrjxnis). And if you Fig. 22. examine one of the carpels (Fig. 22) you will find that it contains a single ovule. The flower, in short, so much resembles that of the Butter- cup that you will be prepared to learn that the two be- long to the same Order or Family of plants, and you will do well to observe and remember such resemblances as have just been brought to your notice, when you set out to examine plants for yourselves, because it is only in this way, and by slow steps, that you can acquire a satisfactory knowledge of the reasons which lie at the foundation of the classification of plants. 22. Marsh -Marigold. This plant grows in wet places almost everywhere, and is in flower in early summer. . Note the entire aosence of iiairs on the surface of ine plant. It is therefore (jUihroua. The root, like that of the Buttercup auu of ihe He- patica, is Jlhrons, The stem is hollow and furrowed. The foliage-leaves are of two kinds, as in the Butter- cup. The radical leaves spring from the base of the stem, whilst the higher ones are cauline. The leaves ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 17 ?,: Fig. 23. a:e not lobeJ, as in the other two plants, but are in- dented on the edge. They are also net-veiued. '23. Coming fco the flower (Fig. 23) we find a circle, or whorl; of bright yellow leaves, looking a good deal like the petals of the Buttercup, but you will look in vain for the corre- sponding sepals. In this case there ,>;. is no whorl of bracts to mislead you. V Are we to say, then, that there is no calyx ? If we adhere to the under- standing mentioned when describing the Hepatica, we must suppose tlie coroUu to be wanting, and then the bright yellow leaves of our plant will be the sefuds, and will together constitute the calyx. As to the number of the sepals, you will find, as in the Hepatica, some variation. Whilst the normal number is five, some flowers will be found to have an many as nine. 24. The stamens are next to be examined, but you should first satisfy yourselves as to whether the calyx is polysepalous or otherwise, and whether it is free from the other floral leaves or not. If your examination ibe properly made, it will show you that the calyx [is free and polysepalous. The stamens are very much like those of the Butter- icup and Hepatica. They are numerous, they have both anthers and filaments, and they shed their pollen [through slits on the outer edges of the anthers. They fare all .separate from each other (polyandrous) and are jail inserted on the receptacle. On this latter account Ithey are said to be hijftoijiinvm. 18 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. ''SSii ^ 25. Remove the stamens, and you liave left, as be fore, a lioad of carpels (Fig. 24). Examine one : there is the lower broad part, which you recognize as the era///, the very short style, and the sticky stigma. To all appearance the carpels are pretty much the same as those of the two plants already examined. It will not do, how- Fig. 24 ever, to trust altogether to appearances in this case. Cut open a carpel and you find that, in- stead of a single ovule at the bottom of the ovary, there are several ovules in a row along that edge of the ovaj'y which is turned towards the centre of the flower. The ovary is, in fact, a /unl, and, when the seecTs ripen, splits open along its inner edge. If you can find one which has split in this way, you can hardly fail to bo struck with the resemblance Fig 25"^^^^^^^ ^^ bears to a common leaf. (Fig. 25.) On the whole the resemblance between the structure of the Marsh-marigold and that of the Hepatica and Buttercup is sufficiently great to justify us in placing it in the same family with them. 2G. Having now made yourselves familiar with the different parts of these three plants, you are to write out a tabular description of them according to the fol- lowing form ; and, in like manner, whenever you ex- amine a new plant, do not consider your work done until you have written out such a description of it. In the form the term rohesion relates to the union of like parts ; for example, of sepals with sepals, or petals with petals ; while the term adhesion relates to the union of unlihe parts ; for example, of stamens wiili corolla, or ovary with calyx. Neither cohesion nor ad hesion takes place in any of the three flowers we have ELEMENTS OF 8TRUCTURAL liOTANY. 10 examined, and accordingly, under these headings in our schedule we write down the terms polysepaloun, poly- petalous, &c., to indicate this faci. The symbol ao means "*' indefniito," or " numerous," and may be used when the parts of any organ exceed ten in number. I5UTTERCUP. OBOANOttPAIlT OP FLOWI4U. NO. 1 COHESION. ADUKSION. HKMAUKS. Calyx. Sepals. 5 Poly-sei)iilous. Inferior. Corolla. Petals. 5 Polypc'talous. llegnlar. Inferior. Staiuons. Filaments. Anthers. ac Polyaudroun. Hypogynous. - Pistil. Carpels. 1 Ovary. oc Apocarpous. Superior. m \i\m' jiiiiiiiiiii 20 KLKMKNTS OF STIUJC i'i'.;\:, H )T.\NY. HKPATICA. onoAN. NO. rOHKSION. ADHKHION. UKMARKS. 1 Calyx. Sepals. 7-12 Polysopalotis. Inferior. Colourorllikea Corolla. 1 Calyx. Petals. .t)a. itOfc/' • Wanting. StamenH. Filaments. Anthers. cc Polyaudrous. Hypogynous. \ Pistil. Carpels. Ovary. a Aiiocarpous. Superior. "b MARSH-MARIGOLD. OBOAN. NO. COHESION. ADHESION. KEMAUKS Caly.x. i epals. 5-9 Polysepalous. Inferior. Coloured like n Corolla. Corolla . Petals. -i-ja^lai.^ l-^.p Watting. Stamens. Filaments. Anthers. OP Polyaudrous. H ypogynous. Pistil. Carpels. Ovary. ac Apocarpous Superior. Carpels contain several seeds. ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 21 5MAKKS CHAPTER IV. EXAMLNATION OF OTirER COMMON PLANTS WITFl HYPOOYNOUS STV.MENS. HHEPHEKDS PURSE. ROUND-LEAVED MALLOW. 27. We shall now proceed to examine some plants, the iiowcrs of Avliich exhibit, in their structure, impor- tant variations from tlie Buttercup, Ilepalica, anJ Mar sh- Marigold. pels contain eral seeds. i'ift 26. p !1 22 i:le.mknts of hthuctl'hai- hotany. li{ HI Shepherd's Purse. This plaut, (Fi^'. 2(5). is on. of tho commonest of weeds. As in tlie Buttercup, tli«' folifige-leaves arc of two kinds, radical and cauline, the former being in a cluster around the base of the stem. The cauline leaves are all sessile, and each of them, at its base, projects backward on- each side of the stem, so that the leaf somewhat resembles the head of an arrow. Such leaves are, in fact, said to be naiiiitate, or arrow- shaped. The flowers grow in a cluster at the top of tho stem, and, as the season advances, the peduncle gradu- ally elongates, until, at the close of tho summer, it forms perhaps half of the entire length of the stem. You will observe, in this plant, that each separate flower is raised on a li'tle stalk of its own. Each of these little stalks is a pedicel, and when pedicels are present, the term peduncle is applied to the portion of stem which supports the whole cluster. 28. The flowers, (Fig. 27), are rather small, and so will require more than ordinary care in their examination. Tlie calyx is polysepalous, and of four sepals. The corolla is polypetalous, Fig. 27. and of four petals. The stamens, (Fig. 28), arc six in number, and if you examine them atten- tively, you will see that two of them are shorter than the other four. The stamens are conse- quently said to be tetradijnamom. But if there Fig. 28. liad been on\y four stamens, in two sets of two each, they would Iwive been called didynamoua. The stamens are inserted on the receptacle (hypogynous). The pistil is separate from the other parts of the flower (superior). 20. To examine the ovary, it will be better to select a ripening pistil from the lower part of the peduncl KLEMKNTrt OK HTntTrTrFUr. TJOTANY. 28 It is a flat body, sliapid somctliiiif,' lilu; alicart, (Fig 29) aud liavin^' tlie sliort style in the notch. A rid^'c divides it lengthwise on each side. Carefully cut or pull away tlh! I(d)e8, and tliis ridj,'e will n-ninin, presenting now the appearance of a nar- row loop, with a v(^ry thin memhrjinous partition stretched across it. Around the edge, on hoth sides of the partition, seeds aro susi)ended from slender stalks. (Fig. .-K)). There are, then, two rnrprls fI};. 20. Fig.'.Ao nuiti'd tntjet/wr, and the pistil is, therefori,', f=\ every way side, and is a very common weed , i n cultivated grounds. Pro- cure, if possible, a plant which has ripened its seeds, as well as one in flower. The root of this plant is of a different kind from those of the three plants first examined. It cons is ts of a stout tajiering part, descending deep into the soil, from the surface of which fibres are given off iri;egularly. A stout root of this kind is called a tap-root. The Carrot is another example. 81. The leaves are long-pctioled, net- veined and in- dented on the edges. On each side of the petiole, at its junction with the stem, you will observe a little leaf- like attachment, to which the name stipule is given. The presence or absence of stipules is a point of some importance in plant-structure, and you will do well to notice it in your examinations. You have now made yourselves acquainted with all the parts that any leaf has, viz., hlmU', jtetioJe and stipulcn. Fig. 34. EI.KMENTS OF STRUCTtTRAL ROTANV. u a 1 o u g ay side, a verv 1 weed iiltivated ?. Pro- possible, fc wbicli )ened its LS well as I flower. Dt of this is of a it kind lose of the ilants first led. It 1 8 t s of a tapering surface of ut root of s another d and iu- >etiolo, at little leaf- is given, t of some 0 well to low made 1 any leaf 32. Coming to the flower, ol servo first that the parts i)f the calyx are not entirely separate, as in tlie flowers you have already examined. For about half their length tliey are united t;ogother so as to form a cup. The upper half of each sepal, however, is perfectly dis- tinct, and forms a looih of the calyx ; and the fact that there are five of these teeth .shows us unmistakably that the calyx is made up of five sepals. We therefore speak of it as a fifimoscpaluus calyx, to indicate that the parts of it are coherent. As the calyx does not fall away when the other parts of the flower disappear, it is said to be persistent. Fig. .81, a, shows a persistent calyx. 38. At the base of the calyx there are three minute leaf-like teeth, looking almost like an outer calyx. A circle of bracts of this kind is called an inrolunr. Tho three bracts under the flower of the Hepatica also con- stitute an involucre. As the bracts in the Mallow grow on the calyx, some botanists speak of them as an epi- calyx. The corolla consists of five petals, separate from each other, but united with the stamens at their base. 3i. The stamens are numerous, and as their fila- ments are united to form a tube they are said to bo moH(i(leljt/ious. This tube sjirititjs j'rum the receptacle, and the stamens are therefore /iijpoijt/iwus. Fig. 82 will help you to an understanding of the relation between the petals and stamens. Having removed the petals, split the tube of the stamens with the point of your needle. A little care will then ena,ble you to remove the stamens without in- juring the pistil. The latter organ will then be found to consist of a ring of coherent carpels, a rather stout 26 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL IJOTANY. style, and numerors long stigmas. (Fig. 33.) If you take the trouble to count the carpels and the stigmas, you will find the numbers to correspond. As the seeds ripen the carpels separate from each other. (Fig. 84.) MALLOW. OnoAN. No. 5 5 ct 00 Cohesion. Adhesion. Inferior. Remarks. Calyx. Sepals. OamoaepRa- lous. Three bracts growing on the Calyx. Corolla Petals. Polypetalous. Hypogynous. Stamens. FiUtments. Antlwra. MonadelphOTis United in a ring. One-colled. Hypogynous. ristil. Curpela. Ovary. Syncarpous. Superior. Carpels as many 8,8 the stigmas. CHAPTER V. EXAMINATION OF COMMON PLANTS WITH PERIGYNOUS STAMENS GARDEN PEA. GREAT WILLOW-HERB, SWEET-BRIER, CRAB -APPLE. 35. Garden Pea. In the flower of this plant, the calyx is constructed on the same plan as in the Mallow. There are five sepals, coherent below, and spreading out into distinct teeth above ''Fig. 35). The calyx is there- fore gamosepalous. Examine next the form of the corolla (Fig. 36). One difference between this corolla and those of the previous plants will strike you at once. In the flowers ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 27 of the latter you will re- member that each petal was precisely like its fellows in size and shape, and we there- fore spoke of the corolla as rcijuhtr. In the ^*ea, on tlie other hand, one of the petals is large, broad, and open, whilst two smaller ones, in FiR. 36 Fig. 38. Fig. 37. the front of the flower, are united into a kind of hood. We shall speak of. this corolla, then, and all others in which the petals are unlike each other in size or shape, as inctjular. As the Pea blossom bears some resemblance to a butterfly, it is said to be papiliondceonH. 3G. Remove now the calyx-teeth and the petals, being very careful not to injure the stamens and the pistil, enveloped by those two which form the hood. Count the stamens, and notice their form (Fig. 37). You will find ten, one by itself, and the other nine with the lower halves of their filaments joined together, or coherent. When stamens occur in this way, in two distinct groups, they are said to be diaddphous ; if in three groups, they would be triadelphouo ; if in several groups, pohjadelphous. In the Mallow, you will remem- ber, they are united into one group, and therefore we described them as monadclphou». You will perhaps be a little puzzled in trying to determine to what part ot the flower the stamens are attached. If you look closely, however, you will see that the attachment, or insertion,, is not quite the same as in the Buttercup and the other flowers examined. if 28 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL liOTANY. !il| i ill 'is! r 1 In the present instance, they are inserted upon the low*er part of the calyx, and so they are described as ueriiiynous, a term meaning " around the pistil." ^^6^. But the pistil (Figs. 38, 39) is not attached to the calyx. It is free, or su/jerior. If you cut the ovary across, you will observe there is but one cell, and if you examine the stigma, you will find that it shows no sign of division. You may therefore be certain that the pistil is a single carpel. You are now prepared to fill up the schedule descrip- tive of this flower. GARDEN PEA. Groan. No. Cohesion. Adhesion. Remarks. Calyx. Gamosepulouu. Inferior. Sepals. 5 Corolla. Petals. 5 Polypetalous. liTegular. Inferior. Stamens. 10 Diadelphous. PerigynouB. Filaments. Anthers. Pistil. • Apocarpous. Carpels. 1 Ovary. Superior. 38. The beginner will be very likely to think, from its appearance, that the largest of the petals is made up of two coherent ones, but the following considera- tions show clearly that this is' not the case. In the Buttercup, and other flowers in which the number of "epals and petals is the same, the petals do not stand ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL HOTANY. 29 pon the ribed as iched to le ovary id if you no sign bat tbe descrip- VtARES. ik, from is made nsidera- In the mber of ot stand before the sepals, but before the spaces between them. In the Pea- blossom this rule holds good if the large petal is considered as one, but not otherwise. Again, the veiniiig of tliis petal is similar to that of a common leaf, there bciug a central rib from which the veins spring on each side ; and lastly, there are some flowers of the Pea kind — Cassia, for example — in which this particular petal is of nearly the same size and shape as the other four. 89. Great Willow-herb. This plant is extremely common in low grounds and newly cleared land, and you may easily recognize it by its tall stem and bright purple flowers. Observe the position of the flowers. In the three plants first examined we found the flowers at the end of the stem. In the Willow-herb, as in the Mallow, they spring from the sides of the stem, and immedi- ately below the point from which each flower springs you will find a small leaf or bract (Fig. 40.) Flowers which arise from the axils of bracts are said to be axiUun/, whilst those which are at the ends of stems are called ter- niinul, and you may remember that flowers can only be produced in the axils of leaves and at the ends of stems and branches. 40. Coming to the flower itself, direct your attention, first of all, to the position of the ovary. You will find it apparently under the flower, in the form of a tube tinged with purple. It is not in reality under the flower, because its purplish covering is the calyx, or Fig. 40. 80 ELEMENTS OF STRUOTirRAI. ROTANV. 11^ more accurately the califxtnhfi, which adheres to the whole surface of the ovary, and expands above into four lonfT teeth. The ovary therefore is inferior, and the calyx of course supenor, in this flower. As the sepals unite below to form the tube the calyx is gam- osepalous. The corolla consists of four petals, free from each other, and is consequently polypetalous. It- is also regular, the petals being alike in size and shape. Each petal is narrowed at the base into what is called the olaw of the petal, the broad part, as in the ordinary foliage-leaf, being the blade. The stamens are eight in number (octandrous), four short and four long, and are attached to the calyx (perigynous). 41. The pistil has its three parts, ovary, style, and stigma, very distinctly marked. The stigma consists of four long lobes, which curl outwards after the flower opens. The stylo is long and slender. The examina- tion of the ovary requires much care. You will get the best idea of its structure ^ by taking one which has V just burst open, and begun to discharge its seeds (Fig. 41). The outside will then be seen to consist of four pieces (valves), whilst the centa-e is occupied by a slender four- winged col- umn, (Fig. 42), in the grooves of which the seeds are compactly arranged. The pistil thus consists Vir. d2. ^ig. 41. BLEMENTS OK STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 81 of four carpels iiiuteil together, aiul is therefore $ync(tr2>oHs. Every seed is furuished with a tuft of silky hairs, which grt'atly facilitates its transportation by the wiud. -12. The Willow-herb furnishes an excellent example ot what is called si/nnnctr!/. We have seen that the calyx and corolla are each made up of four parts ; the stamens are in two sets of four each ; tlie stigma is four-lobed, and the ovary has four seed-cells. A flower is si/mnu'tricdl when each set of floral leaves contains either the same number of parts or a mnltlpU' of the same number. Observe that the leaves of our plant are net- veined. The schedule will be filled up as follows : GREAT WILLOW-HERB. j Organ No. 4 Cohesion. Adhesion. Remark". Calyx. Sepals. Gamosepa- lous. Superior. Corolla. Petals. 4 8 Polypetaloua. Perigynous. Stamens. Filainenta, Anthers. 1 Octandrous. Perigynous. Four short and four long. Pistil. Carpels. ' Ovary. ' Syncarpous. Inferior. 