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HP iv ppi I f ONTARIO DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TORONTO. MARCH, 1900. THE SAN JOSg AND OTHER SCALE INSECTS PREPARED FOR THE USE OF FRUIT GROWERS AND SCALE INSPECTORS, BY Wn. LOCHHEAD, B.A., M.S., rRurBSSUB OF BIOLOGY IN THE ONTAKIO AiililCl l.TUKAL, COl.l,i:(ilO, (ilEU'lI, ONT., CANADA. TORONTO: WARWICK BRO"S & RUTTER, T^RINTERS. I'.IOO. Introdt Whata The Sa Orj Spi Th In£ Th No Ho Th Mc Th Ini Fu Th Oc TheCi The CI The Pi The El TheO] The He TheNi A Key How"t( CONTENTS. PACK. Introduction 5 What »re Scale Insecta ? 6 The San Joe^ Scale : Original Home 8 Spread 8 The Scale in Ontario 10 Instances of Death of Trees from the Attacks of the San Jose Scala 13 The Life-History of the San Jos^ Scale 13 Notes on the General Habits of the San Jose Scale .... 18 How the San Jos^ Scale Spreads 20 The San Job^ Scale and Climatic Conditions 21 Methods of Treatment for the San Jos'i Scale . . 22 (a) Hydrocyanic Acid Gas 23 (b) Whale-oil Soap Solution 23 (c) Crude Petroleum 24 (d) Diluted Kerosene 25 The Opinions of Some Prominent Entomologists who have had Experience in Fighting? the Scale 26 Insect Enemies of Scale Insects 29 Fungous Diseases 30 The Identification of ihe San Jos^ Scale 31 Occurrence on Forest Trees, etc 33 The Curtis or Ostreueform Scale 33 The Cherry or Forbes Scale 36 The Putnam Scale 37 The English Walnut Scale 38 The Oyster-Shell Bark Louse 40 The Scurfy Bark Louse , 42 The New York Plum Scale 43 A Keylfor the Determination of Scales 46 Howto arrange a Cheap and Practicable Spray-pump 47 -THE— SAN JOSE AND OTHER SCALE INSECTS. By Prof. Wm. Lochhead. Ontario Agricultural College. Tlie Scales discussed in this Pamplilet are : 1. The San Josd Scale. The Ostreaeform or Curtis Scale, The Cherry or Forbes Scale. The Putnam Scale. The English Walnut Scale. 6. The Oj'ster-shell Bark-Louse. 7. The Scurfy Bark-Louse. 8. The New York Plum Scale. 2. 3. 4. 5. INTRODUCTION. The purpose of this pamphlet is to place before the fruit-gi'owers, and all interested in the preservation of their orchards, the main facts regarding the life-history, habits, and appearance of the San Jos6 Scale, and of those Scales which are often mistaken for it. It is hoped that the descriptions and drawings of the various scales may enable the orchardist and inspector to identify any form which may be living on trees and shrubs, so that its presence may be reported to the authorities at Toronto, Ouelph, or Ottawa. It is quite possible that the Scales are more widely spread through the Province than is generally believed, and only by the co-operation of the intelligent, observant fruit-growers is it possible for the Department of Agriculture to prevent their further spread, without a great expenditure of money for inspection. To many people, the pres- '3nce of Scale insects in such alarming numbers within recent years is quite unaccountable, and the entomologists of Canada and the United States have been blamed by some for introducing the pests. It is true that very few scale insects were found in our orchards a generation ago, but it niust be remembered that conditions as regards scale insects have altered very much during the last few years. The wonderful develop- ment of commerce, through the introduction of steam ships and rail- ways, has brought us into close touch with many distant countries, whose [5] 6 products we are willing to exchange for our own. With the exchange of products lias come the exchange of pests which prey upon these products. Last century the Oyster-Shell Bark- Louse was introduced by settlers into New England, Australia and other countries, from Europe, so that it is now found all over the world. The San Jos4 Scale, whose original home is now supposed to be Japan, has, within recent years, spread from California over most of the United States, and portions of Canada. The Ostreaform or Curtis scale (Aspidiotns Ostreafonnia), which is quite prevalent in Europe, has been found in many districts in Canada and the United States during the past year, and it gives evidence of being troublesome to the orchardist. It is fair to assume, then, that the presence of so many scale insects in our Province is due, in a large measure, to the im- portation of foreign and tropical plants and fruits, and not to the caie- lessness of entomologists who may wish to increase their collection of insects. In the United States and Canada there are about 125 species of scale insects known, and of these nearly thirty have come to us from foreign countries. Prof, r^ockerell, of New Mexico Ag. Exper. Station, who is well acquainted with the scales of Mexico and the West Indies, tells us that there are 130 additional species in the tropics, any one of which may find its way to the United States or Canada. What are Scale Insects ? Scale insects differ very much among themselves. Some, like the mealy-bugs, secrete a covering composed of a cottony material ; some, like the lecaniums, secrete a waxy, hard, continuous layer, which forms a protection for the back ; while others, like the San Jos^ and oyster- shell bark-louse,, possess true scale-like coverings, composed partly of a waxy secretion and partly of moulted skins, beneath which the insect lives. The San Jos^ scale produces living young, but most other scale insects lay eggs from which emerge six-legged larvre, which are (|uite active for a short time, running about hither and tliither in search of a suitable place to settle down and live by sucking the sap of the plant through their long slender thread-like mouth-parts. As the larva con- tinues to grow it moults several times by casting off its old skin, and with each moult the female gradually loses its feelers, eyes, and legs, while wmgs are never developed. The male larva, after moulting twice or thrice transforms into an active two-winged in. ect with long feelers, strong legs, and large eyes, but without mouth-parts. The adult life of the male is short. As soon as the male has fertilized the females it dies, so that every larval scale insect is fatherless and posthumous. Scale insects are, then, insects which reveal their true insect structure in their young larval and ndult male states. The female has apparently become degraded, and possesses little else than the powers of feeding and repro- duction. Fig. L— (1) Forbes Scale ; (2) Curtis Scale ; (3) San Jose Scale. (Original.) 8 1. San Jos6 Scale.* (Aspidioius perniciosua.) Original Home. — Indirect evidence points to Japan as the probable original home of the San Jose Scale. Both American and Australian entomologists are convinced that the San Jose Scale was introduced into California and Australia on flowering cherry trees, plum trees, and other plants imported from Japan. In support of the belief, it may be said that such plants were found infested when they reached California. Spread. — As early as 1873 the San Josd Valley orchards of Cali- fornia were badly infested, and in the previous year, 1872, its first ap- pearance in Chili was reported. This pest, however, remained unde- scribed until 1880, when Prof. J. H. Comstock described it, and assigned to it the very suggestive specific name perniciosiis, i. e., pernicious. From California the scale spread to Chili, New South Wales, and the Eastern States. Its appearance in the East was noted at Charlottesville, Virginia, by Dr. Howard, of Washington, in 1893. The infested plants, chiefly currant and pear, had been introduced three or four years before 1890) from a New Jersey nursery. Four years previous (1886) to tiJs distrilDution of infested stock curculio-proof plum trees from the San Jose Valley had been planted in this same nursery, so that in all proba- bility the San Jos^ Scale was introduced and distributed for sevpial years before public attention was directed to the matter. In connection with the introduction of the scale into New Jersey from California, it may be interesting to observe the exact circumstances, which are as follows : Stark Bros., nurserymen, of Levvison, Missouri, had ordered curculio- prooi plum trees from California, but when the two boxes of nursery stock arrived they appeared small and inferior in quality. Unwilling to accept the trees. Stark Bros, asked the California shippers for advice as to what should be done with them, and were instructed to forward them to New Jersey. These trees, no doubt, were the initial source of con- tagion. From the fact that many other infested areas, which cannot be traced to New Jersey sources, became known soon after the Virginia discovery, it would appear that many direct importations from California and Japan took place. When Dr. Howard and Prof. Marlatt wrote their Bulletin No. 3, " The San Jos^ Scale : Its Occurrence in the United States," in 1896, the scale had gained entrance to "no less than fourteen States east of the Rocky Mountains, and is known to have occurred in as many as twelve nurseries, from several of which it has been sent out broadcas<^ for upward of seven years." From New Jersey the scale was carried directly to Maryland, Indiana, New York, Ohio and Illinois, as well as to Ontario. The sources of the Ontario infestations are New Jersey, New York, and Maryland nurseries. !ii ^Pronounced Sdn-HD-Sfiy. Fio. 2. i FlQ. 2. —(, I) New York Plum So»le; (2) OyBter-shell Bark-louse ; (8) Scurfy Bark-louse. (Origlr.RU 10 |i! f The San Jose Seale has been reported from the following States and Territories of the Union : Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Cali- fornia, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Idaho, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Missouri, Michi- gan, Mississippi, New Mexico, New Jersey, New York, Nevada, Norfh Carolina, Or^^gon, Oklahoma, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Texas, Vermont Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, and