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T H E

Polar and Tkoj^jcaj.

W0IJLD8:

A DESCRIPTION^ OF MA.> AND NATUUi;

I.N JIIK

Polar and Equatorial Regions of the Qlobe.

TWO VOLUMES IN ONE.

EMUKA. I.MJ ALSO A.V ACCOI'NT
UIS(.()\(;

ALSO A.V ACCOI'Nl' Of Till.' I.vi.i..,.,,,.

>-'- •'™--^....v,..o:;„'i^,:^ n;",^r ""^""^'^' '^^'•'■••«-- ■--

ANO .v„v.:v,.,K.:s OK a.;ass,., , ,v,v. U V IT""" "• '"-"^ '^"'"

BY DR. (;. HARTWTO

EDITED, WITH Ar.»,T,O.V AT. CUA.TKl.S. UV

DK. A. H. GUERNSEY.
TWO rrUNDHED BKAUTIFVL I LUTSTRATIONS

■WITH AN ACCOUNT OF tr 4 1 r >^ .

/

SOLD ONLY BY SUBSCRIPTION.

PUBLISHED BV

J- W. LYON, UIJELPU, ONT.
1874.

Intored aecordin/r to ict of ronrTP,, ,« ♦,

'onfrross, In tUt year 1«7«, by

C- A. NrCHOLS a CO

CLARK W. nnvAN ft CO
-LECTHOTVPERS, rR,.,,„, ^,.„'„,^„^,^^
8PBIN0FIELD, MASS. '

PEEFACE.

IN c(litin{» anil comlilnincf into niio volume Iho two aflmiiahlo works
of Dr. IlAliTWir,, "The Polar World" and " Tlie Tropifal World,"
I have had in view, wliih; workiiiLC in the spirit of the Author, to avail
myself of all new sources of information, and esjiecially to enlarge u])on
those features which are of esjjeeial interest to Ameriean readers. Thus,
in "The Polar World," I have added a chaijler des('ri])tiv(^ f)f our new
aequisition of Alasl\a, full materials for whicii came into my hands from
our Department of State. I have also achled a ehajjter describing tho
remarkalde exploring expedition in the Arctic regions, i)erformed by my
friend, C'haulks Fuancis Hall. This expedition is especially notable
from the clear ])roof which it furnishes that, had Sir John Franklin only
known how to avail himself of the facilities for living afforded by the
region in which he was cast away, his whole party might have survived
and made their way back to their homes ; and also that the fearful suffer-
ings so graphically narrated by tho lamented Kane might all have been
avoided, had he only have known how to adapt his mode of life to the
requirements of an Arctic climate. Of Hall's second expedition, lasting
from 1864 to the close of 18(10, no full account has been published ; he
has been too busily engaged in preparing, for a third expedition to find
time to prepare the narrative of that which he had just accomplished.
I have, however, his own testimony to the fact that all his previous
opinions are fully confirmed. ITis own aitpcarance is abundant proof
that more than ten years mainly spent in the high Arctic regions, is not
necessarily more exhaustive of life, than the same space of time passed
among us. In the few Aveeks which will elapse between the writing of
this preface and the opening of northern navigation. Hall will have set
out on his third expedition, sent out under the auspices of our Govern-
ment, and supplied with every requisite for thorough exploration. We
may confidently expect that he will be able to solve the still vexed ques-
tions ai3 to the nature of the region which encircles the northern pole.

tJ I'KKFACK.

In "'I'lic Trnpiciil World," my iidilitidiis to tluf labors of Dr. Ilartwij,'
lifiv(! liccii luiicli iiioio c;oiisi(lt!riil)lt>. Sinco hw work was written, iiti-
nuinso lulilitinns luivo hoen ina(l(3 to om* kiinwlcdj^o of portions of the
rt';,doii lyin',' within tho Tropics. S(il'lKli luw traversed the i)lateaus of
lloliviii u;id Peru; and apart from the; ai)straetsof his jcnuneys which ho
lias published, ho has favored mo .vith nuieh information to bo embodied
in I he j;reat work ujion whieh he has for years Ix-en enj^apfed. HoLTov
lias furnished n (Mirions book on tho great table-land of l{o<,'<»tu ; Oiiton
has erossi'd tlu! Amies, explori'd tho Valley of (^uito, and descended tho
Amazon from its ujiper waters to its mouth; and Aoashiz has mado
hiv'^o contributions to our knowledge of tho natural history of tho mighty
Valley of tho Anuvzon.

Our kno.vledgo of tho hitherto almost unknown parts of Africa has
been more than doubled .since Dr. Ilartwig i)repared his work. Andkiis-
80N and Baldwin have told thoir hunting adventures in Southern
Africa; Hauth has traversed tho great Sahara; Si'KKK and IJAKF.ii
have solved tho mys }ry of the source of the Nile ; Du Chailld has again
pierced the continent on the lino of tho equator, and described tho mys-
teries of the homo of tho gorilla.

Perhaps tho most entirely fresh account of a part of tho Tropical World
is Wallace's work on the Malay Archipelago, a group of islands sur-
passing in extent all tho inhabitable parts of Europe, and, although now
almost uninhabited, capable of sustaining a population greater than that
now living outside of China and India.

Of all these, and many more authorities, I have made free iise ; and in
both parts of the work, I have steadily kept in view the leading idea of
Dr. IIar<^wig : To describe the Polar and Tropical Worlds in their prin-
cipal natural features, and to point out the influence of their respective
climates upon the development of animal and vegetable life, and par-
ticularly upon human beings.

The liberality of the Publishers has placed at my disposal illustiations
far exceeding in number and beauty those in the original work. They
j>resent to the eye information which words would often be inadequate
to express to the ear. I trust that my ow \ additions to the work will
not be found unworthy of the foundation .aid by Dr. Hartwig.

Alfred II. Guernsey.

CONTENTS.

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CIIAl'TF.U r.

TIIK AIHTII' LANDS.

Tliolmrrcn (Jrounds or Tundri. — Ahiiiulaiii.. .'iiiiiiiml I-ifc f;ii tlin Tunilti in Summer. —Their Silence
mill Desoliition in Winter. — Protection nlVunliMl to Venetatinn l>y tlio Snow. — I'liiwur-nrowth in
tlii^ liinliest l.alitntles, — (Jliaracter of Tnndni Venitation.— Soutlicrn Honiidary-liiK! of tlio Iwrieii
(ironiiiiH. — Tlieir Kxtent. — TIki forcHl Zone. — Arctie 'I'ri'es.— ,Sl(iwnes« of their (irowlli. — Monotony
of tin' NortinTii Korestx. — Mcwiuitoos. — 'i'lie viiiions ('aiiNe-i wliieli di'terniini'. tli« .Severity of an
Arclie Clintatn. — hmnlar and Cojitinental Position. — CurrenlM. — Winds. — Il.'ClreineBof Cold ohscrveil
liv Sir K. Iteli'InT and Dr. Kane. — How is Mun alilu to HUpiiort tlie llincns <if an .\rclic Winter? —
Proofs of a niil'ler (Climate Iniviii); once reigned in tliu Arctic Kunions. — Us Canso according tu
I )r. Oswald lluer. — Peculiar ileantius of tliu Arctic UogiunH. — Sunsot. — Loni; lunar i{i(;htfi.— Tha
Aurora Pace 17

CHAPTER II,
Anmc i.ANi> yfAiiia-riCDS and ninns.

Tim Rcinrtonr.— Stnictnrn of its Foot. — Olatterinn Xoiso wlicn walking. — Antlers. — Kxtraordinary
olfactory Powers. — TIic Icelainiii; Moss. — Present and I'orinin- Uan^e of the Kemdeor. — Its invalu-
alile (.Qualities as an Arctic domestic Animal. — Kevolts aj^ainst Oppression. — ICncniies of tlio Hein-
deer. — Tliu Wolf, — The (ilntton or Wolverine. — (iud-tlies. — Tlio IClk or Moose-deer. — Tho Musk-
ox. — The Wild Sheep of the Kocky Mountains. — The Silterian Arj^ali. — The Arctic Fox. — Its Bur-
rows.— The I.eiiiniinKs. — Tlieir Mij;rutions and F.ncmies. — Arctic Anatidw. — Tho Snow-buntinK.—
Tho Lapland Uuiitini;. — Tbo Sea-eagle. — Urowncd by a Uolphin 84

CHAPTER III.

THE ARCTIC 8EA8.

Danfjers peculiar to tho Arctic Sea. — Icc-fields. — Hummocks. — Collision of Ice-ficlds. — locberKS. — Their
Orit^in. — Their Size. — Tlio (lluciers which (;ivo them Ilirth. — Tlifir Heauty. — Sometimes useful
Auxiliaries to tlio Mariner. — Uanncrs of ancliorinf? to a Bern. — A crumbling Hers;. — The Ice-blink.
— Foi;s. — Troiisparency of tho Atmosphere. — Phenomena of Kcllection and Refraction. — Causes
wliidi prevent tho Accumulation of Polar Ice. — Tides. — Currents. — Ice a bad Conductor of Heat. —
Wise Provisions of Nature 4$

CHAPTER IV.

ARCTIC MAltlNK ANIMALS.

Populousncss of tho Arctic Seas. — Tho Greenland Whale. — Tho Fin Whales. — The Narwhal. —
The Beluga, or White Dolphin. — The Black Dolphin. — His wholesale Massacre on the Faeroe Isl-
ands.— Tho Ore, or Grampus. — The Seals. — Tho Walrus. — Its acuto Smell. — History of a young
Walrus. — Parental Affection. — Tho Polar Bear. — Ills Sagacity. — Hibernation of tho She-bear. —
Sea-birds 69

3EY.

CHAPTER V.

ICELANO.

Volcanic Origin of tho Island.— Tho Klofa Jokul. — Lava-streams.— The Buminf; Mountains of Krisu-
vik.— The Mud-caldrons of Reykjahlid.— The Tungo-hver at ReykhoL.— The Great Geysir.— The

VIM

CONTENTS.

Strokkr. — Cn-otal Pools. — The Almann-igja. — The .Surts-hcllir. — Dcautiful Icc-cavp. — The Gotha
Foss. — The Detti Foss. — Climate. — Vegetation. — Cattle. — liarharoua Mode of Shecp-shec iii;;. —
Keimieer. — Polar Hears. — Birds. — The Eider-duck. — Vidcy. — Vij;r. — The Wild Swan. — The Ha-
ven.— 'I'he Jerfalcon. — The Giant auk, or Geirfugl. — Fish. — Fishing .Season. — The White Shark. —
Mineral Kingdom, — Sulphur. — Peat. — Drift-wood Pago G8

CHAPTER VI.

IIISTOHY OF ICKI.AND.

DLicovery of the Island by Naddodr in 8G1. — Gardur. — Floki of the Ravens.--TnKolfr and Leif. — Ulfliot
the Lawgiver. — The Altliing. — Thill^;valla. — Introduction of Ciiristianity into the Ish.nd.— Fred-
eiick tlie Saxon and Thorwold the Traveller. — Than^brand. — (jolden Aije of Icelandic Literature.
— Snorri Sturleson. — The Island submits to Ilakon, King of Norwiiy, in l'jr>4. — Long Series of Ca-
lamities.— Great Eruption of the Skapta Jokiil in 1781!. — Commercial Jlonopuly.— -Better Times in
Prospect 89

CHAPTER VII.

THE I C E L A N I> K H R .

Skalholt. — Reykjavik. — The Fair. — The Peasant and the Merchaiit. — A Clcrpj'man in his Cups. — Hay-
making.— The Icelander's Hut. — Cliurclies. — Poverty of tlie Clergy. — Jon Thorlakscn. — The Semi-
nary of Kcyl<javiU.— licnelicial Influence of the (,'lergy. — Home Education. — The Icelander's Winter's
Evening. — Taste for Literature. — The Language. — The Pnlilic Library at Reykjavik. — The Icelandic
Literary Society. — Icelandic Newspapers. — Longevity. — Leprosy. — Travelling in Iceland. — Fording
tlie Rivers. — Crossing of the Skcidaru by Mr. Holland. — A Night's Bivouac 98

CHAPTER VIII.

THE WKST.M.VN ISI.ANIIS.

The Westmans. — Tneir extreme Difficulty of Access. — How »'.icy hecame peopled. — Heiniacv. —
Kaufstathir and Ofanleyte. — Sheep-hoisting. — Egg-gathering. — Dreadful Mortality among the
Chihbeii. — The Ginkloli. — Gentleman Jolin. — The Algcrine Pirates. — Dreadful Suflfcrings of ths
Islun''.ers 114

CHAPTER IX.

FROM DHONTIIEIM TO THE NORTH CAPE.

MildClimatcof the Norwegian Coast.— Its Causes. —The Norwegian Peasant. — Norwegian Constitution. —
Romantic coast Scenery. — Drontlieim. — GreilTeiifeld Holme and Viire. — The Sea-eagle. — Tlie Hei ring-
lishcries. — The Lofoten Islands. — The Cod-fisheries. — Wretclied Condition of the Fishermen. — Tromso.
— .-Mtcnfiord.— The Copper Mines. — Hanimerfest the most northern Town in the World.— The North
Cape 120

CHAPTER X.

SPITZBERr.EX — HEAR I.SI.AXri — .lAV MEYEN,

The west Coast of Spitsbergen. — .Ascension of a Mountain by Dr. Scoresby. — His Excursion along the
Coast.— A .stranded Whale. — Magdalena Bay.— Multitudes of Sea-birds. — Animal Life.— Midnight
Silence. — Gl.iciers. — A dangerous Neighborhood. — Interior Plateau. — Flora of Snitzbergen. — Its
Similarity with that of the Alps above the Snow-line. — Reindeer. — The hyperborean Ptarmigan. —
Fishes. — Coal. — Drift-wood. — Di«oovery of Spitzbergen by Barcntz, Ilcemskcrk, and Ryp. — Brilliant
Period of the Whale-fishery. — Coffins. — Eizht English Sailors winter in Spitzliergon, 16;i0 --Melan-
choly Death of some Dutch Volunteers. — Russian Hunters, — Their Rlode of wintering in Spitzlier-
gen. — Scharostin. — Walrus-shins from Ilammerfest and Tromso. — Bear or Cheric I'-.land. — Rennet.
—Enormous Slaughter of Walruses. — IMildness of its Climate. — Mount Misery. — Adventurous Boat-
voyage of some Norwegian Sailors. — Jan Mcyen. — Bcerenberg 161

CHAPTER XL

NOVA 7, E M B I, A .

The Sea of Kara. — Loschkin. — Rosmysslow.— Ltitke. — Krotow. — Pachfussow. — Sails along the east-
ern Coait of the Southern Island to Matoschkin Schar. — His second Voyage and Death, — Meteoro-

CONTENTS.

IZ

logical Observations of Zlwolka. — Th • cold Summer of Nova Zcmbla. — Von Raer's scientific Voyage
to Nova Zembla. — His Adventures in Matosch'KJii Stliur. — Storm In Kostin Schar. — Sea IJatli and
votive Cross. — Botanical Obseivatioiia. — A natural 'iarden. — Solitude and Silence. — A Bird lU-
zar. — Hunting Expeditions of tUu Kussians to Nova Zembla I'uga 147

CHAPTER XH.

TllK I.AIT9.

Their ancient History and Conversion to Christianity. — Self-denial and Poverty of the Lapland Clergy.
-Their singular Mode of Preaching. — (Jrosa Sujjerstition of the Lapps. — The Evil Spirit of the
Woods. — The Lapland Witches. — Physical Constitution of the Lapps. — Their Dress. — The Fjallhip-
pars. — Their Dwellings. — Store-houses. — Keindeer Pens. — Milking the Keindcer. — Migration. —
The Lapland Dog. — Skidcrs, or Skates. — The Sledgo, or Pidkii.— Natural IJoautica of Lapland. —
Attachment of the Lapps to their Country. — IJear-lmnting.— Wolf-hunting. — Mode of Living of the
wealthy Lapps.— How they kill the Ui'indoor. — Visiting the Fair.— Mammon Worship.— Treasure,
hiding. — "Tabak, or Uiaende." — .Vffectionato Disposition of the Lapps. — The Skogslapp.— The
Fisherlapp 156

CHAPTER XIIL

MATTHIA.S AI.KX,»SnEU CASm^N,

His Birthplace and first Studios. — Journey in Lapland, 1838.— The Iwalojoki.— The Lake of Enara. —
The Pastor of L'tzjoki. — From liowanicmi to Kenii — Second Voyage, 1811-1-I. — Storm on the
White Sea. — Return to Arcliangol. — The Tundras of the European Samoiedei. — Mcsen. — Universal
Drunkenness. — Sledge Journey to Pustoser.sk. — .\ Samoiede Teacher. — Tundra Storms. — Abandon-
ed and alone in the Wilderness. — Pustosersk. — Our Traveller's Persecutions at I'stsylmsk a)id Ish-
cmsk. — The L'usa. — Crossing the I'ral. — Obdor.sk. — Second Siberian Journey, 18ir)-)8. — Oveiflow-
Ing of the Obi. — Surgut. — Kra.snojarsk. — .\grceable Surprise. — Turucliansk. — Voyage down the
Jcnissei. — Castr6n's Study at Plachiim. — From Dudinka to Tolstoi Noss. — Frozen Feet. — Return
Voyage to the South. — Frozen fa.st on the Jenissoi. — Wonderful I'resorvation.— Journey across the
Chinese Frontiers, and to Transbaikalia. — Return to Finland. — Professorship at Hclsingfors. — Death
of Castron, 1855 lt)8

CHAPTER XIV.

T II K S AMOi !■: I) I. S.

Their Barbarism. — Num, or Jilibeanibaerfje.— Shamanism.— Sanio"cde Idols. — Sjadici.— Hahe. — The Ta-
debtsios, or Spirits. — The Tadibes, or Sorci-rers — Their Dross. — Their Invocations. — Their conjuring
Tricks. — Reverence paid to the Dead. — .\ Samoiede Oath. — .\ppearance of the Samoiedes. — Their
Dross. — A Samo'ede Belle. — Character of the Samoiedes. — Their decreasing Numbers. — Traditions of
ancient Heroes 179

CHAPTER XV.

TIIK OHTIAKS.

Wh.it is the Obi? — Inundations. — An Osliak summer Vourt. — Povert)- of the Ostiak Fishermen.— .\
winter Yourt. — Attachment of the Ostiaks to their ancient Customs. — An (Ostiak Prince. — .\rchen'.
—.Appearance and Character of the Ostiaks. — The Fair of Ol)dorsk 185

CHAPTER XVr.

COSQtJEST OF SIBERIA BY TIIK RUSSIAN'S— TIIKIU VOVAOIvS op DIvSCOVEUY AI/ISO THE SIIOUES OF TIIR

I'OI.AU .SKA.

Ivan the Terrible. — StrogonofT. — Yormak, the Robber and Conqueror. — His Expeditions to Siberia. —
Battle of Tobolsk. — Yermak's Death. — Progress of the Russians to Ochotsk. — Semen Doshiiew. —
Condition of the Siberian Natives U'ldi'r the Russian Yoke. — Voyages of Discovery in the Reign of
the Kmprops Anna. — Prontschischtschew. — Chariton and Demetrius Laptew. — .\n Arctic Hi'roine.
— Schalaurow. — Discoveries in the .Sea of Bf ring and in the I'rtcilic Ocean. — The Lachow Islands. —
Fossil Ivory. — New Siberia. — The wooden Mountains. — The past Ages of Siberia 191

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XVir.

STBF.RI.V— FfK-TK.Vl>K AND GOLD-DIOCISOS.

Silieria. — Its immcneo Extent ami Capaliilitii's. — T\\v Exiles.— ^loiitsiliikoff.—Polporo-iiky. — Miinloli. —
The (liiiiiiials. — Tlie free ;>ilieii:iii I'easaiit. — ExtP>"ies of lleat ami I'uKl. — Fiir-liearinij Animals. —
The Salile. — The I-.iniiiio. — Tlio Siberian Weasel. — The Sea-otter. — The blacK I"ox.--Tlie I.vnx. — ■
Tlie Si|uirrel. — The varyins; Hare.— The Suslik. — Iniportanee of the I'lir-traii', ",;: the Norlliern
I'rovinees of the Russian Empire. — The Gol(l-iliiri;in,i;s of I'.asteni Sil)eria. — The Taijia. — Expenses
anil DilHeijlties of searehinj; Expeditions. — Costs of Eroduce, and enormous Protils of sucee.ssful
Speculators. — Tlieir ("ensele.ss Extravairance. — First Discovery of Gold in the I'ral Mountains. —
Jukowlew and Deniidow. — Nishne-TagiUk Puj^e 2(14

CHAPTER XVIII.

Minr)r.N'i>oitFF's auvesti iti'.s in taimurland.

For what Purpose was .Middendorft's Vovat;c to Taimurland undertaken ? — Difficulties and Ohstacles. —

Ex>.. dition down the Tainuir River to the Polar .Sea. — Storm on Tainiur Lake. — Loss of tlu' Roat. —

MidiieiulortV ill ar.d alone in 7j ' X. Lat. — Saved by a {grateful Samoiede. — Climate and V>-{;etation of

Tainmrland 220

CHAPTER XIX.

Tin: ,iAKt Ts.

Their enerpetic Xationality. — Tlieir Descent. — Their ploomv Character. — Suir.tner and Winter DwelU
ings. — The .lakut Horse. — Incredible Powers of Endurance of the Jakuts.- -Their Siii»rpness of Vi.s-
ion.— Surprisiufi local Memory. — Their manual Dexterity. — Leather, I'jnianls, Carpets. — .lakut
Glutions. — Supi>isti;ious Fear of the Mountain-spirit Ljeschei.--C)tteringsjfHor.se-hair.— Improvised
Songs. — Tlie River Jakut 228

CHAPTER XX.

\VUAXGF.I.L.

His distinguished Services as nn .\rctic Explorer.— From Petersburg tJ Jakutsk in 1820. — ^Trade of
.!aku:sk. — From .Takutsk to Nisi- ,ie-Kolymsk.— The Badarany. — D'cadful Climate of Nishiie-Ko-
lymsk. — .Summer Plagues. — Vegetation. — .\ninial Life. — Reiudeer-luiiting. — l''aminc. — Inundations.
— The Siberian Dog. — First .Tourneys over the Ice of the Polar Seii, and Exploration of the Coast
beyond Cape Slielai^skoi in 1.^21. — Dreadful Dangers and Hardship*. — Matiusclikin's Sledge-journey
over the Polar Sea in 1822. — Last Adventures on the Polar Sea.- -A Run for Life. — Return to St.
Petersburg 2;!3

CHAPTER XXI.

TIIK TrNGlSI.

Their R(>lntion?hip to the Mantchou. — Dreadful Condition of the outcast Xomads. — Chiiracter of
the Tungusi. — Their Outfit for the Chase. — Bear-hunting. — Dwellings. — Diet. — A Night's ! 'alt with
Tungusi in the Forest. — Ochotsk 2 A

CHAPTER XXII.

GKORGF, WILLIAM STEI,t.F,H.

His Birth. — Enters the Russian Service. — Scientific .Journey to Kamchatka. — Accompanies Bering on his
second Voyage of Discovery. — Lands on the Island of Kaiak. — Shameful Conduct of Bering. — Sliip-
wreck on Bering Is ami. — Bering's Death. — Return to Kamchatka. — Loss of Property,— Persecutions
of the Siberian Authorities. — Frozen to Death at Tjumen 248

CHAPTER XXIII.

KAMCHATKA.

Climate. — Fertility.— Luxuriant Vegetation. —Fish.— Sea-birds. — Kamcbatkan Bird-catchers.— The Buy
of Avatschn. — Petropaylosk. — The Kamchatkans. — Their physical and mural Qualities.— The Fri-
tiUaiiu .b'oiTdiia.— The .Muchuinor. — Bears. — DogM 244

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XXIV.

The Ijind of the Tchuktchi.— Their indoppiuicnt Spirit and oommproinl Enter]irlso.— Perpetual Mitn'n-
tioiis. — Tlio Fair of (.V-itrowimje. — Visit in ii 'rcliiiktcli I'oloi,'. — Kac«s. — 'IVIiiikloli lliiviideres. —
The Tcnnyjjk, or I'jiniioor Tcliuklclii. — Tlie Oiikiloii, or Sodeiitury Tchuktchi. — Their Mode of
Life Pii(;c -JCJ

niAPTEK XX\-.

nKKINO SEA — TUK UlSSIAN Fill COMPANY — THE AUJITS.

Bering Slea.—Unnlaska. — The Pribilow Islauds. — St. Matthew.— St. Laurence. — BerinR's Straits. — The
Kussian Fur l\)nip:iny. — Tlie Aleuts. — Tlioir Cliuracter. — 'I'lieir Skill and Intrepidity in huntini^ tlie
Sea-otter, —The Sea-bear. — Whiilo-chusing.— \\'ulrus-slam{hler. — The Sea-hun itid

CHAPTER XXVL

ALASKA.

Purcliase of Ai jka by the United States.— Tlie Russian American Telegraph Sclicme.— Whymper's
Trip up t'lf Yukon. — l)os.'3. — The Start.— ExtiMupore Wiiter-lilter. -Snow-slioes. — Tlie Frozen Yu-
kon.—rnder-ttrouml llousc.i. — Life at Nulalo.— Cold Wcatlier. — Auroia.^. — Approarh of Summer.
— Breakiuf^-up of tlie Ice. — Fort Y'ukon. — Furs. — De.sceiit of the Y'ukon.— Value of (ioods. — .\retio
and Tropical Life. — Moosc-huntiiiir.— Decr-cornds.— Lip Ornanieiits. — Canoes. — Four-post Cofliii.
— The Kciiaian Indians. — The Aleuts. — Value of Aiaska iT?

CHAPTER XXVII.
TIIK i:.s(jriMAi:.v.

Their wide Extension. — CliniJito of the Regions they inhabit. — Their physical Appearance. — Their
Dress.— Snow Huts. — The Kayak, or the Haidar — lliintinsr Apparatus and Weapons. — Enmity be-
tween the Esquimaux and the Red Indian. — The "Bloody Fulls." — Chase of the Reindeer. — Biid-
catchini;. — Whalc-huntint;. — Various Stratagems employed to catch the Seal. —The " Kcep-kuttuk.''
— Bear-hunting. — Walrus-huntiiit;. — .\waklok and Myoiik. — The K»(|uiman.x Hog. — Games and
Sports. — .\ni;ekoks. — Moral Character. — Selt-reliance. — Intellifienco. — Ili.nliuk. — Commercial Ea-
gerness of the Esquimaux. — Their Voracity. — Seasons of Distress -JUO

CHAPTER XXVm.

THE KIJR-TRAKK OF TIIK IIIIHSON'S HAY TP.RRtTORIKS.

The Coureur dcs Bois. — The V'oyaj;eur. — The Birch-bark Canoe. — The Canadian Fur-trade in the last
Century. — The Hudson's Bay Company. — Bloody Feuds between the North-west Company of Can-
ada and the Hudson's Bay Company. — Their .Amalfiamation into a new Company in ls21. — Recon-
struction of the Hudson's B.ty Company in 1803. — Forts or Houses. — The Attihawmop. — Influence
of the Company on its savage Dependents. — The Black Bear, or Baribal. — The Brown Bear. — The
drizzly Bear. — The Raccoon. — The American Glutton. — Tlie Pino Marten. — The Pekan, or
Wood-shock. — The Chinga. — The Mink. — The Canadian Fish-otter. — The Crossed Fox. — The
Black or Silvery Fox.— The Canadian Lynx, or Pishu. — The Ice-hare. — The Beaver. — The
Musquash 8U'l

CHAPTER XXIX.

THE rUKE IXinANS, OK EVTIllNYtlWUK,

The various Tribes of the Creos. — Their Conquests and subsequent Defeat.— Their Wars with the Black-
feet. — Their Character. — Tattooing. — Their Dre.ss. — Fondness for their Children. — The Croe Cradle. —
Vapor Baths.— Games.— Their religious Ideas.— The Croo Tartarus and Elysium 319

Ihe Bay
lie Fri-

204

CHAPTER XXX.

t II E T I J! N B I M) I A K i( .

The various Tribes of the Tinne Indians.— The Dog-ribs.— Clothing.— The Hare Indians.- De^rad' d
State of the Women. — Pr.ictical Socialists,— Chaructcr.-Cruelty to th« Aged and Infirm i\J:7

t I
i '

kU

CONTENTS.

r;

CHAPTER XXXI.
THE t-ouciiErx, on kptcihn inmans.

The Countries they Inhabit. — Their Appearance and Dress. — Their Love of Finery. — Condition of the
Women. — Strfiige Customs. — Character. — Feiiils with the Ksqiiimaux. — Their suspicious and timo-
rous Lives. — I'ounds for catching !<ciiidccr. — Tlieir Lodtjes Paj;o 331

CHAPTER XXX I L

ARCTIC VOVACES OF IlISCOVERV, FUOM THK CAllOTS TO nAFri.V.

First Scandinavian Discoverer of America. — The Cabots. — ^Villou^;hby and Cliancellor (\5b^ V>6\').—
Stephen Burrough (lu.iG). — Frol)isher (ir)76-1578). — Davis (.158J-1587). — Barentz, Ciirnelis, and
Brant (1594). — Wintering of the Dutch Navigators i;i Nova Zenilda (1590-1597). — John Kni;:lit
(1006).— Murdered by the Esquimaux.— Henry Hudson (1607-1009).— Baffin (1610) 335

CHAPTER XXXIH.

ARCTTC VOVAGE.^ OF niSCOVEKV, FROM r.AFFIN TO M'Ct-INTOCK.

Buchan and Franklin.— Ross and Parry (1818). — Discovery of Melville L<land. — Winter Harbor (1819-
1820). — Franltlin's first land Journey. — Dreadful SufVcrings. — Parry's second Voyage (18'21-18l'.S).
— Iligliult.- Lyon (1824). — Parry's third Voyage (1824).— Franklin's second land Journey to llio
Shores of tlie Polar Sea. — Beechey. — Parry's sledge Journey towards tlio Pole. — Sir John Ross's
second Journey. — Five Years in tl;e Arctic Ocean. — Back's Discovery of Circat Fisli River. — Dease
and Simpson (181(7-1839). — Franklin and Crozier's last Voyage (1845).— Searching Expeditions. —
Richardson and Rao. — Sir James Ross. — Austin. — Penny. — De Haven. — Franklin's first Winter*
quarters discovered by Ommancy. — Kennedy and Bellot. — Inglefield. — Sir E. Belcher. — Kellett. —
M'Clare's Discovery of the Nortli-wcst Passac .— Colllnson. — BcUot's Death. — Dr. Rao learns the
Death of the Crews of the "Erebus 'and " Tcrror."—Sir Leopold M'Clintock 344

CHAPTER XXXIV,

KANE AST) IIAYF.S.

Kane sails up Smith's Sound in the " Advance " (1853). — Winters in Rensselaer Bay.— L^ledge Journey
along the Coast of Greenland. — The Three-brother Turrets. — Tennyson's Monument —The Great
Huuilioldt Glacier. — Dr. Hayes crosses Kennedy Channel. — Morton's Discovery of Washington
Land — Mount Parry. — Kane resolves upon a second Wintering in Rensselaer Bay. — Departure and
Return of Part of the Crew. — Sufferings of the Winter. — The Ship abandoned. — Boat Journey to
Upernavik. — Kane's Death in the Havana (1857). — Dr. H.iyes's Voyage in 1800. — He v.inters at
Port Foulke. — Crosses Kennedy Channel. — Readies Cape Union, the most northern known Land
upon the Globe.— Koldewey. — Plans for future Voyages to the North Pole 305

CHAPTER XXXV.

NEWFC SDI-ASn.

Its desolate Aspect.-Forests.— Marshes.-Barrens.— Ponds. — Fur-bearing Animals.— Severity of Cli-
mate.—St. John's.— Discovery of Newfoundland by the Scandinavians. — Sir Humphrey Gilbert.—
Rivalry of the English and French. — Importance of the Fisheries. — The Banks of Newfoundland.—
Mode of Fishing. — Throaters, Headers, Splitters, Salters, and Packers.— Fogs and Storms. — Sc.il-
catching 37G

CHAPTER XXXVI.

ORF.F.NLAND.

A mysterious Region.— .\ncient Scandinavian Colonists. — Their Decline and Fall.— Hans F.gcde. — Mis
Trials and Success.— Fnimdation of Godthaab. — Herrei.hutli Missionaries,— Lindenow — The Scoros-
bys. — Clavering. — The Diinlsh Settlements in (Ireeidand. — The Greenland Esquimaux. — Seal-ciitch-
ing. — The White Dolphin. — The Narwhal. — Shark-fishery. — Fiskernas.set. — Hlrds — Reinde'T-hunt-
ing.— Ii'dlgcnous Plants. — Dr-.'r-wood. — Mineral Kingdom. — Mode of Life of the Greenland Tsqul.
mau.x. — The Danes in Green'i md, — Beautiful .Scenery. — Ice C.ivcs 882

CONTENTS,

xiil

ciivrTKU xxxvir.

Till-. ANTAlUVilC Ol'KAS.

Coinp.irativp View of the Antnrotio and Arctic IJo^^ions.— Inferiority of Climalp of the formor.— Its
Causes.— Tlic Now Shetland Islands. --Sotiili (icornia. — I'lii! Peruvian Stream.— .Sou-liirds.—'riic (li-
nnt IVtrel.— Tlio Albatros .. - Aw I'en^'iiin.— Tlic Austral Whale.— Tlie Huiuhhack.— The Fin-back.
—The (irauii.ns.— Hattle ,'itli a Whale.— The Sea-elephant.— The Southern Sea-bear.— The .Sei-
Icopurd.— .\iUarctic fishes I'ufo "''J^

CIlAriKU XXXVIII.

AsrAncric vi)vao;-.8 ok ihmkvf.kv.

Cook's Di.'covcries in the .\ntarctie (Icean.— Helliiij,'hausen.— WeddoU — Ilisco'.— Ualleny. — Dumnnt
d'Urville. — Wiike.s. — Sir .lanios Uo-s crosses the Antarctic (Circle on New Year's D.iy, 1811.— Dis-
covers Victoria Land. — Dan^^croiis Landing on Franklin Island. — -An Krnptioii oC Mount I'.rebuB. —
'J'he Great Ice Harrier. — Providential Kscape. — Dreadful Gale.— Collision. — llaitardous Pnssat^e be-
tween two Icebergs. — Terniinatiou of the Voyatjc 4i'l

CHAPTER XXXIX.

TUF. 9TKAIT OK .M.UIHI.I.AN,

Description of the .Strait. — AVestorn Entrance. — Point Dungeness. — The Narrows. — Saint I'hilip's Hay.
—Cape Froward. — Grand Scenery. — Port F.iniinc. — 1 he Sed,i;cr Ilivcr. — Darwin's Ascent of Mount
Tarn. — The llaehelor Itivcr. — En,!.;li.sh Keach. — Sea Ke.ieh. — South Desolation. — Harbor of Mercy. —
Williwaws. — Discovery of the Strait by Magellan (October 20. 1521). — Drake. — Sarniicnto. — Cav-
pudish. — Schoutcn and Lo Maire. — P.yron. — liouiraiiiville. — AVallis and Carteret. — Kin;; and Fit?:-
roy. — Settlement at Pnnta .\renas. — Incrcasiufj; Passaic tlirouj^li the Strait. — .\ future llij^hway ot'
Coninierco 108

CnAPI'EU XL.

l-ATAGONIA AND TIIK TATAOOSIANS.

Difference if Climate between East and West Patai^onia. — ICxtraordinary Aridity cf East Pataponla.—
Zoology. — The (iuanaco. — TheTucutuco. — Tlie Patagonian .Aroi. ;. — Vultures. — The Tiirkey-buz-
zard. — The Carrancha. — The Chiinango. — Darwin's Ostrich. — The P.itaj;onians. — Exa;.'Kerated Ac-
counts of their .Stature. — Their Physiognomy and Dress. — Kcligions Ideas. — Superstitions. — .Vstro-
nomical Knowledge. — Division into Tribes. — The Tent, or Toldo. — Trading Routes. — The great
Cacique. — Introduction of the Horse. — Industry. — .\musomeuts. — Character 117

CHAPTER XLI.
Til K ni i: GI A N s.

Their miserable Condition. — Degradation of Body and Mind. — Powers of Mimicry. — Notions of Hartcr.
— Causes of their low State of Cultivation. — Their I'ood. — Limpets. — (.'ijllavin luirwiiii. — Constant
Migrations. — The I'uegian Wigwam. — Weapons. — Their probaulc Origin. — Their Number, and va-
rious Tribes. — Constant Feuds. — (^annibalism. — Lanc;na'.'c. — .\d\enturesof Fiiegia IJaskel, Jemmy
Button, and York Minster. — Missionary Labors. — Captain Gardiner. — His lamentable End.... 4i»

tde.— Mis
Le Scoro»-
Ul-catch-
■cr-hunt-
lid r,siul-
.. 882

CHAPTER XLII.
ciiari.es FU.\>fris iiai.i- anm) tiiI': inxi.tt.s.

Hall's Expedition. — His early Life. — His rciding of Arctic Adventure. — His Re.'olve. — Ilis Arctic Out-
lit. — Sets sail on the "George Henry." — The Voyage. — Kudlago. — Ilolsteinbnrg. Greenland. — Pop-
ulation of Greenland. — Sails for Davis's Strait. — Character of the Innuits. — Wreck of the " Rescue."
— I'^bierbing and Tookonlito. — Their Visit to England. — Hall's lirst Exploration. — lairopcati and lii-
nuit Life in the Arctic Regions. — Buihling an Igloo. — .Mmost Starved.— Fight for Food with Dogs.
— ICbierbing arrives with a Seal. — How he caught it. — K Seal-I'cast. — The Innuits and Seals. — The
Polar Bear. — How h-- teaches the Innuits to catch Seals. — \t a Seal-hole. — Dogs as .Seal-linnters. —
Dogs .ind Bears. — Dogs and Reiiuleers. — Innuits and Walruses. — More abouc Igloos. — Innuit Imple-
ments.— Uses of the Reindeer. — Innuit Improvidence. — A Deer-feast. — A frozen Delicacy. — Whale-
skin as Food.— Whale-gum.— How to cat Whale Ligament. — Raw Meat. — The Dress of the Innuits

ht

CONTENTS.

A pretty Stylo. — RcliRious Itlens of the Iniiuits. — Tlicir kindly Chnrnctcr.— Treatment
of ilie A):eil and Infirm.- A Woman abandotiud to die. — IlaU'g Attempt to rescue )ier. —
Tlio Innuit Nomaiis, without any form of Government. — Their Numbers Diniinisinn^' —
A Sailor wanders away. — Mall's Search for liim. — Finds liim frozen to death. — Tlie Ship
free from Ice. — I'reparations to return. — Reset in the Ice-pack. — Another Arctic Winter. —
Breaking up of the Ice. — Departure for Home. — Too'tnolito and her Child " Butterfly."—
Deatli of " Butterfly."— Arrival at Home.— Results of Hall's Ilxpedition.- Innuit Tradi-
tions.— Discovery of Frobishcr Relics. — Hall's Second Expedition, Tage 433

ADDITIONAL CHAPTERS.

Chapter 43 — Summary of Arctic Explorations, 7:; ?

Chapter 44. — Hall's Last Expedition, 767

CuAPTEB 45.— Fat« of the Polaris 777

THE TEOPIOAL WOELD.

CHAPTER L

THE OCEAN AND ATMOSPHERE OF THE TROPICAL WORLD.

Characteristics of the Polar and Tropical Worlds. — Geographical and Climatic Limits of the
Zones. — Distribution of Land and Water. — Climatic Importance of the Ocean. — Currents
of the Ocean. — The Gulf Stream. — Influence of the Gulf Stream upon the Climate of
Europe. — The Sargasso Sea. — Columbus and the Gulf Stream. — The Pacific r.nd Indian
Currents. — Heat and Force. — Relative Positions of Hot and Cold Currents. — Currents of
the Air. — The Trade Winds. — Atmospheric Currents and Climate. — The Calm Belt near
the Equator. — Rainfall of Different Regions. — Rainy and Dry Seasons within the Tropics.
— The Monsoons. — Winds as Regulators of Rains. — Annual Rainfa'l. — Whirlwinds. — Their
Rotary Motion. — Tropical Islands.- Volcanic Islands. — Coralline Islands. — Atolls and
Reefs. — Influence of the Ocean upon Life in the Tropical Islands, 471

CHAPTER XL

TABLE LANDS AND PLATEAUS OP THE TROPICAL WORLD.

Influence of Elevation upon Climate. — The Puna of Peru: Squier's Description of the Puna. —
The Soroche or Veta. — View from La Portada. — EflLcts of the Soroche. — The Sarumpe.
— The Veruga Water. — Effects of the Veta on Animals. — Vegetation of the Puna. — The
Llama. — The Huanacu. — The Alpaca. — The Vicuna. — Hunting the Vicuna. — The Hunts
of the Ancient Incas. — Enemies of the Vicuna. — Other Native Animals. — The Ox, Horse,
Mule and Sheep. — Waterfowl. — Warm Valleys. — Rapid Change of Climate According to
Elevation. — Lake Titicaca: The Sacred Island of Titicaca. — Manco Capac, the First Inca.
— His Journey from Lake Titicaca to Cuzco. — Fact and Myth respecting Manco Capac. —
Extent of the Inca Empire. — Inca Civilization originated in the Puna, near Lake Titi-
caca.— The Sacred I'ock on the Island. — Ruins and Relics on the Island. — The Hacienda
on the Island.— The Eve of St. John.— The Bath of the Incas.— Other Sacred Islands.—
Ruins at Tihuanico. — Some more ancient than the Incas. — Immense Monolithic Gateways
and Hewn Stones. — Inca Civilization. — The Great Military Roads. — Sy,stem of Posts and
Post-Stations. — The Valley of Quito: Approach to the Valley from the Pacific Coast. — A
Tropical Region —Climbing the Cordillera. — Scenes by the Way. — Quito. — Climate of the
Valley. — Astronomical Site. — Trees, Fruits, Vegetables, and Flowers. — Animals. — Birds. —
Insects, Reptiles, and Fish. — The Population of the Valley. — Indians. — Half-Brceds. —
Whites. — Courtesy of the People — A Polite Message. — Scenery of the Valley. — Volca-
noes. — Imbabura. — Destruction of C ovalo. — Cayaniba. — Guamani. — Antisana. — Sincho-
lagua. — Cotopaxi. — The Inca's Head. — Tunguragua. — Altar.— Sangai. — Its Perpetual Erup-
tion.— Chiinborazo. — Caraguarizo. — lUinza. — Corazon. — Pichincha. — Its immense Crater.
— Descent into the Crater. — Eruptions of Pichincha. — The Table-Land of Bogota: Voyage

CONTENTS.

XT

up Uio MaRdnlenn — Anecnt to the Plateau. — BoRotd and the BopotAnns. — Travolinn at
]\iy^oU.—Talilc-f^nd(>fMi-riro: Its Kxtont.— The Tierrn Cnlii-nta.— The Tierra Tinii'lmhi.
— The Tierra Fria. — The Valley of Analiuac. — The Volcanoes of Orizaha, ropoeatapptl,
Iztaeihuatl, and Toluca. — The Sikkim Slope: Approach and Ascent. — DorjilinK. — The
Sikkiin Teaks. — Allitudo of Kinchin-junga. — Flight of tlio Condor Page 4bO

CIIAPTEU III.

SAVANNAS AND DKSEIITS OF THE TROPICAL WORLD.

Water and Life. — Cliaracteristics of the Savainias. — The Hanoi: The Dry Season. — Effecti
upon Vegetable Life. — Effects upon Animal Lite. — Approach of the Ilainy Season. — Hevivnl
of Vufietable and Animal Life. — Vast Migrations of Animals. — The Pampas: Horses and
'Jattle in the New World, — Effects of their Introduction uiv)n the Character of the Popu-
lation.— The Mauritia Palm. — Living in the Tree-tops — The Granil Chiico — Its Indian
Inhabitants. — The Guachos. — The Lasso and Bolas. — The. Plains of Hunthern Africa: Thorny
Biislies. — Excessive Droughts. — A Great Hunting Ground. — Species of Game. — Vegetation
— Watery Tubers. — Escu'ent Gourds. — Possibility of Wells. — Water-Pits in the Kalahari. —
Mode of Pumping Up the Water. — Livingstone's Theory of Water-Making Ants. — More
Probable Explanation. — Inhabitants of Southern Africa. — The Lake Region of lu/itatorial
A/'I'M: Little Known. — Explorations of Livingstone and Burton. — Speke's Journey. — His
Notices of the Country. — Moderate and Eqtiable Temperatf re. — The Inhabitants. — Charac-
teristics of a Real Desert. — The, Atacamn of Pern: Its Arid Ch.iracter. — The Mule the Ship
of this Desert. — The Australian Desert : Its Utter Desolation. — Sturt's Exploration. —
Leichardt. — Lost Rivers. — The Sahara: Extent and General Characteristics. — The Cajiital
of Fezzan. — Perilous Adventure of Barth. — Plains and Hills. — Oases. — Luxuriant Vegeta-
tion of the Oases. — Contrasts of Light and Shade. — The Khamsin or Simoom. — Animals
and Reptiles. — The Ostrich and its Chase. — Fluctuations of Animal and Vegetable Life
according to the Seasons, 4U9

CHAPTER IV.

TROPICAL FORESTS. — VALLEY OF THE AMAZON.

Characteristics of the Tropical Forests. — Variety of Trees and Plants. — Aspect During the
Rainy Season. — Beauty After the Rainy Season. — A Morning Concert. — Repose at Noon.—
Awakening at Evening. — Nocturnal Voices of the Forest. — The Amazon: Course of the
River. — Size of its Basin. — The Tide at its Mouth. — Rising of the River. — Igariiies, or Canoe-
Paths. — Inimdations of the Amazon. — Vast Variety of its Vegetation. — Fishes. — Agassiz's
Specimens. — Alligators and Turtles. — Turtle-Hunting. — Insects — Ants. — Butterflies — Spi-
ders.— Lizards. — Frogs and Toads. — Sn.akes. — Paucity of Mammalia. — The Jaguar. — Scan-
tiness of Human Population — Indian Tribes — Mundurcu Tattooing. — Travelers' Accounts
of the Tribes. — Men with Tails. — Orton's Summary of their Character. — His Own Expe-
rience Favorable. — He finds them Honest and Peaceable. — Agassiz's Notices of the Indians.
— Their Familiarity with Animals and Plants. — Whites. — Negroes. — Mixed Breeds. — Agas-
eiz and Orton on the Capacity of Amazonia, 514

CHAPTEP. V.

CHARACTERISTIC FORMS OF TROPICAL VEGETATION.

General Features of Tropical Forests. — Number of Species of Plants. — The Baobab. — Its
Gigantic Size. — Age of the Great Trees. — Dragon-Trees. — The Great Dragon-Tree of
Orotava — The Sycamore. — The Banyan. — The Sacred Bo-Tree. — The Oldest Histori-
cal Tree.— The Teak.— The Satin-wood.— The Sandal Tm.— The Ceiba.— The Ma-
hogany Tree — The Mora. — The Guadua. — Bamboos. — The Aloe — The Agave. — The
Cactus — The Screw Pine. — Mimosas. — Lianas. — Climbing Trees. — Epiphytes. — Water
Plants. — Buttressed Trees. — Trees with Fantastic Roots. — Mangroves. — Marsh Forests.
—Palms.— The Cocoa Palm —The Sago Palm.— The Saguer Palm.— The Areca Palm.—
The Palmyra Palm.— The Talipot Palm.— Ratans.— The Date Palm —Oil Palms.— Variety
of Size, Form, Foliage and Fruit — Future Commercial Value of the Palm, 52a

Itvi

CONTENTS.

I i

li li

f||!.|

CHAPTEU VI.

THE CniEF NDTniTIVK PLANTS OF TIIK THOPICAt WORLD,

Rice. — Aspects of Uico-Fields at DiflTercnt Seasons, — The Hice-Fielils of Ceylon. — Ladanp;
and Snwn Uice. — Ilico in Soutij Carolina. — The Rice-Bird, — I'uddy, — Maize. — VVlien first
brought to Kuropo, — Appearance of the Plant, — Tts Kiiornioiis I'roductivencss, — Kreedorn
from Disease. — Wide E.xteiit of its Cultivation. — IJcnjaniin Franklin's Account of Maize —
Millet. — The Rread-Fruit. — Its Taste. — Modes of Cookinj;. — The Banana and riantain.—
Their Great Productiveness. — The Sat;o I'alni. — Manufacture of Siigo, — Sago Bread, — •
Cheap Living, — A Siesta and Starvation, — The Cassava, — Yarns. — The Sweet Potato.
—■Arrow Root. — The Taro Root. — Tropical Fruits. — The Ciiirinioya. — The Litclii. — The
Mangosteen. — The Mango. — The Durion. — Its Taste and Smell. — Large Fruit on Tall
Trees, Page 646

CHAPTER Vn.

BCOAR — COFFEE — CHOCOLATE — COCA— SPICES.

Siipar: Its Importance. — The Home of tlie Sugar-Cane. — Ancient Theories about Sugar. — The
Introduction of the Cane into Europe and America. — Ciiaracteristics of tlic Plant. — Mode of
Cultivation. — Coffee: Its Ilomf*. — Introduction into Egypt and I'lurope, and elsewliere.—
Present CoflTee Countries. — CofTec Culture in Brazil. — Agassiz's Description of a Coffee
Estate. — The West Indies and Ceylon. — The Coflee-Plant. — Methods of Preparing the
Berries.— Tlie Enemies of the Plant.— The Golunda.— The Coffee Bug.— The Coffee Jfotli.
— Carno, or Chocolate: Its Culture and Preparation. — Cocn: Description of the Plant. — Mode
of its Use. — Its Effects. — Indian superstitions connected with it. — Cinnamon: Known to ino
Ancients. — Cinnamon in Ceylon. — Mode of Culture and Preparation. — General Account
of this Spice. — Nutmegs and Cloves. — Enormities of the Dutcli Monopoly. — Pepper. —
Pimento. — Ginger, 559

CHAPTER Vin.

INSECTS.

Multitude of Tropical Insects. — Beetles, — Dragon Flies, — Leaf Moths, — The Leaf Butterfly. —
Fire Flies. — Insect Plarjues: Mosquitoes. — Ciiigoes, or Jiggers. — The Filaria Me<linensis. —
The Brie Rouge. — Ticks. — Land-Leeches. — The Tsetse I'ly. — The Tsalt-Salya Locusts. —
Cockroaches. — Enemies of the Cockroach. — I'.irfid Insects: Tlic Silk- Worm. — The Cochineal
Insect. — The Gum-Lac Insect. — Edible and .Ornamental Beetles, 681

CHAPTER IX.

ANTS — TEIIMITES — ANT-EATERS — SPinERS — SCOUPIONS.

Ants: Vast Numbers of Ants in the Tropical World. — Pain caused by their Bites. — The Ponera
Clavata.— The Black I'ire-Ant.— The Dimiya of Ceylon.— The Red Ant of Angola.— The
Vivaguaof the West Indies. — The Umbrella Ant. — Household Plagues. — Troubles of Natu-
ralists.— The Ranger Ants. — The Baohikouay of Western Africa. — House-Building Ants.
— Slaveholding Ants. — Aphides, or Plant-Lice. — Insect Cow-Keepers. — Termites: Their
Ravages among Books and Furniture. — Their Citadels. — Domestic I'^conomy. — Defensive
Warfare. — American Termites. — The Enemies of the Termites. — How to Catch, Cook, and
Eat them. — The Marching Termite. — Ant-Eaters ; The Great Ant-Bear. — His Mode of
Ilimting. — Mode of Defense. — Anatomical Structure. — Lesser Ant-Bears. — Manides and
Pangolins. — The Aard-Vark. — Armadillos. — The Porcupine Ant-Eater. — Spiders; Their
Physical Structure. — Their Webs. — Means of Protection. — Mode of Catching their Prey. —
Maternal Instinct. — Their Enemies. — Uses of Spiders. — Scorpions; Their Aspects and
Habits.— Their Venom, 594

CHAPTER X.

8EUPENTS — LIZARDS — FROGS AND TOADS.

Serpents: Rarity of Venomous Serpents. — Habits <ind External Characteristics of Serpents.—
The Labarri. — The Trigonocephalus. — Antidotes to the Poison of Serpents. —Sucking out

CONTKNTS.

XVII

idnnpt

J first
■ctloin
lizc —
II in.—
eail.—
.'otnlo.
,— Tlu'
n T"U
ge 646

r.— The

VJoilc of
vhere.—
a Coffee
rin>i the
eo Moth.
t._M()ile
,vn to tiie

Account
L'cppcr.—

559

iitterfly.—
incnsis. —

jOCVlStS.

Cochineal
... 681

Ihe Ponera
tola.-The
^s of Niitu-
lling Ants.
\cs: Tiieir
l-Defensive
1 Cook, and
Mode ot
Unities and
Tlieir
jir Prey. —
kpects and
. . 694

kerpents.—
lucking out

the Vpnoni.— Tlic Poison-FaiiKs.— Thu Hush-Miister.— The Eclihhia Ocellata.— Hattle-
BiiakfH. — Thoir Kucniy tlie Hoy. — Tho Ci)l)ra du Capcllo. — The Unjo. — The Ccrasios. —
Hoaa and Pytlions. — Tlio Boa-constrictor. — The Water Hoa. — I''a'*(!iiiation liy Snake.s.—
Ilciiderson'.'j Argument aKaill^^t It. — Thorpe's lU-asons in its l''avor. — Dii Ciiailiu on tlio
Siilijcct. — ICiieinie.f of Serpents. — Tiw! Secretary Bird. — Tlic Adjutant Bird. — Tlic Mon-
jjoos. — Suri)ent9 Katinj? Sernonts. — Tiie Locomotion of Serpents. — Anatomy of tlieir
Jaws. — A Serpentine Meal.- I'et Serpents. — Tree Snakes. — Water Snakes. — Stories of
Knorinous Snakes. — I)u Cliaillu's Bij; Snake. — Wallace's BifiKCf One. — Li:tinl»: Tho
Geckoc. — Anatomy of its I'eet. — Their Wide l)istril)Ution. — The Aiiolis. — Its Comhative-
ncss. — The Chameleon. — Its llahits, Cliaiife of Color, and Characteristics. — The Iguana. —
Tho Teju.— Water Lizards. — Klying Dragons. — The Basilisk. — Froiisand Toads: The Pipii
Frofj. — Tree Frogs. — Wallace's Flying Frog. — Tho Buhia Toad. — Tl'.e Giant Toad. — The
Musical Toad, Pugo tilt

CHAPTER XL

ALLIGATORS — CROCODILKS — TORTOISES AND TURTLES.

Alli;/ators and Crocodiles: Their Habits. — Caynien, Gnvials and Crocotliles. — Mode of Seizing
th, r I'roy. — Size of Alligators. — Alligators on the Amazon. — Alligator and Crane. — Man-
Eating Alligators. — Tlieir Contests. — Tenacity of liife. — Laying their Eggs. — Tenderness
for their Young. — Their Enemies. — Torpidity in tho Dry Season. — "Playing 'Possum." —
Tortoises and Turtles: The Giilaiiago Islands. — The J^lephantiiie Tortoise. — Rate of Trav-
eling.— Marsh Tortoises. — Manufacture of Tortoise Oil. — Turtles on the Amazon. — Sea-
Turtles. — Their Enemies. — Modes of Cajjturing Turtles. — The Green Turtle. — The Hawks-
bill Turtle. — Barbarous Modes of Removing the Shell, and Selling the Meat. — The Cori-
aceous Turtle, 0o5

CHAPTER Xn.

BIRO-LIFE IN TIIU TROPICAL WORLD.

Difficulties of the Subject. — Wide Range of Birds. — The Toucan. — Humming-Birds. — Cotin-
gas. — Tho Campanero, or Bell-Bird. — The Rcalejo, or Organ-Bird. — Tlie Manakiiis. — Tim
Cock of the Rock. — Tho Troupials. — The Baltimore Oriole. — The Cassiques. — The Mock.
ing-Bird. — The Toropishu. — The Tunqui. — Goat-Suckers. — The Cilgero. — Flamingos.^
The Ibis. — Spoon-Bills.-— Birds of the Now and the Old World. — Sun-Birds. — Honey-Eat
ers. — The Ocellated Turkey. — The Lyre-Bird. — Birds of Paradise. — Fables respecting
them. — Their Character and Habits. — Their Dancing-Parties. — Mode of Shooting and
Snaring them. — The Australian Bower-Bird. — The Brush-Turkey. — The Adjutant. — Tho
Copper-smith. — The Indian Baya. — The Tailor-Bird. — The Grosbeak. — The Korwe'.— •
Parrots. — The Brazilian Love-Parrot. — Their Powers of Mimicry. — Cockatoos. — Macaws.
— The Ara. — Paroquets. — The Ostrich. — His Swiftness of Eoot. — Modes of Capturing it. —
Stratagems to Save its Young. — Its Enemies. — Its Young. — Resemblance to the Camel. —
Its Powers of Digestion. — Uses of its Eggs. — The Rheas. — The Cassowary. — The Emu, 645

CHAPTER Xin.

THE climbers: BATS, SLOTHS, AND SIMIJt?.

Bats: Their Wonderful Organization. — The Fox-Bat — Eaten by the Malays. — Vampire Bata
— Their Blood-sucking Propensities. — The Horseshoe Bat. — The Nycteribia. — The Flying
Squirrel. — The Galeopithecus. — The Anomalurus. — The Sloth: Pitiful Description given
of Ilim. — His beautiful Organization for his peculiar Mode of Life. — His rapid Movements
in the Trees— His Moans of Defense.— His Tenacity of Life.— The Unau— The Ai. —
Gigantic Primeval Sloths. — Monkeys: Good Climbers, but bad Walkers. — Imperfectly
known to the Ancients. — Similitudes and Differences between Man and Apes. — The Chim-
panzee.—The Gorilla. — Du Chaillu's First Encounter with a Gorilla. — The Gorilla and her
Young. — The Orang-Utan, or Mias. — Wallace's Accounts of Shooting the Orang. — Their
Tenacity of Life.— Size of tlie Orang.- The Orang as a Combatant.— The Orang fighting

I

xviil

rONTKNTS.

the Crocoililc and ryt'.ion.— Iliihitii of tliv Orniig.— Wnllncc'« Yoiinn I'et ()r.,nK — The
(fililiuiis. — Monkeys o' tin? Olil iiiiil New WorldH. — The Seiiiiioiiithuci. — Tlio I'ioImincih
Monkey. — 'I'lio Snere I Aj)o vi lUv Ilimliis. — Tlie C'ereopitheei. — The MiujoIm. — The ("yno-
cephiili, or Ilaboon8.--The Muiinon. — The (ireiit liiihoori uf SeiieKul. — 'I'he Derryns. — The
l.oris. — MoiikeyH of th'j New Worhl. — Monkeys DistiiiKuixlied by their Tiiiln iind Tc'Cth.^
The Woiirali Poison.— The Indian Hlow l'i|K!. — Mihlnetis of Anierienn Monkeys.— Tlio
IIoNvlini; Monkcyi. — Tlio Spider-Monkeys. — 'I'lie Fo.x-Uiil Monkeys. — Tlic SuinuiriH. — Noc-
turnal Monkeys. — Thu DuniuBti'JUted Nocturnals. — The Squirrel-Monkey, I'agu OO'J

CIIAl'TEll XIV.

TROPIOAL IIB.VSTS AND UIBDB OP PRRT.

Variety of Carnivorous Creatures. — lilrdu of Prey : The Condor. — Ills Marvelous Flight. — IIi«
Cowardice. — -Modes of Capturing tlieni. — Tlie Turkey-Huzzard, or Carrion Vulture. — Tlio
JviriK of the Vultures. — The Urubu. — Capable of Donie.stication. — The Harpy Kn^le. —
Tlie Sociable Vulture. — The Uacha. — The Fishing Eafjle. — The Musical Sparrow-Hawk. —
The Secretary Kntjie. — liedsts n/ Prty : The Lion. — Fictitious Character ascribed to him.
■ — .Mode of Seizing his I'rey. — Lions and (iirafTe. — Lion and Hottentot. — Andersson and a
Lion. — Livinftstone's narrow F.st.'ape. — Lion-lluntiii); in the Atlas, — By the Bu.shnieii. — ('ap-
turini^ their Yoinij;. — Former ami present Uange of the Lion. — Lion and Khinoccros. —
Livini,'stone'H Kstimate of the Lion. — The Tiger. — Their Kuvages in Java. — Wide Kanneof
the Tiger. — Tiger-Hunting in India. — Kscape from a Tiger. — .\ninials announcing the; Aii-
proacli of a Tiger. — Turtle-hunting Tigers. — The Panther and Leopard. — The Cheetah. —
The Hyena. — The Spotted and Brown Hyenas. — The Felidajof New World. — The Jaguar.
— limiting the Jaguar. — The Cougar, or Puma. — The Ocelot. — The Jagimrandi. — Thu
Tiger-Cdt, 0U3

CHAPTER XV.

THE ELEPIIAHT — sniNOCBROS — IIIl'POPOTAMnS — CAMEL — ZEDRA.

The Great Tropical Pachyderniati. — The Elephant: Difference iHitweon the tamo and wild
Elephant. — His Instinctive Timidity. — Acutcness of His Senses. — His Sagacity in Climbing
Hills. — His wonderful Trunk. — Ilia Tusks. — Elephant Herds. — The Kogue, or Solitary Ele-
phant.— The Asiatic and African Species. — The African Elephant tamed in Ancient Times.
— Present Range of the African Elephant. — Native Modes of Hunting the African Eleiihant.
— The Klephontand the Itifle. — Perils of Elephant-Hunters. — Elephant-Hunting in Abyssinia.
— The Asiatic F^lepliant. — Elephant-Hunting in Ceylon. — The Panickeas, or Native Elephant-
Hunters. — Elephantine Head- Work. — Obstii.ate Brutes. — The Rhinoceros: Range and Char-
acter of the Rhinoceros. — Two Species, the Black and the White. — Size of tiie Rhinoceros. —
Acuteness of its Senses. — Its winged Attendant. — Its parental Affection. — Its nocturnal
Habits. — Modes of Hunt)-'!? the Rhinoceros. — The One-Homed or Indian Rhinoceros. — The
Two-Horned Rhinoceros of the Malay Archipelago. — Rhinoceros-Paths in Java. — The Hip.
jmiiotiimna : Is the Ilipjiopotamus the Rehemoth of Job? — Habits of the Hippopotamus. —
Its uncouth Aspect. — Rogue Hii)popotami. — Intelligence of the Hippopotamus. — Uses of its
Skin and Teeth. — Mode of Killing the Hippopotamus. — The Camel : Its Adaptation to the
Tropical Sand-Wastes. — Its Physical Organization adapted to its Mode of Life. — Its Foot
and its Stomach.— 's Desert Home. — The Camel and the Arab. — The Two-Humped and
One-Humped Camels. — The Camel an immemorial Serf. — Its Aspect and Temper. — ZViff
(iiraffi:: Beauty of the Girafli>. — Its Means of Defense. — Its special Organization. — The
Lion and the Giraffe. — The Giraffe known to the Ancients. — Zebra and Qii(tf)(/(is : Their
Abundance in Southern Africa. — Distinction Between the Quagga and the Zebra. — Capacity
for Domestication. — Tlieir Union for Defense. — The Gnu, the QuaL'ga, and the Zebra. — The
Zebra the 'I igor-llorse of the Ancients. — The African Boar. — The Malayan Babirusn. —
Finis, 712

4
I

fl

J -The

I'oltOHCIH

i« ( 'y no-
il.—Tlio
IVeth.—
8.— Tlio
s.— Noc-
•iige OO'J

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

tht.— »!!•
ro. — Tlio
KiivJi^' —
-lliiwk.—
I Id liitn.
soil iiii'l i»
ell.— <-ai>-

UOCtTOH.

Kimni! of
)}» till! Ap-
:^licotali.—
hi- Jll^'Ull^.
nidi.— 'I'liu
G'ja

3 nnd wild
11 riiniliiiit;
olitiiry Kic-
ent Times.
Klo])lmiit.
Aliyssinia.
e Elepliant-
> mill Ciiar-
inoceros. —
nocturnal
ero8.— Tlie
[—The Hip-
potainiis.—
Uses of its
tion to tlie
.—Its Foot
umped niul

riper,

r-Tlte

Mion.— The
Lis.' Tlieir
I — Capacity
lubra.— Tlie
Jabirusa. —
. . . 712

1,
2.

a.

4.

6,
C,
7,
«,
<J,

10.

II.

12.

ll{.

14.

16.

Iti.

17.

18.

10.

20.

21.

22.

2;J.

24.

25.

211.

27.

28.

2'.(.

liO.

;i2.

33.
34.
35.
30.
37.
38.
3'J.
40.
41.

4:;.
44.
I.).
40
47.
48.
4'J.
M.
51.
f)2.
f)3.
.04.
fi;"!.
00.

rAoi.

KHquiinmix Dor team, 1

Tlu' Tmidni of Silieria 17

Iiiilinii Suiiiiiiur Kiicaiiipniuiit, Alanka, 18

RocIm anil Ice 20

('unit uf Labrador 21

Coast of Norway 22

Arctic Forest 23

Verj^e of Forest lle;;ion 24

i'^orest C/ontlai;rutioii, 20

Arctic Clotbint; 2'J

Arctic MooiiliKlit 30

Aurora seuii ill Norwf.y 31

Aurora seen in (treenl'ind 32

Group of Koiiideur, S.'j

Elk 30

The Musk-ox 40

Arf;ali, 41

The Snowy Owl 43

Bernide Goose 44

Tlie Seaea;;le, 44

Arctic Navigation 4o

Anioai; lluminiickit 46

Drifting? on the h'v 47

Fornn of Iceberi^s, 47

Gothic Icel)erns 48

Pinnacle Iceher^s, 48

Icoberns A^^round, ,40

Icebergs and Glacier, Frobisher Bay, f)l

Glacier, Bute Inlet 52

Scalina an Iceberg 53

An Arctic Channel, 56

Open Water 57

Glacier Discharging 58

The Whale CO

The Narwhal 61

Walruses on the Ice 63

Home of the Polar Bear, 66

The Gull 67

Liva-tields 6«

EtTgy in Lava, 70

Tiie Strokkr 72

Kiitrauue to tlie Aliuanna(;ja, ... 73

Tlie Aliii'iiiiiiiiya, 74

Tlie llrafna!>ja 75

The Tintron Kock 75

Fall of the 0.turaa, 76

Icelandic Horses 81

Sliootiiiij Keinileer 82

The Kider-duck 83

The Jyrfalcon 86

The Giant Auk 86

Cathedral at Reykjavik 80

Thing alia, Logberj; and Almannniya, 92

Ueykja ik, the Capital of Iceland, . 98

(iovt'rncr's Ucsidence, Reykjavik, . 90

Icelandic Houses, 103

rtdi.

67, Phurch at Tliinpralla 105

58. The Pastor'* House, 'riiinRVnlla, . 106

60. The Pastor of '""hiiiKvallp. 107

CO. Bridge River, Iceland Ill

61. Icelandic Bog 113

02. Coast of Iceland 114

63. WeHtrnan Isles 116

64. Home of t^ea-birds 117

65. Fishing in Norway 1'20

66. Norwegian Farm 1'_'2

67. .Steaming Along (he Coast, . . . 123

68 The PulHn 124

60. The Dovrefjeld p^7

70. Midnight Sun oH" Si,itzl ergen, . . 131

71. Miigdalena Bay, Sjiitzhergeii, . . . 134
7Z Burial in S|.itzl..rgen, i;iO

73. Arctic Fox 140

74. Chase of the Walrus 143

75. A glimpse of Jan Meycn's Island, . 145

76. A Samo.ede Priest 170

77. Banks of the Irtysch 185

78. Group of Kirghis 188

79. View of Tagilsk 191

80. The Beach at Nicolnyevsk, . . . 106

81. On the Ainoor, . . ' 107

82. Village on the Amoor, 108

83. Koriak Yourt, 100

84. Kamchatka Sables 201

85. Tartar Kncanipnient ii04

86. Siberian Peasant »I7

87. View of Irkutsk 200

88. A .Taknt Village 220

80. Bering's Moniinientat Petropavlosk, 248

90. Church at Pctroi)avlo^k 254

91. View of Petropavlosk 257

02. Dogs Fishing, 250

93. Dog-team 250

94. Dogs Towing Boat 'M)

05. Frame-work of Tchuktehi House, . 2t'>2

06. Tchuktchi Canoe, 263

97. Tchuktchi Pipe, 2f.4

98. An Aleut liCS

90. View of Sitka iiT"

100, A Baidar 272

101 Fort St. Michael 277

10'2. Tlie Frozen Yukon 270

1D3. Under-ground Hou.sc 280

104. Fish-traps on the Yukon, .... 281

105. Aurora at Nulato 2H2

106. Breaking up of the Ice, 283

107. Fort Yukon 285

108. A Deer Corral 2S6

109. Lip Otnaments 287

110. A Baidar 288

111. Four-post Coffin 288

112. Tunana Indian, 289

MST OV IM.L.STKATIONS.

118. Winter Jliit of Ilimtcp-t

HI. Fort i'iilinuiitoi), Nurtit Suitkutuliu-

Willi

115. Trailcr'n ('iiiiip

UO. Nwiiiiip (DriiiiMl by Dunurtuil liciivor

l);iin

117. Iliiiitiii^ Uimn in tliu Simw, . , ,

IIH. Ilcnl (It lliMoP

ll'J. I)riviii^ Itiitdii over a rrcL'ipice, . ,

IHO. Wiilcliinu liir {."rcL'si,

I'Jl. A ( 'ri'u VilliiKo

I'd'l 'I'Ik! AlliatrosH

11';!. Strait of .MiiKclliui,

124. A Iliuliwiiy of CoiiiiiiiTi'e, . . .

12[>, riitiiv{oiiiaiiM

I'M, CoiiHl of l''iii>i;iii

rj7. Fiii'Kiaii TrailiT.t

l-.i. A t'lii'Kiaii mill his Fuud, . , . .

I'J'.). Starviiiioii licMi'li

lijl). Siirvcyiiit,' in (iri'eiiliind

lUl, II. ill anil (.'oinpaiiioiiH, in Iiiniiit Cok-

tiiino

\:i2. KiidhiKi

II!.'!. (iri'i-iilaiul (^irri'iicy

l;!l. Woman ami Oliild. (Driiwii and

Kn^rav'.>d liy an Inniiit,) . . . ,
135. Fi'Mtival ol the ISirtlidny uf tliu l\h\\t

of Doiiniark

1"0. I'repariii},' Hoot-solc.'t

]o7. Wifck of the Kosoiio

1!J8. Tho (joorfj'e Henry laid up for tlie

Winter

V.VX Storm-lioiind

Mo, Iniiiiit Stone Lamp,

141. Fiitlitinu for F'ood,

112. TlirotiKJi tiie Snow,

14;!. Waitiiitt by a Scal-liolo

114. l.ookintc for Seals

14.'). liimiit Stratpny to Capture a Seal, .
14fl. Seal-hole and Idloo

147. Waiting for a Hlow,

148. Don and i^oii\

14'J. Spearing through the Snow, . . .
160, Dogs and Bear

151. IJarbekark and tho Reindeer, . . .

152. Head of Ueindeer,

•ntn.
■M'J

.'III
UI2

!!14
it It)
ill'O

!i2J

:i',M>

40H
41«i
417
4-J.-.
4-J7
42'.»
4;!2
4.i:i

4;m

lot!
4;!7

4;i.s

411)
411

44li
441!
4(4
44.-.
44(;
4(7
44H
44'.>
4.".()
4r,()
4r.l
45-2
4.').".
454
4&1

rial.

Kiil. aponring tho Wulrui 4.')'i

|.'>l. liiniiit IgloiH 4,',ii

l.V(. WalriH Skull and TiukM, .... 4.''.7

loll, Tlii^ Wiiiiiaii'.i Knife 407

157. Inniiii Imi|iIi'iiii'|iIi 4'M

l.'iS. Finding the Dead 4i',l

l.V.l. liiiiiiit .Siimincr Village 4(i'.!