1 Seeds provided with tufts of hair 43. Sweet Brier. As in the flower just ^amined, the 32 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. sepals of Sweet- Brier are not en- tirely distinct; their lower halves cohere to form a tube, and tlie ca- lyx is therefore gamoseijalous. The corolla con- sists of five sepa- rate petals of the same size and sha^yC, and is therefore both regular and poly- vig. 43. petalous. The e'n a.. > -iiO very numerous, and sepai ate from each other. As in the Pea and the WilLw-herb, so in this flower they will be found to be attached lo ilie calyx. They are, therefore, perit/i/nons. 44. To understand the construction of the pistil, y* u must make a vertical section through the rouni'ish green mass which you will find on the under side of the flower. You will then have presented to you some such appearance as that in Fig. 44. The green mass, you will observe, is hollow. Its outer covering is simply the con- tinuation of the calyx-tube. The Fig- 44. linintj of this calyx -tube h the receptacle of the flouer ; ,^. . plant in Canada ; but if any difti- ^'^v^^f^-^, culty be experienced in procuring T'-^'i specimens the flower of the com- Fig. 51. Fig. 50. mon Carrot or Parsnip may be substituted for it, all these plants r'A A being closely related, and differ- \^ ing but slightly in the structure of their flowers. Notice first the peculiar ap- pearance of the flower cluster. (Fig. 49.) There are several pedicels, nearly of the same length, radiating from the end of the peduncle, and from the end of each pedicel radiate in like manner a number of smaller ones, each with a flower at its extremity. Such a cluster is known as an nmhcl. If, as in the present case, there are groups of secondary pedicels, the umbel is compound. As the flowers are very small we shall be obliged to use the lens all through the examination. Even with its aid you will have a little difficulty in making out the calyx, the tube of which, in this flower, adheres to the surface of the ovary, as in Willow-herb, and is reduced above to a mere rim or border, of five minute teeth. The petals are five in number, and free from each other. Observe that each of them is incurved at its extremity. (Fig. 60.) They are inserted on n disk nhich cwims the 36 ELEMENTS OP STRUCTtTRAL BOTANY. ovary, as are also the five Btameiis, which are hence said to be ej)i(jynous. In the ceutro of the flower are two short styles projecting above the disk, and a vertical section through tlie ovary (l^'ig. 51) shows it to bo two- celled, with a single seed suspended from the top of each cell. WATKK-PARSNIP. OROAN. NO. COHESION. AUnKSION. UEMAllKS. Calyx, Sepals. 5 GamosopalouB. Superior. Calyx-teoth nl- niost ol)8olct«». Corolla. Petals 5 Polypetaloua. Superior. Petals incurved. Stamen B. 5 PentaDdrous. Ei)igyuou8. ristil. Carpels. 2 Synuarpous. Inferior. / CHAPTER VII. EXAMINATION OF COMMON PI.ANTS WITH EPIPETALOUS STAMENS DANDELION CATNIP- 47. Dandelion. The examination of this flower will be somewhat more difficult than that of any we have yet undertaken. Provide yourselves with specimens in flower and in seed. The root of the plant, like that of the Mallow, is q» tap-root, KLEMENT.^ (>K STRITCTUKAI- HOTANY. 87 Fig. r>2. Tlic Htem is almost suppressed, ami, as iu the case of tlio llepatica, the leaves arc all radical. They are also net- veined. Tlio flowers are raised on scapes, which are hollow. At first sight the flower appears to liavc a calyx of mauy sepals, and a corolla of many petals. Both of these appearances, however, are contrary to facts. With a sharp knife cut the flower through the middle from top to bottom. (Fig. 52.) It will then appear that the flower or rather jlowt-r-liead, is made up of a large number of distinct pieces. With the point of your needle detatch one of these pieces. At the lower end of it you have a small body resembling an un- ripe seed. (Fig. 53.) It is, in fact, an ovary. Just above this there is a short bit of stalk, sur- mounted by a circle of silky hairs, and above this a yellow tube with one side greatly prolonged. Thisj'ellow tube is a corolla, and a close examina- tion of the extremity of its long side will show pj^ 53 the existence of five minute points, or teeth, from which we infer that the tube is made up of five coiier- eut petals. As the corolla is on the ovary it is said to be Ejiiifi/noiiH. Out of the coi*olla protrudes the long style, divi- ded at its summit into two stigmas. To discern the stamens will require the greatest nicety of observation. Fig. 5i will help you iu your task. The stamens are five in number. They are inserted on the tube of the corolla (epipetalous) and their anthers cohere (Fig. 55) and form a ring about the style. When the anthers are united Fig. 54. in this way, the stamens are said to hejiju^etteiiLifUii' 88 ELEMENTS OK STIlUCTUHAL HOTANY. I' 48. ltH])i)earH, then, that tlie Danilelion, insteiul of being a single llower, is in reaUty a compound of a great many flowers upon a common recep- tacle, and what seemed at first to be a calyx is, in Pig. C5. reality, an involucre, made up of many bracts. But luive the single flowers, or florets, as they are properly called, no calyx ? The theory is that they have one, but that it is adherent to the surface le ovary, and that the tuft of silky hairs which we noticed is a prolongation of it. Now turn to your specimen having the seeds ready to blow away. The seeds are all single ; the little bit of stalk at the top has grown into a long slender thread, and the tuft of hairs has spread out like the rays of an umbrella (Fig. 50). But though the seeds are inva- riably single, it is inferred from the two- lobed stigma that there are two atrpch. 40. Flowers constructed on the plan of the Dandelion are called comiMmte flowers. A very large number of our common plants have flowers of this kind. The May-weed, which abounds in waste places everywhere, the Thistle, and the Ox-Eye Daisy are examples. DANDELION. Fig. 56. Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion. Remarks. Calyx. Sepals. 5 Qamo.sepalous. Superior. The uuuibpr of B6\mls in i)if erred from analogy to be five. Corolla. Petals. 5 GamopetalouF. Epigyuoua. 1 Stamens. ' Syngenesious. Epipetalous. ( Pistil. Carpels. 2 SyncarpouB. Inferior. Numberof car- )iel8 inferred from number of Btigmas. ELEMENTS OF* STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 89 60. Catnip. Noto carefully tho ni>|)(jarniK!G of the stem. It is itijumc. The flowers are iu axillary cluHters. The calyx iu a tube \^'\g. 57) terminatiug in five sharp teeth, aud you may observe that the tube irf a little louger on the up- per side (that is, the side towaiils the stem) than on the lower. The corolla is some- what peculiar. It has soinowliat the ap- pearance of a wide open mouth, aud is known as a liOnate or two-lipped corolla. The upper lip is erect, and notched at the apex. The lower lip spreads outward, and consists of a large central lobe and two small lateral ones. Altogether, therefore, there areyi/v lobes consti.- tuting the gamopetalous corolla. Pull out the corolla, and with the point of your needle split its tube iu front. On laying it open, the stamens will be found to be in- serted upon it (epipetalous). Thuy are four in number, two oT~ them shorter than the other two. Hence they are described as iWhjuamom. The anthers are peculi r in not having their lobes parallel (Fig. 58), these being wide apart at the base, in consequence of the expansion of the connective, the name given to that part of Fig. 59. ^j^g anther which unites its two lobes or cells. The pistil consists of a two-lobed stigma, a ^ long style, and an ovary which seems at first as if made up of four distinct carpels (Fig. 59). But the single style and the two-lobed stigma will warn you against this supposition. The ovary really consists of two carpels, each of two deep lobes, and, as the seeds ripen, these lobes form four little nutlets (Fig. 60), each contain- pjj gg ing a single seed. 40 ELEMENTS OP STRUCTURAL BOTANY. Pi'? VM' n- li'l! i I: . 51. The group of plants to which Catnip belongs is easily distinguished by the square stem, irregular corolla, and four stamens. Fig. 60. CATNIP. OBOAN. NO. COHESION. ADHESION . BEMABKS. Calyx. Sepals. 5 5 4 2 Gamosepalous. Inferior. Corolla. Petals. (jramopctalous Hypogynous. • Two-lipped. Up- per lip of two, and lower of three lobes Lobes of anthers not parallel. BtameuB. Anthers. Didynamous. Epipetalous Pistil. Carpels. Syncarpous. Superior. . CHAPTER VIII. II EXAMINATION OF PLANTS WITH MONCECIOUS AND DIGCCIQUS FLOWERS CUCUMBER, WILLOW. 52. Cucumber. You can hardly have failed to notice that only a small proportion of the blossoms on a Cucumber vine produce cucumbers. A great many wither away and are apparently of no use. An atten- tive inspection will show that some of the blossoms ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL UOTANY. 41 have oblong fleshy protuber- auces beneath them, whilst othera are destitute of these attachments. Select a flower of each kind, and examine fii'st the one with the protuberance (Fig. 01), which latter, from its appearance, you will prob- ably have rightly guessed to be the ovary. The situation of the ovary here, indeed, is the same as in the Willow-herb. The calyx-tube adheres to its surface, and is prolonged to some little distance above it, expanding finally into five teeth. The corolla is gamopetalous, and is adherent to the calyx. Remove now the calyx and the adherent corolla, and there is left in the centre of the flower a short column, terminating in three stigmas, each two- lobed. There are no stamens. 53. Now examine the other l)lossom (Fig. 62). Calyx and corolla have almost exactly the same appearance as before. Remove them, and you have left three stamens grow- ing on the calyx-tube, and slightly united by their anthers Fig. 62. (syngenesious). There is im pistil. You see now why some blossoms produce cucumbers, and others do not. Most of the blossoms have no pistil, and are termr^d sttniiimitr or sterile flowers, whilst the others are jnsiillKte or fertile. Flowers in which !!!iH 42 ELEMENTS OP STRUCTURAL UOTAKY. I either stamens or pistils are wanting are also called im- ^perj'ect. When staminate and pistillate flowers grow on ; , the same plant, as they do in the case of the Cucumber, ' they are said to be montfcious, 54. In plants of this kind the pollen of one kind of blossom is conveyed to the stigmas of the other land, chiefly by insects, which visit the flowers indiscrimin- ately, in search of honey. The pollen dust cling » to their hairy legs and bodies, and is presently rubbed off upon the stigma of some fertile flower. 55. In order to describe monoecious flowers, our schedule will require a slight modification. As given below, the symbol | stands for '* staminate flower," and the symbol [ for " pistillate flower." CUCUMBER. ORGAN. NO. COHESI-ON. Gamosepalous ADHESION. nEMARKS. Calyx. Sepals. 5 Superior. Corolla. Petals. 5 Gamopetalous Perigynous. f Stamens. 3 Syngenesious. Perigynous Two anthers arc 2— celled, and one 1— celled. t Pistil. Carpels. o ! r t StaiueuB. o : Pistil. Carpels. 3 Syncarpous. Inferior. ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 48 .".fj 50. Willow. The Howera of most kinds of Willow appear iu spring or early summer, bofore the leaves. They grow from the axils in long close clusters called ratliiiis or amcnts. Collect a few of these from the same tire or shrub. Yon will ftnd them to be exactly alike. If the lirst one yon examine is covered with yellow stamens (Fig. G3), all the rest will likewise consist of sta- mens, and you will search in vain for any appearance of a pistil. If, on the other hand, one of your catkins is evidently destitute of stamens, and consists of oblong pis- tils (Fig. 04), then all the others will in like manner bo found to be without stamens. Unlike our Cu- cumber plant, the stami uate and pistillate flowers of the Willow are borne ' rig. 64 on different plants. These flowers are therefore said to 1)6 diiccimis. As a general thing, staminatc and pistil- late catldns will be found upon trees not far apart. Procure one of each kind, and examine first the stami- nate one. You will probably find the stamens in pairs. Follow any pair of filaments down to their insertion, and observe that they spring from the axil of a minute bract (Fig. 05). These bracts are the scales of the catkin. There is ^i no appearance of either calyx or corolla, and ! the flowers are therefore said to bo aehhimy- ' deom, that is, without a covering. Now look Fig. 65 at the fertile catkin. Each pistil will, like 44 ELEMENTii OF STRUCTtJRAL DOTANY. I i li ! m m the stamens, be found to spring from the axil of a scale (Fig. 06). The stigma is two-lobed, and on carefully opening the ovary you observe that though there is but one cell, yet there are two rows of seeds. We therefore infer that the pistil consists of two carpels. The pistillate flowers, like the staminate, are achlamydeous. In dia3cious plants, the process of fertilization p. ^ is assisted by insects, and also very largely by the wind. HEART-LEAVED WILLOW. I Hi OKGAN NO. COnEBION. ADHESION. RKMABKS. Caljx 0 Corolla. 0 2 f Stamens. ^^istil. Diandrous. 0 0 . ■ I Stamens. ; Pistil. Carpels. 0 2 Syncarpous. 0 p i > ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 45 CHAPTER IX. CHARACTERISTICS POSSESSED IN COMMON BY ALL THE PLANTS PREVIOUSLY L.tAMlNED. STRUCTURE OF THE SEED IN 1)IC0TYL"EI)0NS. 57. Before proceeding further in our examination of plants, we shall direct your attention to some characters of those already examined, which they all possess in common. The leaves of every one of them are net- veined. Some leaves, at least, of each of them have dis- tinct petioles and blades. The i)arts of the flowers we found, as a general thing, to be in flees. In one or two instances they were mjuurs, that is, four sej)als, four petals, and so on. 58. Now, in addition to these resemblances there are others which do not so immediately strike the eye, but which, nevertheless, are just as constant. One of these is to be found in the structure of the embryo. Take a cucumber or pumpkin seed, and having soaked it for some time in water, remove the outer coat. The body of the seed will then readily split in two, except where the parts are joined at one end. (Figs. 07, G8, 09). The thick Fig. 67. Fig. fis. Fig. 09. l<>bes are called cotyhdons, or seed- leaees, and as there are two, the embryo is dieotijledoKous. The pointed end, where the cotyledons are attached, and from which the root is developed, is called the radicle. Between the cotyledons, at the summit of the radicle, you will find a minute upward projection. Tliis is a bud, which is known as the pluwule. It developes into the stem. 59. If you treat a pea or a bean (Figs. 70, 71), in the same manner as the cucumber seed, you will find it to b© J J .> a 4 46 ELEMENTS OF STKUCTUllAL BOTANY. o C I t 0 c Fig. 70. Fig. 71. constructed on the same plan. The em- bryo of the bean is dicotyledonous also. But you will observe that in these cases the embryo occupies the whole of the inte- rior of the seed. In describing the seed of the Buttercup, it was pointed out that the embryo occupies but a very small space in the seed, the bulk of the lat- ter consisting of alhuvwn. Seeds like those of the But- tercup are therefore called albimwwHs seeds, while thoseof the Bean and Pea are c.mlbamlnom. But, notwithstand- ing this dijfference in the structure of the seed, ihQcmdryo of the Buttercup, when examined under a strong magnifier, is found to be dicotyledonous like the others. In shoit, the dicotyledonous embryo is a character common to all the plants we have examined — common, as a rule, to all plants possessing the other characters enumerated above. From the general constancy of all these char- acters, plants possessing them are grouped together in a vast Class, called Dicotyledonous plants, or, shortly, Dicotyledons. 60. Besides the characters just mentioned, there is still another one of great importance, which Dicotyle- dons possesses in common. It is the manner of growth of the stem. In the Willow, and all our trees and shrubs without exception, there is an outer layer of bark on the stem, and the stem increases in thickness, year by year, by forming a new layer just inside the bark and outside the old wood. These stems are therefore called exopenous^ that is, outside (/rowers. Now» in all dicotyledonous plants, whether herbs, shrubs or trees, the stem thickens in this manner, so that Dicotyledons are also Exogens. ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 47 CHAPTER X. EXAMINATION OF COMMON PLANTS CONTINUED. DOG S-TOOTH VIOLET, TRILLIUM, INDIAN TURNIP, CALLA, ORCHIS, TIMOTHY. 01. Dog's-tooth Violet. This plant (Fig. 72)wbich flowers in Spring, may be pretty easily recognised by Fig. 72. its peculiar blotched leaves. It may be found in rich 48 ELEMENTS OF STRtJCTURAL BOTANY moist pasture lands and low copses. The name "Violet" is somewhat unfortunate, because the plant is not in any way related to the true Violets. To- obtain a com- plete specimen requires some trouble, owing to the fact that the root is commonly six inches or so below the surface of the ground*; you must therefore insert a spade or strong trowel sufficiently deep to avoid cutting or breaking the tender stem. Having cleared away the adhering earth, you will find that the roots proceed from what appears to be the swollen end ot the stem. This swollen mass is coated on the outside with thin scales. A section across the middle shows it to be more or ^)S8 solid, with the stem growing up through it from its base. It is, in fact, not easy to say how much of this stem-like growth is, in reality, stem, because it merges gradually into the scape, which bears the flower, and the petioles of the leaves, which sheathe the scape. The swollen mass is called a bulb. G2. The leaves are two in number, gradually narrow- ing at the base into sheaths. If you hold one of them up to the light, you will observe tliat the veins do not, as in the leaves of the Dicotyledonous plants, form a network, but run only in one direction, namely, from end to end of the leaves. Such leaves are consequently called sirtdffht-ve'med. 63. In the flower there is no appearance of a green calyx. There are six yellow leaves, nearly alike, ar- V ranged in two sets, an outer and an inner, of three ' each. In such cases, we shall speak of the colored leaves collectively as the perianth. If the leaves are free from eacli other, we shall speak of the perianth as poh/- j^hijUom, but if they cohere we shall describe it as (janio- ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 40 phi/Ilous. Stripping off the leaves of the perianth wo find six stamens, with long upright anthers wliich open along their outer edges. If the anthers he pulled off, the filaments will be found to terminate in long sharp points. The pistil (Fig. 78) has its three parts, ^'^- '^• /7=^^ ovary, sjyle, and stigma, well marked. The stigma is evidently formed by the union of three into one. The ovary, when cut across. Fig. 74. is seen to be three-celled (Fig. 7^), and is therefore syncarpous. DOG'S-TOOTH VIOLET. ORGAN. Perianth. Leaves. NO. 6 6 COHESION. ADHKHION. BEMAEKS. Polyphyllous. HexandrouB. Inferior. Stamens. Hypogynoua. Filaments ter- minating in sharj) points. PiHtil. Carpels. 