District of Columbia. The Scale in Ontario. — There is some difficulty in determining the exact length of time the scale has been in Ontario. The first reported occurrence was in Mr. John Vanhorn's orchard near Chatham. An importation of thirty Abundance and Simoni plum trees was received from the Parry nurseries, New Jersey, in 1895. Mr. Vanhorn disregarded the warnings contained in a circular sent out soon after by the Parry Bros., which intimated that in some manner San Jos6 Scale, from Cali- fornia had got into their nurseries. In the winter of 1896 many of these trees looked suspicious, and in January, 1897, specimens were sent to Dr. Fletcher, wlio identified the insect as San Jos^ Scale. In spite of vigor- ous treatment with the California mixture of lime, sulphur and salt, and whale-oil soap solution, the scale spread into an adjoining orchard, 30 rods distant. Mr. Vanhorn thinks, however, that if the whale-oil soap applications had been carefully and thoroughly made the scale would have been prevented from spreading, and the trees kept healthy and full of vitality. On May 10th, of the same year (1897), Mr. Chas. Thonger, of Niagara, reported to Dr. Fletcher, that he had found scale on saveral of his dwarf pear trees. He removed several trees as beirg too badly infested tocure^ and attempted to treat others not so badly infested with whale-oil soap. All of the early infested stock, he says, came from a Rochester nursery in 1894 and 1895, and as ont of the trees showed unmistakable signs of disease in 1896, the indications are, as Mr. Thonger says, " that the scale may spread one or two seasons without being observed, or even longer, or migrate from the infested stock and develop more quickly in a new loca- tion." Although Mr. Thonger treated his trees with a weak whale-oil soap solution, the scale spread to other trees, and to neighboring orchards. About eight years ago, several nurserymen and orchardists in the Niagara peninsula imported heavily from Little Silver, New Jersey ; and it would almost seem as if the Little Silver nurserymen were aware of the infested state of their stock, for, as a rule, the stock was disposed of at lower rates tlian usual. In this manner the orchards of Messrs. Lee, Hutchison, Stuai't and others, became infested. Again, prior to the placing of the embargo on American stock, many nurserymen bought heavily from Lovott and Berry, of New Jersey, so that infested stock became scattered throughout the Province. At the end of the shipping season, the imported stock left over after the orders had been tilled was planted out in the nursery rows, and in this manner four nurseries. Decame infested. Thj iThe sea) quite a] i spring with fr^ ;were pi Jersey. ^ immediJ Th| Kingsvf vitality! orcharc in vaca| i and it j break ! San Joi Gi occurre his tree I nursery ? scale hj :i Al j 1899. I sery f ri \ and sol these ii Tl duced nurser; hundre A Mr. G. of 300 these 1 have 1 T New . C Stony large of thi and f( vinco infest desln bates and ido, Cali- Indlana, •i, Michi- a, Norfh a, Texas, olumbia. ning the reported m. An received egarded le Parry m Cali- of these t to Dr. f viofor- alt, and lard, 30 )il soap lid have full of nagara, 3 dwarf to cure, il soap, mrsery igns of le scale »ger, or w loca- mle-oil shards, in the ersey ; aware sposed klessrs. to the ►ought stock ipping 1 was •series. 11 The outbreak in St, Catharines was observed in the spring of 1897. 5The scale spread very rapidly during the summer, and the danger became quite apparent. The trees which were infested had been planted in the ispring of 1894 ; and in the fall of 1897, although the trees were loaded with fruit, manj' dead limbs were to oe seen. The infested pear trees iwere purchrsed through an Ontario nurseryman from Little Silver, New Jersey. At the present time several orchards both in the city and in the :' immediate vicinity are infested. The next occurrence reported was in Mr. John D. Wigle's orchard at Kingsville, on Nov. 11th, 1897, when a few pear trees showed a lack of vitality. The scale in this case was first observed on the fruit. The orchard was planted in 1888 ; but replanting took place in 1891, to fill i in vacancies. These '•eplants were obtained from a Canadian nursery ; I and it is supposed that they became centres of infestation, as the out- ; break occurred at four points where replanting had taken place. The ; San Jos^ Scale is now found in five different orchards at Kingsville. I Guilds, in Kent County, is another area of infestation. The first ] occurrence was in the orchard of T. P. Warner, who noticed in 1 897 that I his trees were dying. The original source of this infestation was some i nursery stock imported from Maryland in 1891 or 1892. Here, too, the .^ scale has spread and is to be found in several orchards. i Another outbreak was reported from Belleville, in the summer of I 1899. All the infested trees in this locality have been traced to a nur- I sery from which infested stock was sent to various parts of the Province, and sold at a low price on the market. I am informed, however, that all these infected trees have been removed willingly by the owners. The infestation at Burlington, near Hamilton, was unwittingly intro- duced about six years a^'o, on stock procured through one of our own nurserymen. Four or five infestations have been located and about one hundred trees destroyed. At St. Thomas the scale waf' introduced probably five years ago into Mr. G. Upper's orchard. Six years ago Mr. Upper planted out an orchard of 300 plums and pears, of which some died and were replaced. One of these reph'nts which made no growth, and finally died, is supposed to have ini'osted the remainder of the orchard. The t\/o infested trees found at Gaelph were imported directly from New Jeraey, by Mr. Alexander, the owner. They have been destroyed. Other isolated infestations occur at Beanisville, Grimsby, Winona, Stony Creek, Bactonville, and Pundas, the sources of which were the large importations made about eight years ago by several nurserymen of this district from Little Silver, New Jersey. The San Jos(!' Scale has been found in seven nurseries in Ontario ; and for a short time infested stock was sent to various parts of the Pro- vince, but the Department of Agriculture dealt very vigorously witii the infestations in the nurseries, traced up the infested stock, and had it destroyed. It is hoped that the Fumigation Act, which compels all 12 nurserymen to fumigate their stock with hydrocyanic acid gas, before its distribution from the nurseries, will prevent a recurrence of the conditions spoken of. If the nurseries are kept free from scale, no wide distribution of the pest can take place ; and at the present time it is the duty of every nurseryman to conform to the requirements of the Act, even at a considerable sacrifice. The foregoing statements should convince even the most skeptical that the assertion made bv some orchardists that the scale has been in existence in Ontario for over twenty years is not warranted by facts. Twenty years ago the San Jos^ Scale was not known outside of California, and there is no indication of its occurrence east of the Rockies before 1886, when curculio-proof plum trees were introduced into New Jersey nurseries. If scale was found twenty years ago in Ontario, it was probably the Putnam Scale, which resembles the San Jos^ Scalo very closely ; for the Putnam Scale is a native species and is widely distributed, but seldom becomes a dangerous pest. Instances of Death of Trees from the Attacks of the San Jos4 Scale. — Most persons must have convincing proof of the destructive- ness of a pest before they will voluntarily make strong efforts to combat it. During the early stages of the fight against the scale in Ontario but few cases of death occurred among our fruit-trees, the re lult being that the orchardists did not believe the scale to be destructive, as it had been pictured. Moreover, the worst infested orchards were cut down and burned before the public saw the full eflfects of the visitation of the pe3t. No "awful object-lessons," in the form of hundreds of acres of dead orchard trees, such as could be seen in Maryland, were presented to the people of Ontario. As time passed on, however, many decided instances were observed, and, as a rule, the owners of these dead trees reported to the San Jos^ Scale Commissioners that they were favorably inclined to the axe and fire method of dealing with the infested trees. A few instances where dead trees have been seen and reported are here given for the purpose of convincing some who seem to persist in the mistaken belief that the scale is comparatively harmless : 1. Several dwarf pear-trees and currant bushes dead from the effects of the scale in Mr. A. W. Wright's, orchard, Niagara. " In the case of pear-trees which had been planted in the place of trees which had been badly infested the previous year, very good growth had been made (2 feet of new wood), but this new wood was shrivelled and turning black. These trees were almost destroyed in one season." 2. Several dead trees in the orchard of Mr. Jas. Hutchinson, Niagara. 3. In the orcliard of Mr. A. Sandell, Niagara, the trees looked healtliy, leafed out, and remained green- till September, when they ihowed ight, wl \ *• J)lum ivi 5. JQtieyer, 6. live acrj the firsl[ 7. ferown I 8. ihe effec Tk ^os6 Set body ol Boon aft ivhich t Inagnify length (! ^ 'hich tl |)t whicl Season c 7here a kTas not cases, tli lours ii /oung 1 oeak th From th peeing t scale CO luite pi is the Lbout i takes p feelers, female lbout i /hich < |ind leg two da iow be very before its conditions stribution 16 duty of even at a skeptical •8 been in by facts. California, ies before jw Jersey jably the ; for the it seldom ?an JoaS tructive- o combat :ario but eing that had been |)wn and a of the acres of lented to bserved, 5an Jos6 axe and 'ted are jrsiat in e effects place of growth ri veiled ison." jhinson, 13 n looked they ihowed signs of weakening. As winter came on, some trees died out- l^ight, while others were badly injured. ; 4. In Mr. Aaron Cole's orchard, St. Catharines, several five-year-old i)lum trees were killed. These had been infest:'^' but three or four years. 