IHO. KetiiriiiMg to tho Shiji, 4ii;!

nil. Ov.r till' Ice 401

||'i'-'. 'I'lie Fi'ii/eii Sailor 4t!.''t

|i'i:i. Farewell if the Inniiits 4(17

Itll. F,lephallt:^ Tied I'p 470

I'l.'i, Wiiti'r>poiit 471

lili). The riiiiii of Pen 4M

lti7. Fiiiiiitaiii of the liieas 4HS

ItlM. A.sceiidiiig 111.' Aiidii 4110

l*l'.l, ( 'attle-IIiiiitiiig nil the I'ainpns, , . 501

170, Nativn of the Kalahari 5()il

171, IgaripiJ, or raiiiie Path 514

172, ForeMt on t'anaina Kailroad, . . , 52il
17y. Haohah Tree, with the (iravo of

.Mrs. Liviiigstdii 528

174. Avenue of I'nlnis, Itio de .laneiro, . 5;i',»

175, Palms on the Middle Ania/oii, . . 5l:i

I7il, .Maiiiifactiiie of Siinu 552

177, .Siesta mi tiie Aniii/.oii 554

\1H. Uobher-Crab of tho Malay Areliipol-

ago 580

17!). Leaf llutterdy 583

ISO. .Mo.«(|uiio, Natural Size and Magni-
fied 585

181. A Termite Citadel flOM

1S2 Aaid Vark or F,artli-Hog (IdO

1h;1, Hattle.inake Charming a liahbit, . H22

1H4. Snake Charming a Squirrel, . . . H24

18"). Killing the Snake— Central Africa, 028

ISO. Alligator and Crane Cil7

187. Natives of Am shooting the great

r.ird of Paradise 054

18S, Afriian Weaver-Hirds 000

IS'.i. Female Gorilla and Young, . . . 080

I'.H), Female Orang-Oiitaiig 681

l!tl. Lions Pulling Down a GirafTe, . . O'.il)

l'.i2. An Obstinate Brute ■ . 720

I'.ii!. A Little Head-Work 721

1'J4. Chaae of tho Wild Boar, . . . .736

ILLUSTUATION.S OF ADDITIONAL CHAPTERS.

I'iflE.

Map of the " Polaris " Voyage, .... 750

Otfluers of the " Polaris,"" 776

Map of the Western Hemisphere, . . . 778
Map of the Eastern Hemisphere, . . . 77'J

Discovery of tlie " Polaris " Camp, .
Chart of the Western Arctic Region,
Chart of the Eostern Arctic Region, .

r«cii.
. 780

. 784
. 785

, • 4.')"i
. . 4otl

. . 4r.7

. . 467
. . 4M
. . 4(11
. . 4tl'2
. . 4(i;»
. . 411 1
. . 4ti.')
. . 4tl7
. . 471)
, . 471
. . 4M
. . 4Srt
. . 4'.iO
. . m\
. . tM
. . f)l4
. . i'M
w of
. . r)2«

r.;i'j

f>5l

THE POLAR WORLD.

iro,

liipel-
liitjnl-

i)it, .
ifricii,
great

lion,
In, .

585
(llIM
Cili',)
f,'J-J
(i'J4

Oii7

r,-,4

(ll'.O

oso

681
(I'.IS)
7-JO
721
736

rAui'
. 780

. 784
. 785

f*

i^ '

'^

TUL TUNDIIA Ol' MIlli:UIA.

CirAl'TKll I.

TIIF, AUCTIO LANDS.

The barren (Irfmmls or Tuiulri. — Almndaiu'c of aniniiil T.ifo on tlin Tiimlri in Siiiiimor. — Tlioir .SiliMicc
mill Di'.idlatloii ill Winti'V. — I'rotpctinii nlTiinli'd to V('i;rtatiim liy the Snow. — Klowor-nrowtli iii
till) liifilicst I.iititiiilcs. — ClinrartrT of Tiiiiilni Vi'fictatioii. — Soiitlwra liniiiHlary-liiiR of llui liarri-ii
(inmnils. — Tlioir Kxtciit. — Tlio foro'it. Zone — Arctic Trees. — Slowness of tlieir (irowtli. — Monotony
of tlie Xortlierii Forests. — Mo-nnitoes. — Tlio various ("aiisi-s wliich (letennine tlie Severity of an
Arctic ("liinate. — Insular nnil Continental I'osition. — Currents. — Winds. — K.xironiesof ('(ddotiserveil
liy Sir v.. Itclclier and Ur. Kiine. — How is Man aide to support tlio IJinors of an Arctic Winter? —
I'roofs of a milder v'liinatn having once reigned in thi; .\rctic Ue;;ioii3. — Its Cause accurdinn to
Dr. Oswald lleor. — Peculiar licuiities of the Arctic Keyions, — Sunset. — Lonj; lunar Xijjlits. — Tlio
Aurora.

4 (rLAXCE at a map of tlio Aivtic rccjions sliows u.s that many of the
L\. vivers belong'm£f to tlie tliri'c coiitiiioiits — Kiirojio, Asia, Atiiorica — »lis-
cliaige their waters into the Pular Ocean .or its tributary hays. The terri-
tories drained by these streams, some of which (such as the Mackenzie, the
Yukon, the Lena, the Yenisei, and the Obi) rank ainoni? the iri^nt rivers of
the earth, form, along with the islands within or near the Arctic circle, the
vast region over which the frost-king reigns supreme.
I Man styles himself the lord of the earth, and may with some justice lay
claim to the title in more genial lands where, armed with the plough, he com-
pels the soil to yield him Ji variety of fruits > but in those desolate tracts

r^

18

THE POLAU WOULD.

wliidi are winU'r-Vmiind dmliig tlio greater part of the yoar, lie is generally a
mere wanderer over its siui'aoe — a hunter, a fisherman, or a herdsman — and
hilt few small settlements, separated from each other hy immense deserts,
give proof of his having made some weak attempts to estal)lish a footing.

It is dittieultto determine with precision the linil.sof the Arctic lan<ls, since
many countries situated as low as latitude 00° or even 50°, such as South
Greenland, Labrador, Alaska, Kamchatka, or the country about Lake liaikal,
have in their climate and jirodiiclions a decidedly Arctic character, while others
of a far more northern j)(>sition, such as the coast of Norway, enjoy even in
winter a remaikably mild temperature. IJut tiiey are naturally divided into
two principal and well-marked zones — that of the forests, and that of the treu-
les« wastes.

INDIAN Sl'MMEU ENCAMl'MENT, AI,A!-KA.

The latter, comprising the islands within the Arctic Circle, form a belt, more
or less broad, bounded by the continental shores of the North Polar seas, and
gradually merging toward the south into the forest-region, vvhic!h encircles
tl' 'Tu with a garland of evergreen eonifeiw. This treeless zone bears the
name of the "barren grounds," or the " barrens," in North America, and of
''tundri" in Siberia and European Kussia. Its want of trees is caused not
so much by its liigl' northern latitude as by the cold sea-winds which sweep
unchecked over the islands or the flat coast-lauds of the Polar Ocean, and
for miles and miles compel even the hardiest plant to crouch before the blast
and creep along the ground.

Nothing can be more melancholy than the aspect of the boundless morasses
or arid wastes of the tundri. Dingy mosses and gray lichens form the chief

<h
ofl

is

THE ARCTIC LANDS.

10

illy «

—and

sorts,

, sim-e

South

liiiikal,

Otlll^l'H

;veu IH

\

L>a inti»

•

lu> tree-

1

'4

1

a belt, move
|,lnr seas, nn.l
]ic\\ eiu'ivcks
L< beavs tlio
lovica, and of
Is causea not
Kvbieb sweev
L Ocean, a»d
|orc tbe blast

llloss morasses
lorni the chU>{

vegetation, and a few seanty jTrasses or dwarfish flowers tliat may liavc found
a rofu<,'e in some more slielterod spot are unable to relievo tlie dnll monotony
of *he scene.

In winter, wlien animal life lias mostly retreated to the south or souijlit a
rcfiii^c in burrows or in cavi's, an awful silence, interrujited onlyby tiie hooting
of a snow-owl or the yeli>ing i>f a fox, reigns ovor their vast expanse; but in
spring, when the brown earth reappears from under the melted snow and the
swamps begin to thaw, enormous flights of wild birds appear upon the scene
and eidiven it for a few months. An admirable instinct leads their winged
legions from distant chmes to the Arctic wildernesses, where in tiie morasses
or lakes, on the I)anks of the rivers, on the flat stran<ls, or along the flsli-teem-
ing coasts, they fintl an abundance of food, and where at the same time they
can with greater security build their nests and rear their young. Some re-
main on the skirts of the forest-region ; others, flying fartber northward, lay
their eggs upon the naked tundra. Eagles and hawks follow the traces of the
natatorial and strand birds ; troops of ptarmigans roam among the stunted
bushes ; and when the sun shines, the finch or the snow-bunting warbles his
merry note.

"Wliile thus the warmth of summer attracts hosts of migratory birds to the
Arctic wildernesses, slioal» of salmon and sturgeons enter the rivers in obe-
dience to the histinct that forces thetn to quit the seas and to swhn stream
upward, for the pur|)ose of depositing their spawn in the trancpiil sweet wa-
ters of the stream or lake. About tliis time also the reindeer leaves tiie
forests to feed on the lierlis and lichens of the tundra, and to seek along the
shores fanned by the cooled sea-breeze some protection against the attacks of
the stinging flies that rise in myriads from the swamps. Thus during several
months the tundra jiresents an animated scene, in which man also ])lays liis
part. Tlie birds of the air, the fishes of the water, the beasts of tlie earth, arc
all obliged to pay tl.cir tribute to his varioiis wants, to appease his hunger, to
clotlie ills body, or to gratify his greed of gain.

l)Ut as soon as the first frosts of September announce the approach of win-
ter, all animals, with but few excejitions, hasten to leave a region wliere tlie
sources of life nnist soon fail. Tlie geese, ducks, and swans return in d 'iisc
tlocks to the south; the strand-birds seek in some lower latitude a softer soil
which allows their sharp beak to seize a burrowing ]irey; tiie water-fowl for-
sake th(! bays ami >rliannels that Avill soon be blocked up with ice; the reindeer
once Miore rettu'ii to the forest, and in a short time nothing is left that can in-
duce man to prolong his stay in the treeless plain. Soon a thick mantle of
snow covers the hardened earth, the frozen lake, the ice-bound river, and con-
ceals them all — seven, eight, nine months long — under its monotonous pall,
excejit where the furious north-east wind sweeps it away and lays bare the
naked rock.

This snow, whirli after it lias once fallen persists until the long summer's

day has effectually thawed it, protects in an admirable manner the vegetation

of the higher latitudes against the cold of the long winter season. For snow

I is so bad a conductor of heat, that in mid-winter in the high latitude of TS°

20

THE POLAU WORI.O.

--^_^^r.;jm.

J?^

KOCKS AND ICE.

50 (lionssolacr Bay), while tlio surface temperature was as low as —.SO", Kane
fouial at two feet dooi) a tciiiperaturo of - 8'', at four feet -|-2"', and at eiirlit
feet +'2(j°, or no more than six <le<,n'ees below the free/inii; point of water.
Thus covered l)y a warm crystal snow mantle, the northern plants pass the loiiuj
Avinter in a conqtaratively mild temperature, hii,di enou<;li to maintain their life,
while, without, icy blasts — capable of convcrtin<i; mercury into a solid body--
howl over the naked wilderness; and as the finst snow-falls are more cellular
and less condensed than the nearly impal])abL powder of winter, Kane justly
observes that no " eider-down in the cradle of an infant is tucked in more
kindly than the sleepiii;jc-<lress of winter about the feeble ])lant-life of the Arc-
tic zone." Thanks to this protection, and to the influence of a sum which for
months circles abevethe horizon, and in favorable localities calls forth the pow-
ers of vegetation in an iiicredil^ly short time, even AVashiiiLrtoii, (Irinnell Lainl,
and Spitzbergen are able to boast of iloAvers. ^Nforton jilucked a crucifer at
Cape Constitution (S0° 45' X. lat.), and, on the banks of ]Mary ]\Iinturii Kiver
(78" 52'), Kane came across a flower-growth which, though drearily Arctic in
its type, V as rieh in variety and coloring. Amid festuca and other tufted
grasses twinkled the purple lychnis and the white star of the duckweed; and,
not without its pleasing associations, he recognized a solitary hesperi.s — the
Arctic representative of the wall-flowers of home.

Next to the lichens and mosses, which form the chief vegetation of tlie
treeless zone, the crucifera% the grasses, the saxifragas, the caryophylhe, and
the compositie arc the fairilles of plants most largely represented in the barren
grounds or tundri. Though vegetation becomes more and more uniform on
advancing to the north, yet the number of individual i)lants does not decrease.

THE ARCTIC LANDS.

81

WliL'ii tlio soil is moiloratcly <lry, tlio surface is covcrftl by a di'iisc oaqiot of
liclic'Ms (Corniculuria'), iiiixod in clainj)er sjtots -Ailii Ici'laiulic moss. In niort'
tcnauious soils, otlitT plants Hourisli, not however to the exclusion of lichens, ex-
cept in tracts of meadow 'ground, which occur in sheltered situations, or in the

0", Kano
at eitrht
f water,
the lon;4
heir hfe,

body —

celhihii'
ne justly

in move
the Avc-
ivhich for

the pow-
lioll Land,
i-m'ifcr at
lun Hiver
JAvctic in
Lr l\il'ti'd

led; and,

l)eris— the

[m of the
ivlliiL', and
(he barren
[liforni on
decrease.

t OAST OF LAUUAUOK.

alluvial inundated flats whore tall rood-grasses or dwarf willows frequently
;;i<)W as closely as they can stand.

It may easily bo supposed that the bnundarydine wliich separates the t\m-
dri from the forest zone is both indistinct and irrosxnlar. In some parts where
the cold sea-winds have a wider range, tlie barren grounds encroach considor-

:u

THE POLAR WOULD.

iil)Iy u]ioii tlio limits of tlic forests ; in otlicrs, wliero tlio conficjuratioii of tlio
l;iiui pic'Vciits their action, tlie woods adviince fai'lliei' to tlio iioi'lii.

Tiuis the barren gronnds attain tlieir most soutiierly limit in Labrador,
where they <leseend to latitnde uT"', and this is suflieienlly explained by the,
jKisition of tlial bleak jieninsnla, b(tnn<led on t'lree sides liy icy seas, and washed
by eold enrrents from the nortii. On the oiipnsite coasts of Ilndson's IJay
they bejrin about GO'', and thence ;j;radnally rise toward the month of the
Mackenzie, where the forests advance as high as us ', or even still farther to the
north along the low banks of that river. From the ]\Lackenzie the barrens
again <lescend until they reach IJering's Sea in Oo^ X. On the o]i])osite or
Asiatic shore, in the I'.nd of the Tchuktchi, they begin again more to the south,
in (!;i\ thence continually rise as far as the Lena, where Anion found trees in
71° N., ami then fall again toward the Obi, where the forests do not even reach
the Arctic circle. From the Obi the tumlri ivtreat fartlier and farther to the
north, until iinally, on the coasts of Norway, in hititude 70°, they terminate
with the Ian 1 itself.

Hence we see that the treeless zone of Euro|ie, Asia, and America occujiies
!i space larger than the whole of Europe. Evi'U the African Sahara, or the
Pamjias of South America, .are inferior in extent to the Siberian tundri. IJut
the jKissession of a few hundred sipiare miles of fruitful territory on the south-
western frontiers of his vast emjiire would be of greater value to the Czar than
that of those boundless wastes, which are tenanted only by a few wretched
])astoral trii)es, or some eqn.ally wretched iishermen.

The .\rctic forest-regions are of a still greater extent than the vast treeless
j'.lains which they encircle. When Ave consider that they form an almost con-

(J

COAiJT OF NOUWAV.

til
I.-.
gn
cai
vai
era

THE ARCTIC LANDS.

i the

•adov,
y Uu'
asbeil
s 15iiy
of Ihe
to the
)!U-rc'iis
site or
( sontli,
LfL-es ill
n reai'li
r to tlif
iriniiialc

occupies
^, or till!
Iri. r.ut
lie soutli-
Jziir liism
wrotclioil

t;t treeless
most t'on-

I'OJi:-

4i

r>>

tinimus belt, strotchi nil throiio;!! three parts of the worhl, in a hreailth of froin
l'» to 20°, even the woods of the Amazon, which cover a surface fifteen times
i^ncater than that of the United Kinudoni, slirink into comparative insiLrnili-
eaiice. I'lilike the tropical forests, wliich are ciiaracterizeil liy an iniineiise
variety of trees, these northern woods are ahnost entirely coniposeil of coiiif-
era', and one single kind of iir or i)ine often jovers an immense extent of

24

THE POLAR WOULD.

frroiiiid. Tlia European and Asiat ic species diffei', liowevcr, from tlioso wliieli
grow in Aineriea.

Thus in the IJussian empire and Scandinavia we find tlie Scotch fir (Piniis
si/li'cstris), the Silieriun fir and larch {Abies sifjirica, Larix Hifnrict'), the Picea
obovat(i,iu\(\ tile J'utiis conhra ; while in th.e Hudson's Bay territories tlio
woods j)rincipally consist of the white and black spruce {dibits alba and
tu'f/ra), the Canadian larch {Larix canadensis, and the gray pine {J'iniis
hanlcsiana). In hotli continents birch-trees t^row farther to tlie north than
the conifera', and the dwarf willows form dense thiekets on the shores of every
river and lake. Various species of the service-tree, the asli, and the elder ;ire
also met with in the Arctic forests; and both under the shelter of the woods
and beyond their limits, nature, as if to compensate for the want of fruit-trees,
j)roduccs in favorable localities an abundance of bilberries, bogberries, cran-
berries, etc. {/■Jiiipctnnn, \'acci/uinn), whose fruit is a great boon to man and
beast. When congealed by tlie autumnal frosts, the berries frequently rein;iin
hanging on the bushes until the snow melts in the following Juno, and are
then a considerable resource to the flocks of water-f')wl migrating to their
northern breeding-places, or to the bear awakening from his winter .>-(eep.

4

SI

VEUGE jf I'OUEST HEOION.

THE ARCTIC LANDS.

2.-)

which

[Pinus
. Picca
ii's the
bit and
[Pliuis
th Uiau
)f every
kkT iiro
0 wooils
lit-trot**,
OS, vrm-
man and
y roiiiain
and are
to their
eep.

Aiu)fher distinctive eliaracter of the forests of the hii^h latitudes is their
a|i|iareht youtli, so that generally the traveller would h;ir(lly suppose tlieui to
he more than lifty years, or at most a eeiitury old. Tlieir juvenile ajipearance
increases on advanciiii; northward, until suddenly their deere|)it aije is re-
vealed hy the thiek hushes of liehens which elolhe or hang down from tlii'ir
shrivelli'd houghs. Farther to the south, large trees are found scattered here
and there, hut not so numerous as to modify the general appearance of the
forest, and even these are mere dwarfs when compared with the gigantic iirs
of more temperate climates. This plienr menon is sufficiently explained hy the
shortness of the summer, 'lieli, though able to bring fortii new shoots, does
not last long enough for the formation of wood. Hence the growth of trees
becomes slower and slower on advancing to the north ; so that on ihu banks
of llie (ireat Hear Lake, for histance, 400 vears ari' necessary for the formation
of a trunk not thicker than a man's waist. Toward the confines of the tundra,
tiie woods are reduced to stunted stems, covered with blighted buds tiiat have
liecn un;ibie to develop themselves into branches, and wiiich prove by tlieir
niMnl)ers how frequently ai:d how vainly tiiey have striven against tiie wind,
until finally the last remnants of arboreal vegetation, van(piislKMl by the l)lasts
of winter, seek refuge under a carpet of lichens and mosses, from which their
anmial slioots hardly venture to peep forth.

A third peculiarity which distinguishes the forests of the north from those
of tlie trojiical world is what may be called their liarmless character. Tliero
tlie traveller fiiuls none of those n(»xious i)lants whose juices contain a <leadly
poison, and even thorns and i)rickles are of rare occurrence. Xo venomous
snake glides through the thicket; no crocodile lurks in the swamp; and the
northern beasts of prey— the bear, the lynx, the wolf— are far less dangerous
anil blood-thirsty than the la-ge felidte of the torrid zone.

The co!iiparativeIy small number of animals living in tlio Arctic forests
corresponds with the monotony of their vegetation. Here we should seek in
vain for that immense variety of insects, or those troops of gaudy birds which
in the Brazilian woods excite the admiration, and not iuifre(piently cause the
despair of the wanderer; hero we should in vain expect to h(>;ir the clamorous
voices that resound in the tropical thickets, Xo noisy monkeys or <pi:irrel-
sonie parrots settle on the branches of tlie trees; no shrill cicaihe or nielan-
clioly goat-suckers interrupt the solemn stillness of the night ; tlie howl of the
hungry wolf, or the lioarse screech of some solitary bird of ])rey, are almost
tlie only sounds that ever disturb the repose of these awful soHtn.les. When
tlie tropical hurricane sweeps over the virgin forests, it awakens a thousand
voices of alarm; but the Arctic storm, however furiously it may blow, scarce-
ly calls forth an echo from the dismal shades of the pine-woods of the north.

In one respect only the forests and swamps of the northern regions vie in
ahundancc of animal life with those of tlie equatorial zone, for the legions of
gnats which the short polar summer calls foilh from the Arctic morasses arc a
no less mtolerablo plague than the mosquitoes of the tropical marshes.

Though agriculture encroaches but little upon the Arctic woods, yet the
a,'ency of man is gradually working a change in their aspect. Large tracts of

20

THE POLAR WOULD.

forest arc continually wasted by extensive fires, kindled accidentally or inten-
tionally, w liich spread with rapidity over a wide extent of country, and con-

tinue to burn until tlicy a e extingnishod by a heavy rain. Sooner or later a
new growth of timber springs up, but the soil, being generally enriched and
saturated with alkali, now no longer briiiL's forth its aboriginal firs, but gives
birth to a thicket of beeches {Jietula alba) in Asia, or of aspens in America.

'5
ti

tc

CI

III

id
t!

Sll

tli;
• I.'

UK

THE AUCTIC LANDS.

a:

z>

'J
<
A
'i*
■A
O
■J

H
■n
U

3
In

er or laloi" a
enricluHl and
irs, but gives
II America.

Till' liiu- of perpetual snow may naturally l)e expected to descend lower and
liiwir nil advaiuinu; to the ))ole, and liciice many mountainous rriiions or ele-
vMtt'd plateaux, such as llic interior of Spitzlierujen, of (rreenland, of Nova
ZcMil)la, etc., which in a niore temperate elime would l»e verdant with woods
iir meadows, are here eovcri'd with vast lields of ice, from which frtMpicntly
"liicicrs descend down to the verge of the sea. Hut even in the highest north-
nii Iiititudes, no land has yet been found covered as far as the water's edge
witli eternal snow, or where winter has entirely subdued the powers of vegeta-
tion. The reindeer of S|)it/l)ergen tind near 80 N. lichens or grasses to ieeil
upon ; in favorable seasons the snow melts by the e'lid of June on tlie plains of
.■\Iclville Island, and numerous lemmings, re<piiring vegetivblo food for their sub-
sistence, inhabit the deserts of New Siberia. As far as inan has reached to the
imrtli, vegetation, when fostered by \\ sheltered situation and tiie refr.aetion of
SI liar Iieat from the rocks, has everywhere been found to rise to ;i considerable
ahitmic above the level of the sea ; and should there be land at the North I'ole,
there is every reason to believe that it is destitute neither of animal nor vege-
table life. It would be eciually erroneous to suppose that the (;oid of winter in-
variably increases as we near ihe ])oh', as tlu- tenii>erature of a land is iullu-
enced by maiiv other causes besides its latitude. Even in the most northern
rc'^'ions iiitherto visited by man, the intluc nee of the sea, ])articularly when fa-
vored by warm currents, is found, to mitigate the severity of the winter, while
at the same time it diminishes the warmth of summer. On the other hand,
the large continental tracts of Asia or America that shelve toward the polo
have a more intenso winter cold and a far greater summer's heat than many
coast-lands or islands situated far nearer to the pole. Thus, to cite but a few
e\ani[)les, the western shores of Nova /einbla, fronting a wide expanse of sea,
have an average winter temperature of only —4^, and a mean summer temper-
ature but little above the freezing-point of water (-f •i'il"), while Jakutsk, sit-
uated in the heart of Siberia, and 20° nearer to the Equator, )\as a winter of
— ■it) 0', and a suimner of +*5G'^ O'.

The iiiHuenco of the winds is likewise of considerable importance in de-
tenuining the greater or lesser severity of an Arctic climate. Thus the north-
erly winds which i>revail in IJathn's Day ami Davis's Straits during the sinn-
iiier months, an<Hill the straits of the American north-eastern Archipelago with
ice, are probably the main cause of IIk; abnormal depression of temperatiu'e in
that (piarter; while, on the contriiry, the soutlu'dy winds that prevail iluring
suninier in the valley of the 3[ackenzio tend greatly to extend the forest of
that favored region nearly down to the shores of the Arctic Sea. Even in the
depth of !i Siberian winter, a sudden change of wind is able to raise the thi'r-
iiioiiii'ter from a mercury-congealing cold to a temi)erature above the freezing-
jioint of water, and a warm wind has been known to cause raiu to fall in Spitz-
hergen in the month of January.

Tiie voyages of Kane and IJelcher have made us acquainted with the low-
est temperatures ever felt by man. On Feb. 5, 18,54, while the former was
wintering in Smith's Sound (78° 37' X. hit.), the mean of his best spirit-ther-
mometer showed the unexampled temperatme of —08^ or 100° below the

w

28

TUK I'OLAU WOULD.

frccziiiu-poiiit i)f walf-r. Then clildi-ic cllicr liccinu' Holiil, and caivfiilly pro-
parcil clilDrot'urm oxhiliiti'il a Ltramilar pcUiclu on its surface. Tlic i-xlialatiotis
finiii till' skill iiivcstctl tlu' I'Xposoil or p.artially clad parts with a wrcalli of
vapor. Till' air had a percept il»lc piiii'^ciicy upon inspiralioii, and every one,
us it wi'i'e involuntarily, breallu'il liiiardediy with compressed lips. Ahoiit llie
HUine tiiiii' (I"\'liniary !) and Id, Iis.j1), Sir K. IJelcher experienced a cold of

— .').')'' ill Welliiiiiton Channel (75" ;U' N.), and tlii' still lower temperature of

— (i'J' on January i;t, lN.'j:t, in Xortliuniberland Sound (7(1" r>'2' N.). AVIiym-
per, on Deceinher (i, ls(i(i, experienced — .5S at Niilatio, .Maska (04° 42' X.).

Whether the temperature of the air desceiuls still lower on advanciiiix t(»-
Wiird the pole, or whether tlii'se extreme deyrees of colil are not soinelimes
sur|)assed in those mountainous re<,'ions of the north which, lhoui;ii seen, have
never yet lieeii explored, Is of course an undecide<l question: so much is cer-
tain, that the ohservations hitherto m.ade duriiii^ ih ' winter of the .\rctic re-
gions have been limited to too short ii time, and !ire too few in iiiimher, to en-
ahle us to dete-'iniho with any deyreo of certainty those points where the
greatest cold prevails. Al! wo know is, that heyond the Arctic Circle, and
eiu'lit or ten di'Lfrees farther to the south in the interior of the continents of
Asia !ind i\merica, the average tem|)erature of the winter i^eiierally ranges from
— '_'()° to — ;t()", or even lower, and for ii great part of the year is able to con-
vert mercury into a solid body.

It may well be asked how man is .able to boar tlio ox'cessively low tempera-
ture of ;in Arctio winter, which must appear truly appalling to an inlnibitant
of the temper.'ite zone. A thick fur dothini;; !i hut small ;ind low, where the
warmth of a (Ire, or simply of a train-oil lamp, is liusbiuided in a narrow sp.ace,
and, above ail, the wonderful power of the human constitution to ac'-ommodjite
itself to every chan;,'e of climate, n'o far to counteract the rij^or of the cold.

After a very few d.ays the body develops an increasing; warmth as tlie ther-
niometer dest-eiids ; for the air beini; condensed by the cold, the lungs iiihali'
at every breath a greater quantity of oxygen, which of course .'iccelerates the
internal process of combustion, while at the same time an increasing .'ippetite,
gratilieil with a copious supply of animal food, t>f tlesh .'ind fat, enriclus the
blood and enables it to circulate more vigorously. Thus not only the liJU'dy
native of the north, but even the healthy traveller soon gets accustomed to
bear Avithout injury the rigors of an Arctic winter.

"The mystt'rious compensations," says Kane, "by which we ndiqil our-
selves to climate !U'e more striking here than in the tropics. In the Polar zone
tho ass.ault is innnediate and sudden, and, unlike the insidious fatality of hoi
coimtries, produces its results raj)idly. It retfuires hardly u single winter to
tell Avho are to bo the heat-making and acclim!itize<l men. I'etersen, for in-
stance, who has resided for two years at Upernavik, seldom enters a room with
a lire. Another of our party, George Kiley, with a vigorous constitution, es-
tablished habits of free exposure, and active cheerful temperament, has so
inured himself to the cold, that he sleeps on our sledgo journeys M'ithout a
blanket or any other covering than his walking suit, while the outside tem-
perature is — yo°."

4

THE AUCTIC LANDf^.

SO

fully pi'i'.
xhiihitiniis
wreath ot
uvfi-y (iiic,

AlMlllt tlic
11 C'lllil t'f

iiTiiturc of
. >Vliyni-

4-J' N.).
raiiciiii; ti>-
soiiu'timi's

ni'L'ii, li:ive
lU'h is c'lT-
. Antic ro-
iil)L>r, to (11-

wlu'iL- the
("irch', iinil
)iitiiu'iits of
•aii.uti's from
al)k' to oon-

)\v tt'iiii>i'ra-
I iiihahitaiit
wlu'i't! the
irrow si)acc',
•I'oiiiinoihiti!
tlie cold,
as the thcr-
\\\\<is iuhali'
derates the
liiLC a|Pl>etite,
■nriclus the
' the lianly
nsioiiied to

adapt our-

I'olar /one

ality of hoi

|e wiiuer to

Irseii, for in-

rooin with

kitution, es-

[ont, has so

without a

lutside tcni-

'riiere are inaiiy proofs that a milder climate once reiym'd in the northern
iL'<riijiis of the ;^'lol' •. l'"ossil pieces of wood, petrilieij acorns and fir-cunes

ja*:— ^-~

AUCTIC ci-oxniNO.

have heen found in the interior of IJanks's Land by ^I'Cluro's sleilLrintr-partics.
Al Anakerdluk, in Xor»h (rreenland (70" X.), u lartre forest lies hiirieil on a
mountain surrounded hy glaciers, loso feet ahovo the level of the sea. Not
only the trunks and branches, but even the leaves, fruit-cones, aiul seeils liavo
hceu preserved in the soil, and enable the botanist to determine the sjiecies of
till' plants to which they belong. They show that, l)esides fira and seipioias,
oaks, ]ilantains, elms, magnolias, and even laurels, indicating a climate such as
that of Lausai'.ne or Geneva, flourished during the tniocene ))eriod in a coun-
try where now even the willow is compelled to creep along the ground. Dur-
ing the same epoch of the earth's liistory Spitzbergen was likewise covered
with stately forests. The same poplars and the same swamp-cypress ( T<i,ro-
d'mm dnhinm) which then flourished in North Greenland have been found in
a fossilized state at Bell Sound (TG° X.) liy the Swedish natur.alists, who also
discovered a plantain and a linden as high as 78° and 79° in King's B'ly — a
proof that in those times the climate of Spitzbergen can not have been colder

■if

!iO

Tin: I'oi.Ait woiM.i).

fliiui lliiit wliiili ii(»\v itiiiiis ill Siiiilliirii Suciliii ami Noiw.iy, tiijlitfcii <l«'i;fc'C'H

lU'llItT to till' iilU'.

Wn know liiiit at iircsciif the tii-, llic |ici|pl:ir, iiiil ilu' licccli l'i<>w I'ltcfii ijc
^rccs fiU'lluT to the iioi'tli tliaii llir |ilaiitaiii ami llic iiiinccm' pt riml hd iloiilit
fxliiliiti'd tin- saiiii' )(r<i|H)riinii. I'Iiiih the poplars ami tirs wliirli tli(>ii "jrcw
ill Spit/litT^cii aloiiL; uitli pi iiitains ami limltiis luiisi Imvu nui^'iil as lar iin
tli(> p<»Ii' itsi'lf, siipposiim that point to ln' <liy land.

Ill till) iiiioeuiii! limi'S tlii' Arctiu /oiu; tviiUntly prcscnti'il a very iliffcrcnf
aspect from tliat wliicli it wears at present. Now, diiriiiLC llif ,t.'reater part <it'
tlie year, an iiiiineiise ylaeial desert, w iiieli tliroiiu,li its lloatini^ lieri^s and drift-
iuc ili'jiresst'S this teniperatiiic of eoiintries nitiiateil far to tlie soiitli, it then
cotiHisted of verdant lands eovered with luxuriant forests and bathed l»y an
open sea.

What may liavo been tho cause of tliese ama/.iiiLC t'haiiLrcs of liiniate? Tlie
readiest answer seems to be — a different ilistribution of sea and land ; but
thero is no reason to believe that in the inioci'iie times there was less laml '.i
the Arctic zone than at present, nor can any possible ci)mi)iiialion of water and
dry land bo iina<,'ined snirieieiit to account for the urowth of laurels in (Jreeii-
laiid or of plantains in Spit/beri^en. Dr. Oswald lleer is inclined to sci'k for
an explanation of the phenomenon, not in inero hjcul terrestrial changes, but in
a difference of the earth's position in the heavens.

Wc now know that our sun, with his attendant planets and satellites, per-

i

'I

MiCTlC MOONLIOUT.

forms a vast circle, embracing perhaps hundreds of thousands of years, round
anottior star, and that wu arc constantly entering new regions of space untrav-

TiiK aiictk; lands.

Al

;llc('ii ill-
III) iliiiilit
hell tin'W
as liir as

,■ dilTcrtiit
cr part "'f
anil drift-
itli, it tlicn
lii'.l by an

latc? The
lantl ; I'lit

I'ss land

f wattT ami

s in (Iffi'ii-
t(i scrk liir

njjji'S, Imt in

itcUitL'S, JUT.

years, round
bace untrav-

clli'il liV our rartli lufDrc. W'v conu' fnun tlir unknown, nin! plnn','!' into tin'
niilviniwn ; I'Ut so niiicli i.-f cfi'tain, tlial mir solar ^vnIi'Iii rolls al in'i'xiiit lliroiiirli
ji >|iai'i' l)nl thinly |i('o|ilt>i| witli stars, inul tlicrc is no reason to ijoiiitt that it
iiiav oiu'i' havi' vsanilcrni tliroii<_r|i one of tlios*' ctlt'slial |iio\ incrs \\ lure, as
till- ti'li'sro|)i> shows lis, coiistillatioiis aru far iiiorf densely cliisli'i't' I. IJiit,
as (vi'rv star is a Mazing; sun, the ^^rcater or Icsstr niimlicr of tlnsf licavfiily
lioilii's niiist evidently have a |iro|Mirtioiiate intlueiice ii|)oii the teiii|>eratnre of
Kpace; ami thus we may sii|i|Hise that diirinij the niioceiie |ieiiod our earth,
lieiiiic •'' •''"' 'i""^' '" •' i><>liiil'>'iK sidi'ii'iil r«'iiioii, eiijoved the iieiii .It of a
hi,dier teiii|ieratiire, which clothed evi'ii its poles with venlnre. In the course
of ai^es the siin eunducted his herd of planets into nior*- solitary and colder
rcLriniis, which etiiisiMl the warm mioceiie times to he followed liy the Lclacial
period, during which the Swiss flat lands hoit' an Arctic chara'ter, t'lid liiially

mm

• - ' -' ''x■t£^^^:'-^'*ii'''*''

AUUOKA SEEN IN NOHWAY.

tliu sun oinorged into a space of an intermediate character, which determines
the present condition of the climates of our globe.

Though Nature generally wears a more stern and forbidding aspect on ad-
vancing toward the pole, yet the high latitudes have many beauties of their

it

'i'sM

HH

33

THE I'OLAll WOULD.

ii

i^a

f ''£ Aim ii ' a!l7i-lll I "J - / '#f «

AVnoiU SEEN IN OliEENLANII.

own. Xothinsj can exceed tlie niapfnificcncc of an Arctic sunset, dotliin? tlie
Hiiowclad luountaiiis aiul tlie skies with all the .uloriea of color, or be more
Bcrenely beautiful than the clear star-light night, illumined by the brilliant
moon, which for days contimially circles around the horizon, never setting until

J

THE arctic" lands.

s;?

slip lias run Iut lone; course of brightness. TIio uniform wliitonoss of the iiintl-
si'iiiic and till' troni-ral transparency of the atmosphere adii to the lustre of her
beams, wiiieh serve the natives to guiilo their nomadic life, and to lead them
to their huiitinii-ujrounds.

Hut of all the maguiticent speetaeles that relieve the nioi".-tonous gloom of
the Aretic winter, there is none to eipial the magical beauty of the Aurora.
Xinlit covers the snt)W-clad earth ; the stars glimmer feebly through the haze
wliicli so fre(|uently dims their brilliancy in the high latitudes, when suddenly
.•I broad ;md clear bow of light spans the horizon in the direction where it is
traversed by the magnetic meridian. This bow souu'times remains for several
hours, heaving or waving to and fro, before it sends forth streams of light
ascending to the zenith. Sometimes these ilaslies proceed from the bow of
light alone; at others they simultaneously shoot forth from many ojtposite
]i;irts of the horizon, and form ;i vast sea of tire whose brillianu waves are con-
timially changing their position. FiMally they all unite in a magnificent crown
or co[)nla of light, with the appearance of which the phenomenon attains its
higlii'st degree of sijlendor. The brilliancy of the streams, which are com-
monly red at their base, green in the middle, and light yellow toward the
zenith, increases, while at the same time they dart with greater vivacity through
the skies. The colors are wonderfully transparent, the red approaching to a
clear blood-red, the green to !i ])ale emerald tint. On turning from the flaming
firinanient to the earth, this also is seen to glow with a magical light. The
dark sea, black as jet, forms a striking contrast to the white snow-plain or the
distant ice-mountain ; all the outlines tremble as if they belonged to the
unreal world of dreams. The imposing silence of the night heightens the
charms of tiu> magnificent spectacle.

]>tit gradually the crown fades, the bow of light dissolves, the streams be-
come shorter, less frecpient, and less a ivid ; and finally the gloom of winter
once more descends upon the northern desert.

I'

'^;

&l

THE POLAll WOULD.

il !

CHAPTER IT.

ARCTIC LAM) C^UADIiUl'KDS AND RIRDS.

Til? Ueindocr. — Striicturn (jf its Knot. — (latli riii^ Noiso wlioii wiilUini:. — Antlpva. — Kxtrawilinarv
('Uiictdry I'dwirs. — Tlic Icclaiulic Mo-s. — I'icsciit and KdriiiiT Kiiip' ol' the lii-iiiilcur. — Its invalu-
iilile (jiiialitk's as nil Arctic diMUvstic Animal. — Kcvolts against < )l)|)i'cs>ioii. — Eiicniies of the Itcin-
(Iirr.— Till' Wnlf.— Tlic (liiittdii IT WdlviiiMc— (rid-llics.— Till! I'.IU dr Modsu-dccr.— Tlie ^lusli-
(IX. — 'llic Wild .Slici'li df the li'ncky Muiintaiiis. — Tlio Siliiriiii Ari;ali. — 'Ilic Arctic I'dx. — Its IJiir-
rows. — Tlic I.cinniiius." 'llicir .Mii^ratioiis and Ijicinics. — .\rctic Aiiatidif. — The Snoiv-lmiitint;. —
The I.aplaiid liiintiiii;. — The Sca-caglc. — Uruwind liv a l)i'l)j|iiii.

^I'^lIE rciiitlocr m.'iy well be failed the camol of tiie iiortlii'fii w.isto.'<, for it is
-*■■ a no k's.-< valiiiibk' coinjiauioii to the I.aplamler or to the Samojede than tlio
" (ship of the desert" to the w:iiideriii;j: IJedouiii. It is the only nieinher gf tho
miiiieroiis deer family that has bi'eii doiiie.stieated by man ; but th( iigh ini-
doiibtedly the most useful, it is by no means he most comely of its race. Its
clear, dark eye has, indeed, a beautiful expression, but it has neither the noble
pro[)ortioiis of the stair nor the grace of the roebuck, and its thick square-form-
ed body is far from being a model of elegance. Its legs are short and thick,
its feet brojid, but extremely well adapted for walking over the siinu' or on a
swampy ground. The front hoofs, a\ liich are capable of great lateral expansion,
cmve n])ward, whili' the two secondary ones behind (wliicli arc but slightly
developed in the fallow dei'r and other niendiers of the family) are considera-
bly prolonged : a structure which, by giving the animal a broader base to stand
upon, prevents it from sinking too deeply into the snow or the morass. Had
the foot of the reindeer bei'U formed like that of our stag, it would have been
as unabl(! to drag the Laiilander's sledtrc M'ith such velocitv over the yielding
siiow-tields as the camel woidd be to jierform his long marches through the
desert Avithout the broad elastic sole-pad on which he lirndy paces the unsta-
ble sands.

The short legs and broad feet of the reindeer likewise enable it to swim with
greater ease — a jiowi-r of no suiiill ii;:p()it.nu'e in countries abounding in ri\erH
;ind lakes, and mIicix^ the scarcity of food renders jierpetiial migrations necessa-
ry. AVhen the reindeer walks or merely nrnves, a remarkable clattering sotnid
is heard to some distance, about tlu' cause of which naturalists and travellers
by no means agree, ^bist jirobably it results from the great length of the two
digits of the cloven hoof, which Mhen the animal sets its foot u]ion the ground
separate widely, and when it again raises its hoof suddenly clap against each
other.

A long mane of a dirty white color hangs from the neck of the reindeer. In
smnmer the body is brown above and while beneath; in winter, long-haired
and white. Its antlers are very different from those of tho stag, having broad
paltnated sumnuts, and branching back to the length of threo or four feet.

QUADUUPEDS AIS'D BIUDS.

•Kxtraoriliniiry
v.— Its iiivaln-
us of tlic Itciii-
r.— Tlio Miisk-
Im.x. — Its 15iir-
iiOiN-l'untint;.—

stcs, for it is
ide tliiui tlio

l'lul)C'Vuf llio

lh( tii^li "Il-
ls viico. Its
lor tlie noble
scuiarc-forin-
rt and tliick,
<iii)\v or on :i
|-!iU'Nl':uisioii,
but slijjthtly
0 coiisidt'ra-
ise to stand
)rass. Had
d have been
Ibe yielding
tln-ongh the
:es the nnsta-

to swim with
ing in rivers
ions neeessa-
ttering soinid
nid travellers
th of the two
n the grotnid
against caeh

reindeer. In

;, long-haired

having broad

or four feet.

Tlieir weight is fro<iuently very considerable — twenty or twenty-five potinds ;
urid it is remarkable that botli sexes have horns, while in all other members of
the doer raee the jnales alone are in possession of this ornament or weapon.

Tlie female brings fort;i in May a single calf, rarely two. This i;; small and
weak, bnt after a few days it follows the motlier, who suckles her young but a

■ ' '1,5

'"^

30

THE POLAR WORLD.

sliort time, as it is soon able to seek and to find its food. The reindeer gives
very little milk — at the very utnu^st, after the young lias been weaned, a bottle-
ful daily ; but the quality is excellent, for it is unconnnonly thick and nutritions.
It consists almost entirely of cream, so that a great deal of water can be added
before it becomes inferior to the best cow-milk. Its taste is excellent, but the
butter made from it is rancid, and hardly to be eaten, while the clieese is very
good.

The only food of the reindeer during winter consists of moss, and the most
6uri)rising circumstance in his history is the instinct, or the extraordinary olfac-
tory powers, whereby he is enabled to discover it when hidden beneath the
snow. However deep the Lichen rangifcrinus may be buried, the animal is
aware of its jtresence the moment lie comes to the spot, and this kind of food
is nev<3r so agreeable lo him as when he digs for it himself. In his manner of
doing this he is remarkably adroit. Having first ascertained, by thrusting his
muzzle into the snow, whether the moss lies below or not, he begins making a
liole with his fore feet, and continues working until at length he uncovers the
lichen. Xo instance has ever occurred of a reindeer making such a cavity with-
out discovering the moss lie seeks. In summer their food is C'f a different na-
ture ; they arc then pastured upon gvecn herbs or the leaves of trees. Judg-
ing from the lichen's appearance in the liot months, when it is dry and brittle,
one might easily wonder that so large a (piadruped as the reindeer should
make it his favorite food and fatten upon it ; but toward the month of Se])tem-
ber the lic'i.en becomes soft, tender, aiid damp, with a taste like wheat-bran. In
this state its luxuriant and flowery ramifications somewhat resemble the leaves
of endive, and are as white as snow.

Though domesticated since time immemorial, the reindeer lias only partly
been brought under the yoke of man, and wanders in large wild herds both in
the North American wastes, where it has never yet been reduced to servitude,
and in the forests and tundras of the Old "World.

In America, wlico it is called " caribou," it extends from Labrador to Mel-
ville Island and Washington Land ; in Europe and Asia it is found from Lap-
land and Norway, and from the mountains of Mongolia and the banks of the
Ufa, as far as Nova Zembla .'uid Spitzbergen. Many centuries ago — probably
during the glacial period — its range was still more extensive, as reindeer bones
are frequently found in Fiviich and German caves, and bear testimony to the
severity of the climate wl ich at that time reigned in Central Europe ; for the
reindeer is a cold-loving anim.al, and will not thrive under a milder sky. All
attempts to prolong its life in our zoological gardens have failed, and even in
the royal park at Stockholm Ilogguer saw some of these animals, which were
quite languid and emaciated during the sunmier, although care had been
taken to provide them with a cool grotto to which they could retire during the
warmer hours of the day. In summer the reindeer can enjoy health only in the
fresh mountain ai'' or along the bracing sea-shore, and has as great a longing for
a low temperature as man for the genial warmth of his fireside in winter.

The reindeer is easily tamed, and soon gets accustomed to its master, whose
society it loves, attracted as it were by a kind of innate sympathy ; for, unlike

1

THE ARCTIC LANDS.

37

L'cr gives
a bottle-
iitritioiis.
1)0 added
t, but llic
ie is very

the most
ary olfac-
neath the

animal is
id of food
manner of
listing his
making a
covers the
ivity willi-
ifferent na-
I'S. Judg-
ind brittle,
eer should
of Septein-
t-bran. In

the leaves

tnly partly

•ds both in

servitude,

lor to ^lel-
front Liip-
[nks of the
I— probably
Lleer bones
lony to the
\c ; for the
sky. All
Jnd even in
Ivhich were
had been
during the
only in the
longing for
lintcr.
|ster, whose
for, inilike

nil (itiier domestic animals, it is by no means dependent on man for its subsist-
enti'. but finds its nourishment alone, and wanders about freely in summer and
in winter without ever being inelosed in a stable. These (jualities are incsti-
iiiable in countries where it would be utterly impossible to keep any domestic
animal reijuiring shelter and stores of provisions during the long winter months,
and make the reindeer the fit companion of the northern nomad, whose simple
wants it almost wholly supi)lles. During his wanderings, it carries his tent and
srantv household furniture, or drags his sledge over the snow. On account of the
weakness of its back-bone, it is less lit for riding, and requires to be mounted with
care, as a violent shock easily dislocates its vertebral column ; the saddle is placed
on tlie haunches. You woul<l hardly suppose the reindeer to bo the same animal
when languidly creeping along under a rider's weight, a;< when, unencumbered
hv a load, it vaults with the lightness of a bird over the obstacles in its way to
obey the call of its master. The reindeer can be easily trained to drag a sledge,
l>iit great care must be taken not to beat or otherwise ill-treat it, as it then be-
comes obstinate, and quite unmanageable. When forced to drag too heavy a
load, or taxed in any way above its strength, it not seldom turns round upon
its tyrant, and attacks him with its horns and fore feet. To save himself from
its fury, he is then obliged to overturn his sledge, and to seek a refuge under
its bottom until the rage of the animal has abated.

After the death of the reindeer, it may truly bo said that every part of its
body is put to some use. The flesh is very good, and the tongue and marrow
arc considered a great delicacy. Tlie blood, of which not a drop is allowed to
be lost, is either drunk warm or made xqi into a kind of black i)udding. The
skin furnishes not only clothing impervious to the cold, but tents and bedding;
and spoons, Lnife-handles, and other household utensils are made out of the
l)ones and horns; the latter serve also, like the claws, for the preparation of an
excellent glue, which the Chinese, wh'> buy them for this luirpose of the Rus-
sians, use as a nutritious jelly. In \ ornea the skins of new-born reimleer are
prepareil and sent to St. I'etersburg to be manufactured into gloves, which are
extremely soft, but very dear.

Tims the cocoa-iuxt palm, the tree of a hundred uses, h;irdly renders a
greater variety of services to the islanders of the Indian Ocean tlian the rein-
deer to the Laplander or the Samojede; and, to the honor of these barbarians
he it mentioned, they treat their invaluable friend and comi)aiiion witli a grate-
ful affection which might serve as an example to far more civilized nations.

The reindeer attains an age of from twentv to twentv-five vears, but in its
domesticated state it is generally killed when from six to ten years old. Its
most dangerous enemies are the wolf, and the glutton or wolverine {(Jnlo ho-
iralis or arcticus), which belongs to the bloodthirsty marten and weasel family,
and is said to be of uncommon fierceness and strength. It is about thj size
of a largo badger, between which aninud and the pole-cat it seems to be inter-
mediate, nearly resembling the former in its general figure and aspect, and
agreeing with the latter as to its dentition. Xo dog is capable of mastering
a glutton, and even the wolf is hardly able to scare it from its prey. Its feet
are very short, so that it can not run swiftly, but it climbs with great facility

w

88

THE POLAR WORLD,

upon (rocs, or ascends ovoii almost periii'iidu'ular rock-walls, whore it also seeks
a refuse when ])ursued.

Wlien it i)erceivcs a herd of reindeer hrowsiiii^ near a wood or a j)roci|iice,
it yeiierally ll'-s in wait iii)oii a hianch or some IiIljIi cliff, and spriiiLrs down
upon the lirst animal that conies Avithin its reach. Sometimes also it steals
unawares upon its ])vvy, and suddenly bouiidiuL; upon its hack, kills it hv a sin-
gle bite in the neck. 31any fables worthy of ^Miinchausi'n have been toM about its
voracity; for instance, that it is able to devi)ur two reindeer at one meal, and
that, when its stomach is exorbitantly distended with food, it will press itself
between two trees or stones to make room bjr a new repast. It will, indeed,
kill in one niijht six or eii^lit reindeer, but it contents itself with suekiny their
blood, as the weasel does with fowls, and eats no more at one meal than any
other carnivorous animal of its own size.

Ik'sides the attacks of its miiflitier '.'nemies, the reindeer is subject lo the
persecutions of two species of jjfad lly, which torment it exceedm<,dv. The
one {(J:\-itrtffi t(ircntdi),i'n\lvi\ Ilurbma by the Laplanders, deposits its ulutinous
eggs upon the animal's back. The larvie, on creeping out, immediately bop'j
tliemselves into the skin, where by their motion and suction they cans',; so
many small swellmgs or boils, whieh gradually grt)W to the size of an inch or
more in diameter, with an opening at the top of each, through which the lar';e
may be seen imbedded in a purulent fluid. Frequently the whole back of the
animal is covered with these boils, which, by draining its iluids, jn'oduce ennu
ciation and disease. As if aware of this danger, the reindeer runs wild and fu-
rious as soon as it hears the buzzing of the fly, and seeks a refuge in the nearest
water. The other species of gad-fly {G'S/ifrus initiah's) lays its eg<rs in the nostrils
of the rein(k>er ; and the larvie, boring themselves into the fauces and beneatfi the
tongue of the jioor animal, are a great source of amioyancc, as is shown by \u
frecpient sniffling and shaking of the head.

A pestilential disorder like the rinderpest will sometimes sweey; away whole
herds. Thus in a few weeks a rieh Laplander or Samojede may be reduce(l to
poverty, and the ])roud possessor of several thousands of remdeer be compel-
led to seek the jirecarious livelihood of the northern fisherman.

The elk or moose-deer (Cf;^v.v^s• a/cefi) is another niend)er of the cervine race
])eculiar to the forests of the north. In size it is far superior to the stag, but it
can not boast of an elegant shape, the head being disproi)ortionately large, the
neck short rmd thick, and its immense horns, which si.'inetinies weigh near fifty
jounds, eacli dilating almost immediately from the base into a broad pahnated
form ; while its long legs, high shoulders, and heavy upper lip hanging very
much over the lower, give it an uncouth appearance. The color of the elk is a
dark grayish-brown, but much ])aler on the legs and beneath the tail.

"We owe the first descri|)tion of this gigantic deer to Julius Ca'sar, in whose
time it was still a common inhabitant of the (Jevman forests. I>ut the conquer-
or of Gaul can hardly liavo seen it himself, or he would not have ascribed to it
a single horn, placed in the middle of the forehead, or said that both sexes are
perfectly alike, for the female is smaller and has no antlers. At present the
elk is Ktill found in the swampy forcstb of East Prussia, Lithuania, ,ind Po-

AUCTIC LAM) QIADHUI'KDS AND IIIUDS.

iiU

io s(.'el\a

:s (Idwii
it sti'iils
)y !i siii-
iiboiit its
U'lil. ami
I'ss itself
, imU'Cil,
•iiii tlu'ir
ihiiii :\ny

ct to tlic
;ly. Tlu.
(glutinous
itc'ly I'OPi

can:-'-! yo
m iiuh or
the l:irv!L'
wk of the
ihu'v eiiiii-
ild iuul fu-
liu nearest
lie nostrils
cneatli the

wii by it"!

I^vay whole
•ciliRed to
je oonipcl-

hvino race

|<ta;j;, hut it

lari^o, the

near lifty

palmate. I

LCinu very

Ihe elk is ii

ill whoso
• conqner-
i-ihod to it

sexes are

resent the

and P"-

ELKS

m
W

i^.

A

h

40

TIIK I'OIAU WOULD.

land, Imt it chidly resides in the more nortlierii woods of Ilussia, Siberia,
jiiid Ameriea. It is a mild and harmless animal, prineipally supportint; itsell
hy hrowsiiiijf the l»(>U!j;hs of willows, asps, serviee-trees, and otlier soft spe-
eies of wood. It does not, like tiie reindeer, seek a refuge against the at-
tacks of the gad-flies, hy wandering to the roasts of the sea, or retreating to
the haro mountains, where it would soon perish for the want of aih-qnate food,
Imt plunges up to the nose into the next river, where it finds, moreover, a spe-
cies of water-grass [/ustuca JlKitans) whieh it likes to feed npon. Though
naturally mild and Inu'inless, it displays a high degree of eouraje, and even fe-
roeitv when suddenly attacked ; defending itself with yreat vi-'or, not only with
its horns, hut also by striking violently with its fore feet, in the use of which
it is ))articul.'nly dexterous. It is generally caught in traps, as it is extremely
shy and watchful, and linds an easy retreat in the swamp >r the forest. The
only time of the year when it can he easily chased is in the spring, when the
softened snow gets covered during tho night with a thin crust of ice which is
tiiu weak to bear the animal's weight.

Though not ranging so far north as the reindeer or the elk, we find in the
()1<1 AVorld the red-deer {('cri'iis (f(ij)hiin), in the yicinily of Dronthci/n, in Nor-
way, and along with the roebuck bejond Lake l»aikal, in Siberia, while in
America the large-eared deer ( Ci'mi.'^ mdcmtiii), and the Wa])iti, or Cana(hi stag
{(\rrus stro)i(i!jlo-ccra>i), extend their excursions beyond 55° of northern lati-
tude. The latter is much larger and of a stronger make than the European
red-deer, freciucutly growing to the height of our t.allest oxen, and jjossessing
great activity as well as strength. The flesh is little prized, but the hide, Mhen
made into leather after the Indian fashion, is said not to turn hard in drying
after being wet — a cpiality which justly entitles it to a preference over almost
every other kind of leather.

One of the must remarkable quadrupeds of the high northern regions is the

musk-ox {Oi'ihos tnoschatus), which
by some naturalists has been consid-
ered as intermediate between the
sheep and the ox. It is about tlie
height of a deer, but of much stout-
er i)roportions. The liorns are very
broad at the base, almost meeting
on the forehead, and curving down-
*V> vrard between the eye and ears un-
til about the level of the moulh,
when they turn upward. Its long
thick brown or black hair hanging
down below the middle of the leg,
THE MLSK ox. and coycring on all parts of the ani-

mal a fine kind of soft ash-colored
wool, which is of the finest description, and capable of forming tiie most beau-
tiful fabrics manufactured, enables it to remain eyen during the winter beyond
70^ of northern latitude. In spring it wanders over the ice as far as Melville

*f*i.

S'

AHCTIC LAND QIADUIPKDS AM) IJIUDS

ig ilsi'lt
oft Kpt'-
tho at-
at'uig to
ito food,
r, n s|)C'-
Tlioiiixh

OVfll lo-

inlv with
)f wliicli
xlrtnu'ly
■St. The
rtlion tlie
wliich is

11(1 in the
11, in Nor-
, while in
nutliistaa;
thorn lati-
Europoan
possessing
lide, when
in drying
or ahnost

ions is tho
^^s), whicli
lull coiisid-
.woon tlie
ltd)(nit tlie
neh stout-
Is are very
nieolinji
ling down-
\\ ears un-
[c inoulh,
Its long
Ir lianging
]f the leg,
)f the ani-
Ish-colorcd
lost beau-
lev beyond
Is Melville

World.

In the Uoeky Mountains, from the :Mexiean ('ordillera pliileaux as far as (!S"
N.lat., dwells the wild slu'ep {Oris ///n;/^^//*^. distinguishiMl by the almost cir-
cular bend (d' its hirge, triangular, traiisversL'Iy striped horns, from its relatlvu

A no ALL

the Siberian argali {Oi'is arffdll), \\h\c\i is supiM>sod to bo tho ])aroiit of our di>-
iiiostic slioep, and far surpasses it in size and dolicaey of llosh. Hoth tho Am:r-
ii'an and the Asiatic wild sheep are in the highest degree active and vigorous,
asv'eiidiiig abruiit proeipices with great agility, and, like tho wild goat, going
over the narrowest and most dangerous passes with perfect safety.

Among the erirnivoroas qna(b'upeds of tho northern regions, many, like the
lynx, the wolf, the bear, the glutton, and otlicr members of tho weasel tribe,
liiive their head-qu.arters in the forests, and only occasionally roam over the tun-

m

'-.■^it

Pi

:^i

•l

i'

T

1 1

I! i

43

THE POLAU WOULD.

(li IS ; but tlic Arctic; fox ( dtnia l(tffnpiin) almost oxcluslvcly iiilial)its the trcelesji
wastt'H that friime tlio I'olar Ocean, and is found on almost all the islands tliat lie
hiiric"' in its bosom. This jn'otty little creature, which in winter throws jier-
fcctly white, knows liow to protect itself against the nio.«t intense cold, either by
seeking a refuge in the clefts of rocks, or by burrowing to a c:u;;sideral)Ie deplli
in a sandy soil. It i)rinci|»ally i)roys upon lennnings, stoats, pol.-ir liares, as
well as upon all kinds of water-fowl aid their eggs; but when ))iiiclied by
hunger, it does not disdain the carcasses of fish, or the molluscs and crustaceans
it may chance to pick up on the shore. Its enemies are the glutton, the snowy
owl, and man, who, from the Kcpiator to the poles, leaves no creature unmolested
that can in any way satisfy his wants.

The lemmings, of which there are many species, arc small rodents, peculiar
to the Arctic regions, both in the Xew and in the Old World, where they are
found as far to the north as vegetation extends. They live on grass, roots, the
shoots of the willow, and the dwarf birch, l)ut chiefly on lichens. They do not
gather hoards of provisions for the winter, but live upon what they find be-
neath the snow. They seldcjm prove injurious to man, as the regions they in-
habit are generally situated beyond the limits of agriculture. From the voles,
to whom they are closely allied, they are distinguished by having tlie foot-sole
covered with stiff hairs, and by the strong crooked claws with which their fore
feet are armed. The best known species is the Norwegian lemming {Lemmux
vonrcf/irus), which is found on the high mountains of the Dovrefjehl, and
farther to the north on the dry parts of the tundra, where it inhabits small
burrows under stones or in the moss. Its long and thick hair is of a tawny
color, and prettily marked with black spots. The migrations of the lemming
have been grossly exaggerated by Olaus ]Magnus and Pontojipidan, to whom
the natural history of the North owes so many fables. As they breed sevend
times in the year, producing five or six at a birth, they of course nndtiply very
fast under favorable circumstances, and are then forced to leave the district
which is no longer able to afford them food. Uut this takes place very sel-
dom, for when INIr. Brehm visited Scandinavia, the people on the Dovrefjeld
knew nothing about the migrations of the lennning, and his incpiiries on the
subject jtroved equally fruitless in Lapland and in Finland At all events, it is
a fortunate circumstance that the lemmings have so many enemies, as their
rai)id multiplication might else endanger the balance of existence in the northern
regions. Tlie inclemencies of the climate are a chief means for keeping them
in check. A wet summer, an early cold and snowless autnnm destroy them
by millions, and then of course years are necessary to recruit their numbers.
With the exception of the bear and the liodgehog, they are pursued by all the
northern carnivora. The wolf, the fox, the glutton, the marten, the ermine
devour them with avidity, and a good lemming season is a time of unusual
plenty for the hungry Laplander's dog. The snowy owl, whose dense plumage
enables it to be a constant resident on the tundra, almost exclusively frequents
those places where lemmings, its favorite food, arc to be found ; the buzzards
are constantly active in their destruction ; the crow feeds its young with leni-
Tnings ; and even the poor Lap, when pressed by hunger, seizes a stick, and,

or

AIUTK" LAND tilADlU'I'KDS AND UIKDS.

A'A

treeless
thai lie
»\vs V'''""
ilhev liy
Ic lU'plli
iiuves, as
chod by
istuceaus
le snowy
niolestt'il

, pcculiiU'

lliey ail"
roots, till'
loy do i>ot
.y fiml lie-
ns they i»-

llie voles,
lu foot-sole
I their fore

rof jeld, and
labits small
of a tawny
le lennnin;,'
LU, to whom
•ced several
|ultiply very
the distriet
[ice very sel-
Dovrefjeld
jiries on the
events, it is
,ies, as their
Ithe northern
ceding them
ostroy them
ir numbers,
a by all the
L the ermine
|c of unusual
snsc plmnage
;ly frequents
;hc buzzards
ng with lem-
|a sticlc, and,

fur want of better patne, fjoes out lerntuing-hunting, and rejoices wlien lie can
kill a siitlieient number for his dinner.

Several l»irds, sueli as llie sn(»wy owl and the ptarmigan {Lufjopits (il/nts),
wliich can easily proeurc its food under the snow, winter in the highest lati-
tudes; but by far the greater mnnber are merely summer visitants of tlie Are-
tic regions. After the little bunting, the first arrivals in spring are the snow-
geese, who likewise are the first to leave the dreary regions of the north on
their southerly migration. The connuoii and king eider-duck, the Urent geese,

4\

Tllli SNOWY owl,.

the great northern black and nnl throated divers, are the next to make their
apiiearance, followed by the pintail and longtail ducks {Aiuis cmtddcuta and
t/l<(ci(tlin), the latest visitors of the season. These birds generally take their
departure in the same order as they arrive. The i)eriod of tlieir stay is but
short, but their presence imparts a wonderfully cheerful aspect to regions at
other times so deserted and dreary. As soon as the young are sufficiently
Hedged, tliey again betake themselves to tlie southward ; the character of the
season much influencing the period of their departure.

As far as man has penetrated, on the most northern islets of Spitzbergen,
or on the ice-blocked shores of Kennedy Channel, the eider-duck and others
of the Arctic anatidiia build tlieir nests ; and there is no reason to doubt that
if the pole has breeding-places for them, it re-echoes with their cries. Nor
■■, need they fear to iilungc into the very heart of the Arctic zone, for the flight
.;: of a goose being forty or fifty miles an hour, these birds may breed in the re-
motest noriliern solitude, and in a few hours, on a fall of deep autumn snow,
; convey tliemselves by their swiftness of wing to belter feediiig-groimds.
i One of the most interesting of the Arctic birds is the snow-bunting [Plcc-
1 trnphanes nivalis), which may properly be called ihc polar singing-bird, as it
:1 breeds in the most northern isles, such as Spitzbergen and Novaja Zemlya, or

TF

» *

44

Tin: por-.Mi

D.

UBUMUE UUOSE.

on (lio liiyJicst niniiiitaiiis of tlu' DuvrifjcM, in Scaiidinavin, wlicro it onllvoim
till' fiii;ilivi' .siMMiMcr witli its ^llo^t hut ;iv;rt'u!il)lu nolus, soundini; dDubly swei-l
tfoin tile trt't'li'ss wa^ti'S in wliicli tlicy nro. licanl. It invarialdy IniiIdH its

lu'st, wliicli it liiii's witli fcatliers and down,
in till' fissures of niniintaiii rocks or under
lai_LC»! stones, and tlie I'litraiice is j^enerally
8o narrow as merely U) allow tiie parent
l)irds to pass. Tlie reinarkaliiy denso win-
P;l \ ter pluniaL,'i' of tliu Hnow-Luntinjjf especially
A h M"'''''""^'^ '*• ^'"' ^ nortliern residence, ami
when in captivity it will rather hear the
severest ccld than even a moderate de<;ree
of warmth. In its brecdiiiLj-places it lives
almost exelnsively on insects, particnl.'irly
ynats: duriiiuc the winter it feeds on all
Horts of seeds, and then famine fre(juently compels it to waiuler to a less rig-
orons climate.

The Lapland hnntim? {Cvntrop/iinics lupponicus), wlioso white and Mack
pliimatje is ajfreeahly diversilieil with red, is likewise an inhahitaiit of the
hij^dier latitndes, where it is frefpiently seen in the barren m'omnls and tundras.
IJoth these birds arc distiiiLjuished l)y the very long claw of their hind toe, a
Htrneture which enables them to rim about with case upon the snow.

Amontj the raptorial birds of the Arctic rej^ions, the seu-eaiile {/fiifi'itns
(tlhiclllii) liolils a conspicuous rank. At his nppi'oach the jiiiU and the auk
conceal themselves in the fissm'cs of the rocks, but are fre<pU'iilly drairi^ed
forth by their relentless enemy. The divers are, accordiiiL; to Wahlengreii,
mortf imperilled from his attacks than those sea-birds which do not i)limi;e, for
the latter rise into the air as soon as their ))iercin!jf eye espies the miiversaily
dreaded tyrant, and thus escape; while the former, blindly trustiui? to the ele-
ment ii\ which they are capable of lindiniJt a temporary refucje, allow him to

approach, and then suddenly divini;, fancy
themselves in safety, while the eaLjle is only
Availing for the moiiiv'nt of their re-appear-
ance to repeat his attack. Twice or thrice
they may possibly escape liis claws l)y a ra])id
l)lnngc, but Avhcn for the fourth time tluy
dive out of the wafer, and remain but one
instant above the surface, that instant seals
their doom. The sea-eagle is equally for-
mid.ablo to the denizens of the ocean, but
sometimes too great a confidence in his
strength leads to his destruction, for Kitt-
litzwas informed by tlio inhabitants of Kani-
schalka that, pouncing upon a dolphin, lie is
not seldom dragged down into the water by the diving cetacean in whose skin
his talons remain fixed.

TUE SEA-EAGLE.

TUK AlUTIC 8KA».

4ft

IMlliVfllH

ly swfi't
lilds its
tl down,
>r hiuUt
r,.iii<r!illy
0 ])iirt'iit
'iwo wiii-
.'spc'ciiilly

lii'iir till'
to (U';j;rcu
.'S it lives
iiticiilarly
'<Is on ill!
iv less r\<i-

atid Muck

illlt of till'

1(1 tuiiilras.
hind tot', !i

(ir<(i!'itii.i

lid the auk

ly dr:\Lri:i'<l
■;ihU'iiij;ri'n,
jiliiuyc, for
wniversally
to the C'U'-
|l(i\v him tti
vinLT, faufv
|'n'j;lo is only
ro-iippi'iir-
c or thrift'
shy !i vapid
time tlu'V
liu hut one
istant seals
|t>(iu;illy f"i'-
ocean, hut
noc in liis
in, for Kilt-
US of Kani-
jlph.in, lie is
whose skill

AU< TIC NAVIGATION.

CIIAPTEU III.
THE ARCTIC SEAS.

Pan^'prs pcculinr totho Arctic Son. — Ice-ncUls. — Hummocks. — rdUision of Tco-fiolils. — Tccbor(;8. — Tlioir
<iri(,'in.— Their Si/.o. — Tlio (lliciers wliicti ^ivn tlieiii llirtli.— Their linuity.— Somotimos useful
Auxiliaries to tlie .Mariner. — Dannrr.s of aueliorinf? to a Uerj:. — \ cnimlilinn Ucrjr. — Tlic Icc-lilinl<.
— I''oj.'s. — Transpar'Miry of flic Atmosphere. — I'lienomenft of Reflection and Refraction. — Causes
which prevent the Accuniulalion of I'olar Ice. — Tides. — Currents. — Ico a bail Cuuductur of Heat.—
Wise Provisions of Nature.

^y^IIK heart of the first navigator, says Horace, must liave heen slnelded with
-*- threefold hrass — and yet the poet knew but the stumy Mediterranean, with
its te])id floods and smiling shores: liow, tlien, would lie have found words to
express his astonislnnent at the intrepid seamen who, to open new vistas to
science or new roads to commerce, first ventured to face the unknown terrors
of the Arctic main ?

In every part of the ocean the mariner has to guard against the perils of
hidden shoals and sunken cliffs, hut the high northern waters are doubly and
trebly dangerous ; for hero, besides those rocks which are firmly rooted to tho
ground, there are others which, freely floating about, threaten to crush his ves-
sel to pieces, or to force it along with them in helpless bondage.

The Arctic navigators have given various names to these movable shoals,

I

'

1

4'

f

4e

THE POLAR WORLD.

whuli aro the oauso of so imuli dolay ami ihuitror. Tlicy are iccfurfj,^ wlieii tliey
towiT to a (.'oiisiik'nibk' lieiijlit above the waters, ami ur-/iihfK\\\\vn tliey liave :i
vast horizontal oxtonsion. A jlue is a iletached portion of a tielil ; p(ic/:-ii't\ a
large area of Hoes orsnialler fra;j;iiients closely driven tojjfether so as to oppose a
tiriu barrier to tiie proj^ress of a ship ; and (/;■//?-/<•<■, loose iee in motion, i(iit not
so lirinly p." ked as to prevent a vessel from making her way throngh its yield-
ing masses.

The large iee-iields whiih the whaler eneonnters in Baflin's Hay, or on tl e
seas between Spit/bergen and CJreenlaml, eonstilnte one of the marvels of tht
deep. There is u solenm grandeur in the slow majestic motion with which
thev are drifted bv the currents to the south; and their enormous masses, .as
mile after n.ile comes tloating by, impress the spectator with the idea of n
boundless extent and an irresistible j)ower. But, vast and mighty as they are,
they are unable to withstand the elements combined for their destruction, and
their apparently triumphal march leads them only to their ruin.

When they "; .it descend from their northern strongholds, the ice of which
they are composed is of the avenige thickness of from ten to fifteen feet, and
their surface is sometimes tolerably smooth and even, ])ut in general it is cov-
ered with numberless ice-blocks or hummocks piled upon each other in wild con-

rTx

/>>--

>'••

AMONG UU.MMOCK9.

I

n

fusion to a height of forty or fifty feet, tlio result of repeated collisions before
flakes ami Hoes were soldered into fields. IJefore the end of June they are cov-
ered with snow, soMietinies six feet deep, which melling during the summer
forms small pontls or lakes upon their surface.

Tin: AlK'Tlt' SEAS.

47

•hen they

i.y Imvo !»

n,'i»at not
1 its yit'lil-

or on tl I'
^•cls of the
iitli wliuli
masses, as
ulea of ii
IS tlioy ail',
notion, and

•c of whii'li
Ml feet, anil
■ul it is cov-
in wilil con-

i)i;iiTiN(i IN Tin; iiu.

Not seldom ice-fu'lds are wliirled about in rotatory motion, wliii-h causes
tlieir eirciunfeieneo to gyrate with a velocity of several miles per lionr. AVIieti
a Held thus sweeping through the waters comes into collision with another

lllisiona hcforo

they are cov-

Ir tho summer

I'ou.Ms DK leLiiicmis.

48

TlIK POLAR AVORLD.

FOUMS OF ICEBEUG8.