3 Syncarpous. Superior. 64. Trillium. This plant (Fig. IT)) may be found in flower about the same time as the one just described. The perianth of Trillium consists of six pieces in two sets, but in this case the three outer leaves are green, like a common calyx. The stamens are six in num- ber. There are three styles, curving outwards, the whole of the inner side of each being stigmatic. 60 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. The ovary (Fig. 76) is Rix- angled, and on being cut across is seen to be three- ceiled. 65. Comparing this flower with that of Dog's-tooth Vio- let, we find the two to exhi- bit a striking resemblance in structure. But in one respect the plants are strikingly un- lUike : the leaves of the TriUium \\are net-veined (Fig. 77), as in the Exogena. From this cir- cumstance we learn that we cannot altogether rely on the \ veining of the leaves as a con- stant characteristic of plants whose parts are not in fives. Fig TO. Fig. 75. TRILLIUM. OBOAN. NO. 3 3 G 3 COHESION. ADHESION. REMARKS. Perianth. Sepcda. Petals. Polyphyllous. Inferior Sepals persist- ent. Stamens. Hexandrous. HypogynouB. PiBtn. Carpels. Syncarpous. Superior. The inner face of each style stigmatic. Leaves net-veined. ELEMENTS OF STRUCTl'KAL buTANY. 51 G6. Indian Turnip. This plant may bu easily met with in our woods in early summer. If you are not familiar with its appearance, the annexed cut (Fig. 78) Fig, 78. will help you to recognise it. Procure several speci- mens ; these will probably at first seem to you to be alike in every respect, but out of a number, some are pretty sure to differ from the rest. Notice the bulb from which the stem springs. It differs from that of the Dog's-tooth Violet, and Lilies generally, in being a sohd mass. It is called a corm. Between the pair of 52 KLEMLNTS 01' S-TUIIC TITAL BOTANY. I ! II Fig. 7!». leaves you ooscrve a curious strip- ed slicath, having an arching, hood-Hkc top, and enclosing an up- riglit stalk, the top of which almost touches the hood (Fig. 79). Can this be a flower ? It is certainly the only thing about the plant which at all resembles a flower, and yet liow different it is from any we have hitherto examined ! Care- fully cut away the sheaths from all your "specimens. Most, and per- haps all, of them will then present an appearance like that in Fig. 80. If none of them be like Fig. 81, it will bo well to gather a few more plants. We shall sup- pose, however, that you have been fortunate in obtain- ing both kinds, and will proceed with our examination. Take first a specimen cor- responding with Fig. 80. Around the base of the column are compfictly arrang- ed many spherical green bodies, each tipped with a little point. Separate one of these from the rest, and cut it across. It will be found to contain several ovules, and is, in fact, an ovary, the point at the top being a stigma. In the autumn, a great change will have taken place in the appearance of plants like the one we ar^ now examining. The arched hood will L ed, as also the long naked top of the column, wl ilst the part below, upon which we are now engaged, will have disa oar ELE\fENTS OF STRUCTURAIi HOT.VNY. 53 }m vastly incroRHed in size, and become a c()mi)act ball of red berries. There can be no doubt, then, that we have here a structure analagous to that found in the Cucum- ber and the Willow, the fertile, or pistillate, flowers being clustered together separately. 13ut in the Cucum- ber all the flowers were observed to be furnished with calyx and corolla, and in the Willow catkins, though floral envelopes were absent, each pair of stamens and each pistil was subtended by a bract. In the presetit plant there are no floral envelopes, nor does each pistil arise from a separate bract. G7. But, you will now ask, what is this sheathing hood which we find wrap])ed about our column of pistils ? There is no doubt that we must look upon it as a hrart, because from its base the flower-cluster springs. So that, whilst the flowers of Indian-Turnip are, like those of Willow, imperfect and dio'cious, the clusters differ in having but a single bract instead of a bract under each flower. 68. We must now examine one of the other speci- mens ; and we shall have no difficulty in determining the nature of the bodies which, in this case, cover the base of the column. They are evidently stamens, and your magnifying- glass will show you that they consist mostly of anthers, the filaments being extremely short, and that some of the anthers are two-celled, and some four-celled, all discharging their pollen through little holes at the top of the cells. 69. The column upon which, in plants like Indian- Turnip, the flowers are crowded, is known as a spadix, and the surrounding bract as a sputhe. You will observe that the leaves of this plant are net- reined, as we found them in the Trillium. 54 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. INDIAN-TURNIP. ORGAN. t Stamens. NO. C0HE810M. MonaudrouH. ADHESION. 1 0' J Pistil. Carpels. 1 Apocarpous. 0 Flowers crowded o i a spadix, and surrounded by a spatho. Loaves net-veined. 70. Marsh Calla. This plant must be looked for in low marshy grounds, where it will be found in flower generally in the month of June. With the knowledge which you have of the structure of Indian-Turnip, you will hardly doubt that the Calla is closely related to it. You will easily recognize the spadix and the spathe (Fig. 82), though in the present instance the SDadix Fig. HI. Flj. 83. ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 55 bears flowers to the ^op, ana Me spatlie is open instead of enclosing the column. Observe, however, that the veining of the leaf (Fig. 83) is different, that of Calla being straight, like the Dog'^-tooth Violet. There is also a difference in the flowers. Those of Indian-Tur- "^ nip were found to be dicpcioiis, but the spadix, in the present case, bears both stamens and pistils, and the lower flowers, if not all, are pcrjWt ; some- times the upper ones consist of stamens only. Fig. 84 shows one of the perfect j| flowers much enlarged. The stamens, it will be observed, have two-celled anthers, opening lengthwise. MARSH CALLA. OBGAN. NO. COHK8ION- ADHESION. Perianth. Wantiufj. StamenB 6 Hexandrous. ApocariJous. Hypogynous. Pistil. Carjiela. 1 Superior. 71. Showy Orchis. The flower of this plant (Figs. Be''>, 80) is provided with floral envelopes, all col- oured like a corolla. As in Dog's-tooth Violet, we shall call them collectively the perianth, although they are not all alike. One of them projects forward in front of the flower, forming the Up, and bears under- neath it a long hollow apur, which, like the spurs of Columbine, is honey-bearing. The remaining five con- verge together forming a kind of arch over the centre of the flower. Each flower springs from the axil of a I i':' Mi 56 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL HOTANY. Fig. 85. ■ ' leaf-like bract, and is apparently raised on a pedicel. What seems to be a pedicel, however, will, if cut across, prove to be the ovary, which in this case is inferior. Its situation is similar to the situ- ation of the ovary in Willow-herb, and, as in that flower, so in this the calyx-tube ad- heres to the whole surface of the ovarv, and the three outer divisions of the perianth arc simply upward extensions of this tube. No- tice the peculiar tidst in the ovary. The effect of this twist is to turn the lip away I Fig. 86. ELEMENTS OK STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 67 fiom the scape, and so give it the ai)peaiance of being the lower j^etal iustead of the }ipi»'r one, as it really is. 72. The sti'ucture of thr stamens and pistils remains to be examined, and a glance at the flower shows you that we have here something totally different from the common arrangement of these organs. In the axis of the flower, immediately behind the opening into the spur, tliere is an upward projection known as the cohinm. The face of this column is the stigma ; on each side of the stigma, and adhering to it, is an anther-cell. These cells, though separated by the column, constitute but a shuile stamen. The stamen, then, in this case is united icith the pistil, a condition which is described as (Jiinan- (Irons. 73. If you have a flower in which the anther-colls are bursting open, you will see that the pollen does not issue from them in its usual dust-like form, but if you use the point of your needle carefully you may remove the contents of each cell /// a w-iss. These pollen masses are of the form shown in Fig. 87. The grains are kept together by a fine tissue or web, and the slender stalk, upon which each pollen mass is raised, is attached by its lower end to a sticky disk on the front of the stigma just ^. „ above the mouth of the spur. Insects, in their Fig. 8i. efibrts to reach the honey, bring their heads in contact with these disks, and wlien they fly away carry the pollen-masses with them, and deposit them on the stigma of the next flower visited. In fact, without the aid of insects it is diflicult to see how flowers of this sort could be fertilized at all. 58 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. SHOWY ORCHIS. ORGAN. NO. COHESION. ADHESION. UEMARKS. Perianth. Leaves, 6 Gamoph^ 11 )u; , Superior. Stamens. 1 1 ; Polkn-gruius Monandrous. Gynandroiis. i collected in 1 1 inas?e8. Pistil. Carpels. 3 Syucarpous. Inferior. Ovary twisted. Fig. 88. 74. Timothy. The top of a stalk of this well-known grass is cylindrical in shape, and upon examination will be found to consist of a vast number of similar pieces compactly arranged on very short pedicels about the stalk as an axis. Carefully separate one of these pieces from the rest, and if the grass has not yet come into flower the piece will present the appearance shown in Fig. 88. In this Fig. the three points in the middle are the protruding ends of stamens. The piece which you have separated is, in fact, a flower enclosed in a pair of bracts, and all the other pieces which go to make up the top are flowers also, and, except perhaps a few at the very summit of the spike, precisely similar to this one in their structure. 75. Fig. 89 is designed to help you in dissecting a flower which has attained a greater degree of developement than the one shown in Fig. 88. Hera the two bracts which enclose the flower have been drawn asunder. To these bracts the name (jlumes is applied. They are present ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 69 plants of the Grass Family, aud are often loiind enclos- ing several flowers instead of one as in Timothy. Inside the glumes will be found a second pair of minute chaff-like bracts, which are laiown as })(ilets or pales. These enclose the flower proper. 76. The stamens are three in number, with the antliers fixed by the middle t& the long slender filament. The anthers are therefore uerstitile. The styles are two in number, bearing long feathery stigmas. The ovary CoZitains a single ovule, and when ripe forms a seed- hke r/rniiiy technically known as a caryopsis. TIMOTHY. ORGAN. NO. COHESION. ADHESION. Gluiuos. 2 ; Palots. • 2 Stamens. 3 Triandrous. Hypogynous. Pistil. Carpel!!. 1 Apocarpous. Superior. • CHAPTER XL COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PLANTS JUST EXAMINED. STRUCTURE OF THE SEED IN MONOCOTYLEDONS. 77. It is now to be pointed out that the six plants last examined, viz., Dog's-tooth Violet, Trillium, Indian Turnip, Calla, Orchis, and Timothy, though differing in various particulars, yet have some charac- CO ELEMENTS OF STRUCTIJRAf- BOTANY. .ii: If 11 / ters common to all of them, just as the group Gnding with Willow was found to be marked by characters possessed by all its members. The flowers of Dicoty- ledons were found to have their parts, as a rule, in .fours «>r fives ; those of our second group have them in jihrrcs or .Jli<^, hfCiinse from a bi'oad top it tapers gradually and regularly to a point. Tlie liadish, being sonjewiiat thicker at the middle than at either end, is :hi(llf-s/ic(l. The Turnip, and roots of .similar sliapc, are najri. Xvfy {'(((/iKfi, a turni[)). Fig. !)4. Tlieso fleshy tap-roots belong, as a rule, to bi- ennial plants, and arc designed as storehouses of food for the plant's use during its second year's growth. Occasion- ally fibrous roots also thicken in the same manner, as in the Peony, and then they are said to hcjascicli'il or i Vi' \)ri. iiu Fig. 96. ELEMENTS OF HTUUrTlliAL ItoTANY. 65 aTni)lo, will take root at cvcrv joint, iftlu! Htcin be laid upon the ground [Vifr. Dd). Tlio luniiorH of the Strawberry tako root at tlieir extremities : and notliiug • is more familiar than tlwit cuttings from various plants will make roots for tlusmsolves if put into proper soil, and supplied with warmth and moisture. All such roots are produced from some (>th(!r part of tlie stem than the radicle, and are calked sicnmhtri/ or (idn'niitiauH roots. When such roots are d'!velo]ied from parts of tlie stem which are not in contact witii the ground, they are ((('liilL 87. There are a few curious plants whose roots never reach the ground at all, and whicli depend altogether upon the air for food. These are called ('jtijihytea There are others whose roots penetrate the stems and roots of other plants, and tlms receive their nourish- ment as it were at second-hand. These are })ut tlie tubes are the leaves of the plant. Tlie mass of our Onion, therefore, con- sists of the ///'.s'//// Ixisrs of llir h((rrs. J)ut you will observe that at the bottom there is a rather Hat solid part upon which these coats or leaves are inserted, 'ind which must consocpient- ly be *■ stem. Such a stem as this, with its fleshy loaves, is called a hul^. If the loaves form coats, as in the Onion, tlie bulb is coaled or tiuiicdtnl ; if tliey do not, as in the lilies (Fig. 102), it is sea hi. 03. Tubers and b;;lbs, tlieu, consist chiefly of massea of nourishing matter ; but there is this dilTerenco, *hat, in the latter, the nourishment is contained in the fleshy leaves themselves, ■^vhilst, in the former, it forms a mass more ov less distinct from the buds. 0 t. The thiclvcned mass at the base of the stem of our Indian Turnip (Fig. 78) is more like a tuber than a l)ulb in its construction. It is called a rorni, or solid bulb. Tlie Crocus and (lladiolus of the gardens are other examples. 'do. In the axils of the leaves of the Tiger Lily are produoed small, black, rounded bodies, which, on exami ■ nation, prove to be of bulbous structure. They are, in -!/ li.'i 57 "SI 70 ELEMENTS OF STllL'CTUKAL IJOTANY. ; !, ! i: 'i i; I: i 1 ii fact, Inil/>h'ls, iiiul now plants may he grown from them. 9(). Oar Hawtiioi'ii is rendered foimiilable by the prcsouco of stout s/mes (Fig. 108) along the stem and branches. Tliese spines invariably proceed from the axik of leaves, and are, in fact, branches, whose growth lias been arrested. They are appendages of the wood, and \ will remain attached to the stem, pij^, lo.j even after the bark is stripped off. They must not be confounded w^ith the jiricJdes (Fig. 101) of the Hose and lUier, which belong strictly to the bai k, and come off with it. 07. Foliage-Leaves. These organs arc usually more or less flat, and of a green colour. In some plants, however, they are extremely thick and succulent ; und in the case of para- sites, such as IndiRn-Pii)e and Beech-drops, ^^' ' they are usually either white or brown, or of some colour other than green. The scaly leaves of underground stems are also, of course, destitute of colour. 98. As a general thing, leaves are extended horizon- tally from the stem or branch, and turn one side towards the sky and the other towards the ground, iiut some leaves are rcrtiml, and h^ the case of the common Iris each leaf is doubled lengthwise at the base, and sits astride the next one within. Such lefjves are accordingly called cqiiitant. 99. As to their arrangement on the stem, leaves are (dtenmte wlien only one arises from each node (i'ig. 3). If two are formed at «jach node, they are sure tole 1;lkmkxts or sTHUcTrRAi- botany. 71 oil upiJUbiLe sides of the stem, aud so are described as ()}i]H)sit(\ Sometimes there a,re several leaves at the same node, in which case they are uhurled or ve'ticUlaic (Fig. 105). 100. Forms of Foliage-Leaves. Leaves present an almost endless va- riety in their forms, aud accuracy in Fifi. 10.1 describing any given leaf depends 3 good deal upon the ingtnuity of the student in selecting an 1 combiuiug terms. Tlie cliief terms in use will be given here. Compare a leaf of tlie Kouud-leaved Mallow with one of Red Clover (Figs. 1()(), 107). Each oi' them is fur- Fig. 106. Fip. 107. nished with a long petiole and a pair of stipules. Ie fcbe blades, however, there is a'difi'erenee. The blade ol the lormer consists of a situjif piece ; th.it of the latter- is in three separpi« pieces, < :ich of which is called a leaflet, !;ut all of which, taken coikctivt^i' . constitute fclu bl.ido 72 ELEMENTS 01' STKl ( TUKAL BOTANY. Il'lil of tlie leaf. The loaf of the Mallow is simple ; tliat of tho Clover is compound. Between the siuijjle aiul the compouinl form there is every possihle shade of gradation. In the Mallow leaf the hilux arc not very clearly defJuod. In the Maple i^Kig. lOH) they are well-marked. In other cases, again, the lobes are so nearly separate, fcliat '^ '' ^ ' FiR. 108. the leaves appear at lirst sight to be really compound. 101. You will remember that in our examinations of dicotyledonous plants, we found the leaves to be in- variably net- veined. But, though they have this gener- al character in common, they differ considerably in the details of their veining, or venation, as it is called. The two leaves emj^^>loyed as illustrations v" the last section will serve to illustrate our meaning here. In the Mallow, there are several ribs of about the same size, radiating from the end of the pijtio.'e something like the spread-oat lingers of a hand. The veining in this case is therefore described as diijilntc, or radutte, or palmate. The leajUu of the clover, on the other hand, is divided exactly in the middle by a single rib (the midrib), and from this the veins are given oif on each Side, so that the veining, on tlio whole, presents tho appearance of a featlier, and is therefore described as pinnate [petuui, a feather). 102. Both simple and compound leaves exhibit these two modes of venation. Of simple pinnately- veined KI.KMKNTS Oi' STKL'CTLUAL BOTANY. 73 leaves, tlie Beecli, Mullein, and Willow supply familiar inbtanccK. The Mallow, ^laple, Grape, Cunaiit, antl Gooseberry '- ,-j'-j^ have simple radiate- veined leaves. ^ Swect-lirier (Fig. 4M), Mouutain- Ash, and Rose have compound ])innate leaver, whilst those of Virginia-Creeper (Fig. HH)), ^'" ^*'^* Ilorse-Chestnut, and IJcmp are compountl digitate. As has already been pointed out, the leaves of Mouo- cotyledouous plants are almost invariably straight- veined. 