5. A reliable observer saw dead trees in the orchard of Mr. Kott- |neyer, St. Catharines. 6. Mr. John Stuart, St. Catharines, stated that, out of an orchard of five acres, more trees died out of a comer of 50 or 60 trees (infested) in the first three years, than in all the rest of the orchard. 7. Mr. Trueman Warner, of Guilds, stated that he had large fuU- trown apple trees from 20 to 25 years of age killed. j 8. In Mr. John McDougall's orchard, near Guilds, 40 trees died from he effects of the scale. I The Life History of the San Jose Scale. — The larvie of the San ITos^ Scale insects are born alive, (Fig. 3). The eggs hatch within the pody of the mother, from which the young, lemon-colored larvte escape poon after, to search for suitable places on the branches and twigs upon Which to settle. The larvae are very minute at first, visible under a Inagnifying glass as yellowish specks, probably about 1-100 inch in ienpth (Fig. 5). Each larva has two feelers, a long threa i The male transforms into a true pupa about two days afte. 'ts seconc moult. The eyes are still dark purple, and there is now an anal style instead of two. About five or six days later, or about twenty-five ot twenty-six days from its birth, the adult male emerges. It backs out from the rear end of the scale, a movement which I have often observed The adult male (Fig. 7) is a two-winged insect with prominent feelers or antennPB and anal style. The eyes are dark purple, as in the larva and pupal stages. Fio. 7 wii f ^^W0^ f i Fio. (!.— San Joso Scale (Aspidiotus pcrniciosus.) (a) Four young scales and two male scales, showing the nipple and ring even in very young forms. (h) Four immature female scales, and two nearly grown male scales, showing the prominent nipple and circular groove about the nipple, of the black scales. (c) Two small female gray scales, showing the central nipple and circular groove. One scale has a nipple not central. The body of insect is beneath the scale. (Original.) Fi<; mmm 17 - 'ts seconr ? 1 anal sty]. mty-five oi t backs out sn observed lent feeler> f the larva ' Fia. 7.— Adult male insect of San Jos^ Scale, escaped from coverinfr scale, showing the two wings, two feelers, two eyes, six legs, and long anal style. (Oiv. Ent. U.S. Dep. Ag.) Fir,. 8. - A portion of branch covered with San Jns'S Scale. Appearance of scale on bark ; (a) infested twig, natural size ; (6) bark as it appears under hand lens, showing scales in various stages of development and young larvse. 2 18 ilii 1 The adult female (Fig, 4) destitute of eyes, feelers, legs, and wing.s appears about 30 or 31 days after birth, and in another week the younj. larvae make their appearance from bc^ncath the scale. The embryonic larvae can be readily seen within the body of the mother, surrounded b) a thin membrane, which breaks before the larva leaves the body. (Fig. 3) The young larvaB are to be observed any time between June 15th and Dec. 1st, when severe frosts compel them to take shelter beneath the scale, where they remain dormant until spring. All stages of maturity of larva can be obtained in the winter condition. The mature females are very prolific. From reliable observations made in Washington it was found that the average producing period of a mature female was six weeks, and the number of young produced was about 400, an average of ten for every twenty-four hours. But as a newly born larva will become mature and capable of producing young in about 38 days, there will be a continuous intermingling of generations from June to December. According to Dr. Howard's observations and calculations a single mature female will, under most favorable condi- tions, which are never obtained, have a grand total of over three thou- sand millions in a single season ! Description of Male Scale. — The adult male scale is oblong in outline, with the nipple near one end, and is much smaller than the adult female scale. The color is usually of a dark grey, with the circular raised por- tions containing the nipple and first moult slightly darker. The central portion of the nipple is generally dark or grey, but sometimes light yellow or lemon colored (Figs. 1 and 6). Description of Female Scale. — The color varies with the age of the insect. The very young scales, i.e.. those which have settled but a few (^ iyS; are round and nearly white, often with a decided central nipple. .After the first moult the scales become almost black, with a conspicuous depressed ring around the nipple. Near maturity the scales are grey, the central portions of the nipple being yellow (Figs. 1 and 6). The nipple is central, unless roughness of the bark prevents a regular development of the scale, when the scale may be oblong, and the nipple not central, or eccentric. Microscopical characters. — (Fig. 9) Median lobes of anal segment well developed, erect, and notched on ov ^er margin ; second lobe half the length of the median, notched on outer margin, and pointed ; third lobe small or absent ; incisions between median and second lobe, well marked, narrow amd deep; the chitinous thickenings between the median ami second lobe are nearly equal in size, the inner being slightly the laiger, and close together ; a small chitinous thickening on either margin of median lobe, those of second incision small but distinct ; plates small and spine like, usually serri»te, sometimes branched ; a pair of plates on third lobe and several beyond ; ventral glands absent. Notes on the General Habits of the San Jose Scale. — The arrange- ment or grouping of the San Jose Scales on the bark is often quite char- ¥ *"*WI wmmt mm 19 , and win<;« : the 30U11J, J euibrj'onic rrounded by dy. (Fig. 3" ne loth and beneath tlit of maturity 'bservatious ig pericd of odueed was But as a I ig young in generations ations and ible condi- bhree thou- j in outline, lult female i raised por- 'he central ght yellow age of the but a few •al nipple, •nspieuous grey, the a regular he nipple segment ) half the bird lobe marked^ Jian anil le lajger, argin of mall and on third arrange- ifce char- F iSf|.^'-■.^;■'1'■■f• >'' '.■"'!' Mil 9— Anal plates of female Sg Jos^ Scale. (a) Anal plate showing median lobea (1), second lobes (2) ; incisions (6), (3)^ (4) ; chitinous thickenings on each margin of theie incisionR, and the spines ^(7) on each of the lobes. (The plates have not been drawn in this case.) (b) Anal plate showing th'^ lobea, incisionp, thiokeninffp, and plates (5) ; a pair of plates between med\ tn lobes, a pair at first incision, and three at second incision. Notice the large size of second lobe, which is notched once on the margin. (Snines have not been drawn.) (0) Anal plate cliowing both spines and plates. Notice the chitinous thicken- ings between the median and second lobes are nearly equal in size and close together. ('J) Anal plate and last segment of adult female. There are no ventral glands. (1) Vaginal opening, (2) anal opening. til 20 1 acteristic, and is frequently sufficient to fix their identity. In slij^oafediate infestations these scales seldom have a tendency to cluster, but, insteaoi^ned. are scattered somewhat evenly on the bark. (Fig. 8). jonvinci In badly infested orchards the presence of the scale on new growtiajg win and the fruit produces a deep purplish-red coloration in the tissues ju ■ Mai beneath the epidermis. ht^ is cul During late summer (July and August) there is a very mark|g|e evid( increase in the number of male scales, while in fall the proportion of maoUe tree scales is much decreased. A good The absence of eggs or empty shells in some cases gives a clue to tlQdtawb kind of scale, since the Forbes and Putnam Scale insects deposit eggs, pickers The San Jos^ Scale leaves no conspicuous, ventral, whitish scale the bark after the removal of the insect, as does the Scurfy Bark-Lou^ When trees or shrubs become badly infested it is not an uncomnic thing for the bark to be covered so thickly that it is entirely obscure Sometimes the scales overlap one another so closely that they are thn or four layers in thickness. Occasionally, however, this layering occuii only at the bases of twigs and branches, in which cases the remedy to applied should be one which will soak through the different layor Crude petroleum has this property of penetration, and herein lies efficacy as a scale insecticide. nlature f When the bark becomes thickly covered it has a gray, ashy appeaitke folio ance, due to the presence of large numbers of mature scales. When tl .1 Ho^ tree is alive and the scales abundant, one can prove if the insects ai ||g the alive by crushing them with a knife or thumb-nail. If a yellow, oily sul il^ainst t stance exudes, they are alive, but if the scales are dead no oil will mat ||>untry. its appearance. | Son How the San Jose Scale Spreads. — During the summer large numbei ■h^*^'^ of minute, yellowish lice will be found crawling over the branches, twig leaves, and even the fruit. It is during this active period of the seal insect that the pest is readily distributed, for the minute bodies are easil removed and carried to other trees. (Fig. 8). Birch alighting on infested branches, where the young lice are craw. in£ about, will likely carry away a few on their feet to other trees. I has been noticed that infestations are generally more pronounced abou birds' nests, although some contradictory evidence in this respect ha been received. In order to ascertain to what extent birds are responsibl for the spread of the scale, Mr. G. E. Fisher, Head Inspector, conducts an examination of a number of birds' nests found on trees. Out