1)1' utterly unable to resist their power.

wiiieli ni!iy possibly be revolviui^ with equal rapidity in an opposite direetion
—when masses not seldom twenty or thirty miles in diameter, and each weigh-
in;^ many millions of tons, elasli to-
geth'-r, imagination eau hardly con-
ceive a more appalling scene. The
whalers at all times recpiirc unremit-
ting vigilance to secure their safety,
but scarcely in any situation so much
as when navigating auiidst these
fields, which are more particularly
<langerous in. foggy weather, as their
motions can not then be distinctly ob-
served. No wonder that since the
establishment of the fisherv numbers
of vessels have l)cen crushed to i)ieces
between two fields in motion, for tiie
strongest ship ever built must needs
Some liavc been uplifted and thrown
upon the ice ; some have had their hulls completely torn open ; and others
have been overrun by the ice, and buried beneath the fragments piled upon
their wreck.

The icebergs, which, as their name
indicates, rise above the water to a
nuich more considerable lieight than
the icefields, liavea very different or-
igin, as th'.'V are not formed in the
sea itself, but by the glaciers of the
northern liiglilands. As our rivers
are continually j)ouring tlieir streams
into the ocean, so many of the gla-
ciers or ice-rivers of the Arctic, zone,
descending to the water-edge, are
slowly but constantly forcing them-
selves farther and farther into the
sea. In the summer season, when
the ice is jiarticularly fragile, the
force of cohesion is often overcome
by the weight of the prodigious mass-
es tliat overhang the sea or have been
undennined by its waters ; and in the
winter, when the air is probably 40°
or 50° below zero and tlie sea from
28° to .'K)° above, the unequal expan-
sion of those ])arts of the mass ex-
posed to so great a difference of temperature can not fail to produce the sep
aration of large portions.

FOUM9 or ICEBEBOS.

THE ARCTIC SEAS.

49

direction
h wcigli-
dash to-
i-(Uv con-
ic' The

unrcinit-
,'ir safety,
1 so nuuh
1st these
irticiilarly
■Y, as their
itinctly ob-

since the
y numbers
:d to pieces
.on, for tlu>
must needs
;n<l thrown
and others
piled up^J"

Most of these swimmlnf» glacier-fragments, or icebergs, which are met with
by the whaler in tlie Northern Atlantic, are formed on the mountainous west
coast of Greenland by the large glacieri, which discliarge themselves into the
fiords from Smith's Sound to Disco Hay, as hero the sea is sufliciently deep to
float t'lem away, in spite of the enormous magnitude they frequently attain.
As they drift along down Uaffiu's Hay and Davis's Strait, they not seldom run

ICliBEUUS AUUOLND.

[ce the sop'

aground on some shallow shore, where, bidding defiance to the short sununer,
tlicy frequently remain for many a year.

Dr. Hayes measured an inmiense iceberg which had stranded off tl.e little
harbor of Tessuissak, to the north of Melville Bay. The square wall which
faced toward his base of measurement was Ulo feet high, and a fraction over
three-quarters of a mile long. Being almost square-sided above the sea, the
same shape must have extemled beneath it ; and since, by measurements made
two days before, Hayes had discovered tliat fresli-water ice floating m salt wa-
ter has above the surface to below it tlie proportion of one to seven, this crys-
tallized tnoimtain must have gone aground in a depth of nearly half a mde. A

pH

>

fiO

THE POLAR WORLD.

ru(l(i estimate of its sizo, made on tho spot, ynve in cubical contents about 27,000
millions of feet, and in weiyht sonietliitii^ like 2000 millions of tons !

Captain Ross in liis first voyage mentions another of these wrecked berL,n,
which was found to be 4100 yards long, ;)G80 yards broad, and 51 feet high
above the level of the sea. It was aground in til fathoms, and its weight was
estimated by ;in oflicer of the " Alexaiuler" at l,'J!ti.',:i07,07:i tons. On ascend-
ing the flat top of this iceberg, it was found occupied by a huge white bear,
who justly deeming " discretion the best part of vulor," sprang into the sea be-
fore he could be lired at.

The vast dimensions of tho icebergs appear less astonishing when we con-
sider that many of the glaciers or ice-rivers from which they are dislodged are
equal in size or voUime to tho largest streams of continental Europe.

Thus one of the eight glaciers existing in tho district of Omenak, in Green-
land, is no less than an English mile broail, and forms an ice-wall rising 1 (JO
i'eet above the sea. Further to tho north, Melville IJay and Whale Sound are
the seat of vast ice-rivers. Here Tyndall glacier forms a coast-line of ice over
two nnles long, almost burying its face in the sea, and carrying the eye along a
broad and wiiuling valley, u]) steps of ice of giant height, until at length the
slojie loses itself in tho imknown ice-desert beyond. l>ut grand :ibove ail is the
magiiiticent Humboldt glacier, which, connecting (Ireenland ;md Washington
Land, forms a solid glassy wall ;100 feet above the water-level, with .an unknown
depth below if, while its curved face extends full sixty miles in length from
Cape Agassiz to Cape Forbes. In the temperate zone it would be one of the
mightiest rivers of the earth ; here, in tho frozen solitudes of the North, it slow-
ly drops its vast fragments into the waters, making the solitudes around re-echo
M-ith their fall.

As the I'(jlar shores of continental America and Siberia are generally flat,
and below tho snow-lino, they are consequently depriveil both of glaciers and
of the huge iloating masses to which these give birth.

In a high sea tho waves beat against an iceberg as against a rock ; and in
calm weather where there is a swell, tho noise made by their rising and falliiiL,'
is tremendous. Their usual form is that of a high vertical wall, gr.aduaily
sloping down to tho opposite side, which is very low; but frecpiently they ex-
liibit the most fantastic shapes, particularly after they have been a long time
exposed to the corroding power of the waves, or of warm rains pelting them
from abo\e.

A number of icebergs floating in tho sea is one of the most magnificent
spectacles of nature, Init tho wonderful beauty of those crystal cliffs never ap-
pears to greater advaiifag(! than when clothed by tho midnight sun with all the
Bplendid colors of twilight.

"Tlie bergs," says Dr. Hayes, describing one of these enchanting nights,
"h.ad wholly lost their chilly aspect, and glittering in the blaze of the brilliant
heavens, seemed in the distance like masses of burnished metal or soli<l fl'..iii'.
Nearer at hand they were huge blocks of Parian marble inlaid with niammolh
gems of pearl and opal. One in particular exhibited tho perfection of the
graiul. Its form was not unlike that of the Colosseum, and it lay so far awny

THE AHCTIC SEAS.

51

,27,000
I l)cri,n,

rht was

asi'L'utl-

itc l)»'ar,

a sea \w-

wc con-
ilgcil are

in Grccii-
isin.n 1')"
iouml are
f u-e over
,e alouil a
lenjjfth tliu
e all is tlio
'asliiiiill'"!
1 unknown
„mh from
one of till',
111, it slow-
mil re-echo

,era\ly flat,
llaciers ami

\v\i ; an.-l in

and fallinir

h, <jra<lnaUy

Itly lln-y cx-

lon;^ linu'

ultini; llu'in

|ina;4nirnu'iit
I's never ny-
I with all llio

Itincj nii^'iitS
llhe brilliant

solid fl-.ii*^''
Ih tuatiiniolh
Ictionof tlic

so far awny

tliiit half its height was liurie.l lieneath llic line of Idood-rcil waters. The sun,
sluwly roUintx aloiit^ ihe liori/.on, |tasse(i Itehind it, and it seemed as if the
old Udinau rums had suddenly taken fifo. In the shallow of the l)eri;s the
water was a rich tureen, and notliitiLf could ho more soft and ten<h'r tli.an the
gradations of color n>ade by the sea slioaling on the sloping tongue of a Ix-rg

'14' il

Ill

i

*;■•■ ''i

1 111 i

ill

1:1

H

59

THE POLAR WOULD.

GLACIER, BUTE INLET.

close beside us. The tint increased in intensity Avliere the ice overhun:' the
water, and a deep cavern near by exliibited tlie solid color of the malachite min-
gled with the transparency of the enier.ild, while in strange contrast a broad
streak of cobalt blue ran diagonally tlirough its body. Tlie bewitching charac-
ter of the scene was heightened by a thousand little cascades which leaped into
the sea from these floating masses, the water being discharged from lakes of melt-
ed snow and ice which rojjosed in quietude far up in the valleys separating the
high icy hills of their upper surface. From other bergs large pieces were now
and then detached, i)lunging down into the water with deafening noise, while
the slow movinir swell of the ocean resounded throutrh their broken archwavs."

A similar gorgeous spect" jle was witnessed by Dr. Kane in jNIelville ]>ay.
Tlic midnight sun came nut over a great berg, kindling variously-colored fires
on every part of its surface, and making the ice around the ship one great re-
splendency of gemwork, blazing carbuncles and rubies, and molten gold.

In the night the icelu .-gs are readily distinguished even at a disfice by
their natiu'.'d effulgence, and in foggy weather by a jiecnliar blackness in tiio
atnmsphere. As they are not imfrequently drifted by the vJreenland stream
considerably to the south of Xewfoundland, sometimes oven as far as the for-
tieth or thirty-ninth degree of latitude (May, 1841, June, 1842), shij)S sailiri;:
through the north-western Atlantic require to be always on their guard against
them. The ill-fated "President," one of our first ocean-steamers, which wns
lost on its Avay to New York, without leaving a trace behind, is supposed to
have been sunk by a collision with an iceberg, and no doubt many a gallant
bark has either foundered in the night, or been hurled by the storm against
these floating rocks.

an
in;

THE ARCTIC SEAS,

58

crhunp thn
lacliito niiii-
iist a l)i()!i«l
ling cliiuac-
leaped into
ikes of nu>lt-
)ar:itiiig tla'
)s wero iinw
noise, while
I arcliways."
:clvillc r.ay.
!olore»l iiiis
inc great le-
golil.

(Vist'-ioc I'V
Iviiess ill ll't;
ilantl stream
as the for-
Lhipa sailiiii-'
:nar(l against
which was
supposcil to
iny a gallant
orm against

rmt though often dangerous neighbors, tlic bergs occasionally prove useful
auxiliaries to the mariner. From their greater bulk lying below the water-
line, they are either drifted along by the under-current against the wind, or,
from their vast dimensions, are not perceptibly influenced even by the strongest
gale, but, on the contrary, have the appearance of moving to windward, because
i.vcrv other kind of ice is drifted rapidly past them. Thus in strong adverse
winds their broad masses, fronting the storm like bulwarks, not seldom afford
protection to ships mooring under their lee.

Anclioring to a berg is, however, not always unattended with danger, par-
ticularly wiien the summer is far advanced, or in a lower latitude, as all ice be-
comes exceedingly fragile when acted on by the sun or by a temperate atmos-

* N- ^

SCALING AN ICEBCKO.

phere. The blow of an axe then sometimes sjiffices to rend an iceberg asunder,
and to bury the careless seaman beneath its ruins, or to hurl him into the yawn-
ing chasm.

Thus Scorcsby relates the adventure of two sailors who were attempting to
fix an anchor to a berg. Thoy began to hew a hole into the ice, but scarcely
had the first blow been struck, when smldenly the immense mass split from top
to bottotn and fell asunder, the two halves falling in contrary directions with a
prodigious crash. One of the sailors, who was possessed of great presence of
mind, immediately scaled the huge fr.-igment on which he was standing, and
leinaincd rocking to and fro on its summit until its equilibrium was restored ;
hut his companion, falling between th(! masses, wouhl most likely have been
crushed to pieces if the current caused by their motion had not swept him

,;1 within reach of the boat that was waiting for them.

^ Frequently large pieces detach themselves spontaneously from an iceberg

54

THE POLAR WORLD.

a

li

and fall into the son with n troinetulous noiso. Wiicn this circnmstunco, cilliuj
"calvintj," takes ))lari', the ireherg loses its equilibrium, sometimes turns on
one side, and is oeeasionally inverted.

Dr. Hayes witnessed the crumbling of an immense berg, resembling in its
general appearanee the IJritish House of Parliament. First one lofty toww
came tumblitig into the water, starting from its surfaee an immense flock of
gulls; then another followed; and at length, after tive hours of rolling and
crashing, there remained of this splendid mass of congelation not a fragment
that rose fifty feet above the water.

One of tlie most remarkable phenomena of the Polar Sea is the ice-blink, or
reflection of the ice against the sky. A stripe of light, similar to tlie einly
dawn of morning, but without its redness, appears above the horizon, and traces
a complete aerial map of the ice to a distance of many miles beyond the ordi-
nary reach of vision. To the experienced navigator the " blink" is freipiently
of the greatest use, as it not only points out the vicinity of the drift-ice, but
indicates its nature, whether compact or loose, continuous or oj)en. Thus
Scoresby relates that on the 7th of June, 1821, lie saw so distinct an iec-blink,
that as far as twjiity or thirty miles all round the horizon he was able to ascer-
tain the iigure and probable extent of eacth ice-field. The ))aeked ice was <lis-
tinguished from the larger fields by a more obscure and yellow color ; while
each water-l.anc or open i)assago was indicsated by a deep blue stiipe or patcli.
IJy this means ho was enabled to find his way out of the vast masses of ice in
which he liad been detained for several days, and to emerge into the open sea.

The tendency of the pack-ice to separate in calm weather, so that one might
almost be tempted to believe in a mutual repulsive power of the individual
blocks, is likewise favorable to the Arctic navigator. The perpetual daylight
of summer is another advantage, but unfortunati^ly the sun is too often veiled
by dense mists, which frequently obscure the air for weeks together, j)articular-
ly in July. These fogs, which arc a great impediment to the whali'r's opera-
tions, have a very depressing influence tipon the spirits ; and as they are at-
tended Mith a low temperature, which even at noon <loes not rise much above
freezing-point, the damp cold is also j)hysically extremely unpleasant.

At other times the sun sweeps two or thieo times round the pole without
being for a moment obscured by a cIou<l, and then the transjiareiicy of tlio air
is such that objects the most remote may bo seen perfectly distinct .and clear.
A ship's top-gallant mast, .at the distance of five or six leagues, may be discern-
ed when just appearing above the horizon with a common perspective-glass,
and the summits of mountains are visible at the distance of from sixty to a
hundred miles.

On such sunny days, the strong contrasts of light and shade between the
glistening snow and tho dark ])r()truding rocks produce .". remarkable deception
in tho apparent distance of the land, along a steep mountainous coast. When
at, tho 'listance of twenty miles from Spitzbergen, for instance, it would be easy
to induce even a judicious stranger to undertake a passage in a boat to the
shore, from a belief th.at he was within a league of the land. At this distance
tho portions of rock and patches of snow, as well as the contour of the different

THE AUCTIC SEAS.

66

rns on

r in ilH
■ towor

lock ot
ii<» ami
aginont

)rnik, or
10 eiuly
(1 traci'S
|>c onli-
MHicnlly
-ico, l)ut
. Thus
cc-l)link,
to nscor-
was (lis-
ir ; whili!
or ]>alcli.
of ice in
)\wu sea.
me inii^lil
ndividual

dayliii^t
on vcili'd

artit'ular-
r's opi'ia-

y are at-

cli above

|c without
of the air
111(1 clear,
je (liseern-
Itive-glass,
l^ixty to a

Lween tlie
I tlcception
It. When
|il(l be easy
)at to tlie
Is distance
Ic different

liills, arc as distinctly marked as siniilar objects in many other countries, not
haviiii; Know about tlieni, would bo at a fourth or a fiflli part of tlie distance.

Nothing can be more wonderful than the phenomena of the atmosphere de-
pendent on retltction and refraction, whieh are frecjuently observed in the Arc-
tic seas, particuliirly at the commencement or approach of easterly winds. They
are prcbably occasioned by ihi; eommixturc, near the surface of the land or sea,
of two streams of air of different temperatures, so as to oeoasion an irregular
deposition of imperfectly condensed vajior, which when passing the verge of tho
lioiizon ai)parently raises the objects there situated to a eonsideral»le distanco
above it, or extends their height beyond their natural dimensions. lee, land,
ships, boats, and other objects, when thus enlarged and elevated, are said to
loom. The lower part of looming objects are sometimes connected with tho
horizon b an apparent fibrous or columnar extension of their parts; at other
times they appear to be quite lifted into the air, a void space being seta between
tiu'tii :md the horizon.

A most remarkable delusion of this kind was observed by Scoresby while
sailing through the open lee, far from land. Suddenly an immense umpliitheatro
inclosed by high walls of basaltic ice, so like natural rock as to deceive one of
his most experienced oflicers, rose around the ship. Sometimes tho refraction
produced on all sides a similar effect, but still more frequently remarkable con-
tiiists. Single ice-blocks expanded into architectural figures of an extraordina-
ry height, and sometimes the distant, deeply indented ice-border looked like a
number of towers or minarets, or like a dense forest of naked trees. Scarcely
hail an object acquired a distinct form, wlien it began to dissolve into another.

It is well known that similar causes produce similar effects in tho warmer
regions of the earth. In the midst of the trojiical ocean, tho mariner sees ver-
dant islands rise from tho waters, and in the treeless desert fantaslio palm-
groves wave their fronds, as if in mockery of the thirsty caravan.

AVhen we consider tho intense cold whieh reigns during tho greatest part of
the year in the Arctic regions, we might naturally expect to find the whole of
the IVilar Sea covered, during tho winter at least, with one solid unbroken sheet
of iee. IJut experience teaches us that tliis is by no means the case; for llio
currents, tho tides, the winds, and the swell of a turbulent ocean are mighty
causes of disruption, or strong impediments to congelation. IJolIi Lii-utenant
de Haven and Sir Francis M'C'lintock* were helplessly earried along, in the
depth of winter, by the pack-ico in Lancaster Sound and TJaffin's I5ay. A
berg impelled by a strong under-current rips open an iee-lield as if it were a
tiiiii sheet of glass ; and in ehannels, or on coasts wliere the tides rise to a con-
siderable height, their flux and retlux is continually opening crevices and banes
in the iee whieh covers the waters. That even in tho highest latitudes the sea
does not close except when at rest, was fully experienced by T)r. Hayes during
his wintering .at Port Foulko; for at .nil times, even when tho temperature of
the air was below the freezing-point of mercury, ho could hear frc the deck
of his schooner the roar of tho beating waves. From all these caus<(3 there
has at no point within the Arctic Circle been found a firm ice-belt extending,

•Sco Chapter XXX IL

ftfl

!i

THE POL All WOUIJ).

••s ^

1%

''S-:.,

,'*?'

AN ARCTIC CHANNEL.

cither in winter or in sinnmcr, more tlian from fifty to .1 Inindrcd miles fro-n
land. And even in llio narrow channels separatins; the islands of the Parrv
Archi[)elai^o, or at the nioutli of Smith Sound, the waters will not freeze over,
except when slu'ltered hy the land, or when an ice-])ack, accnmnlated by loiii|
continuance of winds from one quarter, affords the same protection.

But the constant motion of the Polar Sea, wherever it expands to a consider-

THE ARCTIC SEAS.

8T

ul»U' 1)r<'a(ltli, would bo iiisiifliciont to prvvciit its total omi<;cliuion, if it wiTo
iK.t assisird l>y other i»liysical causes. A inaiiiiilicfiil nvsIi'iu of currt'iits in
coiilimially tlis|ilai-iiiLj tin- waters of llio oci-aii, .ami foiriiiL? ihu w.irin Hoods of
tlu; troiiit'al iVLiioiis to w.andi'i- to the pok-, whilci tho cold slri'ums of tho fritcid
zone .arc as coiislantly iiii,L,'rutiii<^ toward the K(|Uator. Thus wu suo tho Uulf
Stivani ll(>win;4 throUi^h the broad fj^ateway east of Spit/.ber^eii, and forcintf
out a return eurreiil of cold water to the west uf Si»it/bergen, aiul through
Davis's Strait.

Tlie eotniiariUivi'ly w.irm floods which, in i:oiisequence of this <i;re,it law of
circiiiatioii, c(une ftourini,' into the Arctic sead, naturally require some tiiuo
liifore tlu'y are sufliciently chilled to be converted into ice; and as sea-water
has its niaxiniuni of density, or, in other words, is heaviest a few decrees above
the freezing- point of water, and then necessarily sinks, tho whole depth of tho

fd by loirj;
I consider-

sea must of course bo cooled down to that temperature before freezing can
take place. Ice being a bad conductor of heat, likewise limits the process ot
congelation ; for after attaining a thickness of ten or fifteen feet, its growth is
very slow, and probably even ceases altogether ; for when floating fields, or
tloes, are found of a greater thickness, this increase is duo to tho snow that
falls upon their surface, or to tho accumulation of liummocks caused by their
collision.

Tims, by the combined influence of tlioso various physical agencies, bo\mds
liave been set to the congelation of the I'olar waters. AVero it otherwise, the
Arctic lands would have been mere uniidi.abit.ible wastes; for tho existence of
the se.als, the w.alrus, and the whale depends upon their finding some open wa-
ter at every season of the year ; aiid deprived of this resource, .all the Ksqtii-
iiiaux, whoso v.arious tribes fringe the coasts in the highest latitudes hitherto
discovered, would perish in a single winter.

If the Arctic glaciers did not discharge their bergs into tho sea, or if no
currents conveyed tho ice-floes of the north into lower latitudes, ice would be

88

THE POLAH WOULD.

coiiHtatitly nccu!nnliit!i)<» in thu I'olur world, and, dostroyinj^ tho l»nliincc of na-
tun-, would ultiniatfly c'ndun<;t'r lliu fxisU-nce ol uiun uvur tlio wliolo Burfuco
of tliu •'lubu.

! ■!

I

I

AHCTIC ALVllINE ANLVLVLS.

60

CHAPTER IV.

ARCTIC MAUINK ANIMALS.

!'(ipil(iiii«np'< of the Arctlr Snan. — Tlio (irooiilaiKl Whale. —Tho Tin Whalog. — Tin- Narwlial. —

Till' llfliiK r Wliitii |)ol|iliin — Till' Illmk l>i>l|>liiii.— Ill-i « luilij-ulii Ma-Hurro (in tliu Faomt! I«l-

niiil'i.— Tliii Ore, or (iiaiii|>tH. — The Seals. — Tlio Wahiis, — ItH uciitn Smell. — Ili.Htciry nf u viiiiiin
AValrin. — I'areiital .Vtluctiuii.— Thu I'olur Ikur, — Ills SttUKcilv,— llibqriiutiuu of tho Shu-Uur.—
Seu-liliil'i.

'^piIK vast tniillitudcs of aiiiinattMl iK'iiii;.'^ which pooplo tlic Pohu' Seas form
*" a n'inaikal)h' contrast to tlic iiakcihicss of their bleak and (h-sohito Nhoics.
The colih-r siirfatic-watcrs ahiio.st perpetually e.xpo.scd to a chilly air, and fro-
<|miitly covered, even ill snnuiier, with th)atiiii^ ice, are indeeil unfavorable to
tiif developnieiit of orj^anic life; but tlii.s adverse Inttueiure is modified by tho
hiudief temperature which (ionstantly prevails at a ^'reater deptli ; for, contrary
to what takes place in tlie eipiatorial seas, we find in the Polar Ocean an in-
crease of temperaturo from tlie surface downward, in eoii,se(pienco of tho
warmer under-currents, flowing from tlio south northward, and passing bo-
nealh the cold waters of the superHcial Arctic current.

Thus the severity of the Pohir winter remains unfelt at a greater depth of
the sea, where myriads of creatures find a secure retreat aj^ainst t'. e frost, and
whence they emeri^e during the hjug summer's day, either to line the sliores or
to asciiid the broad rivers of the Arctic world. Between the parallels of T-t°
and HO Scoresby observed that the color of the Greenland sea varies from tho
purest ultramarine to olive green, and from crystalline transparency to striking
opacity — appearances which are not transitory, but permanent. This green
seini-opa(pie water, wlioso position varies with the currents, often forming iso-
lated stripes, and sometimes sprea<ling over two or three degrees of latitude,
mainly owes its singular aspect to small medusie and luidibranehiato mollu.sc.s.
It is calculated to form one-fourth i)art of the surface of the sea between tho
ahovo-mentioned jjarallels, so that many thousands of square miles are absolute-
ly teeming with life.

On the coast of Greenland, wlierc tho Avatcrs arc so exceedingly clear th.at
tlie bottom and every object ui»on it are plainly visible even at a depth of
eighty fathoms, thegrouiul is seen covered with gigantic tangles, which, togeth-
er with the animal world circulating among their fronds, remind the spectator
of the coral-reefs of the tropical ocean. Nullipores, mussels, alcyonians, sertu-
larians, ascidians, and a variety of other sessile animals, incrust every stone or
fill every hollow or crevice of the rocky ground. A dead seal or fish thrown
into the sea is soon converted into a skeleton by the myriads of small crusta(!ean.s
wliich infest these northern waters, and like the ants in the equatorial forests,
perform the part of scavengers of the deep.

60

THE POLAR WORLD.

TliuH wo finil an cxulxM-aiuH' of lifo, in its sinnllcr nni^ smallost forms, peo-
pling tliu Arctic wattTs, and affonlint; iiotirislnufiit to a vaiii-fy of straiij^i' and
liulky croaturi's — cffaccans, walniscs, and seals — which annually attract tiiou-
sands of advi-nturous seamen to tiie icy ocean.

Of tliese sea-inaninialiaiis, tlie most important to eivili/.ed man is undoiihted-
ly the (Jreeniand whale {liaii iki itn/stiri(itn),ov smootii-l»aek, thns called from
its havinu; no dors.il fin. Formerly these whale^j were harpooned in considerable
nnmliers in tlie Icelandic waters, or in the fiords of Spitzl>er<;en and l):mish
(Irreiil.ind ; then Davis's Straits i»ecame the favorite lishin<j;-i;roiinds ; and mon;
recently the inlets and various clianne! . to the east of IJaflin's IJay have been
invatleil ; while, on the opposite side of America, several hundreds of whalers
iK-netrate every year throii<'h l»erini''s Straits into the icy sea beyond, where
previously they lived and multiplied, unmolested except by the Es(piimau.\.

i

Till-: W II A I.E.

l1

IMore fortunate than the smooth-b:ick, the ror<iu;ils. or fin-wliales {Tinlivno]^
tfrti /)(tn/>n^ iiiin>('i(/iift, p/ii/siilin, luhl n )/)( nit lilt), :i[\\l remain in tiuir ancient seats,
from which they are not likely to be dislodged, as the ability of their nioy-
mentsmakes their capture more dilllcult and daniir«'rous ; while ;if the same time
the small (pi.anlity of their fat ami the shortness of their Icilcen render it far less
reiminfrMlive. 'I'liev are of a more sleinler htrin of body, and with a more
pointed luM/./.h than the (ireenland whale; and while the l.itter attains alenirlh
of only sixty feet, the Ilidannpti ni fioo/m frro\\>{ to the vast leii<j;th of 100 feet
:iii(l inori'. There is also a difference in their food, for the (ireeiiland whale
cliiefly feeds upon the miiuste animals thater<»wd the olive-colore<l waters above
deserilied, or on the hosts of litile pteropods that are found in many parts of
the Arctic se.as, while the ror'|uals fretpiently accompany the herring-shoals, and
carry death and destruction into their ranks.

The seas of Novaja Zemlya, Spit zberijen, and (Jreeniand arc the domain of
the narwhal, or sea-u,>icorn, a <'''t;ic<'an «piit«' as strani;e, but not so falMilous as
the terrestrial aii'inul which figures in the arms of Kngluiul. 'Ihe use of the

ARCTIC MARINE ANIMALS.

61

enormous spirully wouml tusk projeotinj? from its upiKT j:iw,an»l from which
it .lorivc's its popiilar ikiuk-, has not yot boon i-learly asct'i-tainotl, some lioKliiig
it to be ail instnnnent of «lefeiise, w iiilo otiiers suppi)se it to bo only an orna-
ment or mark «»f the superior dignity of tiie sex to which it lias been awanleil.
Anioiii,' the numerous dolphins which people the Arctic and Subarctic seas,
the belu-.'a {Iklphinus /t«n/.-«), improperly called the white whale, is one of tho
most interesting. When young it has a brown color, which gradually changes
int.) a perfect white. It attains a length of from twelve to twenty feet, has no
<l.)rsal till, a strong tail three feet broad, and a round head with a broad trim,
cate.l snout. IJeyond 50' of latitude it is freipiently seen in large shoals, par-
ticularly near the estuaries of tho largo Siberian and North American rivers,
which it often ascends to a considerable distance in pursuit of tho s.almon. A
troop of belugas iliving out of the dark waves of llu; Arctic Sea is said to afford

■yr •■ -vv

THE NAUWHAl..

a magnificent spectacle. Their white ci-hjr appears dazzling, from the con-
trast of the simibre background, as they dart about with arrow like velocity.

The black dolphin {(tl<)l>i<rj>/i<(li<n f/lobhrpi^) is likewise very common in
the Arctic seas, both beyond l>eriiig's Straits ami between (Jreenland and Spitz-
lu'i gen, whence it fieipiently makes excursions to the south. It grows to the
liiimli of tweiity-ftnir feet, and is about ten feet in circumference. The skin,
like that of tho dolphin tribe in general, is smooth, resembling oiled silk; the
color a liluish-blac!; on tho back, and generally whitish on the belly; tlie blulv
her is three or four inclies thick.

The full-grown have generallv tweiitv-two or tweiitv-four teeth in each jaw;
and when the mouth is shut, the teeth lock between one another, like the teeth
(if a trap. The dorsal tin is about lifteen inches high, the tail five feet broad;
the |.ectoral tins are as many, long an<l eomparatively narrow; so that, armed
with such excellent paddles, the black dolpliin is inferior to none of his relatives
in swiftness. Of an eminently .ocial disposition, these dolphins Bometimes con-
gregate in herds uf many hundreds, under the guidance uf several old c.xperi-

C2

TIIE POLAR WORLD.

euct'tl m!il('s,whom tlio rest follow like a flock of slicop — !i property from which
the animal is called in Shetland the " ea'ini^ whale." No cetacean strands more
frefpiently than the hlack dolphin, and occasionally lari^e herds have been driven
on the shores of Iceland, Norway, and the Orkney, Shetland and Fueroe islands,
where tiicir capture is hailed as a t;(jdsend. The intelligence that a shoal of
ca'ing whales or grinds has been seen approaching the coast, creates great ex-
citement among the otherwise phlegmatic inhabitants of the P'acroe Islands.
The whole neighl)orl>ood, ol<l and young, is instantly in motion, and soon numer-
Oiis boats shoot off from shore to intercept tlie retreat of the dolphins. Slowly
and steadily they are driven toward the coast; the i)halanx of their enemies
draws closer and closer together ; terrified by stones and blows, they run ashore,
and lie gasping as the flood recedes. Then begins the work of death, amid the
loud shouts of the executioners and the furious splashings of llie victims. In
this manner more than SOO grinds were massacred on August Ki, 1770; and
during the four summer months that Langbye sojourned on the island in 1817,
(j-';i were driven on shore, and served to pay one-half of the imported corn.
I}ut,on the other hand, many years frequently pass without yielding one single
black whale to the temler nu'rcies of the islanders.

The ferocious ore, or grampus {JJcl/i/ilnus or<-<i), is the tiger of the Arctic
seas. ISlack above, white beneath, it is distinguished by its large dorsal lin,
which curves backward toward the tail, and rises to the height of two feet or
more. Measuring no less than twenty-five feet in length and twelve t.T thirteen
in girth, of a courage equal to its strength, and armed with formidable ti'eth,
thirty in each jaw, the grampus is the dread of the seals, whom if overtakes in
Kpite of their rapid flight; and the wh.ale himself would consider it as his most
formidable enemv, wi're it not for the persecutions of man. The gramjius gen-
erally ploughs tiie seas in small troops of four or five, following each other in
close siiwjrle file, ami .•illernately disa])peariiig and rising so as to resemble the
un<lulaf(iry motions of on(! large serpentiform animal.

The familv of the seals has also numerous and mighty re])resentatives in the
Arctic waters. In the sea of Uering we mi'ct with the formidal)le sea lion ami
the valuable sea-bear, while the harp-seal, the bearded seal, and tlie hispid seals
{I'/iocd i/roii/ii/iifii'ii, /»/)-f>'i(,\ /i!.y)itfii), s\ivviu\'\\\'^ from the I'arry Islands to
Novaja Zemlya, yield the tribute of their flesh to numerous wild tribes, and
that of their skins to the Kumix'an hunter.

I'ew .Arctic animals are more valual)le to man. or more frequently mentioneil
in Polar voyages than the walrus or morse (7V!f/i(r/iiiN rusniiinis), wh'uh,
though allie<l to the seals, differs greatly from them by the deviiopment of the
canines of the upper jaw, which form two enormous tusks projecting down-
ward to the len<xth of two feet. The morse is one of the largest (piadrupeds ex-
isting, as it attains a length of twenty feet, and a weight of from fifteen humlreij
to two thous.iml pounds. In uncouthnessof form it surjtasses even the inigain-
ly hippopotamus. It has a small head with a remarkably thick upper lip, cov-
ered with large pellucid whiskers or Itristles; the neck is thick and short ; the
naked gray or red-brown skin hangs loosely on the pomlerous and el-mgated
trunk; and the short feet terminate in broad lin-like paddles, resembling large

AUCTIU MARINE ANIMALS.

ii-i

ill-fiisliionod fliips of leather. Its movements on Imd are extremely slow and
awkwiini, resembliiii? those of u hiitje caterpilhir, but in the water it has all the
activity of tlie seals, or even surpasses them in speed.

"II

(iri'irarious, like the seals and many of the dolphins, tlie walruses love to Vh'
on the ice or on the sand-banks, closely huddled together. On the spot where

wr

i

64

THE POLAR WOULD. '

, ill

il

^i ^ '

I

a walrus lands, others are sure to follow ; and when the first comers block the
shore, those whicli arrive later, instead of landing on a free spot farther on,
prefer giving their friends who are in the way a gentle push with their tusks
so as to induce them to make room.

Timorous and almost helpless on land, where, in spite of its formidable
tusks, it falls an easy prey to the attacks of man, the walrus evinces a greater
degree of courage in the water, wliere it is able to make a better use of the
strength and weapons bestowed upon it by nature. Many instances are known
where walruses, which never attack but when provoked, have tiu'ned u|)on their
assailants, or liave even assembled from a distance to assist a wounded com-
rade.

Like the seals, the walrus is easily tamed, and of a most affectionate temper.
This was shown in a remarkable luiumer by a young walrus brought alive from
Archangel to St. Petersburg in 1829. Its keeper, Madame Dennebecq, having
tended it with the greatest care, the grateful animal expressed its pleasure
whenever she came near it by an affectionate grunt. It not only followed her
with its eyes, but was never hai)pier than when allowed to lay its head in her
lap. The tenderness was reciprocal, and Madame Dennebecq used to talk of
her walrus with the same warmth of affection as if it had been a pet lapdog.

That parental love should be highly developed in animals thus susceptible
of friendship may easily be imagined. Illr. Lamont, an English gentleman
whom the love of sport led a few years since to Spitzbergen, relates the case of
a wounded v.alrus who held a very young calf under her right arm. When-
ever the harpoon was raised against it, the mother carefully shielded it with
her own body. TIic countenance of this poor animal was ne\*r to be forgot-
ten : that of the calf expressive of abject terror, and yet of such a boundless
confidence in its mother's power of protecting it, as it swam along under her
wing, and the old cow's face showing such reckless defiance for all that could
be done to herself, and yet sucii terrible anxiety as to the safety of her calf.
This parental affection is shamefully misused by man, for it is a common
artifice of the walrus-hunters to catch a young animal and make it grunt, in
order to attract a herd.

The walrus is confined to the coasts of the Arctic regions, unless when drift-
ice, or some other accident, carries it away into the open sea. Its chief resorts
are Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, North Greenland, the shores of Hudson's and
Bafiin's bays ; and on the opposite side of the Polar Ocean, the coasts of Bor-
ing's Sea, and to the north of Bering's Straits, the American and Asiatic shores
from Point Barrow to Cape North. It has nowhere been found on the coasts
of Siberia from the mouth of the Jenisei to the last-mentioned promontory,
and on those of America from Point Barrow to Lancaster Sound ; so that it
inhabits two distinct regions, separated froin each other by vast extents of
coast. Its food seems to consist principally of marine plants and shell-fish,
though Scoresby relates that he found the rennins of fishes, or even of seals, in
its stomach.

As the Polar bear is frequently found above a hundred miles from the near-
est land, upon loose ice steadily drifting into the sea, it seems but fair to assign

ARCTIC MARINE ANIMALS.

65

liiiii a place among the marine animals of the Arctic zone. He lumts by scent,
ami Ih constantly running across and against the wind, which prevails from the
ni)rtlnvard, so that the same instinct which directs his search for » rey also
stTves the imj)ortant purpose of guiding him in the direction of the land and
more solid ice. His favorite food is the seal, which he surprises crouching
down with his fore paws doubled underneath, and pushing himself noiselessly
forward with his hinder legs until within a few yards, when he springs upon
Ills victim, whether in the water or upon the ice. He can swim at the ratt of
time miles an hour, and can dive to a considerable <listance. Though he at-
tacks man wlicn hungry, wounded, or provoked, he will not injure him when
food more to Iiis liking is at hand. Sir Francis M'Clintock relates an anecdote
of a native of Upernr.vik who was out one dark winter's day visiting his se;il-
nots. Hf found a seal entangled, and whilst kneeling down over it upi>n the
ice to get it clear, he received a slap on the back — from his companion as he
Rii])posed; hut a second and heavier blow made him look smartly rouml. He
was horror-stricken to see a peculiarly grim old bear instead o' his comraile.
Without taking further noiice of the man. Bruin tore the seal out of the net,
and began his supper. He was not interrupted, nor did the man wait to see
tlie meal finished, fearing, no doubt, that his uninvited and unceremonious guest
might keep a corner for him.

Many instances have been observed of the peculiar sagacity of the Polar
bear. Scoresby relates that the captain of a whaler, being anxious to procure
a hear without wounding the skin, made trial of the stratagem of laying t' e
noose of a ro|)e in the snow, and placing a piece of kreng, or whale's carcass,
within it. A bear, ranging the neighboring ice, was soon enticed to the spot.
Approaching the bait, he seized it in his mouth ; but his foot, at the same
moment, by a jerk of the rope, being entangled in the noose, he pushed it off
with the atljoiiiing paw, and deliberately retired. After liaving eaten the piece
lie carried away with him, he returned. The noose, with another piwe of
kri'Mg, being tlien replaced, he i)ushed the rope aside, and again walkeil tri-
uniphuiitiy off with the kreng. A third time the noose was hid, and this time
tlie rojie was buried in the snow, and the bait laid in a deejt hole dug in the
centre. Hut Hruiii, after snuffing about the place for a few minutes, scraped
till' snow away with his paw, threw the rope aside, and escaped unhurt with
his prize.

The she-bear is taught by a wonderful instinct to sliolter her young imder
the snow. Towards the month of December she retreats to the side of a roek,
svliere, by dint of scraping and allowing the snow to fall upon her, sh • forms a
cell ill which to reside during the winter. There is no fear that she should be
stifled for want of air, for the warmth of her breath always keeps a small pas-
sage open, and the snow, instead of forming a thick uniform sheet, is broken
by a little hole, round which is collected a muss of glittering hoar-frost, caused
by the congelation of the breath. Within this strange nursery she produces
her young, and remains with them beneath the snow until the month of March,
! ^vllull she emerges into the open air with her baby bears. As the time passes
[on, the breath of the family, together with the warmth exhaled from their

Mi

06

THE POLAR WOULD.

iio.Mi; OK THE ruLAU i'.eau.

bodies, servos to ciilargo tlie cell, so that Avitli their incroasiiiij dimensions the
accoininodation is increased to suit them. As the only use of tlie snow-burrow
is to shelter the yountr, the male bears do not liibernato like the females, but
roam freely about durini:^ the winter months. IJeforc retiring under the snow,
the bear eats enormously, and, driven by an unfailing instinct, resorts to tlii'
most nutritious diet, so that she becomes prodigiously fat, thus laying in an in-
ternal store of alimentary matter which enables her not only to support liii'
own life, but to suckle her young during lier long seclusion, without taking ;i
morsel of food. ]»y .in .admirable provision of nature, the young arc of wmi-
derf'.iUy small dimensions when compared with tlie parent ; and as their growtli,
as long as they remain confined in their crystal nursery, is remarkably slow,
they consequently need but little food .and space.

The Polar bear is ainieil with formidable weapons, and a proportiotiatc
power to use them. His claws are two inches in length, and his canine tcitli,
exclusive of the part in the jaw, about .an inch and a half. Thus the hoan^
of jirovisions which are frequently dej)osited l)y Arctic voyagers to provide \or
some future want, have no greater enemv than the Polar bear. "The linal
cache," says K.atu', " which I relied so much upon, was entirely destroyed. It
h.ad been built Vtith extreme care, of rocks which had been assembled by vtiy
heavy labor, and atljusted widi much aid, often, from capstan-bars as levei'S'

ARCTIC MARINE ANIMALS.

m

Tlu' ciitiro coiistructlon was, so far as our means j)cnnittc(l, most offoctive ami
rcsistiiii^. Vet tliose tiLjt'rs «tf the ieo yeeined hardly to have eiieoiiiitered an
ohstaelc. Not a morsel of ]ieiiiniicaii remained, exeept in the iron eases, wliieii
l)eiii<j{ round, with eonical ends, defied Itolli elaws and teeth. They had rolled
and |ia\ved them in every direetion, tossini; them uhoiit like f»totballs, althouijh
over inlity pounds in wei!j;ht. An alcohol ean, stroni^ly iron-ltound, was
(lashed into small fragments, ami n tin can of litpior smaslied an<l twisted
almost into a ball. The elaws of the heast had jterforated the metal and torn
it up as with a chisel. They were too dainty for salt nu-ats ; ground (offeo
tluy had an evident relish for; old canvas was a favorite, for some reason or
other; even our flaj^, which had been reared 'to take possession' of the
waste, was gnawed down to the very staff. They had made a regular frolic of
it ; rollinix our bread-barrels over the ice ; and, unable to masticate our heavy
In(lia-rultl)er cloth, they had tied it up in nnimairinable hard knots."

Numliers of sea-birds arc found breeding ahmg (he Arctic shores as far as
man has hitherto penetrated ; soirc even keep the sea in tlu? high latitudes all
the winter, wherever open water exists. On the most northern rocks the razor-
bill rears its yoimg, and the fulmar and Ross's gull have been seen in lanes of
water beyond 82° lat. As the sun gai» s in power, enormous troops of pufKns,
looms, dovekies, rotges, skuas, burgermastcrs, Sabine's gulls, kittiwnkcs, ivory

-=^^^

M

'Y' r-.

)roportioiiatc
nnitie tei'lli)
the hoards
o provide l>ir
"The tin!>l
catroycfl. 1'
bled by very
ara as l^-'vers.

TUE ULLL.

pnlls, and Aretic terns, return to the north. There they enjoy the long sum-
mer day, and revel in the .abundance of the fish-teeming waters, bringing life
and animation into solitudes seldom or perhaps never flisturbed by the presence
of man, and mingling their wihl screams Avith the hoarse-resounding surge or
I the howling of the storm. In many localities they breed in such abundance,
i that it maybe said, almost without exaggeration, that they darken the sun
when they fly, and hide the waters when they swirn.

r

f!

08

THE POLAR WOULD.

Hi

«t

I.AVA -FIELDS.

tllAPTKU V.

irKLANI).

Volcaiiio Orijiin of the Inluiul. — The Klofn .liikul. — l-ava-strrami. — Tlu' niiniinu Momitaliis of Kri*ii.
vik. — Tlir Miiil-calilidiis of Itcvkjaliliil. — 'I'lit! 'riiiijrii-livrr at IIrvkliolt.--'riic (Inat (icyj-ir. — 'lln'
Striikkr. — Crystal I'dol.^. — Tlio AlniannaKJa. — Tin; Sllrt^-lll llir, — llcaiillfiil Icc-i-avc. — 'I'Im! (iiilha
I'lisi. — 'I'ln! Drtll {''o-K. — Cllniatc. — Vi';.'ctatloii. — (.'altlr. — l(uri>aroii'< Mode of Slll•(•|l.^llt'(■rill^'.—
liclliilciT — I'lilar H<'arH. — lllidi. — 'llii! I'',Ii|it-(IiicU.— Viilry. — \ isr. — Tlie Wilil Swan. — Tin; lla-
viMi.— 'I'lic .liTfalriin. Till' (ilaiit auk, or (i(irfii;;l. — Ki»li. — ^i^hlng Sra-oii, — 'I'lio Wlilto .Shark.—
Mineral Kliii;iU)m. — Sulphur. — I'cat. — |)iift-wu(«l.

ICKL \NI) \u\ix]\\ as well l»i' calli'il Kirclaiid, for all its 40,000 s(|uar(> mile"
liavc oriixiiially liccii ii|ilicav('(l from tlic »l*'|itlis of the wiUts [>y voicaiiir
jiowci. First, at some immt'.-isiiraMy <lisfaiit pi-rioil of tlie world's lii.storv, lln'
HiiiaM miclciis of till' futiMT islam! ln'ijaii to striiirixl*' into cxistenci- a;.,'aiii.st lln'
HU|>rriiicumlM'iit weight of tin- ofoaii ; then, in llif coiir.se of ayt's, <'oti<' nisi
aft'M" colli', cratur was foriiU'il .after crater, eruption followed oi» erii|ttioii, .iml
luva-stream oji lava-stream, until tiii.ally tlie Icelaiul of the present d.'iy wii>
piled up with her ijiiiaiitie " ji>kuls," or iee-iiiounlairiH. and her va.st jn-oiiiuii
lories, St reteliiii<j like liuye Ituttresse.s far out into the .sen.

Ill winter, when an almost jx'rpetual nii,'lit covers ih»- wastes of this (Ire-hnni
land, and the waves of a stormy ocean thunder airairist its shores, imaL^inatioii
can hardly picture a more desolate scene; hut in summer the ruirtied natnri'
of Iceland invests itself with many .1 charm. Then the eye reposes with di''

M'lo

N;iiiit(

t" lill

in.liiy
l.a.i-si
i- li:ii
:uicc (
.'•"llic
Mi'c.'ini
.'III. I (i;
.i-'i'llur
f*liai|i s
l!y t
liccri cd
(|iicii(l_v
Willi ni;i

I'l li
»h..|,. I

■ililf li.,i
'"I<t;i1,|,
''!<-• vii.\v

KELANI).

69

li;_'lit OH cjrpcn valleys niul crystal lakes, on ilu> ])iir|ilc liills or snow-cappoil
iiiouiitaiiis risinir in Alpiiiu j^raiiilciir abuvi* tliu distant liori/oii, and tlic strati-
jrcr niiitlit almost lie tenipted to exclaim with her patriotic sons, " Iceland is the
lust land miller the sun." That it is one of the most interesting; — thrinii^h its
liistiiry, its inhabitants, an<l, above all, its natural curiosities — no one can doubt.
It lias all that can please an<l fascinate the poet, the jirtist, the j;eolo;;ist, or the
historian; the prosaic utilitarian alone, accustomed to value ii country merely
liy its productions, mi<rht turn with sumc contempt from a laml without corn,
uitliout forests, without mineral riches, and covered for about twu-tliirds of its
Sin face with bo.ijs, lava-wastes, and glaciers.

Tile curse of sterility rests chiefly on the south-eastern and central parts of
tlic island. Here nothinu; is to Ims seen but deserts of volcanic stone or ini-

nsc ice-litlds, the lariicst of which — the Khtfa .lokul — alone extemls over

IIK

iinirc tlian (ooo sipiar(> miles

Th

le interior oi this vast reyioii ot neve aiu

f

(1

jiiacicr is totally unknown. The hij^hest peaks, the most dreadful volcanoes of
till' island, rise on the southern and soulh-wostern borders of this hitherto iiinc-
rcssiblc waste; the Oraefa lookiiii; down from a heiylit of (JOdO feet upon all
its rivals — the Skapfar, a name of <lreadfiil siirnilicaiice in the annals of Iceland,
and farther on, like the advaiiccfl guards of this host of sluinbcrini; Hres, tho
Katia, the Myrdal, the Kyjafjalla, and the Ilecla, the most renowned, though
not the most terrible, of all the V(»lcaiioes of Iceland.

;\s the ice-lielils of this northern island far surpass in mairnitiide those of
the Alps, so also the lava-streams of vKtna or Wsuviiis are insignilicant when
niiii|,;ii(.d with tlie eiiMiiniMis masses of iiKtlteii stone which at various periods
li.ive issued from the craters of Iceland. From Mount Skjalilebn-ilh, on Ixtth
siilts of the lake of Tliinuvalla as far as Cape IJeyk janes, the traveller sees an
iiiiiiiternipted lava-lield more than sixty miles long, and frtipieiilly from Iwelvt*
tn lilieeii broad; and lava-streams of still more gigantic pniportioiis «'xist in

ly other parts of the island, particularly in the interior. In general, these

iiiai

i\astieains have cooled down into the most fantastic forms imaginable.

It

is haiilly |>ossibIe," says Mr. Holland, "to give any idea of the general appear-

ance (I

ftli

ese once molten masses.

II

ere

rreaf vv;i<4 has

Silll

le deep (irevasse, there a huge mass

has I

teen nplieavei

toppi
1 a I

ed ov«'r into
io\'e the .'iel'V

villain which has seethed ami boiled arouinl its base. Here is every shape
ainl ligiire flmt sculpture could design or imagination |)icfure. jumbled to-
L'lllier in grofes(pie confusion, whilst everywiure myriatls of horrid spikes and
sliaip shapeless irregularities bristle amidst them."

I'«y tile eruptions of the Icelandic volcanoes many a fair nieadow-I;md has
I'd II ((inverted into a stony wilderness; but if the subterran«'an (ires liave fre-
•inciitly brought ruin and desolation over the island, they have also endowed it
with many natural wonders.

In the "burning mountains" of Krisuvik, on the south-western coast, a
*hi)le hill-slopc, with a deep narrow gorge at its foot, is covered with innunier-

aliie bulling

' spriiiirs aiK

I fill

maroles, whose dense ex

(lialat

ions, spreadintr Jm m-

ti'liralile stench, issue out of the earth with a hissing noise, and completely hide

hf view.

}i

THE POLAR WOULD.

1 i

KKKlliY IN I.AVA.

The Namiir, or hoiliiiy nuKl-caldniiis of Kcykjaliliil, sltufilcd anions; a ranup
of moiintaiiis near tin; Myvatii ((iiiat-Lakf), in one of llio niost solitary s]>ots in
tlic north of the island, on tlic honlor of cnornions lava-ticids and of a vast un-
known wildi'nifss, exhibit volcanic power on a still more <^ii,'anii(' scale. Tin to
are no less than twelve of these seethiniif pits, all lilled with a disirustiim thi<k
slimy l?iay or Idaek li(|ui(l, hoilini^ or sininierini; with Ljreater or less veheniencc,
and cmittini; dense vohiinns of steam stronu'iy impre<;nated with snlphnrons
jjases. Some sputter furiously, scatferini; their contents on every side, while in
others the muddy soup appears too thick to hoil, ami after remainiri'j; <|uiesccnt
for about half a miimle, rises up a few inches in the centre of the basin, emits
a puff of steam, and then subsicles into its former state. The diameter of tlie
larijest of all the pits can not be less than tiftecn feel ; and it is a .sort »)f mini
(Jeysir, for at intervals a column of its ))lack li(p>. I contents, acconjpanied with
a violent rush of steam, is thrown u]) to the hei!_dit of six ()r eiijht feet. I'm-
fessor Sartorius von Waltershausen, one of tiu' few travellers who have visiliil
this remarkable spot, says th.-it the witches in J/nff/it/i could not possibly have
desired a more fittini; place for the preparation of their infernal jj^ruel than the
mud-caldrons of Heykjahlid.

AmoiiLt the hot or boiliuir Rprin;.;s of Iceland, which in hundreds of jijaccs
gush forth at the foot of the mountains, some are of a gentlt! and even How, ami
can be used for bathiiiir, washini;, or boilinur, while others of an intermittent na-
ture are mere objects of curiosity or wonder. One of the most rem.arkablc uf
the latter is tlie Tmiiro-hver, at IJeyklioIt, in the " valh'y of smoke," thus nanml
from the columns of va|)or emitted by the thermal springs which :ire liere )ir:\\-
terod about with a lavish han<l. It consists of two fountains within a yard of
each other — the larirer one vomiting a colunm of boiling water ten feet high for
the space of about four minutes, when it entirely s\ibsides, and tlien the simillcr
one operates for about three minutes, ejecting a column of about live fcit.
The alternation is perfectly regul;ir in time antl force, and there arc authentic ac-
counts of its unf.iiling exactitude for the last hundred years.

lint of all tlie springs and fountains of Icel.ind there is none to equal, cither
in grandeur or renown, the Great Geysir, which is not merely one of the curl-

irW^ANO.

71

ositii'M of the country, but one of tlic woiuUrs of (lie ('nrtli,a.s thcro is notliiiij^
to i(iiii|iaic' to it in any «jllur |»:iit of tliu world.

At tlic foot of tlie J.ani;afjali liiil, in a gruHi plain, t)irou,ij;li wliii-h Rcvvrul
rivLTs nieaniior like tlin-ails of silver, anil wlicrt' rliains of dark-colorcil inount-
uiiis, ovcrto|i|ii'i| lit'rc ami tliin- hy distant snow-jicaks, form a ju'rand but mcl-
anclmly (lanorama, di-nsu xnjunu's of stiam indicate from afar tliu hitt- of :i
wliolc . ystt'in of tlii-rinal s|iriiiiis conyrcijalcd on a Hmall |titr»' <d* yroiind wliicli
does not ixcct'd twi-lvi- acres. In any oilier spot, the smallest of tliese Iniilinu;
fiiinitaiiis woidd arrest tlie traveller's attenliun, l.nt liere Ids wlmle mind is al»-
Mirhed l»y the (ireat (Jey>ir. In the course of countless ai;es this monarch (d
s|iriii'_'s has formeil,out of the silic.a it dejiosits, a mound which rises to al»out
lliiiiv feet aluive ihe L'eneral surface <d llu plain, and slopes on all sides to the
distance of ii hundred feet or thereabouts from the b(M'der of a larije circular
l)a>iM situati'd in its centre, and measurini; about tilty-six feet in the .ii^reatest
• lianuttr and fifty-two feel in the narr<iwest. In ihe middle of this b.asin,
forininsi '>^>^ it were a i;ii,'aiitic finmel, there is a pipe or lube, which at its open-
iiii,' in the basin is eiiihteen i>v sixteen feet in diunieler, but narrows consider-
alily at a little distance from the nmuth, and then appears to be not more than
tell or twi'lve feet in diameter. It has been prol)eil to a depth (d seventy f^et,
but it is more than probable thai hidden channels ramify farther into the bow-
els of the earth. The sides of the lube are smoothly polished, ami so hard that
it is not possii)l( to strike off :i piece of it with a hammer.

(Jenerally the whole basin is fouml filled up to the brim with sea-ijrcen wa-
ter as pure as crystal, ami of a temperature (d from 1^0' to 19()\ Astonished
at the placid tran(|uiHity of the jxml, the traveller can hardly believe that he is
really standinij on the brink of the far-f-nied (Jeysir; but suddenly n subterra-
nean ihunderis he'ird, the 'ground trembles under his feet, the water in the ba-
sin Iteirins to simnu'r, and larsic bubbles of steam rise from the tube and burst
on reachinj; the sarfaee, throw in<; up small jets of spray to the heiLcht of sev-
eral feet. Kvery inst.ant he expects to witness the yrand spectacle which has
cliietly induced him to visit this northern land, but soon the basin beconu's tr.an-
<p>il as before, and the dense vapors produced by the ebidlition are wafted away
by the breeze. These smaller eruptions are reiiularlv repeated every eiLrhtv or
ninety miiuites, but frequently the traveller is obliu'ed to wait a whole day, or
even Ioniser, before he sees the whole powi-r of the (Jeysir. A detonation loml-
er than usual prece<les one of these yrand eruptions ; the water in Ihe basin is
violently agitated ; the tube boils vehenn-ntly ; and suddenly a magnificent coU
uiiiii of water, ch)thed in vapor of a daz/lin;; whiteness, shoots up into the
ir with immense impetuosity and noise to the lieiirht of seventy or eii^htv

feet.

and, radiatiii!^ at its apex, showers water and steam in every ilirecti

on.

second eruption and a third rapidly follow, ;ind after a few minutes the fairy
spectacle has ])assed away like a fanlaslie vision. The basin is now completely
dried up, and on lookinsr down into the shaft, one is astonished to see the water
al)()ut six feet from the rim, and as tramptil as in an ordinary well. After
about thirty or forty minutes it a!j;ain begins to rise, ami after a few hours
reaches the brim of the basin, whence it Hows down the slope of the mound

fH

/

«■■:.■

,

lin

" .

OTr' ■'■' I

; ' '■

|;-.;[

- ■!'

i

7t

Tin: I'OLAIl WOULD.

iiitotlic Hvita, or While Wivt-r. Soon tlicsiiltfrrriiiu'oiis lliiiinlcr, tlii' shukitijjf of
till' uroiiml, the Hiiiiiiuriti;,' aliovo the tulu', an.l tlie (.llitr |ih(>iioiiu'ii:i whicli at-
tcml eacli minor erupt ion, hc-,Mn ayaiii, to l»e folluweil hy a new jierio.! of ru>t,
un<l thus this wtihtlerful play of nature j,'oes on <lay after day, year after year,
anil eentnry after eentury. The niouml of the (Jeyxir l>ears witness to its ini*
inenxe antiijuily, as its water contains Init a minute portion of silica.

Allir the (ieysir, the most remarivalih' tountain of tiioe I'hh'ijra'an fii his is
the grc at Strokkr, (situated ahout four liundred feet from llit- former. Its tuhe,

'. f

H

lUl: >TKi>KKII.

the niarLjin of which is ahnost evcti witii the i^cneral surface, the small mound
and hasin luin;; hardly discernil>le, is fuimel-shaped, or resemlilini; the fhiwer "t
a convolvulus, having u <lepth of forty-eiirht feet, and a diameter of six feit at
the mouth, Itut contractintr, at twenty-two feet from the bottoin, to only elcvir
inches. The water stands from nine to twelve feet under the hrim, ami is ircii-
crally in violent ebullition. A short time heforo the iH'uinnini' of tliu ern]>-
tions, which aro more fre(|Uent tiian those of the (Jreat (Ieysir, an enormous
mass of steam rushes from the tube, ami is followed by a rapid succession of j( ts,
sometimes risint; to the lieiLrht of Tio or loO feet, mid ilissolvitii; into silvery
mist. A peculi.arity of the Strokkr is that it can at ;my time be piovoked to an
eruption by throwing into the orilice larLjc m.isses of pe.nt or turf; thus cliok-
inti the shaft, and jireventinij the free escape of the steam. After the lapse ot
about ten minutes, the boilint; fluid, as if indi<.'nant !it this attempt upon its
liberty, heaves up a column of mml and water, with fragments of peat, as black
as ink.

I( KL.VNI).

78

Alniiit ir)(» |t!U'<'s fidiu the (Iri'iit (ItyNir aro scvtral jhxiIs nf the most lu-iiii-
(iliillv itli'ar wattT, tiiitiiii; witli t'ViTV sliadf of tlu' jmn'sl i;i»i'ii ami liliu> tlui
f iiita^4tit'al foriiis of tlio Nilirioiis tnivi-rtiii wliicli clotlics t)u<ir h'iAvh, TIk' Hiiirlit-
*.'>«t iiiKtioii t'()iniiiiiiiii-at(M| to tlic Mirtari> iiuivfi'" dowii to tin* liottoni of tlicsu
crv*t!.l L.'i'"tt<u"<, ami imparts what iniijlit ln' calltil a s\ iiipatlhtir tritmirnf tlii'
watt r til t'\«ry tUlicalc imiiistation ami |>laiit-liki' tlllnrcHCiiur. " Alaildiii'H
('a\i' cDiiltl not !i4> iiiort' bfaiilit'iil," nays I'l-cyrr ; ami .Mr. Ilollaml riiiiarks that
iii'itlur <lf.scri|itioii nor «lra\vin<{ is caiialtU-of ^nvini; ik siitlicicnt idi'U of thu Niii.
<_'iil ii'ity and lovi'lincss nf this spot. In many places it is dan'^noiis to approat-li
within St Vfial fi'i't of the inarijin, as thi- I'ailli ovcriianLjs tiie- wattT, and is ho|.
Iiiw undi'incath, Niippoitid only by incrustations wcarccly u foot thick. A
plim'.'c into waters of ahoiit 'Jiio" woiiM Itc piiying rather t(;u dearly for the
contemplation of their fairy-like beauty.

im'

I

r,0

»' (I

m

tNTKANU: io Till-; AI.M.\NNAaJA.

The jrlc^atitic chasm of tlie AIniannairj.'i is auotlior of the volcanic wonders
or Iceland. After a lontj ami tedious ride over the vast lava-plain wliicli extends
httwccn the Skalafell and the lake (»f Tliini;valla, the traveller suddenly finds
himself arrested in his path by t.i ajipareiitly insurmountable obstacle, for the

74

TMi: POI.AU WOKLI).

I'linnnoiH AlmMiiiwiirjii, or Alliniii's llifl. suililciily ju'iipcs iHiu-ath liis ft-i-t — ;i
coliissal rt'iit I'Mciiiliiii; :il)()V(> :i tnilf in ItiiLitli, and iiicloHcil on liotli s'uU'n hy
aliiiijit walls of Itlack lava, frt'ijiitiitly ii|i\vanl of a liumlrcii fii-t liij^li, and kcji-
aialril fr. h, MlHMit liflv to m;v iitv fcit Ironi cacli oilier.

Tin; MMWNM.JA.

A <on<s|ionilinL,' cliasni, lnil of inftrior (liiii(ii«ion>i, tlic Ffrafnairja, or l!,i-
V«'Ii'h !{ifl, o|u UN it.* lilack raiii|iar> lo the la-l, alioiit ti^'l:! miles farllier on;
and iiolh fiii'iii llie lioundaries of the venlant jilain of Tliiimvalla, wliicli liy a
^'I'and eon\nNion of nature lias itself heen .»liattei°ed into innniiieialile Miiall
jiaialiel e"e\ iees and li>siM'es lifty or sixty fet f deep.

nf tlie llrafn.iuja .Mr. KosH |5n»\\iu' siiys : " .\ toilsnine ride of ei;:lit niilis
liron^ld IIS til •lie e.l'^e uf tile I'ass, wliieli ill |iniiit of niirtjed u:r:inileiir f.ir
Mir|i.i-s,.H the .\lniaiiiia'_'ja. ihoiejh ii lai-ks ilie extent and synuiietry whieh ;,'i\e

ere \v;is a tremendous i;;i|i in the earth,

the l.lller snell a lemark.alile elTeet. Ill
(>\er a liiindii d feet deep, li:iekeil and sliixei'ed into a th;>iisaiid f.lnta^tie sha|i("<;
the sides ;i Mii'i'es^ii)|i nt the \\ ildes* .'leeidellts; the holtolll a eh;ios of liroki'U
lava. ;ill tossed aSoiit in the most terrilie ennfnsion. It is not. lio\ve\er, liie e\-

traonlinarv de- nation of il

I'' MT.ie

that

eoiisiitiites Its iii'iiieiiial interes

t. Tl,

resistle-'- |io«e

. hieh had rent the i.rreat la\.i-l»ei| asunder, as if touched wiili

jiity at the ruin, li.id :iKo lluii'/ frcMii the l.olleriii'4 elifl's a causeway .aeross itr
^ap, which now t inns i!ie onl\ means of passini; o\er tlu' L^real l!r:ifMa'.:|')'
No lium.in hands emilil ha\e created s'lch a colossal work as this; the iniau'i'
nation is lus in its massive }.^randeur; ami when we retlect that miles of an
iilmost impassalile country would oUifwisi; lia\i.' to he travursed in ordi-r U)

ICKLANI).

Tin: iiiiAKNAiiJA.

rcarli tlic opposiii- siiU' nf tlif <j:.i|». tlif couclusioii is

irri'sis(il)li' tliat in tlic bat-

tlf III till' tifiiiiiits Nature

ill! Iiail a kiiitliv rfini'mlirancu of man.

or l{:i-

iicr 111! ;

:i

(' hUllU

it nult'S

ciir

l:ir

•)i L'isi

til

If ciirtM

hnikiB

Tin; UN iitu> itDi K.

70

THE POLAR WORLD.

"Five or six miles Iteyoiid tlie Ilrafnnjjtja, near the summit of a dividing
ridf^e, we eame upon a very singular volcanic formation, called the Tintron.
It stands, a little to the right of the trail, on a rise of scoria and tnirnt earth,
from which jt juts u|) in rugged relief to the height of twenty or thirty feet.
This is, strictly speaking, a huge clinker, not unlike what comes out of a grate
^haid, glassy in spots, and scraggy all over. The top part is shaped like a
sliell ; in the centre is a hole about three feel, in diaujeter, which opens into a
vast Kuhterranean cavity of unknown depth. Whether the Tintron is an ex-
tinct crater, through which fires shot out of the earth in by-gone times, or an
is(>late<l mass of lava, whirled through the air out of some distiuit volcano, is
a (pustion that geologists must determine. Tho prolial/ilily is that it is one
of those natural curiosities so common b.i Iceland whiJi defy research. The
whole country is ftdl of anomalies — hogs where cue would L'Xjx'ct to liml dry
land, and parched deserts where it would Mot seem strange to see hogs; fire
where water ought to he, and water in tlie jilace of fire."

"Ages ago," says Lord Dufferin, " sonu> vast commotion shook the foun-
dations of the island ; and huhlding up f.om sourcfs far away amid the inland
hills, a iicry <leluge must have rushed down between tluir ri.lges, until, esca-
jiing from the narrower gorgi's, it found space to spread itself info one broad
sliict of molten stone over an entire district of country, reducing its varied
surface to one vast blackened level. One of two things then occiirreil : either,

the vitrified mass contracting as it
cooled, tin; centre area of fifty square
miles (the pres'iit plain of Tlii'igvitlhi)
burst asjuider at either side from thi
ailjoining iilateau,an<l sinking ilown to
its present level, left two parallel gjas,
or chasms, which form itslateran)oun>!-
nries, to nii'.fk the limits of the disruption ; or else, while the pith or marrow <f
the lava was Btill in a fluid state, its upper surface became solid, and formed a

vm:.. ok this oxeiu.v.

ICELAND.

77

roof, bc'iieatli wliicli the molten stream flowed on to lower levels, leaving a vast
cavern into wliich the upper erust siihsecpteMtly phiinped down." In the lapse
of years, the l»ottoin of the Alinaniiai,'ja lias heeonie gratiiially filled np to an
even surface, covereil with tlie most heautiful turf, except where the river
Oxcraa, Iioundinj^ in a mai^'niliciiit cataract from tht! hi<,'her plateau over the
precipice, flows for a certain distance hetween its walls. At the foot of the
fall tlie waters lini^er for a .noinenl in a dark, deep, hrimmini; jiool, hemmed
ill l»y a circle of ruined rocks, in which anciently all women convicted of
capital criincs were immedialely drowned. Many a poor crone, accusid of
witchcraft, has thus eii<led her days in the Almannajrja. As may easily he im-
agined, it is rather a nerve-trying task to descend into the chasm over a riiiri;e<l
lava-sliipc, where the least false step may prove fatal ; hut the Icelandic hmses
arc so sure-footcil that tlu'y can safely he trusted. Kroiu the hottom it is
easy t<> distiinxuish on the one face marks and formations exactly eorrespond-
iiii.'. thoiiLtli at a (lifferent level, with those on the face opposite, and evidently
sliowintt th.at they once had dovetailed into each other, before the igneou.s
mass was rent as\;iider.

Two leaj,nies from KalmanstuiiLra, in an immense hva-field, which probably
ori;/mated in the l>ald .litknl, .are situated tlie reiKiwned Surts-hellir, or caves
of Surtur, the prince of darkness and fire of tlii! ancient Scandiiia\ian mytholo-
}:y. The principal entrance to the caves is an extensive chasm formed by the
fallini,' in of a |)art of the lava-ioof ; so th.at, on desceiuliui,' into it, the visitor
finds liiniself riiiht in the mouth of the main cavern, which runs in an almost
Hfraiylit line, and is. nearly a mile in length. Its averacje heiiiht is about forty,
and its breadth fifty feet. The lava-crust which forms its roof is abiuit twel\e
fiet thick, !in<l has the appear.ance of beinuj stratitied and columnar, like bas.-iltic
pillars, in its formation. 31any of the blocks of lava thus formed havt! become
(Utiiched and fallen into the cavern, where they lie piled up in great heaps, ami
heavily tax the ])atieiico of the traveller, who has to scramble ov.-r the ruL't,'etl
stmies, and can hardly avoid slipping and stumbling into the holes between
lilt 111, varied by pools of water and masses of snow. Jbit after having toiled
iind plodded to the extremity of this dismal cavern, his perseverance is amply
rewarded by the sight of an ice-grotto, whose fairy beauty a|»peais still more
clianiiing, in contrast with its gloomy vestibule. From the eryst.al floor rises
group altei grnu|) of transparent pillars tapering to a point, while from the
loot biilliant icy peiid.ants hang down to meet them. Columns .and arches of
ice ,iie ranged .along the crystalline walls, and the light of the candles isretlect-
t'i I ack a hiindreil-lold from every siile. till the whole cavern shines with .aston-
i-liiiig lustre. Mr. Holland, the latest visitor of the Sitrls-iieilir, decl.ares he
iu\ir saw a more brilliant spectacle; .and the (lermaii n.aturalist, I'reyer, pro-
iwiinices it one of the most magniliceiit sights in nature, reinimling him of the
fairy gro.toes of the .Arabian Nights' Tales.

I'Voin the mountains and the vast ])lateau which occupies the centre of the
i"l iiitl, ninnerous ri\ers descend on all sides, wliii-h, fed in summer by the melf-
iiiu' ula<'iei's, jiour eiiornions (|uantitics of turbid w;it«'r into the sea, (»r convert
large alluvial flat.4 into iuora»bcs. Though of u considerable breadth, their

I

■"i\

V.

If

'

'

78

THE POLAR WORLD.

ri

il li

I

coufe is frt'fj\iontly very sliort, parlictilarly along tlio southern coast, wliore
the jokuls fii>in which ihcy 'lorive their hirtli arc only separated fi'oni the
sea hy a narrow forelanil. In their impetuous flow, tliey not sel(h)tn hear iiui,'e
liloeks of stone along witlj them, and cut off all communication between the
inliabitants of their opposite banks.

The chief rive s of Iceland are, in the south, the Thiorsa and the Ilvita,
which are not infenor in widtn to the Uhine in the middle ])art of its course;
i/i the north, the Skjalfandafljot and the JiJknlsa and the Jokulsa i Axartirdi,
large and rapiil streams above a hundred miles long; and in the east the La-
garfliot. As may bo expected in a mountainous country, containing n.aiiy
glacier-fe<l rivers, Iceland has ni.merous cascades, many of them rivalling or
sin'p;;ssing in beauty the far-famed fails of Switzerland.

One of the most celebrated of these gems of nature is the (loda-foss, in tiic
northern l)art of the island, formed by l\\v deep and rapid Skjalfaiitlatl jot, as it
rushes with, a deafening roar over rocks fifty feet high into the caldron lielow :
biit it is far surpassed in niagnilicencd by the Dettifoss, a fall of the .Fukulsa i
Axariirdi.

"In some of old earth's con> ulsions," says its disrovrrcr^'Mr.iionU], — for
from its remote situation, deep iii the northrrn wilils of Iceland, it had escaped
the curious eye of previous travellers — " the crust of rock has been rent, .uui a
frightful 11 sure formed in the basalt, about 200 feet deep, with the sides co-
lunmar and ]»erpendicular. The gash terminates abruptly at an acute a igle,
nnd at this spot the great river rolls in. The wreaths of water swu'ping
down ; till' frenzy of the confined streams wliere they meet, shooting into each
other from either side at the apex of an angle; the wild r('!)omul when they
Btrike a head of rock, lurching iL half way down ; the fitful gleam of battling
torrents, obtained through a veil of edilying vapor; the (Jeysir-spouts which
blow tip about seventy feet from lioles whence basaltic columns have been shot
bv the force of the descending water; the bhjsis of spray which rush upward
and burst into (ierce showers on the brink, feeding rills whirh plunge over the
edge as so(»n as th:'y are born; the white writhing vortex bchtw, with now ami
then an ice-green wave tearing through the foam to lash against the walls; tlie
thunder and bellowing of the water, which make the rock shudder under foot,
are all stamped on my mind with a vividness which it will take years to efface.
Tie Almannagja is nothing to this chasm, and Schaffhauseii is dwarfed by
Del ti loss."