108. In addition to the venation, the description of a simple leaf includes particulars concerning. (1) the general outline, (2) the edge or margin, (li) the point or apex, (4) the base 104. Outline. As to outline, it will be convenient to consider first the forms assumed by leaves without lobes, and whose margins are therefore more or less continuous. Such leaves are of three sorts, viz : thos3 in which both ends of the leaf are alike, those in which the apex is narrower than the base, and those in which the apex is broader than the base. 105. In the first of these three classes, it is evident that any variation in tlie outline will depend altogether on the relation between the length and the breadth of the leaf. When the leaf is extremely narrow in com- parison with its length, as in the Pine, it is v/^irjlar or )U'e(IU'-.sha]>ed (Fig. 110). As the width increases, we pass through the forms known as liufu-, obloutj, cvcd, and finally orbicular, in which the width and length are nearly, or quite equal (Fig. 111). !5ll!& I I ■p f It ■ ' .l.il'r 74 KLEMKN'TJ? OF STRUCTTTRAL BOTANY. Linear OIlloDg Oval Oiliicular Fiy.no Pig „j lOG. In tlie secoiul class the dili'ereiit forms aiiwe from the varying widtli of the base of the leaf, and we thus have snhiilate or atil-.shdfud (Fig. 112), buiceolate^ orate, and t/t'/^r<(/ leaves (F'ig. IIH). Fig. 112. Fig. 113. 107. In the third class, as tlie apex expands, we have .A Fi«. 117. Fig. 118. Fit;. 114. Fie. 115. Fip. 116. ELEMENTS OK STUUCTLUAL BOTANY. to the forms ^palhiiJaW (Fif^. Ill), ohhinceolnti' (that is, the reverse of laiiccol.ite) (Fig. 11^), luid ohoidt,' (¥ig. 11(1). 108. [n leaves of the secoud kind we frequently find the base indented, and then the leaf is ronlalt', or /imrt-s/nt/ifd (Fig. 117^. The reverse of this, that is, when ilio indentation is at t*he apex, is olx-or- date (Fig. 118). Tlie hastate, or spear- shaped (Fig. Hi)), sdiiittfite, or arrow- shaped (Fig. 120), and renifonn, l^v kidney-sha}»ed (Fig. 121), forms are modific itions of tlie secoud class, Fig. 120. Fig. 121. Fig. 122. and will be readily understood from the annexed figures. If the petiole is attached to any part of the under surface of the leaf, instead ^ of to the edge, the leaf is peltate (shield- / sha])ed) (Fig. 123). 109. Leaves which are lobcd are usually described by stating whether Fig. 123. they are palmately or pinnately veined, and, if the former, the number of lobes is generally i 1 f 1 7G ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. piven. If the leaves are very deeply cut, they are paid to be jittlniati/hl or phnuitijid according to the veiiiiu^^' (Fig. 124 ). If the leaf is palinately lol)od, and the lobes at the base are themselves lobed, the leaf is ju'datc (Fig. 125), be- cause it looks something like a bird'w foot. If the lobes of a pinnatifid leaf are themselves lobed, the leaf is hipinnx- tifuL If the leaf is cut up into Ihio V"^ segments, as in Diceutra, it is said to be vndtijid. 110. Apex. The principal forms of the apex are the miicronate (Fig. 122), when the leaf is tipped with a sharp pirr. \->,\. point, as though the midrib were projecting beyond the blade ; cuspidate, when the leaf ends abruptly in a very short, but distinctly tapering, point (Fig. 12G) ; anitc, or sharp; and obtuse, or blunt. Fig. 125. 111. It may happen that the apex dues not end in a point of any ':ind. If it looks as though the end had been cut off square, it is truncate. If the end is slightly notched, but not sufficiently so to warrant the description obcordate, it is emmyjinate. 112. Margin. If the margin is not indented in any way, it is said to bo entire. If it has sharp teeth, point- ing in the direction of the apex, it is serrate, and will be coarsely or finely serrate, according to the size of the F,T.T":\n'\Ts ('!' STr.i'CTT'HM, rorx'-Y. 77 the .r',> '\ Fig. 127. V ifctii. fSouictimcs tliC edges of hirgc tcctli are tlicmselvos iiuely serrated, nud ill that case the leaf is dotibbj snratr (Fig. 127). If th«> teeth l)i)iiit (mttvards, that is, if the two edges of each tooth are of the same lengtli, the leaf /' is (h'iitdtc, but if the teeth, ( f.^,1/ crenafe (Fig. 128). The term Hvav/exphiiiis itself. 113. Base. There are two or three peculiar Fig. jojj modifications of the bases of simple sessile leaves which are of considerab!' importance in distinguishing plants. Sometimes a pan- of lobes project backwards and cohere on tlie other side of the stem, so that the stem if'^/j.j' \ , appears to pass through the leaf. This is the ' case in our common licllwort, the leaves of / which are accordingly described as perfoliate )^^ (Fig. 129). Sometimes two opposite sessile leaves grow together at the base, and clasp the stem, as in the upper leaves of Honeysuckle, Fig. 120. ii2 the Triosteum, and in one of our species of Eupatorium. Such leaves are said to be connate or con- nate-pcrfoUate (Fig. 130). In one of our Everlastings the margin of the leaf is con- ^ -^ tinned on each side below the Fig. .10. Fig. 131. point of insertion, and the lodes grow fast to the sides ■HM 78 ELEMENXr: OF STKUCTUUM liOTANV. I r of the stem, giving rise to what is culled the dccarrcni foi-m (Fig. l/U). Tho terms by wliicli simple leaves are ilescribod are applicable also to the leaflets of conipouiul leaves, to the Gcpals and petals of ilowcrs, and, in short, to any flat forms. I Fig. i:}'2. 114. We have already explained that compound leaves are of two forma, pinnate and /lalinate. In the former, the leaflets are arranged on each tide o the midrib. There may be a leaflet at the end, in which case the leaf is ixUl- pinnate, or tho terminal leaflet may be wanting, and then the leaf is ahmpthj pinnate. In the Pea, the ^ n f is pinnate and terminates in a lenilril (Fig. 98). Very frequently the primary divisions of a pinnate leaf are themselves pinnate, and the whole leaf is then tnice-pinnate (Fig. 132). If the subdivision is continued through another stage, ^v the leaf is t^irice-pinnate, and so on. Sometimes, as in the leaves of the Tomato, very small leaflets are found between the larger ones, and this form is described as interrupt- cdhjijinnatc (Fig. 13o). Fig. 133, 1>"N, ELEMENTS OF STKUrXirilAI, ItOTANY. 10 In the paliniite or (lij,'itate forms, tlic leaflets spread out from the ciul of the petiole, ami, in describinpf them, it is usual to mention the nunihor of divisions. If there are three, the leaf is /rl/ofinlatf ; if tlicro are five, it is ifuinii\(ef()lii)h(lv. 115. In the examination of the Mallow, we found a couple of small leaf-like attaclnnonts on the petiole of each leaf, just at the junction witli the stem. To these the name stlpnlcx ^\as },'ivon. Leaves which have not these appendages are t'.rsfi/'iihdf. 11(1. Besides the cluuaeters of leaves mentioned above, there remain a few others to be noticed. With regard to their surface, leaves present every gradati(m from perfect smoothness, as in Wintergreen, to extreme roughness or wooUiness, as in the Mullein. If hairs are entirely absent, the leaf is i/liihroiis ; if present, the degree of hairiness is di scribed by an a])})ropriate ad- verb ; if the leaf is completi^ly covered, it is rillous or riJlose ; and if the hairs ai'e on the mai-giu only, as in our Cliutonia, it is cUi-Uc. Some leaves, like those of Cabbage, have a kind of bloom on the surface, which may be rubbeu oil" with the fingers ; this condition is described as ijln neons. 117. A few plants have anoma- lous leaves. Those of the Onion are Jili/onn. The Pitcher Plant of our Northern swamps has very curious leaves (Fig. 184), appar- ently formed by the turning in and cohesion of the outer edges of an ordinary leaf, so as to form a tube, closed except at the top, and armed IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // z tf 1.0 I.I 1^ .. .,. IIIIIM ii£ 2.0 1.8 1.25 1.4 1.6 ^ 6" - ► m m /j y ^«5^«!- # Hiotographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ,\ V ^ •sj ). If the flowers in a head were elevated ou separate pedicels of the same leugth, radiating like the ribs of an umbrella, we should have an umbel, of whicli tlie flowers of Geranium and Parsnip (Fig. 49) are examples. A raceme will be comiumml (Fig. 180) if, instead of a solitary flower, there is a raccnw in mrh cu-il, and a similar remark will apply in the case of the spike, the corymb, and the umbel. 123. The inflorescence of most Grasses is what is called a panicle. This is a compound form, and is usually a kind of raceme having its primary divisions branched in some irregular manner. If the panicle is 84 elements! Of STRUCTURAL fiOTANY. compact, as in the Grape and Lilac, it is wliat is called a thyrse, 124. Of determinate inflorescence the chief modification is the ri/nie. This is a rather llat-topped cluster, having something the appearance of a com- pound corymh, hut easily distinguished by this peculi- arity, that the central Uoysovt opens first, then those at the ends of the first sot of branches of the cluster, then those on the secondary branches, and so on until the outer buds are reached. The Elder, Dogwood, and St. John's Wort furnish good examples of the cymose Fig. 137. structure. Fig. 137 s'hows a loose open cyme. 125. It hns already been pointed out that cauline leaves tend to dimmish in size towards the upper part of the stem, where the flowers are found. Such re- duced leaves, containing flowers in their axils, are called bracts. In the case of compound flower-clusters, this term is limited to the leaves on the peduncle, or main stem, the term bractlet being then applied to those oc- curiing on the pedicels or subordinate stems. In the ELEMENTS OF liTRUCTURAL BOX ANY. 85 case of the U7nf)el and the head, it generally happens that a circle of hracts HuriouDtls the base of the cluster. They are then called, collectively, au imolurre^ and in the case of compound clusters a circle of bractlets is called an ittvolucel. Bracts are often so minute as to be reduced to mere scales. From our definition, it will be evident that the spatJie surrounding the spadix in Indian Turnip is merely a bract. 126. It has already been stated that the parts of the flower, equally with the foliage-leaves, must be regarded as modifications of the same structure, and some proofs of this similarity of structure were given. We shall now proceed to consider in detail the variations in form assumed by these organs. 127. The Calyx. As you are now well aware, this term is applied to the outer circle of floral leaves. These are usually green, but not necessarily so ; in some Ex- ogens, and in nearly all Endogens, they are of some other colour. Each division of a calyx is called a sepaly and if the sepals are entnely distinct from each other, the calyx is pulijscjjaloiis ; if they are united in any de- gree, it is (javum'iHilous. A calyx is rniular or irregular^ according as the sepals are of the same or different shape and size. 128. In a gamosepalous calyx, if the sepals are not united to the very top, the free portions are known as calya^-teeth, or, taken collectively, as the limb of the calyx. The united portion, especially if long, as in Willow-herb, is called the cabjx-tulu', and the entrance to the tube its throat. In many plants, particularly those of the Composite Family, the limb of the calyx consists merely of a circle of bristles or soft hairs, 86 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. and is then described as pappose. In other cases tlie limb is quite inconspicuous, and so is said to be ohsolvtc. A calyx which remains after the corolla has disappeared, as in Mallow (Fig. 531), is persistent. If it disappears when the flower opens, as in our Bloodroot, it is ca/-(/ corolla. (Fig. 140.) In the campanulaU' or heU-shaped form, the enlargement from base to summit is more gradual. If the petals are narrowed abruptly into long claws, the union of the claws into a Fig ISO tube and the spreading of the limb at right angles to the tube will produce the salver -shaped form, as in Plilox (Fig. 141). The rotate corolla differs from jhis in having a very short tube. The corolla of the Potato is rotate. 181. The most* important irnyidar gamopetalous corollas are the lii/alate, which has been fully described in the examination of the Dandelion, and the labiate^ of which we found an example in Catnip (Fig. 59). The corolla of Turtle-head (Fig. 142) is another example. When a labiate corolla pre- sents a wide opening between the upper and lower lips, it is said to be ringent , if the opening is closed by an Fig. 140. Fig. 141. Fig. 142. Fig. 143. upward projection of the lower lip, as in Toadflax (Fig. IdS), it is saitl to hQ personate^ diXid^ the projection ir\ 18 KLEMKNTS OK STRUCTlJitAI. UOTANY. tliis case is kiiowu tu tho palate. A good many ccroi lasmiclias tliosc of Toadflax, Dicentra, Snapdragon, Columbine, and V^iolut, have protuberances or sjmro at the baue. In Violet one petal only ia spurred; in Columbine the whole five are so. iy2. The Stamens. As calyx and corolla are called collectively the floral envelopes, so stamens and pistil are spoken of collectively as the essential cmjans of tho flower. The circle of stamens alone is sometimes called the amlrtcriutn. A complete stamen consists of a slender stalk known as the jilammt, and a small sac called the anther. The filament, iiowever, is not un- commonly absent, in which case the anther is sessile. As a general thing, the uuther consists of two oblonij cells with a sort of rib between them called the connec- tive, and that side of the anther which presents a dis- tinctly grooved appearance is the/a(r, the opposite side being the back. The filament is invariably attached to the connective, and may adhere through the entire length of the latter, in which case the anther is adnata Pig. 144. Fig. 145. Fig. 146. (Fig. 144), or the base of the connective may rest on the end of the filament, a condition described as innate (Fig. 145), or the extremity of the filament may be attached to the middle of the lack of the connective, so that the anther swings about ; it is then said to be 'versatile (Fig. 146). In all these cases, if the face of ELEMENTS OF HTRUCTUHAL BOTANY. OV IL>' of the anther is turned towards the centre of the flower, it \» naid to bo infrotsc; if turned outwards, extrorsc, 188. The cells of autliers commonly open alon<,' their outer edj^cs to dis- charge their pollen (Fig. 147). In most of the Heaths, however, the pol- len is discharged througli a minute apeiiuro at the top of each cell (Fig. .imnif or purtitimi is given. 140. But it often happeus that though several car- pels unite to lorm a compound pistil, there is but one cell in the ovary. This is because tho separate carpcl- lary leaves have not been folded before uniting, ?jiit have been joined edge to edge, or rather with their edges slightly turned inwards. In those oases the seeds cannot, of course, be in the centre of tho ovary, but will bo found on the walls, at the junction ot the carpels (Figs. 150, 151). In home plants the ovary is one-colled, and tho seeds are arranged round a column which ri^,es from the bottom '1 of the coll (Figs. 152, 153). This case is riys IV-', 153. explained by the early obhteration of the partitions, which must at iirst have mot in the centre of the cell. 141. In all cases the line or projection to which tl.o seeds are attached is called tho jdawnta, and the term placentation has reference to the manner in which the placentas are arranged. In the simple pistil the placentation is manjindl or sutaral. In the syncarpous pistil, if the dissepiments mi et in the centre of the ovary, thus dividing it into si parate cells, the placenta- tion is central or a.rile ; if thv ovary is one-celled r.nd bears the seeds on its walls, tho placentation \% paricf-o^* 92 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. Fig. 154. leaf knov and if the sceils are attaclied to a central column, it is free central. 142. Besides the union of the ovaries there may also be a union of the styles, and even of the stigmas. 143. A very exceptional pistil is found in plants of j&jlgp^ the Pine Family. Here the ovules, in- \rr^_^. stead of being enclosed in an ovary, aie usually simply attached to the inner sur- face of an open carpellary or scale, the scales forming what is &m\ C% ,vn as a cone (Figs. 154, 155, 150). ^^ The plants of this family are hence called Figs. 155, 15*. (jlfinnot^permous^ or naked-seeded. 144. The Fruit. In coming to the consideration of the Fruit, you must fort ho present lay aside any popu- lar ideas you may have acquired as to the meaning of this term. You will find that, in a strict botanical sense, many things are fruits which, in the language of common life, are not so designated. For instance, we hardly speak of a pumjikin or a cucumber as fruit, and yet they are clearly so, according to the botanist's defi- nition of tliat term. A fruit may be defined to be the riitened jAstil to(f('ther with cuiy oihrr oiyan, sncJi as the calyx or receptacle, which may he adherent to if. This definition will perhaps be more clearly understood after a few specimens have been attentively examined. 145. For an example of the simplest kind of fruit let us revert to our Buttercup. As the carpels ripen, the stylo and stigma are reduced to a mere point. On cutting open one of these carpels when fully ripe, we find it contains a single .seel, not quite filling the cavity, but attaclied at one point to the wall of the latter. What you have to guard against, in this Elements of structural botany. 98 instance, is the mistake of considering the entire carpel to be merely a seed. It is a seed envel- oped in an outer covering which we called the ovary in the early stages of the flower, but which, now that it is ripe, we shall call the pericarp. This pericarp, with the seed which it contains, is the fruit. The prin- cipal difference between the fruit of Marsh-Marigold and that of Buttercup is, that, in the former, the peri- carp envelopes several seeds, and, wlien ripe, splits open down one side. The fruit of Buttercup does not thus split open. In the Pea, again, the pericarp encloses several seeds, but splits op3n along hotli margins. The fruits just mentioned all result from the ripening of apocarpous pistils, and they are consequently spoken of as apocarjwus fruits. 146. In Willow-herb, you will recollect that the calyx tube adheres to the whole surface of the ovary. The fruit in this case, then, must include the calyx. When the ovary ripens, it splits longitudinally into four pieces (Fig. 41), and, as the pistil was syncarpous, so also is the fruif. 147. In the Peach, Plum, Cherry, and stone-fruits or drupes generally, tlie seed is enclosed in a hard shell called a putdinen. Outside the putamen is a thick layer of pulp, and outside this, enclosing the whole, is a skin-like covering. In these fruits all outside the seeds is the pericarp. In one respect these stone-fruits resemble the fruit of the Buttercup : they do not split open in order to discharge their seeds. All fruits having this pecuHarity are said to be indehiscent, whilst those in which the pericarp opens, or separates into pieces (called valves), are de- hiscent. 