of 22 nests examined scale was found on only two, both of which were i: infested orchards. In another case, however, Mr. Fisher says the seal wa3 unquestionably carried by birds. In Mr. Green's orchard, at Niagara one tree containing a bird's nest, distant 150 yards from an infeste orchard, and in the opposite direction from the prevailing wind, wa found so badly infested that it was nearly dead. A strong -jvi^k^ will also carry away larvae to other trees in the in. r. J. F r the < sted tl ought en th( cted a Bu ould I esis ii thef ave ii rry L isten E^ uced \ Tl V son resen< I <: J ^e 21 y. In sJii^aifediate vicinity, but to what distance has never been detinitely ascer- but, insteaoafined. The observations of the past few years, however, prove pretty 30nvincingly that the scale spreads chiefly in the direction of the prevail- new growtiBg winds. e tissues jii Man himself may be an agent in the distribution of the scale while li<^ is cultivating the land beneath the trees or picking the fruit. There '^ery marki^^e evidences that go to show that the scale has been transferred from rtion of maolie tree to another, and from one orchard to another by the fruit-pickers. A good instance of distribution of scale by fruit-pickers was observed in a clue to tlOatawba Island, Ohio. A tree at a road-corner, beside which the fruit- )osit eggs, pickers piled their empty baskets at night, distant from any other in- tish scale cMBted tree, was found to be badly infested, undoubtedly by the scale Bark-Louscfrried on the baskets. n uncomnic i Another possible method of distribution is by means of infested fruit sly obscure wiich is offered for sale in markets. Authorities are not agreed in this ley are thniiatter, some asserting that the opportunities for the distribution of scale 'ering occu!i]| this way are very few. In the case of stimmer or fall fruit, which is •emedy to lafld for immediate use, it is quite possible that larval scales may be jrent layor cowling about and be carried to trees by sparrows and other birds srein lies iifciich feed on peelings, etc., but in the case of winter fruit, on which im- liature scales are fastened, the probability of these becoming mature in ishy appea;ii|e following June is very slight indeed. When i\ i However, steps should be taken to prevent infested fruit from leav- insects ai mg the country, lest a prejudice arise in the minds of the importers ) w, oily sul vainst the entire fruit crop from the fact that it comes from an infested il will mak i^untry. Some of our inspectors have a theory that the adult male insect, rge numbei 3^^^^^ ^"^ winged and strong, carries larvae from one tree to another, iches twicr Jfr- J- F. Smith, of Glandford, the very careful and observant inspector 3f the seal y^ ^^® Guilds district, noticed that there were more Greening trees in- sted than any other variety. He thinks that if the larvae had been ought to these trees by accidental circumstances, such as wind or birds, en the other varieties would have stood as good a chance of being in- cted as the Greenings. But if the gentlemen who have brought forward this theory ould answer the following questions they would find that their hypo- esis is a very unsatisfactory one from a scientific standpoint: 1. What the function of the male scale ? 2. What object would the male scale lave in flying to an uninfected tree ? 3. Would the male scale likely rry larvae other than its own, on the hypothesis of the struggle for istence ? 4. Does a male scale ever see its own progeny ? Evidently some more plausible theory than this one must be pro- uced to account for the infection of certain trees in preference to others. The San Jos^ Scale and Olimatic Conditions. — It has been observed r some time that other conditions than mere food supply determine the in the in; presence or abundance of scale insects in any particular region. There 3s are easil !e are cra\v! ir trees. I meed abou respect lia responssibl ', conducte' Out of 22 ch were i: ^s the seal at Niagara in infeste wind, wa :i ') \ 22 1 are districts m the United States and Canada where the scale has not y. ^hoadv made its appearance, yet food plants are there in sufficient abundant of infes Some observers, however, are of the belief that the San Jos^ Scale wi involve( thrive wherever its food plants can flourish. They base their belief c Fo the fact that it has survived the almost arctic severity of 22 degrees beloi 46grees zero for several days during the winter of 1898-9 in Ontario, and a sti a. lower temperature at St. Paul, Minn. over the It is possible, even probable, that differences in the amount of humi(! ^ ity in ditierent regions are of greater importance than extreme tempers j)rush, tures in determining the prevalence of this scale. Messrs. Marlatt an ^ Pergande, of Washington, are of the opinion that short and cool summer ^ with relatively high humidity are the determining factors in Europ i,' which keep the scales under control. These same observers state tha -r ^ i , practical immunity obtains in regions characterized by great heat aiv ^^ fV,«i.ii dryness in summer. They instance the case of that part of Californi; «. mi away from the coast, which has dry summers, like those of Italy aiii ^ " u„q^ Spain, and which is practically free from scale insects. So far as Ontario is concerned the scale has been discovered in a flour . , , ishing condition far into, what Dr. Merriam calls, the " transition zone, ^^ ^ * » where Dv. Howard thought it would not occur in injurious numbers <^, ^ I refer to the outbreaks at Belleville, where several trees were fount tT«u badly infested, although thoroughly exposed to the cold winter winds and at Guelph where the scales on one tree had survived two winters », , From the fact that the scale hibernates in California for a few ^ ^^f^^ months, and appears to thrive best in moist months. Prof. J. B. Smitl \ ,. suggests that the native home of the scale may be in the Northern Pacific " ^ ' States. " It is likely that the best environment for it is a temperate ^^. ^\ - somewhat moist climate, and that intense dry heat is not in the long run ^^ \ ^' i favorable for its rapid reproduction. This seems to be proved by tlit ,^ ^ •■ almost universal testimony that Moy and June in California are tlu , , .i months during which the larval scales are most abundant, that during; midsummer there is little hatching, and that at this period scj-les seem frequently to be killed by the intense heat. Furthermore, it is claimed that in some localities into which the scale has been introduced it ha> orcliar*! been promptly killed off completely by the intense summer heats. It is ^^yy *^_ intere=iting to note that the scale was least troublesome in the most south- ^^, ^ '*' ern parts of California, that it was most destructive from San Jos^ north- ^*' ^ ^^ * ward, and that its disappearance from natural causes was confined to K"*''^' ^^^ _ _ 1 1 gtxs, au' Til iCi'ut. ol Other i nary s ghrubs b. tion of Th points from San Jos»^ southward." (189C Report, N.J.) Methods of Treatment tor the San Jos^ Scale. — Acting under the advice of Entomologists who have had much experience in dealing witli San Jos6 Scale, and in the belief that the scale was in but a few orchards, the authorities in Ontario undertook to uproot all badly infested trees, as well as those but slightly infested, and to destroy these by flre. This method of total destruction is very effective if all infested trees can be located, and it is still recommended for trees of little value even bv those y^^^ "^'*^-* 23 has not y. -who advocate the adoption of remedial treatment. However, as the areas abundanc of infestation increas* i in size, and as many valuable trees became 4 Scale w] involved, remedial treatment became very urgent. ir belief c Four methods have been tried in the United States with varying 'grees beloi 4egrees of success. ), and a sti a. Fumigation by hydrocyanic acid ^as, generated under tents placed ■9^'^^ ^^^*^ trees. o umic ■> ^ Whale-oil soap solution applied hot by spray-pump, or cold by a J^^f^P^^-" brush. ^ ^^ y I 3 1 P' r r att an ^ Crude petroleum, pure or dilute, applied by spray-pump, summer ^ Kerosene solution applied by spray-pump, state tha Experiments with whale-oil soap, crude petroleum, and 20% kerosene t heat an. ^^^'^ ^^^" tried recently in several infested orchards at Niagara, St. Californi ^*t,harines, Winona, Burlington, Chatham, Blenheim, Guilds, Kingsville, St. Thomas and Port Burwell. The results of these experiments will not t)e known till July. a. Hydrocyanic Ac'il Gas. — This method of treatment has been tried •with gratif} ing success in California on citriis trees, and in Maryland on Italy an I d in a flour ition zone, s numbers i^ere founr liter winds Joung pear, apple, and nectarine (Bull. 57, Maryland, Prof. W. G. ohnson). The operation is similar to that adopted by nurserymen in the fumi- 'o winter? ^^^^^^^ ^^ nursery stock, except that the gas is liberated under a tent for a few P'*^^^^^ ^^^^' ^^^*^ ^''^^- ^^^^ cubic contents of the tented tree are computed, 1. B. Smitl *^^^ ^^^ every 125 cubic feet of space, 1 oz. of potassium cyanide, 1| fluid ern Pacific ^^^' "^ sulphuric acid, and 2\ fluid ozs. of water are used. The acid and temperat' water are flrst put into a glazed crock, or other suitable jar, and the e lonff run P^^^'^'^f^ium cyanide is dropped in very quickly. Then the tent is immedi- ed bv th *^^^y closed and made air-tight. The tent remains closed for 45 minutes, when it is removed and placed over another tree. Eight-ounce cotton duck, thoroughly oiled with linseed oil, is generally used in the construc- tion of the tent. The objections to the adoption of tent fumigation in our Ontario !ed it hjb orchards are: (1) the largo size of most of our fruit trees, (2) the difli- its. It is *"lty of handling the tents, requiring the services of experts, (3) the cost of tlie