The ocean-currents which w.isli tlio coasts of Iceland from opposite direc-
tions have a considerable influence on its climate. The south and west coiisis,
fronting the Atlantic, and exposed to the Ciulf Stream, remain ice-free even in
winter, and enjoy a comparatively mild temperature, while the cold I'olar cm-
rent, flowing in a south-western dii-ection from Spitzbergen to Jan Mayeii and
Iceland, conveys almost every year to the eastern and northern shores of llic
island l.arge masses of drift-ice, which sometimes do not disappear before July
or even August. .According to Dr. Thorstensen, the mean annual temperature
of the air at lieykjavik is +40", and that of the sea -f-42°, while according to
Ilerr yon Scheele the mean annual temperature at Akurcyre, on the north coast,

ICELAND.

i-i iiiilv +'J3", thoiiixh t'vcn tliis siiows a comparatively mild dimato in so liiijh
.1 iiilitiiile. Hut if ic't'laiid, llianks to its insular positiou and to the iiitliK'nco
of tlif <-»ulf Stream, remains fric from tlie excessive .rinter cold of the Arctic
cunliiients, its summer, on the otlier hand, is inferior in warmth to that which
rii'_'iis ill the interior of Silteria, or "f tlie Hudson's IJay territories.

Thi' iiieaii summer temperature at Iteykjavik is not ahove •f/i4^; durinij
iiianv years the thermometer never rises a single time ahove +W' ; sometimes
even its maximum is not higher than +'>!•'; and, on the northern coast, snow
not seliloni falls even in the middle of smmner. Under such circumstances, the
cultivation of the corcals is of course im|»ossi')le ; and when the drift-ice re-
mains longer than usual on the northern coasts, it prevents even the growth of
the t,'rass, and want and famine are the conse(|uence.

The Icelatiilic summer is characterized l)y constant chanr^es in the weather,
rain contiiiually alti'rnating with sunshine, as with us in April. The air is hut
seldom fraiKpiil, and storms of terrific violence are of frecpient occurrence.
Towards the end of Se])tenilier winter hegins, preceded by mists, which finally
tlcscend in thick masses of snow. Travelling over the mountain-trai'ks is at
this time partii I'J.irly diiiigeroiis, although cairns or |tiles of stone serve to
point out the way, ami here and there, as over the pas.scsof the Alps, small huts
have heeii erected to serve as a refuge for the traveller.

In former times Iceland could hoast of forests, so that houses and even sliips
used to he Wuilt of iiidigc:: us tiinher; at present it is almost entirely destitute
of trees, for the dwarf shrublieiies here and there met with, where the hircli
hardly attains the height of twenty feet, are not to be dignified with the name
of woods. A service-tree (Sarfn/s (iticnparid) fourteen fct high, and measur-
ing three inches in <liameter at the foot, is the boasi of the governor's garden
at ikcykjavik ; it is, however, surpasseil by another at Akureyre, which sjirea<ls
a full crown twenty feet from the ground, but never sees its clusters of berries
ripen into scarlet.

The damp and cool Icelandic summer, though it prevents the successful cul-
tivation of corn, is favorable to ilie growth of grassi's, so that in .'<>nie of the
better farms the pasture-grounds are hardly inferior to the finest m -adows in
England. About one-third of the sin-face of the eo-ntry is covered with vege-
tation of some sort or other fit for the nourishment of cattle; but, as yet, art
li;is done little for its improvement — ploughing, sowing, drainage, and levelling
heiiig things undreamt of. Willi the exception of the grasses, which are of
paratnount importance, and the trees, which, in spite of their stunted ]iropor-
lioiis, are of great value, as they supply the islanders with the charcoal needed
for shoeing their horses, few of the indigenous plants of Iceland are of .any use
t'l ..lan. The A/it/dlat arvh(i)hjilii-ii is eaten raw with butter; the niatt<'(l
roots or stems ol the Jfiiii/tiiif/icn trt'/olidta serve to protect the backs <»f the
horses against the rubbing of the saddle; and the Icelandic moss, which is fre-
(puntly boiled in milk, is likewise an article of exportation. The want oi bet-
ter grain freipiently compels the poor islanders to bake a kind of brea<l from
the seeds of the sand-reetl {J'Jl>/mi(s <n'(H(irii(s), which on our dunes are merely
picked by the birds of i)a8sage ; and the oarwecd or tangle {Laminariu sac-

1

\\m

60

THE POLAR WORLD.

I I

': 1

11) i

r!

cfutriiKi) is pri/cd as a vegetable in a land wlicrc potatoes and turnips are but
rarely eiiltivatcd.

Wlu'ii tlie first settlers eamo to Iceland, they found but two indiijenous
land-(|ua(lrMpe(ls: a species of lidd-vole (.Irrico/a <econoiuus) and the Arctic
fox ; lull till' seas and shores were int doubt tenanted by :i larger number of
whales, (hilphins, and seals than at tlie present day.

The ox, the sheep, and the horse wliich accompanied the Xorse colonists to
tlieir new home, f(irm the stapli- wealth of tlieir tlescendants; for the number
of those who live l»y breedinij cattli! is as three to one, compared with those
who cliictly depend on the sea for their sul)sistence. Milk and whey are almost
the only beveniges of the Icelanders. Without butter they will eat no fish;
and curdled milk, which they eat fre.«ii in summer .and preserve i.i a sour state
during llie winter is their favorite re|)ast. Thus they set the highest value on
their cattle, and tend them with the greatest care. In the prese^vatioti of their
sheep, they are much hampered by the badness of the climate, by the scantiness
of winter food, and by the attacks of the eagles, the ravens, !unl tlie foxes, more
p.articularly at the lambing season, when vast numlters of the young animals
are carried off by all of them. Tlie wool is not sheared off, but torn from the
animal's l);uk, imd woven by the pe.as.'intry, during the long winter evenings, into
a kiml of co.arse doth, or knit into gloves and stockings, which form one of the
chief articles of export.

" Whilt at breakfast," s:iys]\Ir. Shepherd, " we witnessed the Icelandic nulh-
od of sheep-shearing. Three or <" ar powi'rfid young women seized, and easily
threw on their backs the struggling victims. The legs were then tied, and the
wool pulled off by main force. It seemed, fi'om the contortions of some of the
wretched animals, to be a cruel nuthod ; but we were told that there is a period
in the year when the young wool, beginning to grow, pushes the old out before
it, so that the ohl coat is easily j)Mlle(l out." The number of heads of cattle in
the island is about 4(t.()()0, th.-it of the sheep 5(M),()00.

Till' horses, which number from 50,000 to 00,000, though small, are very to-
bust and hardy. Tiiere being no wheel carriages on the island, they are mere-
ly usi'd for riding and ;is beasts of burden. Their services are indispensjililc,
iis without them the Icelanilers wotd<l not have the means of travelling and ear-
ring their proiliice tt> the fishing villaires or ports at which the animal sup])lies
arrive from Copenhagen. In winter the poor animals must tind their own food.
and arc conse(piently mere skeletons in spring; they, however, soon recover in
Hummer, though even then they have nothing whatever but the grass and small
plants which they can ])ick up on the hills.

The dogs are very similar to those of Lapland and Greenland. Like them,
they have long hair, forming a kind of coll.ar round the neck, a ])ointed nose,
pointed ears, and an elevated curled tail, with a temper wiiich maybe charac-
terized as restless ami irritable. Their general color is white.

In the yeiir ITTO thirteen reindeer were bro.ight from Xorway. Ten of
them died during the passage, but the three that survived have nndtiplied ho
fast that Large herds now roam over the uninhabited wastes. During the win-
ter, when hunger drives them into the lower districts, they are frequently shot:

ICELAND.

01

-*^-

ICKI.ANUIC aOKSliS.

)l't<lll'
t.tle in

i)ut DO Mttcmpis li.'xvc hoon made fo latiio tlicm : for, thoii^li iiidispoiisaUL' to the
I,;i|ilaii(UT, tlu'V arc tiuite sM|R'rHiii>iis in Iceland, which is too rui^Ljcd and too
iiiiuli intersected hy streams to admit of siedixinij. They are, in fact, ujc'icrally
ciiii-idcrcd as a nuisance, as they eat away tiie IcehuitUc moss, wliicii liio ishuid-
eis wmiM willin'j:ly keep for tlieir own use.

The I'olar l)ear is hut a casual visitor in Icelaml. Alxmt a dozen porno

driltin'' everv vear with the ice ironi Jan Mavei

1, o

r Spi

t/1

)eri:en, to tlie noi'tli-

ein shores. Kavenous witli hunger, tlu'y immediately attack the lirst herds
they meet witli ; hut tlieir ravaijes do not last long, for the neighborhood, aris-

ing 111 arms, >ioon puts an end

to tl

leir o.\ist<'iice,

111 Iceland the ornitliologist (iiids a rich Held for his favorite study, as th"rc'
are no less than eighty-two diff<'rent species of indigenous hirds, besides twenty*

one

that

ire onlv casual \isitcirs, and six that have been introdneetl by man

oi\3

The swampy groimds in the interior of the country are peopled with leLri
I'f golden ;ind king plover*;, of snipes and red-shanks; the lakes al)ounil with
swans, ducks, an<l geese of various kinds; the snow-bunting enlivens the soli-

am

1, wherever irrass <;iows.

tnde of the rocky wilderness with his lively noti
the conunoii pipit {Anthns pratcnsis) builds its neat little iiost, well liiieil with
horsehair. Like the lark, he visi's singing from the ground, and freipiently
pri:;es the traveller with his melodious warbling, which sounds doubly sweet
in the lifeless waste.

SUV

The eider-duck holds the first rank among the useful birds of Iceland. Its
chief breeding-places are small flat islands on various parts of the coast, where
il is safe from the attacks of the Arctic fox, such as Akurey, Flatey, and Videy,

sa

TIIK I'OLAU VVOIM.I).

wJiicli, frntii Its vicinity to IJt ykjavik, is fr(<|iicntly visitcl l>y IravcIIcrH. All
tlu'sc l»roc(liii;,'-i>l!U'iM arc privati' |iii>|icrly, aixl several liavu Ijifii for ftiitinicH

''■A

f

ill llic possession (if tlie same families, wliicii, lliaiiks totln' Itinls, are amoiiLT il:''
wealfliiest of tlie land. It ii\ay easily lie imau'ineil that the eider-ilncks art
guank'd with tho inoHt sfduluus care. AVhoevcr kills oiiu is obliged to pay a

i

are in
\'idev

•

wliose

till 111 !.

liii'iN ;,
ill a III
nioviii!
(Iii'ii I.,
Ii;i-* rec
rill., lu

<l»ll St(
IhI' I|ss

tlic.l,.!
" .IN fre
.'iikI s(.,.
tiirlii'i
Mr.

■. Ilic h,,,

*y "'.'l'^ a|.[
■ I lii':irt||.
•'''-'■liiisi

I'll!' sli,,

.■III! llici
Itlnuii

nuiUv 1,1

llic llot.

Ml;' sill. I
jiiM ah,

llufkii,...
"Ill.sn ;,

lusts ill.

'Ill' sl|(i|-,

H:itcr al.
"ith hnu

1( KI.ANI).

f\

r/i

koIl'J

Id V

llic
lire
IV a

. i.-.5 ,

n

• !i

84

Tllli I'OLAU NVOUI-I).

^

;r

i t

cordinlly wclcomcil liy its iiiistrcss. 'Hit' Ihiiim- ii^lf was n prciit tnarxcl,
Tilt' (.'uillu'i'ii wall that mm r<imiiit'<l it iiimI tlui \siiii|ii\v ftiilnMMircs wvvv )»tii-
|)iiMl liy iliicks. Oil (III- •^rnmiiil, till! Iioiiso was fi iii<ri'il wiili diicks. On tlio
turf sliipt s of ilir I'K.f Wf foiild Bci' (lucks ; aii<l a duck Hat in ilic scia|K'r.

" A fiia.ssy hank iIum- liy had Itccii cut iiiti) K<|uart.' patcln's like a rlicsH-
lioai'd (a siiiiaic n| tiiif of ahoiil «ii.'hlc(ii iiiclics liciiiir n iiiumiI, and a IniUdW

niai

I.').

all wt'i

<■ iiiicd with ducks. A >\iM(liniil was inlistrd, ami

Ml Were

all till- oiiiliDUscs, niuiinds, nicks, and crevices. The ducks wcrt.' cvervwlici'i

Many <if them were mi tanic thai we cdiild ^tniki' tlieni nw theii iiesi«

d th

^niid lady tnid us that, there was .scarcely a duck mi the isl.ind which wmild
iKil alliiw her III take its v<^>^h witlmul tliifhl or fear. \\'lieii she jirsi ticcanie
jiosscssor of the i>l;ind, the |ir(Hluci) of down from the ducks was not more
tlian lifteeii |ioiinds' weight in the year, hut, under her careful nurture of tW( iilv
ytiars, it had rixii to nearly one hundnd |>oiiiidN aiiiiually. It r(.|iiircs ahoiil
one |ioiiiid an<l a half to make a coverlel for a sin^de hed, and the down is
Wiirlli from twdve to lifte< n .>-hiirniL;s per |ioiind. Most of the i l'l's are taken
und jiickled lor winter coii.>.Mm|ition, one or two only heiie,' hfi to h.aich."

'I'hoiiLih Hot Ml importanl as tlu; cider, the other meiidiers of the duck
family which duriiii,' the summer season enliven the lakes ami swaiii|iH of I.e.
land are vi'i'y ser\iceal>le. On the .Myvalii.or (Iiial I,ake, one <if their chief
places of resort, the v<X'_'s of the lon<j;-tailed duck, the w ild duck, the scoter, the
eoluiiioii LToosander, the reddireasted iiicrLraiiscr, the .si-;iup-(|iick, etc.. and other
iuiseriiu's ai'e carefully LT.'ithered and preserved in eiioriiious (ju.'intilics for llic
winter, closely packed in a line erray volcanic sand.

'I'he wild swan is fre<|Ueiitly shot or caui:ht for hi^ f"alhers, which liriiii; in
many a doll.ir to tlic fortunate huntsman. This noMe hird freijiients liotli llic
Halt an<l I i'acki->h waters aloiii; the coast and the inland lakes and rivers, where

it is .sei'ii cither in sini^le pairs or I'on

'ri"_'ated in lai'irc llork

'I'o liiiild its

IK'Sl, w

hici

I IS sail

I to reseinhle closelv that of the llamiii'_'". Ixini; a lar;.

mound, coniposcil of iniirl, ru-hes, i^rass, and .'■tones, with a easily at toji liiuil
with Mift down, it rclir<s to some solit.'iry, uninhaliited spot. Much h.'is liecii
Kaid in ancient times of the sin'_'in'i of the swan, ;ind the hciiiity of its d\iii^'
notis ; hut, ill truth, the voice of the swan is very loud, >lirill. :iml h.-ir.sh, tlioii','!!
when liiixh in ih

:iir,

and niodnl.itcd liy the winds, the note or whoop of

!lll

lih

nssenilila''e o

-f ll

icii. I -i no

t iiiipl

e;isanl to the car.

It h

IS n peculiar cli.irni iii

flic uiifrei|uen'ed w.'istcs of Iceland, whei'i' it :i'_'reealily interrupts the piofounl
silence that reigns ar<iun<l.

The f.'iveii, one of the cuiimoiie^t laiicl-liirds in Iceland, is an ohject of avw-
ri n ^o the islanders, as it i.ot only :.ei/es on their yoiin:_'himlis and cider-duel <,
Iml also commils <_'re;if depri'd.-ilions anioii',' the fishes l.iid out to dry upon il.c
.shore, poles to w hicli dead ravens !ire attached, to serve as a warniuLC to il.c
livintj, arc freipieiilly seen in the meadows; ;uid the Icel.inder is never no h.-ip-

lo eihV

py as when he has succ{'ed< .1 in sliootiie^ ;i r.iveii. This, however, is i

task.

as no

hird

IS more cautious, ami its eyes ,'ire as sharp as tlioscot tlieea'_"i'

th

)f th

Of all Icelandic hirds, the nneii hreeds the caiTiesf. layini; ali'iut the middle ef
March its live or ^'.\ pali'-grcen eggs, spotted with hruwn, in the inacccssihle

I( KI-.\NI>.

85

cicvici'ii of rocks. Tfuvanln tlio rii(| of Juiw, I'ri-vcr hiwv

nj.iiiy yoiiiijj nivcim

grown to a pinil ni/c, ami Imt littk- infi'i'ior to tlic old mu's in ciintiiiii;.

Ill tlic ulodiiiy Scainliiiav iaii iiiyllmloiry the tavtii (u < iipits a tank i'i|iial tii
that (if the lau'lr in the iiiinv liucilnl faliUs <if ancitiit < Jiitcc. It was didi-
calnl til Oiliti, w III), as tlic tratlitional history of Icc'laml inforiiis u^. Iiad two
ravi'iis, wliii-li wore Ul lunsu wiTV nnMiiiiiL; to j»atlii'r tiilin;;s t)f what was pi-
iii.r oil in tlic worjil, ami w liidi on rtturniiiL; in tin* t-vinin^; iicichcil n|ii>ii < )irnrs
.sliDiililiis to wlii><|iir the iii'Ws in his car ; the iianii' of om- was //"////», or

spirit ; of the otliir, .1/*/

///(/(, or iiii'iiior\',

I-

Mil how many sii|K'rslitioiis no-

tiniis ri'inain atlai'litil to the ravin ; fnr the IcclaiiiU'i's lu'liivr this liinl to he
ii>it only a('(|iiaintri| with what is ;L;<'in;^' on at a distamt', lint aixi with what ih
til ii.'i|<|i('n in future, and arc lonvinccd that it foretells when any of the family
i- ;il.iiui to die, liy |iercliiii'4 on the roof of the hoii'^c, or « lieelinu' round in tlio
air with a ciintinnal cry, varying its voIcl' in a Hlii<;nlar and imlodioiis nianncr.
'I'lic white l.illed sca-eau'lc is not uiicoininon in Iceland, w iiere he stands in
('\il rc|iiitc as a Kidna|i|icr of laiidis and eider-ducks, lie is soimtitncs found
(lead in the nets of (he lisheriiicn ; for, |ioiincin!4 ii|iiin a li.'iddock or salinnn, he
Jilts eiitaiiu'led in the ineslies, !iiid is iinalile to e.Miicate hiiiisi If. The skins (it
llic i>ii'd, which seems to .-ilt.iin a lart;cr si/.e than in (ireat Iti itain, imiNt likely
fmiM heini; less di«.tnrl»ed hy man, art- sold at Kevkjavik and Akiireyie for fr
three to six rix-dollars.

OKI

The jyrfal' '11 {Fulrn f/i/rf<il<;,), rrvucriiWy
considered as tlic boldest and most lieaiiti-
fnl of the falcon tribe, has its head-i|narterM
in Ici'laml. As Ioiilt as the iioKIe sport of

fah.

onrv w

as in fashion, for which it wa.s

hiiihly esteeiiU'd, the trade in falcons WUH
worth from "Jnoo to aooo rix-dolhirs anniially
t(» the isl.anders, and even now liisjli jirices
are |>aid for it liy Kn'_dish amatenrs.

The rarest bird of Iceland, if not entirely
extinct, is the <;iaiit-ank, or (leirfn^l. Tho
last |iair was caii'^ht about sevcntei'ii years

■■I'jro near the ( !eii

fii-d:

Iskeis, ;i u'l'ono o

f sol-

THE JVBfAI.CON.

itary rocks to the south of tin.' Westm.an
Isles, its only known habitat besides soino
similar cliffs on the north-eastern coast.
Since that time it is said to have lieen seen

bv

some fishermen ; but this testimony is extremely doubtful, and the (|iiesti(

in

)f its

existence can oiilv be solved bv a visit to the (ieirfn-'laskers themselves

—an niidertakiniLj which, if practicable at all, is attended with extreme dilli<'nlty

iiiiil d;

ni!,'er, as these rocks arc ('ompletely isolated in the sea, which even in
<"ilin Weather breaks with such violence a<,'ainst tln-ir .abrnpt declivities tin

It

iiir v(

ars It ninst be alisolutely impossible to approach them.

In iHfiS two Kiiiflish natnralists dote

rmined at least to m.ake tho attempt,

iind (settled for a season in a small hamlet on tiic neiLiliboriii!, coast, cajior to

I,

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IMAGE EVALUATBON
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

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Photographic

Sciences
Corporation

23 WEST MAIN STREET

WEBSTER, NY. 14580

(7J6) 872-4503

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88

THE POLAR WORLD.

TUE OIANT-AUK.

ii,'

seize the first opportunity for storming the Geirfugl's stronglioM. They wait-
ed for several months, but in vain, ihe stormy summer being more than usually
unfavorable for their undertaking ; and they were equally unsuccessful in the
north, whither they had sent an Icelandic student specially instructed for tlio
purpose. The giant-auk is three feet high, and has a black bill four inches and
a quarter long, both mandibles being crossed obliquely with several ridges and
furrows. Its wiisgs are mere stumps, like those of the Antarctic penguins.
Thirty pounds have been paid for its egg, which is larger than that of any
other European bird; and there is no knowing the price the Zoological Society
would p.ay for a live bird, if this truly " rara avis " couhl still be fouiul.

The waters of Iceland abound with excellent fish, which not only sup]>ly the
islanders with a great part of their food and furnish them with one of their
chief articVs of exportation, but .also attract a number of foreign seamen.
Thus about 300 French, Dutch, and Belgian fishing-sloops, manned with crews
amounting in all to 7000 men, annually nuxke their appearance on the southern
and western coasts of Iceland, particularly those of the Guldhringe Syssel, or
gold-bringing country: thus named, not from any evidence of the precious
metal, but from the golden cod-harvests reaped on its shores. Between thi'ty
and forty English fishing-smacks yearly visit the northern coast. When they
have obtained a good cargo they run to Shetland to discharge it, and return
again for more.

The Icelandic fishing-season, which begins in February and ends in Juno,
occupies one-h.alf of the male inhabit.ants of the island, who come flocking to
the west, even from the remotest districts of the north and east, to partake of
the ricli harvest of the seas. !Many thus travel for more than 200 miles in the
midst cf winter, while the storm howls over the naked waste, and the pale sun
scarcely dispels for a few hours the darkness of the night. In every hut where
they tarry on the road they are welcome, and have but rarely to pay for their

ICELAND.

87

ciitfit.'iinmcnt, for hospitiility is still reckoned a duty in Iceland, On reaching
tliu <lsliing-station, an agreement is soon made with the iJroprietor of a boat.
They usually engage to assist in fishing from February 12 to May 12, and re-
ceive in return a share of the fi^h which ihey help to catch, besides forty
nouiiils of Hour and a daily allowance of sour curds, or " skier.'

All the men belonging to a boat generally live in the same damp and nar-
row liut. At daybreak they launch forth, to brave for many hours the inclem-
encies of the weather and the sea, and while engaged in their hartl day's work
tiieir sole refreslmient is the chewing of tobacco or a mouthful of skier. On
returning to their comfortless hut, their supper consists of the fishes of inferior
quality tliey may have caught, or of the heads of the cod or ling, which are too
valuable for their own consumption. These are FpUt open and hung upon lines,
or exposed on the shore to the cold wind and the hot sun ; this renders them
perfectly hard, and they keep good for years. In this dried state the cod is
called stockfish. About the middle of May the migratory fishermen return to
their homes, leaving their fish which are not yet quite dry to the care of the
fi.slienneu dwelling on the spot. Towards the middle of June, when the horses
have so far recovered from their long winter's fast as to be able to bear a load,
they come back to fetch their stockfish, which they convey either to their own
homes for the consumi)tion of their own families, or to the nearest port for the
puri)ose of bartering it against other articles. Haddocks, flatfish, and herrings
are also very abundant in the Icelandic seas ; and along the northern and north-
western coasts the basking shark is largely fished for all the summer. Strong
hooks baited with mussels or pieces of fish, and attached to chains anchored at
a short distance from the shore, serve for the capture of this monster, which is
scarcely, if at all, inferior in size to the white shark, though not nearly so for-
midable, as it rarely attacks man. The skin serves for making sandals ; the
coarse flesh is eaten by the islanders, whom necessity has taught not to be over-
nice in their food ; and the livei', the most valuable part, is stewed for the sake
of its oil.

" We had observed," says Mr. Shepherd, " that the horrible smell which in-
fested Jsa-fjordr varied in intensity as we .n))proached or receded from u cer-
tain black-looking building at the northern end of the town. On investigating
this building, we discovered that the seat of the smell was to bo found in a
mass of putrid sharks' livers, part of which were undergoing a process of stew-
ing in a huge copper. It was a noisome [;reen mass, fearful to contemplate.
The jilace was eiulurable only for a few seconds ; yet dirty-looking men stirred
up the mass with long poles, and seemed to enjoy the reeking vapors."

The salmon of Iceland, which formerly remained undisturbed by the phleg-
matic inhabitants, are now caught in large numbers for the British market. A
small river bearing the significant name of Laxaa, or Salmon lliver, has been
rented for the trifling sum of £100 a year by an English company, which sends
every spring its agents to the spot well provided wiih the best fishing appara-
tus. The captured fish are immediately boiled, and liermetically ])ackeil in tin
boxes, so that they can be eaten in London almost as fresh as if they had just-
been caught.

!/i»

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88

THE POLAR WOULD.

Tlio mineral kingdom coiitributos but little to tlio prosperity of Iceland. It
affords neitli<-'r metals, nor precious stones, nor I'ock-silt, nor coal; for llie seams
of " surturbrand," or "lignite," found hero and tliiM'e, are too unimportant to
be worked. Tlie solfataras of Krisuvik and ilnsavik, tliongli extremely inter-
estincj to tlic geologist, likewise furnisii sul|)liur in too impure a condition or
too Lliinly scattered to afford any jirospect (»f being worked with success, not
to mention the vast expense of transport over tlu.' almost imjiassable lava-tracks
that separate them from the nearest poi'ts. In l.s:iO— 10, wh"n, in conse(iuence
of the nu)nopoly granted by the Neapolitan (Jovernment lo a Fiench company,
sulphur had risen to more than three limes its usual ])ricc, ]\Fr. Knudscn, an en-
terprising Danish merchant, undertook to work the mines of Krisuvik, but even
the" it would not answer.

Ill 1850, a London company, founded '-)y Air. l>ushl)y, — who having exploreil
the sulphur districts, had raised great expectations on what lie (•onsidered their
dormant wealth, — renewed the iittemjit, but after a year's trial it was aban-
doned as perfectly hopeless. The '• solfataras of Iceland," says Professor Sar-
torius of Waltershausen, " can not compete with those of Sicily, where more
sulphur is wantonly wasteil and trodden under foot than all Iceland possesses.
While the " Xamars" of the north, which are far richer than those of Krisuvik,
annually furnish scarcely more than ten tons, the sulphur mines of Sicily pro-
duce at least 50,000, and, if necessary, could easily export double the quantity."

As coal is too expensive a fuel for any but the rich in the small sea-port
towns, and pe:it, though no doul)t al)undantly scattered over the island, is dug
only in a few places, liie majority of the ])eoi)le make use of singular substi-
tutes. The commonest is dried cow's and sheep's dung; but many a poor
fisherman lacks even this '* spicy " material, and is tain to use the bones of
animals, the skeletons of fishes or dried sea-birds, which, with a stoical con-
tempt for his olfactoiy organ; , he burns, feathers and all. There is, however,
no want of fuel in those ])rivi cged spots where drift-wood is found, .and here
the lava hearth of the islander cheerfully blazes either with the pine conveyed
to him by the kindly Polar currents from the Siberian forests, or with some
tropical trunk, wafted by the Gulf Stream ever the Atlantic to his northern
home.

HISTOllY OF ICELAND.

89

1 ,

CATUEDUAL AT REYKJAVIK.

CHAPTER VI.

HISTORY OF ICELAND.

Piscovpry of Ihc TsI.-.ikI liy Nadilodr in 8fil.— G;ir(Iar.— Floki of tlic Ravens.— TnRolfi' and Lcif.— Ulfliot
till' I,inv(;iv('r. — Tlio Altlilii:;. — Tliiiii^vall.i. — Iiitroilnciiun of Cliristiaiiity iiitotlie I>laiiil. — l''ii;iluiii;k
tlio Siixoii and Tlionvnld tlioTnivclIi'r. — Tlian^'liraml.— (mjIiIcu .\i;e of Icilanilio I.itpratnrc. — Snorri
Stiirlpson. — Tlin Llaiul siilinii s to Ilakon, Kin;; of Norway, in li.Vl. — Loii^; Sories of Calamities.— <
Great Eru|itioii of tlie Skapta Jukiil in 17tJ3. — Commercial Monopoly. — Ijetter Times in Prospect.

T^IIE Xorse vikiiiszs wci'c, .as is well known, tlie boklost of navii^ators. They
-^ possessed neither the sextant nor the compass ; tliey had neitlier cliarfs
nor chronometers to nuide them ; but trustinii solely to fortune, and to their
own indomitable courage, they fearlessly launched forth into the vast ocean.
Many of these intrepid corsairs were no doubt lost on their adventurous expe-
ditions, but frequently a favorable chance rewarded their temerity, either with
some rich booty or some more glorious discovery.

Thus in the year 80l,Naddodr, a Norwegian pirate, while sailing from his
native coast to the Ftieroe Islands, was drifted by contrary winds far to the

-n,

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THE POLAR WORLD.

■i i

j

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north. For scvcrnl d.ays no land was visible — nothing but an interminable
waste of waters ; when sudflenly the snowelad mountains of Icelaml were seen
to rise abo\e the mists of the ocean. Soon after Naddodr landed with ])art of
his crew, but discovered no traces of man i» the desert country. The vikini,'
tarried but a short time on this unpromising coast, ou which he bestowed the
appropriate name of Snowlaiul.

Three years later, Gardar, another northern freebooter, while sailing to the
Hebrides, was likewise driven by stormy weather to Iceland. He was the hist
circumnavigator of the island, which he called, after himself, Gardar's holm, or
the island of Gardar. On his return to his native port, he gave his countrymen
so flattering an account of the newly-discovered land, that Floki, a famous vi-
king, resolved to settle there. Trusting to the augury of birds, Floki took with
him three ravens to direct him on his way. Having sailed a certain distance
beyond the Faeroe Islands, ho gave liberty to one of them, which immediately
returned to the land. Proceeding onward, he loosed the second, which, after
circling for a few minutes round the ship, again settled on its cage, as if terri-
fied by the boundless exjianse of the sea. Tiie third bird, on obtaining his lib.
crty a few days later, i)roved at length a faithful pilot, and flying direct to the
north, conducted Floki to Iceland. As the sea-king entered the broad bay
which is bounded on the left by the huge Snilfells Jokul, and on the right by
the bold promontory of the Guldbringe Syssel, Faxa, one of his companions, re-
marked that a land \vith such noble features must needs be of considerable ex-
tent. To reward him for this remark, which flattered the vanity or tlie ambi-
tion of his leader, the bay was immediately named T'axa Fiord, as it is stili call-
ed to the present day. The new colonists, attracted by the abundance of iish
they found in the bay, built their huts on the borders of a small outlet, stili
bearing the name of Rafna Fiord, or the Haven's Frith ; but as they neglected
to make liay for the winto.-, the horses and cattle they had brought with them
died of want. Disappointed in his exj)cctations, Floki returned home in the sec-
ond year, and, as might naturally have been expected from an misuccessf ul settler,
gave his countrymen but a dismal account of Iceland, as he definitely named it.

Yet, in sjiite of his forbidding description, the political disturbances which
took ])lace about this time in Norway led to the final colonizati»)n of the island.
Harold Haaifager, or the Fair-haired, a Scandinavian yarl, having by violence
and a successful i)olicy reduced all his brother-yarls to subjection, first consoli-
dated their independent domains into one realm, and made himself absohue mas-
ter of tho whole country. Many of his former equals submitted to his yoke ;
but others, animated by that unconquerable love of liberty innate in men who
for many generations liave known no superior, preferred seeking a new home
across the ocean to an ignominious vassalage under the detested Harold. In-
golfr and his cousin Lcif were the first of these high-minded nobles that emi-
grated (8C9-8T0) to Iceland.

On approaching the southern coast, Tngolfr cast tho sacred ])illars belonging
to his former dwelling into the water, and vowed to establish himself on the
spot to which they should be wafted by the waves. His pious intentions were
for the time frustrated, as a sudden squall separated him from his penates, and

IlISTOUV OF ICELAND.

01

forced liim to locate himself on a noi,<?li1)oriiij» promontory, which to this day
hears tlie ni'.'iic of Inyolfrshofde. Here lie sojoimiod three years, until the fol-
lowers he had sent out in (juest of the missing pillars at length brought iiiin the
iovful news that they had been found on the beach of the present site of lleyk-
jiivik, whither, in obedience o what he supjiosed to be the divine summons, he
iiistaiitiv removed. Ingolfr's friend and relative Leif was shortly after assas-
sinated bv some Irish slaves whom he liad captured m a predato y descent on
the Hil)ernian coast. The su/viving chieftain dejilored the loss of ids kinsman,
lamenting " that so valiant a man sliould fall l)y such villains," but found conso-
lation bv killing the murderers and aimexing the lands of their victim. When,
incowise of time, he himself felt his end approaching, he reipicsted to be bur-
ied on a hill overlooking the fiord, that from that elevated site his spirit might
have a l)etter view of the land of which he was the first inhabitant.

Such are the chronicles related in the *' Landnama IJok," or " IJook of Occu-
pation," one of the earliest records of Icelandic history.

Ingolfr .and his companions were soon folhjwed by other emigrants desirous
of escaping from the tyranny of Harold Ilaarfager, who at first favored a niove-
nient tliat removed far beyoml the sea so jnany of his turbulent opponents, but
siibsecn'ciitly, alarmed at the <lrain of population, or desirous of ))rofitingby the
exodus, levied a fine of four ounces of silver on all who left liis dominions to
settle in Iceland. Yet siu-h were the .'ittractions which the island at that time
jiresiMited, that, in spite of all obstacles, i\ot half a century elapseil before all its
iiiiiabitablc parts were occupied, tiot only by Norwegians, but .ilso by settlers
from Denmark and Sweden, Scotlaiul and Iielimd.

Tile Norwegians brought with them tlieir language and idolatry, their cus-
toms and historical records, which the other colonists, but few m numbers, were
compelled to adopt. At first the udal, or free land-hohl system of their ov/n
country, w.as in vigor, but every leader of a band of emigrants being chosen, by
force of circumstances, as the acknowledged chief of the district occupied by
himself and companiotis, speedily ])aved the way for a demi-feudal system of
vassalage and subservience. Ah the arrival of new settlers rendered the ])Os-
session of the land more v.aluable, endless contests between these petty chiefs
arose for the better pastures and fisheries. To put an end to this state of an-
archy, so injurious to the commow weal, UlHiot the Wise w.as commissioned to
frame a code of laws, which the Icelanders, by a single simultaneous and peace-
ful effort, accepted as their future constitution.

Tlie island was now divided into four provinces and twelve districts. Eadi
district had its ov.mi judge, and its own poj)ular " Thing," or assembly; but tho
national will was embodied .and represented by the "Althing," or supreme
parliament of Iceland, which .annu.ally met atThingvalla,un<ler an elective preS'
ident, or "Logmathurman," the chief m.agistrate of this northern republic.

On tho banks of the river Oxeraa, wliere the rapid stream, after forming a
iiiagniiicent cascade, rushes into the lake of Thingvalla, lies the spot where, for
many a century, freemen met to debate, while despotic barbarians still reigned
over the milder regions of Europe. Isolated on ail sides by deep volcanic
chasms, which some great revolution of nature has rent in the vast lava-tl"ld

' ■■'•It'*-

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02

I; J

16,. '*^^. -^

TIIH I'cr.AU Wolthl).

TUINGVALLA, LofiliUIiO, AND A.'.MANNAGJA.

around, nml ombosoiviod in a wide circle of black proci|iitniis liills, llio situiition
of Tliinirvalla is o.vtrcmoly romantic, but the naked dark-colored rocks, and tlio
traces of subterranean fire visible on every side, iinjiart a stern nielanclioly to
the scene. The lake, the largest sheet of water ii; the island, is about thirty
miles in (urciiruference; its boundaries have undergone many changes, uspcciiil-
ly duviuur the earthquakes of the past century, when its northern maryin col-
lapsed, while the opposite one was raised. The depth of its crystal waters is
very irreat, and in its centre rise two small crater-islands, the result of some un-
known eruption. The mountains on its south bank have a pictures(]ue a])])e;u'-
ance, and lai'ijje volumes of steam issuing from several hot sources on their
sides prove that, though all be tranquil now, the volcanic tires are not extinct.
Only .'i few traces of the ancient Althing are left — three small mounds, where
sat in state the chiefs and judges of the land — for as the assembly used to i)itcii
their tents on the borders of the stream, and the deliberations were held in llic
open air, there are no imposing ruins to bear witness to a glorious past. JJut
though all architectural pomp be absent, the scene hallowed by the recollections
of a thousand years is one of deep interest to the traveller. The great features
of nature are the same as when the freemen of Iceland assembled to settle the
affairs of their little world ; but the raven now croaks where the orator appealed
to f lie reason or the passions of his audience, and the sheep of the neighboring
pastor crop undisturbed the grass of desecrated Thingvalla.

Mr. Ross Bi-owne thus describes the scene : " After a slight repast I walked
out to take a look at the Logberg, or Kock of Laws, which is situated about

■i?si

HISTORY OF ICELAND,

fiiilf a mile from the clnnrli. This is, pcrliapH, of nil tlio oltji'cts of liifitorical
!4S.s(K'i;iti(in in Iculati I, tlic most iiitiTosliiii,'. It was lu'iT the jiuli^es tricil cmIiii-
iiials, iiri'iinMiiccil ju(J'j:iii(iits, and cxci'iUod thi'ir Htcrn tlL-ereus. On ii Hniall pla-
tt:m (if lavfi, separated from the general mass hy a profoiuid al)yss on every
side, save a narrow neck barely wideenoii^di for a foothold, tlu famoii, "Thin;;"
assciiilileil ont'e a year, and, secureil fnim intrnsion in their deliberations by the
tcnilile chasm around, passed laws for the weal or woe of the people. It was
iiiilv iiccixsary to yuard the causeway by whieli they entered ; all other wides
were well protected by the oncireling moat, wliich varies from thirty to forty
feet in width, ami is half lllled with water. The total depth to the bottom,
wiiieli i> distinctly visible ihrongh the crystal pool, must be sixty or fevenly
firt. Into this vawnini^ al>yss the nnli.-ippy criminals were cast, with stones
around llirir necks, and many .1 loni^ day diil they lie beneath the water, a
<,'lKi-tlv spectacle for the crowd that peered at them over the ])re('ipice.
All was now as silent as the urave. Kiy;ht centuries liad passed, and yi't
the stranu'c scenes tlitit had taken place lierc were vividly before me. I
could imaLtine the <,^•ltherinlX crowds, the risini:; hum of V(iices; the jiause,
the shriek, and plnnu;e ,• the low murmur of hori'or, and then the stern warn-
hv^ of the l.iwifivers and the sj^radual dispersint; of the multitude. The di-
mensions of the pliiteau iire four or live hmidred feet in length by an aver-
a,'e of sixty or '.'ighty in width. The surface is now covered with a tine
co.iting of sod and grass, and furnishes good pasturage f(jr the sheep belong-
ing to the pastor."

Christianity was first preaclied in Iceland about the year OSl, by Friedrich, a
Saxon l)ishop, to Mdiom Thorwald the traveller, an Icelander, acted as inter-
preter. Tliorwald having been treated with great severity by his father, Ivo-
(Iraii, had lied to Denmark, where ho had been converted by Friedrich. He
returned with the pious bishop to his paternal home, wlu're the solemn service
of the Christians made some impression on Kodran, but still the obstinate pa-
gan could not be prevailed upon to renounce his ancient gods. " He must be-
lieve," said he, " the word of his own ]iriest, who was wont to give him excel-
lent advice.'" " Well, then," replied Thorwahl, " this venerable man whom I
have brought to thy dwelling is weak and infirm, while thy well-fed priest is
full of vigor. Wilt thou believe in the power of our (rod if the bishop drives
him hence ?" Friedrich now cast a few drops of jioly wafer on the ])riest, ■which
immediately burnt dee]) holes into his skin, so that he fled, uttering dreadful
curses. After this convincing ])roof, Kodran adopted the Cliristian faith. IJut
persuasion and miracles acted too slowly for the fiery Thorwald, who would
willingly have converted all Iceland at once with lire and sword. His sermons
were imprecations, and the least contradiction roused him to fury. Un.ablc to
hear so irascible an associate, the good bishoi) Friedrich, giving up his mission-
ary labors, returned to Saxony. As to Thorwald, his restless disposition led
him to far distant lands. He visited Greece and Syri.i, Jerusalem and Constan-
tinople, and ultimately founded a convent in Russia, where he died in the odor
of sanctity.

Soon after Thangbrand was sent by the Norwegian king, Olaf Truggcson

\ *

04

THE POLAR WORLD.

missionary to TcclarHl. His inctliod of coiivfrsioii appears to have Itocii very
liko that of Ills crru'lc prctU'cessor ; for wlilli! lie liciil tlic cross in oiu! hand, hu
grasped the swonl with tiie other. " ThanLciiraihl," says an ancient chronicU-r,
"was u passionate, unnovernahlo person, and a ijreat nianslayer, hut a i^'ood
Bcholar and clever. Ho was two years in Icelan<l, ami was the deatli of threo
men hefore he left It."

Other missionaries of a more evaiia;eli('al character took liis place, and proved
by their siici'css that mild reasonini^ is fre(pienlly a far more effectual means of
])ersiiasion than hrutal violence. They made a threat number of proselytes, and
the whole island was lunv divided into two factions ready to apjieal to the
sword for the triumph of Christ or of Odin. IJut before comin<^ to this dread-
ful extremity, the voice of reason was heard, and the contending parties agreed
to submit the (piestion to the decision of the Althing.

The assembly met, and the momentous debate was proceeding, whc". sud-
denly a loud crash of subterranean thunder was heard, and the earth shook mi-
der their feet. "Listen!" exclaimeil a follower of Odin, "and beware of the
anger of our gods: they will consume us with their fires, if we venture to <|Ues-
tion their authority." The Christian party hesitated ; but their confidence was
soon restored by the presence of mind of their chief orator, Thorgeir, who,
pointing to the lava-fields around, asked with whom the gods were angry when
these rocks wt'vv melted : ii burst of elofjuence which at once decided the (pies-
lion in favor of the Cross.

The new faith brought with it a new spirit of intellectual development, which
attained its highest splendor in the twelfth century. Classical studies were
])urMied with the utmost zeal, and learned Icelanders travelled to (Jermany and
i"'rance to extend their knowledge in the schools of Paris or Cologne. The
Icelandic bards, or scalds, were renowned throughout all Scandinavia ; they fre-
quented the courts of Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, and were everywhere
received with the highest honors.

The historians, or sagamen, of Iceland were no less renowned than its sc.ilds.
They became the annalists of the whole Scandinavian world, and the simplicity
and truth by which their works are distinguished fully justify their high repu-
tation. Among the many remarkable men who at that time graced the litera-
ture of the Arctic isle, Siimund Frode, the learned author of the " Voluspa"
(a work on the ancient Icelandic mythology) and the "Ilavamal" (a general
clironiclc of events from the beginning of the world) ; Are Thorgilson, whose
"Landnama IJok" relates with the utmost accuracy the annals of his native
land ; and Gissur, who about the year 1180 described his voyages to the distant
Orient, deserve to be particularly mentioned ; but great above all in genius and
fame was Snorri Sturleson, the Herodotus of the Xorth, whose eventful life and
tragic cn<l would well deserve to be recounted at greater length.

Gifted with the rarest talents, and chief of the most powerful family of the
island, Snorri was elected ir. 1215 to the high office of Logmatlmrman ; but dis-
gusting his sturdy countrymen by his excessive haughtin"ss, he was obliged to
retire to the court of Ilakon, king of Xorway. During tlils exile he collected
the materials for his justly celebrated " Ileimskringla, ' or Chronicle of the

:• 'i

IIISTOIIY OF ICELAND.

05

Kiii,i,'^< "f Xorway. Rt'turiiiiii,' lii-iiit' "n I'-'JlJic was ai^riiii namcil T.o^miillmr-
iiiuii ; ii'it as lie c'luU-avoriMl to pavo the way for tlu; amioxatioii of liis native
coiuitry to the Ni)r\vc'j;iaii realm, liis forcitjii iiitrii^ut'S caused a risiiij; aixaiiist
Ins aiitliority, ami ho was orx-e more e(>iii|ielleil to take refiiLje in Norway.
Ill IV he reiiia.ncil several years, until tin- triuni|ili of his own faelion allowed
him to return to his family estate; at Ueikholt, where ho was murdere<l on a
dark Se|iteml>er niL,'lit in the y»ar I'JU. Thus jiorished tho most remarkalilo
iiKin Icelaiiil ever has produced. The repnlillo itself did not Ion;,' survive his
fall; for, weary of tiie interminai)le fends of their chiefs, the people volnntarily
siiliMiitted to Ilakon in \'2.')l, ami the middle of the thirteenth century was
si!.'Maliz(;d Ity the transfer of the island to the Norwegian crown, after threo
iiuiidred and forty ye. 's of a turbulent hut j^lorious independence.

From that lime the political history of the Icelanders offirs hut little inter-
est. With their ainiex.'ition to a Kuropeati monarchy perishe(l the vij^or, rest-
lessness, ami activity which had characterized their forefathers ; and thout^h
the Altiiiuij^ still met at Thin<j;valla, the national spirit h.ad fled. It was still
further suhdued hy a lont; chain of calamities — plai^ues, famines, volcanic erup-
tions, and piratical invasions — which, followinj^ each other in rapid succession,
devastated tho land and decimateil its unfortunate inhabitants.

In \U)2 that torrihle platjue, tho inomory of which is still preserved under
the name of the " \\h\rk Death," carried off nearly two-thirds of the whole pop-
ulation, and was followed by such an inch'inent winter that nine-tenths of tho
cattle in the island died. Tho miseries of a people suffering from pestilence
and famine were aggravated by the English fishermen, who, in spite of the re-
inonstrances of tho Danish government, fro(|uented the defenseless coast in con-
siderahlo numbers, and were in fact little better than the old sea-robbers who
first colonized the island, plundering and I urning on tho main, and holding tho
wealthy inhabitants to ransom. Their predatory incursions were fre(piently re-
jieated during the seventeenth centtny, and even the distant Mediterranean sent
its Algerine pirates to add to tlio calamities of Iceland.

Tho eighteenth century was ushered in by the small-pox, Mhich carried off
sixteen thousand of the inhabitants. In the middle of the century — severe win-
ters following in rapid succession — vast numbers of cattle died, inducing a fam-
ine that again swept away ten thousand inhabitants.

Since tho first colonization of Iceland, its numerous volcanoes had frc(piently
brought ruin upon whole districts — twenty-five times had Ilecia, eleven times
Kuthigia, six times Trijlladyngja, five times Oraefa, vomited forth tlieir tor-
rents of molten stone, without counting r number of submarine volcanic explo-
sions, or where the plain was smldenly rent and flames and ashes burst out of
the earth; but the eruption of Skaptar .Tokul in 1783 was tho most frightful
visitation ever knorvn to have desolated tho island. Tho preceding winter and
sjiring had been unisually mild, and the islanders looked forward to a prosper-
ous summer; but in the beginning of June repeated tremblings of the earth,
increasing in violence from day to day, announced that the subterranean powers
that had long been slumbering under the icy mantle of ♦,he Skaptar were ready
to awake. All the neighboring peasants abandoned their huts and erected

11

till

M^

■'.' '-.1!^

I •;

II

06

Tin: P()i,.\ii woiM.i).

\ I

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I

1( Ills ill tlif o|i(ii licM, (uixioMsIy fiwiiitiii'4 tluj result of tlicso nTiiliii w.'iriiiiius.
On till' !iili, iiiiiiH'iisc |iill.'irs of Miinkc cnllccliil iivir tlic liill country lowani llic
linitli, Mini, rnlliii'4 down ill a sniitln'rly (lircctinii, covcri'il tlic wliolr iliNliicI of
Sitlia w itii (laikiM'ss. Loinl Mii)U rraiuaii (IhiikIiis loilowcil 'u rapid .succession,
and innnincralilc iirc-spoiits wiTt* hccu Icaiuiitf and tlarin;^ tlit'otmli llic dense
canopy of smoke and asiies lliiit, eiivt loped llie land. 'I'iie Ileal rau'iii'4 in llic
interior of the volcano melted eiioiinoiis masses (d' iee an<l snow, wiiic,' eausi d
tlie rivtr Skapla to rise to a piinlinious lieinlil ; liiit oii tlie lltli torrents of
firi' usin|M d tlie place (d' water, for a vast lava-stream ItreakiiiLT foilli from tlu'
inounlains, (lowed ilown in a soiitlicily direelion, until reacliiiiL; llie river, a Irc-
ineiidous eiiiillicl arosu between tlio two lioslilu elements. Tlioiiyli tlie clianial
was siv liundrtd feet ileep and two liundrid feet wide, llie lavatlood poiiriiii;
down one liery wave alter aiiollii'r into tlu' yawiiiiiir aliyss, iilliinalely craiiied
the vicloiy, and, liIockiiiLf up liie stieani, overtlowcd lis liaiiks. Crossiiiir tliu
low couiilry of Medalland, it |iourctl into a ^'reat lake, wliieli after a few days
was likew ise eoiiiplclely tilled up, and liaviiiL; divided Mito two !-treanis, the un-
t'xliaiisted torrent ai;ain poured on, overllowir.if in one direction .some ancieiil
lavalields, ami in another rocnterimjf the ehaniiel of the Skapta and leapini,'
«lown ihe hd'ly ealaract of Slapafoss. i'lil this was not all, for while one lava-
flood had chosen tlii' Skajtt.'i for ils lied, anolher, deseeiidin;; in a different direc-
tion, was working simll.'ii; ruin alon<; the hanks of the II erlisHiol. ^Vhelher
th(! same crater uave i)irtli to hoth, it is iiiipossilile to say, as even the extent
of the lavu-llow can only he measiire(l from the spot where it entered the iii-
lialiiled districts. The stream which followc^l the direction of Skapta is {-aKMi-
lated to have heeii ahoiit lifly miles in length hy twelve or fifteen at its ifreiil-
est hreadlh; that which rolled down the ilvcrlistliut, at forty miles in lengtli
l.y seven in liieadth.

Where it was inclosed between tlio prcciiiitous banks of the Skapta, the
lava is live or six hundred feet thick, hut as .soon .'is it spread out into the plain
its depth never exceeded one hundred feet. The eruptiun of s.and, .ashes,
])Hiiiice, and lava continued till the end of August, when at length tho vast siih-
lerrane.in luniiiit siihsidi'd.

J5ut its diri'ful effects were felt for a lon<r limn after, not only in ils imme-
diate vicinity, l)ut over tlio whole of Iceland, and addeil many a mournful page
to her long anmils of sorrow. Vor a whole year a dun canopy of cinder-laden
clouds hung over the unhappy island. San<l and ashes, carried to an eiiormo!:s
height into tho atmosphere, spread far ancl wide, and overwhelmed ihousands
of acres of fertile pasfur.ige. Tho Faeroes, llie Sliotlan<ls, an<l tho Orkneys
were deluged with volcanic dust which perceptibly eoiitamiiiiited even tho skies
of England and Holland. Mephitic vapors obscured tho rays of tho sun, anil
the sulphurous exh.alations tainted both the grass of the field and tho waters
of the hake, the river, and iho sea, so th.it not only the cattle died by thousands,
but the iish also perished in their poisoned element. The unhealthy air, and
the want of food — for hunger at last drove them to have recourse to uiitanned
hides ami old leather — gave rise to a disease resembling scurvy among the un-
fortunate Icelanders. The head and limbs began to swell, the bones seemed

m

IIISTOKY OF ICKLAND.

VI

tanned
lie iin-
eeiued

to Ipo distcnditi','. Urcailfnl cniiniis forccfl tlic |)!U'u'nt to strniii^o coiitortiotm,
Tlic •_'ll>n<4 loDxIli'd, tlic d('('n||i|Mis('d I)1(mmI oo/cd Ii'dUI tlic niiilllli lllld tlic uli'i'l'<
oil-* >kin, and a fi'W days of torniciif iind |irostrati<tn wito followed liy dcatli.

in many a Nt'diidi'il vale wliolu familifs w rn HWi-pt awuy, and tlioso that ts-
cuiicd tlic si'oiirp' liad liardly slrcny'li siillicitnt to limy tlu; diad.

So ■ri'cat was the ruin caused liy this one erii|ition tliat in tlu? siiort. space of
two years no less than !>;i;i(i men, I'w.Odd h(»rses, 11,101 cattle, and 11M),()()()
^|„.,.|) — (I hiryo itroportion of the wealth and |i(t[iiila''">i of the isiaiul — were
8\vi'|)t away.

After this dreailfiil catastrojilie followed a loiii; jieriod of volcanic rest, for

lie IK

xt cru|ilion of the Kyjalialla did not take place liefore IHJI. A t

wei

i'ni|ition of Kl'itlnuja occurreil in IS'J.'l, the twenty-sixth of Ilechi in lHt5— K
llimalely tlie ihirtuenth of KtitliiL'ja in Isoo. Since then there lias be

aim II

en

n]i(i^e ; liiit wlio knows what future disasters may he iirepariiiL; heneatli those
icv rid^'es and lields of snow of Skapta and his frowniiii; compeers, where no
liiiiiiaii fool has ever wandered, ov how soon they may awaken iheir dormant
tiiin

iijcrs

Iii'sides the snfferiniLjs cansi'd hy the eletneiits, the ciirso of nioiiopnly
weiLilied for many a IoiilC year upon the niiserahle Icelanders. The Danish
kiiiL's, to whom on the amaly;amation «/f the three Scandinavian monarchies the
allcLriaiicc of the people of Iceland v.as ]iassivel_\ transferred, considerefl their
poor dependency as a privati' domain, to he farmed out to the highest hidder.
Ill the Kith century the Ilansealic Towns purchased the exclusive privilejjo of
tndiiii,' with Iceland; and in l.")li4 a Danish company was favored with the
iiioiiopdly, for which it had to pay the paltry sum of 10 rix-dolhirs for each of
I the poit-i of the island.

Ill the year isuj ,i new company paid 4000 dollars for the Icelandic ino-
iio|ioly ; hut at the expiration of the contract, each of the ports were farmed out
to the hiiiliest bidder— a (inancial improvement which raiseil the revenue to
1(1,000 dollars a year, ami ultimately to '_*2,0U0. The incalculable misery pro-
duced by the eruption of the Skapla had at least the beneficial eonsequenco
that it somewhat loosened the bonds of moiioply, as it now became free to
every Danish ineichaiit to trade with the island ; but it is only since April, 1855,
tliiU the last restrictions have fallen and the jiorts of Iceland been opened to
llic iiicrcliants of all nations. It is to be hoped that the beneficial effects of
five trade will "'raduallv heal the wcuindo 'jaused bv centuries of iieirlect and
iiiistortiine; but yreat progress must be made before Iceland can attain the de-

sire

e of pi'osperity which she enjoyed in the times of her independence.

Then she had above a hundred thousand inhabitants, now she has scarcely
hiilf that number; then she had many rich and powerful families, now medioc-
rity or poverty is the universal lot; then she was renowned all over the North
as tin; seat of learning and the cradle of literature, now, were it not for her re-
markable jihysical features, no traveller would ever think of landing on her
rugged sliores.

•il'*

M»1

THE POLAU WORLD.

rilK ICKLANDKIJS.

•-,"«■;'"- "'"-ft* 4*^-'

liUYKJAVIK, THE CAIMIAI. Of ICELAND.

Sk:ilIuiU.— IJoyUjiivik.— Tlio Tair. — Tim rrafiint
an>l llio Moichaiit.— A Clcri-'viiiiin in liis ("ui"-
— II.iy-ni:il<ii\i:.— Tholc'lanilrr's lint.— Clun-.li-
os. — I'ovi'i-ly (if tin- Clrriry.— .Inii TlioilaU.'^on.
— Tlu' S.'ininary i)f KoyUjaviU.— U<-nci;ciMl Intlii-
riuv^ of 111" CI.Tiry.— Home IMiicalion. -Tlio Ico-
laiiil'i-V WiiitorV I'.vcniiiL'.— Tasto I'or I,it. ratnr-.
— Tlio l.anixiKiL'i'.— Till' I'liMic l.il'rary at Il.'.vk-

javik.— Th" r.vlaodic l.itrrary Socioty.— toolan 1!.- N,.Nv<|.aii<M-.>i. — l.oiiL-i-vity.-l.c-iirosy.— ■rraviUiii;

ill l.olaii.l. — I'or.liu- tli>- Kivrix.—Cio.ssiiiL,- ol'llio Skriilara liy :\Ir. IloUaiul —.V Ni^rlit'.s liivoiiac.

"VTKXT to TIiiiiirvalI;u tlioro is no j,I;iro in T.H'laml so n'lilclt- M'itli liistiriri'.
■^^ intiM-cst as Skalliolt, its ancient caiutal. llcn> in llic clcvcntli century was
fonndfd tlic lirst school in tlic island; licro was the scat of its lirst l)isIiop<;
luM'o floin'islicd :i succession of ureal ofators, histoi'ians, and jioets ; I.sleif, the
oldest elironicK'r of the Xorth , (iissur, m]ii> in the lie^innin-r of the twelfth
century had visited all the co intries of Knroiie and s])oke all their lano;uaircs;
the ]iliilolou-ian Taorlak ami Finnnr Johnson, the learned author of the "!->••
clesiastieal History of Icehmd." The Cathedral of Skalholt was renowned fav
and Avide for its size, and in the year llOO. I.atin, ]ioetry. inusie, and rhetoric,
the four liberal arts, were taught in its school, more than they were at that tinu'

THE IC'ELANDEHS.

00

in iiKiiiy of (he larcje Kiiropeaii cities. As :v proof liow eaily tlie study of the
niu'iciits flourished in Skalholt, we iiud it recorded that in tlie twelftli eentury
a hi>lii)p once cauLjht a sciiolar ri'adinjjj Ovid's " ^\rt of Love;" and as the story
relates tliat tiu' venerable pastor flew into a violent passion at tiie siu;ht of the
uiiliolv hook, wo may without injustice conclude that he must have read it him-
srlf in sonu' of his leisure hours, to know its character so well.

Of all its past jflories, Skalholt has retained uothiui; hut its name. The
s.hdol and the bishopric iiave \>vvn removed, t'le old ciuirch has disappeared,
Mild lici'u ri'placed by a small wooden bnildinLT, in which divine service is lield
once a month ; three cottatfes contain all the inhab'tants of the once celebrated
citv, and the extensive churchyard is the only memorial of its former impor-
tiuicc. Close by are the ruins of tiie old school-house, and on the sin)t where the
hi>lioi) resided a peasant has erected his miserable hovel.

I'mt the ever-ch.aniiinjjj tide of human affairs has not bereft the now lonely
place of its natural charms, for the nu'adow-lands of Skalholt are beautifully im-
hcddi'd in an un<biiatintx ran^e of hills, overlookinij the junctioii of the l»ruara
and Huita. and backed bv a mamiificent theatre of mountains, amoiii' which
liccla and the Kyjafialla are the most pron-ineut.

UOVKUNUli's KESll.KNCi;, UI'.VUJ A VUv.

Ticykjavik, t]u> present capital of the island, has risen into importance at (he
cviKiise both of Skalholt and Thinsj;valla. At the betiiniiiiio' of tlu' present cen-
luiy liie courts of justice were transferred from the ancient seat of leuislature
to the new metropolis, and in 1707 the bishoprics of Iloolum and Skalholt,
united into one, had their seats likewise transferred to Reykjavik. Tiu' aiu'ient
school of Skalholt, after having first migrated to liessestadt, has also been

m

m
IS

i

UWi

100

THE POLAR WORLD.

M

I-

% i

« :

Ul^

If \^

'.'^

obliged to follow tlio centralizing tendency, so powerful in our times, and now
contributes to the rising fortunes of the small sea-port town.

I)Ut in sj)ite of all these accessions, the first aspect of Reykjavik by no means
corresponds to our ideas of a (■ai)ital. " The town," says Lord Dufferin, " con-
sists of a collection of wooden slieds, one story high — rising here and there into
a gable end of greater pretensions — built along the lava-track, and flanked at
either end by a suburb of turf huts. On every side of it extends a desolate
phiin of lava that once must have boiled up red-hot from some distant gatewav
of hell, and fallen hissing into the sea. No tree or bush relieves the dreariness
of the landsL'iipe, and the mountains are too distant to serve as a backQ;round to
the buildings ; but before the door of each merchant's house facing the sea
there flies a gay little pennon ; and as you walk along the silent streets, whose
dust no carriage-wheel has ever d'_'secrated, the vows of flower-pots that ])eep out
of the Aviudows, between curtains of white muslin, at once convince you that,
notwithstanding their unpretending appearance, witlun each dwelling reign the
elegance and comfort of a woman-tended home."

Twenty years since, Reykjavik was no better than a wretched fishing-village,
now it already numbers 1400 inhabitants, and free-trade promises it a still
greater increase for the future. It owes its prosperity chiefly to its excellent
port, and to the abundance of fish-banks in its neighborhood, whicli have induced
the Danish merchants to make it their principal settlement. Most of them, how-
ever, merely visit it in summer like birds of i>assage, arriving in 3Iay with siniill
cargoes of foreign goods, and leaving it .a_gain in August, after having disjiosctl
of their wares. Thus Reykjavik must be lonely and dreary enough in winter,
when no trade animates its port, and no traveller stays at its solitary iim ; hut
tlie joy of the inhabitants is all the greater when the return of spring re-opens
their intercourse with the rest of the world, and the delight may be imagincil
with which they hail the first ship that brings them the long-expected news from
Europe, and jjcrhaps some wealthy tourist, eager to admire the wonders of the
Gfcysirs.

The most busy time of the town is, however, the beginning ci July, when tlio
nnuual fair attracts a great nund)er of fishermen and jjcasants within its walls.
From a distance of fortv and fiftv leamies around, thev come with loner trains
of pack-horses; their stock-fish slung freely across the animals' backs, their
more damageable articles close pressed and jjacked in boxes or skin bags.

The greater ))art of the trade in this and other small sea-ports — such as
Akreyri, IIafnafjord,Eyrarbacki, Berufjord, Va]>nafjord, Isafjord, Grafaros,]5ii-
denstadt, which, taken .-ill together, do not etpial Reykjavik in traflic and \)o\y
ulation — is carried on by barter.*

Sometimes the Icelander desires to be paid in specie for part of his produce,
but then he is obliged to bargain for a long time witli the merchant, who of
course derives a double profit by an exchange of goods, and is loth to part with

* In ]S,")r). Tcrliind imported, amoni; otliors, Go.TlQ pieces of timlicr, 14S,0,'!8 lbs. of iron, 37,700 ll)s.
liemp, 15,170 fisliiiitr-lines. 20,.112 Ihs. snll, OMO tons of coiil.

Tlie chief rxportations of tlie same year were, tallow, 9.12,0O61l)s., wool, l,5fi0,323 llis., ()0,,SOr) pairs of
gfocltings, 27,109 pairs of fjloves, 12,712 salted slicepskins, llKi ll)s. eider-downs, 25,000 lbs. other featli-
ers, 244 horses, and 24,079 ship's pounds ^^tho ship's pmnd — 320 lbs.) salt fish.

THE ICELANDERS.

101

his hard cash. Tlio dollars thus acciuired are either melted down, and worked
into silver niikssive girdles, which in point of execution as well as design arc said,
uii i,n)0(l authority,* to be equal to a'.iy thing of the kind fashioned by English
jewellers, or eLe deposited in a s'rong-box, as taxes and wages are all j)aid in
produce, and no Icelander ever thinks of investing his money i'l stocks, shares,
or dehci'tures.

He is, iiowever, by no meais so ignorant of mercantih; affairs as to strike at
once a bargain with the Danish traders. Pitching his tent before the town, he
first pays a visit to all the merchants of the ])lace. After carefully noting their
several offers (for as each of them invariably treats him to a dram, he with
some justice mistrusts his memory), he returns to his caravan and makes his
calculations as well as his somewhat confused brain allows him. If he is ac-
companied by his wife, her opinion of course is decisive, and the following
niorni!ig he repairs with all his goods to t''.e merchant who lias succeeded in
gaining his confidence.

After the business has been concluded, the peasant empties one glass to the
merchant's health, another to a haj)})y meeting next year, a third to the king, !\
foui til because three have been druidc already. At length, after many embraces
and |ii'()tcstations of eternal friendship, he takes his leave of the merchant. For-
tunately there is no thief to be found in all Iceland ; but in consccpience of these
repeated libations, one parcel luis not been well packed, another negligently at-
tached to the horse, and thus it happens that the poor peasant\s track is not un-
frenuently marked with sugar, coffee-beans, salt, or flour, and that when ho
reaches home, he finds some valuable article or other missing.

It would, however, bo doing the Icelanders an injustice to regard them as
generally intemperate; for though within the last twelve years the population
has increased only ten per cent., and the importation of brandy thirty, yet the
whole (piantity of spirits consumed in the island amounts to less than three bot-
tles per aimuiu for each individual, and, of this aliowance, the people of Reykja-
vik and of the other small sea-ports have more than their share, while many of
the clergy and jjcasantry in the remoter districts hardly ever taste spirituous
liipiDrs. Dr. Hooker mentions the extraordinary effect which a small portion
of rum produced on the good old incumbent ol 3Iiddalr, whose stomach had
been accustomed only to a milk-diet and a little coffee. " He begged me,"
says the doctoi',f " to ^'ve Mm some rum to bathe his wife's breast ; but hav-
ing ajjplied a portion of it to that pur]K)se, he drank the rest without being at
all aware of its strength, whicli, however, had no other effect than in causing
this clerical blacksmith,]; with his lame hip, to dance in the most ridiculous man-
ner in front of the house. The scene afforded a great source of merriment to
all his family except his old wife, who was very desirous of getting him to bed,
while lie was no less anxious that she should join him in the dance."

Dr. Hooker justly remarks that this very circumstance is a convincing proof
how unaccustomed this priest was to spirituous liquors, as the quantity taken
could not have exceeded a wme-glass full.

' Harrow, "Visit to Iceland," 1834. t " .Touiniil of n Tour in lopJand," p. 110.

t All the clcrgvmen are blacksmiths, for a reason that will ba stated hereafter.

iyr ,|

wwr^

n

103

THE POLAR WORT>D.

>

■ii I

After liis visi^ to the fair, the peasant sets about hay-makinc», wliicli is toliiin
the f^reat business of the year, for he is most anxious to se(!ure winter fodder for
his cattle, on whieli his wliole i)ros])('rity depends. Tlie few potatoes and tur-
nips about tlie size of marbles, o'- the cabbage and parsley, which he may diance
to (cultivate, arc not worth mentioning; grass is the chief, nay, the only pnxbico
of his farm, and tiiat IFoaven may grant clear sunsliiny days for hay-maki;ig is
now his daily jjrayer.

Every ))erson ca])able of wielding a scythe or valcc is pressed into the work.
The best hay is cut from the " tun," a sort of p;iddock comju-ising the lands ad-
joining the farm-house, ;md the only part of his grounds on which the peasant
bestows any attention, for, in s])itc of the paramount importance of his pasture-
land, he does but little for its improvement, and a meadow is rarely seen, where
the useless or less nutritious herbs are not at least as abundant as those of a
better <pnility. The "tan" is encircled by a turf or stone wall, and is seldom
more than ten acres in extent, and generally not more than two or three. Its
surface is usually a series of closely-packed moimds, like graves, most unpleasant
to walk over, the gutter, in some places, being two feet in depth between tlio
mounds. After having finished with the "tun," the farmer subjects to a proc-
ess of cutting all the broken hillsides and boggy undrained swamps that liu
near liis dwelling. The blades of the scythes are very slior*. It woidd be iiii-
l»ossible to use a long-bladed scythe, owing to the unevenness of the grotuul.

The cutting and making of hay is carried on, when the weather will ])erniii.
through all the twenty-four hours of the day. When the hay is made it is tied
in bundles by cords and thongs, and carried away by ponies to the earthen
houses ])repared for it, which are similar to and adjoin those in wliich the cattle
arc stalled. "It is a very curious sight," says ]\Ir. Sh'.pherd, " to see a striiip;
of hay-laden ])onies returning home. Each ])ony's halter is made fast to tiic
tail of the preceding one, and the little animals are so enveloped in their bur-
dens that lothing but their hoofs ';nd the connecting ropes are visible, and they
look as though a dozen huge liayctocks, feeling themselves sufficiently made,
were cr.awling off to their resting-places."

When the harvest is finished the farniur treats his family and laborers to a
substantial supper, consisting of mutton, and a soup of milk and flour; aiiJ
although the serious and taciturn Icelander has perhaps of all men the least
taste for nuuic and dancing, yet these simple feasts are distinguished by a plac-
id serenity, no less pleasing than the more boisterous mirth displayed at a
soutliern vintage.

Almost all labor out-of-doors now ceases for thr, rest of the year. A thick
mantle of snow soon covers mountain and vale, meadow and moor ; with every
rettirning day, the sim pays the cold earth a decreasing visit, until, finally, lie
har<lly appears above the horizon at noon ; the wintry storm howls over tlio
Avaste, and for months the life of the Icelander is confined to liis hut, which
frequently is but a few degrees better tlian that of the filthy Lap.

Its lower part is ' ;.ilt of rude stones to about the hei'^ht of four feet, ami
between each row layers of turf are jilaced wlih great rogular'ity, to serve in-
stead of mortar, and keep out the wind. A roof of such wood as can be pro-

THE ICELANDERS.

103

jiii

ICELANDIC HOUSES.

I'lired rests upon these walls, aiul is covcre "1 with tnrf and sods. On one side
(fjcnt'i-aliy facing the south) arc several gable ends and doors, each surmounted
with a weather-cock. Tlie.se arc the entrances to the dwelling-house proper, to
the smithy, stoi '-room, cow-shed, etc. A long narrow passage, dark as pitch,
and redolent of unsavory odors, leads to the several apartments, which are sep-
arated from each other by thick walls of turf, each having also its own roof, so
that the iieasant's dwelling is in fact a conglomeration of low huts, which some-
times receive their light through small windows in the front, but more frequentf
ly thr(»ugh holes in tlie roof, covered with a piece of glasa v^r okin. The floors
are of stamped earth ; the hearth is made of a few stones clumsily piled togeth-
er; a cask or barrel, with the two ends knocked opt, answers the purj)ose of a
chinniey, or else the smoke is allowed to escape through a Mere hole in the roof.

Tlie thick turf walls, the dirty floor, the personal uncleanliness of the inhal)-
itants, all contribute to the pollution of the atmos|>he'.e. Xo piece of furniture
seems ever to liave been cleaned s nee it w.as first put into use ; all is disorder
ami confusion. Ventilation is utterly impossible, and the whole family, fre-
quently consisting of twenty persons or more, sleep in the same dormitory, as
well as any strangers who may hajipen to drop in. On either side of this
a[)artment are bunks three or four feet in width, on which the sleepers range
themselves.

Sncli arc in general the dwcUings of the farmers and clergy, for but very
few of the more Avcalthy inhabitants live in any way according to our notions of
comfort, while the cots of the poor fisherman are so wretched that one can
hardly believe them to be tenanted by human beings.

%

' 0
,'•11

■'•.•ii^

y.

104

THE POLAR WORLD.

Tlio farm-lioiiscs are frequently isolated, and, on account of their grass-cover-
ed roofs and their low construction, are not easily distinguisli* m from the neigh-
boring paslure-grounds , wliere four or live of iheni are congregated in a grassy
phiin, tliey are digniiied witli the name of a vilhige, and become tlie residence
of a Ilrepstior, or parisli constable.

Then also a church is seldom wanting, which however is distinguished from
the low huts around merely by the cross jjlanted on its roof. An Icelandic
house of prayer is generally from eight to ten feet wide, and from eighteen (o
twenty-four long ; but of this about eight feet are devoted to the altar, which is
divided oif by a partition stretching across the church, and against which stands
the pulpit. A small wooden chest or cupboard, i)laccd at the end of the build-
ing, between two very small square windows not larger than a common-sized
pane of glass, constituti's the communion-table, over which is generally a mistT-
able repi-esentation of the Lord's Supper painted on wood. The height of the
walls, which are wainscoted, is about six feet, and from them largo wooden
beams stretch across from side to side. On these beams are placed in great
disorder a quantity of old IJibles, psalters, and fragments of dirty manuscripts.
The interior of the roof, the rafters of which rest on the walls, is also lined with
wood. On the right of the door, under which one Is obliged to stoop consider-
ably on entering, is suspended a bell, large enough to make an intolerable noise
in so small ;i space. A few benches on each side the aisle, so crowded together
as almost to touch one another, and affording accommodation to thirty or forty
persons when S(pieezed very tight, leave room for a narrow passage.