94 ELEMENTS OP STRUCTURAL BOTAKV 148. In the Apple (Fig. 48) and Pear, the seeds are contained in five cells in the middle of the fruit, and these cells are surrounded by a firm fleshy mass which is an enlargement of the calyx. In fact, the remains of the five calyx- teeth may be readily detected at the end of the apple opposite the stem. As in Willow-herb, the calyx is adherent to the ovary, and therefore calyx and ovary together constitute the pericarp. These fleshy-fruita, or pomes, as they are sometimes called, are of course indehiscent. 149. In the Currant, as in the Apple, you will find the remains of a calyx at the top, so that this fruit, too, is inferior, but the seeds, instead of being separnted from the mas» of the liuit by tough cartilaginous cell- walls, as in the Apple, lie imbedded in the soft juicy pulp. Such a fruit as this is a hen^. The Gooseberry and the Grape are other examples. The Pumpkin and other gourds are similar in structure to the berry, but besides the soft inner pulp they have also a firm outer layer and a hard rind. The name pepo is generally given to fruits of this sort. 1 50. A Raspberry or Blackberry (Fig. 157) proves, on examination, to be made up of a large number of juicy little drupes, aggre- gated upon a central axis. It cannot, therefore, be a true berry, but may be called Pig. 157. an aggregated fruit. 151. A Strawberry (Fig. 158) is a fruit Bonsisting chiefly of a mass of pulp, hav- ing its surface dotted over with little carpels (achcnes) similar to those of the Buttercup. The flesh of the Strawberry ^ "^ rig. 158. ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 95 m oimply an enlarged receptacle ; so that this fruit, also, is not a true berry. 152. The fruit of Sweet-Brier (Fig. 45) consists of a red fleshy calyx, lined with a hollow receptacle which bears a number of achencs. This fruit is therefore analogous to that of the Strawberry. In the latter the achenes are on the outer surface of a raised receptacle, while, in the former, they are on the inner surface of a hollow receptacle. 153. The Cone of the Pine (Fig. 154) is a fruit which diflers in an important respect from all those yet men- tioned, inasmuch as it is the product, not of a singlo flower, but of as many flowers as there are scales. It may therefore be called a c Elective or multijjle fruit. The Pine-Apple is another instance of the samo thing. 154. Of dehiscent fruits there are some varieties which receive special names. The fruit of the Pea, or Bean (Fig. 159), whose pericarp splits open along both margins, is called a leynme ; that of Marsh-Marigold (Fig. Fig. 150. 25), which opens down one side only, is a Jollicle. Both of these are apocar- pous. 155. Any syncarpous fruit, having a dry dehiscent pericarp, is called a capsule. A long and slender cap- sule, having two cells separated by a membranous partition bearing the seed, and from which, when ripe, the valves fall away on each side, is called c silique 90 Elements of structural botany. (Fig. 1(>()). If, as in Shepherd's Purse (Fig. 29), the capsule is short and broad, it is called a silic/e. If the capsule opens horizoritdfh/, so that the top comes off like a lid, as in Purslane (Fig. Fig.iGi. 161), it is a p?/xis. 156. Any dry, one-seeded, indchiscmt fruif, is called an ackenp, of which the fruit of Buttercup (Fig. 14) is an example. In Wheat the fruit differs from that of Butter" yiq. \m cup in having a closely fitting and adherent pericarp. Such a fruit is called a carynjms or grain. A nut is usually syncarpous, with a hard, dry peri- carp, A wiv(ji'(l fruit, such as that of the Maple (Fig. 1G2), is called a samai'a or ket/. 157. The Seed. The seed has already been de- scribed as the fertilized ovule. It consists of a nucleus, enveloped, as a rule, in two coats. The outer one, which is the most important, is known as the testa. Occasionally an additional outer coat, called an aril, is found. In the Euonymus of Canadian woods, the aril is particularly prominent in autumn, owing to its bright scarlefc colour. The stalk, by which the seed is attached to the placenta, is the /uni cuius, and the scar, formed on the testa where it separates from the seed-stalk, is called the hilum. In the Pea and the Beau this scar is very distinct. 158. Germination of the Seed. When a seed is lightly covered with earth, and supplied with warmth and moisture, ifc soon begins to swell and soften, owing to the absorption of water, and presently bursts its Fig. 162. ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL ftOTANY. 97 ig. 160. ig and called isually r peri- s that died a en de- ticleus, r one, e testd. iril, is le aril bright tached 'ormed alk, is scar is coats, either to such a degree as to liberate the cotyle* dons completely, or so as to permit the escape of the radicle and the plumule. The former immediately takes a downward direction, developing a root from its lower end, and either elongates tlirough its whole length, in which case the cotyledons are pushed above tlie surface, as in the Bean, or remains stationary, in which event the cotyledons remain altogether under ground, as in the Pea and in Indian Corn. ] before the root is developed, and the little plantlet is thereby enabled to imbibe food from the eoil, it has to depend for its growth upon a store of nourishment supplied by the parent plant before the seed was cast adrift. The relation of this nourishment to the embryo is different in different seeds. In the Bean and the Pumpkin, for example, it is contained in the cotyledons of the embryo itself. But in Indi.vU Corn, as we have already seen, it constitutes the bulk of the seed, the embryo merely occupying a hollow in one side of it. In such cases as the latter, it will be remembered that the term (tlbuutcn is applied to the nourishing matter, as distinguished from the embryo, 15i). As to the number of cotyledons, it may be re^ jjeated that, as a rule, seeds are either dicotyledonous or monocotyledonous. Some plants of the Pine Fam- ily, however, exhibit a modification of the dicotyledo- nous structure, having several cotyledons, and being consequently distinguished as polycotyledonaus. seed is irarmth owing 'sts its 98 ELEMENTS OP STRUCTURAL BOTANY. CHAPTER XV. I il ON THE MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANTS EXOOENOUS AND ENDOGENOUS STEMS FOOD OF PLANTS. 100. Up to this i3oint wo have been engaged in observing such particulars of structure in plants as are manifest to the naked eye. It is now time to enquire a little more closely, and find out what. we can about the elementary structure of the diflferent organs. We have all observed how tender and delicate is a little plautlet of any kind just sprouting from the seed; but as time elapses, and the plant developes itself and acquires strength, its substance will, as we know, assume a texture varying with the nature of the plant, eitlier becoming hard and firm and woody, if it is to be a tree or a shrub, or continuing to be soft and compressible as long as it lives, if it is to be an herb. Then, as a rule, the leaves of plants are of quite a different consis- tency from the stems, and the ribs and veins and petioles of foliage leaves are of a firmer texture than the remaining part of them. In all plants, also, the newest portions, both of stem and root, are extremely soft compared with the older parts. It will be our object in this chapter to ascertain, as far as we can, the reason of such differences as these ; and to accomplish this, we shall have to call in the aid of a microscope of much higher power than that which lias hitherto served our purpose. 161. If a small bit, taken from a soft stem, be boiled for a wliile so as to reduce it to a pulp, and a little of this pulp be examined under the microscope, it will be found to be entirely composed of more or less rounded ELEMENTS OF STRrCTURAL BOTANY. 99 or oval bodies, which are either loosely thrown together (Fig. 103), or are pressed into a more or less compact Fig. 103. Fig. 104, Fig. 104 (a). mass. In the latter case, owing to mutual pressure they assume a somewhat angular form. These bodies are called ceUs. They are hollow, and their walls are usually thin and transparent. The entire fabric of every plant, without any exception whatever, is made up of colls; but as we proceed in our investigation, wo shall find that these cells are not all precisely alike, that as they become older they tend, as a rule, to thicken their walls and undergo changes in form, which, t) a great extent, determine the texture of the plant's . ubstance. 1G2. A fabric made up of cells is called a tissue. A collection of such cells as we found constituting our pulp, and as we should find constituting the mass of all the soft and new parts of plants, as well as of some hard parts, is called cellular tmuv. The cells com- I)Osing cellular tissue vary a great deal in size in different j)lants, being, as a rule, largest in aquatics, in which they may sometimes be observed with the naked eye. Ordinarily, however, they are so minute that milUons of them find room in a cubic inch of tissrio. 163. When young, the walls of the cells are quite unbroken. Each cell is lined with an extremely thin membrane, and a portion of its cavity is occupied by a ■it r 100 ELEMKNTS OP STHUt!TtIRAL BOTANY. soft body called the nucleus. The space between the nucleus and the lining of tlie cell is filled with a tliick- ish liquid called protopUtmn., and the microscope re- veals to us the fact that, as long as tlie cells are livimj cells, a circulation or current is constantly kept up in the i)rotoplasm of each. To this curious movement the term cychms has been applied. As the cells become older, the nature of their contents is altered by the introduction of watery sap, in which other substances are found, noisably starch, sup^ar, chlorophyll (to which leaves owe their green colour), and crystals (raphides) of various salts of lime. The substance of which the cell-wall is composed is called cclluloac, and is a chemical compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. In the protoplasm nitrogen is found in addition to the three elements just mentioned. 1G4. The (jrontJi of a jdant consists in the multiplication of its cells. Every plant begins its existence with a single cell, and by the repeated division of this, and the growth of the successive sections, the whole fabric of the plant, whether herb, shrub, or tree, is built up. The division of a cell is accomplished by the formation of a partition across the middle of it, the nucleus having previously separated into two pieces. The partition is formed oat of the lining of the cell. Each half of the cell then enlarges, and, when its full size is attained, divides again, and so on, as long as the cells are living cells. 165. But in order to increase their eize, food of some kind is essential. Growing plants supply this to their cells mainly in the form of sap, which is taken in by the root-fibres, and mi de suitable, or elaborated^ or assimilated^ by chemical action in the plant itself. By EI^EMENTS OF STRUCTHRATi BOTANY. 101 a very curious process, the liquids absorbed by the root pass from cell to cell, though each is quite enclosed, until they reach the leaves, where the elaboration is performed. The process is carried on under the law, that if two liquids of dilferent density bo separated by a thin or i)orous diaphragm, they will permeate the diaphragm, and change places with greater or less rapidity according to circumstances, the liquid of less density i>enetrating the diaphragm more rapidly than the other. The cells of plants, as we have said, contain dense liquid matter. The moisture present in the soil, and in contact with the tender root-hairs (which are made up of cells, you will remember), being of less den- sity than the contents of the cells, flows into tliem, and is then passed on from cell to cell on the same princi- ple. The supply of assimilated matter is thus renewe' j are fibro-vascular bundles, consist- ^ ^ ^^ ' ing mainly of woody tissue, a few vessels, easily recognised by their larger openings, being interspersed. As the shoot becomes older, these bundles enlarge, and others are formed between them, so that the radiating channels of cellular tissue which separate them are in the end re- duced to much smaller compass than in the earlier stages of growth (Fig. ^168). The narrow channels are the medullarii raijs. The cells of which they are composed are flattened by compression. Eventually, a ring of wood is formed, the medullary rays intersecting it in fine lines, a*s the sawed end of almost any log will show. Outside the zone of wood is the bark, wliich at first consists altogether of cellular tissue. As the season advances, Fig. 107. Fig. 1C8. ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 105 / les, tide ists ies, however, long />a.N7 cells are formed iu iho inner part, next the wood, which part. is thereafter Kpecially desi<,'- nated the Hhrr. The outer ring of all, cuclosiug tlio whole stem, is the epitlermis or .skin. 170. It in now to he ohserved that, year after year, the rings of wood are increased in thickness /'// l/ic wiiltijAi- cnlion of their outrr rrlln. There is, consequently, ainai/s a layer of soft cells hetween the wood and the baik. This is known as the ('((nihiimi hn/rr, and it is liere that the wliole growth of an exogenous stem takes place. The solt cells on its inner side are gradu- ally transformed into woody tissue and vessels, whilst those on its outer side become the hast cells of the liber, and others form the extension of the medullary rays. Hear in mind, then, that the exogenous stem is char- acterized (1) by the formation of its wood in rings, ('2) by the presence of the continuous cambium-layer, ami (3) by the presence of a true bark. 171. Let us now consider the structure of an endo- genous stem. Fig. IGO represents a section of one. Here, again, the white portiou is cellular tissue, whilst the dark parts are the fibro-vascular bundles. \ This stem is at once distinguished from the other by the isolation of these bundles. They never co- alesce to form a ring. That por- Fig. 169. tion of each bundle, which is nearest the centre of the stem, corresponds to tl)e wood of the exogen, whilst the outer portion of each consists of cells which resemble the exogenous bast-cells, but there Km KI.KMKNTM OK HTUIU'Tt'llAI. IKU'ANY f.s tio <',iinhin>i li<> mi iiui^M-inoiit, for llu> indcrmiio coiiiiiHiniicc" (•!" Mn> f^iowtli of Uio l)iiii(ll(>H. Oiu'o foniHMi, 1.1mm rfoic, Mu'v rnnnin uii- chiMii^oil, an«l ilio mowdi of i\\o hIimii coiiHiHtH in t\u\ pvo(iuciioii of now (>n(>H. Tlu'sc (wliicili ori<;iniit.o at. tiu^ bases of now loavos) lu'lnj^' ininxbu^t'd ainon^'Ht llio older onoH, act aH wod^^^^s, and swell i\\v .stem as ii whole. TMI", FOOD OK PLANTS. 17'i. A word or two is necessarv on ihis stdtjeci in additicMi to whiit has alrcMidy l)(>en siiid. The nature of a plant's food mry he d(d hy inakin«:j Ji eheniicjil analysis oi the plant's substance. A;; alrejuly statetl, th(» clieniical elenuMitn found in pliints are chiiilly fotir, carbon, oxygen hydrogen anfv nitrogen, the latter el(> nient occurring iii th ]u-otopljisr' of active cells. Wluit, then, are tlie sourct^r from which the plant obtains these materiabs of its growth '? In the atm()sj)here there is always presen' a ga?-^ known as carbon dioxide, or car- bonic acid. This gas, which is a comjiound of carbon and oxygen, it produced largely in the lungr of animal::, anc"! by them exhaled, itf is readily soluble in water, ::.,: thai rain-drop: in their jiassage through the airdissolv iu and carry i( with them into the soil. Again, wluu-ove'- aiii.ua, or vegetable matter is decaying thcire is pro- dncou a gas called ammonia, a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen, and, likv3 carbonic acid, readily soluble, so that thiL also is present in rain-water. And when it is considered that ;. very largo proportion of the air con- sists o4' free nitrogen, soluble to some extent in water, ami tliat vlio elements of water itself are oxygen and hyd)-o- gen it will be evident that the moisture in th ' ^vtb contains a supply of ever;- one of the element. KI.KMKNTH OK HTIim"rnKM, IIOTANY. 107 (»!' ilio ill un ill i)i(> 1 at tiio ^Mt lllO II MS II W]cci ill ituro ol" li( iluu'o is or ciir- CiirboK iniinaln, iiter, r;c ilissolv luM-cvor is pnv iiitrogon Holublo, wlien it lair cou- lter, ami |l hydi-o- iu tlr blomeut cliiolly ro(ini?<'(l l)y t\w plan!,. Now ii in a in/itl.dr of cointnon (ix|»(Mioiic,(> iluii, with ram (ixc.optioiiH, a plant will witlior and din umIohh Hiip|»li(Ml with (i(l«((piat found on the upper surface, and in vertical leaves tliey occur prettj' equally on both surfaces. Immersed leave :i are without stomates. 174. The crude sup, then, which ascends into the leaves is concentrated by the evaporation of its super- Jluous water. When so concentrated, the action of sun- light, in connection with the green colouring matter existing in the cells of the leaves, and known as chloro- phyll, decomposes the carbonic acid, contained in the sap, into its carbon and oxygen. The latter gas issues from the leaves into tlie air, whilst the carbon is retained and combined with tlie remaining elements to form iMioratcd snp, out oi which the substance of new cells is constructed. 175. It thus appears that the chemical action which goes on in the leaves of plants is precisely the reverse of what takes place in the lungs of animals. The latter inhdlc oxygen, combine it with the carbon of the blood, and exhale the resulting carbonic acid. The former take in carbonic acid, decompose it in the leaves and other green parts, and exhale the oxygen. Plants may there- fore be regarded as purifiers of the air. 17G. It remains to be added, that besides the four substances, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, which are called the otuiaiiic, elements, many others are found in the fabric of plants. When a piece of wood is burnt away, the organic elements disappear, but a quantity of ash remains behind. This contains the various mineral substances which the water absorb- ed by the plant has previously dissolved out of the soil, but which it is not necessary to our present purpose to enumerate here. ELEMENTS Uk' blliUCTUKAL. IJOTANY. 109 vcs they 3(1 leaves into the ■jS super- Q of sun- cr matter ,8 chloro- jd in the jas issues ! retained 1 to form of new on which le reverse rhe latter the blood, irmer take nd other lay there- the four nitrogen , ^y others piece of lisappear, contains 3r absorh- If the soil, lurpose to CHAPTER XVI. CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS ACCORDING TO THE NATURAL SYSTEM. 