tents, especially large ones, probably about $20 each, (4) the cost of tlie chemicals nocossjMy for large tents, (5) the time required to fumi- gate an orchard, (C) the danger of poisoning from a careless use of the ^as, and (7) the difliculty in ket>ping the tents free from holes. The merits of this kind of treatment are : (I) the sure death of 99 per ■Crnt. of the scales on the tree, (2) the killing of aphids or plant lice and Other insects which lie concealed in ciu'linl leaves or crevices, which ordi- \ trees us ^^^^Y "^pi'tty^ will not reach, and (3) its feasibility for small trees and ire. This •^^''u'*'^ wliieh would require small tents. s can 1h' ^^ Whale-oil Soap Solution. — This mode of treatment is one which by those ht^^ been employeil for a long time against scale insects. The best soap by ia are tlu lat during' :-iles seem is claime ost south- OS^ north- >nfined tu nider the ling with orchards !f( r 24 is now made from Menhadclen fish oil and caustic potash, and has beeu found very effective wherever the work has been done thoroughly. Since 1894 many experiments have been conducted by prominent entomologists of the United States towards the destruction of the San Jose Scale • all of which proved that the scale is held in check very per- ceptibly but not eradicated. The best proportion of soap and water to be employed is two pounds of soap dissolved in one gallon of hot water. The soap, thus diluted, can be applied during winter and early spring without fear of injury to our fruit trees, with th-^i exception of the peach, whose fruit-buds are apt to be destroyed unless the application is made when the buds are beginning to open, or when the reddisli tinge comes to the opening buds. Prof Webster, of Wooster, Ohio, in a recent b' Jletin says : " With regard to the effect of these applications of the whale-oil soap on the San Jose Scale, while it has not been exterminated, it has been greatly reduced, so much so, in fact, that the owners of infested orchards have now little fear but that they will be able to eradicate it entirely within the next two or three years. For my own part, I have never felt so encouraged over the prospect of overcoming the San Jos^ Scale in this locality (Catawba Island) as at the present time. Growers claim that the treatment with whale-oil soap for Sar Jose Scale has given them an average of $1 per tree profit, the soap costing them about 4c. per pound laid down." " For the grower who wishes to use an absolutely safe material thai will kill at least 95% of the scales infesting his trees, nothing is better than whale or fish-oil soap, applied two pounds to one gallon of water after the first of January, but applied prior to that time there is danger of killing fruit buds." (Prof. J. B' Smith). In the preparation of the soap solution the water is first heated in kettles or boilers, then transferred to a barrel, capable of holding (say) 50 gallons. One hundred pounds of the whale-oil soap are then added, and thoroughly dissolved in hot water. The solution is applied while hot by means of a spray-pump. In Ohio the peach leaf -curl has practically disappeared from orchards treated with whale-oil soap solution. As a sunnner treatment peach orcu.irdists use a much weaker solu- tion (\ lb to a gallon of water), once a week or oftencr, to kill.young lice which may be moving about. Thorough spraying is necessary, and to do this 1^ gallons of soap solution are required for an ordinary-sized peach tree. c. Crude petroleum. This is a comparatively new insecticide. Prof. J. B. Smith, State Entomologist of New Jersey, experimented somewhat extensively with this substance on four thousand peach, pear, apple, and plum trees, which varied in age and size from nursery stock to old trees in full bearing. insects i *t d has been prominent of the San ; very pei- wo pounds iluted, can iry to om- are apt to beginning : "With )n the San 5n greatly lards have ely within !ver felt so ale in this jlaini that *^hem an per pound erial that g is better of water is danger heated in ig (say) 50 dded, and ile hot by 1 orchards iker solu- ^oung lice IS of soap le. Prof, ioniewhat pple, and old trees He found that not a single case of injury resulted from treatment to trees in the winter ; that the crop of apples and pears the year following was not diminished when the applications were made after January 15th; and that the fruit buds of plum and peach trees wert- nijt injured by applic «tions in March. l-."of. Smith made no early winter experiments on bearing orchards, consequently he cannot give results for treatment made during this time. He summarizes the results of his experiments in these words : " Crude petroleum oil will kill the San Jose Scale in winter whenever it comes into sufficient contact with the insect. It is fully as effective against scale insects as kerosene, and as harmless to the most tender varieties, and on the youngest trees. (Bull. 138, N.J. Agric. Experiment Station, Sept. 5, 1899.) Again, Prof. J. B. Smith, In a letter dated Nov. 14th, states : " The advantages of the oil over the soap are : It goes about one-half further; it requires no preparation before spraying; it is much more pen- etrating, reaching points that the soap does not reach, and it is much more effective where scales are massed in considerable numbers, because it will penetrate through any number of layers as easily as it does through one. I tried soap and crude petroleu'u on two peach trees side by side last winter. I looked at the two trees carefully only a day or two ago. I found some scales all over the old wood of the soap treated tree, so that I would not dare to let it go another season without any treatment. The oil-treated tree is practically clean. Thei-e are some scales on it, but so few that there would be no danger whatever in letting the trees go for another entire year without any attention whatever. I claim that the oil will not hurt trees, and that it will kill every scale that; it touches." The same authority reconnnends the use of an emulsion of crude petroleum rather than the undiluted form, and that an emulsion sprayer, arranged with two or three nozzles of the Vermorel type, should be used. He adds : " A gallon of emulsion containing 25 per cent oil, will give a better coating than a quart of oil undiluted, and the material can be applied until everything is dripping." As a summer treatment crude petroleum will not do, from the fact that it chokes up the breathing pores of the leaves . and if used in the winter it must be heated up to 70 or 75 degrees before it will How freely from the nozzles or mingle with the watei in the proper proportions. d. Diluted Kerosene. Kerosene diluted with four parts of water, has been used with good results in New York State for three }ears, and is more easily applied than whale-oil ,soap. It is also clanned that the kerosene mixture " may be applied to the leaves or buds at any time without injury." (Bulletin 14f, Cornell Agric. Experiment Station, Jai\uary, 1808); and that "A 20 percent, mixture of Kerosene cai. probably be safely used on th<' peach at any time, but a Htrouger mixture cannot always be so applied." (Fiulletin 155, Cornell iTniv. Agric. E.xijeriment Station, December, 1898.) S ! 26 " While spraying for the San Jose Scale in early spring during; weather favorable to "iarly evaporation has given excellent results, there is no reason why late fall spraying should not be equally effective, since the insect continues to multiply for some time after the leaves have fallen. Furthermore it is often more convenient to spray in the fall than during the hurry of spring work. Summer spraying is rarely advisable, since the foliage prevents the insecticide from reaching all parts of the tree." (Gould, Cornell Bull. 177, Jan. 1 00.) Prof. Webster, however, states that " diluted kerosene can be used for summer treatment, for destroying the young, but we have not seen any indications that it would be at all effective as against full-grown scale during the winter season ". (Bulletin 103, Ohio Experiment Sta- tion, March, 1899 ). Many persons have points I to California as an instance where the San Jos^ Scale is not feared so much no.v as it was formerly on account of the efficiency of winter washes, and predaceous and parasitic insects, but they should remember that California is rather an exceptional region. The resin and the sulphur washes jo effective there are valueless in the eastern portioi; of the continent, owing to differences in climate. In the east, the rain, snow, and other agencies do not allow the California washes to operate sufficiently long before they are washed off; while in California, the long dry season, at the beginning of which the washes are applied, allows the operation to be prolonged, and hence quite fatal to the scale. Moreover, the predaceous insects are more effective in southern California than in the east, for the reason that many of them can breed almost the year round in the mild winters of the Pacific coast. The Opinions of Some Prominent Entomolooists Who have had Experience in Fiohtino the Scale. Prof. Webster, in Bulletin 103, Ohio Agric. Experiment Station, JMarch. 