These churches, besides their proper use, are also made to answer the pur-
pose of the "aravanseras of the East, by affording a night's lodging to foreiirn
tourists. They are indeed neither free from dirt, nor from bad smells; l)iit
the stranger is still far better off tlian in the intolerable atmosphere of a peas-
ant's hut.

]Mr. 1 Joss Browne thus describes the church and parsonage at Thingvall.n ;
"The church is of modern construction, ami, like all I saw in the interior, is
made of wood, painted a dark color, and roofed with boards covered witli sheets
of tarred canvas. It is a very primitive little aff.'iir, only one story high, and
not more than fifteen b\- tsjenty feet in dimensions. From the date on tiie
weather-cock it ai)pears to have been built in 1858. The congregation is sup-
plied by the tew sheep-ranches in the neighborhood, consisting at most of half
a dozen families. These unpreteiuling little churches are to be seen in the
vicinity of every settlement throughout the whole island. Simple and homely
as they are, they speak well, for the pious character of the people.

" The pastor of Thingvalla and his family reside in a group of sod-covered
huts close by the chmvli. These cheerless little hovels are really a curiosity,
none ot them being over ten or fifteen feet high, and all huddled together with-
out the slightest regard to latitude or longitude, like a parcel of sheep in a
storm. Some have windows in the roof, and some have chimneys ; grass and
weeds grow all over them, and crooked by-ways and dark alleys run among
them and through them. At the base they are walled up with big lumps of
lava, and two of them have board fronts, painted black, while the remainder arc

TIIE ICELANDKKS.

103

CIIL'UCII AT TIIINOVAI.LA.

mm

patdicd up with turf and nil»I)isli of all sorts, very much in tlic stylo of a stork's
nt'st. A low stone wall encircles the premises, Ijiit seems to be of little use as a
barrier ai^ainst the encroachments of live-stock, being broken u|) in ga[)s every
few yards. In front of the group some attempt lias been made at a pavement,
which, however, must have been abandoned soon after the work was eom-
niuiiced. It is now littered all over with old tubs, pots, dish-clolhs, and other
articles of domestic use.

"The interior of this strange .abode is even more compliwited tlian one
would be led to expect from the exterior, Passing through a dilai)idated door-
way in one of the smaller <»abins, which you would hardly suppose to bo the
main entrance, you find yourself in a long dark passage-way, built of rough
stone, and roofed with wooden rafters .and brushwood covered with sod. The
sidt:i are ornamented with pegs stuck in the crevices between the stones, upon
wliich hang saddles, bridles, liorse-shoes, bunches of herbs, dried fish, and various
articles of cast-off ciothing, including ohl shoes and sheepskins. Wide or nar-
row, straight or crooked, to suit the sinuosities of the different cabins into
which it forms the entrance, it seems to have been originally located ui)on the
track of a blind boa-constrictor. The best room, or rather house — for every
room is a house — is set apart for the accommodation of travellers. Another
cahin is occupied by some members of the pastor's family, who bundle about
like a lot of rabbits. The kitchen is also the dog-kennel, and occasionally the
sheep-house. A pile of stones in one corner of it, upon which a few twigs or
scraps of sheep-manure serve to make the fire, constitute the cooking apartment.
The floor consists of the original lava-bed, and artificial puddles composed of

-In I

106

THE POLAR WOULD

I .' '

slops and offal of diverse uiictuous kinds. Smoke fills all the cavities in the air
not already occnpiod by foul odors, and tlio beams, and posts, and rickety u\,\
bitsof furniture are dyed to the core with the dense and variegated atniosplure
around them. Tiiis is a fair specimen of the whole estahlishment, wiih the ex-
ception of the travellers' room. The beds in these cabins are the chief arti-
cles of luxury."

The poverty of the clerfiy corresponds with the meaimess of their cliurclies.
The best fiving in ♦he island is that of JJreide'-lJolstadr, where the nominiil
stipend amounts to 180 specie dollars, or about £40 a year; and JNIr. IIijI-
land states that the average livings do not amount to more than .i'lO for eacli
parish in the island. The clergymen nnist therefore dejiend almost entirely
for subsistence on their glebe land, and a small jiittance to which they are
entitled for the few baptisms, marriages, and funerals that occur among their
parishioners. The bishop himself has only 2000 rix-dollars, or £'-'()(), a year,
a miserable ])ittance to make a decent appearance, and to exercise hospitality
to the clergy wh'> visit IJeykjavik from distant j)arts.

It can not be wondered at that ])astors thus miserably ])aid are generally
obliged to perforin the hardest work of day laborers to jireserve their families
from starving, and that their extern.al appearance corresponds less with the diu;-
nity of their oflico than with their penury. Besides hay-making and tending tiie
cattle, they may be frequently seen lea<ling a train of pack-horses from a fishiiiif-
station to their distant hut. They are all blacksmiths also from necessity, and
the best shoers of horses on the island. The feet of an Iceland horse would he
cut to pieces over the sharp rock and lava, if not well shod. The great resort
of the peasantry is the church ; and should any of the luinierous horses have lost
a shoe, or be likely to do so, the ])riest ))Uts on his apron, lights his little char-
coal fire in his smithy (one of which is always attached to every ])arsonage),
and sets the animul on his legs again. The task of getting the necessary char-

THE PASTOn'S UOUSE, TUINGVALLA.

THE ICELANDERS.

107

I J*

coal is not iho lonst of liis labors, for
wliati'ver tlic distaiK-o may l)e to tlio
nearest lliicki-t of dwarf-bircli, lio must
I'o tliitlii'r to burn tlio \\ooil, and to
briiisi it lioiiif wliiMi cliarrc'il across liis
liDisc's back. His lint is scarcely bct-
U'V tliaii that of the meanest lisliermaii ;
!il)C(l,a rickety table, a few ciiairs, ami
II clicst or two, are all his furniture.
This is, as lunur as he. lives, the condi-
tion of the Icel.-mdic clergyman, and
IcaniiiiiT, virtue, ami even genius are
l)Ut too freiiuently buried under this
S'lualid poverty.

Hut few of my readers li.'ive proba-
hlv evt'r heard of the poet Jon Tlior-
laksoii, but who can withhold the trib-
ute of his admiration from the pror
piicst of I>acka, who with a lixed in-
come of less than X''j a year, and con-
dcnnieil to all the drudgery which I
have described, finished at seventy
years of age a translation of ]Milton'.s
" Paradise Lost," having jjreviously
ti-aiislatcd Pone's " Essay on Man."

Three of tiie Hrst books only of the " Par.adise Lost" were printed by the
Icelandic Literary Society, when it was dissolved in 1790, and to print the rest
at liis own expense was of course impossible. Tn a few Icelandic verses, Thor-
lakson toucliinii'ly alludes to his penury : — " Ever since I came into this world
I have been wedded to Poverty, who has now hugged me to her bosom these
seventy winters, all but two ; and whether we shall ever be separated hero below
is only known to Him who joined us together."

As if Providence had intended to teach the old man that we must hope to
the last, he soon after received the unexpected visit of Mr. Henderson, an agent
of the Ihitish and Foreign Bible Society, who thus relates liis interview :

"Like most of his brethren at this season of the year, wo found him in the
mead )W assisting his people in li.ay-making. On hearing of our arrival, he
made all the iiaste home which his ;ige and infirmity would allow, and l)idding
us welcome to his lowly abode, ushered us into the humble apartment where he
translated my countrymen into Icelandic. The door is not quite four feet in
luiglit,a. d the room may be about eight feet in length by six in breadth. At
tlie inner end is the poet's bed, and close to the door, over against a small win-
dow, not exceeding two feet square, is n table wliero he commits to ])aper the
effusions of his Muse. On my telling him that my countrymen M'ould not h.ave
forgiven me, nor could I have forgiven myself, liad I passed through this part
of the island without paying him a visit, he replied that the translation of Mil-

TUE l-ASTOU OF TUINU VALLA.

i^

'^V?^

108

THE POLAIl WORLD.

toil li!i<l yic'ldcil him many ii pleasant hour, and often j^ivcn Iiim occasion to
think of Knj,'lan(i."

This visit was folh)\vo(l liy ai^rccahhj conscqut'iict's for the voi'.crahk' bard.
Till! I/ilcT!iry Fund soon attiTwards sent him a jn't'M'iit of i'.'.o, a modest siiiu
aci'ordin.Lj to our i<U'as, hut a niiiiu of wealth in the eyes of tin poor Icelandic
priest. His life, however, was now near its close, as it is stated in a shoit
view "Of the Origin, Progress, and Operations of the Society," dated M.-in h
.'?(1, 18'.n,that "the poet of Iceland is ikjw in his grave; but it is saiisfactorv
to know that ihe attention, in this instance, of a foreign and remote society lo
liis gains and his fortunes was highly gratifying to his feelings, and contrih-
uted not ininiaterially to tho comfort of his concluding day.s."

lie wrote a letter in very elegant Latin, exjiressing his heartfelt gratitude
for the kindness and generosity of the Society, so accordant with the character
of the llritisli nation, and accompanied it with a 3IS. copy of his transljitioii.
Tile latter was first printed in Iceland in 182H, but his own original poems did
not appear before IHI'J.

The school where most of the Icelandic clergynen, so poor ."ind yet gener-
ally so respectable in their poverty, are educated, is that of Keykjavik, as few
only enjoy stii»eiids which enable them to study at Copenhagen. Then? tiiey
live several years under a milder sky, they become ac(piainted with the splen-
dor of a large capital, and thus it might be supposed that the idea of returning
to the dreary wastes of their own land must be intolerable. Yet this is their
.irdent desire, and, like banished exiles, they long for their beloved Iceland,
where privation and penury await them.

Ill no Christian country, perhaps with the sole exception of Lapland, are the
clergy so poor as in Iceland, but in none do they exert a more benelicial in-
fluence.

Though the- island has but the one public school at Reykjavik, yet perhaps
in no country is elementary cducition more generally diffused. Every mother
teaches her children to read and write, and a peasant, after jnoviding for the
wants of his family by the labor of his hands, loses no opportunity, in his lei-
sure hours, of inculcating a sor.nd morality. In these praiseworthy efforts the
parents are supported by the pastor.

lie who, judging from the sordid condition of an Icelandic hut, might imag-
ine Its inhabitants to be no better than savages, would soon change his opin-
ion were he introduced on a winter evening into the low, ill-ventilated room
where the f;unily of a peasant or a small landholder is assembled. Vainly
would he seek a single idler in the whole comi)anv. The -omen and girls
spin or knit ; tlie men .ind boys are all busy mending their agricultural im|ile-
ments and household utensils, or else chiselling or cutting with admirable skill
ornaments or snuff-boxes in silver, ivory, or wood. By the dubious light of a
tallow laniji, just making obscurity visible, sits one of the family, who reads
with a loud voice an old "saga" or chronicle, or maybe the newest number of
the " Northurfari," an Iceland literary almanac, published during the last few
ye.-xrs by Mr. Gisle Brinjulfsson, Sometimes poems or whole sagas arc repeat-
ed from memory, and there are even itinerant story-tellers, who, like the trouba-

: ■*

-ii! I i;;i-

THE I( ELANDKIia

100

(Imirs and tronviTos of ilio Middle Aix»'s, watulcr from ono farm to atintlior, nml
tliiis i.'aiii ii Hcaiity livoliliood. In this manner tlie deeds of the ani'ient lee-
landers remain fixed in llie memory of tlieir deseemlants, ami Snorrc Stiirleson,
Sainiiiid, Froili, and Kri(! IJanda are unforyotti'n. Nine eenturies have elapsed ;
itiit every Icelander still knnws tlie names of the jM'ot.d yarls who lirst pei pled
the liords of the island; and the exploits of the brave vikinjjs who spread ter-
ror ami desolation aloni; all the coasts of K<irope still till the heartn «>f the
tjeaccfiil islanders of our days with a ulow of patriotic pride.

Where edncatioii is so general, one may iiatnrally expect to find a liiLrh de-
lirce of intellectual cultivation anioni; the cleri.'y, the ]>ul>lic fnnctionarI«'s, and
the wealthier part of the population. Their classical knowledge is one of the
lirst things that strike the stranjji'r with astonishment. He sees men whose
appearance too fre(piently denotes an ahject poverty conversant with the ureal
authors of anti(|uity, .and keenly alive to their heautii^. Travellini; to the (ley-
sirs, he is not seldom ac(;osled in Latin l)j his guiile, and 8toi)j)iiiy at a farm,
his host {greets him in the same lani^'uaLfe.

I have specially u.-uned .Ion Tliorl.ikson, hut Iceland lia.s produced and still
produces m.any other men who, without the Impe of any other rewurd but that
wliii'h proceeds from the pure love of literature, ilevote their days and nii,dits
to laborious studies, .and live with \'iri,'il and Homer under the siumy skies ot
Italy and (ireet^e. In the study of the modern lantruatres, the Icel.'Uiders arc
as f.ar advanced as can be expected from their limited intercourse with the rest
of the world.

Tile Kni,dish lauijuai^e, in which they find so many words of their own and
pn many borrowed from the Latin, is cultivated by many of the oleriry. The
(fcrnian they find still more easy ; and as all the Scandinavi:in lim>.'uai;cs ])ro-
cccd from the same root, they have no difliculty in understaudinix the D.anish
and the Norweyi.an tongues. Of all the modern lanu:ua<j;es or dialects which
have sprimj; from the ancient Norse, spoken a thousand years nij;o all over
Denmark, Swetlen, and Norway, none has undertjone fewer changes than the Tee-
'aiidic. In the se.a-ports it is mixed up with many Danish words and ))hraseH,
but in the interior of the island it is still s])oken as it was in the times of In-
golfr ;nid Eiie the IJed, and in the whole island there is no fisherman or day
laborer who does not perfectly imderstand the oldest writings.

It may easily be imagined that atJiong a people so fond of literature, books
must be in great request. Too ])oor to be consiantly increasing their small col-
lections of modern publications, or of old " sagas" or chronicles, by new acfpii-
.sitions, one assists the other. When the peasant goes on Sundays to church,
he takes a few volumes with bim, ready to lend his treasures to his neiglibors,
and, on his part, selects from among those which they have brought for the
same purpose. When lie is j»articularly pleased M'ith a work, he has it copied
at home, and it may be here remarked that the Icelanders are frequently most
excellent calligraphists.

The foundation of a public library at Reykj.-ivik in 1821, at the instigation
of the learned Professor Kafn of Copeidiagcn, was a great boon to the people.
It is said to contain about 12,000 volumes, which are kept under the roof of the

.■''"HI

■ m

r'

110

THE POLAU WOULD.

catlioflral. Hdoks nro freely lent for iiiontlis, or even for n wliolu year, to tlu'
iiilialiitaiitH of remote «Hstricts. This lilu'rality is, of coiirKe, attendetl wiili
Home iiK'oiivciiieiicc, l)iil it lias the iiicstiiiial>h' aiivaiifa^t' of reii(l('riiit» a niiin-
Iter of j,'oo(l works accessildc to iimiUToiis faniilics too poor to |niri'liaso tlicin.
Another excclli'iit institiilioii is the New Ifeliiiiilic l.itirary Soeiety, foimdi .1
in IHld. It ha^ two seats, one in ('<)|ienliaL,'»ii, llie other in lieykjavik, and its
chief ()l»jeet is the puhlieation <d' iisefid works in the laiii,nnii;e of tliu eoniilrv.
IJesides an ainnial ;,nant of loo specie (h)llars (i''Jt) awarded to it hy tlic

1)

nns

ii (

lovernnient, its inconu' is eo

nliiK

to tiie vearl

eiin

ti'ihiitioiis of it>

ineiiibers,'" and with this seanty nieann it lius alieaily pulihshed many excullent

W(;rks.

Tiioiijrh remote from tlie hiisy scenes of the world, Icelaiul has tliree news,
papers, the 77ii/i>i/t/in/f'r n\u\ ihu /s/< iHlitii/iit; wWwU appear at {{eykjavik, aiul
the Xort/iri, wliich is published at Akreyri, on the borders of the I'olar Oc* an,
The Isleiidinyiir is said t(» contain many excellent articles, Init it would s(ii( Iv
task the patience of those who are accustomed to the rei,'ular enjoyim lit of the
" Times " at breakfast ; as it sometimes appears but once in thrir weeks, and tlun
ULfain, ! s if to make up for lost time, twice in eiuht days,

III spile of their ill-ventilated dwelliiiLrs and the hardships entailed iipdn
them by the severity of the climate, the Icelanders fiecpiently attain a j^ood old
au'e. Of the L'Ol!) persons who died in iSoS, •.',") had passed the aije of ninetv,
and of these 20 belonged to the fair sex. Tiie mortality amuiii; the child en is.
however, very considerable; OOH, or nearly one-half of the entire mimlier hav-
ing? died before the ai^e of live in the year above-mentioned, ("utaiieous affec-
tions are very common amoiiij; Icelanders, as may e.asiiy be supposed fromtliclr
sordid woollen apparel ami the uiicleanliness of their huts ; and the nortlu rn
leprosy, or " likthra," is constantly seekin<r out its victims amoii<f them. Tliis
dreadful «lisease, which is also found anions; the iishernieii in Norway, inCfiecn-
l.'Uid, ill the Faeroes, in Lapland, and, in short, wherever the same mode of lilt
exists, bciiins with a swelling; of the hands imd fi'et. The hair fails off; tlie
senses become obtuse. Tumors appear on the arms and legs, and on the face,
which soon loses the semblance of hunnmity. Severe pains shoot through tiio
joints, an eruption covers the whole body, and linally ch;mges into open sores,
ending with death. lie whom the leprosy has once .attacked is doomed, for it
mocks all the efforts of medical art. I^'ortmiately the victims of this shocking
eomplaint arc rather objects of pity than of disgust, and as it is not supposed
to be contagious, they are not so cruelly forsaken by their relations as their trl-
low-sufferers in the East. In the hut of the i)riest of Thingvalla, ]\[armier saw
a leper busy grinding corn. Some of the poorest and most helpless of these
unfortunate creatures lind a refuge in four small hosi)ilals, where they are jiro
videtl for at the jmblic expense.

Since .•; regular steam-boat communication has been opened between Ice-
land, Denmark, and Scotland, the number of tourists desirous of viewing tli?

* Tlu'ir iiiinil)or in 1800 wns 001. Puriiiix liis voya^p to Ici'tiiid in 1S5fl Prince N.npnloon was named
hnuornry president, a distinction h? slinros witli the Bislio[i of Keyiijuvilt. Among the 40 honorary
nienibci's I lind the name of Lord DufTcrin.

•

■:

Tin: K KLANDKUS.

Ill

njutchlcwH natural worulcrs of tlic iNlaiul Iuih conMiiU-raiily incronscil. Hut trav-
(.'lliii^' in tliu iHlaiul ilMulf \h ntill alti'mlcd with c()nr<i(li'i-al)lu dilliciiltics ami no
tritlinu' i'\|>L'ii>*i'i to Hay nutliin^ ul tliu want of all comforts; so tliat most of itrt
visitors art' t'oiiti'iit with a trip to 'riiin^valla ami tlic (ti'>>ir, wliifli ai'c l>iit a
ciiii|ilt' of 'lays' journey from Ucykjavik, ami vrry fi'W, like; .Mr. IlollamI, mako
till' entire circuit of tiu; islami, or, like Mr. .Sliciplicnl, iiluiij^'c into tlic dfi'ii hi'
riii/Hifd of its niirtli-wcstcrn peninsula. 'I'lie only nioile of travelling,' is on
li(irsci»ack, as llierc arc no roads, ami tliereforo no ciirriai^es in rcelaml. Tlu;
(li>taiicfs iietween the places arc lio ,<,'reat, tlic rivers arc I ><> furious, and llic
Im)'_'s too extensiv" t(» allo\v of a waikiiiLr tour lieinj,' made. Mveii tlie tourist
willi tJK' must luixlest pretensions re<piires at least, two ridin<^ horses for liitn-
Kclf, two fur liis •'uide, .'nid two packliorses ; and when a I.iri;er company travels,
it always forms a cavalcade of fi'oni twenty to ll Iity liorsi's, tied lieail to t.ail,
tlu' cliief Ltuide mounted on tlie lirst and Icadinij: the striiiLf, the other aci-elcrat-
iiig its motions liy ifcsticulation, sundry oaths, and tho timely application of
thu wliiji. 'I'lic way, or the path, lies either over heds of lava, so ruijiicd that
tlio liorsi's arc allowed to pick their way, oi over l)<",';,'y j;roim<l, wln^rc it is
('i|u:i]ly ni'cessary to avoid thosi' places into which tho animals miLtht siidv up
til llicir heliv, hut wliich, when left to theniselvi's, tlu'V .aro remarkalily skillful
in detecting,'. Willi the solitary exception of ;i few pl.anks thrown across the
IJiiura, and !i kind of .swint; bridi^c, or /ddj'r, contrived for passim^ the rapid
JiikuUa, there arc no hridu'es ovi'r thu rivers, .so that the only way to L,'et acros.s
is to ridt' through them — :i feat which, consideriui^ thu usual velocity of their
cin'rcnt, is not seldom attendeil with considerable danyor, as will be seen by thy
loUuwiiig account of the crossing of thu Skeidara by ^Ir. Holland.

,#

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■^:ss£^'

^if^ __rt*^-^^

BUIUUE KIVEK, ICELAND.

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112

THE POLAR WORLD.

'

< 1

i !

hi t

" Oiir guide " says this intrepid traveller, " urged on liis liorso tlirough the
stream, and led the way towards the inid-fliauiu'l. We followed in iiis wake
and soon were all stemming the impetuous and swollen torrent. In the eoursu
of our jouiney we had before this crossed a good many rivers nu)re or kss
deej), l>ut all of them had been mere ehiid's play compared to that which wo
■were now fording. The angry water rose high against our horses' sides, at
times almost coming over tlie tojjs of their shoulders. The si)ray from their
broken I'rcsts was dasheil up into our faces. The stream w;is so swift that it
vas impossible to follow the individual waves as they rushed jiast us, and it
almost made us dizzy to look down at it. Now, if ever, is the time for liriii
hand or rein, sure seat, and steady eye ; not only is th(.' stream so strong, hut
the bottom is full of large stones, that the horse can not sec through the murkv
waters ; if he shonld fall, the torrent will sweep you down to the sea — its white
breakers arc j)laiuly visible as they run aloTig t!ie sl)ore at scarcely a mile's dis-
tance, and they lap the beach as if they w.aitcd for their prey. Happily, tluy
will be disappointed. Swiuiming would be of no use, but an Icelandic water-
horse seldom m.akes .a blunder or .a false step. Not the least of the risks we
ran in crossing the Skeidara was from the masses of ice carried down by tlie
stream from the Jokul, many of them being large enough to knock a liorse
over.

" FoiUmatcly we four.d much less ice in the centre and swiftest part of tlic
river, where we weie .able to see and avoid it, than in the side chamiels. How
the Iiorses wore able to stand tig;iinst such a stream was marvellous ; they
could not do so unless they were constantly in the habit of crossing swift
rivers. The Icelanders who live in this jiart of the island keep horses known
for their (pialitics in fording dithcult rivers, .and they never venture to cross a
dangert)us stream miless mounted on a tried water-horse. The .action of the
Icelandic horses when crossing a swift river is very peculiar. They lean all
their weight against the stream, so as to resist it as much as possible, ami
move onward Avith •:i peculiar side-step. This motion is not agreeable. It
feels as if your liorso were marking time without gaining ground, and the prog-
ress made being really very slow, the shore front which you started seems to
recede from you, whilst that for which you are malting apjiears as far as ever.

" When Me reached the middle of the .stream, the roar of the waters was so
great that we could scarcely make our voices !mdil)le to one another ; tluy
were ovi'rpowered by the crunching sound of the ice, and liie bumping of large
stones against the bottom. I"p to this ])oint a diagonal line, railier down
stream, had been cautiously followeil; but when we came lo the middle, we
turneu our horses' heads a little against the stream. As we thus altcro>l our
course, the long line of baggage-horses appeared to be swung round altogether,
as if sMe))t off their legs. Xonc of them, however, broke away, and they con-
tinued (heir advance without accident, and at length we all reached the shore
in safety."

After a day's journey in Icebiid, rest, aa may well be supposed, is higlily
ncocptable. Instead of passing the night in the ])easant's hut, the travclior,
M'hen no churcli is at band, generally prefers pitching his tent near n running

THE ICELANDERS.

113

stii'iim on a grassy plain ; but sometiniea, in consequence of the great distance
from one liabitaltle place to another, he is o' liged to encamp in the midst of a
bo<T where the poor horses find either bad herbs, scarcely fit to satisfy their
huiiu'er, or no food at all. After they have been i iiloade<l, their fore iegs are
bound together above their hoofs, so as to prevent them straying too far,
„ iiile their masters arrange themselves in the tent as comfortably as they can.

llR

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ICELANDIC BOG.

is highly

travcllor,

running

"> %

114

THE POLAU WORLD.

COAST OF ICIiLANU.

I ■■

r

CHAPTER VIII.

TIIK WESTMAN ISLANDS.

Tho Wesfmans. — Their extreme DiffiruUy of Access. — llow they became peopled. — Heimaey. —
Knufstathir and Ofanloj'te. — Shcep-hoistiii;;. — K^fi-fjathciin^. — Dreadful Mortality aiiioiij^ ilie
Children. — Tho Giiikloli. — Gentleman John. — The Algeriuo Pirates. — Dreadful Sufterings of the

iKlandcrs.

"OTSIXG abrnptly from the sea to a height of 91 G feet, the small Westman
-*-*' Islands afo no less picturesque tlian cliffieult of access. Many a traveller
while sailin.f^ alonj? the south coast of Iceland ha.s admired their towering rock-
walls, but no modern toiu-ist has ever landed there. For so stormy a sea rolls
between them and tho mainland, and so violent are the currents, wliich the
slightest wind brings forth in the narrow chaiuiels of the archipelago, that a
landing can be effected oidy when the weather is perfectly calm. Tho Dri-
fanda foss, a cascade on the opposite mainland, rushing from the brow of the Eva-
fyalla range in a column of some ROO or 000 feet in height, is a sort of barometer,
which decides whether a boat can ])ut off with a prospect of gaining the West-
mans. In stormy weather the wind etldying :.mong the cliffs converts the fall,
though considerable, into a clotid of spray, which is dissipated in the atmos-
phere, so that no cascade is visible from the beach. In calm weather the
column is intact, and if it remains so two days in succession, then the sea is
usually calm enough to allow boats to land, and they venture out. As the Ice-
landers, through stormy weather, arc frequently cut off from Europe, so the in-
habitants of the Westmans are still more frecjueiitly cut off from Iceland, and
it is seldom more than once a year that the mails are landed direct. The /<;!''
letters from Denmark (for the correspondence is in all probability not very
active) are landed in Iceland at Reykjavik, and thence forwarded to the islands
by boat, as chance may offer, for, during the whole winter and the greater part

THE WESTMAN ISLANDS.

116

of the fiiimmcr, coiiinmtiication is itnpossiI)lo. Tt will now lie understood why
tourists !irc so little inclined fo visit the Wcstniaiis, despite the iii:i!^iiiliceiice
of tlieir coJist seeiierv, for wlio has tlie patieiiee to tany in a miserable hut on
tlic ()i)posite mainland till the easeade informs hiin that they arc acecjssihlc, or
is indincd to run the risk of being detained by a sudden change of the weather
for weeks or even months on these solitary rocks ?

i\Ir. Koss IJrowne thus describes the genei'al aspect of the coast of Iceland ;
"Nothing could surpass the desolate gi'andeur of the coast as we ai)proriciicd
the point of Keykjaness. It was of an ahnost infernal blackness. The whole
country seemed uptorn, rifted, shattered, and scattered about in a vast chaos
of ruin. Huge cliffs of lava split down to their bases toppled over the surf.
Uocks of every conceivable shape, scorched and blasted with iire, wrested
from the main and Ijurled into the sea, battled with the waves, their black
scraggy points piercing the mist like giant haiuls uj)thrown to smite or sink in
a fierce death-struggle. The wild havoc wrought in the conllict of elements
A\:is appalling. IJirds screamed over the fearful wreck of matter. The surf
from llie inrolling waves broke against the charred and shattered desert of ruin
with a terrific roar. Columns of spray sliot up over the blackened fragments
of lava, while in every opening the lashed waters, discolored by the collision,
seethed and surged as in a Imge caldron."

?i(;:'^

WESTMAN ISLIiS.

Of the Westman Islands, he s.-iys : " Towards noon we made the West-
man Isles, a small rocky group soiue ten miles distant from the main island.
A fishing and trading establishment, owned by a company of Danes, is located

■m

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110

THE POLAR WORLD.

on one of these islands. The Arctiirus tonclies twice n year to deliver and re-
coive a mail. On the occasion of our visit, a boat came out with a hardy-look-
ing crew of Danes to receive the mail-bag. It was doubtless a matter of great
rejoicing to them to obtain news from home. I had barely time to make a
rough outline of the inlands as we lay off the settlement. The chief interest at-
tached to the Westman group is, that it is supposed to have been visited bv
Columbus in 1477, lifteen years prior to his voyage of discovery to the shores
of America."

The puffin, or the screeching sea-mew, seem the only inhabitants for which
nature has fitted the Westmans, and yet they have a history which leads us
back to the times when Iceland itself first became known to man.

About 875, a few years after Ingolfr followed his househcid gods to Ileyk-
javik, a Norwegian pirate, perchance one of the associates of that historical
personage, landed on the coast of Ireland, attacked with fire and sword the de-
fenseless popuhition, captured forty or fifty persons, men, women, and ehil.bcii,
and carried them off as slaves. The jiassage must liave been any thing but
pleasant, for it gave the Hibernians such a foretaste of the wretchedness that
awaited them in Iceland, their future abode, that, taking courage from desiiair,
they rose on their captors, threw them overboard, and went ashore on the fir>t
land they met with.

A day of rare serenity must have Avitnessed their arrival on the Westmans,
a spot ■which of all others seemed most unlikely to become their home. Wiiv
they remained there, is a secret of ihe past; most likely they had no other al-
ternative, and freedom on a rock was, at all events, better than slavery under a
cruel viking.

Thus these Aveather-beaten islets were first jieopled by men from the west.
whence they derive their name, and it is supposed that the present inhabitants
are the descendants of those children of Krin. No one will be inclined to envy
them the heritage bequeathed to them by their fathers.

The "Westmans are fourteen in number ; but of these only one, called Ilci-
maey, or Home Island, is inhabited. It is fifteen miles from the coast of Iceland,
and forty-five from Ilecla. Though larger than all the others put together, its
entire surface is not more than ten square miles. It is almost surrounded witli
high basaltic cliffs, and an otherwise iron-bound shore; its interior is covered
with black ashy-looking cones, bearing imdoubtcd evidence of volcanic action ;
Ml fact, the harbor, v hich lies on its north-east side, and is only accessible to
small craft, is formed out of an old cniter, into which the sea has worn an en-
ti'ance. The inhabitants are located in two villages ; Kaufstathir, on a little
grassy knoll near the landing place, and Ofanleyte, on the grassy jilatform of the
island. Only three of the other islets produce any vegetation or pasturage, and
it is said that on one of these the sheep are hoisted with a rope out of the
boats by an islander, who, at the risk of his neck, has climbed to the top of the
precipitous rock. The others are mere naked cliffs or basaltic pillars, the abode
of innumerable sea-birds, which, when accessible, are a precious resource to the
islanders. For, as may Avell be supposed, the scanty grass lands afford nounsli-
ment but to a few cows and sheep ; and as the unruly waters too often prevent

THE \\Ti:STMAN ISLANDS.

117

their fishing-boats from jiutting to sea, they depend in a great measure for
tlieir subsistence u])on llie sea-birds, in whose capture tliey exhibit wonderful
courage and skill. In tlie egg-season they go to the top of tlie cliff, and, put-
ting a rope round a man's waist, let him down the side of the i)erpendicular
rock, one, two, or three hundred feet; on arriving at the long, narrow, hori-
Kontal shelves, he proceeds to fill a large bag with the brittle treasures depos-
ited by tlie birds, Wlieii his bag is full, he and his eggs are drawn to the top
l)V his <'ompanions. If the rope breaks, or is cut off l)y the sharp corners of
llic rock, which, however, happens but seldom, nothing can save tlie luckless
fowler, who is either precipitated into the sea, or dashed to pieces on the
rocks below.

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HUME OF hEA-llJKUS.

At a later period in the season thev J?o and tret the voun" birds, and then
they have often desperate battles with the old ones, who will not give up fight-
ing for their offsju-ing till their necks are broken, or their brains knocked out
will' a club. Where the cliffs are not accessible from the top, they go round
tlie bottom in boats, and show a wonderful agility and daring in scaling the
most terrible precipices.

In summer they get the eggs .and the fresh meat of the young birds, m hich
tliey also salt for the winter. The feathers form their chief article of export,
besides dried and salted codfish, and with these they procure their few nec-
essaries and luxuries, consisting princip.ally of clothing, tobacco and smiff, spir-
its, fish-hooks .and lines, and s.alt. As there is no peat on these islands, nor
diicd fish-bones in snflicient quantity, they also make use of the tough old
sta-liirds as fuel. For this purpose they split them open, and dry them on the
rocks.

The Westmans form a separate Syssel, or county, and they have a church,
and usually two clergymen. Their church Avas rebuilt of stone, at the exjiense
of the Danish Government, in 1774, and is said to be one of the best in Iceland,

J18

THE POLAR WOULD.

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Unfortunate]}' the two clergymen to whom the spiritual caro of tlio i.slandors is
confided seem to liavo but a very indifferent Hock, for tlieir noiglibors on the
mainland give rallier a bad character to the inhabitants of Ileimaey, describing
them as great sluggards and drunkards.

The population, which was formerly more considerable, amounts to about
200 souls, but even this is more than might be expected from the dreadful mor-
tality which reigns among the children. The eggs and the oily tlesii of sea-birds
fnrnish a miserable f(joil for infants, partitmlarly when weaned, as is here cus-
tomary, at a very early age ; but the poor islanders have nothing else to give
them, except some fish, and a very insufficient quantity of cow's or sheep's milk.
This unheuhhy diet, along with the boisterous air, gives rise to an incurable in-
fantile disease, called (rinkli)fi {tetanus). Its first symptoms are squinting and
rolling of the eyes, the muscles of the back are seized with incijjient cramps and
become stiff. After a day or two lock-jaw takes place, the back is bent like a
bow, either backw;ird or forward. The lock-jaw prevents swallowing, and the
cramps become more frequent and prolonged until death closes the scene. The
same disease is said to decimate the children on St. Kilda in consequence of a
similar mode of life.

The only means of preserving the infants of Ileimacy from the Ginklofi, is to
send them as soon as possible to the mainland to l)o reared, and thus a long con-
tinuance of bad weather is a death-warrant to many.

Who would suppose that the Westman Islanders, doubly guarded by tlicir
])ovcrty and almost inaccessible cliffs, could ever have become the prey of free-
booters? and yet they have been twice attacked and pillaged, and well-nigh ex-
terminated by sea-rovers,

I have already mentioned, in a previous chapter, that before the discovery of
the banks of Newfoundland, the English cod-fishevs used to resort in gre.at num-
bers to the coasts of Iceland, where some of th'.'m — now and then — a))i)eared
also in the more questionable character of corsai''3. One of these worthies, who,
like Paul Clifford, or Captain Macheath, '^.o effectually united the suaviter in
rnoJo with thii /(H'titcr in re, as to have merited the name of "Gentleman John,"
came to the Westmans in 1G14 and set the church on fire, after having previous-
ly removed the little that was worth taking. After this exploit he returned to
Great Uritain, but King James I. had him hung, and ordered the church orna-
ments which he had robbed to be restored to the poor islanders. It was, how-
ever, written in the book of fate that they were not to enjoy them long, for in
1G27, a vessel of Algerine pirates, after jjlundcring several places on the eastern
and southern coasts of Icelard, fell like a thunderbolt on Ileimacy. These mis-
creants, compared with whom John was a " gentleman " indeed, cut down every
man who ventured to oppose them, plundered and burnt the new-built church,
and every hovel of the place, and carried away about 400 prisoners — men,
women, and children. One of the two clergymen of the island, Jon Torsteinson,
was murdered at the time. This learned and pious man had translated the
Psalms of David and the Book of Genesis into Icelandic verse, and is spoken
of as the " martyr " in the history of the land. The other clergyman, Olaf Egil-

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THE WESTMAN ISLANDS,

119

son, with liis wife and cliiklren, and the rest of the prisoners, waa sold into
al:ivcry in Algiers. The acconnt of iiis sufferings and j)rivations, which ho
wrote in the Icelandic language, was afterward^j translated and published in
Danish.

It was not until 1030, nine years after their capture, that the unfortunate
Ikiinaeyers were released, and then only by being ransomed by the King of
Denmark. Such was the misery they had endured from their barbarous task-
masters, that only thirty-seven of the whole immber survived, and of these but
thirteen lived to return to their native island.

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THE POLAR WORLD.

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i^UiiU^U U< NUUWAy.

CIL\PTER IX.

FROM DROXTIIEIM TO THE XORTH CAPE.

MildClimate of the Norwctrian Coast. — Its Causes. — The Xorwcuian Peasant. — Xorwegian Constitution.—
Romantic coast Scenery. — Drontheim. — GreifTenfeld Holme and Vure. — Tlie Sea-oayle. — The Herring-
fisheries. — The I^foten Islands. — TlieCod-fislierios. — Wretched Condition of llie Fisliernien. — Troniso-
— Altenfiord, — The Copper Mines. — Ilummerfest the most northern Town in the World. — The North
Cape.

OF all the lands situated cither within or near the Arctic Circle none enjoys
a more tcninerate climate tlian the Norwegian coast. Here, and nowhere
else throughout the northern world, the birch and the fir-tree climb the mount-
ain-slopes to a height of 700 or 800 feet above the level of the sea, as far as the

FROM DUONTIIEIM TO THE NORTH CAPE.

121

?«"

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iition.—
lorriiii,'-
ronisii-
1 Nortli

11 JOYS

rt'hcre

lOIIIlt-

as the

TOtli (l('i;reo of latitude; liere wc still fiiul a flourisliinij ai^riciiltiirc in tlic inte-
rior of the Malaiij^er Kjonl in G9°. On the opposite side of the I'olar Ocean
cxfeiids the inaccesHii)lo lee lielt of Kast (ireenlaiid; !Spit/.l»er<j;eii and Nuva
Ziiiilila are not 400 miles distant from Talvij^ and Ilainmerfest, and yet these
jKirts are never '-loeked with ice, and even in the depth of winter remain eon-
stantlv open to navijj^ation. What are the eauses which in this favored region
iianisli the iisnal rigors of the Arctic zone? How eomes ii. that the winter even
at the North Cape (mean temperatnre +-'J^) is mnch less severe than at (2ue-
hcc (mean temperature +14"), which is situated ^o" of latitude nearer to tiie
fiiiiatia" ?

The hiujh mountain chains which separate Norway from Sweden and Fin-
land, and keep off the eastern crales issuing from tlie Siberian wastes, while its
coasts lie open to the mild south-westerly winds of tiie Atlantic, no donl)t ae-
cmiiit in some measure for the comparative mililiiess of its climate; but the
main cause of this jihenonienon nnist no doubt be sought for in tlie sea. Flow-
ing' into the Atlantic Ocean between Florida and ('ul»:i, the warm (Julf Stream
traverses the sea from west to e.'ist, and although about the middle of its course
it partly turns to the south, yet a considerable portion of its waters i]>\\s on-
ward to the north-east, and streaming through the wide portal between Iceland
and (Ireat Hritain, eventually reaches the coasts of Norw.ay. Of course its
warmth diminishes as it advam-es to the north, but this is imparted to the
winds that sweej) over it, and thus it not merely brings the seeds of tropical
jijants from Equatorial America to the coasts of Norway, but also the far more
important ailvantages of a milder temperature.

The soil of Norway is generally rocky and sterile, but the sea amply makes
up for the <leficieneies of the land, and with the produce of their fisheries, ol
their forests, and their n\ines, the iiduibitants are able to ]iurehase the few for-
eign articles which they require. Though poor, and not seldom fibligcd to reap
the gifts of nature amidst Ji thousand hardships and dangers, they envy no other
nation upon earth.

The Norwegian peasant is a free man on the scanty bit of ground which ho
has inherited frona his fathers, and he has all the virtues of a freeman — an open
ciiaracter, a mind clear of every falsehood, a hospitable heart for the stranger.
Ilis religious feelings are deep and sincere, and the TJible is to be fouiul in every
hut. lie is said to be iiulolent and phlegmatic, but when necessity urges lie sets
vigorously to work, and never ceases till his task is done. His courage and his
patriotism are abundantly ju-oved by a history of a thousand years.

Norway owes her present prosperity chiefly to her liberal constitution. The
press is comi)letely free, and the power of the king extremely limited. All
jirivileges and hereditary titles are abolished. The P.arliament, or the " Stor-
tliiug," which assembles every three years, consists of the "Odelthing," or Up-
per I louse, and of the " Logthing," or Legislat i ve Assembly. Every new law re-
quires the royal sanction ; but if the Storthing has voted it in three successive
sittings, it is definitively adopted in spite of the royal veto. Public education
IS admirably cared for. There is an elementary scliocd in every village, and
where the population is too thinly scattered, the schoolmaster may truly be said

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122 Tin: I'OLAU WOULD.

to bo abroad, as bo wandcis from farm to farm, so tliat tbo moat distant faini-
Iit'8 buvc tbo iK'iit'fit of bis iiistriu'lioii. Evi-ry town bas il.s public library, and
ill many districts tbu pc-asaiits aiiiiiially coiitril>iitu u (b)llar towards a colluctioii
of books, wbicii, iiiKb-r tliu caro of liiu priest, is lent out to all subscribrrs. N(
Norwc'i^iaii is conlirmcd wbo dues not know bow to read, and no Norwfjjjian is
allowed to marry wlio bas not been contirnu'd. Ho wbo attaiiiH bij twcnlictli
year witlioiit baviiii; been cDiilirtiR-d bas to fear tlie llouso of ('oriTction. TIiuh
iifiiorancc is jiuiiisbcd as a criino in Norway, an excellent example for far rielior
and more powerful nations.

'J'lie population of Norway amounts to about 1,350,000, but tbese are very
uneipially distributed ; for while the soutberii province of vti^tjferbuus bas. 'j I. "JOOO
inhabitants on a surface of .')."), 'JOO sipiare miles, Nordland has only .'J!),(i()!) on
1 (),:!'_''), and Fiminirk, the most iiorlbern province of the land, but :is,0 )() on
2!»,0'2,'>, or hardly more than one inbaljitant to every scpiare mile. JJiit even this
Kcanty population is immense when conijiared witb that of Eastern Siberia or
of the Hudson s IJay territories, and entirely owes its existence to the mildness
of the climate and the open sea, whieb at all seasons affords its produce to the
ilsberman.

It is diflicnlt to im.aginc a more secluded, solitary life than tbat of the " bond-
ers," or peasant proprietors, aloim the northern coasts of Norway. The farms,
confined to the small p.atches of more fruitful jj;round scattered aloni^ the fjords,
at the foot or on f bo sides of the naked mountains, arc frequently many miles
distant from their neighbors, and the stormy winter cuts off all communication

NOUWSUIAN FAUM.

FROM nUOXTIIEIM TO TIIK NOUTl? CAl'K.

188

I

ailiAMlNO ALONG T1113 CKAST.

Iiutwc'on tliom. Tlius ovorv family, roiliiccil to its own resources, forms as it were
11 iiiiiall coininonweallli, which has but. little to Cut with tho external world, and
is obliged to rely for its liappiness on internal harmony, and a moderate com-
l)itcncy. Strangers seldom invade their solitude, for they arc far from the or-
dinary tracks of tho tourist, and yet a journey from Drontheim to llanunerfest
and tiie North Capo affords many objects of interest well worthy of a visit.
The (inly mode of communication is l)y sea, for the land is everywlu-re inter-
sected by deep fjords, boimded by one continuous chain of preci))itous cliffs and
rocks, varying from one thousand to four thousand feet in height. Formerly,
even the «ea-voyagG was attended with considerable difliculties, for tho misera-
ble "yoegt," or Scandinavian sloop, tho only means of conveyance at tho dis-
posal of ilie traveller, recpnred at tho host of times at least a month to perform
the voyage from Drontheim to Ilammerfest, and in case of stormy weather, or
contrary wind, had often to wait for weeks in some intermediate port. Now,
however, a steamer leaves the jiort of Drontheim every week, and conveys tho
travi'ller in five or six days to the remote northern terminus of liis journey.

Innumerable i-les of every size, from a few yards in diameter to as many
mik's, stud the lino of coast, and between tlieso and the mainland tho steamer
plouglis its way. Sometimes the channel is as narrow as the bed of a river, at
others it expands into a mighty lake, and tlie ever- varying forms of tho isles, of
the fjords, and of tlie mountains, oonst.antly open new and magnificent prospects
to tlie view. One grand colossal picture follows upon anotlier, but unfortu-
nati'ly few or none show the presence of man. Fi'om time to time only some
fishing-boat makes its iippearancc on the sea, or some wooden furm-liouse rises

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THE POLAR WORLD.

on llio military beach. Ot» ailvaiiciii!:; farther to tho north, the nspoot of natiirn
becDine.s more aiitl more Hlern, vejjfetation diminishes, man U more rarely necn,
niul the traveller feels as if he were ou the point of entering tiio gloomy re-
gions of perpetual death.

With the sole exeiption of Arehnnyel, Drontheim is the most populous ninl
important town situated in so hii;h n latitude as o:<° iJt'. Although the eraillc
of ancii'Mt Scandinavian history, and the residence of a hmii line of kind's, it looks
as if it had heen built but yesterday, as its wooilen houses have fre(|uenlly ixdi
destroyed by lire. The choir of its niagnilicent cathe<lral, built in the elevcaiii
century, :md once the resort of imiumeraiile pilgrims who canut flocking to tlic
ulu'ine of St. Olave from .'ill Scmdini''. ia, is the only remaining memorial of tlic
oM Tronyem of the Norse annalists and scalds. Tlu' modern town has a most
pleasing and agreealde appearance, and the lively colors with which tlu! houses
are painted harmonize with the prosperity of its inhabitants, which is due in a
great measure to its thriving fisheries, and to the rich iron and copper mines ia
its neighborhood. The tall chimneys of many smelt ing-huts, iron foundries,
imd other manufactories, bear evideu'c that modern industry has found its w;iy
to the ancient capital of Norway. In point of piclures(jue beauty, the bay, on ^
jieninsula of which the town is situated, does not yield to that of Xajiles. I'li
and <lown, in every direction, appear the villas of the merchant, and ships nf
all liurden riding at anchor in the bay, and boats passing and repassing. In a
small island of the b;iy, fronting the town, is the celelinited eastle of Munkliuiiii,
where in former times many a pris(»ner of state has bewailed the loss of his
liberty. Here, among others, Greiffenfeld, who liad risen from obscurity to the
rank of an all-powerful minister, was incarcerated for eigiiteen years (1(i80-iis.)
At Ilildringeii, where the ])otato is still cultivated with success, and barley
ripens every four or five years, begins the province of Nordland, which extends
from 0.5° to (i!)" HO' X. l;it. The mostly uninhabited isles along the coast are
called "Holme," when rising like steep rocks out of the water, and "Viiro"
when flat and but little elevated .above the level of the sea. The ' tter are the

breeding-places of numberless sea-fowls, whose
eggs yiehl a welcome hai st to the inhabitants
of tlie neighboring mainl.'ind or of the laiuer
isla'ids. A well-stocked egg-viir is a valuahle
addition to a farm, and descends from father
to son, along with the jiasture-grounds and the
irTrH^^^ - ^^^^ herds of the paternal land. When the propri-

yflii^^fr^ / .:^' etor comes to plunder the nests, the birds re-

main quiet, for they know by experience that
only the sujierfluous eggs are to be removed.
But not unfrequontly strangers land, and leave
.V not a single esjg behind. Then all the hinls,
several thousands at once, rise from their nests
and fill the air with their doleful cries. If such
disasters occur repeatedly they lose courage, and, abandoning the scene of their
misfortunes, retire to another var. Most of these birds are sea-gulls {Maasfugl,

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THE PUFFIN.

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FIIOM DIIONTIIEIM TO TlIK NOIITII CAPE.

12.T

or }f<ni'/f),t)n'\r t't^i^H nro Iiirj»i', anil of n not d'lNamvi'alilu taste. Tlio iHlaiid (»f
Lovmimii in tlu' favorite l>rt'tiliiii,'.|iliic»! of the |iulliii, wliicli is liii{lily ostoi'ini'd
oil iiri'oiiiit of its fi'atiifrs. Tiiis siily l)iril is very rasiiy caiij^lit. Tlio fowKr
1( Is down an iron iiool<, or scuds ;>. do^; traiiictl on jiiir|iost' into the narrow
clifls or lioles of till) rocl<, wlu-ro tlio |iiit)ins sit crowdi'il toj^utlior. Tiiu lirst
liii'd \n-\\\<i pulled out, the next one Itites and lays iiold uf his tail, and thus in
siici't ssioti, till the whole fainMy, clinj,'ing to<retlier like u chuin, i.s draj^'ged to

liu'lit.

This rocky coast is also much fre(iuente<l hy tlio sea-eagle, who is very niudi
fearc<l over the whole province, as he not only carries away laiuhs and other
small animals, liut even assails and not seldom overpowers the Korwe<^ian oxen.
Ills mode of attack is so sinL,'ular that if Von Much had not heard it so posi-
tively and so circumstantially related in various places, situated at Lji'eat dis-
tances frotn each other, he would willingly have doubted its truth. The eiigle
darts down into the waves, and then rolls uhout with his wet jilunniijfe on the
heach until his wind's are ((uite covered with sand. Then ho once more rises
into tlie air iind hovers over his intended victim. Swoopini; down close to him,
lie claps his wiiii^'s, tliiiifs the sand into the eyes of the unfortunate l-riite, and
tiioroiiiihly scares it by repeated l)lows of his pinions. The blinded ox rushes
away to avoid the eai^le's attacks, until he is completely exhausted or tumbles
(liiwii some preci|)itous cliff.

Tlic sea-coast from .Msti-n to Kodoe, which is crossed by the Arctic Circle,
is ])articulariy rich in herrings, jis it furnishes more than one-half of the lish ex-
jioitcd to IJergen.

In res|)ect of the capital invested, the cod-fishery must be regarded !is the
most important of the Norwegian deep-sea fisheries, but in the number of
hands employed, the herring-lishery takes precedence The number of men
actually engaged in the latter is not less than 00,000, and considerably more
than (l(iiil)le that number are directly or indirectly interested in tho result of
their operations. The herrings taken in 1800 filled 750,000 barrels, e.ach weigh-
ing J'J 4 lbs., tho largest catch ever taken on the Norwegian coast, at least in
recent years. As the movenu'nts of the fish arc extremely erratic, largo shoals
being fo uid one year in a part of the coast where none will be seen the year
ftillowing, th(! fishermen are forced to move from place to ])lace, and formerly
the herrings frecpiently escaped altogether for want of hands to cajiture them.
Now this difficulty is in a great measure removed. Telegraph stations arc
erected at different places on the coast, fi"om Avhich the movements of tho
shoals .arc carefully watched ; and field telegraphs are ke|)t in readiness to bo
joined on to the main line, so as to stmimon the fishermen from every jiart of
the country on the first appearance of the fish at any new point The best
time for the herring-fishery is from January to March, and in 1800,200,000
barrels, or more than one-fourth of tho total catch, were caught between Feb-
vuaiy nth and Uth.

At the northern extremity of the province of Nordland, between 08° and
C9° N. lat., are situated the Lofoten Islands, or Vesteraalen Oerne, which are
seiiarated from the mainland by tho Vestfjord. This broad arm of the sea is

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120

THE rOLAR wour.D.

rcmjirkaMo both for its violent currents and wliirlpoolw, atnonc; wiruh tlie ^Lul-
ulroiii lias attained a world-wide cek'hrity, and also from its being the most
nortlierly limit wliere the oyster has been fownd. l»:it it is chlelly as the re-
tort of the eod that the Vestfjurd is of the highest iniportaiu'e, not only tn
Xordlaiul, but to the whole of Norway. No less than GiHiO boats from all
]>arts of the coast, manned probably by more than I.alf of the whole adult nialo
jiopulalion of Nordland, annually assi'Uible at Vaagt', on tlie island of Ost Vaa-
goe, and besides these, more than ;>(H) yoegts, or larger lishing-sloops, frdin
IJergen, Christ iansand, and .Mohle, appear upon the scene. The banks of N'ew-
foundiand hardly occupy more hands than the fishing-grounds of the Vestf-
jord, whii'h, afti'r the lapse of a thousand years, continue as |ii-olitic as ever;*
nor is there an instance known of its having ever disajipointed the tishernian's
lu>])es. In Harold llaarfagr's tinu'S, \'aage was already ri'uowned for its lisli-
I'ries, and several yarls hatl settled in this northern district, to reap the rich
harvv'st of the seas. At a later period, tnider tlu- reign of Saint Olave (lOi'o),
the amnial Parliament of Nordland was lield at \'aage, and, in 1120, the benev-
olent King P'.ysli'in, brother of Sigurd the ("rusailer, I'aused a church to lie
eri'cted liere in honor of his saintly jiit'decessor, along with a ninnber of huts,
to serve as a shelti'r to the poor iishermen, a deed which he himself prized
more highly than all his chivalrous brother's warlike exploits in the Ivist, for
"these men," said he, '' will still remember in distant times that a King Ky-
stein once lived in Norway."

The reason why the tish never cease visiting this part of the coast is that
the Lofoti'U Isles inclose, as it were, an inlaiul vr mediterranean sea, which only
conmiunii-ates with the ocean by several narrow channels lu'twcen the islands,
and where till' llsh llnd the neci'ssary protection against stormy weathei". 'i'liey
assemble on three or four banks well known to the lislurmen, seldom arri\iiig
before tlu- middle of January, and rari'Iy later than towards the end «)f Febru-
ary. Tlieyri'inain in llie sheltered fjord no longi'r than is necessary for spawn-
ing, and in April have all retired to the deeper waters, so that the whole of
the lishing season does not last longer than a couple of months. The iish are
«'illier caught by hooks and lines, or mcMV freiiuently in large nets about twen-
ty fathoms long and seven or eight feet broad, buoyi'd with pieces of light
wood, and lested with stones, so as to maintain a vertical position when let
down in the water. Thi' fish, swimming with iinpetin)us speed, darts into llie
nu'shes, wiiicli effectually bar his retreat. The nets are always spread in the
evening, and hauled up in the morning; for as long as it is daylight, the li>li
pees and avoiils them, even at a depth of sixty or eighty fathoms. A single
liaul of the net fre(piently fills half the boat, and the heavy fish would undoiiht-
odly tear the meshes if they were not immediately struck with iron liooks, and
flung into the boat as soon as they arc dragged to the surface.

Clans Niels Sliningen, a merihant of liorgund, first introduced the use of
tlicse nets in the vear IGiria, an imiovatiou which more than doubled the toliil

pro
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to

• Ii! 1Si";(> tlic tot:\l ratcli of cod was '21,000.(100, nlioiit 1-J,00n,00n of wliicli were gnltcil (clip fish), nrii
thf rrm:\\ni\er iliicd (''tuck-ti^ll) ; cueli tieh making on iin average '2 lbs. of clip-lieh, and one-fourth Icsi
v<' ^tock-lisli.

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nrodiioc of the fislicrios. Txit (as with all useful iuvi-ntious) loud com])laii\ts
\vo.\' raised aj^aiust him in Norway, and as lato as ITti'J no ni'ts wore allowed
•U Dronthi'ini," to prevent the ruin of the poor people who had not the capital
to proviili' lluMHselves with them."

The lit'.' of a fisherman is everywhere full of privations and daiiLrers, hut no-
where more so tlan at the Lofoten Islands. Here, after toiliiiLr on tiie stormy
sea for manv hours, ho has nothini: hut the miserahle shelter of a damp, filthy,
„ver-er(>w.le<l hut, whioh aflords him neither the rest nor the warmth needed
after his fatiLruimx day's work. Even the iron-framed st)ns of the North are
ficiiieiitly uiiahle to resist such continuous hardsliips, and briiiix home with
tliem the' seeds of conta.unon and death. .Malignant fevers have frequently dee-
imatcd the population of Norway, and their origin may generally be traced to

Tilt: DOVKEKJULD.

the nsliing-grounds. "The Aral) and the Tersian," says T.eojioM von rnuh,
"'ituiid earavanseras for the wayfarers throuu,h the desert; the iiihahitants of
the Alps have founded ' hospices ' on the summits of the iiKumtain passes ; and
llie Norwegian has erected houses of refuge on Dovrefjeld, hut none for tlie
risiieniu'u of Lofoten. Near Kodoe there is a large hospital for the sick of
Nonllaml ; would it not he as well to build houses in Lofoten, so as not to
nowd the hospitals and churchyards?'" This was written at the beginning of
tlu' prt'seut century, but the poor fishermen are still as neglected as ever, for a
more recent traveller, IMarmier, behehl with pity the wretched iiuts in which
they spend three winter months far from their families.
In the channel between llvalo and the mainland lieu, in 09° 4j' N. lat., the

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THE POLAR WORLD.

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small island of Tromsu, where about fifty years since Oi.ly a few fishermen re-
sided, wliose huts have gradually expanded into a thriving little town of about
aOOO iidiabitants, along the shore opj)osite the mainland. Its staple exj)orts
are dried and salted cod, and train-oil. The livers of the cod are put in open
barrels and placed in the sun, and the melted portion whicli rises to tlie sur-
face is skiniMied off, being the purest oil. The coarse refuse is boiled in great
iron pots by the side of the sea, and yields the common " train-oil." The mus-
cular matter which remains is collected into barrels and exported as a i)owerful
manure ; some of it is sent to England.

The town consists mainly of one long straggling street, following the wind-
ings of the shore, and has a ])icturesque appearance from the harbor. The
houses are all of wood i»ainted with lively colors, and the roofs, mostly covered
with grass, diversified with bright clusters of yellow and white flowers, look
l)retty in summer. Tromsij has a Latin school, and even boasts of a news-
paper, the Ti'oinsi) T'klende et Jilun for N'ordland o[) J^iinntrr/cen ("The
Tromsij Gazette, a pa))er for Xordland and Fimnark"). This jtajier is publish-
ed tw ice a week ; and as only one mail arrives at Tromso every three weeks,
the foreign news is given by instalments, spreading over six successive muii-
beis, until a fresh disj)atch arrives.

The island of Tromso is beautifully situated, being on all sides environed
by mountains, so that it seems to lie in the midst of a huge salt lake. Its sur-
face rises in gentle slopes to a tolerable elevation, and no other Arctic isle con-
tains richer pasturage, or dwarf plantations of greater luxuriance. ]\Iaiiy
meadows are yellow with buttercups and picturesque, mderwood, and the
lieathy hills are covered with shrubs, bearing bright berries of many hues.
The )>ride of the Tromsoites in their island and town, and their profound at-
tachment to it, are remarkable. No Swiss can be more enthusiastically boiiiiJ
to his mountains and vales, than they are to their circumscribed domain.

To the north of Tromso lies the broad and deep AUenfjord, whose borders
are studded with numerous dwellings, and where the botanist meets with a
vegetation that may well raise his astonishment in so high a latitude. Here
the common bircli-trce grows 1450 feet, and the Vacclnium myrtllUts 20;!0
feet above the level of the sea; the dwarf birch {Bcttda nana) still vegetates
at a height of 2740 feet, and the Arctic willow is even found as high as 3500
feet, up to the limits of ))eronnial snow.

Alteii is moreover celebrated through its copper-mines. A piece of ore liav-
higbeen found i)y a Lap-woman in the year 1825, accidentally fell into the hands
of IMr. Crowe, an English merchant in Ilammerfest. This gentleman immediate-
ly took measures for obtaining a privilege from Government for the working of
the mines, and all preliminaries being arranged, set off for London, where he
founded a companj, with a capital of i;75,000. When Marmier visited the Al-
tetifjord in 1842, more than 1100 workmen were employed in these most north-
erly niininf/'Works of the world, and not seldom more than ten English vessels
at a time were busy unloading coals at Kaafjord for the smelting of the ores.
New copper rks had recently been opened on the opposite side of the bay at
Raipass, and since then the establishment lias considerably increased.

¥

FROM DRONTUEIM TO THE NORTH CAPE.

120

Iljiinmcrfcst, the capital of Finmark, situated on the west side of the island
of Ilvali), in 70° 39' 15", is the most northern town in the world. Half a centu-
ry since, it had but 44 inhabitants; at present its population amounts to 1200.
As at Tromso, very many of the houses, forming one long street winding round
the sliorc, have grass sown on their roofs, which gives the latter the appearance
of little plots of meadows. With us the expression, " he sleeps with grass above
his head," is equivalent to saying " he is in his grave ;" but here \* may only
mean that he sleeps beneath the verdant roof of his daily home. Many large
vvareliouscs are built on piles projecting into the water, with landing-quays be-
fore tliem ; and numerous ranges of open sheds are filled with reindeer skins,
wolf and bear skins, walrus tusks, reindeer horns, train-oil, and dried fish, ready
for exportation. The chief home traffic of Ilammerfest consists in barter with
tlic La[is, who exchange their reindeer skins for brandy, tobacco, hardware, and
cloth. Some enterprising merchants annually fit out vessels for walrus and
seal hunting at Spitzbergen and Bear Island, but the principal trade is with
Archangel, and is carried on entirely in " lodjcs," or White Sea ships, with three
single upright masts, each hoisting a huge try-sail. These vessels supply Ilam-
merfest with Russian rye, meal, candles, etc., and receive stock-fish and train-oil
m exchange. Sometimes, also, an English ship arrives with a supply of coals.

Tlic fishing-grounds off the coast of Finmark, whose produce forms the sta-
ple article of the merchants of Ilammerfest, are scarcely inferior in importance to
tliose of Lofoten, the number of cod taken here in 1860 amounting to 15,000,000.
A great part of the fish is purchased by the Russians as it comes out of the
\v;iter. Of the prepared cod, Spain takes the largest quantity, as in 1865 up-
wards of 44,000,000 lbs. of clip-lish (nearly the whole yield for the year) was
consigned to that country. Of the dried variety, 10,000,000 lbs. were exportc<l
to tlie Mediterranean, and uf»wards of 4,000,000 lbs. more to Italy. Swe<len
and Holland come next in order, the supply in each case being over 5,000,000
lis. (Jreat Britain takes scarcely any stock-fish, but 1,500,000 lbs. of clip-fish,
and the large export to the West Indies is almost entirely composed of the lat-
ter article.

The winter, though long and dark, has no terrors for the jolly Ilammerfest-
ers, for all the traders and shopkeepers form a united aristocracy, and rarely a
ni:,dit passes without a feast, a dance, and a drinking-bout. The day when the
Furi re-:ippears is one of general rejoicing; th.e first who sees the great luminary
proclaims it with aloud voice, and every body rushes into the street to exchange
congratulations with his neighbors. The island of Ilvalo has a most dreary, ster-
ile aspect, and considerable masses of snow fill the ravines even in summer.
Tlie birch, however, is still found growing 620 feet above the sea, but the fir
lias disappeared.

It may well be supposed that no stranger has ever sojourned m this interest-
ing place, the farthest outpost of civilization towards the Pole, without visiting,
or at least attempting to visit, the far-famed North Cape, situated about sixty
miles from Ilammerfest, on the island of Magerii, where a few Norwegians live
m earthen huts, and still manage to rear a few heads of cattle. 1 he voyage to
this magnificent headland, which fronts the seu with a steep rock-wall nearly a

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THE POLAR WORLD.

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thousand feet high, is ficquently difficult and precarious, nor can it be scaled
without considerable fatigue ; but the view from the summit amply rewards
the trouble, and it is no small satisfaction to stand on the brink of the most
northern promontory of Europe.

"It is impossible," says Mr. W. Ilurton," adequately to describe the emo-
tion experienced by me as I stepi)ed up to the dizzy verge. I only know that I
devoutly returned thanks to tiie Almigiity for thus permitting me to realize one
darling dream of my boyhood. Despite the wind, which here blew violently
and bitterly cold,! sat down, and wrapping my cloak around me, long contem-
plated the spectacle of Nature in one of her sublimest aspects. I was truly
alone. Not a living object was m sight; beneath my feet was the boundless
expanse of ocean, with a sail or two on its bosom at an immense distance;
above me was the eano])y of heaven, flecked with fleecy cloudlets; the sun was
luridly gleaming over a broad belt of blood-red mist ; the only sounds were t!ic
whistling of the wandering winds and the occasional plaintive scream of tlie
hovering sea-fowl. The only living creature which came near mo was a bee,
which hummed merrily by. What diil the busy insect seek there? Not a
blade of grass grew, and the only vegetable matter on this point was a cluster
of withered moss at the very edge of the awful ])recipice, and this I gathered, at
considerable I'isk, as a memorial of the visit."

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SPITZBERGEN— BEAU ISLAMD— JAN MEYEN.

131

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MiUMUUI SUM OFF SriTZBEUOEN.

*i'i

CHAPTER X.

SPITZBERGEN— BEAR ISLAND— JAN MEYEN.

The west Coast of S|iitzl)crpen. — Aacpnsion of a Mountain by Dr. Scoresby.— His ExcurMon along tho
Coast. — A stranded Whale. — Magd.ilena Hay. — Multitudes of Sea-birds. — .Vnimal I-ife. — Midnight
Silence. — Ghicierg.— A danj^erous Nel(.;liborhood. — Interior Plateau. — Flora of Spitzt)crj;en. — Its
Similarity with that of the Alps above the Siiow-line. — Reindeer. — The hyperborean Ptarmigan. —
Fishes. — Coal. — Urift-wood. — Discovery of Spitzbergen by Uarenti'., Ilceniskerk, and I!yp. — Brilliant
Period of tlie Whale-fishery. — Coffins. — Ki^ht English Sailors winter in Spitzbergcn, 16:i0. — >Ielan>
choly Death of some Dutch Volunteers. — Russian Hunters. — Their Mode of wintering in Spitzber-
gen. — Scharosiin. — Walrus-ships from Ilamincrfcst and Tromsii.— Rear or Cherie Island — Rennet.
—Enormous Slaughter of Walruses. — Jlildiiess of itsCliniate. — Mount Misery. — Adventurous Roat-
voyage of some Norwegian Sailors. — Jan Mcyen. — Reercnberg.

'I'^lIE archipolac;o of Spitzbergcn consists of five largo islands: West SpitiB-
-*- bcfgen, North-east Land, Stans Foreland, Barentz Land, Prince Charles
Foreland ; and of a vast number of smaller ones, scattered around their coasts.
Its surface is about equal to that of two-thirds of Scotland : its most southera
point (7G° 30' N, lat.) lies nearer to the Pole than Melville Island ; and Ross
I.slet, at its northern extremity (80° 49' N. lat.^, looks out upon the unknown
ocean, which perhaps extends without intriruption as far as the Straits of
Bering.

Of all the Arctic countries that hav-; hitherto been discovered, Grinnell

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THE POLAR WOULD.

Land and Washington alone lio nearer to the Polo ; but while these ice-block-
od regions can only bo reached with the utmost difticully, the western and
north-western coasts of Spitzbergen, exposed to the mild south-westerly Wiuds,
and to the influence of the Gulf Stream, are frequently visited, not only hv
walrus-hunters and Arctic explorers, but by amateur travellers and Rportsnien.

The e.if'"rn coasts are far less accessible, and in parts have never yet been
accurately explored. As far as they are known, they are not so bold and in-
dented as the western and north-western coasts, which, projecting in mighty
capes or opening a ])assage to deep fjords, have been gnawed into every varie-
ty of fantastic form by the corroding power of an eternal winter, and justify,
by their endless succession of jagged spikes and break-neck acclivities, tin-
name of fSi)itzbergen, which its first Dutch discoverers gave to this land of
" serrated peaks."

The mountains on the west coast are very steep, many of them inaccessible,
and most of them dangerous to climb, either from the smooth hard snow with
which tliey are encrusted even in summer, or from the looseness of the disin-
tegrated stones which cover tho parts denuded by the sun, and give way un-
der the slightest pressure of the foot.

More than one daring seaman has paid dearly for his temerity in venturing
to scale these ti'cacherous heights. The supercargo, or owner, of tho very liist
Dutch whaler that visited Sj)itzbergcn (1G12) broke his neck in attempting to
climb a steep mountain in Prince Charles Foreland, and Bai-entz very nearly
lost several of his men under similar circumstances. Dr. Scoresby, who in the
course of his whaling expeditions touclied at Spitzbergen no less than seven-
teen times, was more successful in scaling a mountain 3000 feet high, wonr
Mitre Caju', though the approach to the summit was by a ridge so narrow tliat
he could only advance by sitting astride upon its edge Dut the jianoraiiia
which he beheld, after having attained his object, amply repaid him for llio
danger and fatigue of clambering for several hours over loose stones, whicii at
every step rolled with fearful rajiidity into the abyss beneath.

" The prospect," says the distinguished naturalist, " was most extensive and
grand. A fine sheltered bay was seen to the east of us ; an arm of the same
on the north-east; and the sea, whoso glassy surface was unruftled by a breezo,
formed an immense expanse on the west ; the icebergs, rearing their proud crests
almost to the tops of the mountains between v.hich they were lodged, and dt-
fying the power of the solar beams, were scattered in vaiious directions al)()iu
tlie sea-coast and in theadjohiing bays. Beds of snow and ice, filling extensive
hollows and giving an enamelled coat to adjoining valleys, one of which, com-
mencing at the foot of the mountain where we stood, extended in a continued
line towards tho nortl; as far as the eye could reach ; mountain rising above
mountain, until by distance they dwindled into insignificance; the whole con-
trasted by a cloudless canopy of deepest aztne, and enlightened by tho rays of
a blazing sun, and the effect aided by a feeling of danger — seated, as we were,
1 the pinnacle of a rock, almost surrounded by tremendous precipices ; all
united to constitute a picture singularly sublime.

" Our descent we found really a very hazardous, and iu some instances a

SFITZnEIlOEN— BEAU ISLAND— JAN MEYEN.

138

painful imdertiiking. Every movement was a work of dolibcration, Ilavinj*,
by much care and with some anxiety, made good our descent to llio lop of ti.e
secondary iiilis, we took our way down one of the steepest banks, and slid for-
ward with j^reat facility in a sitting posture. Towards the foot of the hill an
expanse of snow stretched across the line of descent. This beintj loose and
Koft wc entered upon it without fear, but on reaching the middle of it, wo
{■;une to a surface of solid ice, perhaps a hundred yards across, over which wo
launched with astonishing velocity, but happily escaped without injury. The
jiuii, whom we left below, viewed this latter movement with astonishment and

fuar.

After this perilous descent, Scoresby continued his excursion on the flat land
next the sea, where he found .scattered here and there many skulls and other
hones of sea-liorses, whales, narwhals, foxes, and seals. Two Ilussiaii lodges,
formed of logs of pine, with a third in ruins, were also seen; the former, from
a quantity of fresli chips about them and other appearances, gave evidence of
having been recently iidiabited. These huts were built upon a ridge of shingle
adjoining the sea. Among the boulders heai)e<l upon the shore, numerous sea-
hirds had l)uilt their nests or laid their eggs, which they defended with loud
cries and determined courage against the attacks of gulls. The only insect ho
perceived was a small green fly, but the water along the coast was filled with
medusa; and shrimps. The strong north-west winds had covered the strand
willi large heaps of Facits veslculosus and Jjiminarla saccharina, iha same
which the storms also cast out upon our shores.

Tlie view of this high northern life was extremely interesting, but Dr.
Scoresby was still further rewarded by the discovery of a dead wliale, found
stranded on the beach, which, though much swollen and not a little putrid,
proved a prize v, ortli at least iltOO. l>y a harpcon found in its body, it appoar-
cil to have been struck by some of tlie fishers on the Elbe, and having escaped
from them, it had probal)ly stranded itself on the spot where it was found.
When the first incision was made, the oil gushed f(<rth like a fountain. It was
a slow and laborious work to transport the blubber to the ship, which on ac-
count of the dangerous nature of the coast Avas obliged to remain two miles
off at sea. After five boat-loads had safely been brought on board, the wind
Biiddeiily changed, so that the ship was driven far out to sea, and the boat
reached her with great difficulty.

Of tlic mimerous fjords of Spitzbcrgcn, once the busy resort of whole fleets
of whalers, and now but rarely visited by man, none has \)een more accurately
dc'sci'il)ed by modern Arctic voyagers than the magnificent liarl)or of ^lagda-
k'lia Day. Here the Dorothea and the Trent anchored in 1S18, on their way
to the North Polo; here also the French naturalists, who had been sent out in
tlic corvette La Recherche (1835-36) to explore the high northern latitudes,
sojourned for several weeks.