177. Hitherto, our examination of plants has been confined to a few selected specimens, and we have examined these chiefly in order to become acquainted with some variations in the details of growth, as exem- phfied by them. Thus, we have found plants wliich agree in exhibiting two cotyledons in the embryo, and others, again, which are monocotyledouous. Some members of the former group were found to exhibit two sets of floral envelopes, other only one, and others, again, were entirely without these organs. And BO on through the various details. "We now set out with the vegetable world before us— a world populated by forms almost infinite in number and variety. If, therefore, our study of these forms is to be carried on to advantage, we shall have to resolve upon some definite plan or system upon which to proceed ; otherwise we shall merely dissipate our energies, and our results will be without meaning. Just as, in our study of language, we find it convenient to classify words into what we call parts of speech, and to divide and subdivide these again, in order to draw finer distinctions, so, in our study of plants, it will be necessary to arrange them i 110 ELEMENTS OF B tT'CTURAL BOTANY. first of all into comprehensive groups, on the ground of some characteristic possessed by every member of each group. Just as, in Latin, every noun whose genitive case is found to end in ce is classed with nouns of tlie first declension, so in Botany, every j^laut presenting certain peculiarities will be i)laced in a group along with all the other plants presenting the same peculiar- ities. 178. Some hints have already been given you as to the kind of resemblances upon which classification is based. For instance, an immense number of plants are found to produce seeds with a dicotyledonous embryo, while an immense number of others have monocotylodonous embryos. This distinction, there- fore, is so pronounced, that it forms the basis of a divis- ion into two very large groui)s. Again, a very large number of dicotyledonous plants have their corollas in separate petals ; many others have them united, whilst others again have no petals at all. Here, then, is an opportunity to subdivide the Dicotyledons into poly- petalous, gamopetalous, and apetalous groups. And so we go on, always on the plan that the more widely spread a peculiarity is found to be, the more compre- hensive must be the group based on that peculiarity ; and so it happens, that the smallest groups of all come to depend upon distinctions which are, in many cases, by no means evid-^nt, and upon which botanists often find themselves unable to agree. 179. As our divisions and subdivisions will neces- sarily be somewhat numerous, we shall have to devise a special name for each kind of group, in order to avoid confusion of ideas. We shall, then, to begin with, draw a broad line of distinction between those plants ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. Ill •ound of of each geuitive 8 of tlie jsenting ip along )eculiar- )U as to ation is f plants edonous rs have L, there - ; a divis- jry large rollas in whilst sn, is an 0 poly- And widely compre- iliarity ; ill come y cases, ts often 1 neces- 0 devise o avoid n with, plants which produce flowers of some kind, and tliose which use the Greek term. Phanerogamous, Series, and th<^ Flowerless, or Cryptogamous, Series ; or we may speak of them briefly as Phanerogams and Crypto- gams. Then, leaving the Cryptogams aside foi tne moment, we may break up tlie Phanerogams into two great Classes, Exogens (or Dicotyledons) and Endogens (or Monocotyledons), for reasons al- ready explained. By far the greater number of Exogens produce seeds which are enclosed in a pericarp of some kind ; but there is a remarkable group of plants (repre- sented in Canada only by the Pines and their imme- diate relatives) which dispense witli the pericarp alto- gether, and whose seeds are consequently naked. Bo that we can make two Sub-Classes of the Exogens, on the basis of this diiferencc, and these we shall call the Angiospermous Sub-Class, and the Gymncsper- mous (naked-seeded) Sub-Class. The first of these may be grouped in three Divisions, t'^e Polf/pptnlous, Gamopetalous, and Apetahms, and the Endogens aiso in three, the Spmhreons, the Petaloldfoiis, and the (flumaceoufi, types of which we have already examined in the Marsh Calla (spadiceous), Trillium (petaloideous)^ and Timothy (glumaceous), and the distinctions between wiiich are sufficiently obvious. The Cryptogams are divided into three great Classes, viz. : Acrogens, embracing Ferns, Horse- tails and Club-mosses; Anophytes, embracing Mosses audLiverworts; and Thallophytes, embracing Licliens, Seaweeds, aud Mushrooms. i' m 112 Er.KM PINTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. I l\ ill O o Q O ?-. M w- ■< H W O a > Series I. Phanero- gams Class I.— Exogens .-< < So far, then, our claasificatiou is as follows : /" [ Sub-class l-Angiosp^l'ins PolyjH'talous Division. Gamnpetiiluus " Apetalous " , Sub-class 2-GymnoHi'(irmg r Simdiceous Division, Class II.— EndogensH Fetaloideous Division. iGlumaceous Division. ^Class III.— Acrogens. \ Class IV.— Anophytes. L Class v.— Thallophytes. Series II. Cryptogams. Each of the Dirisions is aub-diviJed into Cj number of Families or Orders ; each Order into a number of Genera ; and each Genus into Species. A. species is the sum cc'all tlie individual plants whose resemblances in all essential respects are so great as to warrant the belief that they have sprung from one common stock. De Candolle has this statement : " We unite under lie designation of a species all those individuals that mutu- ally bear to each other so close a resemblance as to allow of our supposing that they may have proceeded originally from a single being or a single pair.'' We may also speak of each one of these individual plants as a si)ecies. For example, you may say, after finishing the first lesson of this book, that you liave examined a »pecies of Buttercup. "Mere differencesof colour or size rre liol ::''iO}/3ar, to constitute different species. The r,' '^.1 3 "'» o\tr gardens, for instance, are of various OcJ'.-ii o, ar 1 !;he plants vary greatly in size, yet they all belorig to o.-i^ .pecies. These minor differences, which are mainly the result of caro and cultivation, give rise to varieties. These are of great interest to the horticul- ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 113 Divlsivn. lion, xiaion. isicni. mber of aiber of pecies is iblaucos •ant the stock, der lie inutu- e Hi to oceeded Wc )lants as inisliing nined a or size s. The various they all 3, which ive rise orticul- turist , but the study of species is the ^reat end and aim of the botanist. 180- Those Species which are considered to resem- ble each otlier most nearly are grouped into Genera, and the Genera, in like manner, into Orders ; but these particular groupings are more or loss artificial, and are subject to continual alteration in con- sequence of our imperfect knowledge. As, year by year, new facts are brought to light, modifications in arrangement take place. In the Classification wliich constitutes the Second Part of this work, tho Divi- sions spoken of above are placed in the order named. In the Polype talous Division, those Orders are put first which embrace plants with hupo'jywms stamrjiy and apocarpous pistils, tho parts of tlie flowers beiu^:,' consequently separate ; then those with similarly in- serted stamens, but sipiear pons pistils ; then those witli perigynous stamens ; and, generally, we proceed from plants whose flowers have all their parts separate to those exhibiting more or less cohesion and adhesion, and finally to those having one or moro parts of the flower wanting. 181. In looking up the name of a plant, it will bo your object to determine the Genus to which it belongs, and also the Species. The name of every plant consists of two parts: its Genus first, and then its Species. The iiame of the Genus is a Latin noun, and that of tho Species a Latin adjective agreeing with the noun. Tho Buttercup, for example, wiiich we examined at the outset, belongs to the Genus lianunculus. In this Genus are included many Species. The particular one examined bv us is know n a'l acris ; so that the full name i ■m 114 ELKMENT*^ OF STRUCTtJKAL BOTANY. of the plant is RammculuH acris. In like manner, tbo name of the phint popularly called Marsh-Marigold is Caltha palnstris. 182. The Kpy which is prefixed to the Classification will enable you to determine without mucli difiQculty the Order to which a plant belongs, but nothing more. Having satisfied yourselves as to the Order, you must turn to the page on which that Order is described, and, by carefully comparing the descriptions there given with the characters exhibited by your plant, decide upon its Genus, and, in the same manner, upon its Species. rier, tho rigold is ificatiou lifi&culty ig more, ou must )C(1, and, re given t, decide upon its THE HEUBARIUM. Those who are anxious to make tho most of their botanical studies will find it of great advantage to gather and preserve specimens for reference. A few hints, therefore, on tliis subject will not be Out of place. It will, of course, be an object to collectors to have their specimens exhibit as many of their natural char- acters as possible, so that, although dried and pressed, there will be no difficulty in recognizing them ; and to thia end neatness and care are the first requisites. Specimens should be collected when tlie plants are in flower, and, if possible, on a dry day, as the flowers aro then in better condition than if wet. If the plant is small, tho whole of it, root and all, should be taken up ; if too large to be treated in this way, a flower and one or two of the leaves (radical as well as cauline, if these be different,) may be gathered. As many of your specimens will be collected at a dis- tance from home, a close tin box, which may be slung over the shoulder by a strap, should be provided, in which the plants may be kept fresh, particularly if a few drops of water be sprinkled upon them. Perhaps a better way, however, is to carry a portfolio of conveni- ent size — say 15 inches by 10 inches — made of two pieces of stout pasteboard or thin deal, and having a couple of straps with buckles for fastening it together. Between the covers should be placed sheets of blotting paper, or coarse wrapping paper, as many as will allow the specimens to be separated by at least five or six sheets. The advantage of the portfolio is, that the 116 I ■■H 116 ELEiiENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. plants may be placed oetween the sheets of blotting paper, and subjected to pressure by means of the straps, as soon as they are gathered. If carried in a box, they should be transferred to paper as soon as possible. The specimens should be spread out with great care, and the crumpling and doubling of leaves guarded against. The only way to prevent mouldmg is to place plenty of paper between the plants, and vhtuKfc the (itijier frefjiienth/, the frequency depending on the amount of moisture contained in the specimens. From ten days to a fort- night will be found sufficient for the thorough drying of almost any plant you are likely to meet with. Hav- ing made a pile of specimens with paper between them, as directed, they should be placed on a table or floor, covered by a fiat board, and subjected to i)ressure by placing weights on the top ; twenty bricks or so will answer very well. When the specimens are thoroughly dry, the next thing is to mount them, and for this purpose you will require sheets of strong white paper ; a good quality of unruled foolscap, or cheap drawing paper, will be suit- able. The most convenient way of attaching the spec- imen to the paper is to take a sheet of the same size as your paper lay the specimen carefully in the centre, wrong side up, and gum it thoroughly with a very soft brush. Then take the paper to which the plant is to be attached, and lay it carefully on the specimen. You can then lift paper and specimen together, and, by pressing lightly with a soft cloth, ensure complete ad- hesion. To render plants with stout stems additionally secure, make a slit with a penknife through the paper immediately underneath the stem ; then pass a narrow band of paper round the stem, and thrust both ends of ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 117 Dlottiug 5 straps, )x, they le. The and the ist. The euty of etjKentiii, uoiftture a fort- drying . Hav- m them, )r floor, 3sure by so will the band through the slit. The ends may the*^, be gummed to tlie back of the sheet. The specimen having been duly mounted, its botan* ical name should be written neatly in the lower right- hand corner, together with the date of its collection, and the locality where found. Of course only one 8pecies should be mounted on each sheet ; and when a sufficient number have been prepared, the Species of the same Genus should be placed in a sheet of larger and coarser paper than that on which the specimens are mounted, and the name of the Genus should bo written outside on the lower corner. Then the Genera of the same Order should be collected in the same manner, and the name of the Order written outside as before. The Orders may then be arranged in accordance witli the classification you may be using, and carefully laid away in a dry place. If a cabinet, with shelves or draw- ers, can be specially devoted to storing the plants, so much the better. I lil i / A / I A A A A A A ,A A Aj A AJ Al AI Al Al Al An An All Aui A IK Ant Ape INDEX AND GLOSSARY Tho reforenceH mq to the Sections, iinleBsFiguies are sfeoitied. Abruptly pimmte, 111, AI)Kc)r|)tion by roots, v', 105, 172. AcauloHCL'iit : appiircntly without u htcin, Ifl. AccesHory fruitn : nuch an coiiisist chicHy of an enlargeinont of 8oiu(* or^an, kiu;1t as the calyx or rt^ccptacle, not organically united with tho pistil, 151, 152. Acbcnium or Achcno, ICA) Achlaniydcous : having neither calyx nor corolla, 66 Acicular, Fig. 110. Aerogi-ns, 179. Acuiuiiiato : with a long tapt'ring point. Acute: sharp-pointed, llo. Adherent: a term applied to the union of unlike parts; e.g. stamens with corolla, etc. Adnato (anthers), 132. Adventitious : occui rini^ out of the natural position. Adventitious roots, 86. Adventitious buds, 88. . Aerial roots, 86. • Aestivation : tho folding of the floral envelopes in the bud. Aggregate fruits, 150. Air-plants (epiphytes), 87. Albumen (of the seed) : solid nourishing matter distinct from the eml)ryo, 12. Albuminous seeds, 59. Alternate (leaves), 99. Ament or Catkin, Figs. 63, 64. Aniplexicaul : clasping a stem. Auatropous : a tern\ applied to ovules when inverted, so that tho micropylo is close to the point of attachment. Andra^cium: the ciru'e of stamens collectively, 132. Audroua : an ending of adjectives descrii)tive of stamens, f.g.^ monandrous, polyandrous, &g. Angiospermous : applied to plants whose seeds are enclosed in an ovary. Annual : a plant which grows from the seed, flowers, and dies, in the same season. Anophytea, 179. Anth( : the essential part of a stamen, containing the pollen, 132. ApetalouR : without a corolk ; having only ono eot of floral envelopes, 20 120 INDEX AND OLOSSAKY. Apocarpous: applied to pistils when the carjM'ls are froe from each ether. Appendage: anything attachod or added. Apprehsed : in contact, hut not unitt'd. Aquatic : growing in the water, whetlier completely, or only partially, immersed. Arborescent : resembling a tree. Aril. ir)7. Arrow-shaped, Fig. 120. Ascending : rising upward in a slanting direction ; applied chi -fly to weak stems. Ascending axis : the stem of a plant. Ascidium : a pitcher-shaped leaf, Fig. 134. • Aslies of plants, 17o. Assimilation, 105. Auriculate : sanje as auricled, having rounded lobes at the base ; applied mostly to Umvcs. Awl-shaped, Fig. 112. Awn : a bristle, such as is found on the glumes of many (lrass"s, Barley for example. Axil, 3. Axilo : relating to the axis. Axillary : proceeding from an axil. Axillary buds, 88. Axillary flowers, 120. Axis : the stem and root. Laccate : liVe a berry, Eark, im. lia;!t, 1G7. Bearded: furnished with hairs, like the petals of some Violets, &G. Bell-shaped, 130. Berry, 149. Biennial : a plant whiel; jjrovs from seed in one season, but pro- duces its seed an I dies in the following -season. Bifoliolate : having two leaflets. Bilabiate : two-lippod. Fig. 142. Bipinnate: twice pinnate. Fig. 132. •" Bipiunatifid : twice piiniatitid, Fig. 123. '- Blade : tha broad part of a leaf or petal. Bracts, 19, 125. '*-!/ Bracteate : subtended by a bract. Bractlets : secondary brac-s growing on pedicels, 125. Branches : growths from the sides of a stem, originating iu axil- lary buds, 3. Breathing-pores (stomates), 173. Bud : an undeveloped stem or branch. Bulb. 92. INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 121 Bulbiferons : producing bulbs. Bulblets, 95. Bulbous : like a biilb in shape. Caducous, 128. (]alyx, 6. Cambium layer, ,1.70. Carnpanulatc, I'JO. Capillary : i'v o and hair-like. Capitulum : same as hi'ad, 122. Capsule, 155. C'ariua, or keel: the two coherent petals in the front of a flower of the Pea kind, Fig. 30. Caryopsis, 156. Carpel, 7. Carpellary : relating to a carpel, e.ssive pairs of opposite loaves are at right an^^les, us in the ))lanls of the Mint family. Definite inflorescence, 121. DeHexed : l)ent down. Dehiscent, 147. Dehiscence of anthers. Figs. 147, 148, 14'J. Deliquescent : applied to stems which dissolve into branches. Deltoid, 14(). Dentate, 112. Depauperate: unnaturally small. Depressed : flattened down. Descending axis : the root, 83. Determinate inrtorescenco, 121. Diadclphous : applied to otumcnr;, 3G. IMcndrous : with two separct^ ptcirccns. INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 123 Dichlamydeous : having both sets of floral envelopes. Dicotyledonous, 58. Dicotyledons, 59. Didynamous (stamens). 50 Digitate, 101. Ditt'cious, 56. DiKk : in flowers of the Composite Family, the centre of the head as distinguished from the border ; a fleshy enlargement of the receptacle of a flower. Dissected : fluely cut. Dissepiment, 139. Distinct: not coherent, (see Coherent). Divergent : separating from one another. Dodwaiidrous : with twelve distinct stamens. Dorsal suture, 188, Dotted ducts. Fig. lf>6. Double flowers : abnormal floweio m which stamens and carpels have been transformed into petals. Downy : covered with soft hairs. Drupe, 147. Drupelet, a little drupe. Ducts, 167. Earthy constituents of plants, 176. Elaborated sap, 174. Elementary constituents of plants, 176. Elementary structure, 160. Elliptical : same as oval, 105. Emarginate, 111. Embryo, 12. Embryo, sac, 16. Emersed : raised above the surface of water. Eudocarp : " When tlio wallsof a pericarp form two or more lay- ers of dissimilar texture, the outer layer is called the Epicarp, the middle one M('socarp,aud the iiniermost Endocarp.^' — Gray. Eiidogen, 81. Endogenous growth, 171. Endosmose. 172, 1G5. Enneaudrous : with nine distinct stamens. Entire. 