1899, writes as follows regarding the burning of infested tret,s : " While this measure is sometimes the most expensive, it is the only one that is absolutely effectual under all conditions. Besides, it is not infrequently the cheapest in the long run. When we come to count the cost in time and material of saving a tree that is past its prime, or is of a variety that is not of the best, or when a very young tree, only recently set, is foimd to be badly infested, it will be cheaper to clear everything up and burn, tlius at once settling the whole problem. I think it will pay to try and save trees not seriously affected, if such are of desirable varieties and have nearly reached the bearing age, or have not j'et reached their best, but the treatment must never be left to the private individual. It must be the business of some person who has official authority to see that the work of treating is done pro])eily and at the proper time, else it will, as a rule, amount to nothing. While I believe this pest can be con- trolled by the application of repressive insecticides, experience has shown that in nine cases out of ten this will not be done." I i 27 ing durin^r 3ults, there ctive, since laves have e fall than advisable, Lrts of the m be used e not seen [ull -grown ment Sta- wrliere the ►n account isects, but region. lueless in mate. In California while in •^ashes are i fatal to southern lan breed AVE HAD Station, trees : the only it is not ount the or is of recentl}' ery thing c it will lesirable reached lividual. y to see e, else it be con- 8 shown (For Prof. Webster's views on the use of whale-oil soap see page 24.) Prof. Forbes, of Illinois (Bulletin 56, July, 1899), says : " Trees so covered with the scale that the surface of the bark was generally concealed were commonly cut out and burned. The San Jos^ Scale can clearly be kept in check by thorough spraying with whale-o'l soap, but it can be exterminated where it has once effected a lodgment only by drastic measures of destruction supplemented by spraying, or by repeated treatment applied in every case just as soon and just as fre- quently as a watchful inspection gives any evidence of the presence of the scale." In a letter received from Prof. Woodworth, State Entomologist of California, dated December 4th, 1899, he says : " While it is true that the California orchardists have no particular fear of this scale, it is not because they consider it an unimportant mat- ter, but simply because they have learned by experience that they can control it. The San Jos4 Scale remains the most injurious scale insect, perhaps the most injurious fruit insect, in this region if not controlled. Had 1 an orchard here or in the east I would certainly take every pre- caution to prevent the introduction of the scale, very carefully in.specting all stock planted and destroying by fire any young trees found infested. If, however, the scale became established in spite of these efforts I \vould by no means despair, nor practice wholesale destruction of the trees, but would begin to fight the insect along the lines laid down in an article published in the Fruit Growers' Journal of October, 1898" Prof. Starnes, of Georgia (Bulletin 86, October, 1897), says : " Far and away the best prescription is the mattock and matchbox. Where the infestation is slight and extends to but a few trees, the mone- tary loss is of little moment and absolute extinction of the scale is the result. Where the trees are badly infested their loss is inevitable any - way, even should remedial treatment succeed in ridding them of the pest, for their vitality will be found to have been sapped to such an extent that they will never prove commercially profitable, and both time, money, and future trouble will be saved by adopting heroic treatment. Moreover, it is almost an impossibility to absolutely extinguish the scale when once fully entrenched. It may be apparently all killed, but a suffi- cient number will be found to have survived, under rough edges of bark, and in crotches, crevices, and other protected places, to speedily reinfest the tree if the treatment is intermitted or discontinued." Prof. M. V. Slingerland, Cornell University, says : " We have not reached the end of our experiments in trying to con- trol the scale, so that no one can affirm that there is absolutely no hope for a tree infested, and that, therefore, it should be destroyed root and branch. On the other hand, we do know that intelligent persons have, not only in our own state, but in others, successfully checked, and are now controlling this serious pest just as easily, and, in many cases, more jnati-factorily than they are some of the other orchard pests, like !li 28 , •> the codling moth. Where young trees, and in some cases even old trees, are very badly infested, the cheapest way, I believe, is to burn the trees at once ; but in a case with which I am familiar, in the Hudson River Valley, an intelligent orchardist has a large orchard from which he clears from S4.000 to $6,000 annually, and in the centre of this are between two and three hundred trees more or less infested with the San Jose Scale. He is fighting the pest intelligently and reducing its number." Prof. W. G. Johnson, of Maryland, says : " My experience lias been such with this insect that I believe that only by the most energetic and persistent warfare will we be able to keep up our horticultural interests. The damage in this state is very great, as you know. At the same time we feel very hopeful, and do not fear the scale any longer from the fact that we feel that we have got it under control. Beginning with the nurseries, and then gradually concentrating our work in the orchards in the infested districts. This we have been doing for the past three years, and are gradually encircling the pest, and ferreting out new localities when they are brought to our attention. By this warfare, we feel that we can keep this pest under control, and save our immense fruit interests." (Letter May 27th, 1899). Prof. J. B. Smith, in Bulletin 140, New Jersey, October 31st, 1899, says : " It may be said that while the scale has undoubtedly spread to a considerable extent, and has caused the death of some trees in New Jer- sey, yet there ha^ been no abandonment of fruit growing, and no general killing ou' of orchards. Experience during the past year proves that we can control the insect at all times, and eradicate it locally under favorable circumstances. Experience has proved that it needs intelligent persist- ence to accomplish this." Prof. L. H. Bailey aays : " The San Jos^ Scale is still with us. It will .stay. There is no hope of eradicating it. Then every man should be prepared to meet it. He should not rely on State control alone. " For three seasons now, we have experimented with the kerosene and water emulsion — as others have done — and have found that it is a specific for the scale. In the proportion of 1 part of oil to 5 of water in summer, and 1 to 4 in winter, it will kill the scale. " Can a man hope to annihilate the scale, then, by spraying ? No. On plants which he can spray thoroughly and frequently, he can hope to eradicate it : but I should not expect him to eradicate it from a large and badly infested plantation, any more than he can eradicate the apple-scab or the bark -louse. But I should expect him to keep it in check. Spray- ing for San Jos^ scale must come to be an accepted practice, as spraying^ for potato blight is. " All this means that the farmer should not be frightened, but should be self-reliant and determined. But the State should help him. The law should not help him less, but more. Nursery stock should be fumigated with hydrocyanic acid gas, under strict control. It would be folly to atteiii law destrc gener in I i 1 old trees, 1 the trees Ison River h he clears e between San Jose imber." lieve that )le to keep ery great, 3 not fear t it under 3entratinsf have been the pest, attention, itrol, and 1st, 1899, read to a New Jer- o general 8 that we favorable persist- It will lould be kerosene lat it is a water in g ? No. hope to irge and )ple-seab Spray- spraying t should The law imigated folly to 29 attempt to burn every infested tree or bush wherever found ; but the law should be so amended as to all»jw a properly qualified officer to destroy plants which, in the judgment of experts, are a menace to the general weal." (Cornell Bull. 177, Jan. 1900.) Insect Enemies of Scale Insects. — In California the San Jose Scale is kept partly in check by lady-beetles, which feed upon it. There the mildness of the winters allows these beneficial beetles to multiply the year round, but in Ontario the long season prevents their rapid multipli- cation, for which reason we can never hop to receive sufficient aid from these allies to keep the scale anywhere in bound, although, undoubtedl}*, they do much to reduce the number of the scales. Two forms of lady-beetles have been found on scale-infested trees in Ontario, and where these were numerous the scales were almost ex- Flu. 10.— Two enemies of the San Jose Scale, (a) Beetlp. ih) larva, (c) pupa of Pitiful Lady- beetle (Pentilia misella) : (d) blossom end of pear, showinpf scales with larva and beetles feeding on them ; (c) Twice-stabbed Lady-beetle (Jhilocorus bivulnerus) ; (/) its lai vj. (((, h, c and d, after Howard & Marlatt, e and /after Riley.) terminated. One form is the tivice-stahbed lady-beetle {CItUocorits bwiJ- nerun) { Fig. 10), in allusion to the two blood-red spots on the wing- I ' 30 covers. It is a small beetle about one-fifth of an inch long, and about the same in breadth. The larva of this beetle should be known to all fruit growers, for it is one of their best friends. It is a bri>tly creature, about one-third of an inch long. Where these larvaj are in suflficient numbers, their pre- sence may be detected by the large number of their cast-skins or moults. The other form is the pitiful lady beetle {Pentilia 7nisella),a minute black creature, about the size of a scale itself", and dev^oid of any markings. The larva is without bristles, and is very active. Both the beetle and the larva feed upon the scale. The Inspectors report several cases of complete extermination of the scale by one or both of the lady beetles. No person is in a position tu state deJ^^iiitely how extremely valuable the small lady beetles are, but it is fair to assume that they prevent very frequently the spread of the scale by devouring the young scale lice which may happen to be brought to new trees. Among other parasites of the San Jose scale in Ontario may be mentioned a minute, yellowish, four-winged fly, which I take to be Ajj lid 171118 fuscipennis. As many scales are met with which are punctured with a small hole made by this parasite, probably it does a valuable work in reducing the number of tlie pest. During the past summer many mite-like creatures were observed in certain orchards in Kent county; but I have not been able to ascertain whether these mites feed on living or dead scales. " In California, south of San Francisco, Ghilocorus bivulnerus (twice- stabbed lady-beetle), and Aphelinua fuscipennis feed upon the scale for from six to eight weeks before the scale itself begins to reproduce, and in some places during its entire dormant period. " During the period of greatest heat in California the scale is less active and reproduces slowly, while during that very time the parasite is most active, most abundant, and again has an advantage over the scale due to the climate. We cannot in New Jersey duplicate these natural conditions." (An. Rep. N. J. 1896, Prof. Smith.) Dr. Howard, of Washington, says : "The po-sible usefulness ':if para- sitic and predaceou? insects, should, at least in the east, not be allowed for a moment to interfere with active operations with remedies, nor blind one to the importance of the San Jos«5 scale, and the extraordinary pre- cautions which shouM always be taken to prevent its wider dissemi- nation." FitnqoiiK Disea8(!