The number of the sea-birds is truly astonisliing. On tlie ledges of a high
rock at tlie head of the bay Beechey saw the little auks [Arctir.a nlle) extend
in an luiinterriipted lino full three miles in length, and so closely congregated
that about thirty fell at a single shot. He estimated their numbers at about

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THE I'OI.AU WOULD.

4,000,000. When Ihcy took flight thoy darkened the air ; and at the distanco
of four miles their cliorus could distitietly be heard.

On a lino summer's day, the bellowing of the walruses and the hoarse bark

of the seals are mingled with ihe shrill notes of the auks, divers, and gulls.
Although all these tones produce a by no means harmonious concert, yet ti'iey
have a pleasing effect, as denoting the happy feelings of so many creatures.

SPITZBERGEN-BEAR ISLAND— JAN MEYEN.

185

Wlicn the sun verges to tlie pole, every animal becomes mule, and a silence
lirokon only by theburstint^ of a glacier reigns over the whole bay — a remark-
able; contrast to the tropical regions, where Nature enjoys her repose during
tlic iiooiiday heat, and it is only after siuiset that life awakens in the forest

and the liehl.

Four glaciers reach down this noble inlet : one, called the Wagon Way, is
7(iO(t fiot across at its terminal cliff, which is 300 feet high, presenting a mag-
iiiliccnt wall of ice. IJiit the whole scene is constructed on so colossal a scale
tliul it is only on a near approach that the glaciers of ^lagdalena liay appear
in all tlieir imposing grandeur. In clear weather the joint effect of the ice un-
(lir (lie water, and the reflection of the glacier-wall above, causes a remarkable
optic. :' delusion. The water assumes a milk-white color, the seals appear to
[(Mniliol in a thick cream-like licpiid, and the error only becomes apparent when,
on leaning over the side of the boat, the spectator looks down into the traus-
jiareiit depth below.

It IS extremely dangerous to approach these cliffs of ice, as every now and
tlien large blocks detach themselves from (he mass, and frequently even a con-
cussion of the air is enough to make them fall.

During the busy period of Spitzbei'gen history, when its bay used to be fre-
quented by whalers who anchored under the glacier-walls, these ice-avalanches
often had disastrous consecpiences. Thus, in the year 1G19, an English ship
was driven by a storm into Bull Sound. '»V'^liile it was passing under a prcci-
l)ii'e ot ice, a prodigious mass came thundering down upon it, broke the masts,
and threw the ship so violently upon one side that the captain and part of the
crew were swept into the sea. The captaui escaped unhurt, but two sailors
were killed and several others wounded.

One day a gun was fired from a boat of the Trent when about half a mile
from one of the glaciers of Magdalena Bay. Immediately after the report of
tlie musket, a noise resembling thunder was heard in the direction of the ice-
Ktrcani, and in a few seconds more an enormous mass detache<l itself froia its
front, and fell into the sea. The men in the boat, supjiosing themselves to be
beyond the reach of its influence, were tranquilly contemplating the magniiicent
eight, when suddenly a largo wave came sweeping over the bay, and caiX their
little shallop to a distance of ninetj'-six feet upon the beach.

Another time, when Franklin and Beechey had ap])roaclnd one of these ice-
walls, a huge fragment suddenly slid from its side, an(' fell with a crash into
the sea. At (list the detached mass entirely disappeared under the waters, cast-
ing up clouds of spr.ay, but soon after it shot up again at least 100 fect above
the surface, and then kept rocking several miimtes to and fro. When at Icngtii
the tumult subsided, the block was found to measure no less than 1500 feet in
circumference ; it projected GO feet above the water, and its weight was calcu-
lated at more than 400,000 tons.

Besides <he glaciers of Magdalena Bay, Spitzbergen has many others that
protrude their crystal walls down to the water's edge ; and yet but icw ice-
bergs, and the largest not to be compared with the productions of Baffin's Bay,
arc drifted from the shores of Spitzbcrgen into the open sea. The reason is

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tliat the glaciors usually tonniiiato whoro the sea is shallow, so that no very
largo mass if dislodged can float away, and they are at tho saino tiino so fro-
quently dismembered by heavy swells that they can not attain any great size.

Tho interior of Spitzbergen has never been exjjlored. According to iho
Swedish naturalists,* who climbed many of tho highest mountains in various
parts of the coast, all the central regions of tho archipelago form a level ice-
])lateau, interrupted only here and there by denuded rocks, projecting like isl-
anda from tho crystal sea in which they are imbedded. The height of this plii-
toauabovc the level of the ocean is in general from 1500 to '2000 feet, and from its
frozen solitudes descend tho various glaciers above described. During the sum-
mer months, tho radiation of the sun at S])itzbergen is always very intense, tlio
thermometer in some sheltered situations not seldom rising at noon to C2°, 07°,
or even 73". Even at midnight, at tho very peak of tho high mountain ascend-
ed by Scorcsby, tho power of tho sun ]U'oduced a temjieratiiro several degrees
above tho freezing-point, and occasioned tho discharge of streams of water from
tho snow-capped sununit. Hence, though oven in the three warmest months tlio
temperature of Spitzbergon does not .■iver.'age more that 34^°, yet in tho more
southern .aspects, aiul particularly where tho warmth of the sun is absorbed and
radiated by black rock-walls, tho mountains are not seldom bared at an elevii-
tion nearly e(iual to that of the snow-lino of Norway, and various Alpine plants
and grasses frequently flourish, not only in sheltered situations at the foot of
tho hills, but even to a considerable height, wherever tho disintegrated rocks
lodge and form a tolerably good soil.

Tho Flora of Spitzbergen consists of about nincty-threo species of flowering
or phenog;wnous plants, which generally grow in isolated tufts or patches; but
tho mosses which carpet tho nu)ist lowlands, and the still more hardy lichens,
which invest tho rocks with their thin crusts or scurfs as far as the last limits
of vegetation, arc much more numerous. Some of the plants of Spitzbergca
aro also found on tho Alps l)eyond tho snow-liiu?, at elevations of from 0000 to
10,000 feet :il)ovo tho level of tho sc.a. According to Mr. IMartins, nothing can
give a bettor idea of Spitzbergen than tho vast circus of nene, in tho centre of
wliich rises tho triangular rock known to tho visitors of Chamouny as tho Jardin
or tho Courtil. Let tho tourist, placed on this spot at a time when the sun
rises but little above tho horizon, or better still, when wreaths of mist hiuii<
over tho neighboring mountains, fancy tho sea bathing tho foot of the am|iiii-
theatre of which ho occupies tho centre, and ho has a comi)lete Si)itzberg('n
prospect before him. Supposing him to be a botanist, tho sight of tho Itaninn'U'
lus ffludalis, Ccrastliim alpiiium, Arenaria hijlora, and iLviycron iinijlorus
will still further incro ise the illusion.

The only esculent plant of Spitzbergon is tho Cochlearia feiiestrata , \\\\'k\i
hero loses its acrid principles, .^nd can be eaten as a salad. Tho grasses which

* Within tlin last few yoirs, nn loss than throo Fcicntilic PxpodiMons have hrcn sent out to Spitz-
l)ergon at tho osponsi> of thf Swedish (loveniment. Dmins tlio summer of 185S, Messrs. Otto Ton.!!,
Giiennerstcdt, anil Xonliiiskjold visiti'.l the, western parts of the archipelafio. In 18i!l (lie wh"le coa^t,
from Ic' Sound to Dove Hay in North-east Land was aceurately investigated by Messrs. Ton II, iMaim-
giRn, ('hydenius, etc., and in 18GI Messrs. Nordcnskjold, Diincr, and Malmtrren vij-it'd the southern
•horca and Wjde Jan's Water. A fourth expedition has just tuft the port of Gothenburg (June, 18C8)

BI'ITZBEIIGEN-KEAR ISLAND— JAN MEYEN.

137

Ktilli.iu found prowint* near Koino Russian lints in Stans Foreland nro durintj
tlic .siiinmcr a piTcious reson'vc for the rolndcur, which, thoutrh oxtrumely shy,
niaku tliiir appearance from time to time in every part of the land from tin,'
Seven Islands to South (^apc, and are more ahuixlant than could have heeii ex*
poctcd. The I'olar bears are jirobably their only native enemies on these isl-
ands, and their ileetness furnishes them with ample means of escai)e from a
pursuer so clumsy on land. Lord ^MulLCrave's crew killed fifty deer on VoLjel-
Hanij, a noted huntinij-place, and on Sir Kdward Parry's pohir expedition about
81'veiitv deer were sliot in Treureiiber<j IJay by inexperienced ileer-stalUers, and
without the aid of dogs, louring the winter these large herbivora live on the
Icelandic moss which they scent under the snow, but it may well be asked where
they find shelter in a nakeil wilderness without a single tree. In May and
June they arc so thin as scarcely to bo eatable, but in July they begin to get
fat, and then their tlesh would everywhere be reckoned a delicacy.

Hesides the reindeer, the only land-quadrupeds of Spitzbergeii arc the Polar
bear, tiie Arctic fox, and a small lield-mouse, which in summer has a mottled,
and in winter a white fur.

Of the birds, the hyperborean ptarmigan {Lnr/opus hypcrhorm), which
easily procures its food under the snow, undoubtedly winters in Spitzbergeii,
and i)i'obably also the lesser red-pole, which perhaps finds grass seeds enough
for its subsistence during the long polar nights, while the snow-bunting (J'lec-
trophdufs ninulis)^ and the twenty species of water-fowl and waders that fre-
quent tiie sliores of the high northern archipelago during the summer, all mi-
grate southward when the long summer's day verges to its end.

Until very lately the Spitzbergen waters were supposed to bo poor in fishes,
tliougli the numerous finbacks, which towards the end of summer frequent tho
southern and south-western coasts, and, unlike the large smooth-back whales,
chietly live on herrings, as well as the troops of salmon-loving white dolphin
, seen about the estuaries of the rivers, sulliciently proved the contrary, not to
mention the herds of seals, and the hosts of ichthyophagous sea-birds that breed
on every rocky ledge of the archipelago. Pliipps anil Scoresl)y mention only
three or four species of fishes occurring in the seas of Spitzbergen, while the
Swedish naturalist Malmgrcn, the first who seems to have paid real attention to
this interesting branch of zoology, collected no less than twenty-three s|)ecies in
IHOl and 18Gt. The northern shark {Sojmniis ijiicroccphdha^) is so abundant
tliat of late its fishery has jn'oved iiighly remunerative. Tiie first ship which
was fitted out for this purjiosc in 18G8 by Ililbert Pettersen, of Tromso, returned
from r>ell and Ico Sounds with a full cargo of sharks' livers, and in 1805 the
same enterprising merchant sent out no less than five shark-ships to Spitzbergen.
The cod, the common herring, the shell-fish, the halibut have likewise been
caught in the Avaters of the archipelago, and there is every reason to believe
that their fishery, which has hitherto been entirely neglected, might bo jjursuod
with great success.

Tiie mineral riches of Spitzbergen are, of course, but little known. Coal of
an excellent quality, which might easily be Avorked, as it nearly crops out on
the surface at a short distance from tho sea, has, however, been discovered

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luU'Iy l>y Mr. UIonistrniKl in Kiii!j;'H Hay, nnd nimiliir strata exist in various pnrt«
of Ik'li Sound and Icif Sound. Larfjo (|uanlititM of drift-wood, proLaldy fnun
tliu l:ir<rc' Sihcri.'in rivors, an- di'|»o,sitc'(l liy tlio currents, itarticiilarly on tlic
iiortli coasls of Nortli-cast l-and, and on tiio soiillicrn coasts of Slans I''oro.
laruL In I']nL.'iisli I Say liord OidYi'rin s;i\v innutncralilc 1ii,l,'s of uiiiicwn tirn-
licr, mingled witli wliicli lay pieces of lirokcu spars, an o.ar, a boat's tlaj^'sfaff,
and a few sliattered frai.'nu'iits of soino lonj^-lost vessel's planl\iii;^.

Most prcthaliiy tlio Norwe<,daiis li;id tlieir attention directed at a very early
period to the existence of a land lyirit,' to the north of Finniarken liy the troujis
of inifjjratoiy birds which diey saw flyinj; northward in sprint;, and by the
casual visits of sea-bears, which the drift-ice carried to the south, 'i'heri; cnn
be no doubt that they were the first discoverers of Spit/lierLren, but their his-
tory contanis no positive records of the fact, and it was not bei'ori' the sixteenth
century that Kuropo first became ac((uaiiited with that desolate archipelaira
Sir IIu^li Willouij;hi)y ni.ay possibly have seen it in I.').")!», but it is certain that
on June 10, loUO, l>;irentz, IIeeinski'rke,-'uid Ityp, who had sailed in two ships
from Amsterdam \o discover the nortli-eastern passage to India, landed on its
western coast, ami txiive it the name it bears to the presi'iit day. In the year
1007 it was visited by the mifortuuate Ilemy Hudson, and four years later llic
first Knirlisli whalers were fitted out by the Kussia t'oiujiaiiy in London to fish
in the liays of Spitzberiien, or East Greenland, as it was at that time called,
bein;; supposi'd to be the eastern prolongation of tliat vast island. Here our
countrymen nu't with Dutchmen, Norwegians, and IJiscay.'Uis from IJayonne
and the jiorts of Northern Sp.ain, and commercial rivalry soon led to the usual
quarrels. In the year ItJl.'l James I. granted the IJussia Company n patent,
^i\inLr ihem the exclusive rii.dit to fisli in the Spitzbergen Avaters, and seven
ships of w;ir were sent out to enforce their j)retensi()ns. The Dutch, tlie Nor-
wegians, and the Uiscayans were driven away; a cross with the name of tlie
Kini; of Knujland was erected on tlio sliore, and Spitzbergen received the niune ,
of " Kinir Janu's his Newland." This triumph, however, was but of sliort (bi-
ratioii, and after a struggle, in whieli none of the combatants gaiiu'd any decis-
ive advant.age, all jjarties came at last to an andcablc agreement. The Kiiglisli
received for their share the best stations on the soutli-western coast, along with
Englisb IJay .and ]\Iagdalena Bay. The Dutch were obliged to retreat to tlie
north, ai;d chose ATUsterdam Island, with Smeereid)e''g 15ay, as the seat of their
operations. Tlie Danes or Norwegians established their liead-quarters on
Dane's Island ; the Hamburgers, who also eainc in for their share, in Ham-
burg I'ay ; and the French or IJiscayims on the north coast, in lied Ijay. At
present a right or smooth-backed whale rarely shows itself in the Spitzbergen
•waters, but at that time it was so abundant that frecjuently no ler.s than forty
whalers used to anchor in a single bay, and send out their boats to kill these
cetaceans, who came there for the i>urpose of casting their young in the shel-
tered friths and channels. The f.it of the captured wh.ales was immediately
boiled in large kettles on the shore, and the bays of Spitzbergen presented .1
most animated spectacle during the summer season.

Numc^rous colTms — an underground burial being impossible in this frost-

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BURIAL IN SriTZDEItnBN.

hardened eartli — still honr witness to thoso busy times, and also to the groat
mortality amoiit; tlic fishermen, caused doubtless by tlioir intemperate habits.
Tlity arc jjarticularly abundant at Smeerenberir, where Admiral lieediey saw
upwards of one thousand of them ; boards with Knp;lish inscriptions wero
erected over a few, but the greater number were Dutch, and had been deposited
ill the eighteenth century. Some coffins having been opened, the corpses were
foiuid in a state of perfect preservation, and even tlie woollen caps and stock-
ings of the mariners, who might perhaps have rested for more than a century
on this cold earth, were still a[»parently as new as if they had been but recently
put on.

Ill the seventeenth century tlio English and tlio Dutch made several at-
tempts to establish permanent settlements in Spitzbergcn. Tho Russia Com-
]i;uiy tried to engage volunteers by the promise of a liberal pay, and as none
I'liine forward, a free pardon was offered to criminals who would undertake to
winter in Hell Sound, A few wretches, tired of confinement, accejitcd the pro-
l^osal, but when tho ileet was about to depart, and they saw tho gloomy hills,
and felt t!ie howling north-eastern gales, their hearts failed them, and they en-
treated the captain who had charge of them to take them back to London and
let them be lianged. Their request to be taken back was complied with, but
the company generously interceded for them, and obtained their pardon.

Some time after, in the year 1 630, an English whaler landed eiglit men in
Rtil Sound to hunt reindeer. They remained on shore during the night, but
meanwhile a storm had arisen, and on the following morning their Bhip had

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THE POLAR WORLD.

vanished out of sight. It was towards tlic end of August, and thoy had no hope
of rescue at this advanced period of the year.

Their despair may bo imagined, but they soon recovered their courage, and
wisely determined to make prejjarations for tlie impending winter, instead of
losing time in useless hiuientations. Tlieir first care was to lay in a stock of
food, and in a sliort time lliey had killed nineteen reindeer and four bears.
Fortunately they found in Bell Sound the necessar' nateriala for the erection
of a hut. A large shed fifty feet long and thirty-eight broad liad been built
as a workshop for the men of tlio Russia Company, and they very judiciouslv
constructed tlieir small hut of stones and thick planks within this inclosed
space. They thus gained a better protection against the icy wind and room
for exorcise during stormy weather, one of the best i)roservatives against the
scurvy. They made their beds and winter dresses of the skins of the aniiiials
they had killed, sewing them together with needles made of bone splinters, and
using disentangled rope-ends as- thread.

Their hut was ready by September 12, and to preserve their supply of meat
as long as possible, they lived four days of the week on ti.j offal of whales' fat
which lay scattered about in great plenty. I'roni October iiO to February 15
they saw no sun, and from the 13th to the 31si of December no twiliglit. The
new year began with excessive cold : every piece of metal they touched stuck
to their fingers like glue, and their skin became blistered when exposed to the
air. The re-a])pearance of the sun was as a resurrection from death. To in-
crease their joy, they saw two bears on tht; ice, one of which they killed, luit
they found, what has since bcv.'n frecpiently experienced by others, that the

ARCTIC rox.

SPITZBEIIGEN— BEAR ISLAND— JAN MEYEN.

141

liver of t!io aniinal has poisonous qualities, or is at least very unwholesome, for,
after eatiiiir it, tiiey were all attacked with a kind of eruptive fever, and their
skin peeled off. Towards the middle of ^larch their provisions were well-nigh
exhausted, but the Polar bears appearing move frecpiently, replenished their
slock. Soon also the migratory birds arrived from the south, the foxes crept
out of their burrows, and many were caught in traps. On June 5 the ico be-
gin to break up, and on the following morning one-half of the bay was open.
A gale forced them to seek the shelter of their hu',. There, seated round the
lire, they spoke of tieir approaching delivery, when suddenly a loud halloo
was heard. They immodiately rushed out into the 0|)en air, and lianlly be-
lieved their eyesight, for they were greeted by their comrades of the previ-
ous summer, and saw their own well-known shij) at anchor in tlie bay. Thus
were these brave-hearted men rescued after a ten montlis e.\ile in the lati-
tude of 77°.

The possibility of wintering in Spitzbcrgcn h.avlng thus been proved, some
volunteers belonging to the Dutch fleet were induced by certain emoluments
to attempt the same enterprise on Amsterdam Island ; but, less fortunate than
their predecessors, they all fell victims to the scurvy. A iliary which they
lift behind recorded the touc'iing history of their sufferings. "Four of us,"
these were its last words, " are still alive, stretched out flat upon the floor, and
might still be able to cat if one of us had but the strength to rise and fetch
some food and fuel, but wo are all so weak, and every movement is so painful,
that we are ineajtable of stirring. We constantly pniy to God soon to release
us from our sufferings, and truly we can not live much longer without food
ami warmth. None of us is able to help the others, and each must bear his
burden as well as he can."

Since that time both the English and the Dutch have given up the idea of
forming permanent settlements in Spitzbergen, but sc ucely a year passes that
some Russians and Norwegians do not winter in that high northern Land. As
tar bac^k as the seventeenth century, the former used to send out their clumsy
but strongly-built "lodjes " of from GO to IGO tons from the ports of Archan-
gel, ]\Iesen, Otu'ga, Kola, and other places bordering the White Sea, to ch.ase
the various animals of Spitzbergcn, the reindeer, the seal, the beluga, Imt chief-
ly the; w.'ilrus, the most valuable of all. These essols leave home in July, or
as soon .as the navig.'ui n of the White Sea opjns, and as the shortness of the
season hardly allows them to return in the same year, they p.ass the winter in
some slieltered bay. Their first care on landing is to erect a large cross on the
shore, a ceremony they repeat on leaving, and smli is their religious faith that
under the protection of that holy synbol they nioek all the terrors of the Arc-
tic winter. Near the place where their vessels are laid up, they buihl a largo
hut from twenty to twenty-five feet square, which is used as a station and mag-
azine ; but the huts used by the men who go in quest of skins, and which are
erected at distances of from ten to fifty versts along the shore, are only seven or
ciglit feet s<piare. The smaller huts are usually occupied by two or three men,
who take care to provide themselves from tlie store-house with the necessary
provisions for the winter. Scoresby visited Bcverul of these huts, some uon-

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THE POLAR WORLD.

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Btructed of logs, others of deal two inches in thickness. They are of the same
kind as those nsed by the peasants in llussia, and, being tiiken out in pieces
are erected with but little trouble in tlio most convenient situation. Tlio stoves
are built with bricks, or with clay found in the country. During the stay of
the hunters, they employ themselves in killing seals or walruses in the water
an<l bears, foxes, deer, or whatever else they meet with on huid. Each ship is
furnished with j)rovisions for eiglitecn months, consisting of rye flour for bread,
oatmeal, barley-meal, peas, salt beef, salt cod, and salt halibut, together with
curdled milk, lioney, and linseed oil ; besides which, they enjoy the Hesh of tlio
animals which they kill. Their drink consists chiefly of qiias, a national bev-
erage made fiom rye floui and water; malt or spirituous liquors being entirely
forbidden, to prevent drunkenness, as, when they were allowed it, they drank
so immoderately that their work was often altogether neglected. Their fiiol
for the most part is brought with them from liussia, and drift-wood is used
for the same i)urpose.

The hunters, seldom travelling far in winter, make tlieir sliort excursions on
foot on snow-skates, and draw their food after them on hand-sledges. Not sel-
dom they are overta'a-n by terrilio snowstorms, which force them to throw
themselves flat upon the ground, and sometimes even cost them their lives.
Their best j)reservation against the scurvy is bodily exercise ; they also use the
Cochlc(iri(( fenednita, which grows wild in the country, eitlier eating it without
any preparation, or drinking tl.e liquor prepared from it by infusion in water.
Yet, ill spite of all their j)rccautions, they often fall a prey to this terrible
Bcourgo. In the year 1771, Mr. Steward, of Whitby, landed in King's Bay to
gather drift-wood, and found a Tlussian hut. After having vainly called for ad-
mittance, they opened it, .and found a corpse stretched out on the ground, its
face covered witli green mould. Most likely the unfortunate man, having bur-
ied all his comrades, had, as the last survivor, found no one to perform the same
kind oflice for himself. Generally the Russian hunters, after spending the win-
ter in Spitzbergen, return home in the following August or September; hut
their stop is often j)rolonged during several years ; and Scharostin, a vener;ihle
Russian, who died in 1820 in Ice Sound, is deservedly reniarkablu for hiivinsj;
spent no less than tliirty-two winters of his long life in that high northern land,
where he once remained during fifteen consecutive years. Surely this man
ought to have been crowned king of Spitzbergen —

On .1 tlironp of rorks, in a robo of clouds,
Witli a diadem of snow I

TCvery year, at the begiiming of summer, .about a dozen vessels leave the ports
of Ilammerfest r id Tromsi) for Spitzbergen. Formerly it was a very coninion
thing for tliem to procure three cargoes of walrus an<l seals in a season, and less
than two full cargoee was considered very bad luck indeed ; now, however, it is
a rare thing to get more than one cargo in a season, and many vessels relura
home after four months' absence only half full. Yet, in spite of this diminution,
the numbers of walruses still existing in that country are very considerable, par-
ticularly on the northern banks and skerries, which are only accessible in open

\i

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SPITZBERGEN— BEAR ISLAND— JAN MEYEN.

143

seasons, or perhaps once in every three or four summers, when the persecuted
auiu-als "ct a little time to breed and replenish their numbers.

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About midway between Ilammerfcst and Spitzbergen lies Bear Island, orig-
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net, a shijjmastor in the service of the Muscovy Company, while on a voyage of
discovery in a norlh-eastcrly direction, likewise saw Hear Island on August 10.
Ignorant of its i)revious discovery by IJarentz, lie called it Clierie Island, after
Sir Francis Cherie, a nienibcr of the company, and to this day both names are
used.

IJennet found some walruses on its desert shores, and returned in the fal-
lowing year with ;; vessel litted out by a merchant of the tumie of Welden, to wage
war with tnese sea monsters. His first operations were not very successful.
Of a herd of at least a thousand walruses, he killed no more than liftcen, and a
later attack upon an equally enormous troop raised the entire number of his
victims to no more than lifty. Their tusks alone were brought away, and along
with some loose ones collected on the beach formed the chief produce of the ex-
])edition. At first the unwieldy creatures were fn-ed at, but as the bullets made
no great impression on their thick hides, grapeshot was now discharged into
their eyes, and the blinded animals were finally killed with axes.

In the following year Welden liiinself proceeded to Hear Island, and the art
of walrus-killing gradually improving by practice, this second expc<lili()n
proved far more profitable than the first. Care had also been taken to jjrovide
large kettles and the necessary fuel to boil their fat on the spot, so that besides
the tusks a quantity of oil was gained. In IGOG liennet again appeared on the
field of action, and the dexterity of the walrus-hunters had now become so great
that in less than six hours they killed more than 700, which yielded twenty-two
tons of oil. During the following voyage, Welden, who seems to have acted in
l)artnership with Bennct, each taking his turn, killed no less than 1000 walruses
in seven liours. Thus IJear Island proved a mine of wealth to these enterpris-
ing men, and though the walruses arc not now so abundant as in the good old
times, yet they are still sufliciently numerous to attract the attention of specula-
tors. Every year several expeditions proceed to its shores from the Ilussian
and Norwegian ports, and generally son;e men pass the winter in huts erected
on its northern and south-eastern coasts.

Considering its high northern latitude of 75°, the climate of Bear Island is un-
commonly mdtl. According to the reports of some Norwegian walrus-hunters,
who remained there from 1824 to 1820, the cold was so moderate during the
first winter that, until the middle of November, the snow which fell in the night
melted during the daytiine. It rained at Christmas, and seventy walruses were
killed during Christmas week by the light of the moon and that of the Aurora.
Even in February the weather was so mild that the meti were able to work in
the open air uiuler the same latitude as Melville Island, where mercury is a solid
body during five months of the year. The cold did not become intense be-
fore INIarch, and attained its maximum in A])ril, when the sea froze fast round
the island, and the wliite bears appeared which had been absent during the
whole winter. The second winter was more severe than the first, but even then
the sea remained open until the middle of November— evidently in consequence
of the prevailing south-westerly winds. The greater part of Bear Island is a
desolate plateau raised about 100 or 200 feet above the sea. Along its western
shores rises a group of three mountains, supposed to bo about 200 feet high;

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spitzbp:rgen-bear island— jan meyen.

145

and towards the south it terminutcs in a solitary hill to wliit-li the first discov-
erers gave tlie approj)riate iiai ,j of Mount Misery. At llie northern foot of
tills terrace-sl)aped elevation the plat-'au is considerably tlepressed, and forms
a kind of oasis, where grass {J^oa pnUensis),iiuVi\(^nt'd with violet cardaniines
ami white polygonums and saxifragas, grows to half a yard in height. The
general character of the small island is, however, a monotony of stone and mo-
riiss, with here and there a patch of snow, while the coasts have been worn by
the action of the waves into a variety of fantastic shapes, bordered in some parts
1)V a flat narrow str.and, tlu; favorite resort of the walrus, and in others afford-
ing convenient breeding-places to hosts of sea-birds. In Coal Day, *'our ])aral!('l
seams of coal, about e(|uitlistant from each other, are visible on the vertical rock-
walls, but they arc too thin to be of an^ practical use.

Bear Island has no harbors, and is consetiuenlly a rather dangerous place to
visit. During the first c.vpedition sent out from llammerfest, it hap])ened that
.some of the men who had been landed were abandoned by their shij>, which was
to have cruised along the coast while they were hunting on shore. But the
current, the wind, and a dense fog so confused the ignorant captain that, leaving
tlieiii to their fate, he at once returned to llammerfest. When the men became
aware of their dreadful situation, they determined to leave the island in their
boat, and taking with them a quantity of young w.ilrus flesh, they luckily reach-
ed Xortlikyn after a voyage of eight days. It seems almost incrediide thnt
liiese same people immediately after revisited Bear Island in the same shij), and

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were again obliged to return to iS'orway in the same boat. The ship had an-
chored in the open bay of North Haven, and having taken in its cargo, consist-
ing of 180 walruses, which had all been killed in a few days, was about to leave,
when a storm arose, which cast her ashore and broke her to pieces. The Rus-
sians had built some huts in the neighborhood, and the provisions might probably
have been saved, but rather than winter in the island the crew resolved to ven-
ture home again in the boat. This was so small that ont-half of them were
obliged to lie down on the bottom while the others rowed ; the autumn was al-
ready far advanced, and they encountered so savage a storm that an English
ship they fell in with at the North Cape vainly endeavored to take them on
board. After a ten days' voyage, however, they safely arrived at Magero, thus
proving the truth of the old saying that "Fortune favors the bold." The dis-
tance from Bear Island to North Cape is about sixty nautical miles.

In a straight line between Spitzbergen and Iceland lies Jan Mcyen, which,
exposed to the cold Greenland current, almost perpetually veiled with mists, and
surrounded by drift ice,Avould scarcely ever be disturbed in its dreary solitudo
but for the numerous walrus and seal herds that frequent its shores. The ice-
bears and the wild sea-birds are its only inhabitants ; once some Dutchmen at-
tempted to winter there, but the scurvy swept them all away. Its most remark-
able features are the volcano Esk and the huge mountain Beerenberg, towering
to the height of 6870 feet, with seven enormous glaciers sweepuig down its
sides into the sea.

J,„ .:

NOVA ZEMBLA.

Wl

CHAPTER XT.

NOVA ZEMBLA.

The Sea of Kara. — Loschkin. — Rosim-sslow. — Litke. — Krotow. — Pachlussow. — Sails along the east-
ern Coast of the Southern Island to Mutoschkin Schur. — Ili.s second Voyage and Ueath. — Meteoro-
logical Observations of Ziwolka. — Th« cold Summer of Nova Zemlila, — VonOaer's scientitic Voyaita
to Nova Zenibla. — Hi* Adventures in Mutoschkin Schar. — Storm in Knstin Scliar. — Sea Bath and
votive Cross. — Uotanical Oi)seivationR. — A mitural Garden. — Solitude and Silence. — A Bird Ba-
zar.— Iluntini; E.\pe litions of the Bus .ian^ to Nova ZcinUa,

''piIE sea of Kara, bounded on tlic west by Nova Zembla, and on the east by
-■- the vast peninsula of Tajmurland, is one of the most inhospitable parts of
the inhospitable Polar Ocean. For all the ice which the east-westerly marine
currents drift during the summer along the Siberian coasts accumulates in that
immense land-locked bay, and almost constantly blocks the gate of Kara, aa
the straits have been named that separate Nova Zembla from the island of
Waiffatz.

The rivers Jenissei and Obi, which remain frozen over until late in Junet
likewise discharge their vast masses of ice into the gulf of Kara, so that we
can not wonder that the eastern coast of Nova Zembla, fronting a sea which
opposes almost insuperable obstacles to the Arctic navigator, has remained al-
most totally unknown until 1833, while the western coast, exposed to the Gulf
Stream, and bathed, in summer at least, by a vast open ocean, has long been
traced in all its chief outlines on the map.

The walrus-hunter Loschkin is indeed said to have sailed along the whole
eastern coast of Nova Zembla in the last century, but we have no authentic
records of his voyage, and at a later period Rosmysslow, who, penetrating
through Mathew's Straits, or Matoschkin Schar, found Nova Zembla to consist
of two large islands, investigated but a small part of those unknown .shores.
From 1819 to 1824 the Russian Government sent out no less than five expedi-
tions to the sea of Kara ; the famous circumnavigator Admiral Ltltke en-
deavored no less than four times to .advance along the eastern coast of Nova
Zembla, but all these efforts proved fruitless against the superior power of a
Rtormy and ice-blockeu sea. Yet in spite of these repeated failures, two enter-
prising men — Klokow, a chief inspector of forests, and Bnandt, a rich merchant
of Archangel — fitted out three ships in 1832 for the purpose of solving the
mysteries of the sea of Kara.

One of these vessels, commanded by Lieutenant Krotow, was to penetrate
through Mathew's Straits, and, having reached their eastern outlet, to sail thence
across the sea to the mouth of the Obi and the Jenissei ; but nothing more
was heard of the ill-fated ship after Iter first separation from her companions at
Kanin Nos.

The second ship, which was to sail along the western coast of Nova Zem-
bla, and, if possible, to round its northern extremity, was more fortunate, for

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THE POLAR WOULD.

though it never reached that point, it returned home with a rich cargo of nal-
rus-teeth.

The third ship, finally, under Pachtussow's command, was to penetrate
through the gate of Kara, and from thence to proceed along the eastern coast.
When Pachtussow, according to his instructions, liad readied the straits, all
his efforts to effect a passage proved ineffectual. It was in vain lie more than
once steered to the east ; the stormy weather and large masses of drift ice oon.
Btantly threw him b.-^ck, the short summer approached its end, and thus he was
obliged to put off all further attempts to the next year, and to settle for the
winter in Kocky Bay within the gate of Kara. A small hut was built out of
the drift-wood found on the spot, and joined by means of a gallery of sail-cloth
to a bathing-room, that indispensable comfort of a Russian. The laying of
traps, in which many Arctic foxes were cauglit, and the carrying of the wood,
which had sometimes to be fetched from a distance of ten versts, occupied the
crew during fair weather. In April a party under Pachtussow's comniaiid
set out for the purpose of exploring the western coast. On this expedition
they were overtaken on the twenty-fourth day of the month by a terrible snow-
storm, which obliged them to throw themselves flat upon the ground to avoid
being swept away by the wind. They remained three days without food under
the snow, as it was impossible for them to reach the depot of provisions buried
a few versts off.

On June 24 the gate of Kara was at length open, and Pachtussow would
gladly have sailed through the passage, but his ship was fast in the ice. He
therefore resolved, in order to make the best use of his time, to examine tiic
eastern coast in a boat, and reached in this manner the small Sawina liiver,
where he found a wooden cross with the date of 1742. Most likely it had
been placed there by Loschkin, his predecessor on the path of discovery. He
now returned with his boat to the ship, which, after an imprisonment of 297
days, was at length, July 11, able to leave the bay.

On Stadolski Island, near Cape Menschikoff, they found a wretched hut,
which proved that they were not the first to penetrate into these deserts. But
the hut was tenantless, and a number of human bones were strewn over the
ground. One of Pachtussow's companions now related that in 1822 a Same-
jede, named Mawei, had gone with his wife and children to Nova Zembla, and
had never returned. On gathering the bones, they were found to compose the
skeletons of two children and of a woman, but no remains could be discovered
of the man. Most likely the unfortunate savage had been surprised by a snow-
storm, or had fallen a prey to a hungry ice-bear, on one of his excursions, and
his family, deprived of their support, had died of hunger in the hut.

On July 19 they reached the river Stawinen, and on the 21st Llitke's Bay,
where a number of white dolphins and seals of an unknown species were found.
Here contrary winds arrested the progress of the navigators during eighteen
days. On August 13 Pachtussow entered Matoschkin Scliar, and reached its
western mouth on the 19th, Thus in- 'succeeded at least in circumnavigating
the southern island, which no one had achieved before him, and as his exhaust-
ed provisions did not allow him to spend a second winter in Nova Zembla, he

NOVA ZEMBLA.

149

resolvcfl to return at onco to Archangel. But contrary winds drove him to
the island of Kolgujew, and thenco to the mouth of tho Pctscliora, where, on
September 3, a dreadful storm at length shattered his crazy vessel. The crew
fouinl refuge in a hut, but this also was filled by the water; so that they had
to wade several versts before they could reach the dry land.

Paclitussow now travelled by way of Archangel and Onega to St. Peters-
biirf*, where ho communicated the results of his journey to the Minister of
Miiiino, who gave him a most flattering reception, well merited by liis ability
and courage. The success he had already obtained encouraged the hope that
a second expedition would be able to complete the undertaking, and consequent-
ly, by an imperial order, the schooner Krotow ami a transport were fitted out,
with which Pachtussow once more sailed froi-i the port of Archangel on
August 5. Ilis instructions were to wintc" i»i ^ lathew's Straits, and thence to
attempt in tho following summer the exploration of the eastern coast of the
nortliern island. Tho winter hut he built at the western entrance of the straits
was ready for his reception by October 20. It was of stately dimensions, for a
Xova Zembla residence — 25 feet long, 21 broad, 8 feet high in the centre, 5 at
the sides, and consisted of two compartments, one for the officers and the other
for tho crew. They found the cold very endurable, but were rather incom-
moJud by the smoke, which did not always find a ready passage through tho
opening in the roof. Sometimes the snow accumulated in such masses, or the
storm raged so furiously round the hut, that they could not leave it for eight
days running, and frequently the hole in the roof had to serve them for a door.

Eleven white bears were killed about the hut during the winter ; one on the
roof, another in the passage. Pachtussow, well aware that occupation is the
best remedy against melancholy, kept his crew in constant activity. They
were obliged to fetch wood from distances of ten or eleven versts, not seldom
during a cold of —30°, whic'ii, thanks to their thick fur dresses, they boro re-
markably well, particularly as a temperature lower than —25° never occurred,
unless during perfectly calm weather. He also made them lay fox-traps at
considerable distances from the hut, and amused them with shooting at a mark
and gymnastic exercises. By this means he succeeded in preserving their
health, and warding off the attacks of the scurvy.

As early as April the indefatigable Pachtussow fitted out two sledge-parties,
for the exploration of the eastern coast. Tiio one, consisting of seven men, he
commanded in person ; the other was led by the steersman Ziwolka. Both
parties travelled in company as far as the eastern entrance of the straits, where
one of the huts in which Rosmysslow had wintered seventy years before was
still found in a good condition.

Pachtussow now returned for the purpose of accurately surveying the straits,
while Ziwolka proceeded, along, the east coast, with a small tent and provisions
for a month. All his men had Samojede dresses, but they were already so
hardened that they did not wear the upper coat with the hood even during the
night, although snow-storms not seldom occurred. Once their boots wera
frozen so hard that they could not pull them off before they had been previous-
ly thawed, and as drift-wood was nowhere to be found, they were obliged to

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burn the poles of their tent, and to keep their feet over the firo until the leather
became soft. On May 18, the thirty-fourth day of his journey, Ziwolka re«
turned to iiis commander, after having explored the east coast northward to a
distance of 150 vcrsts.

Meanwhile Pachtussow had been busy building a boat eighteen feet loncf,
with which ho intended to proceed along the western coast to the northern ex-
tremity of the island, and, the elements permittuig, to return to the straits
along its eastern shores. About the beginning of June i he migratory birtls
made their appearance, and introduced a very agreeable change in the monoton.
ous fare of the navigators, who, a few weeks later, enjoyed the sight of blooiU'
ing flowers, and gathered antiscorbutic herbs in large quantities.

Thus the high northern land had assumed its most f rien Uy aspect, anfl looked
as cheerlully as it possibly could, when, on July 11, Pachtussow and Ziwolka
Bet out for the north with the boat and the transport, the schooner being left
behind in the straits with the surgeon and n few invalids. At first the wind
and weather favored their course, but on July 21 the boat was smashed be-
tween two pieces of ice, so that they bad hardly time to escape upon the land
with the nautical instruments, a sack of flour, and some butter.

In this unpleasant situation they were obliged to remain for thirteen day.',
until at last a walrus-lumter appeared, who took the shipwrecked explorers
on board, and brought them safely back to their winter-quarters on August 22.

Thus this first attempt ended in coniplcte disappointment, and the season was
already too far advanced to permit of its renewal. Yet Pachtussow, resolving
with praiseworthy zeal to make the most of the last days of the short summer,
Bet out again on August 26 for the eastern entrance of the straits, and proceeded
along the coast, until he Avas stopped by the ice at some distance beyond tlie
small islands which bear his name.

Convinced of the fruitlessness of .ill further efforts, Pachtussow bade adieu
with a sorrowful heart to the coast, which still stretched out before him in un-
discovered mystery, and sailed back again to Archangel on September 20. Soon
after his return he fell ill, and four weeks later his mourning friends carried L'm
to his grave.

The Arctic Ocean is so capricious that in the following year the walrus-
hunter Issakow, of Kem, who had no discoveries in view, was able to round
without difiiculty the north-eastern extremity of Nova Zembla, but, fearful of
encountering the dangers of that dreadful coast, he almost immediately returned.

During the two winters he spent in Nova Zembla, the steersman Ziwolka
had daily consulted the thermometer, and the result of his observations g.iv8
to the western entrance of Mathew's Straits a mean annual temperature
of +11".

Thus Nova Zembla is colder than the west coast of Spitzbergen, which, al-
though still farther to the north, is more favorably situated with regard to the
winds and currents, and from five to ten degrees warmer than the high north-
em parts of Siberia and continental America, which sustain a comparatively
numerous population, while Nova Zembla is uninhabited. Hence this want,
and the circumstance that the vegetation of these islands scarcely rises a span

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ISl

above the ground, wliilo the forest region still pcnetmtcs far within tho con-
fines of tho colder continental regions above mentioned, arc to bo ascribed not
to the low mean annual tenipcratnre of Nova Zembla, bnt to the unfavorable
(listril)ution of warmth over tho various seasons of the year. For although
liiith Northern Siberia and America have a far colder winter, they enjoy a cott-
sidcrahhj wrtrmtv summer, and this it is whieh in tho higher latitudes determines
the existence or the development of life on the dry land. During the winter
the organic world is partly sheltered under the snow, or else it migrates, or it
produces within itself sufliciont warmth to defy the cold — and thus a few de-
grees more or less at that time of the year are of no material consequence, while
the warmth of summer is absolutely indispensable to awaken life and determine
its development.

The comparatively mild teinter of Nova Zembla (no less than thirty-thrc(f de-
grees warmer than that of Jakutsk) is therefore of but little benefit to vegetable
life, which on the other hand suffers considerably from a summer inferior even
to tiiat of Melville Island and 13oothia Felix. A coast where the sun, in spite of
a day of several months' continuance, generates so small a quantity of heat, and
where yet some vegetation is able to flourish, must necessarily be well worthy
the attention of botanists, or rather of all those who take an interest in the
googra})hical distribution of plants. For if in the primitive forests of Brazil
the naturalist admires the effects of a tropical sun and an excessive humidity in
Iiroiluciug the utmost exuberance of vegetation, it is no less interesting for hira
to observe how Flora under the most adverse circumstances still wages a suc-
cessful war against death and destruction.

Thus a few years after Pachtussow's expedition, the desire to explore a land
so remarkable in a botanical point of view, and to gather new fruits for science
in the wilderness, induced Ilerr von Baor, though already advanced in years, to
undertake the journey to Nova Zembla.

Accompanied by two younger naturalists, Mr. Lehmann and Mr. Riidor, the
celebrated Petersburg academician arrived on July 29, 1837, at the western en-
trance of Mathew's Straits, sailed through them the next day in a boat, and
reached the sea of Kara, where he admired a prodigious number of jelly-fishes
{Pleiirobrachia pileus) swimming about in the ice-cold waters, and displaying
a marvellous beauty of coloring in their ciliated ribs. This excursion might,
however, have had very disagreeable consequences, for a dreadful storm, blow-
ing from the west, prevented their boat from returning, and forced them to pass
the night with some walrus-hunters, whom they had the good-fortune to meet
with. On the following day tho storm abated, so that the return could be at-
tempted ; they were, however, obliged to land on a small island in the Beluga
bay, where, wet to the skin, and their limbs shaking with cold, they fortunately
found a refuge in the ruins of a hut in which Rosmysslow had wintered in 1767.
Meanwhile the wind had veered to the oast, accompanied by a very disagreeable
cold rain, which on the mountains took tho form of snow ; they were now, how-
ever, able to make use of their sail, and arrived late at night at the spot where
their ship lay at anchor, completely wet, but in good health and spirits.

" We could esteem ourselves happy," says Von Baer, " in having paid so

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Blight n ponalty for noulocting the jtrccautinn, so nocrssarj' to all travelU'is in
Nova Zcmlda, of providinix for n wi-i-k wlicii you set out for n day's oxcurfiion."

On Aui,'ust 1, after a tliorou!,'li botanical exaniination of tlie Htraits,tlio party
procieedetl alonif tlie west eoast. The wind, blowing from the north, brought
them to the Kostin Schar, a maze of passai^es between nuineroua islets, where
the walrus-hunters in Nova Zembla ehieHy assemble.

On Aui^ust 0 an exeursion was niade up the river Neehwatown, where they
rested in a hut wliieh had i)een erecteil by some fisherman emplitycd ineatdiini^
" ]L,'ol/i," or Aretic salmon. On returning to the ship, u dreadful storm arose from
the north-east, which lasted nine <lays, and, very fortunately for the botanists,
cauLjht thenj in the Kostin Schar, and not on the hiyh sea. Althoutfh they Mere
anchored in a sheltered bay, the waves fre(|uently swept over the deck of their
vessel, and compelled them to remain all the time in their small, low cabin.
Only once they made an attempt to land, but the wind was so strong that they
could hartlly stand. Th .ir situation was rendered still more terrible .and anxious,
as ])art of the crew which had been sent out Inmting before the storm began
had not yet returned.

When at last the storm censed, winter seemed about to bcfin in j^ood earn-
est. Every nit;ht ice formed in the river, and the land was covered with snow,
which had surprised the scanty vegetation in its full bloom. At length the
hunters retin;ned, after havim^endtired terrible hardships, and now preparations
were made for a definitive departure. A general bath was taken, without which
no anchorage in Nova Zembla is ever left, and, according to ancient custom, a
votive cross was likewise erectetl on the strand, as a memorial of the expedi-
tion.

On August 28 the anchors were weighed, but tliey were soon dropped again
in the Schar, to examine on a small island the vegetable and animal products of
the land and of the shore. The former offered but few objects of interest, hut
they were astonished at the exuberance of marine life. After having been de-
tained by a thick fog in this place for several days, they at length sailed towards
the White Sea, where they were obliged by contrary winds to run into Tri Os-
trowa. Dreary and desolate as the tundras at this extreme point of Lapland
had appeared to them on their journey outward, they were now charmed with
their green slopes, a sight of which they had been deprived in Nova Zembla.

On September 11 they at length reached the port of Archangel, with the
agreeable prospect of passing the winter in a comfortable study at St. Peters-
burg instead of spending it, like Barentzand his associates, as might easily have
happened, in a wretched hut beyond the 70th degree of northern latitude.

Having thus briefly sketched Von Baer's adventures, I will now ijotice somo
of the most interesting scientific results of his journey.

The rocky west coast of Nova Zembla has about the rame appearance as the
analogous part of Spitzbergen, for here also the motmtains, particularly in the
northern island, rise .abruptly to a height of three or four thousand feet from
the sea, while the eastern coast is generally flat. In both countries, angular
blocks of stone, precipitated from the summits, cover the sides of the hills, and
frequently make it impossible to ascend them. lYi fact, no rock, however hard

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NOVA ZEMBLA.

158

or finely fjrained, is able to withstand the offects of a rlimatc whore the sum-
nier is so wot luul the winter bo Hovore. Nowhere in Novii Zoinlilii is ii grass-
covcird spot to 1)0 found deserving ti>c name of a »)oudow. Even the folia*
cfuiis lirlieiis, which grow so luxuriantly in Lapland, have hero a stunted ap-
pearance; but, as Von Maer remarks, this is owing loss to the climate than to
the nature of the soil, as plants of this description thrivo best on chalky ground.
The cTusta(!eou8 lichens, however, cover the blocks of augito and porphyry with
a niiitlev vesture, and the dingy carpet with which J)rif((a octopetald invests
111 re and there the dry slopes, formed of rocky dotritus, reminds one of tho
tiniilras of Lapland.

Tli(! scanty vegetable covering which this only tnio social plant of Xovji
Z('ini)la .nffords is, however, but an inch thick, anil can easily bo detached like
a cup from the rock beneath.

On a clayey ground in moist and low situations, tho mosses afford a pro-
tection to the polar willow {Sulix polaris), which raises but two loaves and a
catkin over the surface of its covering.

Even the most sparing sheet of humus has great difficulty to form in Nova
Zcnihla, as in a great number of the plants Mhich grow there tho discolored
leaf dries on the stalk, and is then swept away by tho winds, so that tho land
would appear still more naked if many |)lants, such as the snow raimnculus
{IuiiuoickIiih nii'(tlia), were not so extremely abstemious as to require no hu-
iniis at all, but merely a rocky crevice or «omo loose gravel capable of retaining
moisture in its interstices.

Hut even in Nova Zembla there arc some more favored spots. Thus when
Von Hacr landed at the foot of a high slate mountain fronting the south-west,
and rctlecting the rays of the sun, he was astonished and delighted to see a gay
mixture of purple silenes, golden ranunculuses, peach-colored p-irryas, white
cerastias, and blue palemones, and was particularly pleased at finding tho well-*
known forget-me-not among the ornaments of this Arctic pasture. Between
these various flowers tho soil was everywhere visible, for the dicotyledonous
plants of the high latitudes produce no more foliage than is necessary to set
off tho colors of tho blossoms, and have generally more flowers than leaves.

The entire vegetation of the island is confined to the superficial Layer of the
poll and to the lower stratum of the air. Even those ]dants which in warm
diinjitcs have a descending or vertical root have here a horizontal one, and
none, whether grasses or shrubs, grow higher than a span above the ground.

In the j)olar willow, a single pair of leaves sits on a stem about as thick aa
a straw, although the whole plant forms an extensive shrub with numerous rana-
ifications. Another species of willow {Salix lunata) attains the considerable
heijfht of a span, and is a perfect giant among tho Nova Zembla plants, for the
thick subterranean trunk sometimes measures two inches in diameter, and can
be laid bare for a length of ten or twelve feet without finding the end. Thus
in this country the forests are more in than above the earth.

This horizontal development of vegetation is caused by the sun principally
heating the superfici.al shoot of earth, Avhich imparts its warmth to the stratum
of air immediately above it, and thus confines the plants within the narrow

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THE POLAR WORLD.

limits which best suit their growth. Hence also the influence of position on
vegetation is so great that, while a plain open to the winds is a complete des-
ert, a gentle mountain slope not seldom resembles a garden.

The absence of all trees or shrubs, or even of all vigorous herbage, imparts
a character of the deepest solitude to the No 'a Zembla landscape, and inspu-es
even the rough sailor with a kind of religious awe. " It is," says Von Bacr,
"as if the dawn of creation had but just begun, and life were still to be called
into existence." The universal silence is but rarely broken by the noise of an
animal. But neither the cry of the sea-mew, wheeling in the air, nor the rus-
tling of the Icnnning in the stunted herbage are able to animate the scene. No
voice is heard in calm we.ither. The rare land-birds are silent as well as tho
insects, which are comparatively) still fewer in number. This tranquillity of
nature, particularly during serene days, reminds the spectator of the quiet of
tlie grave ; and the lemmings seem like phantoms as they glide noiselessly
from burrow to burrow. In our fii-lds even a slight motion of the air becomes
visible in the foliage of the trees or m the waving of the corn ; here the low
plants arc so stiff and immovable that one might suppose them to be painted.
The rare sand-bee (Andrena), which on suuny days and in warm places flies
about with languid M'ing!?, has scarcely the spirit to hum, and the flies and
gnats, though more freq\ient, are equally feeble and inoffensive.

As a proof of the rarity of insects in Nova Zembla, Von Bacr mentions tiiat
not a single larva was to be found in a dead walrus which had been lying at
least fourteen davs on the shoic. The hacktieved phrase of our funeral ser-
mons can not therefore be applied to these high latitudes, where even ahovo
the earth the decay of bod'Cf* is extremely slow.

However poor the vegoiation of Nova Zembla may be, it still suffices to
nourish a number ot lemmings, which live on leaves, ctems, and ImuIs, but not
on roots. The slopes of the mountains are often undermined in all directions
by their burrows. Next to these lemmings, the Arctic foxes are the r.iost nu-
merous quadrupeds, as tney find |)lenty of food in the above-mentioned little
rodents, as well as in tho young birds, and in the bodies of the marine animals
which are cast ashore by the tides. White bears are scarcely ever seen during
the summer, and tho reindeci seems to have decreased in numbers, at least on
the west coast, where they are f recpientiy shot by the Russian i.iorse-liuntcrs.

The hosts of sea-birds in some parts of the coast prove that the waters are
far more prolific than (he land. Tho foolish guillemots ( l/ria troile), closely
rongregated in rows, one above the other, on the narrow ledges of vertical
rock-walla, make the black stone appear striped with white. Such a breedin;:-
place is called by the Russians a bazar. On the summit of isolated cliffs, and
suffering no other bird in his vicinity, nestles tho large gray sea-mew {Lams
glaucus), to whom the Dutch whalt-catchers have given the n.imc of " burgli-
ermaster." While the ice-bear is monarch of the land animals, this gull appears
as the sovereign lord of all the sea-birds around, and no guillemot would ven-
ture to dispute the possession of a dainty morsel claimed by tho imperious
burghcrmaster.

This abundance of tho sea has also attracted man to tho desert shores of

NOVA ZEMBLA.

158

Jfova Zembla. Long before Barentz made Western Europe acquainted with
the existence of Nova Zembla (1594-06), tlic land was known to the Russians
as a valuable hunting or fishing ground ; for tiie Dutch discoverer met with a
larije number of their vessels on its coabt. Burrough, who visited the port of
Kola in 1556, in search of the unfortunate Willougliby, and tiicnce sailed as
far as the mouth of the Petschora, likewise saw in the gulf of Kola no less than
thirty Knljes, all destined for walrus-hunting in Nova Zembla.

Wlit'ther, before the Russians, the adventurous Norsemen ever visited these
desolate islands, is unknown, but so much is certain, that ever since the times
of Barentz the expeditions of the Muscovites to its western coast have been
uninterruptedly continued. As is the case with all fishing speculations, their
success very much depends upon chance. The year 1834 was very lucrative,
so tliat in the following season about eighty ships, with at least 1000 men on
bo.i'-d, sailed for Nova Zembla from the ports of the White Sea, but this time
the results were so unsatisfactory that in 1836 scarce half the number were
fitted oat. In 1837 no more than twenty vessels were employed, and Vcn
Baer relates that but one of them which penetrated into the sea of Kara made
a considerable profit, while all the rest, with but few exceptions, did not pay
one-half of their expenses.

The most valuable animals are the walrus and the wliito dolphin, or beluga.
Among the seals, the Phoca albigena of Pallas distinguishes itself by its size,
the thickness of its skin, and its quantity of fat ; Phoca (jroenlandica and Phoca
hispidu rank next in estimation. Tlie Greenland whale never extends his ex-
cursions to the waters of Nova Zembla, but the fin-back and the grampus are
frequently seen.

The Alpine salmon {Salmo aljylnus), which towards autumn ascends into
the mountain-lakes, is caught in incredible numbers; and, finally, the bean-
goose {Anscr segetum) breeds so frequently, at least upon the southern island,
that the gathering of its quiU-fcatbers is an object of some importance.

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CHAPTER XII.

THE LAl'PS.

Tlieir ancient IHstorj' and Conversion tf tiristinnity.— Self-denial and Poverty of tlie I^pland ClerRv.
— Their sinKuliir Mcxie of I'rcacliinn. — d.oss Superstition of llie Lapps. — The Evil Spirit of the
Woods. — The Lapland Witches. — Physical Constitution of the Lapps. — Their Press. — The Fj illlap-
pars. — Tiieir Dwellings. — Store-houses. — Reindeer Pens. — Mill(in(; the Reindeer. — Mi(;ration.—
The Lapland iiog. — Skidcrs, or Sl<ates. — The Sledge, or Pulka.— Natural Beauties of Lapland.—
Attachment of Ihc Lapps to tlieir Country. — Bear-hunting. — Wolf-huntinR. — Mode of Living; of the
wealthy Lapps. — IIow they kill the Ueindeor. — Visiting the Fair. — Mammon Worship. — Treasure.
hiding, — *' Tubak, or Uraendc," — AITectionate Disposition of the Lapps. — The Skogslapp. — Tha
Fisherlapp.

^T'lIE nation of the Lapps spreads over the northern parts of Scandinavia
-*- and Finland from about the 63d degree of latitude to the confines of
the Polar Ocean ; but their number, hardly amounting to more than twenty
thousand, bears no proportion to the extent of the vast regions in which they
are found. Although now subject to the crowns of Russia, Sweden, and Nor-
way, they anciently possessed the whole Scandinavian peninsula, until the sons
of Odin drove them farther and farther to the north, and, taking possession of
the coasts and valleys, left them nothing but the bleak mountain and the deso-
late tundra. In the thirteenth century, under the reign of Magnus Ladislas,
King of Sweden, their subjugation was completed by the Birkarls, a race
dwelling on the borders of the Bothnian Gulf. These Birkarls h.ad to ))ay the
crown a slight tribute, which they wrung more than a hundred-fold from the
Lapps, until at length Giistavus I. granted the persecuted savages the protec-
tion of more equitable laws, and sent missionaries among them to relieve them
at the same lime from the yoke of their ancient superstitions. In 1600 Charles
IX. ordered churches to be built in theii' country, and, some years after, his son
and successor, the celebrated Giistavus Adolphus, foiuulcd a school for the
Lnp|)S at I'itea, and ordered several elementary works to be translated into
their language. In the year 1G02, Christian IV., King of Denmark and Nor-
way, while on a visit to the province of Finmark, was so incensed at the gross
idolatry of the Lapps that he ordered their priests or sorcerers to be persecutoil
with bloo<ly severity. A worthy clergyman, Eric Bredal, of Drontheim, tiseil
means more consonant with the spirit of the Gospel, and, having instructt'tl
several yotuig Lapps, sent them back again as missionaries to their families.
These intcMpretcs of a i)urer faith were, however, received as apostates and
traitors by their suspicious countrymen, and cruelly murdered, most likely at
the instigation of the sorcerers. In 1707 Frederic IV. founded the t'lnniark
mission, and in 1716 Thomas Westen, a man of rare zeal and perseveraiioo,
preached the Gospel in the wihlest districts of the province. Other ntissioii-
arit'S and teachers followed his example, and at length succeeded in converting
tiie Lapps, and in some measure conquering their ancient barbarism. Nothing

THE LAPPS.

187

can be more admirable than the self-denial and heroic fortitude of these minis-
ters of Christ, for to renounce all that is precious in the eyes of the world to
follow nomads little better than savages through the wilds of an Arctic country
surely requires a courage not inferior to that of the soldier

Who seeks preferment at the cannon's mouth.

The Lapland schoolmaster enjoys an annual salary of twenty-five dollars,
and receives besides half a dollar for every child instructed. IJut the priest
is not much better off, as his stipend amounts to no more than thirty dollars
ill money, and to about 150 dollars in jjroduce. Among this miserably paid
cli'r;.'y there are, as in Icelainl, men worthy of a better lot. The famous Lii-
»i;«liiis was priest at Karesuando, seventy-five leagues from Tromsii, the near-
est town, and a hundred leagues from Tornea. His family lived upon rye bread
and fishes, and but rarely tasted reindeer flesh. Chamisso mentions another
Lapland priest who had spent seven years in his parish, which lay beyond the
limits of the forest region. Tn the summer he was completely isolated, as then
the Lapps wantlered with their herds to the cool shores of the icy sea ; and in
the winter, when the moon afforded light, he travelled about in his sledge, fre-
quently bivouacking at the temperature of freezing mercury, to visit his Lapps.
During all that time his solitude had been but twice broken by civilized man ;
a brother had come to see him, and a botanist had strayed to his dwelling. Ho
well knew how to appreciate the |)leasnre of such meetings, but neither this
pleasure nor any other, ho sa'd, was e<pial to that of seeing the sun rise again
above the horizon after the long winter s night.

It is a singular custom that the pastors preaching to the Lapps deliver their
harangues in a tone of voice as elevated as if their audience, instead of being
assembled in a small chapel, were stationed upon the top of a distant mount-
ain, and labor as if they were going to burst a bloodvessel. Dr. Clarke, who
listened to one of these sermons, which lasted one hour and twenty minutes,
ventured to ask the reason of the very loud tone of voice used in preaching.
The minister said he was aware that it must appear extraordinary to a
stranger, but that, if he were to address the Laplanders in a lower key, they
would consider him as a feelde and impotent missionary, wholly unfit for his
ollicc, and would never come to church ; that the merit and abilities of the
preacher, like that of many a popular politician, are always estimated by the
strength and power of his Inngs.

Tiioiigh the Lapps (thanks to the efforts of their spiritual guides) hardly
even rouiember by name the gods of their fathers — Aija, Akka, Tuona — they
still pay a secret homage to the Saidas, or idols of wootl or stone, to wIkjui they
were accustomed to sacrifice the bones and horns of the reindeer. They are in
fact an extremely superstitious race, faithfully believing in ghosts, witchcraft,
and above all in Stallo, or Troller, the evil spirit of the woods.

Many of them, when about to go hunting, throw a stick into the air, and
tlii'n take their way in the direction to which it points. The appearance of
tne .\inora borealis fills them with terror, as they believe it to be a sign of
divine wrath, and generally shout and howl during the whole duration of

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the grand phenomenon, which their ignorance connects with their own petty er*
istence.

The pretended gift of being able to predict future events is common amonty
tlie Laplanders. The sorcerers fall into a magic sleep, during which their soul
wanders. In this state, like the somnambules of more polished nations, they re-
veal things to come or see Avhat pauses at a distance. Men and Avomen affect
the power of fortune-telling by the common trick of palmistry, or by the inspec-
tion of a cup of liquor ; and this, to insure the greatest possible certainty, must
be a cup of brandy, which at once explains the whole business of the proplierv.
The Laphiiid witches protended, or perhaps still pretend, to the power of still-
ing the wind or causing the rain to cease, and such was their reputation tliat
English (teamen trading to Archangel made it a point to land and buy a wind
from thece poor creatures.

The Lapps are a dwarfish race. On an average, the men do not exceed five
feet in height, many not even reaching four, and the women are considerably
less. Most of them are, however, very robust, the circumference of their chest
nearly equalling their height. Their complexion is more or less tawny and
copper-colored, their hair dark, straight, and lank, its dangling masses adding
much to the wildncss of their aspect. They have very little beard, and as its
want is considered a beauty, the young men carefully eradicate the scanty sup-
ply given them by nature.

Their dark piercing eyes are generally deep sunk in their hcids, widely sep-
arated from each other, and, like those of the Tartars or Chinese, obliquely slit
towards the temples. The cheek-bones are high, the mouth pinched close, but
wide, the nose fiat. The eyes are generally sore, either in consequence of tlie
biting smoke of their huts or of the refraction from the snow, so that a Lapp
seldom attains a Iiigh ago without becoming blind. Their countenances goner-
ally present a repulsive combination of stolidity, low cunning, and obstinacy.
Ilogguer, who dwstlt several months among them, and saw during this time at
least 800 Lapps, found not twenty who were not decidedly ugly ; and Dr. Clarke
says that many of them, when more advanced in years, might, if exhibited in a
menagerie of wild beasts, be considered as the long-lost link between man and
njie.

Their legs are extremely thick and clumsy, but thoit hands are as small and
finely shaped as those of any aristrocrat. The reason for this is that from gen-
eration to generation they never perform any manual labor, and the very trifling
work which they do is necessarily of the lightest kind. Their limbs are singular-
ly flexible, easily falling into any posture, like all the Oriental nations, and their
hands are constantly occupied in the beginning of conversation with filling a
short tobacco-pipe, the head being tiu'ned over one shoulder to the person ad-
dressed. Such are the traits by which the whole tribe is distinguished from
the other inhabitants of Europe, and in which they differ from the other natives
of the land in which they live.

The summer garb of the men consists of the " poesk," a sort of tunic, gener-
ally made of a very coarse light-colored woollen cloth, reaching to the knees, and
fastened round the waist with a belt or girdle. Their woollen caps are shaped

THE LAPPS.

189

precisely like a night-cap, or a Turkish fez, with u red tassel and red worsted
band round the rim, for they are fond of lively hues strongly contrasted.
Tlieir boots or shoes nre made of the raw skin of the reindeer, with tho hair
outward, and have a peaked shape. Though these shoes are very thin, and the
Liipp wears no stockings, yet he is never annoyed by the cold or by striking
ai;:iiiist stoiu's, as he stuffs them with tlie broad leaves of the Carcx vesicaria,
or tvporus grass, which he cuts in summer and drii s. This he first combs and
rubs in iiis iiands, and then places it in such a manner that it covers not only
Ills feet but his legs also, and, being thus guarded, he is quite secure against
tlie intense cold. With this grSss, which is an admirable non-conductor of heat,
lie likewise stuffs his gloves in order to preserve his hands. But as it wards
off the cold in winter, so in summer it keeps the feet cool, and is consequently
used at all seasons. The women's apparel differs very little from that of tho
other SOX, but their girdles arc moro ornamented with rings and chains. In
winter both sexes are so packed up in skins as to look more like bears than
human beings, and, when squatting according to the fashion of their country,
exhibit a mound of furs, with the head resting upon the top of it.

According to their different mode of life, the Lapps may be aptly subdivided
into Fjiilllappars, or Mountain Lapps ; Skogslappars, or Wood Lapps ; and
Fisherlapps.

The Fjiilllappars, who form the greater and most characteristic part of tho
nation, lead an exclusively pastoral life, and are constantly wandering with their
herds of reindeer from })lace to place, for the lichen which forms the chief food
of these animals during the greater part of the year is soon cropped from the
nijiuard soil, and requires years for its reproduction. For this reason, also, this
people do not herd together, and never more than three or four families pitch
their huts, or tuguria, upon the same spot. Of course tho dwelling of the no-
mad Lapp harmonizes with his vagrant habits ; a rude tent, which can easily
be taken to pieces, and as easily erected, is all ho requires to shelter his family
and chattels. It consists of flexible stems of trees, placed together in a conical
form, like a stack of poles for hops, and covered in the summer with a coarse
cloth, in winter with additional skins, to be better fenced against the inclemencies
of tlie climate. To form the entrance, a part of the hanging, about eighteen
inches wide at the bottom, and terminating upward in a point, is made to turn
back as upon hinges. The hearth, consisting of several Large stones, is in the
centre, and in the roof immediately above it is a square opening for the escape
of smoke and the admission of rain, snow, and air. All the light which the den
receives when the door is closed comes from tliis hole. The diameter of one
of these conical huts generally measures at its base no more than six feet ; its
wliole circumference, of course, does not exceed eighteen feet, and its extreme
heiifht may be about ten feet. The floor is very nearly covered with reindeer
skins, on which the inmates squat during the day and sleep at nights, contract*
ing their limbs together and huddling round their hearth, so that each indivui
"al of this pigmy race occupies scarcely more space than a dog. On the side of
the tent are suspended a number of pots, wooden bowls, and other household
utensils ; and a sm.all chest contains the holiday apparel of the family. Such

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are the dwellings of those among the Laplanders who arc called wealthy, and
who somctinicfl possoss very considerable property.

Near the tent is the dairy or store-house of the establishment. It consists of
nothing more than a slielf or platform, raised between two trees, so as to be
out of til.' reach of tlie dogs or wolves. The means of ascent to this treasinv
of curds, cheese, and dried reindeer flesh, is simply a tree stripped of its
branches, but presenting at every foot or so knobs, which serve the same pur.
pose as staves on a ladder, the tree being obliquely reared against the platform.

Another characteristic feature of a Lapp encampment is foimd in the luvlo^-
ures in which the rein<leer are penned during the night or for the purpose of
milking. These are circus-like open places, each of a diameter of iiboiit oiio
hundred and fifty feet, and are formed by stumps of trees and poles set upri,'lit
on the ground, and linked together by horizontal poles. Against the latter aiu
reared birch poles and branches of trees, varying from si.v to ten feet in heiglit,
without the slightest attempt at neatness, the whole being as rude as well c.in
be — a sufficient security against the wolves being all tiiat its builders disire.
The milking of a herd of reindeer presents a most animated scene. Wliea
they have been driven within the inclosurc, and all outlets are secured, a Lap]),
selecting a long thong or cord, takes a tinn of both ends round his left liaiid,
and then gathers what sailors call the bight in loose folds, held in his right. IIo
now singles out a reindeer, and throws the bight with imerring aim over tlie
antlers of the victim. Sometimes the latter makes no resistance, but in general
the moment it feels the touch of the thong it breaks away from the spot, and
IS only seemed by the most strenuous exertions. Every minute may be seen
an unusually powerful deer furiously dragging a Laj)p round and romid tlie in-
closurc, and sometimes it fairly overconies the restraint of the thong, and leaves
its antagonist prostrate on the sod. This part of the scene is highly excitins;,
and it is impossilile not to admire the trained skill evinced by ail the Laiips,
women as M'ell as men. Tiie resistance of the doer being overcome, the L:i|i|)
takes a dexterous hitch of the thong round his muzzle and head, and then fastens
hi' 1 to the trunk of a prostrate tree, many of which have been brought within
the level indosure for that especial purpose. JMen and women are indiscrimi-
nately engaged both in singling out milch reins and in milking them. Every
one is fully occupied, for even the little chililren are practising the throwing of
the lasso, in which they evince great dexterity, although their strength is insuf-
ficient to I'.old tlie smallest doe.

When the pasture in the neighborhood is fully exhausted, which genevnlly
takes place in about a fortnight, the encampment is broken up, to be ereitiil
again on some other spot. In less than half an hour the tent is taken to pici-t's,
and packed with all the household furniture upon the backs of reindeer, who by
long training ac(|itirc the capacity of serving as beasts of burden. On the
journey they arc bound together, live and five, with thongs of leather, and led
by the wo»r.en over the mountains, while the father of the family precedes tho
march to select a ))roper place for the new epcampment, and his sons or serv-
ants follow with the remainder of the herd.

Towards the end t)f spring the Lapps descend fn*m the mountains to tiie

THE LAITS.

101

Mft. When tliey approach its border.-*, tlie roiudccr, sniOing Iho sea air from a
(ii-lame, ru?li luiniiliiiou.-iy to tlio Ijonl, wiiere tlit-y take long druugiits of tlie
«iilti'(l water. Tlii.s, as liie Lapps believe, is esscutial to tlieir Iieallli. As tJio
Mimiucr advances, and the snow melts, they ascend higher and higher into tho
luoiiutuins. At the approach of winter they retreat into the woods, where,
wiiii tiic assistance of their dogs and servants, they have enough to do to keep
oir llie attacks of the wolves. The reiudec dog is i.bout the size of a Scotch
terrier, hut his head bears a wouderfid resemblance to that of the lynx. His
('ol(jr varies considerably, but the hair is always long and shaggy. Invaluable
as nrc ids services, he is nevertlieless treated witii great cruelty.

Viiv tiicir winter journeys liio Lapps use sledges or skates. One of their
skates, or "skiders," is usually .'is long .is the person who wears it; the otlier is
iilpiiiit, a foot shorter. Tho feet stand in tiie middle, .'uul to them tho sLntcs
are fiisteiied by thongs or withes. Tlie skiders arc made of fir-wood, .'uul cov-
cnil witli the skins of young reindeer, which obstruct a rctrogr.ide movement
liv acting like bristles against the snow — the roots pointing towards tiie fore
part of the skate, and thus preventing their slipping back. With these skiders,
the Lapp ilies like a bird over the snow, now scaling the mouutuius by u tortu-
ous ascent, anu now darting down into the valley:

Ociur ccrvis pt nscntc niiiibos
Ocior Kuro.