112. Eph'rmerr- : lasting one day only. Epicalyx, 33. Epicarp : Bee Endocarp. Epidermis, 169. Epigynous : inserted on the ovary, 46. Epipetalous : inserted on the corolla, 47. Epiphytes, 87. Equitant (leaves), 98, 124 INDEX AND GLOSSARY. Essential organs, 17. Evergreen : retaining foliage during winter. Exalbuminous, 59. Excurrent: said of main stems which are distinct, and well- marked to the top, as in the Pine and Fir ; the reverse of deliquescent. Exhalation, 175, 178. Exogen, GO. Exogenous growth, 169. Exserted protruding, 136. Exstipulato, 115. Extrorse, 132. ., Fascicle: a close bundle, either of leaves or flowers. Fascicled roots, 85. Feather-veined : same as pinnately-veined, 101. Fertile flower, 63. i v Fertilization, 17. Fibrous thread-like, 2. Fibro-vascular system, 1G7. Filament, 6. Filiform, 117. Fimbriate : fringed. Fleshy fruits, 148. Flora : a description of the plants of a district; a collective name for the whole o;* the species of a dis'trict. Floral envelopes, 14. Floret, 48. Flower : the part of a phanerogamous plant in which the stamens and pistil are situated. Flower-leaves, 11. Flowering plants, 179. Floworless plants, 179. Foliaceous : like a leaf in appearance. Foliolato : having leaflets. » Follicle, 154. Free, 6. ' Fruit, 144. Fugacious : falling away early. Funiculus, 157. Funnel-shaped, Fig. 140. i.^. Furcate: forked. f Fusiform : same as spindle-shciped, 85. GrJea : an arching petal or sepal, as the two upper ones in Catn.in^, -Jir. 67. Gamopli^llous, C3. Gr^mopetalous, 120. Gr^iaosepalous, J27. INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 12^ Genera : plural of genus. Genus, 179. Germ : Bame as embryo. Germination, 158. Gibbous : swollen on one side. Glabrous, lUj. Gladiate : sword-shaped. Glands ; applied geuernlly to colls or hairs on the surfaces of plants, in which resinous or oily matters are secreted ; but the term is also used^to describe any projection, the use of which is not clear. Glandular: bearing glands. Glaucous, IIG. Globose : like a globe or sphere. Glumaceous : bearing or resembling glumes. Glumes, 75, Gourd, 149. Grain, 156. Granules : particles. Gymnospermous, 143. Gymnosperms, 179. GynoHuum, 187. Gynandrous, 135. imens Ymj>7 Habitat : a term applied to the region most favourable to tha growth of a plant : the place where it grows naturally. Hairs, 116. Hairy, 4. Halberd-shaped, Fig. 119. Hastate, Fig. 119. Head, 122. Heart-shaped, 108. Heptandrous : with seven distinct stamens. Herb, 89. Herbaceous, 89. Herbarium : a botanist's collection of dried plants. Hexandrous : with six distinct stamens. Hilum, 157. Hirsute : rough with luiirs. Hispid : covered with stiff hairs. Hoary : densely covered with fine grayish hairs Hortus siccus : same as herbarium. Hybrids : plants resulting from the crossing o. nearly related species. Hypogynous. 135. Imbricate : overlapping like shingles on a roof. Immersed : wholly under water. Imperfect, 53. 12G INDEX AND GLOSSARYo Included, 130. Inromplete, 19. Incnrvod (ixitals) Fig. 50. ludefinito, 20, l;H. Indt'ftiiite iiillorescpiice, 120. Indeliiscent, 147. Indcterminato infloroscpnco, 120. Indigenous : naturally growing in a country. Inferior: underneath; fiir*!- ' fi'>m the axis tho ovary is inft>rior when tho cai , c ana .es to it throughout ; the calyx is inferior when free from ilic ovary. Inflorescence, 119. Innate, 132. Inserted : attached to. Insertion : tho point, or mannr. . .C ..itachment. Internodes, 4 Interruptedly pinnate, Fig. l.>8. Introrse, 132. Involuccl, 125. Involucie, 125. Involute : rolled inwards from ^oih ec'i^ '■-:, Irregular, 35. Isomerous : having the parts equal in number. Joints : a name sometimes given to the nodes of a stem. Keel, see Carina. Kernel, 10. Key-fruit, 150. Kidney-shaped, Fig. 121. ' Labollum (or lip), 71. Labiate, 50. Lanceolate, Fig. 113. Leaf, 97. Leaf-arrangement, 90. Leaf-greeii, seo Chlorophyll. Leaflet, 100. Leafstalk, 4. Legume, IT) 4. Leguminouri : producing or relating to legumes. Liber, 109. Ligneou.s : woody. Ligulate, 131. Ligule : a strap-phaped corolla n Grasses, a scale-like projec- tion between tho blade of a leaf and tho sheath. Limb, 129, 130. Lip, see Labellum. Linear, Fig. 111. INDKK AM) GLOSSAKY. 127 lioho, 4, 100. Locniicidal (dchisoonct^) ; Rplitting midwny betwefiii tlu; paititions Lonient : a juinted legume. Lyrate : pinnatt'ly-lobtidjWitli tho terminal lobe much larger than tho others. Marcescont : withering persistent. Marginal : relating to tho margin. Markings (on cells), 1(»7. Medullary rays, 109, Membranous : thin, like a membrane. Mf'socarp : see Kndocarp. Micropylo, 16. Mid.ib, 101. Monadelphous, l^i Monanilrous : with a single stnnicn, 72 Monochhimydeons ; with only one set of floral envelopes. Monopoly ledonous, 80. Monocotyledons, 81. Mona'cious, 53. Morphology, 82. Mucronate, 110, Multifid, 100. Multiple fruits, 153. Naked flower.s : those which are destitute of calyx and corolla. Naked seeds : those not enclosed in an ovaiy, 14.3. Napiform, 85. Natural system of classification, 1"77, ttc. Naturalized: introduced from other countries, but growing spon- taneously from seed. Neck, see Collum. Nectary : that in which nectar is secreted. Needle-shaped, Fig. 110. Net-veined, 4. Neutral flowers : those having neither stamens nor pistil. Nodding : hanging with the top downwards, like tho fiower in Fig. 72. Nod(>, 4. Normal : regular; according to rule. Nucleus (of an ovule), 1(5, 157; (of a cell), 163. Nut, 150. Nutlet : a small nut, or uut-like body, 50. Obcordate, 108. • ' Oblanceolate, 107. Oblique : liaving the sides unequal. ObUteration (of partitions), 140, Oblong, 105. 128 INDEX AND GLOSSARY. Obovate, 107. Obtuse, 110. Ochroa : a tube fc-med by the union of both edges of a pair cf BtipuleB. Ochreate : baving oclirpte. Octandrous : bavinR ei^'ht separate stamons. Offset: a short, prostrate branch, rooting at the end. Opposite, 99. Orbicuhir, 105, Orders, 179. Organic elements, 170. Organs : the parts or members of a living body. Organs of Boproduction : tbc ])nrts of tlie flower. Organs of Vegetation: root, stem, and leaves. Orthotropous : applied to ovules when straight, so that llie micro- pylo is as far as possible from the '^oiut of attachment. Oval, 105, Ovary, 7. Ovate, 100. Ovoid: egg-shaped. Ovule, 7. Palate, 1.^1. Palet, 75. Palmate, 101. Palmately-lobed, 109. Palmatifid, 109. Panicle, 123. Papilionaceous, 35 Pappo.^e, 128. Pappus : a circle of bristles or liairs representing the limb of tha calyx in flowers of the Composite Family, 48. Parallel-veined : same as straight-veined, 62. Parasites, 87. Parenchj'ma, 167. Parietal : on the walls, 141. Parted : almost completely cut through. Pectinate : pinnatifid with lobes like the teeth of a comb. Pedate, Fig. 125. Pedicel, 27. Peduncle, 5. Peltate, Fig. 123. Pentandrous : with five distinct stamens. , Pepo, 149. ' : Perennial : a plant which continues to grow year after yeaa'. Perfect : having both stamens and pistil. Perfoliate, 113. Perianth, 63. Pericarp, 145. INDEX AND GLOSSARY 129 Pcrigj'Tious, 36. . Persistent, 32. Personate, 131. Petal, 5. Petiolate : having petioles. Poti(ilo, 4. Pbanerogamons or riurnogumous, 179. Pilose : liaviiig li.np' suft liaii^!. Pinna : a primary divi^iou of a ijinnatoly compound leaf. Pinniite, Idl. Pinuately-lobp(l, 101). Piunatilia, Um. Pinnule . a secondary division of a pinnately compound leaf. Pistil, 137, 7. Pi.?tillnte : having a pi?til, 63. Pitcher-phaped (leaf), Fig. lU. Piih, 1(;9. Placenta, 141. Placentation, 141. Plumose : feathery. Plumule, r.8. Pod : a dehiscent fruit. Pollen, 6. Poll'n-tubp, 16. Polliiiia : pollen-raasses, Fig. 87. Polyadelph .us, 184. Polyandrous : with numerous distinct stamens. Polycotyledonous, 1.59. Polygamous: huvirg perfect as well as imperfect flowers, Polypetalous : hnving separate petals. Polysepalous : having separate sepals. Pome, 148. Posterior : next the axis. Prffifl rali-^n, see Estivation. Pra}foliation : the disposition of leaves in the bud. Prickles, 90. Procumbent : lying on the ground. Prosonchynia, 1G7. Prostrate, 90. Protoplasm, 103. Pubescent : covered with fine down. Punctate: having transparent dots, like the Icr.ves of St. John's Wort. Putc^mcn, 147. Pyxis, li35. i Quinquefoliolate : having five leaflets. Eaceme, 122. 130 INDEX AND GLOSSARY. RnonmoRo: liko a rticcmo. Rachis: nn iixis. Radiate, 101. Radical : pertain iiiR to tho root. Radical loavc8, 4. Radicle, 58. Raphides, lCu\. Ray : the inarf,'inal florets of a compositp flower, as distinguished from tio disk, Rocei)tac'(!, 8. Rernrved : curved backwards. Rcflexod : bent backwards. Regular : with parts of tho same size and shape. Reniform, Fig. 121. Reticulated : netted. Ret use : slightly notched nt the apex. Revolute : rolled back. Rhi/,omo. 91. lihs, 101 Ringont, 131. Roi.t, 2, 83. Root-hairs, 1G5. Rootlet 2. Ro )tstock, 91. Rotate, 130. Rotation in cells, 103. Rudia;entary : imperfectly developed. Rugose : wrinkled. Runcinate: with teeth pointing backwards, as in the leaf c? Dandelion. Runner, 90. Sagittate, Fig. 120. Salver-shared, Fig. 141 Samara. Fig. 1G2. Sap, 172, 171. Sarcocarp : the flesh of a drupe. Scabrous : rotigh. Scanckiit : climbing. Scape, 19. Scar, 157 Scion : a young shoot. Seed, 17," 157, 108, Seed-vessel, see Ovary. Sepal, 6. Septicidal (dehiscence) Septum : a partition. Series, 179. Serrate, 112 splitting open along tli partitions.© INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 131 Sessile, 4. rjetaceuurf : liko a bristle. Shoiith : Cj tulio Hunomuliiij^ a Btom, C)'2. Bh»'ultiii)K : sunoutuUiii^ liko ti Kbciitli. Sliielil-sljivpod. nee Peltate. Shoot : u uowly formed branch. Shrub, 80. Silicic, loo. Silique, l')5. Simple (leaves), 100 ; (pistil), 1.37. Sinuato : wavy on the margin. Solitary, 121. SpadicLMMis, 179. Spadix, G'J. Spathe, 69. Spathulate, 107. Species, 179. Spike, 122. Spikc'let, a secondary spike. Spindle shaped, 85. Spine, 96. Spiral markings, 107. Spores : the reproductive bodies in Cryp. ogams which correRponcl to the seeds of Phanerogams. Spur, liil. Stiimon, C, 132. Staminate (flower) : having no ]ustil, but only stamens. Standard : the broad upper petal of a papilionaceous corolla. Stem, 3, 88. Stemless, 18. Sterile (flower) : having no pistil. •Stigma, 7. Stigmatic : bearing the stigma. Stipulate: haviug stipules, liri. Stipule, lil, 115. btolon : c short branch which droops to the ground and takas root. ntomate, 173, Stone, SCO Putamen. Stone-fruit, see Drope. Strap-shaped, see Ligulate. Striate : marked lengthwise with lines or furrows. Strobile : same as Cone. Style, 7. Sub-class, 179. Subulate, Fig. 112. Succulent: juicy; fleshj*. Sucker: an underground branch, at length emerging and form- lug a stem. 182 INDEX AND OLOS5ARY. Sxiporior, 7, 37, 44. Bupprt'Hsion : ii!>8('iico M parts. Suspondcil : liiiii;^ troni ai)ovn. Sutun', J;iH. Syimnctrioal, 42. SyncarpouH, 2'.). Syugcuijsioiis, '17 Tap-root, 81. Te.th (of calyx), 32. Tendril, 90. Terete : cylindrical. Terminal: at tne end of a stem or branch. Ternato : iu throes. Testa, 157. Tetradynamous, 28, 13G. Tetrandrous : having four distinct stamens. ThalamifloroiiH : having the stamens inserted on the receptacle. ThaliimnH : tho rocoptaclo. Thread-shaped, Bee Filiform. Throat (of c.lyx), 128. Thorn, seo Spine. Thyrse, 123. Tissue, 1G2. Tomentose : woolly. Tooth'.d, see Dentate, 112. Torus : same as receptacle. Tree, 89. Triadelphoiis, 134. Triandioua : having three distinct stamens. Tiiennial: lasting three years. ( Trifoliolato : having three leaflets. Truncate, 111. Trunk : the main stem. Tube, 34, 128, Tuber, 91. Tuberous : like a tuber. Tunicated, 92. Twining, 90. ' Two lipped, see Labiate, 50. Umbel, 122. Umbellet : a secondary umbel. IJnguiculate : having a claw. y i Valvate : edge to edge, but not overlapping. Valve. 41, 133, 147. Valved : having valves. Varieties, 179. ' , INDEX AND OL0a!4ARY. IQQ VaHcular tisHuo, 107. Veiijg : tho liner purt.s of tlie framework of a loaf Venation, 101. Ventral Hutiiie, 1.^8. Vernation, Ramo an Pra-foliatijii VersatiNs 132. Vertical leaves, 98. Vertiinllate Vessels, K; Villose, ll(i. Wavy : with altornato ronndrd hollows an.l pn-joftions 112 ^^^e.l^psha,K.a : hko a w.a«e. tlu, broad oart hoin« ho .'"e vVh('(d-shap. d, Boe Ilotnto. Whorl : a cir.do of throe or tuoro loav.s at lh« san;e nod" Woody tisKue, 107. /- APPENDIX. jjticrttons from (L-^ram.i nation papers UNIVEIISITY OF TORONTO. 1. Define suckers, stolons, offsets, rimneis, tendrils, thorns, and prickles, describing their respective origins and uses, and giving examples of plants in which they occur 2. What are the functions of leaves "> Describe the different kinds of compound leaves. 8. What is meant by inflorescence ? Describe the 'liOerent kinds of flower-clusters, giving an example of i^ach. 4. Mention and explain the terms applied to the various modes of insertion of stamens. 6. How are fruits classified ? What are multiple or collective fruits ? Give examples. 6. Relate the dillerences in structure between endo- genous and exogenous stems. Describe their respective modes of growth. 7. What is the food of plants ? how do they obtain it ? and ho,v do they make use of it ? 8. Describe the component parts of a simple flower. How is reproduction effected ? 9. Describe the anatomical structure of a leaf, and the formation and oflice of leaf-stomata. 10. Explain the consequences of flowering upon the health of a plant, and shew liow these effects arc reme- died in different climates. What practical bearing has this upon horticulture ? 11. Trace tho developm;^nt of a carpel from a leaf. Describe the different forms assumed by placentas in 184 APPENDIX. 135 le the emc- bas leaf, in compound ovaries, and explain the origin of these variations. 12. Mention the principal modes in which pollen gains access to the stigma. What are hybrid plants, and how are they perpetuated ? 18. Describe the anatomy of a leaf. What are stomata ? 14. What is the i)lacenta in a seed vessel ? Describe the different modes of 2)lacentation. Shew how the varietiesiof placentatiou agree with the " altered-leaf theory " (of the pistil. 15. Give the characters of the Composita?. How is the order subdivided ? Describe the composite ilower, and mention some of the common Canadian examples of this order. 16. Give the peculiarities of Endogens in seed-leaf, leaf, and stem. Subdivide tlie class. Describe shortly the orders Aracem and Gramiiiete. 17. Describe the wall of a seed-vessel, and notice its varieties of form. 18. What is meant by the dehiscence of a capsule ? Show the different modes in which pods dehisce, and give examples of each. 19. Give the characters and orders of Gymnosper- mous Exogens. 20. Give the chara3tcrs of llfinunculacGffi. Describe shortly r.ome of tlje principal plants of the order. 21. Give some account of the special fonns which the leaves of plants assume. 22. What are slipules ? What their size and shape ? 23. What ia meant by Imperfect, Incomi^lete, and Unsymmetrical flowers respectively ? 21. Describe Papilionaceous and Labiate corollas. 25. Writo notes on Abortive Organs, Gymnosper- mou3 Pistil, and Pollen Granule. 26. Distinguish between the essential and non-essen- tial materials found in plants, and notice the non-es- sential. 27. What is vegetable growth ? Illustrate by a ref- 186 APPENDIX. erence to the pollen granule in its fertilization of the ovary. 28. What is an axil ? What is the pappus ? 29. What are the cotyledons ? What is their func- tion, and what their value in systematic Botany ? 30. Distinguish between Epiphytes and Parasites; Describe their respective modes of growth, and give ex- amples of each. 81. What is the difference between roots and subter- ranean branches '? Define rhizoma, tuber, corm, and bulb, giving examples of each. How does a potato differ botanically from a sweet-potato ? 32. Describe the calyx and corolla ; what modifica- tions of parts take place in double flowers ? 83. What IS a fruit in Botany ? Explain the struct- lu'o of an apple, grnpe, almond, strawberry, fig, and pineapple. 34. What organs appear in the more perfect plants ? In what two divisions arc they comprised ? 35. Weak climbing stems distinguished according to the mode in which they support tliemselves, the direc- tion of their growth, the nature of their clasping organs. 86. Structure and parts of a leaf : What is most im- portant in their study ? Give the leading divisions, and mention what secondary distinctions are required in specific description ? 87. Function of the flower : its origin : its essential and accessory parts : names of the circles and their component organs : circumstances which explain the differences among flowers. 38. Parts of the fully formed ovule and distinctions founded on their relative position. 89. Sub- kingdoms and classes of the vegetable king- dom. SECOND CLASS TEACHERS' CERTIFICATES, PROVINCE OF ONTARIO. 1. Name the parts of the pistil and stamens of a flower and give their uses APPENDIX. 137 btial [heir the bg- IS. a 2. What are Perennial plants '? Describe their mode of life. 8. " There are two great classes of stems, which differ in the way the woody part is arranged in the cellular tissue." Fully explain this. 4. Describe the functions of^leaves. How are leaves classified as to their veinhifi- 5. Name and describe the organic constituents of plants. G. Name the organs of reproduction in plants, and describe their functions. 7. Give, and fully describe, the principal parts of tlie flower. 8. What are the different narts of a plant ? Describe the functions of eacli part. 9. State all the ways by which an Exogenous stem may be distinguished from an Endogenous. 10. Describe the functions of leaves. What is the cause of their fall in autumn ? Draw and describe a maple leaf. 11. Name the different parts of a flower, and describe the use of each part. Draw a diagram showing a sta- men and a pistil and the parts of each. 12. What is the fruit ? Why do some fruits fall from the stem more easily than others ? 13. Of what does the food of plants consist ? In what forms and by what organs is it taken up, and how is it asssimilated? Name the substances inhaled and those exhaled by plants, and the uses of each in the economy of nature. 14. Describe fully (1) the plant in Vegetation ; (2) the plant in Reproduction. 15. Describe Fibrous roots, Fleshy roots, and differ- ent kinds of Tap-root. 16. Describe the structure and veining of leaves. 17. "The nourishment which the mother plant pro- vides in the seed is not always stored up in the embryo." Explain and illustrate. "8. Describe the various modes in which Perennials 138 APPENDIX. "provide a stock of nourishment to begin the new growth." 19. Describe fully the organs of reproduction in a plant. Describe the process of germination. 20. What are the parts of a flower ? Give illustra- tions by diagram, with a full description. 21. Name and describe the jjrincipal sorts of flowers. 22. What elementary substances should the soil con- tain for the nourishment of plants ? 23. How are plants nourished before and after appearing above ground ? 24. Tell what vou know about the various forms of the calyx and the corolla. 25. Explain the terms Cotyledon, Pinnate, Root- stock, Filament, and Radicle. 