>*. — On several oceasions specimens have been found badly infested with fungous threads, but no means were at hand to tell whether these were the cause of the death of the scale, or whether the dead scale formed a suitable medium for the growth of the inngus. It is iloubtful if the fungus which has been found preying upon the scale in Florida will lie of much service in Ontario. Th scale ca The chf be read Th aCfde ; (4) the absence Th on bark C^n for niiicrosc ig decie Til in locat cases t knows or to Domin 12, No pernici species ^ ^° Qiey be cBstingi the alii Oc Jos^ Sc lirgume iihe del Seat V ken i l^en fc lour sp duartei ftaf , gc thite ( ^at th C^' mot ^ Tl flom t "becomt ^m-tr( dims ol 4eclare I 31 and about wers, for it ae-third of , their pre- i or moults. ), a minuto ' markings, beetle and tion of the position to es are, but read of the be brought io may be ake to be punctured lable work bserved in D ascertain "US (twice- e scale for uce, and in cale is less parasite is r the scale se natural IS ctf para- )e allowed , nor blind I nary pre- r dissemi- een found md to tell liether th(^ (US. It is le scale in The Identification of the San Jose Scale. — With a little practice this scale can be readily identified with the aid of a good magnifying glass. The characters of the young scales are both constant and peculiar, as will be readily seen from a study of the table of comparisons on page 45. The chief characters which should be noted are: (i) The color of the scfde ; (2) the color of the larva? ; (3) the color of the exuvia or nipple ; (4i) the shape of the male scales ; ^5) the position of the exuvia; (6) the absence of eggs ; (7) the circular depressed ring about the nipples. The only difficulty arises when isolated individuals arc discovered on bark which obscures the usual color of the scales, but even then one C|in form a fairly correct guess. In such a case the use of a compound microscope will always solve the difficulty, for the form of the anal lobe is decidedly characteristic, as a study of Fig. 9 will show. The majority of the inspectors engaged during the two past seasons in locating infested trees are, in my opinion, quite reliaVjle. In doubtful cases they have almost invariably applied to the head inspector, who knows how to use the compound microscope, which he carries with him or to the entomologists at the Ontario Agriculture College, or the Dominion Experimental Farm. Dr. Howard, of Washington, in Bulletin 12, New Series, says : " As a matter of fact, with a littk experience, A. perniciosus (San Jose scale) can be distinguished from either of the other species by the scale alone with a hand lens." In justice to the Inspectors, I maintain we should not demand that they be intimately acfjuainted with all the scales, but that they be able to distinguish the San Jos^ scale from all other scales. The identiHcation of the allied scales may be safely left to experts. Occurrence on Forest Trees, etc. — The fact of the occurrence of the San Jos6 Scale on some forest trees and ornamental shrubs has been a strong argument with some against the possibility of exterminating the pest by the destruction of infested orchards. Undoubtedly this argument is of great weight ; and in future operations, forest and other trees should be taken into account. In the Guilds District, Kent County, the scale hns been found on elm, basswood, white ash, mountain ash, ornamental birch, four species of willow, iind on many herbs, such as rhubarb, hemp, lamb's quarters, garden knotweed, hedge mustard, beggar-ticks (Bidens), maple leaf, goose-foot, ragweed, simflower, and on such shrubs as black currant, white currant, rose, and spiraea. There is, however, no positive evidence that the scale developed to the extent of forming fully matured females or mothers on all of these plants. The experience of the scale Inspectors in Ontario has been different firom that of Prof. Webster, of Wooster, Ohio, who states that the elm becomes infested almost as often as it is exposed, and that he once saw an elm- tree as badly infested as any fruit tree he ever obser^'ed The shade elms of St Catharines, although surrounded by badly infested treos, were declared free from scale by the inspectors after careful searches at olitferent i:j 32 times. Altliouf^h the elms of Niagara township, where the scale is vti prevalent, have been frequently examined no scale been found on then and the only elm in Ontario known to the inspectors to be infested one near Guilds, on Mr. Bell's premises. It is true that it is difficult t examine ail parts of a large tree, as many twigs and even branches wi be overlooked, yet if trees be susceptible to infestation from th scale, some traces of infestation would ere now have been discovered. In view of Prof. Webster's experience, however, it would be advisaV, to keep acareful watchonallforesL,^ treesexposedtoinfestation.even thoug ur inspectors as yet have found them but slightl}^ liable to infestation. At Guilds the ornamental willows and birches have become infest^' from surrounding trees, but the wild willows which grow in swamp lands are practically immune. In Niagara township the scale sprea rapidly in several orchards near Mr. Jas. Hutchison's, but a large are of second growth shrubs, composvid of willow and poplar, which wa directly exposed to infestation, was declared free from scale after carefr, search at different times by four or tive inspectors. To my mind the most dangerous sources of new infestations are on; common shrubs, such as currant, raspberry, gooseberry, rose, and spira,; which are readily affected. These are frequently overlooked in the searci for scale, and left -growing in fence-rows as a standing menace to tli more important incerests of the orchard. Whenever infestation occur these shrubs should be ruthlessly destroyed — the axe-and-tire metho being the only proper one in dealing with plants like these. Infested weeds should also he cut and burned, for although there i no danger that such plants will carr}^ the scale over winter, as thei stems are annual and die down at the approach of cold weather, ye there is a danger that the young lice ma}' be carried to shrubs and trtc- during the summer. As regards any serious dinger of orchard infestation from forest tree> Prof W. Or. Johnson, of Maryland, holds a decided opinion, as may be see: from a letter he wrote uie May 27th, 1899 : " I think it is nonsense for any person to take the stand that tiv scale will establish itself in orchards from the forests. I do not know r: a single instance where this is the case in this or any other State. Th possibility of this insect working from forest trees and becoming estal lixhed in orchards is surely very mea'j[re, as there are only a few trei found in our forests, especially in your own section, upon which tl: insect has been found at all, and in every instance these have been fouin upon shrubs or very shiall trees. In my opinion there is no dangt.i whatever of this pest becoming ostabli> Ith our San Niagara, ^ »^ 33 icale is vti id on then, J infested : difficult t anches wi froni til Dvered. >e advisab; ven thoug 'estation. me infestt in swamp; caie sprea I large are which wa Pter carefi; ons are on: md ppira,; 1 the searci ;iace to tli tion occur ire metho gh there i er, as thei eather, ye s and tvvv forest tree> lay be see; d that til ot know I State. Th iiing estal few tre> which til been fouiii 2. The OsTRE.tFOKM (»u Cuirris Scale. (Aspidioiiis Ostreaforinis.) This scale was for many years su})posed to be limited to a few areas in America — California and Britisli Columbia ; but reoent studies and observations bring to light the fact that it is quite widely distributed. Prof. C. L. Marlatt, in a recent article in Science, says : " It seems to have become well established, notably in the vicinity of Geneva, N.Y." It has been found at Woosttn- and Cleveland in Ohio, and also in our San Jose Scale infested areas at Kingsville, Guilds, St. Catharine>>, Niagara, and at Toronto. Fjg. 11.