Such is the rapidity of his conrs" that lie will ovcrt.ike the swiftest wild
lieasts ; ami so violent the exercise ihat, during the most rigorous season of tho
viar, wiien earnestly engagetl in the chase, he will divest himself of his furs.
A long pole with a round ball of wood iie:ir the end, to prevent its piercing too
ikci) in llie snow, serves to stop the skater's course wiieii he wishes to rest.
The I.a|iluniler is no less expert in tlie use of the sledge, or " pulka," which is
inaijc in tlie form of a small boat with a convex bottom, that it may slide all
the more easily over the snow ; the prow is sharp and ])ointed, but the sledge is
tl;it lieliiiid. The tr.iveller is swathed in this carriage like tm infant in a cradle,
with a stick in his hand to steer the vessel, and disengag'" it from the stones or
stiiiMiis of trees which it m.'iy chance to encounter in the route. He must .'dso
liaiaiice the sleilgc with his body, to avoid the d.inger of being overturned.
The traces l»y which this carriage is fastened to the reindeer are lixed to a col-
lar about the animars neck, and run down over the bre.ast between the fore and
iiiml h'LTs, to be connected with the prow of the sledge: the reins managetl by
tilt' traveller are tied to the horns, and the trappings are furnished with little
IhUs, tiie sound of which the ;inimal likes. With this draught at his tail, tho
aimhir will travel sixty or seventy English miles in a day; often persevering
hity miles without intermission, and without taking any refreshment, except
wiasionally moistening his mouth with the snow. His Lapland driver knows
liMw t(( find his way through the wilderness witli a surprising certainty; here a
'"t^'k, tliore a fir-tree, is impressed as a landmark on his faithful memory, and
'hits, liki- the best pilot, he steers his sledge to the distant end of his journey,
rietiuently tho Aurora lights him on his way, illumiuing the snow-covered

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landscape with a magic brilliancy, and investing every object with a dream-lilfp
BniR-rnalnral beauty.

Jbit even witlioiit the aid of this mysterious coruscation, Lapland is ritli in
grand and pictures(iuc features, and liiis all the romance of the mountain mikI
tlie forest. In summer countless rivulets meander through valleys of al|iiiiu
verdure, and broad pellucid rivers rush down the slopes in thundering cataracts
embracing islands clothed with pine-trees of incomparable dignity and ixrace.
Whoever has grown up in scenes like these, and been accustomed from infancy
to the uncontrolled freedom of the nomad state, receives impressions never to
be erased ; and thus we can not wonder thiit the wild Laplander believes his
country to be a terrestrial paradise, and feels nowhere happy but at home.

Li the year 1819 a Scotch gentleman attempted to acclimatize the reindeer
in Scotland, and induced two young Laj)landers to accompany the herd wliich
he had bougiit for that purpose. The reindeer soon perislied, and the bap.
landers would have died of nostalgia if they liad not been sent home by the first
opportunity. Prince Jablonowsky. a Polish nobleman, who travelled alxnit
thirty years since through a part of Russian Lapland, took a La|)p girl witli
him to St. Petersburg. lie gave her a superior education, and she was well
treated in every respect. She made rapid progress, ami seemed to be perfectly
reconciled to Iier new home. About two years after lier arrival, it liappcnuil
that a Uussian gentleman, who possessed extensive estates near the capital,
bought a small herd of reindeer, which arrived under the guidance of a Lapp
family. As it was winter-time, and these people had brought with thcin tliiir
tents, their sleilgcs, and their snow-shoes, they soon became objects of curiosity,
and crowds of fashionable visitors flocked to their encampment; among otliurs,
the good-natured prince, who imprudently conducted his j'Upil, tlie young Lap-
land girl, to sec her coui'.trymen, an interview which he supposed would give
her great jdeasure. But from that moment she became an altered being; slio
lost her si)irits and her appetite, and, in spite of every care and attention, her
health declmed from day to day. One morning she disappeared, and if was
found on inquiry that she had returned to her family, where :>he n-mained ever
after.

Another very remarkable instance of the Lajilanders' love of their country
is related by Ilogstrom. During the war of Gustavus III. with Russia, a
young Laplander enlisted in a regiment which was passing through Toriiea.
lie served in several campaigns as a eoniinon soldier, was made a sergeant in
consequence of his good conduct and courage ; and having given himself tlio
greatest trouble to improve his education and acquire military knowledge, at
length, after twenty years of service, attained the r.ank of captain in the Swidish
army. After this long time spent in the civilized world, and having Ijccoine ac-
customed to all its enjoyments and comforts, he felt a strong desire to revisit
his family and his country. Scaicely had he seen his native mountains, and
spt'ut a few days among his countrymvn and the reiiuleer, than he at once <jiiit-
teil the service, and res\inic(l the ncnnu! life of his youth.

The Laplander's chief desire is for peace ami tran(|uillity. Exposed to all
tho privations of a vagrant life, and to every inclemency of weather, he endures

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THE LAPPS.

let

the ffroatest hardships witli equanimity, desiring only not to be disturbed in the
eiijoyiuent of tlie little that is his — not to bu interfered with in his old custotna
and habits.

Vet this same peaceful Laplander, who has so easily submitted to a foreign
yoke, is one of the bc!de!,i, hunters, and not only pursues the elk or the wild
rt'liideer, but engages in single coMd)at with the bear. Like all the other Arctic
nations of Russia and Siberia, he has strange notions about this animal, which
in Ills oiiinion is the most cunning and gifted of all created beings. Thus hu
Kiiliposes tliut the bear knows and hears all that is sai<l about him, and for this
reason he takes good care never to speak of him disrespectfully. It may seem
strange that he should venture to slay an animal which ranks so high in his es.
tOL'ni; Init the temiitation is too strong, as its tlesh has an excellent flavor, and
its far, though not near so valualile as that of the American black bear, is still
worth from fifteen to twenty dollars.

At the beginning of winter, the bear, as is well known, retires either into a
rorkycave, or under a cover of branches, leaves, ami moss, and remains thero
witliDUl food, and plunged in sleep until the next spring recalls him to a more
active existence. After the first fall of snow, the Lapp hunters go into the for-
est and look out for traces of tlio bear. Having found them, they carefully
mark tlie spot, and returning after a few weeks disturb the slumbering brute,
and excite him to an attack. It is not considered honorable to shoot him
Aviiilc sleeping; and in many parts of Lapland the hunter who woidd kill a bear
with any other weapon but <•; lance would be universally despised. Ilogguer
accompanied two Lapps, well-armed with axes iuid stout lances with barbed
jMiints, on one of these bear-hunts. "When about a hundred paces from tho
lair tlie company halted, while one of tho Lapps advanced shouting, telling his
comrades to make .as much noise as they could. When about twenty ])ace3
fioM the cavern, he stood still and flung several stones into it. For some time
all was quiet, so that Ilogguer began to fear that the lair was deserted, when
suJJunlv an angrv growl was heard. The hunters now redoubled their clamor,
until slowly, like an honest citizen disturbed in his noonday slumbers, the bear
came out of his cavern. But this tranquillity did not last long, for the brute, as
soon as he perceived his nearest enemy, uttered a short roar and rushed upon
liim. The Lapp coolly awaited the onset with his lance in rest, until the bear,
coining quite near, raised himself on his haunches and began to strike at him
with his fore i)aws. The hunter bent down to avoid the strokes, and then sud-
cltnly rising, with a sure eye and with all his might, plungeil his lance into tho
heart of the bear. During this short conflict the Lapp had received a slight
wound on the hand, but tho marks of the bear's teeth were found deeply im-
prt'sst'd upon the iron of the lance. According to an ancient custom, the wives
of the iiuiiters .assemble in the hut of one of them ; and as soon as they hear tho
rituining sportsmen, begin chanting or howling a song in praise of the bear.
>^ lien the men, laden with the skin and flesh of the animal, approach, they are re-
ceived by the women with opprobrious epithets, and forbidden ingress through
the door; so that they are obliged to make a hole in the wall, through which
they enter with their spoils. This comedy, which is meant to pacify the mane*

101

TIIF; I'OLAIl WOHF.I).

•I „* -r r

i '

'! I

il

( I

m-

of tho viptim, is Htill .acted, tlioiiLch imt so fn-fnictitly ns formerly; but tho ciis-
lom of lu-uLjiiii,' tlic Itoar'M jtanloii witli many trars is ntiiiidcU'ly out of date.
'I'liu aiiiiiiars iiiU'i'iiiciit, howcvfi', still fakes [dat'i! with all llu( am'it'iit lioiKn-a
ami (HMTiiioiiifs. ,\lt(r liaviiit^ Ihhii sUiiiiii'd, and its iKsli cut off, the l)ody is
hurii'd in anatomical onlcr — tht! head lirst, *heu the nock.' liu fore jiaWjCtc. This
is <lonu from n lielief in tho vesurroction o. liie hear, who having been dcccndv
hurled, will, it is Imped, allow himself to ')o killed iv .second time by the saino
li!!]!)); while a nei,'lect of tho lionnis duo Xo him would exasperati' the wludu
race of bears, and causu them t<i wreak a biooily vcugc-anco on the ilisre.s|)eclhil
hunter.

Thy Mdlf is treated with much loss ceremony, ^faiiy .1 wealthy Lapp, tlu;
owiur of .'I thous.and reindeer, has been reduceil to poverty by the ravai,'es nf iliis
savaLje beast, which is cciustantly prowlini? about the herds. Hence one of llio
first ([uestious they i)Ut to each other when they meet is, ' I.ekor rauhe V" " is
it peace?" — which nu'ans nothini;; more th.in, " Have the wolves molested you ':"
Such is their detestation of these ;niiinals that they believe them to l)e cn'atim s
of the devil, contaminating; all that touches them while Jilive. Thus they will
never shoot Ji wolf, . as the i;tni that killed him woidd ever after be accursed.

At the first alarm that wolves have appeared, tin; iieinhbors assendde, ami
the chase be>j;ins, For miles they pin-sue him over hills and valleys on their
•' skiders," and kill him with clubs, which they .afterwards burn. They will imt
even delile theniselvi's with skiimini; him, but leave his hide to the Finnish or
l{ussi;m colonists, wlio, beiiii; less scrujiulous or Buper.stitious, make a wanii
cloak of it, or sell it fur a, few dollars at tho f.air.

Amoiiix tlu' Kjall Lapps there me in.any rich owners of 1000 or l.')00 roiii-
deer, ;J00 of which fully sutlire fur the mainten.ance of a family. Li this (■a^^■
the owner is able to kill as many as are necessary for providing his houselii>lil
with food .and raiment, while the sale of the superlluous skins and horns eiiahli'S
him to purch.asu doth, Hour, hardware, and other necessary articles — not to for-
get the tob.acco or the br.indy in which he delights. The price of the eiitiri'
carcass t)f ;i reindeer, skin and all, v.aries from one to three doUars Norsk (four
shillings and sixpence to thirteen shillings and sixpem-e). A fine skin will al-
ways sell for one dollar in .any ]iart of the North. It will thus bo seen that a
Lapp i)ossessing a herd of .")IM) or loOO deer is virtually a capitalist in cviiy
sense of the word, far richer th;m the vast m.ajority of his Norwegian, Swedisli,
or Hussian fellow-subjects, although they all affect to look upon him with su-
preme contempt.

The daily food of the motmtain Laplanders consists of the fattest reimlcrr
venison, which they boil, and eat with the broth in which it has been cooked.
Tiieir sumnu'r diet consists of cheese and reindeer-milk. The rich also tat
bread b.aked upon hot iron plates.

Their uuuleof killing the reindeer is the metlu)d used by the butcliers in tlie
Sonth of Italy — the most aiu-icnt and best method of slaying cattle, because it
is attended with the least pam to the anim.al, .and the greatest profit to its pos-
sessor. They thrust a sharp-pointed knife into the b.ack part of the head bo-
tween tho horns, so as to divide the suinal marrow from tho brfiin. Tho beast

Tin: LAIM'H.

i(i:»

instantly drops, nnd «lios witliout fi pvnnn or strucrcrlc. As soon ns it falls, ami
niiiicavH to 111' (IfiHJ, (lie I.Mplaiiclcr |>Imi'_'''s tin- kiiit'c ilrxti roii^iy licliind tlu' off-
sIkhiIiUt into till' licart ; tiii'ii n|iiniii'4 tlic animal, its liloud is toiiii'l in tlu' stoni-
juli.aMil la IK'il out into a |Hit. lloilfd with fat anil Hour, it is a favorito dish.

An important epoch in llic life of tht- rjall Lapj) is his annual visit to ono
of tin; winter fairs luld in tlu* chiif towns or viIlaLr<'s whiih the more industri-
<iu> Swcdi'S, Norwegians, or l-"ins have rounded on the coasts here and there, or
ill till' well-watered valleys of his fatherland, and which he attends fre(|Uently
liDiii an immense distance. After a sliirht duly to (lovermnent has been paid,
Imsiness hcirins ; but as every liarLrain is ratified with a full glass of brandy, his
tliuiijits !_'('t confused before thi' day is half over — a circumstauc(! which the
ciniiiiii',' merchant docs not fail totiiiii to account. On awaking the next un-iii-
in;:, the vexation of the nomad at his bad bargains is so mm-li the greater, as no
people are more avowed mamiiudi-worshippers ihun the La)»jis,or moro inclined
til sing, with our IJiiriis: —

O wan on ih" siller, it in snr iircviiilin '!

Tiicir sole object seems to be the amassing <if treasure for the solo purpose of
luiarding it. The iivarice of :i Lapp isgratilied in collecting a number of silver
niseis or pieces of silver coin ; ."ind being unalili- t<i carry this treasure with
liiiii nil his journeys, he buries the whole, not t'veii making his wife acipiainted
willi tile secret of its deposit, so that wlii'ii he dies the members of his family
arc iiftcii unable to discover where he has hiilden it. Some of the La))ps pos-
sess a hmidreil-weii_dit of silver, and those who own l.">0() or 1000 reindeer have
iiiucli niore ; in short, an astonishing ipiantity of specie is dispersed among
tliciii. Silver plate, when offered to them fur sale, must be in .a polishi 1 state,
or llii\ will not buy it; for such is their igiionMice, that when the met;il,by
liiiiii; kept buried, bectimes tarnishi'd, thi'y ctmceive that its value is impaire<l,
;iiii| exclumge it for other silver, which being re|iolislieil, they believe to be

new.

The merchants derive great benelit from this tratVic,

lirandy and tobacco are the chief luxuries of the Lapps. The tobacco-pipe
U never laid aside except during meals ; it is even used by the women, who
aUii swallow spirits as greedily as the men ; in fact, Imth sexes will almost jiart
vviiii lite itself for the gratilicatioii of dram-diinkiiig. If you walk up to a
J.iipp. iiiiciiiithly S(piatteil before his t( lit, his very lirst salutation is made by
Ktii'tcliiiig forth a t.awny hand anil demanding, in a whining tone, " Tabak " or
" Mracndi." Dr. Clarke relates an .amusing instance of their jiropensity for
f^liiritiioiis lii|iiors. On his very Hist visit to one of their tents, he gave the fa-
tlicr (if the family about a jiint of brandy, thinking he would husband it with
grc:it care, as he had seen him jilace it behind him upon his bed near the skirt-
ing of the tent. The daughter now entered, ;md begged for u taste of the
lirainly. as she had lost her share by being absent. The old man in;ide no an-
swer, liiit when the recpiest was repeated, he slyly crept round the o>if side of the
'cut until he came to the spot where the br.mdy was, when, thrusting his arm
'leneath the skirting, he drew it out, and swallowed the whole contents of thu
hiiitle at a draiii'lit.

.1 *

mm

V m,

•■it^ii- !•«{■■;

t: i

1«<I

THE POLAIl W(JKLD.

Tlie practice of ilrnin-drinkini; is so general tliat niollicrs pour tlic horriil
(lose down t)io throats of tlii'ir iiifatits. Their christenings and finiernl.4 lu'.
coino mere |«'etexts for indnlu'intr in hnindy. Hut their mild and paeilie dis.
position shows itself in their drunkenness, which is manifested only in liowliii<.',
juinpim;, anil lausihini;, and in acravinij for mine drams with hysU'ric sereatns
until they fall senseless on the uroimd — while at the same time they will suffer
kicks, cuffs, Mows, aixl provocations of any kin<l without the smallest irnsri>
bility. When solter they are as yentle as lamhs, and the softness of the ir Imin
^iniije, nd<led to their effeminati' shrill tone of \()ice, remarkahly correspdntU
will) their p1;u-al»le disposition. An amialilc trait in tli(< character of tiie L:i|<|i
is the ^^^lrmth of his affection towards his wife, his children, and his depend-
ents. Nothini? can exceed the conliality of their mutual jrreetinjjs after sep-
arations, and it is to he feared that hut few niarrie(l men in Kni^lninl cdiiM
match the Lapp hnshand who assuredC'astren that durin.; thirty years of wed-
lock no worse word had passed belweon hinioelf and his wife than " Loddad-
sham," or " My little hird."

In spite of his fatiguinu; life, and the insnfllcient shelter afforilod him hy liis
htJt, the Fjall Lapp is generally vigorous and healthy, and not seldom lives to
a hundred years age. Continual exercise in the open air hraces his constitu-
tion, his warm clothing protects him against the cold of winter, and his gen-
erous meat diet maintains his strength. To prevent the scurvy, he oats tlic
berries of t\u> J'Jmpctnnn nif/rxm or Jliihns c/hiuxi morns, twu] mixes the stems
of the Angelica among his food. Rut his chief remedy iigainst this ami every
other bodily evil is warm reindeer-blood, which he drinks with delight as a
imiversal pan.icea.

The Skogs Lapp, or Forest Lapp, occupies an intermediate grade betwcfa
the Fjall Lapp and the Fisher Lapp, as fishing is his summer occnjiation, and
hunting and the tending of his reindeer that of the winter months. Hi;- herds
not being so numerous as those of the Fjall Lapp, he is not driven to constant
migration to ])rocure them food ; but they require more care than liis divi<U'(l
])m-suits allow him to bestow upon them, and hence lie inevitably descends to
the condition of the Fisher Lapp. Liistadius describes his life as one of tlie
happiest on earth — as a constant change between the agreeable pastime of fish-
ing and the noble amusement of the chase. IIo is not, like the Mountain Lnpj ,
exposed to all the severity of the Arctic winter, nor so poor as the Fisher
Lapp. He is often heard to sing under the green canopy of the firs.

Tlie villages of the Fisher Lapps — as they are found, for instance, on the
banks of Lake Enara — afford a by no means ))leasing spectacle.

About the miserable huts, which are shapeless masses of mingled earth,
stones, and bnuiches of trees, and scarcely equal to the dwellings of the
wretched Fuegians, heaps of stinking fish and other offal laint the air with
their pestilential odors. When a stranger approaches, the inmates come pour-
ing out of their narrow doorway so covered with dirt and vermin as to in.ikc
him recoil with disgust. Not in the least ashamed, however, of their appear-
ance, they a))proach the stranger and shake his hand according to the code cf
Lapp politeness. After this preliminary, he may expect the following qiu'»-

I r

THE LAPP9.

1«7

tiotn: "In poaco In the Innfl ? IIow is the ompornr, the bishop, nn<l tho 0!i|».
tiiin of tlio (iHtrii'l !?" Thu more inquisitive of llio liltliy troop tlu'ii a»li aflir
till' liDiiif of tlu> straiiu't'i', iiml ln-iii;; tolil tliat it is Iti'voml tlic inouiilains, tlicv
fiirtlur iiu|uiiv if \w nimis from tliu lari<l wlu re tobacco j^rows. For a.s our
iniagiiialiou loves to waiuler to llie nuiiiiv rej^ioiis,

Whern tlio rllron imd iilive arc fairi'^t of friill,
Ami llio vuiuo uf llii< iii^luiiiKulo iitvcr U inuta}

80 tJic fani-jr of tlio Lnpp conceives no preater paradise than that which pro-
duces the weed tliat, along with the brandy •bottle, affords him his higliest
luxury.

;l,-

Ai ■;

los

TILL. I'OLAli WOULii.

i

t r

1 • * • I.'

niAPTKii xriT.

MATTHIAS ALKXAXDKU CASTRftN.

Ili.H Uirlliplaco anil Trst Stiulics. — Jminii-y in I.iipland, lH;!8._'riiu Iwalojdki.— Tlip Ijikc of F.nnrt.—
The I'8ht(ir jf f't/joki. — From llowanicini to Kciiii — Scidinl Vnwim-, 1x11- 1 1. — Stdiiit on llii-

i Ariliiiii(^il. — Tilt: 'riiiiiliiis of the Ijiiiipiim Siimoi'cilis, — Mrscii. — I'liivir-al

•ik'C ,l(

to I'ustoscr-K. — A Sill

• Ic 'ri'iirliir.— I'liiiilrii Stiriiis. — AImihIm!!-

M'hiti' Sill — liiMi
I)riiMkf'iiiii'>s. — SI
«l atiil alniir ill tlic Wilil'Tiii'^s. — I'li-to^tTsk.— iMir 'rriivcllor's I'l'iM'iiitioi » at I'slMliiisk Mini l-li.

Miisk. — 'I'lin I'listt. — ('ros>iiin tin- I'ral. — (tlulorsk. — S ml Silioriaii .loiinicy, IHI.ViH. — Ovoillnw-

\t\iX of till! Olii. — Siirt^ut.— KraMiojat}-k. — AtrriM-alilp Siirpiiso. — 'rnriicliaii-k — Vovairo down tlii>

la. — I'lom Itiiiliiika to Toisloi No«. — I'ro/.cii l''iM't. — lirtitiii

•ti'iiiMvi.

'astii'ii's SiihIv at I'l.;

\'o_vaj;« to the Smiili. — I'rozi'li List mi llin .Iciii-si'l. — Wonilcr ul I'irMrvalioii.— .loiiriu'v acrii»» iln'
riiiniMP '.'roiitii'iH, iiiiil to I'niiislMlkaliu. — lUtiirii to I'iiilaiid. — rroli.-i-oihlilpat lliUlii({fori). — iK'.ith

orCaMroii, 1 »<.'),').

u

m<r jotii

riicvs f

i»rm

ATTIIIAS ALKXAXDKIJ rASTlJt^X, wlinsi> inUMcst
tlic Milijccf (if till' prcsdit cliiipli'r, \v;is liom in ilic ycMr |s|;i,:it Hnwani-
(•mi, .1 Fiiilaml vi!l;ii,'f sitn.-ilcil iiliniit fnrly tiiili's frum tlic licad of ilic (miH of
IJotlmiii, imiuotliutily ninlcr tlic Arclir (irclf; so tliiil. of :ill nun who liavo
JittaiiH'd cdt'lirity, |inil);i!)!y iioiu' can lioasi of a iiioic nortlicrii liirtli|plac'e.
Wliili! still a scholar at llu; Alcxaiulcr's ('olici,'!' of I't'lsinutfors, he rooKi'il to
(Icvoto his lift! to till stitily of the nations of Kinnish oriuin (Kins, Lajilainliis
SanioKcticfi, Osliaks, etc.) ; ami as hooks travo Imf an insullicicnt account <>f
tlictn, each pasfliiiLT year fitrcnLXtheiieil hi-; (ie>»ire to vi>il these trihes in llnir
own haunts, anil to learn from tlu'insilves their lantjjuatres, their hahits, iukI
their history.

We may iinaijino, therefore, the joy of the enthusiastic stinleiit, .vhoni pov-

erty alone luvl hitlierfo prevei

ite.l f

rom carrvinii out llie schemes of his mmiiIi

when Dr. Khrstri'iin, a friend .iinl ineilic.'il feilow-stuiliiit, proposed to take 1

iiiii

as i\ v. 'upanion, free of expeiis(>, on a tour in l.apland. Xo artist that evci'
erosscii the Alps on his way to sunny Italy couid feel li!i]ipier than C'astivn at
the prospect of phuiyiiiLr iuto the wiMernesses of the Arctic zone.

On June 'J'), is:ix, the friends set out, and arrived mi the liiMh at the small
town of ^luonioniska, where they romaiiied six Wfeks— a delay which Castivii
j>ut to ji'ood account in learninix the Lapp lan'j;uaLre from a native calei'liist.
\t leiiiiih the decvpasiiiij sun warned the travelh rx that it was hiudi tiiiic t:)
continue their journey, if they w Islied to see more ot l.apland hetore the \\ iiitir
set in; aid after haviiiLT, W'th irreat dif^h'ully crossed the mountain lidu'o
which for.ns tiie water-«hc'd hctweon the (iulf ' ; IJothnia and t' e I'ol.u' Son,
they emb: rk-'d on the rom.inlic iua'ojoki, where for throe days and ni'jiit- ilic
rushiiiLr M lUers roared around ihem. In sjiito of ihe^c danLri'i'ous rapids tlirv
Ml re ohliij;ed to trust tlnniselveH to the stream. Mhidi vvt'iy now and liicn
threiitoned to ilash their frail hoat to )iiec,o» airainst thfi rocks, .\rjued with
loii'^ oars, tli.v were (Miitinuallv at work d iriiii,' the davtime to _<;uard a'.'aiii^t

MATTHIAS ALKXANUKU (JASlUfiN.

ISO

this peril ; the ii'ixlits woiv spent near .1 larye firo kindled in llicopcn air, witli-
(lilt .iiiv slit'llcr atjanist tlie rain and wind.

The Iwalu River is, during tlu; iri't'ater ])ait of its ooiirso, cneascd between
hi'_'li rncks; init a few miley, before it diseliaii/'s •••ielf into the laruce Lake of
Kiiani. its v ilii-y improves into a tine glassy plain. Small islands eoveced with
tni's divide i'm wal .Ts, wiiicli now How more tiaiKpiilly ; soon aNo traces of
ciiltiire appear, and the astonished traveller finds in the villa;,'(! of Kyro, not
uietclied I-aplan<l huts, but well built houses of Finnish settlers, witli green
iiicadous and co ■lieids.

The iMaiililnl I/ike of Knara, sixty miles loni; and forty miles broad, is so
llii(klv sliiddeil with islands that they have never yet Ih'cii counted. After tho
travellers ha<l spent a few days ;inionir tlie Fisher 1/ipps wlio sojourn on its
liiirder-i. thev proeeedeil liorthward to L'lzjoki, the limit of their expedition, and
(Hie nt the centres of liapland civili/ation, .'is it lioaNts of a ehiirch, which is
Mrvt'd bv a man of liit;h charactei- ami *d no little ability. On acceplini; his
cliarLTe, this self-denying priest h:id perri.rnied the journey from Toriiea in the
ili|iili of winter, accompanied by a yoiinij wife and a female relation of the lat-
trr, tittecii years of au'c. He had ioiind the parsonage, vacatetl by his predeces-
■^ ::■, .1 xvnlchcd bi'i'ulit'.u ilisl;nit some fifteen miles from the nearest Lapp habi-
titi >n. Afle*' ••st.ablishiiiLT limseif and his family in this dreary tenement, ho
iiinl nliirned from a pastoral e. ciirsioii to find his home destroyed by a lire, from
wliicli its inmates had escaped with I he lo>sof nlhli.at they possessed. A miser-
alile li'it. Iniilt for the teniporaiv shelter of tiie Ii'ip)is who resorted thither for
divine service, .aifordcd the family a refuse for the winter. He had sinco cim-
tii\((l to build himself ar.wther dwellini.', in which our party found him, .after
livf years' residence, the fatlierof :i family, .-iiid the chief of a happy hoiiseh.tid.
<iladly would the IravelliMs have remained sonu' time lonirer under his hospit.-i-
IpIi' I(mi|', but the birds «jf jiassai^e were moving; to the south, warnini^ them to
iiilldW their ex.aniplc.

Thus they set out. on Ar.<,Mist l.").f(,.' their !iome\vard voyajje, which proved
III! less ditliciilt .and lahorioiis than the former. At, leiiulh. after wandering;
tliiiiie_di deserts and swamps —fre(piently wet to the sisiii, and idlen without
t Mill tiir many hours — they arrived at llovvanieiiii, where they eml)arked on tho

tiver.

With conllictiiiLrfeelinLrs,"8nvs Castren,"! desoendeil its stre

uti

; for every

I ilaract was not only welhUiiown to me from the days of my earliest diildhood,
hilt the cataracts were even the only aciiu.aintances which ileath had left me in
ilic i>lai'e of my birth, /vlonir with the mipiirnfiil impressions wliiidi the loss of
hdiived relations ma<le upon my mind, it w as deliijfhilul to r-'iiew my inter-
iMiiisi. with the rapid stream and its waterf.alls — those boisterotis pl.iyfi'l-
li'us. wlii, h had often bi'ouLdit me into peril when a boy. Now, as bidniv.it
\* 1^ a pleasant sport to me to be hurried alonir iiy their tumuliiioiiM waters,
niid to he wetted by their spray. 'Die boatmen often tried to poi'suade
'II'' to land bt'fore ]»assinii the most danufi'rous waterf ills, and declared thtit
'lny could not be answer.alde for my safety. IJiit, in spite of all their lonion-
t'traiices, I ri'mnined in tlie boat, nor had I i*ea8on to rejit'iit of my boldncHs, for

) •

170

THE POLAU WOltLU.

IIo who is fliG stoci'sman of nil boats granted us a safe arrival at Kemi, whore
our Lapliiiiil journey fvriiiiuati'il."*

In 1K41 Castri'i! |ml)lisht'(l a uictrical translation, info the Swedish laiiG;un<:p,
of llif " Ivalcwala," a cvcle of the oldest poems of tju' I'ins ; and at the end fif
the same year proceeded on his first ^reat journey to the laud of the Kuropcm
Samoiedes, and from thence across tlio iiortliern I'ral Mountains to Siheria. ir>
the famous convent of Solovetskoi, situated on a small island in the U'liitc Si i,
he hoped to find a friendly teaclier of the Samoiedo lanyua<re in the Archiin.ui-
ilrite We!ijamin, who had labored as a missionary amoni» that savai^e peo|ili',
Init the churlish di;;nitary jealously refused hiui all assistance; and as the tun-
dras of the Samo'icdcs are only accessil»le diiriiii; the winter, he resolved to turn
the interval to account hy a journey amoii!.' the Terski Lapps, who iidialiil llic
M'estern shores of the White Sea. With this view, in an evd hour of the 'JTih
June, 1H42, though sufferini; at this tiuie from illness severe enoujjrh to have tic-
tallied any less perseveritiu; traveller, he endiarked at Archanirrl in a la'"<;e corn-
laden vessel, with a reasonable i)rospccf of b(;ini; landed at Tri Ostrowa in siniu'
twenty-four hours; but a (lead calm detained !iim eiu:ht days, dtirini; which he
had no choice but to endure the horrible stciu-h of Russian sea-ston s in tlic
cabin or the scorching sun on deck. At length a favorable wind arose, ami
after a few hours' sailinj; nolhini; was to be seen but water aii<l sky. Sooti tlic
Terski coast came in view, with its white ice-cappeil shore, and Castren liopcil
noon to be released from his floatiiiLC ])risoii, when, suddenly the wiml chanu"'!,
nnd, increasing to a storm, threatened to dash them on the 'liffs of the Solovtt-
ekoi Islands.

" IJoth the captain and tlip chip's company hegan to despair of their lives;
nnd jirayers having been resorted t() in vain, to conjure the danger, gciicnil
drtuikeimess was the next resource. The captain, finding his own brandy trm
weiik to ])rocur the Htupefaction he desired, i.'ft me no peace till I had ^ivcn
him a bottle of rum. After havin*^ by degrees em)iticd its contents, he at Icnu'th
obtaineil his end, and fell asle(>p in the caliin. The crew, following iiiseximijilc,
dropped down one by (>ne into their cribs, and the ship was left without guiilaiicp
to the mercy of tiie winds and waves. I alone remained on deck,an<l glooiuily
awaited the decisive moment, liut T soon discovered that the wind was veil-
ing to the east, and, awaking the captiiin from his drunken lethargy, sent lii'ji mi
deck, and took possession of his bed. E.\hauste(i l)y the dreadful scenes uf tiio
d.ay, I soon fell into a deep slumber; and when Inwokethe following ninniiii',',
I found myself ngaiu on the eastern coast of the White Sea, at the foot of •
high sheltering rock-wnll.'"

Continued bad weatlier and increasing illnass now forced Ca8tr<?n to give up
his projected visit to tic Lapps, and when he returned to ArchaDgel, hulli lii»
health and his purse were in a sad condition, lie had but fifteen roubles in lii'
pocket, but fortuiuite.ly found some Samoiede beggar- r.till poorer than himsvlf,
one of whom, for the reward of an occasional glu^s of brandy, consented I" 1h'-
eome at ODM his host, his servant, and his privat.^ tutor in the Samoiede lu-

;

* Rsimm in iMppknul, ttt.

MATTHIAS ALEXANDEU CASTUfiN.

171

si

lore

ma^o. In tlie Imt and society of lliis savage lu' passed tlie remaiinler of tho
Riimnior, liis health improved, and soon also his linanees ehanixed wonch'rfnlly
for tile better — the (Jovernnieiit of FinlaiKl ]ia\iiii; granted him a thonsand sil-
ver roiihles for the proseeution of his travels. With u light heart he eontiimed
his liiiiruistic studies until the end of November, when he started with renewed
ciitliuxiasm for the land of the European Samoiedes. These immense timdras
•Mind from the Wliite Sea to the I'ral Mountains, and are houmleil on tho
north iiy the Polar Sea, and on tlie south hy the region of forests, which here
n;iflies as high as the latitudes of (5(5" and 07".

Till' large river Petsehora divides these dreary wastes into two imoqnnl
hiilvcs, whose scanty population, as may easily he imagined, is stnik in the deejv
fst harharism. It eonsists of nomadie Samoiedes, and of a few I'ussians, wlio
inlial)it some miserable settlements along the great stream and its tributary
rJNcrs.

To hiny liimself for a whole year in these melaneholy deserts, Castren left
Ari'li;iiii;('l in November, isi-j. \s f;ir as ^lesen, ;5t-j versts north of Arehan-
}.'i|, the scanty population is IJuss and Christian. At ^lesen civilization ceases,
.-iml further north the Samoiede retains for the most part, with liis primitive
li;iliits and language, his lieatheii faitii — having, in fact, borrowed nothing from
(ncisioiial lnt<'rcourse with civilized man but the means and practice of drunk-
cmuxs. (."astren's tirst care, on his arrival !it Mesen, was to look for a Samoiedo
i'ittr|ircter and teacher; but he was as imsuccessful here as at Soinslia, a village
8IIIIU' forty versts farther on, where drnnkemiess was tho order of the day. He
tnok tlic most t-.'Miperate person l,e oouM linil in all Sonisha into liis servi<'e,
liiit even this moderate man would, acoonrmg to otir iileas, have been ac(^ muted
n I'crfcct drtmkard. He now resolved to try the fair sex, ami engageil a female
tc'iili.'r, hut she .also coiild not remain sober. At length a man was introduced
t" liiiii ar. the most learned person of the tundra, ami at first it seemeil as if ho
liml :ii length found what he wanted.; but after n few hours the Samoiede be-
iTMii 1 1 get tired of his numerous (jucstions, and declared himself ill. He threw
hiiiisi'lf u|)on the Hoor, wailed and lamenteil, ami begged Castren to have pity
oil liii'i, until at length the incensed philologist turned him out-of-doors. Soon
rifti r lie found him lying dead drunk in the snow before the "Elephant and
<':i-ile" of the place.

Thus oldiged to look for iiiMruclion else»vh"re. Casfivii resolved to travel, in
t!i • mi. 1 lie of winter, to the Kussian villnge of Piistosersk, at the mouth of ihe
I'lt'^cliora. where the fai" annually attrncis a number of SamoTcdes, During
tliis slidge-jouruey of TOO vorsls, he i>ad to rest Houietiiiips in the open air on tho
Miinii-hialen tundra, and sometimes in the ricki-ty tent of the Samok'de, or in
tlif scarcely less wretched hut of the liussirin colonist — where the snow peiie-
tr.iiiil through the cntvicen of the wall, wl.ere the llamo of the light tlickeri'd in
tl'i' v^iml, and a thick cloak of wolf-skiii a'forded the only protection against tho
I'ii'iviii.,' iM.l,! (d the Arctic vvinfer.

lor tins arduous tour, two sledges, with four reindeer attached to each, were
f'Miliioycd— the traveller's sledge, which was coveri'd, being attached to an un-
tiivcrpd one occupied by the ;;uitlo. The Knnin Tuixlra iltrotehed out befor*

Ifti

li

• 3 e 1

•l 1

If

1T3

TIIK POLAU WOHLU.

thorn, as tlioy flow aloiiir, almost, as 'lakod as liie sen, of wliicli tlipy saw tlio
iiiarLrin in the cast ; ami liail not tlin wind lioro and tlicre driven away llu' miow
V hirli lloavi'ii in its mercy strews over tliis Liloumy land, they mii^lit have lici n
in d<Mil)t ru which element they were tnivellnii.'. Uaily, from timeto time, some
dwarf iirs made their a|i]iearance, or chini|is of lo v willows, whicli iienerally dc
note the presence of some little lirook slowly winding throu'^h the flat tinidin.

The villai^e of Ness, on the north coast, was tlie lirst lialtinij-jilace, and lure
Castren flattered liitnself he had at len<ilh found what ids heart desired, in tlic
jterson of a tSamoiede teacher who knew Russian, and was gifted with a clcai-
er iiead than is nsnally |>(>ssessed by his race.

"The man was conscious of his superiority, and while acting as a profr>;siir
looked down with contempt u])on his weaker hretlren. Onci", son\e oilier S.umk-
Kedes venturing to correct one of his translations, he commanded them to he si-
lent, telling them tjiey were not learned. 1 tried l»y all ])Ossilile means to se-
cure the services of this Samoie<le phenotne;'-)n. I spoke kindly with him, I
paid liim well, gave him every day his allowance of hrandy, and never once for-
bade hint lo get drmik when iie felt inclined to do so. Yet, i;: .spite of ,'ill mv
endeavors to please, he felt uidiajipy, and sighed for the liberty of the tundrn.
*Tliou an kind, . -mil I htve thei-j'said 1k' one day to me, ' but I can not eniliiie
eonlinenient. iJe therefore merciful, and give n\e my freedom.'

" 1 now increased his daily pay and his rations of brandy, sent for his wife
nnd child, treated iiis wife also with brandy, and did a'l I could to dispel the
melancholy of the Samoiede. J)y these means I induced him to remain a few
•lays longer with me.

" While I was constantly oeeiipying him, the wife was busy '•ewing Sainoieile
dresses, and sometimes assisted her husband in his translations. I often liciivil
her sighing deeply. an<l having asked for the reas()n,she burst into tears, ami
answered that she gi'ieved for her Imsband. who was thus imprisdued in n i-oniii.
'Thy husb;u;d,' was my reply, 'is not worse off than thyself. Tell nie,wli;ii
do you think of your own jposition?' *T ilo not think of myself — I nm sormw-
ful for my husbaml,' was her ingenuous reply. At length both the hush.iiil

d the wife begged me so earnestlv to set them at libei'tv that 1 ullowcil tlieiii

an

to depart."

On the M-ay from Pjoscha to I'ustosersk, nfter Castren had onee more v.iiiily

tMideavored to disc(»\er that nirti n

/v.s', a

S.-nno'iede teacher, Ik.' became tliori

ly at'<piainted with the Jimuary snow-storms of the tundni: ''The viml

lll'OM'

al

)out noon, and blew so violentlv thai we <'i>uld not seethe reindeer before ouv

sledg(

The roof of my vehicle, whi<'h at lirst had afforded me Home prott

t5on,was soon carried away by the gale. Anxious about my fate, I (piestiomd
mv uruides. v li'iiever thev stnoiied to brush off the snow which had jiccuniiibiteil

♦ C7 til

upon me, and received the invariable answer, ' We do not know where we :ire,
and see nothiii'.'.' AVe jirocei'ded step bv step, nr)W followiii'j: one direct

Us Tl

ion,

now ano

t her. until !it leie^th we reached

\ I'iver well known totheyuit

leader of the lirst sle<lL!e hurried his reindeer down the precipitous bank, mih

rove away uiion

tlie ice to Reek a more convenient descent ; but !is he did not

leturn, the other guide likewise left me to look after his <.<'i!'].anion, nnd thus I

MATTHIAS >.Li:XANI)EH CASTUfiX.

173

was kept wnifin'4 fi)r .scvcriil liours vn tlio tuiKlra, witliout kimwiiij^ where my
giiiilcs had liiiiii.' I".

"At first I <Ii'l not cvfii know (Iiat tlicv Icul k'ft

nic

ami wlii'ii I hccamo

awan- of tlie fact, I thouj^lit tliat they lia<l aljaiidonfil hk' to my late. I will
mil altcniiit to dcscfihi,' my si-iisations; Imt my Ixxlily coiKiitioii was siicli, tiiat
when tlic cold iiicrcascil with tiiu aiiproacii of niLrht, I was sci/.cil with a violent
fLVtr. I thought my last liuiir was come, and idcpured for my jo'irncy to an-
(iilicr worlil.'"

The rc-apiicaraiuc (»f llic guides relieved Castreu of his anxiety, and when the
little jiartv reached some Samo'iede huts, the eldest of the guides knelt down at
the >ide of our traveller's sledge and expressed his joy iu a prayer to (tod,l>eg-

.'IM'.

savei

•Castreu to join him in ' 's tiianksgivings
I thee/'

, " for lie, and not I, hns this night

The next morning, as tho weather seemed to improve, and the road (nlong
till' Iiidi'^a Wiver) to tin' next Russian settlemi'Ut was easy to find, Castreu re-
solved to pursue his journey. " Uut the storm once more arose, and hecame .so
ilicadfully violent that I could neither hreaihe nor keep my eyes opi'u against
the wind. The roaring of the gale stupefied my senses. Tl

\vi

le m<ust snow
ttcd uie durinuc the d:iv, tuid the uiLiiit couvertei' it inl(» ice. Half frozen, I

arn

ved after midiii'dit .at the .set,tlemeut.

Th

le fatigues of the journey Iiail licen

Ih

Mirli that I could scarcely stand; I had almost lost my cousciousness, and my
si.rl,i liad .suffered so minrh from trie wind that I repeatedly ran with my fore-
luad against tlie w;ill. The roaring of the storm continually resounded in my
cars for many hours afti'r."

\ few ilays later (.'asfreii arrived at Pustoscrsk, undoulttedly oiui of tho
dreariest places iu the world. Willi scarcely a trace of arboreal vegetation, tho
I ye, during the greater part of the year, rests on an iiiteruiinal)le waste of snow,
wlie'e the cold winds are alir ist perpetually raging. The storms are so violent
as in)t seldom to carry awtiy the roofs of the huts, and to prevent the wre'ched

liiiiants from fetchiii'j water and fuel. In this Xorth( rn Kden our inde-

iiiii

fiti'_'al)le ethnologist tarried several months, .as it afforded iiiin an excellent op-
portunity for continuing his stc lies df the hmguage, maimers, ami religion of the
Saiiioiedes, who coiue to the fair of I'ustosersk during the winter, to barter their
reindeer skins for flour and other commodities, and at the same time to indulge
in tluir favorite heverage — br.andy. .\t length llu' Samoii'des retired, the busy
II of the j)l;ice was evidently at an end, and Castreu, baving no furtlur iu-
liin'ciiieut to remain at I'ustosersk, left it for the village of Tstsylmsk, situated
l.")U versts Ifigher up the I'etschora, where he hoped still to find some straggling
Satiioiedes. The road to T'stsylmsk leads through so desolate a region, that,
according to the priests of the neighborhood, it can not havolHt'ii oriLrinally

scasd

created bv (lod with the rest of t
the \)

le worlil

hut

mil

;t h;ive been fonied after

ell

no I

ige. Xear Ustsylmsk (0')^ ;!i)' X. lat.) tin; country improves, as most of
lortiierii trees grow about the price; but, uiifortuiiat«'Iy, a simihir praise
can not be awarded to its inluibitants, whom Ca.stn'n found to be the most
hrntal and obstinate Kaskoiniks (or sectarians) he bad ever «een. Without iu
the least uanug for the Teu Commandments, and iudul^jing in everj' vice, thes*

' n

'4

mm
mm

mm

I*

n>

111

il

Ji

174

THE POLAK WORLD.

absurd faiiatios fiuwiotl tlieinsclvfs better than tlic rest of mankind, because I liov
made tlie si^n of tlie noss \vitli the thuiid) and the two last finders, and stoml
for hours toi.'etlier lieforc an iniaLfe ni stu|iii| contemplation. Our hoiuiK^s
travfllt'i' soon Itccanic the oltjcct of tlu'ir |iersecutions ; they c.'ilh'd him " wi/..
ard," " a |ioison( r of rivtis and wells," and insulted him durini^ his walks. At
leuii'h they even atli'mpteil to take his life, so that he thought best to ntrc.it
to Ishinisk,on the Ishnia, a hinidrid viMsts farther to tlu! south. Hut, u dor-
Innately, his had reputation had precedid him, and altliouLj;h the Ispriwnik
(or |iarish oljicial) and his wife warmly took his part, the people eonti'uud to
regard him with suspieion.

Towards the end of June Cast n'n ascended the Petscliora and its diief trih.
utary, the I'usa, as f.ir as tiic villa'^c (d Kohv.i, where he spent the reiiiainder of
the summer, deeply buried as usual in S.amoiede stmlies. Ueyon 1 I\olw;i, vvliiiji
he left on S<'ptemlur 10 for Obdorsk, there is not a single settlement along tliu
Utisa and its tributaries.

^\s he ascended the river, the nieailows on its low b.anks appe.'ircfl coloicl
with the gray tints of aulinnn. Sometimes a wild animal starteti fi'om its l.iii,
l)Ut no vestige of man was to Ite seen. Countless llocks of wild ducks mikI
goese passed ovei' the traveller's head, on their way southuaril.

After many a tedious delay, caused by storms and contrary winds, C'asln'n
reached (on Septemiier '21) ■: wretched hut, about forty versts from the I'l.il,
where he was obliged to wait a whole month, with fourteen o»her jierst
until the snow-track fiv^r the mouninins became pr.u licable for sled

>ii>.

Ues.

The total wan', of every comfort, the bad company, the perpetual r.'iiii, aii'l
the dreary asjiect of the country, made his proloie^ed stay in this miseralile ti ii-
emenl almost unbearable. At length, on < Jctolter '_'."), lie was ;iliie to di'part, aipl
on Xovi'iuber ;t h(! saw the I'ral .Mountains raising their snow-capped sunuiiits

Id," said his Samo'iede driver, '* ami thuu mt

to tl

It! skies.

Tl

u! weatlu'r is mi

fortunate, but the I'ral can be very different." He then described the dreadfii

BtorniH that rai'c over

the b

d.i

lound.iry-chain winch separa

tes K

f

nroiie Iroiii Am;

and how they precipitate stones and rocks from the mountain-tops.

This time tlu' ilreaded pass was crossed in Hafety. .and on November 0, isi.l,
Cnstreii arrived at Obdorsk, on the Obi. exhausted in strength ami shattcicil in
hcaltli, but vet deli'dited to find himself in .\sia, the land of his earlv drcim-i.

Obilorsk — the most northerly coioiiv in Western Siberia,

ami.

as nniv ca^ilv

he imagined, utterly deKcii'iit in all that can be interesting to an ordinary
traveller--was as much as a university to the zealous Btudeiit, for gt'Venl
thons,in<ls of Samoieiles and Ostiaks congregate to its fair from hunilicds nf
Versts .around.

No better place could possibly be found for the prosecution of hid reseanli-
ofl; but the tleplorable coinlition of his health did lot allow him to remain as
loin.; :is he would have ilesired at this fountain-head oi knowledgi-. He was lliih
ohliired to leave forTol)olsk, and to return in .'\Iaroh, 1^4 », by the shortest roa.l
tu Kin.and.

Tn till' following munmer (1«45) we agnin find him on the hanks of '''«
Irtynch and the C)bi, plunged in Ostiak eludieSHith renewed energy and entlm-

MATTUIA8 ALEXANDER CASTRfiN.

178

siastn. After hnviiit; Mojoiinii'd for several weeks at Toropkowa, a small island
at tlie coiitliieiire of tliest' two iiiij^'lity streams, liu asceiitloil the Obi in July an
far a-* SiirjJCtit, wlieiv he arrived in the IteLjimiiiiLC of Aiiu'ust.

ill ('oiis('(|iieiief of the ovi'rllowiiiij; of its waters, the river had spread into a
ImmiihUcss lake, whose monotony was only relieveil, from time to time, hy somo
small wooilcil island or some innndatetl viliaije. The risin;^ of the stream had
siinid niiscry far and wide, for manyOsliak faiiiilii'S had heen ohlii^'ed to ahan-
.jiiii ihtir huts, and ti> seek a rifni,'e in the forests. Thoso who liad horses
aii'lciiws hatl the greatest ditlienlty to keep them aiivi-; and as all the meadows
wci'c uiid<r water, ami the antnnni, with its niu'ht-frosts, was already approach-
in,', tlure was scarcely any hope of makinix hay for the winter.

As Castrcn proceeded on his journey, the low banks of the river rose above
the wa.i IS, and appeared in all their wild ami liloomy desolation. The muuher
of iiilialiitaiits aloit;^ tlu- Olii is utterly insii,'nilicant when compared with the
wiilc ixiciit of the country ; and as himtini; and lishim; are their chief occupa-
tioii'^, nntiiini,' is done to subdue the wilderness. The weary eye sees but a dull
siuccsioii of moors, willow bushes, dry heaths, and lirs on the hii,'licr i^rounds.
Xtar every llourishimj tree .-itands another bearim^ the

marks ot decav

f <k

Tl

yoiiii'4 i,'rass is hemmed in its ifrnwth by that of the previous year, wiiicli ev

10

en

tl

III .lulv LTives the iiieailow a <liill a>li-'4rav co

lor. C'r

ines, wild (

luck

s, ;iml 1,'eeso

arc aliuii^t the only liviii'_c creatures to be seen, l-'roiii Siljarski ti» Sni'LCUt, a

iii>taii(e of juo versts, ther(! are lnit three Russian villayes ; and the Osliaks,
wliii form tile main part of the popiihition, L;ciierally live :iloiiix the tributary
rivers, or erect their suiiinier huts on the smaller arim of the Oiii, where they
can make a belter use of their very iniperf;'ct lishing implements than on the
piiiii'ilial stream.

Siii-iiit, once a fortress, and the chief town f)f the Cossack eonrpiernrs of Si-
liiria, is now rediured to a few miserable huts, scattered among the ruins of re-
pcMtcd e<iiilhi'4ratioiis.

Hire ( astn'ii remained till September 24, npcujiied with the study of the va-
riims dialects of the neiyihboringOstiak tribes, and then ascendetl tlu; Oliiasfar
as Xarym, a distance of SOO versts. ^lost of the fishermen had already retired
from the banks of tiu: river, and a death-like stillness, rarely iiiterruptecl by an
Usiiak liuat rapidly sho itinic thronyh the stream, reigned over its waters.

I'lirtiiiiately tlu; weather was line, at least during the first days of the journey;
nii'l the green river-banks, the binls siiiLriii'-r in the tree «, and the suiiln'.nms
daiu'iiig over the wide mirror of the ()i>i,
oft

iiiiewliat enli\em'd the monotony

If scene.

.\liir haviiicr

rnjoyed nt Xnrytn n rr)iiiir/,-ii/>/i/ nuhl Siberian winter, as no

ffiiif-^ had lni)i fi'oxvn to tf<'(it/i,:u\i\ having increased his knowledire of the Os-
tiak dialects, Casfreii proceedeil in llie following spring, Ity way of Tomsk, to
Krasiiipjarsk, on the .Feiiissei. where he arrived in .April, ISKJ, and was Welcomed

iiaiiiier. It will be remembered that dur-
iii',' Ills stay at Ishomsk, in tin tiimlraof thi' Sauioiedes, he found warm-hearted
^ii(i;ils and protectors ;igMiiist the insane higotry of the IJaskoliiikH in the Id-
priiwiiik and hi« younor and amiable wife. Of the latter it might truly be iiaid

III

a liio-.f agreeable :ilid Ulie\pected I

.1 'I

Si

>.!IM.'

Iflt*

176

TIIK I'OLAll WOULD.

Ittiii

■ 1'

m.

lilt a-

that sJio wns liko !i tlcnvcr Imhii to blush unseen in the desert. nemarkal)Iy rlo.
quentjshc was no less talented in expressing lier thoughts Ity writini;; ami vet
she was only the dauv'liler of a serf who had lieen exiled to KrasnojaisK-^ hikI
had spent a i,'reaf part (d a small properly, a('(|uired iiy industry ami eeuiiomv,
in »lif educ.'ilion of his gifted dan^jhter. 'i'lie Isprawnik, a younic I'ole of i!i>iii-
.laiinj^ manners, having trained her alTeetions, she had accompanied him to I.sji.
emsk as liis wife.

From what ('astn'n had tuld her three years since ahout his futin-o plans, slic
knew that hi' wonld proltahly arrive ahont this time at Krasnojarsk, .and liinl
written a letter, wliiih reache<l its destination onlv n few hours before him. li

was to her

fatl

ler, e.irnes

tly beLTuinLj him to p;iy every attention to the linnielcss

stranger. The fcelin^js of Castren may easily be iinauined when the old 111:111
knocked at his door, and brought him these friendly greetings from a distainc
of (iono versts.*

IJut his sl;iy at Krasnojarsk was not of long dur.ation, fur he

was im])aticiit

to proceed northward, for the purpose <d' becoming jiiMpiainted with the triliis
dweirm'.r .along thcJenissei, .after having studie<l their bretliern (»f the ( )bi. Kroin
Junc! till the end of .Inly, liis liti-r.ary pursuits (letaine(l him at 'ruriicliiiii^k,
where, in tin- vicinity of the Arctic Circle, he had much to suffer from llie IkmI,
1 the mosipiiloes. In the beginning of August the signs of ;i|iprnacliiiii,'

■ind swept away the leaves tinm

aiK

winter maili- their appearance, the «'ol(l north
the trees, the iishermeu retired to the woods, ami the ducks and geese prepaicil
to migrate to the souili. And now Castren also took leave of 'I'liruch.aiisk — imt
howi'ver, like the birds, for a iikh-c sunny region, but to bury himself still (l(i|,.
er in the northern wIMs of the .leiiissei. ]>eh»w 'Puriichansk the river begins to
flnw so lantiuidly, that when the wind is contr.ary, the boat must be drag^'i'l
along by d'-gs, and adv.ances no more than from live to ten versts duiinu' :t
whole day. Thus tlu! travi'Uer has full time to nniice the willows on tiic Idl
bank, and the lirs on the right; the ice-bloeks, surviving memorials of the l;ht
winti'r, which the spring innmlations have left here and there on the banks ot
the vast stream; .and the countless troops of wihl birds that fly with iuml
chiiiior ovei' his head.

lloU

t ."u;,") versts below Turnch.ansk is situated Placliin.'*,the fishing-stat

1011

of a small tribe of Saiuoiedes, among whom Castieu tarried three weeks. lit'
hail taken possi'ssion of the f>rst of the three huts of which the place coiisistcil,
but even this would iiave been perfectly intolerable to any one but our zcmIuus
ethnoliiirist. Into his study the daylJLtht ])enetrated so sparingly throULili ;i
small hole in the wail, that he was often oi)lige! to write by the ligiit of a i\->\-
nous t(»rch in the middle of the day.

The tlanie llickeiiiig in the wind, which blew through a thousand crevices. ;if-
feetiMl his eyes no less severely than tlie smoke, which at the same time rcii'ki-

!■)■
ills

ed respir.'ition dillicult. Although the roof had been rep;iired, yet during eve
Btroiig rain — iwid it rained almost perju'tually — he was (.bliged to pack up

't as if he h:ul

K'vn in the oik

th

■11 all'

papers, ami to protect Inmseli Irom tlie wt
From this delightful residenoe,Casti en, still pursuing his study of tlie Sanw!-
* The v«m is nbout three- fifthi of a mile.

MATTHIAS ALEXANDEU CASTRtN.

177

(ill' (liali'Cts, ]»rocootl(Ml down the river to Diuliiika, and finally, in Xovemhcr, to
Ti»l>tiii Xt).HS, whose pleasant climate may l»e jiidi,'ed of l»y the facttliat it is Hit-
iiated in tlie latitude of 71". Tliis last voyau'i' was |ieif((rme<l in a " balok," or
close sledtfe, covered with reindt'cr skins. The tediousness of lieinu' coiivi-yed
like a ('or|ise in a dark and narrow ho\, induced him to e\eham.'c the " lialok "
fur an open sh-dije ; Init the frei'zin^of his feet, of his limbers, and of |tart of liiH
taci. soon caused him to repent of his temerity. As soon as this iicciiU'Ht was
(liscdvcred :il the next station, Cast ren crept hack ai,'ani into his prisou,and w;is
licarlily ulail when, after a nine days' c(»ntinement, he .at leni,'th .arrived at Tolstoi
N'dss, which he found to consist of h»ur wretcheil liuts. Here ajjain lie spout
scvi lal weeks stuilyinu; hy t<H'cliliL,dit, for the sun hail made his last appearanco
ill Niivenilier, and the day was reduced to a faint t;linimi rini; at noon. In J.'iii-
nary we liml him on his return-voy.iLfe toTuruchaiisk, a place which, ihonudi not
VI IV cliarniini; in itself, appeared deliLchtful to Castien after :t .six nionth.s' resi-
ili MCI' ill the tundras heyond the .\rctic Circle.

Tunicliaiisk can hoast at least of sceiiiij some (l.'iyliLcht at all seasons of the
viar. and this ni.'iy lie enjoyed even wilhin-doors, for Turuchiiisk pos^isses no
liss than four houses w ilh ylass windows. Lom^iiiijf to reach this ,'oiiipar;itive-
ly sunny jilacc, Caslreii, iiLjiiii^t his usual ciistoi'i, resolved to travel day and
.'li'.'lit without stiippiiii,', Init his impatience well-nij;li proved fatal to him. IHh
SaiiUM'di' liuide liid not perceived in the dark that the waters of the Jeiiissei,
DVi'r wiiicli tlicy weie iravellinui:, had oo/.ed throuirii lissmcs in the ice, and in-
ninlali'il the surface of the river far and wide. Thus he drove into the water,
uliicli i)f ciMirse was r:ipidly CHin^ealiii^ ; the reindeer were un.alile to ilr.'ii^ tlm
slrd'^t' l»;ii-k ai^aiii upon the land, and Castivii stuck fast on the river, with thn
a:,'ri'r;ilili' prospect of heiii^ frozen to death. From this imminent daii'^iT he
was ii'snicd liy a wonderful circumstance. Letters haviiiLT arrived from the
liii|Mri;il .Vc.nlcmy (d M. I'elcrsliuri.', a courier had heeii dispatched frcuii Tiirii-

cnaii^k t Mivey them to Castii'n. 'I'his courier fortunately reiuhcd him wliiU<

III' was in this pi'i-jjiMis situation, helped him on land, and condMcti'd him to a
SaiMiicili' hut, where he w;is ahle to warm his stilTeiied limhs.

.\ft('r such a journey, we can not wonder that, on arrivincf at Turuchansk,
lir was so tornieiited with rheumatisiii tind toolhache as to he olili!»ed to rest
tlii'i'i' several days. With sore joints and ;iu achiiii; liody, he slowlv proceedi'd
t'l .Iiiiiscisk, where he arrived on Ajiril ;», 1^47, in a wndhed state of healfli,
vWiii'Ii liDwever had not iiiterruiited his Ostiak hludies on. the wav. I rapidly
U'laiirc over his suliseipieiit travels, ;is they .are lnit a repetition of the same
|irivali(iiisaiiil the same hardships, all cheerfully sustjiined for the love of kiiowl-
I'li:''. llaviiii; soiiu'whal ri'cruited his streni;tli at Jeiiiseisk, he crosstd tho
^ajaii Mountains to visit some Samoiedes heyoml the liiissian frontier — a ji>Hr-
'11 y whicli, hesi les tho usual fatiijues. involvfd the ndditional risk of '.leiii;? ar-
riMci as ;i spy hy the Chinese authorities ; and tho year after he visilod Trans-
liaikalia, to make inquirifs amoiiLj the Hiiriat priests about the ancient liistopy
of Siliii'ia.

llaviii'^ thus acponiplished his task, and thoroughly iiivosti^jati'd tho wild nii-
'f the Finnish lacu from tho confines of the Arctic Sea to the Altai — a tank

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which cont hiiii h'lK licallli, aiiil tlio host part of liin Pticrj^U's — ho loiit^fi] tn
lirc.ithc t}i(' air of liis native cniintrv. ISdt iiritlicr tlic pleasures of lioiiie, nor
Ik pr(tl»sMir>lii|< at the I'liivecsily nt Ilelsiiiytors. rieiily earned iiy jthnost .siipi i.
liiiMian exeitiiinM, were iihle to arrest tlie i^errns ot disease, wliiitli journeys mh h
UH theM> could Ncareeiy fail to plant even in his originally rohusl constilution.
After linu'erini; s((ine years, h(( ilied in iH.'i.'i, univt'rsally lainentiMi hy lii.s euim.
tryineii, who justly mourned his early death as a national lo^s.

TllK SAMOlKDKH.

171

A itA.MilllClll; I'lllKXT.

CHAITKIt XIV.

Til i; SAMOIK DKS.

Thiir llarlinri^m. — Niim, or.lililK'nniliacTijt-. — Sliiiimini!<iii. — Sumo file Iiliils. — Sjmliri. — II«hc, — TlieTn-
ilil.|.i(,..,iirS|iirilH.— 111.' 'I.tijilirs. or Snri- rrr». Tlnir l»ii i-s.— Tlii'ir Iih(h ali(iii>. Tluir idiijiiriiin
Tri. Ii>. — ItcMTcncc paid In t\w Pciicl.— A SiiinuiiMlc O.illi. — .\|i|ic':iniin c of llic Siinmirclc-'.— 'I lioir
Krr.. — A Siiiiui filu lli'llc— Clmracdroftlic Sunuiiciles.— Tluir ilirnu.-iiii; NumlnrH.— Tnidltiuiiaof

n\ti i III III riii'H.

''pill' S.imdicdcs, the iicij,'li1»()rs of tlic I-aplaiidcrs, an- sliU fartlicr rcmnvM
* innii ('i\ ili/.('il sitcicf y, aii»I |iliinL;fil in cvi'ii (U't'|H'r liarharisiii. Tlic wildcBt
tiiiKli:is ami \v(Hi(l'< of NoiilnTii Kiissia ami Wi'stcrii Silinia nrc llu' Lome of
llii' S;iiii(ii('ilf. Willi liis nimlccr licnls lie wamlci's over tlic iiakitl wantos,
tiniii ih,. (.jislcrii coasl of tlic Wliitr Sea to llif liaiiks of tin- Chalaiiirn, <»P lnmti
ill ill! Iiuiimllcss fori'sts lu'tw-fcn tlicOlii ainl tlic .Iciiis>i(i, His iiitcivoiirce with
itii Kii-^iaiis \h poiilincil to lii« aiinnal visit at tlir fairs of micli iiiiscraMc Bcttlo
iiHiiisas OImIoisIv and I'lisloscrsk. wlicrc, ftir from iiii|iroviii'.' I'V tlicir <(ini|ia-
nv. Iiilmt too often liccoincs tiic prey of llitir avarice, and learns to know tlicm
iiiiiily aw elieals and o|iiiress(tis. I'rotcstnnt missionaries liavc loni; uinco
*>!"U.rlit instruction to the Laplander's liiit,l»iit tlic majority of t>»e less fortii-
ii.Ui Siiiiiiiji.des still adhere to the lyross superstitions of their fathers. They
Mum- ill a Supreme l»ein!r — Num. or .liliheamltaertjc — who residos in the air,
^"I'l. like the .lupiter of old.si'uds down thunder and livclitnini:, rain and miow ;
:i'i.| is ;i proof that soinethirii; of n poetic fancy is to he found even anions the
iiinst <;niiij{(i nations, they call the raiiiliow " the hrm of his j{arinent." A» thit
ilnly, lidwevcTjis too fur rcniovetl from thcnj (o 'cave them any ho|»e of gain-

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THE POLAR WORLD.

iiig liis iavnr, ihcy never tliiiik of oft'eriiii^ liiin either prayer or sacrifiee. Hut
besides Niiiii, tliere arc a great many inferior spirits, or idols, wlio <lireellv in-
terfere in linnian eonct'rns — capricious beings, wiio allow themselves to he in-
fluenced by offerings, or yiv'ld to magical incantations; and to these, thoreforc,
the Sanioiede has ree:)Ui'se when he feels the necessity of invoking the aid ny
averting the wi'alh of a higiier Power.

The chief of all Samo'ie<lc idols is in the island of Waygitz — a cold and iiicl
aneholy Delos — where it was already found by old Harento. This idol is a nitic
block (jf stone, vith its head tapering to a point. ]t hay thus been fashioncil.
not by a mortal artist, but by a play of nature. After this original tlu! S;ini i-
ii'des have formed many idols of stone or wood of various sizes, which they <;ill
" Sjadtx-'i," from their possessing ;i human physiognomy {■yx). These itlols tlicv
dress in reindeer skins, and ornament them with all sorts of colored rags. l!iit
a resemblance to the human fo.ni is not the necessary attribute of a Sam niMJi.
idol; any irregularly-shaped stone or tree may be thus distinguished. If ilic
object is small, the savage carries it everywhere about with him, carefully wr.iji-
jied up; if too cumbersome to be transported, it is reserved as a kind of nation-
al deity. As with th'j Ostiaks, each Samo'iedc tribe has in its train a ]»eculi;ir
sledge — the Ilahengan — in which t;ie household idols (or ILalie) are placnj.
One of these IVnates prott'cts the reindeer, anotlier watches over tlie healtli nf
liis worsliippcrs, a third is the guardian of their (•onnubial happiness, !i fomlli
takes care to till their nets with fish. Wiieiicver liis services are re(inired, tjic
Ilahe is taken from his repository, .and erected in the tent or on the pa>luif-
ground, in the wood or on the river's bank. His mouth is then smeared will:
oil or blood, and a dish with fish or tlesh is set l)efore him, in the full eNpcct,!-
tion that his good offices will amply rep.ay the s.avory rejiast. When his aid
is no longer necessary, he is ])ut aside without any further ceremony, and as lit-
tle noticed as the Madonna of the Neapolitan lishernian after tlie storm lias
ceased.

The Ilahe, or idols, are very convenient objects of reverence to the Samo'iVili'.
as he can consult them, or ask their assistance, without being initiated in ilic
secrets of magic; while the Tadebtsios, or invisible spirits, which everywliciv
iiover iibout ia the air, and are more inclined to injure than to benelit man, can
only be invoked by a Tadibe, or ,<orcerer, who, like the Cumie.an Sibyl, wniks
himself into a state of ecstatic; frenzy. When his services are reipiired. tl.c
fu'st care of tlie T.adibe is to invest lumself with his magical mantle — a kind nf
shirt made of ri'indeer leather, an(\ hemmed with red cloth. The seams arc
covered in a similar maimer, and the shoulders are decorated with epaulettes i>[
the same gaudy material. A piece of red cloth veils the eyes and f.ace — for tlic
T.adibe requires no external organs of sight to penetrate into the world of spirits
— and a plate of ](olished metal shines upon his breiist.

Thus accoutretl, the Tadibe seizes his magical drum, whose sounds sununoii
the spirits to his will. Its form is round, it has but one bottom, made of icin-
deer skin, and is more or less decorated with brass rings and other orn.'Uiicnts,
according to the wealth or jjoverty of its jiossessor. During the ceremony of
invocation, the Tadibe is generally assisted by a disciple, more or less iniliatiil

I

THK HAMOIKDKS.

IHt

ill the iTia^ic art. Tlicy ' itlicr sit down, or walk about in a circle. Tlio diiof
sorcerer beats the dnim, at first slowly, then with iiicreasiiiy violence, siniiinirat
llie saint; time a few words to a mystic melody. The disciple immediately falls
in. and both repeat the same nioiiotoncus chant.

At leunth the sjiirits appear, and ilic consultation is supposed to be^'in ; the
Tadibefrom time to time remainini,' silent, as if listening to their answers, and
lint li'cntly beatinii his drum, while the assistant continues to siuLj. Finally, this
nnite conversation ceases, the sont:; chanojes into a wiii' howlinu', the drut'> is
vmlcMtly struck, the eye of the Tadihe ylows with a strantie lire, foam issues
fnmi his lips — when suddenly the up''oar ceases, and the oracular sentence is
pninounced. TiieTadibes are consulted not only for the pur]iose of recovering
a strantre reindeer, or to preserve the herd from a contagious disorder, or to
olitaiu siu'cess in fishing; the Samo'iede, when a prey to illness, seeks no other
nicdical aifvice; and the sorcerer's drum either scares away the malevolent
.<|iirits that cause the malady, or summons others to the assistance of his patient.

The oflice of Tadibe is generally heredif:iry, but indiviiluals gifted l)y nature
with excitable nerves and an ardent imagination not seldom desire to be initia-
ted in these supernatural communications. No one can teach the candidate.
His morbid fancy is worked upon by solitude, the contemplation of the gloomy
iispcct of nature, long vigils, fasts, the >ise of narcotics and stimulants, until he
hcciKues persuaded that he too has seen tiie apparitions wliich he lias heard of
fniiii his boyhood. He is then received as a Tadibe with many ceremcnies,
winch are held in the silence of the night, ami invested with the magic drum.
Tims tlicTiidibe partly believes in the visions and f;iiieies of his own overheated
brain. Uesides dealing with the invisible world, he does not neglect the usual
arts of an exjiert conjuror, and knows by this means to increase his influence
over his simj)le-tniiided countrymen. One of his commonest tricks is similar to
that which has been 'practised with so much success by the IJrothers D.aven-
jiiiit. He sits down, with his hands and feet bound, on a reindeer skin stretched
nut upon the floor, and, the light being removed, begins to summon the niiiiis-
tcriiig spirits to his aid. Strange unearthly noises now begin to be beard —
l)cars growl, snakes hiss, scpiirrels rustle about the lint. At length the tumult
censes, the audience anviously .awaits the end of the spectacle, when suddenly
tile Tadihe, freed from his bonds, ste])s into the hut — no one doubting that the
spirits have set him free.

As barbarous as the poor wretches who submit to his guidance, the Tadibe
is incapable of improving their moral c(.ndition, and has no wish to do so.
I'nder various names — Schamans among the Tungusi, Aiigekoks among the
Ksciuiniaux, medicine-men among the Crees and ('hepewy.ans, etc. — we find sim-
ilar magicians or impostors assuming a spiritual dictatorship over all the Arc-
tic nations of the Ohl and the New World, wherever their authority lias not
hceii broken by Christianity or Ibiddhism ; and this dreary f.aith still extends
its influence over at least half a million of souls, from the White Sea to the ex-
tieniity of Asia, and from the Pacific to Hudson's IJay.

Like the Ostiaks and other Siberian tribes, the Samo'ieiles honor the memory
"f the dead by sacrifices and .)ther ceremonies. They believe that their de-

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THE POLAU WOULD.

ceased friends liave still the same wants, and jHiisne the same occupations, as
when in the land of the living; and thus they j»laee in or about their gravels u
Hledg", a sj»ear, a cooking-j)ot, a knife, an axe, etc., to assist them in procuring
and preparing their food. At the funeral, and for several years afterwards, tlio
relations saerilice reindeer over the gravt-. When a person (jf note, a prince,,!
Starschina, the proprietor of numerous herds <)f reindeei', tlies (foi* even anion'.,'
the miserable Samoieiles we find the social distinctions of rich and poor), the
nearest relations make an image, which is placed in the tent of the deceased,
and enjoys the respect paid to him during his lifetime. At every meal the im-
age is ph'ced in his former seat, and every evening it is undressed and laid
down in his bed. During three years the image is thus honored, and then
buried; for by this time the body is supposed to be decayed, and to have Inst
all sensation of the ])ast. The souls of the Tadibes, anil of those who have died
a violent dcjith, alone enjo.y the privilege of immortality, and after their terres-
trial life hover about in the air as unsubstantial spirits.

Yet in spite of this ])rivilege, and of the savory morsels that fall to their
share at eveiy sacriiicial feast, or of the i)resents received for their services, the
Tadibes are very unh.appy beings. The ecstatic condition into which they so
f refpiently work themselves shatters their nerves and darkens their mind. Wild
looks, bloodshe, eyes, an uncertain gait, and a shy manner, are among the ef-
fects of this periodical excitement.

Like the Ostiaks, the S:inioiedes consider the taking of an oath as an action
of the highest religious importance. W^hen a crime nas been secretly commit-
ted against a Samoiede, he has the right to demand an oath from the suspected
person.

If no wooden or stone Ilahe is at liand, lie manufactures one of earth or
snow, leads his opponent to the im.'ige, sacrifices a dog, breaks the image, and
then addresses him with tiie following wi/rds: — ''If thou hast committed tliis
crime, then must thou perish like this <log." The ill consequences of perjiiiy
are so much dreaded by the Samoides — who, though they have but very faint
ideas of a future state, firmly believe that crime will be punished in this life,
murder with violent death, or robbery by losses of reindeer — that the true
Viriminal, when called upon to swear, hardly ever submits to the ceremony, but
rather at once confes- :s his guilt and pays the penalty.

The most effectual security for an oath is that it should be solemnized over
the snout of a bear — an animal which is highly revered by all the Siberian tribes.
from the Kamchiukans to the Samoiedes, as well as by the Laplamlers. Like
the Laplanders, they believe that the bear conceals under his shaggy coat a hu-
man shape with more than human wisdom, and speak of him in terms of tlic
highest reverence. Like the Lapps also, when occasion offers, they will drive
an arrow or a bullet through his skin ; but they preface the attack with so
many compliments that they feel sure of disarming his .anger.