26. Explain tlie terms Papilionaceous, Cruciferous, Silique, and Syngenesious ; and in each case name a family in the description of which the term under con- sideration may be properly applied. 27. Give the characters of the Rose family. 28. Describe the various modes in which biennials store up nourishment during their first season. 29. Explain the meaning of the terms Sepal, Bract, Raceme, and Stipule. Describe minutely the Stamen and the Pistil, and give the names applied to their parts. 30. Are the portions of the onion, the potato, and the turnip which are capable of preservation through the winter, equally entitled to the name of roots ? Give reasons for vour answer. FIRST CLASS CERTIFICATES. 1. What are the cotyledons? Describe their func- tions, &c. State their value in systematic botany. 2. Describe the diffcience in structure and modes ol growth of exogenous and endogenous stems. 8. Describe the circulation in plants. " In the aci of making vegetable matter, plants purify the air foi animals." Explain this fully. APPENDIX. 13U 4. "What are Phoenogamous j^lants ? Define Raceme, Corymb, Head, Panicle, Ament. 5. Give the characters of (a) The classes Exogeua and Ecdogens ; h) The Mint and Lily families. 0. To what family do the Cedar, Clover, Mustard, and Dandelion respectively belong ? 7. Why does a botanist consider the tuber of the po- tato an underground stem ? 8. Give the philosophical explanation of the nature of a flower considered as to the origin and correspond- ences of its different parts. 9. Draw a spathuiate, an obcordate, a truncate, a palmately-divided and an odd pinnate leaf. 10. Explain the constitution of a pome or apple- fruit. 11. What organs appear in the more perfect plants, and in what divisions are they comprised ? 12. Give the function of the flower, its origin, and its essential and accessory parts. 13. Describe the nature and chief varieties of roots, and distinguish between them and underground stems. 14. " As to the Apex or Point leaves are Pointed, Acute, Obtuse, Truncate, Retuse, Emarginate, Obcor- date, Cuspidate, Mucronate." Sketch these different forms. 15. *' There is no separate set of vessels, and no open tubes for the sap to rise through in an unbroken stream, in the way people generally suppose." Comment on this passage. 10. The great series of Flowering Plants is divided into two classes. Describe these classes. 17. Give the chief characteristics of the order cruci- fera' f^Cress Family j, and name some common exam- ples of this order. 18. State the difference between definite and indefin- ite inflorescence, and give examples of the latter. 19. Of what does the food of plants consist ? in what form is it found in the soil ? How is it introduced into the plant ? What inference may be drawn respecting the culture of the plant ? 140 APPENDIX. 20. Distinguish weak climbing stems according to the mode in which they support themselves, the direc- tion of their growth, and the nature of their clasping organs. 21. Name the ilnxa classes of Flowerless Plants, and givo an example of each. 21. Explain the terms Spore, Capsule, Bract, Stip- ule, Allmmeu, and Epiphyte. 28. What are tendrils, and of what organs are they supposed to he modifications ? 24. Give the characters of the Cress Family, and name as many jdants belonging to it as you can. 25. Tell what you know about the minute stwicture and the chemical composition of vegetable tissue. 20. Describe the origin of the different kinds of pla- centas ; and of the different parts of the fruit of the plum, the oak, and the maple. 27. Describe fully the proo-^ss by which it is sup- posed that water is carried up from the roots of plants. 28. Give the meaning of the terms stomate, indehis- cent, thyrse, glume, pyxis. Distinguish epiphytes from parasites. 29. Describe any plant you have examined ; if you can, tabulate your description. 30. Name all the families of mono] etalous dicotyle- dons which you remember, and give the characters of any one of them. McGILL UNIVERSITY. 1. Describe the germination of a plant. 2. Explain the differences in the structure of the embryo. 3. Explain the functions of the l«oot. 4. Describe the structures in a leaf, ana expiain their action on the air. 5. Mention the several parts of the stamen and the pistil, and explain their uses. 6. Describe an Achene, a Samara, a Drupe and a Silique. APPENDrX. 141 7. Describe the differences in the stems of Exogens and Endogens, and the relations of these to the other parts of the i)lant and to ch'issification. 8. Explain the terms Genera, Species, Order. 9. What is an excurrent stem, an axillary bud, bud scales ? 10. Explain the terms prhnoraial utricle, parenchyma^ protoiilasm, as used in Botany. 11. What are thefunctions of the nucleus in a livingcell? 12. Explain the movements of the sap in plants. 13. Describe the appearance under the microscope of rapMdeSf spiral vessels, and disc-bearing wood-cells. 14. Describe the structure of the bark of an Exogen. 15. Describe freely the anatomy of a leaf. 16. Describe shortly the parts and structures denoted by the following terms, spine, aerial root, phyllodium, cambium, stipule, rhizoma. 17. Give examples of p/ireno(/ams, cryptogains, exogens and endogens, properly arranged. 18. Describe the princij)al forms of indeterminate inflorescence. 19. In what natural families do we find ailiques, didijnamous stamens, labiate corollas, or pappus-bearing achenes'. Describe these structures. 20. State the characters of any Canadian Exogenous Order, with examples. 21. Describe the cell-walls in a living parenchymatous cell. 22. Describe the fibro- vascular tissues in an Exogen- ous stem. 23. Describe the appearance of stomata and glan- dular heirs under the microscope. 24. DefinG prosenchyma, corm, cyclosis, thallus. 25. Explain the sources of the Carbon and Nitrogen of the ])lant, and the mode of their assimilation. 26. Describe the pericarp, stating its normal struc- ture, and naming some of its modifications. 27. Explain the natural system in Botany, and state the gradation of groups from the species upward, with exampleb. 142 APPENDIX. ONTAEIO COLLEGE OF PHARMACY. 1. What do plants feed upon ? 2. What do you understand by the terms Acaulescent, Apetalous, Suffrutoscent, Culm ? 8. Name eomo of the different forms of Primary, Secondary, and Aerial Roots, giving examples. 4. Explain the following terms descriptive of forms of leaves, giving sketch : — Ovate, Peltate, Crenate, Serrate, Cleft, Entire, Cuspidate, Perfoliate. 5. Explain difference between Determinate and In- determinate inflorescence, giving three examples of each. 6. What organs are deficient in a sterile and a fertile flower ? 7. Give the parts of a perfect flower, with their rela- tive position. 8. Give the difference between simple and compound Pistil, with example of each. 9. Name the principal sorts of buds, and explain how the position of these affects the arrangement of branches. 10. Give description o,f multiple and primary roots, with two examples of same ; also explain the difference between these and secondary roots. 11. Name the principal kinds of subterranean stems and branches, and explain how you would distinguish between these and roots, 12. In the classification of plants explain differencp between classes and orders : genus and species. 13. Name three principal kinds of simple fruit. 14. When roots stop growing does the absorption of moisture increase or decrease ? Give reason for it. 15. Upon what do plants live ? Indicate how you would prove your answer correct. 16. In what part of the plant, and when, is the work of assimilation carried on ? 17. Name three prmcipal kinds of determinate, and some of indeterminate inflorescence ; name the essential organs of a flow er. APPENDIX. 148 pof you ^ork land itial 18. In what respects do plants differ from inorganic matter ? And from animals ? 19. Describe a Rhizome, Tuber, Bulb ; and say if they belong to the root or stem ; which are Rheum, Jalapa, Sweet Potato, Onion ? 20. Define the difference between natural and special forms of leaves ; between simple and compound leaves. Give example of each. Sketch a connate-perfolialo leaf. 21. Mention the parts of an embryo. Of a leaf. Of a pistil. Of a stamen. Of a seed. 22. What is meant by an albuminous seed ? By dioecious flowers ? By a compound ovary? 23. What is the difference between determinate and indeterminate inflorescence ? How do they influence growth of the stem ? Give three principal kinds of each. 24. Name the parts of a flower. What office is performed by the ovule ? Name two kinds. 25. Name the parts of a vegetable cell. Wiiat are spiral ducts ? 26. In what parts of the plant is the work of absorp- tion carried on ? In what part the work of assimila- tion ? How do plants purify the air for animals ? 27. Explain the natural system of classification in Botany ? Name and characterize the classes of plants. 28. Explain the structure and functions of the Leaf, Bud, Root. 29. Give some of the terms used in describing the shape of a simple leaf as concoi'us (a) its general con- tour, {b) its base, (c) its margin, (J) its apex. 30. Name the organs in a perfect flower ; describe fully the structure of the anther and pollen. What is coalescence and adnation of the parts of a flower ? 81. Explain the terms Raceme, Pappus, Coma, Rhi- zome, Pentastichous. 32. State the distinction between Exogens and Endo- gens. 33. What are cellular structures as distinguished from vascular '? What is chlorophyll ? 144 APPENDIX. 84. Mention the organs of fructification, and explain the process of fertihzatiou in a floweiiug plaut. 85. Explain the structure of a seed, and describe in a few words the process of germination. 8G. D fine what is meant by the following terms : — Morphology, Polycotyledonous, Epiphyte, Peduncle, Stipules. 87. Describe briefly the root stem, leaf, and flower of the common dandelion, giving the functions or office of each. 88. Name some of the most common forms of leaves, giving a few rough outlines. 89. Of what part of the flower does the fruit nomin- ally consist ? What additional parts are in some in*" stances present ? 40. Define the terms Drupe, Pollen, Gynandrous, Pome, Aduate. 41. Exi)lain the process of fertilization in flowering plants, and mention the different ways in which it is brought about. 49. Enumerate the different varieties of tissue recog- nized by botanists, and give their situation in an Endo- genous stem. THE END. EXAMINATION PAPERS IN ARITHMETIC, By J. A. McLellan, LL.D., Inspector High Schools, and Th08. Kihkland, \I.A., Science Master, Normal School, Toronto. SECOND Edition. PRICE $1.00. From the GUELPH MERCURY. . . . Tlie work is divided into six chapters. The first \a on the Unitary Method, and pives solutions sliowiii}]^ its ai>plication to a variety of problems, in Simple and Compound Proportion ; Percentage, Interest, Discount, Profit and Loss ; Proportional Parts, Partnership; Chain Rule, Exchange, Alli^ration ; Connnissidn, Insurance. &c., Stocks ; and Miscellaneous Prohli.ins. Tiie second is on Elementary Rules, Measures and Multiples, \'u]j,'ar and Decimal Fractions. 'Ihe third contains E.xamination Pa|)ers f<'r entrance into liijrh Schools and Colley;iate Institutes, tlie foiirth for candidates for thiril-chvss certifi- cates, the fifth for eantlidates for the Intermediate Examination and second-class ccrtiticates, and the sixth for candidates for third-class certificates and Univt r.sily Honours. It will he ohservcd that the work bei^nns with the fundamental rules— tho.ic principles to he acquired when a pupil first enters upon the stuil.v of Arithmetic, and carries him forward till jirepared for the highest class of certificates and for Honours of the University. . . . Teachers will find in it a necessary help in supplying questions to jrlve their cla.sses. Those who aspire to be teachers cannot have a better uuide— indeed there is not so good a one— on the suliject with which it is occupied. From the ADVERTISER. . . . By all who are gropiiifj after some method better than they have at present, this volume will be cordially welcomed, and many who have never suspected the po.ssibility of accomplisliing so much by independent methods, will be, by a perusal of the introduc- tory cluipter, impelled to think for themselves, and enabled to teach their pupils how to do so. . . It is far superior to anythinj^ of the kind ever introduced into this country. . . . The typograijhical appearance of the work is of a very high character— quite equal, in fact, to anytliing of the kind issued by the best publishing houses of London or New York. From the TELESCOPE. . . . The plan of the work is excellent, the exercises bei7ig arranged progressively, each series preparing the student for the next. The problems are all original, and .so constructed as to prevent the student using any purely mechanical methods of solution. . . . We should really feel proud of our Canadian Authors and publishing houses, when we consider tlie infancy of our country and the progress it has made and is making in educational matters, twd particularly is the recently pr^iahed educational worka. \ .fftillcr & Co/s Sbucatioiutl S>crics. HAMBLIN SMITH'S MATHEMATICAL WORKS, ARR URFI) ALMOST KXCI.IRIVKLT In the Normal and Model Schools. Toronto , Upper Canada College : Hamilton and Brantford Collegiate Institutes ; Bow- manville, Berlin. Belleville, and a large number of leading High Schools in the Province. HAMBLIN SMITH'S ALGEBRA, with Appendix, by Alfroil Ilakor, B.A., Mathematical Tutor, Univer «>ty Collejre, Toronto. Price, 90 cents THOMAS KIRKLAND, M.A., Science Mnnt^r, Normal School. " It is the text-book on Aljrebra for candidates for sccond-cl^ss :eTtif1oatoK. and for the Intermediate Examination. Not the least valuable part of it is the Appendix by .Mr. Balder." GEO. DICKSON. R.A., Head Master, Coilcpriato Institute. Hamilton. " Arranjfcment of subjects trood ; explanations and proofs cxhaus- Hve, concise and clear ; examples, for the most jKirt from University ind College Kxamination Papers, are numerous, easy and proffrossive. There is no better Algebra in u.^e in our High Schools and Collegiate Institutes. ■• WM. R. RIDDELL, B.A., B.Sc, Mathematical Master, Normal School, Ottawa. " The Algebra is admirable, and well adapted a* a general text- book." W. E. TILLEY, B.A., Mathematical Ma.ster, Bowmanville High School •' I look on the Algebra a.s decidedly the best Elementary Work on the subject we have. The exani})les are excellent and well arranged. The explanations are easily understood. R. DAWSON, B.A., T.C.D., Head Master, High School. Belleville. "With Mr Baker's admirable Appendix, there would wem to be nothing left to be desired. We have now a first cla.ss bonk, well adapted in all respects to the wants of pupils of all grades, from the beginner in our Public Schools to the most advanced student in our Collegiate Institutes and High Schools. Its publication is a great buou to the over-worked mathematical teachers of the Province b b e I u •1 01 NEW ELEMENTARY ARITHMETIC ON THE UNITARY METHOD. By Thomab KiHKi-ANP, M.A., Science Master Normal School, auii Wuj.iAM ScuTT, B.A., Head Master Model Bcliool, Toronto. Intended ae an Introdtictory Text-Book to Jlamblin Smith'i Artthmetio, Cloth Extra. 176 Pages. Price 25 Cents. W. D. DIMOCK, A.B., Head Muster Provincial Model Schools. Nova Scotia. The Elementary Arithmetic by Kirkland and Snott I can heartily rpcoininoiid to our teacliern. Ah a pr.'piiiiitory Arith- metic I 111! VI' not Boen itfinqual. rii« youngitnpil. I y the iirr»iii(;t<- niont of tho priiicijilos pvoHouted and tlie oxorciHCH laid down, i» led aliiioHt unconsciouBly to the great ftold of the unknown, by a Step, that makes bio earlier arithmetical studies a pleasure and a profit ▲. H. McKAT, Principal of Pictou Academy and Public Sohools. I havf> examined your Eloiiientnry Arithmptienn the unitary •ysteni by Kirkland and Scott, and have no hesitation in Haying that I consider it tlie btiat F.leinentnry Aritltmelir which I have yet seen, it iH aihiiirablv adaj)ted to the roquircmonts of Krades Ist, 2nd and 3rd of our hcIiooIk, at it oCferH, in nddition to onr preHent textbook, a copioun and well Helectod assortment of ex- ercises, a ^ood arrant^emdnt end conciseness in definition and explanation. W. E. 8PRAGUE, TTead Master, Model and Public Schools, Cobourg. Since failures in Aritlinietic are mainly due to a want of power in independent anulysin— to a lack of knowlodpe of the unitary inctiiod and of skill in its application-tliis volume which discnsHes the \)Xo\)\e\\\i on ii\,'e of my twenty-seven years experieiic gemont is natural and coinprehensiTe. The que' clear, terse, attractive language. consid ceuded. JEl r<.A.. LL.B., Ac, Math. Master Ottawa Normal School. it well adapted for the purpose for which it is in- JOHN r ^RNESS, Public Sc> ool Inspector, East Middleiei. I have examined this book h increasing pleasure and c«n ■peak of it in almost unqualifl' ecomnaendation. It is, in my obinion. the best Aienaenta- o-ithmetio I have ezamiaed. i; THREE EDITIOiNS SOLD IN SIX MONTHS -OF— HAMBLIN SMITH'S ARITHMETIC, ADAPTED TO CANADIAN CURIBHCT BT THOMAS EIRKLAND, M.A., Science Mastmr Normal School, Toronto, and WM. SCOTT, M.A., Head Master Model S.^^ool, Ontario- 4th Edition, Price, 75 Cents. AutJuyriMed by th$ Miniater of Education, Ontario, Authorized by Ihe Council of Public In$truction, Qu4b9e, Becommended by the Senate of the Univ. of Halifax. Authoriged by the Chief Supt. Education, Manitoba- FROM NOVA SCOTIA. A. 0. A. DOANE, Inspector of Schools, Barrington, N. B. " Eamblln Smith's arithmetic seems very suitable to the neeea* slties of our public schools. The exercises are adni.vruble, and the examination ptipors are invaluable as aids to teachers in thorough training. Thoy will also lu-ove of great service to pupil- desirous of passing the grade tests. Tlie author ap})ear8 not to rely so much on set rules as upon explanations and the clearing of seeming obscv.rities, so that pupils may readily comprehend the questions and proceed to the solutions. I cordially recommend its use to all those desirous of 5btainiug an acquaintance with this branch of nseful kuovledgu. 0. F. ANDREWS, Inspector for Queen's Co., Not» Sootla. " I have much pleasure in certifying to the superiority of the Canadian edition of Eamblin Smith's Arichmetic over any text book on that subject that has yet come under my notice. It is {>ractical, complete and comprehensive. The appendix and exam- nation papers are important and valuable features. I shall be pleased to recommend its early introduction." N W. S. DANAGH, M.A., Inspector of Schools, Cumberland, N. B. Hamblin Smith's Abithmetic— "It has a value for candidates preparing for public examination, as the examples have been mostly culled nrom Examination papers, indeed I may say that I have not seen any other work on this branch that is so specially oalculated to assist the student in passing with credit official ' r.»t$. I therefore think that Hamblin Smithes Arithmetic should be placed on the authorimed liet of book* for pablio schools.* 0 k I