— Curtis ir)ca,\e (Aspidii)tu^ ostrccformis). (a) Young ssales which are not nearly full- grown ; the nipple is plain, but the circular groove about it is wanting, (b) Full- I grown prpLrnant female ; the nipple \s large, (o) Old scale with several young scales hidden beneath it a characteristic feature. (OriKinal.) This pest is a native^ of Europe, and has been with us probably for no dangt.; eight or ten years or even longer, but on account of its great likeness to !es if it i. the Putnam Scale (^vl. (Hi r//^wsj, its presence was not detected. My own Qbservati(ms lead me to the conclusion that this Curtis scale is capable of doing much damage, as many limbs have been found badl}- I'uei uted. The scale has been found on apple, plum, pear, peach, maple, and ^Ifillow trees. Evrn under a hand lens this scale i*; somewhat io Entomologists at Columbus in August, 1899, said : " A^ndiotus ostrece forniis, recently introduced from Europe, is liable to be just as dangerous an insect as perniciosus (San Jos^), and if it should be similarly widely distributed and equally actively exploited, would doubtless assume a similar importance, but with this advantage, that coming from Europe to us there could be legitimatel}'^ no restriction on our commerce by European powers in consequence." The orchardist should be on the outlook for this scale, for although not so destructive at present as the San Josd Scale, yet it must be borne in mind that it is perhaps the most destructive form known in Europe. Microscopical Characters. — Median lobes of anal segment well developed ; the inner margins of second lobes less than half the height of median lobes; outer lateral margins undulating; third lobes very small or rudimentary ; chitinous thickenings between median lobes small, those in first incision nearly equal in size and quite large, while those in second incision are small : two small plates between median lobes, two branched plates in first incision, and a single plate (sometimes two) in second incision ; a pair of spines on each of the lobes ; ventral glands well forward, median none to six anterior laterals nine to eleven, posterior laterals eight to nine, (tig- 12.) 3. The Cherry or Forbes Scale. Aspidiotus Forbesi. (Figs. 1 and 13.) The Cherry or Forbes Scale was discovered by Prof. W. G. Johnson on English morello cherry trees in Illinois in December, 1894. Prof. Johnson states that it is very generally distributed over Illinois, and is there considered a dangerous scale insect. He found the cherry scales on cherry, pear, plum, quince, apple trees, and currants. As a rule, however, this scale has done very little harm, and is but seldom found in large 'lumbers. Outside of Illinois, in the United States, it has been reported from Kansas, Iowa, Michigan, New Mexico, Maryland and West Virginia. The scale is not often seen in Ontario, but is abundant on one tree at ■ .II' 36 St. Catharines, on the premises of Mr. W. Tyson, Lake Street, and in an orchard in the townsliip of Saltlieet, Wentworth County. vr This scale insect passes the winter in a partially matured condition, but not so near maturity as is the case with the Putnam Scale. It is very probable that there are, at least, two broods in Ontario, although the full life-history has not been fully investigated, through the inspectors mistak- ing for a time the Curtis Scale for this one. The young larvae appear before those of the San Jose, and the adult males appear much earlier — some time in May. 'The larvjB of the second brood appear about August 15th. chara| to sevl Fig. 13— Forbes or Cherry scale, (a) Young scale, light colored, with central nipple but no circular groove, [b) Adult female scale with central or nearly central, orange-colored nipple, and gray outer margin of scale, (c) Male scale, show- ing the oval shape, and nipple n!>ar one end. The body of the insect 's under the scale. (Original.) From the fact that a mature female with young and egga was found as late as November 2lst last \ ear, it looks as if there were three broods in the Niagara region. The female scales of this species resend)le those of the Putnam Scale. The young larva' are pale yellow ; the old female scales are more convex and smaller than those of the Putnam ; the exuvia is central or nearly S(.». and orange colored : the margins of the scales are decidedly lighter in color than the rest of the scale, an c £ «> § 1 o o & h -< O eS a> a o .a *3 b u c$ 9 o *> ,s o '^ 1-1 o\ •o ---^^ i.A ** © — ^ U h a 33 i» u a s 3 a .Sg.'g ^ --S ^vater, jmber ess is le San killed. o a *• JS ■5 •- « a aj S S- 3 S e» m V n m i^'° » .513 S-2^ ® •'•§3 6 0.0! tc7iS 5 -■^-H > u a > > n 2 e9 5 46 A Simple Key for Determining the Names of the Common Scale Insects. By means of the following Key and a good magnifying glass any person may be able to analyze and find out the name of the scale under consideration : A. Arm OBEi> Scales. Insects covered with a fiattish scale. B. Female scales round. C. Male scale round or but slightly elongated, similar in texture and color to that of the female. — Aspidiotus. D, Female scale with nipple central, with a distinct circular depression about the nipple, winter forms usually black, mature forma gray, exuvia light yellow, never orange. — Aspidiotus perniciosus. DD. Female scale grayish, nipple eccentric, exuvia orange, young scales fre- quently found under old scale, whitish ring about nipple.—^, ostrtn- formis, DDD. Female scale grayish, margin much lighter than remainder of scale, exuvia orange and large, seldom central. — A forbesi, DDDD. Female scale grayish, exuvia eccentric, yellow, winters nearly matured. — A, ancylus. CC. Male scales white and elongated.— 2){aspt«. BB. Female scales long. C. Female scale, oyster-shell shaped, narrow, brownish-black ; male scale smaller ; yellowish white eggs under female scale in winter. — Mytilaspis pomorum. CC. Female scale broad behind, white ; male scale smaller with parallel sides ; purplish eggs. — Chionaspis furfurus. AA. Unabhored Scales. — Insects not covered with a scoZe— brown in color, hemispheri- cal, winters as a larva. — Lecanium prunastri. To illustrate the method ot using this simple Key, let us suppose that specimens of scales have been collected, and that it is desired to a scertain their scientific and common names. With a twig bearing the scale and a magnifying glass in the hand, we determine, first of all, whether the scale belongs to A., ARMORED Scales or AA., Un armored Scales. Let us suppose in this case that we find the real insect under the scale-covering, then it belongs to A., ARMORED Scales. Then, next, is the female scale round or elongated ? A glance will show that it is (say) round, and accordingly belongs to B. and not to BB. Next, is the male scale round or greatly elongated and white ? Another look with the glass will settle that : It is slightly oval, but not white. Therefore it must belong to C. rather than CO. Finally, has the female scale a central nipple ? Perhaps the glass will not decide this point very positively, so we shall ask ourselves another question : Is there a distinct circular depression about the nipplel If yes, then the scale is Aspidiotus perniciosus (San Jose Scale). If no, then is the exuvia orange, and is there a whitish ring about the nipple ? Yes; we decide in this case for the Aspidiotus ostreceformis (Curtis Scale.) In like manner the names of any of the commonly occurring scales may be determined, if we can get specimens of both male and female scales. In the case of the scales which pass the winter in the egg stage, the shape of the female scales will at once tell us that they are either the oyster-shell bark -louse, or the scurfy bark-louse, which are easily distinguished. 47 to a How TO Arrange a Cheap and Practicable Spray-pump for Spraying ACCURATELY DILUTE KEROSENE AND DILUTE CrUDETeTROLEUM. While conducting the series of spraying experiments in orchards infested with the San Jose Scale in January and Fel»ruary of the present year, I experienced great difficulty at tirst in spraying accurately the 20 per cent, kerosene and the 25, 33 and 40 per cent, of crude petroleum. Many hundreds of tests were made at various times ana places with each of the above percentages, but in no case did the pumps perform their work with any degree of accuracy. For example, when spraying with 20 per cent, kerosene it was found that the percentage of oil put on the tree varied from 15 to 30 per cent. ; when spraying with the 25 per cent, crude petroleum, the percentage varied from 15 to 35 per cent., and so on with the o'6 and the 40 per cent, crude petroleum. A desirable pump for spraying oil and water. Experiments revealed the fact that the oil and water tended to ncpar- ate readily in the hose. When the tip of the rod was elevated a larger percentage of oil issued from the no/zle than was the case when the tip of the rod was horizontal or depressed. After many attempts to arrange a suitable pump, Mr. G. E. Fisher, my assistant in the experiments, contrived a simple way of overcoming the difficulty. Two good spray pumps and their barrels were placed side by side, and their handles were fastened together by a bar so as to act as a single handle, working on an upright bar fastened to one of the barrels. One pumped water, the other kerosene or crude petroleum. By a simple adjustment the stroke of the two pumps was made to vary to any extent 48 so that any desired percentage of oil, or crude petroleum, could be obtained. P^acli pump, moreover, had a hose of its own leading through a hollow rod to the nozzle, wliere the water and oil, or water and crude petroleum, were mixed and emulsified while being sprayed on the tree. This simple method will enable fruit-growers to use tlie spra}-- pump which they have now. By coupling it with their neighbor's any desired percentage of kerosene or crude petroleum may be sprayed. The cost of the extra attachments oucjht to be trirtinijj. The writer is deeply indebted to the following persons for kind assistance in the preparation of this Bulletin : Dr. L. 0. Howard, and Professor C. L. ^Marlatt of Washington, Dr. Fletcher of Ottawa, Prof. W. G. Johnson of Maryland, Prof. F. M. Webster of Ohio. Dr. J. B. Smith of New Jersey, and Mr. G. E. Fisher, Inspector of San Jose Scale in Onta- rio. To all of these gentlemen the writer tenders his hearty thanks for services rendered. I i i I f I I I • I f