The appearance of the Samoiedes is as wild as the country which they in-
habit. The dwarfish stature of the Ostiak, or the Lapp, thick lips, small yes,
a low forehead, a broad nose so much fl.attened that the end is nearly upon a
level with the bone of the upper jaw (which is strong and greatly elevated),

THE SAMOlETiES.

188

raviii-lilack sliagiry hair, a tliin bcanl, and a yellow-brown complexion, !iro their
(;li!ir;u'terislic, features, and in yeneral they do nothinjj to improve a fortn wliieh
Was but little natural beauty to boast of. The Sanioledo is satisfied if his heavy
rciiidoer dress affords him protection against the cold and rain, and cares little
if il bo dirty or ill-cut ; some dandies, however, wear furs trimmed with cloth
of a <.'audy color. The women, as lonjjj as they are unmarried, take some i>ains
with tlicii- persons and when a Sainoiede yirl, with her small and lively black
(vcs. iippcnrs in her reindeer jacket tii^htly fittititif round the waist, and trim-
iiu'il with doi,'-skin, in her scarlet moccasins, and her loni^ black tresses c -na-
iiR'iited with pieces of brass or tin, she may well tempt some rich admirer to
offiT a whole hei'd of reindeer for her hand. For amony,' the Samoiedes no
fallur ever thinks of bestowing a portion on his (iaughter : on the contrary, he
(•\lKcts from the bridegrooiii .an ciiuivalent for the services which he is nboul
to liisc liy her marriage. The consequence of tliisdegniding custom is that the
liiisliaiid tri'ats his consort like a slave, or as an inferior being. A Samo'iede,
wlio had mui'dered his wife, was quite surprised at being summoned before !i
court of justice for what he considered a trifling offense; "he had honestly
|iai(l for her," he said, "and could surely do what he liked >vith his own."

The senses and faculties of the Samoiedes correspond to their mode of life
as nomads and hunters. They have a piercing eye, delicate hearing, and a
steady hand : they shoot an arrow with great accuracy, and are swift runners.
On the other hand, they have a gross taste, generally consuming their fish or
tlu/ir reindeer Hesh raw ; and their smell is so weak that they appear (juite in-
sciisihlo to the putrefying odors arising from the scrapings of skins, stinking
tish, and other offal which is allowed to accumulate in and about their huts.

The (Samo'iede is good-natured, melancholy, and phlegm:itic. He has, in-
ilcc'il, l)Ut indistinct notions of right and wrong, of good and evil ; but he pos-
sesses a grateful heart, and is ready to divide his last morsel with his friend,
Cnielty, revenge, the darker crimes that pollute so many of the savage tribes
of tlie tropical zone, are foreig!\ to his character. Constantly at war with a
dreadful climate, a prey to ignorance and poverty, he regards most of the
things of this life with supreme indifference. A good meal is of course a
mailer of importance in his eyes; but even the want of a meal he will bear
wilh stoical a|)athy, when it can only be gained by exertion, for he sets a still
liiLrlur value on repose and sleep.

A common trait in the character of all Samo'iedes is the gloomy view which
they take of life antl its concerns ; their internal world is as cheerless as that
will li surrounds them. True men of ice and snow, they reliiuiuish, without a
iniirinur, a life which they can hardly love, as it inq)Oses upon them many
lirivations, and affords them but few pleasures in return.

Tiiey are suspicious, like all oppressed nations that have much to suffer from
'heir more crafty or energetic neighbors. Obstinately attached to their old
cii-toins, they are opposeil to all innovations; and they h.ave been so often de-
ceivetl by the Russians, that they may well be pardoned if they look witli a
iiHstnistful eye upon all benefits coming from that source.

riie wealth of the Samoiedes consists in the possession of herds of reindeer,

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and V. V(Mi Knisciistern, in islo, calculated the nunihor owned '^y tlie Sanio-
icdes of tile l.ower Pctsdiora, near Piistosersk, at 40,000 head — a much sin.ill-
or iiuniher th.ui what they formerly had, owini^ to a suooessioii of misfortunes.
The liussiaii settlers alonif that immense! stream and its tributaries n'radu.illy
obtain |i(>ssessinn of their l)est \)asture-i;i'ounds, and force tiiem to recede within
narrower and narrower limits. Thus many have been reduced to the wretch-
ed condition of the Arctic lishermaii. or have been coni|ielle<l fo cxclianjj;e their
ancient inde|iendence for a life of submission to the will of an imperious m;isi(r.
'I'Ik' entire number of the lMii'o|)ean and Asiatic Sanioi'edes is estimated ;ii
no more than about l(t,()(i(), and this numbei, small as it is when comiiarcil id
the vast territory over wliicli they roam, is still dccreasinn' fi'om year to year.
IJefore their sub juration by the llussians, the SamoTedes were freejuently at wav
with their neiuhbors, the Ostiaks, the "NVom;uIs, and the Tartars, and the nuic
l»oems which celebrate the deeds of the heroes of old are still sum; in the tents
of their ])eacefid descendants. The t/ihistn/, ov tri>;l>i(iloiir—'\[ I may be al-
lowed to use these names while speaking of the rudest of mankiml — is seated

iir(jund. His <resticulali(»n.s

'1'

endeavor

to express his sympathy with his hero. His body trembles, his voice
(piivers, and durinixthe more jjathetic parts of his story, tears start to his eyes,
and lie covers his face with his left hand, while the ri^lit, holding;- an arrow, di-
rects its point to the ground. The audience generally keep silence, but their
groans accompany the hero's death ; or when he soars upon an eagle to the
clouds, and tl us escapes the malice of his enemies, they e.vpress their delight
by a triumpht.nt shout.

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HANKS OF THE IHTVSCU.

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CIIAPTEU XV.

TIIK OSTIAKS.

Whit is tiifi Olii? — Imiiul itioiis. — An Osiiak siiminor Ydurt. — Povprty of tli" Ostiak Fi-lirri'.ipii. — A
winter Ydiirt. — Attiiclmu'iit (if tlie Ostialis to tlicir aiuitiit ('iisldiiis. — An()^lial^ riiiic,'. — Anlieiv.
— Appearance and t'liaracter of tlic Ostiaiis. — Tlic Fair of Ollllor^li.

WHAT is tl'f Olii?— " Olio of tliL' most iiicbiiiclioly r'.sovs on oartli," s:iy
tlic fi'W Kuropoiin tr.'ivelk'rs wlio liiivt' ever seen it roll its turbid waters
tliroti'^fli (lie wilderness, " its iiioiiotonoiis hanks a dreary succession of swamps
and dismal ])iiie-forests, and hardly a liviiit;' creature to he seen, hut cranes,
will! ducks, and ireese." F you adilress the same (|uestioii to one of the few
Kussians who have settled on its hanks, he answers, with a devout mien, " Ohi
is our mother;" hut if you ask the Ostiak. he hursts forth, in a laconic hut en-
ci'LTetic phrase, " Ohi is the yod whom we honor ahove all our other <fods."

Ti him the Ohi is a source of life. With its salmon and sturgeon lie pays
liis taxes and detits, and buys his few luxuries; while the iishes of inferior
•luality which get entaniiled in his net he keeps for his own consumption and
that (if his faithful (h)<j:, eatintj them mostly raw, so that the perch not seldom
feels his teeth as soon as it is pulled out of the water. In spring, when the
Ohi and its tributaries hurst their bonds of ice, and tlie floods sweep over the
plains, the Ostiak is frequently driven into the woods, where he finds hut little
to appease his hunger ; at length, however, the Avaters subside, the flat banks

!!:

•. It . t

' ■ ' -^''--B^'-'

I \

ll

i.l

1

i ■ »

s

180

Tin: POLAR WORLD.

of llic river appear aLovo tlicir surface, and the savajjo erects Iiis siimiiu'r Imt,
close lo its stream. Tliis intvel lias tjenerally a (inadrantfular form, low wi.llx,
and ;i Iiiifli pointed roof, n\iide of wiilow-Lrani'lies covered with larj^'o )»ieces (jf
l)ark. Tliese, liavini,' (irslbi'en softened l>y lioilintr, are sewn toL^ether, so as to
form l.aruje m.its or carpets, easily rolled n\) and transported. The hearth, a
mere hole inclosed l»y a few stones, is in the centre, and the smoke escapes
ihroncjh an aperture at the top. Close to the lint there is also, senerallv, a
small store-honse erei ted on hiuh ])oles, as in Lapland ; for the provisions niii^i
he secnred ai;ainst the attacks of the L,dnttoii, the wolf, or the owner's doLTs.

Althontfli the Ohi and its trihntaries — the Irtysch, the Wach, the Wasjii-
fX'in — ahnndantly provide for the wants of the Ostiaks, yet those who are e\-
elnsively fishermen veiretate in a st.'ite of the greati'st poverty, in indolence,
tlrunkenness, and vice. The wily llnssian settlers havi' LCot them compKtdy
in their power, hy advancinLf them jfootls on .'redit, and thus secnrini;f the pnnl-
uce of their fisheries from year to year. Dnrint;^ the whole summer l{n>si;iii
spe( iilators from Olxlorsk, Ueresow, and Tt)l)olsk sail about on the Ohi, to re-
ceive from their Ostiak debtors the salmon and sturgeon which they liiive
cauiiht, or to fish on tiieir own account, which, as having better nets and inure
assistance, they do with muoh greater success than the poor sav.ages.

The liiissian (lovernmeiit has, indeed, confirmed the Ostiaks in tlu? jiosses-
sion of almost all the land and water in the territorii's of the Lower Obi and
Irtysch, bnt the IJussian traders find means to inonopoli/.e the best part of tlic
fisheries; for ignorance and stupidity, in spite of all laws in their favor, are
nowhere a match for mercantile ctimiing.

At tiie beginning of winter the Ostiaks retire into the woods, where tlipy
find at least some ))rotection against the Arctic blasts, and are busy limiting
the sable or the s(iniirel; bnt as iishing afionls them at all times their chief
food, they take care to est;iblisli their winter huts on some eminence above tlic
reach of the spring inundations, near some small river, which, through holes
made in the ice, affords their nets and anglers a precarious ; upply. Their
winter yonrt is somewhat more solidly constructed than their summer resi-
dence, as it is not removed every year. It is low and small, and its walls are
plastered with clay. Light is admitted through a jiieoe of ice inserted in tlie
wall or on the roof. In the better sort of huts, the space along one or sever.il
of the walls is hung with mats made of sedges, and here the family sits or
sleeps. Sometimes a small antechamber serves to hang up the clothes, or is
used as a repository for household utensils. IJesides those who live solely upon
fishes and birds of j)assage, there are other Ostiaks who possess reindeer lienls,
and wander in summer to the border of the Polar sea, where they also catch
seals and fish. When winter approaches, they slowly return to the woods.
Finally, in the more southerly districts, there are some Ostiaks who, having
entirely adopted the liussian mode of life, cultivate the soil, keep cattle, or earn
their livelihood as carriers.

In general, however, the Ostiak, like the Sanioiede, obstinately withstatuls
nil innovations, and remains true to the customs of his forefathers. He has
been so often deceived by the Russians that he is loth to receive the gifts of

TJIE OSTIAKrt.

187

civilizalioii from tlicir hands. Hi; fcurs tliat if liis cliildrni hvirn to rcml ami
wiitf, llicy will no loni^LT l)i' satisfied to live liko tlii'ir pairnts, and lliat tho
sciiiMil will dcprivt' him of the siipporl of his ui^i'. lie is no loss ohslinatily at-
taclicd to till' ri'lij^ion of his fathi'i's, which in all cssonlial points is identical
with that of tilt' Sanio'u'di'S. In sonu' of the soiithiTn districts, aloni; the Ir-
tvscli, at Snryut, ho has indciMl licon baptized, and hiniu;s n|) the iniai^e of it
s;iiiit in his hut, as his Russian pope or priest has instructed him to do; hut
Ills (liristianity extends no farther. Alonir the tributaries of the ()l»i, and he-
low ()l)dorsk, ho is still plmiiicd in Schamanisni.

l/iko the Sanioiodos, the Osliaks, whose entire numl)er ainoiuits to about
'.'".,uo(i, are subdivided into tribes, remindinjj; one of the HiLdiland elans. Kach
trilie consists of a inimber of families, of a common dosci'iit, and sometimes
(■(iniprisini; many hundred individuals, wl; >, however distantly related, con-
siilir it a duty to assist each other in <listress. The fortunate fisherman di-
vides the spoils of the day with his less hu'tuiiate clansman, who hardly thanks
iiiiii for a </\h which he considers as his due. In cases of dispute the Star-
scliiiiM, in- t'lder, acts as n judije; if, howi'ver, the parties arc not satisfied with
Ills vi'rdict, they appeal to the hiudier authority of the hereditary chieftain or
priiice — a title which has been conferred by tlie Empress Catheriiu; II. on the
Ostiak nii.^'uates, who, from time immemorial, iiave been considered as the
Iliads of their tribes. These princes are, of course, subordinate to the Ilussian
iitli(i;ils, and bound to .-ippe.ar, with the Starschinas, at the fairs of Ueresow or
Ohdiirsk, as they are answenible for the (piantity :.iid (piality of the various
sorts of furs which the Ostiaks are obliged to pay as a tribute to Government,
'fiicir dignity is hereditary, and, in default of male descendants, passes to tl)c
nearest male relation. It must, however, not be supposed that these princes
lire distinguished from the other Ostiaks by tlieir riches or a more splendid
aiipear'uice ; for their mode of life differs in no w:iy from that of their inferiors
ill rank, and, like them, they are obliged to fish or to liunt for their daily sub-
sistence.

C)ii entering the hut of one of these dignitaries, Castren found him in a
nigg('(l jacket, while the ))rincess had no other robe of state but a shirt. The
iniiice, having liberally lielped himself from the l)randy-bottle which the trav-
eller offered him, became very communicative, ixud complained of the suffer-
iii;,fs and cares of the past w'inter. Jle had exerted himself to the utmosi,but
witlioiit success. Far from giving w;iy to indolence in his turf-hut, he liad been
out liunting in the forest, after the first snow-fall, but rarely i)itcirmg his bark-
ti'Mt,and frequently sleeping in tlie open air. Yet, in spite of all his exertions,
ill-' had often not been able to shoot a single ptarmigan. His stores of meal
Mild frozen fishes were soon exh.austed, and sometuncs the princely family had
liieu reduced to eat the flesh of wolves.

The Ostiaks are excellent archers, and, like all the other hunting tribes of
Siberia, use variously constructed arrows for the different objects of their chase.
Smaller shafts, with a knob of wood at the end, are destined for the scpiirrcls
iiiul other small animals whoso fur it is desirable not to injure; svliile large ar-
rows, with strong triangular iron points, bring down the wolf, the bear, and

t f

n

}lt

II ! i!

'! f ill

m

■;ii[''- r,: '

I.

III!

'l!

I! ' 1

(HH

TilH I'OLAK VVOIliJ).

5 i

Homctimos tlio fut^'itivc exile. \'t>\-, Id |ireveiit the escape of eriinirijils sciiteiici il
to liimisliDieiil ill Silu'i'ia, tlie liiissiaii (foveniiiieiit iillou.s tlie ()slial<s to sIhmii

y uiikiiowii |iei'soii, not lieloiiLjiii;^ to tlieir raci', wliom tliey may meet uith

an

their tenilorv

Alt

ioii'j;li we

aware of tiiis dan-^'er, several exiles have at-

tempted to escape to ArchanLiel alon^ ilie i)oiil(r of the Arctic sea; hut tlicv

i| lieasls. or shot liv the <»>tiaks,

fitlier «liiM

'I'lieri' is

1 of I

iiliiLjer, or were ilevoiireil \t\ \\\\\

l.iit

OIK' instance Known o

f a I

exile Wlio,

after

'peiuliii'/ a whole \|.,ir

m the journey, at leiin'th reacheil tlie alioiles of ci\ilizecl man, ami he was |

lai'-

(|o|

led I'l eoiisK

leration of the ilri'adfiil sufl'eriii'^fs he had nnderi'one,

The < )>tiaUs arc <'cncrallv of a small stature, and most of them are dark-cim

-hi

plexioncii, with raveii-ldaek hair liUe the >amoieih's; so

th

>liie

if t

leiii, how

'. cr,

have a fairer skin and liiiht-colored hair. They have neither the olijicjiie e\ts
nor the liroad projecliiiLj; cheek-lioiies of the .Monu'ols and 'I'uii',mis, Init lu'ai' a
L'reater resi-mlilance to the I-'innisii, Sanioiedi', and Turkish cast of coiintinancc.
They are a udod-natiireil, indolent, honest race; and thoii'j;li they are extrein(ly
dirty, yet their smoky huts are not more filthy than tli<ise of the Norweu'iaii nr
Icelandic lishermaii. As amoiiLj the Samoi'cdes, the women are in a vi'iy di-
•graded coiidilioii, the father always niviiii^ his daiiLchter in marriaire to the
hiifhest bidder. The price is very different, ami rises or falls accordiiiLX to iln'
circiimstaiices of the pa 'cut ; for while the rich man asks iifty reindeer hir lii>
child, the poor (isherman is <flad to part with his daiiuiiter for a few s(piirr(l-
skins ami drieil stiircjooii.

r>efore takiiiif leave of the Ostiaks, we will still tarrv a iiionKiit at tl

le siiiiil

town of Obdorsk, which may be considered as the capital of their country, ami
entirely owes its existence to the trade carried on between them and the \l\\--
siaiis. Formerly the merchants from IJeresow and Tobolsk used iiu'ivly to visit
the s|)nt, but the difliciilties of the journey soon compelled them to cstihlidi
permanent (Iwellinirs in that dreary reifion. A certain number of exiles serves
to increase llic scanty population, which consists of a straiii^e medley of various
nations, amonij whom C'astreii found a Calmuck, a Ivirijhis, and a Polish cook.

--5r- ««,./..

OliOUP OP KlUUlIli*.

TIIK OSTIAKS.

180

will) l)itltMiy cnnipliiincd lliiil lit; liad l)iil few opportiiiiitios of sliowiiiLT liis skill
ill :i ti>\vii wlicit' |i(o|)li' livcil il In Ostiiik. In fart, most of tlic Kiisxiaii in-
liilpilaiils of tliu liliU'i' have in so far a(lo|iti'il tlic Ostiak iiiodc of life, as to
c|(('iii lilt,' fookih'^ of tlu'ir victuals sii|icrHiii>us. Wlicii ('aslicii,oii his arrival
at nlicjorsk, paid a visit to a Toliuisk nifrdiaiit, wlio liad liccn for soiiin tiiiio
Milled in till' plai'f, lu; foinid tlic wliolf family lyin-x on tlic floor, if!,'alin%' on
ran ti^li, and tlic most civili/.cil pciMni lie met willi tnldliiiii tliat lie liad lasted
iiiiili(r liniled nor roast, llesli or lisli for lialf a year. Vet line sliawls and
,li( Nses, and now no dniiKt tlic criiinline and the cliiu'iion, are found amidst all
lliiN harharisni. Kdilices with the least preti'iisioiis to architectural lieaiity it
wciiild of course l)e vain to look fur in Olidorsk. The houses of the ln'ttersort
el IJiissiaii settlers arc two-storied, or cnnsisliiiLf nf a i,'round-tloor and yarrcts;
Imt as they are huilt of wood, and are liy no means wind-ti^ht, the halt-fain-
islied Ostiaks, who have sctth'd in the town, are prohalily more coiiiloitalily
lidiived in their low turfhuts than the prospi'roiis Itiissian iiihahitanls of
tli( place. The latter make it their chief occupation to cheat the ( )stiaks in
cvirv possible way; some of tlicin, however, add to this proiit.'ihlc, if not
pr:iiM'Wt>rthy occupation, the kccpim^ of reindeer herds, or even of cows and

sllCC|i.

The fair lasts from tlii' ItcLfimiiiiiX <d' winter to Keliriiary, .and diirinu; this
tiiiu' tlu' ()stiaks\\ho asseiiilile at ()lidi)r>k pitch their oark-tents alioiit, the
tiiun, AVith their arrival a new life hcLiins [n stir in the wretched placie.
(iiDiips of the wild sons and thiUL-hters of the tundra, clothed in heavy skins,
make their .appearance, and stroll slowly throun'h the streets, admiriiiLC the hii,di
wi/imU'Ii houses, which to them seem palaces. IJut nothiiii^ is toi.l)e seen of the
aniiiiatiou ami .activity which usually characterize a fair. ('oiii;ealiii!X some cost-
ly fur under his wide skin mantle, the savai^e jiays his cautious visit to the frtid-
cr, and m;ikes his hai'nain amidst copious libations of brandy, lie is W(!ll .aware
that this underhaml w.ay of dealinu; is detrimental to his interests ; that his tim-
orous disposition shrinks from public sales, ami freipiently he is not even in the
situation to profit by competition; for anioii!,' tlu' thous.ands that flock to the
fair, there are but very few who do not owe to the traders of Obdorsk much
iiioie tlia:< they ])ossc-ss, or can ever hope to repay. Woe to the ])oor Ostiak
wliose creditor should find him dcalinu'witli some other tr.adei ! — for the seizure
of all his movable ])roperty, of his tent ami houseiiold utensils, would be the
li ast puiiishnient which the wretch turned adrift into the n.akeil deseri would
liivc to expect. Tlie fair is not opened before (Jovernment has received the
lins which are ilue to it, or .at least a guarantee for the amount fi-om the mer-
cliants (if the place. Then the magazines of the travU'rs gr.adually fill with furs
— with clothes of reiiuleer skin re.ady made, with feathers, reindeer Hcsli, frozen
>liiiucon, mammoth tusks, etc. For these goods the Ostiaks receive flour,
hakid bread, tobacco, pot.s, kettles, knives, needles, brass buttons ami rings, gl.ass
pearls, and other trifling articles. An open trade in spirits is liot allowed; but.
hiandy maybe sold as a medieine, and thus many an Ostiak t.akes advantage of
the fair for undergoing a cure the reverse of that which is recommended by liy-
tlro[iatliic doctors.

'•Mifcl

.(

I ,'■ ..t K

mi'

Mir III

ih

HifWi^l

1. 4i

■! , :i

:H,

I'l

m

1!)0 TIIK por.AK woiti.n.

Tnwuiils the cikI of iM'bniiirv, wlicn tlic Ontiiiks have rotiit'il into tlu' wdoil-i
— wlicri' tlicy limit dt tfiid tliiir ninilti r licnls until tlic oiK'niiijj of'tlif tinliin;;.
wiisini ri'«!ills tlictii to llic Olii — llu' trailer prfiiarcs liir liis juiiriK y to Irliii,
wlici'c III- liopcs to dispose oC Ills furs at an riiorinoiis piolil, ami <)b<l(ir>lv is
oiicc iiutro loll iiiilil tliu lolluwiii'' winlcr to iu iloalliliki' soliliulc.

11

coNciiEST OK si!n;iii.v nv Tin; ulssians.

iiti

•^' ^t*_.

■■^'pilift'-:

*'^***'*'' ^Hj^flk*^ ^

^ ^ m^

^(g^-^^t^s*^^'

f. ---.::?•«

lW'«J'<g'^j

^'^-^l.-i

rAi>ii..'4iv.

ciiaptp:ii xvr.

(OS'Ql'KST OF SrnF.IMA HY TITF, IMSSrANS- TIIKIU V(1Y.\0F.S OF DISCOVERY ALON(;
TIIK SIIOUKS or Tin: I'(»I,AI! SKA.

Iv.iii tlio Tcrrililp — Strni;niio(r. — YcniiiiU, tlic Itolilior iiinl ('oiKHicmi'. — His F.xpcilitions to Silifiria.--
lialtli' lif Tipl"il>k. — Yiriiiak's llritli. — I'niiiicss of tlir Kiis.-iuiis to (). lii]t>k. — St'iiicii Dcsliiiew,--
Conilitioii of llie Silicriaii Natives iiiiil.r llie l!us>iaii Yolic. — N'oyiincs of Discovery in tlio Kei^rii of
till' FiiipresH Aiiiiu. — I'roiitsL'Jiiselitscli-.'w. — Chariton gind Diinctrius Lnptew. — An Aretie Heroine.
— Scliai.mrow. — Uiseoveiies in llie S M of It.'rioLC and in tlie I'aeilio ( >eean.— The Liicliow InlaiKN.--
I'o->il Ivoi-y. — New .Siberia. — The wo xlen Monntains. — The p.ist A^es of Silieriu.

¥X tin- bcj^iiiirmfr of tlio tliirtcciitli century, tin' imw hnj^c Kiiipiro of llussia
* was coiifiiic'il to part of lior present Kiifopcan jiossi'ssioiis, and divided into
M'veial independent prineij)alities, tlie scene of disunion and almost perpetual
warl'afe. 'riiiis when tlie coiintfy was invaded, in 1-J;f0, by the Ttirtafs, under
liaaty Khan, a ixrandson of the famous (leiiLtis Khan, it fell an easy prey to its
i'on((uei'(>rs. The miseries of a foreiirii yoke, ai^rtrravated by intestine discord,
lasted about 250 years, until Ivan Wasiljewitsch I. (1 4(52-1 "jO")) became the
deliverer of his country and laid the foundations of her future i^reatness. This
nhle prince sid)dued, in 1470, the (iirnt Xorf/oroif, a city until then so powerfid
as to hiive maintained its independence, both against the Uussian srrand princes
and ihe Tartar khans ; and, ten years later, he not oidy threw oH'the yoke of the
Khans of Khipsack, but destroyed their empire. The concpiest of Constanti-
nople by the Turks placed the spiritual diadem of the ancient Cajsars on Ins

li:: ii

■ ■ ■' i.t

i Ml

•i

; ;i

' ■

\ '■■■• ■■;!

1 i*

iM

192

THE POLAU V,ORLD.

Iiend, and caused liim, as cliicf of tlic Greek orthodox Clmroh, to oxfliaiim' 1
old title of (iraiid I'l'iiice fur tlio more sis^iiiticaiit and iinposiiiij; oiio oi Czar.

His liraiidsoii, Ivan W.isiljewitseli II., a eruel hut enerifetie nionarcl

1, coii-

quered Kasan in l.").")!', and thus coniplett'ly and iiernianently overtluew llie d(
minion of the Tartars. Two years hiter he subdued Astraklian, and planted tli
<}reek cross on tiie l)orders of the Caspian Sea, wliero until then only the C
cent had ln'cn seen.

res-

Ii

n spite of the inhuman {-ruelty that disufraced his character, and earned for
him tile name of 7'(/vv7Vc, Ivan sought, like his illustrious successor, IVti'r tlic
( Jreat, to introduce the arts and sciences of Western Eni'ope into his harha

rolls

rc'dni, and to improv*'

theli

lussnm nnumractuies hv enconrairmLT (>erman ait is

and meclianics to settle in the country. It was in his reiun that Chancellor dis-
coN'eri'd tlu' passage from England to the While Sea, .and Ivan gladly seized
till' opiiortunily thus afforded. Soon afti'r this the port of Archangel was huilt,
and thus a new seat was openjd to civilization at the northern extremity of
I<

urope.

After the concjuest of Kasan, several IJussians settled in that province; a

riioiii'

others, a merchant (d" the nanu; of Strogonoff, who established some salt work

oi

1 the lianUs of the Kama, and opened :i Ir.ade with the nativ(

A

moiig these

he noticeil some strangers, and having lieard that they came from n coiiiKry
ruled Ity a Tartar Kb, '.n, who rcsidecl in a capital calle<l Sibir, he sent some of
his people into liieir land. Tlii'se agents returned with the linest s.alile skins,
which they iiad pej-i'liaseil for a tritling sum; imd r'ti'ogonoff, not so coutoiis
as to wish lo keep all the ailvantage of his discovery to himself, immediately iii-
ornn'd the (ii)veriiment of tho new tratle he had opened. He was rew iided

f^

with the

II I

ft of

COIISK

leral

lie estates

It th

ill

H' conllnenci' o

f tl

:ima and

SClllll-

sov.'i, and his desc(>nd:mts, the Counts Str(\gonofl', are, as is we
amomj: the richest itf thi' IJussian nobilitv.

Ilk

nown, reck

■•iicd

Soon after Ivan sent some troops to Siberia, whose prince, Jediger,

aekiiowl

odtred his supremacv, and promised to jiay him :m;mmial tribute (d" a thousaiid
sable skins. Ihit this coniieclion was not of long duration, for a few years after
Jediii-er was defeateil by another Tartar prince, nanii'd Kutchum Khan; and
thus, after Kussian influence had taken the first ste]) to establish itself beyond the
rral, it once more became doubtful wlu'llu'r Xorthern Asia was to be Clni>liaii
or Mohammedan. The (lueslion was soon after dccide<l by a fugitive roblnr.

Tl
trade

le conquests o

f Ivan on the Caspian Si'a had called into life a eonsideralile

with

I liokliara :m<

1 1

'ersia, which, howevi'r, was greallv disturbed bv the

de|iredations (d the Don Cossaidis, who made it their jiractice to plunder the

car:i\ans.

r.ut I

van, not the man ii>

be trilled with bv :i horde (d' freebooters.

imnii'diatelv sent out a boclv of troops against the Don Cossacks, m ho, not veii

turing to meet them, song

d't, their safety in (li^lit. At the head of the fiiuitives,

da Jeff,

whose number .amounted to no less than liOoD men, was ^ ernnik I mioi
a man who, like Cortez orl'izarro, was destined to lay a i\r\Y empire at the icet
of his n\aster. Uiit while the troops of the C/ar weri' following his track, Vcr-
mak was not yet dreaming of future compiests; his only .aim was to escape the
executioner; and he considered himself extremely fortunate when, leaving 1

lis

roNQiKST or siuKiUA nv tiih hussians.

103

niirsucrs f.ir Itcliiiul, lie at li'iicctli iirrivcil on tlio estates of Stroojonoff. Iloro lie
was well reeeived — better, no doiibf, than if he had come sinijle-handeil and d(>-
fcnseless ; and Strotfonoff liavinic niiide him ae<n;aiiite(l with Si1)erian affairs,
he at onee resolvt'd to try his fortnni's on this new scene of action. .\s the tyi'-
Miiiiv of Kiitchnm Khan had rendered him odions to his subjects, lie hoj-ed it
wmild i>e an easy task to overtlirow his power; the prospect of a ricli booty of
>,il)li' skins was also I'xtremely attraetivf; and, tlnally, there could l)e no doul)t,
that the i,'ri'atest dantriTs were in his n^ar, and that any choice was better than
to fall into the hands of Ivan the Terrilile. Stfoifonoff, on his part, had excel-
iiiit reasons for encouraijinLj the adveiituri'. If it suceeeiU'il, a considerable
part of tlie jtrolits was likely to fall to his share; if not, ho at least was riil of
liis unbidden truest.

Tims Verniak, in the summer of 1")7S, advanced with Iiis Cossacks alont; the
liMiiks of the Tschinsova into Siberia. Hut, either from a want of knowlodgo
of the country, or from not havinu; taken the necessary precautions, ho was
overtaken by winti'r before lu' could make any pro^jri'ss ; and when sprimj ap-
|i(';ut(I, famine compelled liim to return to iiis old (piarlers, where, as may easi-
ly he iaiai;ined, his i-i'ception was none of the most cordial. IJut, far from losinuf
(•(iiiraiic! from this lirst disapiiointment, Vermak was tirndy resob.ed to pi'rse-
vcre. IK' h ;d jiaini'd experience — his si'lf-conlidence was steeletl by adversity ;
iiml wlicn Stroi;dnoff attemi)ted to ri'fuse liim further assistance, he pointed to
Ills Ciissav-ks with the air of a man who has the ineiais of eiilorcimr obedieiico
to Ills or(Kg's. This time Yerinak toiik better measures for insuriiiLr success;
he cc^miielleil StroLToiiol'f to furnish him witii an ample supply of provisions and
lumiiiinitioii, and in the .lune of the fojjowiii'j; year we :ii,'ain liiid him, with
liis laitliful Cossacks, on the march to Siberia. i>iit such were the impediments
uliicli the patliK'ss swamps and luicsls, the severity of the climate, and the hos-
tilily nf the natives opposcil to his proLi,ress, that towards thi' eml t>( l.-)S() his
force (now reduced to l.jDO men) iiad reached no farther than the banks of the
Tai'M. The siibsecpient advance of tliis little band was ;i constant succession
of hardships and skirmishes, wliieli caused it to melt, .away like snow in the
siui-liiiie; so that scarcely TiOO remained wlieii, at the conlluence of the Tobol
iiiid the Irtysch, they at leiiiith reached t!ie camp of Kutcliuni Khan, whose over-
uliiliiiiiio; mimbers seemetl to mock tlii'ir audacity.

Ihit Vermak feit as little fear !'.t siuht of the innumerable tints of the Tar-
tar host, as the wolf when iiieetinif a herd of sheep. He knew tliat his Cossacks,
uiiacd with their matchlocks, liail lontj since disdained to count their eiu'inios,
■iiiil. fully detennined to coiKpier or to die, he pave the order to attack. A
lii'oadful battle ensued, for thouo-h iho Tartars only foiiu;iit with their bows an<l
ai Tows, yet they were no less brave than their advi'rsaries, and their vast supe-
liiMJty (if nuinbors made np for the inferior (;uality of their wa'ai>oiis. The
stnignrli^i was lonn; doubtful — the Tartars repeating attack upon attack like tho
waves of a storm-tide, and the Cossacks receiving their assaults as lirmly and
iniinovalily as rocks; until, finally, the hordes of Kritchiini Khan gave way to
ilkir stubborn obstinacy, and his camp and all its treasures fell into tho hands
uf the concniorors.

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THE POLAR WORLD.

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The Kubseciuont conduct of Yerinak proved that he had all tl<o qualities of
a general and a statesman, and tiiat his talents were not unecjual to liis fortunes.
Without losing a single moment, he, immediately after this decisive battle, sent
part of his small band to occupy the capital ot the vanquished Kutehnni,for lie
well knew that a viotory is but half gained if one delays to roap its fruits.
The Cossacks found tlie place evacuated, and so(»n after Yeria.;!; lu.ade his tri-
umphal entry into Sibir. His weakness now became a source ot strength, for,
daunted by the wonderful success of this handful of strangers, the peojjle far
and wide came to render him homage. The Ostiaks of the Soswa freely con-
sented to yield !in amuial tribu. i of 280 sable skins, ;uid other tribes of the same
nation, Avho were more backward in their submission, were conqtelled by his
menaces to })ay him a tax, orJitssiik,ol eleven skins for every archer.

It was not without reason that Yerniak thus sought to collect as many of
these valuable furs as he j»ossil)ly could, for his aim was to obtain from Ivan a
pardon of his former delinquencies, by presenting him with the richest spoils
of his victories, and he well knew that it would be impossible for him to main-
tain his conquests without further assistance from the C/.ar. Great w;is Ivan's
astonishment when nn envoy of the fugitive rol»l)er brought him the welt'ome
gift of 2400 sable skins, and informed him tiiat Yerniak had addvd a new prov-
ince to his realm. He at onco comprehended that the hero who with small
means hatl a..hieved such great successes, was the fittest man to consolidate or
enlarge his ac(piisitions ; he conseipiently not only pardoned all his former of-
fenses, but confirmed him in the dignify of governor and comniander-in-cliicf
in the co'.mtries which ho had subdued. Tims Yermak's envoy, having Ikcu
received with the greatest distinction :vt Moscow, returned to his fortunate mas-
ter with a robe of honor ,vhich had been worn by the Czar himself, and tlie
still more welcome intelligence that re-enforcements -were on the march to join
him.

M\ anwhile Yermak had continued to advance into the valley of the Obi lio-
yond its coiiHuenee with the Irtysch ; and when at length his force was aiii,'-
mcnted by the arrival of 500 Russians, he ])ursuedhis expeditions with iiicreas-
ivig audacity. On his return from one of these forays, he encamped on a small
island in the Irtysch. The night was dark and rainy, and the Itussians, fatigiieil
by their march, relied too much upon the badness of the weather or l''e terror
of their name. l»ut Kutchum Khan, having been informed by his spies of ii.eii'
want of vigilance, crossed a ford in the river, and falling upon the unsuspecting
Russians, killed them all except one single soldi;'!-, who brought the fatal intel-
ligence to Sibir. Yermak, when he saw his warriors fall around him like grass
before the scythe, without losing his presence of mind for a moment, cut his
way through the Tartars, and endeavored to save himself in a boat, J»ut in
the medley he fell into the water and was drowned.

By the orders of Kutchum, the body of the hero was exposed to every indig-
nity which the rage of a barbarian can think of; but after this first explosion
of impotent fury, his followers, feeling ashamed of the ignoble conduct of their
chief, buried his remains with jtrincely pomp, and TiScribed miraculous powers
to the grave in which they were deposited. The Russians have also erected a

CONQUEST OF SIBERIA BY THE RUSSIANS.

t05

monument to Yerrnak in tlio town of Tobolsk, wliich was built on the very spot
where he tjained his first decisive victory over Kutchum. It is inscribed with
tlio (lutes of that memorable event, and of the unfortunate day when he found
his death in the Hoods )f the Irtyscli. Ilis real monnnient, liowever, is all Sibe-
ria from the TTral to the Pacific; for as lung as the llussian nation contiiuies
ti) exist, it will remember the name of Yermak Timodajeff. The value of the
man became at v;nce apparent after his death, for scarcely had the news of the
disaster arrived, when the Itussians immediately evacuated Sibil", and left the
country. lint they well knew that this retreat was to be but temporary, and
that the present ebb of their fortunes would soon be followed by a fresh tide
(if success. After a few years they once more returned, as the definitive masters
of the country. Their first settlement was Tjumen, on the Tara, and before
the end of loST Tobolsk was founded. They had, indeed, still many a conflict
with the Wojjrls an.l Tartars, but every effort of the natives to shake off the
yoke proved fruitless.

As j^old had been the all-powerfid maijnet whicli led the Spaniards fromllis-
jianiola to Mexico and Peru, so a small fur-bearinoj animal (the sable) attracted
the Cossacks farther and farther to tlie east, and allhouiih the possession of
fire-arms gave them an immense advantaijfe over the wild inhabitants of Sibe-
ria, yet it is as astonishiuLj with what triHinpf means they subdued whole nations,
and perhaps history affords no other example of such a vast extent of territory
haviiiii; been coiupiered by so small a number of adventurers.

As they a(lvan(!ed, small wooden forts (or ostrof/it) were built in suitable
places, .and became in their turn the starting-posts for new expeditions. The
fiiUowing dates give the best proof of the uncommon rapidity with wliich the
tide of coiKpiest rolled onw.ard to the east, Tomsk was founded in 1C04; and
tlie ostrog Jeniseisk, where the neighboring nomads brought their sable skins
to niarkvt, in IG21. The snow-shoes of the Tunguso, which they sometimes
saw ornamented with this costly fur, induced the C()ssa(d<s to follow their
hordes, of which many had come from the middle and inferior Tuiigiiska, and
thus, in 1C;10, \Vassilj(.w reached the banks of the Lena. In 10:50 .lelissei Uusa
Avas connnissioned to .ascend that mighty river, and to \m\i09.Vi jo.ssak on all the
natives of those quarters. He reached the western mouth of the Lena, and
after navigating the sea for twenty-four hours came to the Olekma, which he
ascended. In 10:J8 he discovered the Tana, on whose banks he spent another
winter; and in lO.fO, resuming his voyage eastward by sea, he reached the
Tchendoma, and wintering for two years among the Jukahirs, made them also
triliiitary to Russia.

In that same year another party of Cossacks crossed the Altai Mountains,
and, traversing forests and swamps, arrived at the coasts of the inhospitable
Sea of Ochotsk; while a third expedition discovered the Amoor, and built a
strong ostrog, called Albasin, on its left bank. The rejiort soon spread that the
river rolled over gold-sand, and colonists came flocking to the spot, both to col-
lect these treasures, .and to enjoy the fruits of a milder climate and of a more
fruitful soil. But the Chinese destroyed the fort in 1080, and carried the gar-
rison prisoners to Peking,

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THE I'OLAIl WOHIJ).

Albasiii was soon after rebuilt, ; but as Russia at lliat time liad no ineliiia-
tioii ti) I'liijaifc in constant (|uai'rcis with tlio Crlcstial Kinpire about tlu; jiossis-
sion of a roniotc dcsiTt, all its in'i'tcnsions to tiic Amoor were yivon up liy tlic
treaty of Xensfhinsk (KJs!)). Tiiis agroenient, liowfViT, liko so many others,
was (ioonu'il io hist no Ioul'"*'!' tlian it ph'ased tlio more powei'ful of the eon-
'raetiuLf parties to keep it, ami came tonotiiing as soon as the jxissession of tliu
Amoor terrUory became an object of importance, and the increasinj^' weakness
of China was no h)nL,a'r alile to dispute its possession. Tims, wlien Count
Xichohis Moiirawieff was appointed (rovernor-i'eneral of Eastern Siberia it!
1847, one of his iirst cares was to appropriate or annex tlie Amoor. He itmrie-
diately sent a surveyin;^ expedition to the moutli of tlie river, wiiere, in lf<rii,
regardless of the remonstrances v)f the Chinese Government, ho ordered the sta-

'C.- \-^Cie'- — "■^»-t it "-'1 '^, ,'

'lUE UliACU AT MCULAVliVSK.

tinns of Xicolayovsk and ]\Iariinsk to bo built ; and in lf^-")4 he lilmself sniluil
down the Anioor, with a numerous llotilla of boats and rafts, for the purpose
of personally opeiiinif this new channel of inte; course with the Pacific. Oilier
expeditions soon followed, antl the Chinese, tinding resistance lioj)eless, ceded 1o
Russia in the ye;ir 185H,by the treaty of Ai^im,the left baid< of the Aniooriis
far as the influx of the Ussuri, and bt)th its banks below the latter river. Tinis
thoC^-ar found some consolation for the losses of the Crimean canipai^n in the
acquisition of :i vast territory in the distant Kast, wliich, tliough at i)reseiit .1
mere wih'.erness, may in t'ciie become a flourishing^ coK)ny.

In 1044, a few years afier the discovery of tlio Amoor, tlie Cossack ^Miclind
Staducliin formed a winter establishment on the delta of the Kolyma, which lins

CONQUKST OF SIBERIA BY THE ULSSIANS.

107

ON THE AMOOK.

c\]ian(lo(l into tlic town of Xishnoi-Kolyinsk, and afterwards naviijatod llie sea
ciistwiird to Cape Sclielagskoi, wliieli may be considered a.s the north-eastern
("ipe of Siheria.

Til KUs Semen Desclinew sailed from tl'.e Kol\ina witli llie intention of
ic.icliinLjtlie Anadyr by sea, and by this remarkable voyao-o — whieh no one else,
iillicr before or after him, has ever ])erfornu'd — (h'.tcorrrci^ ami ]iasseil throutrh
the strait, which properly should hear his name, instead of In'riiiLf's, who, sailing
from Kamchatka northward in 1T2S, <lid not go beyond Kast Cape, being sat-
isluil with tl'.e westerly trending of the eape bey(^nd the promontory. Some
of Dcscluicw's companions subsequently reached Kamchatka, and were put to
ili'uth by the jiuoplo of that peninsula, which was euiupiereil, in 1099, by Atlas-
soff, a Cossack oflicer who came from Jakutsk.

Alter having thus rapidly glanced at the jirogrcss of the IJussian dominion
from the I'ral to the Sea of Ochotsk, it may not be iminteresting to incjuire
wlicther the natives had reason to bless the arrival of tlieir new masters, or to
<'urso the day when they were first made to understand the meaning of the
word jiit<s(i/,; or tribute. I'nfortunately, history tells ns that, while the eon-

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quorors of Sihpiiii wer' fully as bold and pcrsevorinjif as the companujiis of
Cortoz and Pizarro, ihi-y also tMiuallcd tlioiii in uvarioc and cruolty. Under tlieir
iron yoke whole nations, such as the Scholar;!, Aniujill, and Oniokl, melted awnv ;
others, as th-> Woguls, Jukahires, Koriaks, and Itiilnienes, were redueed to ii
scanty remnant.

The history of the suhjui^ation of the Itulnicnes, or natives of KamiOiatka,
as described by Steller, may suffico to show how the Cossacks made and how
they abused their conciuests.

"When Atlassoff, with only sixteen men, came to the river of Kamchatkii,
the Itiihnene chieftain i!i([uired, through a Koi'iak intei'preter, what they waul-
ed, and whence they came ; and received for answer that the powerful sove-
reign, to whom the whole land belonged, Had sent them to levy the tribute which
they owed him as his subjects. Tiie chiefti.in was naturally astonished at this
information, and offering the strangers a present of costly furs, he re(pu'sl(il
them to leave the country, and not to repeat their visit. ]>iit the Cossacks
thought proper to remain, and built a small wooden fort, Verchnei Ostroir,
whence they fell on the neighboring villages, robbing or destroying all tluv
could lay hands upon. Exasperated by these .acts, the Itiilmenes resolved to
attack the fort ; but as the w.ary Cossacks had kept up a friendly intercour.su
with some of them, and had moreover ingratiated themselves with tlio women,
the plans of their enemies were always revealed to them in projier time, and
led to a still greater tyraimy. At length the savages api)eared before the os-
trog in such overwhelming numbers that the Cossacks b»,gan to lose courage ;

VILLAGE. ON TUB AMOOU.

CONQIKST OF SIBERIA BY THE RUSSIANS.

100

liUltlAK VOLKT.

yet by their superior tactics tlicy finally inanai^od to gain a complote victory,
;iii(l tlioso who escaped their hiiliets were either tlrowiied or taken })risoners,
and then put to death in the most cruel manner.

Convinced that a lasting security was impossible aa long as the natives re-
tained their numbers, the Cossacks lost no opportunity of goading them to re-
volt, and then butchering as many of them as tlioy could. Thus, in less than
foity years, the Kamchatkans were reduced to a twelfth i)art of their original
nunibiTs ; and the Cossju'ks, having made a solitude, called it peace.

In tunuer times the nomads of the North used freely to wander with their
vcindeer herds over the tundra, but after the concjuest they were loaded with
taxes, and confined to certain districts. The consecpience was that their rein-
deer gradually jjerished, and that a great number of wandering henlsmen wore
now comitelled to ado])t a fisherman's life — a change fatal to many.

It would, however, be unjust to accuse the Russian (iovernment of liaving
willfully sought the ruin of the aboriginal tribes; on the contrary, it has con-
stantly endeavored to protect them against the exactions of the Cossacks, and
in order to secure their existence, has even gr.anted them the exclusive ]>osses-
sion of the districts assigned to them. Thus the Ostiaks and Sanioiedes, the
Koriaks and the Jakuts, have their own land, their own rivers, forests, and tun-
dri. Hut if it is a eonnnon saying in European Russia " that heaven is high,
and the Czar distant," it may easily be imagined that beyond the Ural the weak
indigenous tribes found the law but a very inefficient barrier against the rapac-
ity of their concpierors.

Tims, in spite of the Government, the jassak was not unfreqiiently raised,
under various ))retenses, to six or ten times its original amount ; and the natives
wtMo, besides, obliged to bring the best of their produce, from considerable dis-
tances^ <o the ostrog.

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Tin; POLAR WOULD.

Nor could the (JovcrniiU'iit jn'ovciit tlio accuiimliilioii of iisurious tlclits, imr
tlio Icasinj,' of llic bosl jmstuniLjt's or ii-liiiiif-slatioiis for ji tritliiisj; sum (|uitL' out
of jM'ojtorlioti to tlieir value ; no that tlie natives no Ioniser liail the means df
feediuLj (heir herds, and sank deeper ;md deeiier into povirty.

And if wo consider, iinally, of what elements Vernnik's hand \vas oiij.rinallN
composed, we can easily conceive that, under such masters, the lot of the Mbe-
1 ian natives was by no means to bo envied.

The year 17;i4 opens a new e])och in the history of Siberian discoveiics.
I'litil then they had been merely undertaken for purposes of trallic; bold Cds-
sacks ami I'romysdilenniki (or fur-hunters) had gradually extended their cn-
cursions to tlii' Sea of IJerinLf ; but now, for the first time, scientific expedition'*
wei'e sent out, for the more accurate iuvesliLfation of the noi'lhern coasts nt
Siberia.

Prontschisclitsehew, who sailed westward from the Lena to circumnavigate
the icy capes of Taimurlaml, was accompanied by his youthful wife, wlio uin-
tered with him at the Olenek, in 72 ."i 4' of latitude, and in the follnwiii!,' suni-
nier took part in his fVnitless endi'avors to double those must noi'therly pdint-
of Asia. lie died in consecpience of the fatigues he had to undergo, and a feu
days after she followed him to the <,n-ave. A similar examjile of female devd-
tion is not to be met with in the .annals of Ai'ctic discovery.

After Prontschisehtschew's death, Lieutenant Chariton Laplew was ap-
pointed to carry out the jiroject in which the former liad failed. IlavinLj lucii
repulsed by the drift-ice, lie was obliifcd to winter on the Chatant^a {1 7:!!)-lii) ;
but renewed the attempt in the followinic sunnner, wliich however exposed l.iiii
to still severer trials. The vessel was wrecked in the ice; the crew reaclu'd
the shore with dilliculty, and many of them perished from fatit,'ue :md fainiiic
before the rivers were suHiciently frozen to enable the feeble survivors to rcliiiii
to their former winter-station at Chatanira. Notwitlistanding the hanlsliips
which he and his jiarty liad endured, Laptew prosecuted the survey of tliu
]iromontory in tlie following; sprint^.

Setlinu; out -with a sk'duje-party across tlie Tundr.a on A])ril "24, 1741, lit
reached Taimur Lake on the JiOth ; and following the Taimur Kiver, as it Hows
from the lake, ascertained its mouth to be situated in lat. 7")° ;}(>' N. On Au-
gust 29 he safely returned to .Teniseisk, after one of the most diilicult voyaircs
ever performed by man. The resolution, with which he overcame dillicultics,
and his ]ierseverance amid the severest distresses, entitle him to a high rank
among Arctic discoverers.

AVhile Chariton Laptew Mas thus gaining distinction in the Avilds of Tai-
murland, his brother, Dimitri Laptew, Mas busy extending geogra])hical knowl-
edge to the east of the Lena. ]Ie doubled the ^Sriatoi-nons, M-intered on the
banks of the Indigirka, surveyed the Bear Islands, passed a second M'intcr on
the borders of the Kolyma, and in a fourth season extended his survey of llic
coast to the Uaranow Kock, Mhich he vainly endeavored to double during two
successive summers. After having jjassed seven years on the coasts of tiic
I'olar Ocean, he returned to Jakutsk in 1743.

C'ONQUKST OF 81UEIUA BY THE UlSSIANS.

201

iMiiiiti'cii ycji'N later, Sclialaiirow, a tncrcliaiit of Jakulsk, wlio sailt'(l from
the .laiia in a vcssi'l l)uilt at liis own i'X|)ciisi', at li'iiujtli .siicrt'cdcd in donUlini;
tlic liaranow Jlock,anil proci'dU'il caslwai'd as far as Capo Sfliclaixslvoi, wliii-li
|ii(vcnti'(l liis fartliiT proirri'ss. AfttT twici' winlcrinLj on tlic dn-ary Kolyma,
he rcsolviMl, witli admiral)k' poi, eviTancc, to make a tliird att»'mi)t, l»nt his crow
W'Hiid no lon'^cr follow him. From a second sca-jonrncy, which hi' nndcrlook
in 1 7(U to that capi', he did not ri'turn. '" His indorlmiatc death is the more to
ill' l.inu'nicd," says Wraiiyell, " as he sacriliced his ]>i'o|ierty and life to a disin-
td'CNli'd aim, and united intelliiience and I'nerLsy in a remarkalile decree." On
Ills ni:i|i, tiio whole coast from the iJana to Cape Scheiau'^koi is marked, with
an accuracy which does him the Lfreatest honor. In 17s.") 15iHinus and Sa-
rvtclicu were ei|uaily unsuccessful in I lie endeavor to sail round tlu' cape
uiiirh had ilcfcated all Sclialaurow's I'Uileavors; nor has the voyago been ac-
(■iini|ili- .'d to the present ilay.

As the sable had u;rad\ially led th" liussian fur-hunters to Kamchatka, so
tlic slill more vaiiiidile sea-ntter gave lliL' chief impulse to the disc.ivery of
the AicMtic chain and the opposite con-

KAMCHATKA SAbLES.

tincnt of America. Wlu'U Atlassow
and his band arrived at Kamchatka by
tlic end of tlie seventet'iitli century,
tiicy found the sea-otter abounding on
its coasts; but the furdiunters chased
it so ca'icrly tliat, before the middle of
tliu eiglilceiith century, llu'y liad entire-
ly extirpated it in that country. On
itcring's second \-oyago <^f disi-overy
(I7U-4L'), it was again found in coii-
sitlcrable numbers. Tschirigowis said
to have brought back (•()() skins, and
on licring's Island T'lO sea -otters —
whose skins, according to pi'csent pri-
ces, would be worth about .l'i.'(t,0()0 — were killed almost without trouble. These
facts, of course, encouraged the merchants of Jakutsk and Irkutsk to undertake
iiuw expeditions.

(ieaerally, several of them formed an association, which fitted out some
hardly seaworthy vessel at Ochotsk, where also the captain and the crew, con-
sisting iif fur-hunters and other adventurers, were hired. The expenses of such
an expedition amounted to the considerable sum of about ;iO,0()0 roubles, as
pack-horses had to transport a great ]iart of the necessary outfit all the dis-
tance from .lakutsk, and tlie vessel generally remained b)ur or Ww years on the
voyage. Passing throtigli one of the Kiirile Straits, tliese expeditions sailed at
iirst along the east coast of Kamchatka, bartering sables and sea-otters for rein-
deer skins and other articles; and as the precious furs became more rare, ven-
tured out farther into the Eastern Ocean. Thus ^Michael Xowodsikoff discovered
the Western Aleuts in 1 745 ; Paikoff the Fox Islands in 1 7o9 ; Adri.an Toltlych
almost all the islands of the central group, which still bear his name, in 1700;

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Sti'plicn fflottoff tlio iflaiid ')f Kiidiiik in 17fln, niul Krcnitziri tln< lu'niiisiil.i of
Aljaskii in I7(1H. WIk'M mc coM.sidcr llic Hcanty resources of thcsi* UusNi,iii
iiiivi'^iitors, tlio biul condition of their MiiseruMe Imrixs, tlieir own iinperfect naii
tieal kno\vied<;e, and tli ' lnlio.s|iital)Ie nature of tlie seas whicli they traversid,
we can not l»ul admire their intre|iidity.

Ii> tiie I'olar Sea there are iieitiier H.-'.hles nor otters, and tluis the islands lv-
\u<r to llie north of Siberia nii^lit liave ri'niained \niknowii till the present Any,
if tlie search after niannnotii-teetit had not, in a similar manner, led to their dis.
covery.

In .Mareli, 177<», while a merchant of ihi' name of liiehow was hnsy eiillict.
ing fiissil ivory about Cape Sviatoinoss, he saw a lart,'e herd (d' deer eDmini.' nwv
the ice from tlie north. Kesohite antl eonrajfeous, he at once resolved to follciw
their tracks, and after a sledu'e-jonrney <d seventy versts, he came tn a* IsImihI,
and twenty versts farther reached a second island, at wiiich, owinu to the niiii.'ii.
iiess of the ice, liis excursion terminated. He s;iw enoiiLth. however, of the riili-
ness of tlie two isl.-mds in mammoth-teeth, to show him that .another visit would
be a valnal)le spi'culatiun ; and on m.'ikiiiLj his report to the Ifussiini (Jovcni-
nient, he ol)taincd an exclusive privileu;e to dit,' for nianimnth-bones on the isl-
ands which he Inid discovered, and to which his name h.id been <fiven. In tiic
sunnner ot'177''ilie conse(pienlly retuini'd, and ascertained the existence i>f a
third island, much lartrer th.an the others, mountainous, juid having its coasts
covered witli drift-wood. He then went b.ack to the lirst island, wintered tlicic,
and returned to I'stjansk in sjiriiiij; with a valuable c.arno of niamnn)th-tuslcs.

There hardly exists a more remarkable article of commerce th.an these re-
mains of an extinct .animal. In North Siberia, ak>n<jc the Obi, the Jenissei, tlic
Lena, ami their tributaries, from lat. .^s" to 7(> ', or alonu: the shores of the I'nliir
Ocean ;is f.ar as the American side of Ilerini;- Strait, the remains of a species of
elephant are found ind)cdded in the frozen soil, or become exposed, l)y the an-
nnal thawiniif an<l crumblinL; of the river-banks. Dozens of tusks are frc(piciill\'
found toLtether, but the most astonishinir dejiosit of mammoth-bones occurs in
the liiichow Tslamls, wliere, in some localities, tliey are ,'iccumuljited in siuli
(piantities as to form the chii'f sulistance of the soil. Year after year the tiisk-
liunters work every siummr at the cliffs, witho\it producin.iif any sensible diiii-
inution of the stock. The solidly-frozen matrix in which the bones lie thaws
to a certain extent .annually, allowini; the tusks to drop out or to be (pianidl.
In 1821,20,000 lbs. of the fossil ivory were jjrocured from the isl.and of New
Siberia.

The ice in wliich the uiaiuniotli remains are ind)odded sometimes preserves
their entire bodies, in spite of the countless .'i^res whicli must have elapsed siiiic
they walked on earth. Tn 1700 the carcass of a mammoth was discovered so
fresh that the do<jfs ate the tlesh for two summers. The skeleton is preserved
at St. Petersburg!:, and specimens of the woolly hair — ]>ioving that the diiiiate
of Siberi.a, thouixh then no doubt much milder than .at present, still nvniircd
the protection of a w:irm and shagizy coat — were prcsenteil to the chief niuse-
nms of pjurope.

Tiie remains of a rhinoceros, very similar to the Indian species, are likewise

CONtilKST OF HinEHIA BY T"^ RUSSIANS.

MS

found ill tfi'C'it iiumltcrs aloiiijj iho »horos, or on tlu> stoop ninl sandy rivor-bankH
of NoitliiTii Siberia, aioiii; wilii tlntso <tf fossil spociL'S of tlic lioiso, tlio musk-
ox, mid llio bison, wliicb liavo now totally forsakt'ii tlio Arctic wilds.

Tlic Arcliipt'laii;o of Now Siberia, wituutod to the north of tin- Li'uliow Isl-
iiiids, was discovered by Sirowatsky in ls(»(l, and since then scienlitically ex-
plored by Ilodenstri'tni in IMOS, .and Anjou in JHj.t. These islands are remark-
able no less for the numerous bones of horses, l»ulTaloes, oxen, and sheep scat-
tend over their desolatis blioros, than for the vast (piantities of fossil-wootl iin-
beilded in tlu'ir soil. The hills, which rise to a consiilerai)le altitude, consist
of liorizontal beds of sandstone, alternatinii with bituminous beams or truidis
of trees. On ascendini; tliem, b)ssili/,ed charcoal is everywheie met with, in-
cnisted with an ash-eolorod matti'r, which is so hard that it can scarcely be
.scraped off with a knife. On the summit there is a lonif row of beams resem-
Miiii,' the former, but fixed perpendicularly in the sandstone. The ends, which
project from seven to ten inches, a.'e for the most part broken, and the whole
lias the appoarantie of a r-iioous dike. Thus ft robust forest voufetation onco
flourished where now only h.ardy lichens can be seen ; and many herbivorous
animals feasted or. Lirasses where !iow the reindeer finds but a scanty supply of
moss, and the polar bear is tiie sole lord of the dreary wast".

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Siliniii.— It^

ClIArTKli WIT.

SIIU:iUA-rii;-TI!.M)K and (aiLD-DIcniNTiS.
ISO Kxtciit iiiiil Ciiihiliililics.— 'I'lic I'.xilt's.— Mi'iitsi liikiiH". — nolf,'orniil«y. — Mii

Tlii< ('riiiiiiiiiN. — I'lu" fri'c Siljcrian I'c
The S.iIiIl',— The Kimiiic— Tho SiUv
Th(
I'liiviii

It.— F.xti-

I's or llciit and ('(ilil. — I'l

I'ai'ini; .Aiiiiii

Wi'iiscl.— Tliii Si'ii-ottcr. — Tilt" liliick I'ox. — Tlw I.

iiliurr

-Til

V viir'iiii;

IhiK

nan

-Tlu' Sii«lili. — liiiiKirlii

of tlic I'lir-ti-iiilc fur tlic Ndiil

cif till' l!ii«iiiii i'jiipirc. — I he (Idld-iliLiiriiiu's of I'.isicni Sili liii. — 'llic Tiii;.'a.

■.\]il'M'^

mill Dilticiililcs of .'<('

Vp (lltKlll'

.— f'(P<tS ol' I'

Hill iMioniiiHis I'riilits III siini

i-fiil

■^1"

I'ulalors

■laUiiwIi'W anil Ik'

el s* I'.slravatiiiicc. — I'iist UiM'uviTV of Gold ill tliu I'ral MounlaliH
- Ni-liin-TaL;!!-!^.

s

ir>Kin.\ is ;it Ic.'ist thirty liiiics indrc extensive tlinii Clreat T>ritaiii luul Ire-
l;iii(l,lmt its scanty |i(i|iiil;itinM forms a iiiiseralili' enntrast to its eiiorinm^
si/e. ('<iiit;iinin!j: scarcely tliree iniHidiis of iiilialiil;iiits, it is coiii]i.'n':iti\(ly
three Immlreil times less peopleil than the Uritish Islainls. This small ]in|iiil,i
tioii is, iiioreovei', very niie(|iially distrilmted cdiisistiiiLr cliietly of IJiissiaiis ami
Tartars, who have settled in the sontli or in the milder west, aloii<; ihe rivers
and the iirineijial thoroiiixlifares which lead from the territory of one larixo
stream to tlie other. In the northern and eastern districts, as far as they arc
occupied, the settlements are likewise almost entirely confined to the rivci-
banks; and thus the jireater part of the enormous forest-lands, and of the in-
terminahle tundras, are either entirely uninhabited bv man, or visited oiilv I'V
the hunt»sman, the <fold-dii;o;er, or the miirratory savage.

And yet Siberia has not been so niggardly treated by Nature as not to be

sini:i{i.\ iriiTiLVDi; and coij) dicciinos.

80.1

•ilili- fo Hiistniii !i f.'ir rnnrc cnnsiilcruldc |)n|inl;itioii. In tlic smitli llicro an-
tliDiiNMiuU <>t si|ii.'in' iiiilcH lit I'm- ciiliiN :ili<>ii ; ilir iiiiiiiIkts nt' ilic lit'i'il<< ami
|Iiick« ini'j;lil '•<" iiicrfastil a limnlrcillnlil, mihI cvtii llic crnnalf wcniM hccniiu'
iinl'li'i' alli'i" llii' laliiir ol man lia^l miIhIihiI tlir cliilliii',' iiilliu'iicfs ot' llic tdi't'xt.

ami tlif >wam|>

ISiit. it is laNiir I

K I'MHri

ll

laii Id rcali/.i' tlif wi

• ll t

i> Ncc Si-

lici'ia nuM'i' |io|iiil()iis, |'(ir its it'iiiitaiinn is iianlly siicli as to ti'iii|ii tlic tri'i- col-
iini^^ts ti) settle uiliiiii its limits; ami thus tlie Kiissiaii (itivenimciit, wliieli
woaM « iiliiin'ly see its more tem|ierale reLjioMs eoveretl with llDiirisliiiiL; towns
;niil villages, eaii only fX|ieet an ineiease of |io|inlation from tlie slow yrowtli

lit Iniie, an

leil l»v tlie aiinnal inlliix of tlie iiivoluntarv emigrants wliieli it, semis

atT"-

tlie I'ral to llie Kast.

Maiiv a <'elrlirateil |iersoiia'j;e lias alreaily been dooineil to traee tliis mel-
aiicliiilv path, |>afli('iilarly <lnrinL( the last eeiitury, wlu'n the all-powerful favof-
ile of one jierioil was not sejiloin doonu'il to exile Ity the next |ialae(M'evolu-

limi,

This fate l.ef(

anioii'' others, the

anions

I

niiee

Meiitseliikoff. In a

ciivi rill cart, ami in tlie ilress of a peasant, the eoiiliilential minister of IVter
the (ireat, the man who for years had nihil the vast Ullssian Kmpire, was con-
vi'Vdl into perpetual Itanisiinient. His ilwelliii<x was now a simple lint, ami
the spade of the lahorer replaced the piai of the sintesmaii. Domestic misfor-
tunes ai:'Ji'iivated his cruel lot. His wifo died from the fatiunies of the jonr-

lll'V

line of his dan-.

It el'

on after fell a victim to the smallpox; his two

mil

iillicr ciiiidreii, who were attaclvcd hy the same malady, recovered. lie 1
self illed in the year 17-!i, and was Iniried near his dan^liter at IJeresow, the
>L'Mt of ills exile. Liku ("ardinal Wolsey, after his fall he reineinlu'red (iod,
uliniii he had forLjotten dnriie^ tlie swelliiiL; tide of his prosperity, lie eoii-
Niilend his punishment, as a ItlessiiiLT, which showed him the way to e\ crlastiiiLj
iiappiaiss. lie liuill u chapel, assistini.f in its erection with his own hands,
mill after the services yave instrnction to tlie conLrreLCation. The iiihaliilants
iif Uci'esow still honor his memory, and revere him as a saint. They were
riiiiliriiied in this helief l)y the circnnistaiice tiiat his liody, ha\ iiiLj hi'i'ii disin-
tcnid in iS'Jl, was found in a state of perfect preservation, after a lapse of
iiiiuty-lwo years.

One dav, as his dausxhtor w.alked through the v

illaLTe, she was accos

ted 1

IV

a peasant from the window of a hut. This peasant was I'rinco Dolijorouky,
her father's enemy — the m;m who had caused his lianishment, and was now, in
liis tarn, doomed to tasto the liittiaaiess of exile. Soon after the princess ami
iier hrother were pardoned hy the Kmpi'ess Anna, and Dolifonmky took pos-
session of their hut. Y'oimuj MentsehikolV was lin.ally reinstated in all the hon-
ors and riches of his father, and from him descends, in a direct line, the fa-

IIIOIIS

defender of Sebastopol.

Marshal Miinicli,the favin'ite of the Kinpress Anna, was doomed, in his six-
lietii year, to a Siherian exile, when Klizabeth ascended the throne. His prison
consisted of three rooms — one for his truarils or jailers, the second for their
kiti'lieii, the third for liis own use.
fritni enjovinL'the view oven of the skv. The man who had once governed

A wall twenty feet hi^h prevented him

Uussia hail but half !i rouble daily to spend; but the love of his wife — who,

§

wm

200

Tin: POLAIl WOULD.

\w

altliotiixli fifty-live years old, liad (lie eoiiraijo and the self-deiii.'d to aecoiiijiiiiiv
him ill his liaiiisiiiiieiit — alleviated the sorrows of liis exile. The veiier.ilili'
cou|)le Kpeiit twenty-one years in Siberia, and on their return from exile, tiftv-
two children, Ltniiidehildreii, and tireat-tfrandeliildreii, were assembled tu iiuct
them at ,Mosf(»w. The revolution whieh placed Catherine the Second on tlic
throne had nearly once more dctonied the octo<r( narian statesman to hanish.
ment, hut he fortunately weathered the storm, and died as t^overiior of St.
Petershiiru;,

In this century, also, many an unfortunate exile, icniltless at least of iu'imlilc
crimes, lias been dooine(l to wander to Siberia. There many a soldier of the
i/rdiuli (D'niii iias ende<l his life; there still lives many a ]ialrioti(! l*<il(>. Ij;im-
ished for havim;- loved his country "not wisely but too well;" there also tlic
conspiiators who marked with so bloody an episode the accession of Nicli(il;i>i,
have had time to rellect on the dantj;ers of plottinjj; against the Czar.

J\I<.s» of the Siberian exiles are, however, common criminals — such as in (uir
country would be huiii; or transported, or sentenced to the treadmill: the ;is-
s.assin, the robber — to Sii)eria ; the sinnirirler on the frontii'r, whose frcc-tiadc
principles injure the imperial exchequer — to Siberia; even the vatjalioiid who
is cauifjit roaminu:, and can i^ive no salisf.actory account of liis doings .'iinl in-
tentions, reci'ives a fresh passport — to Siberia.

Thus the annual number of the exiles amounts to about 12,000, wIki. ac
cordiiiLT to the gravity of their offenses, are sent f.arther and farther easiu.iid.
On an avt'rage, every week sees a trans])ort of about ."iOO of these ''inif.irlii-
nates," as they are ternu'd by popular compassion, |)ass through TobnKk,
About one-sixth are immediately pardoned, and the others sorted. IMiircJcrcrs
and burglars are sent to the mines of \ertscliinsk, after having been treatcil in
Hussia, before they set out on their travels, with lifty lashes of the knout. In
former times their nostrils used to be torn off, a barliarity which is now no
longer practised.

According ti> Sir (leorge Simpson's " Xarrative of a Journey IJouiid 'lie
World" (istT), Sioeria is the best penitentiary in the world. Kvery exile wlio
is not considered bad enough for the mines — those black abysses, at whose cii-
trance, as at that (tf Dante's lu'll, all hope must be ief' behind — receives a picic
of land, a hut, a horse, two cows, the necessary agricultural implements, ami
provisions for a year. The first three years ho has no taxes to pay, an<l, diu'-
ing the following ten. only the half of the usual assessiiu'iit. Thus, if he choose
to exert himself, he has every reason to hope for an improvement in liis comli-
tion, tmd at the same time fear contributes to keep him in the right path; lor
he well \iiows that his lirst trespass would infallibly conduct him to the mines,
a by no means agreeable prospect. Undi'r the inHueiice of these stiiiiiilants,
many an exile attains a degree of prosperity which would have been quite be-
yond liis reach had he ren;ained in European Ivussia,

Ilofmann gives a less favorable account of the Siberian exiles. In his o]iiii-
ion, the prosperity and civili/ation of the country lias no greater obstacle tli;in
the mass of criminals st'ut to swell its population. In the province of Tomsk,
which seems to bo richly stocked witli culprits of the worst description, all tlif

SIUKIUA— Fl'K-TUAnE AND GOLD DIGGINGS.

207

w.'iijoni'rs bc'loiii^ to tliis class. 'V\wy oniK'uvort'tl to oxoiti' liis compassion by
liv (crisy. "It was tlio will of (Jod I" is their staiidiiiLT iilinisc, to which tlicy
trii'l to jjcivc a j^rcator emphasis by tiiriiiiiix up the whites of their eyes. J Jut,
ill spite 111 'his pious resiijnatiou to the Divine will, Hofmaim never metwitli a
worse set of drunkards, liars, and thieves.

Am to the free Siberian peasant, who is generally of exile extraction, all

m

i.i :,

SIUUKIAN riCASANT.

travellers are agreed in his praise. " As soon as one crosses the Ural," says
Wr;ingcll, " one is surprised by the extreme friendliness ami good-nature of
tiio inhabitants, as mucli as by the rich vegetation, the well-cultivated tielils,
iuid tlie excellent state of tlic roads in the southern jiart of the government of
Tobolsk. Our luggage could be left witliout a guard in the open air. ' Ne-
hoss !' ' Fear not 1' was the answer when we expressed some apprehension ;

1:|

]f\l

208

THE POLAR WOULD.

] 5

.^

'thore are no tlik'ves ainonn; us.' Tliis may appear strange, but it must bo re-
membered tliat tlie Tomsk wagoners, described above, are located far more to
tbe east, and tliat every exiled criminal lias liis prescribed circuit, tlie bouiKls
of wliieh he may not pass williont incurring tlie penalty of being sent to the
mines.

According to Professor Ilansteen, the Siberian jjcasants are the fi^iest men
of all IkUssia, v>'.tli constitutions of iron. With a sheepskin over their shirt,
and their thin linen trowsers, they bid detiance to a cold of ;)()" and more. Tlicv
have nothing of the dirty avarice of the European Kussian boor; thev have as
much lanil as they choose for ....ul.ation, and the soil furnishes all they require
for their nourishnieiit and clothing. Their cleanliness is exemplary. Witliin
the last thirty years the gold-diggings have somewhat spoilt this state of prim-
iiive simplicity, yet even Ilofinani allows that the West-Siberian peasant li:is
retained much of the honesty and hosj)itality for which he was justly (■cicbratcd.

JJesides agriculture, mining, fishing, and hunting, the carriage of inerch.in-
dise is one of the chief occupations of the Siberians, and probably, in piupor-
tion to the jntpulation, no other country employs so large a number of wagon-
ers and carriers. The enormous masses of copper, lead, iron, and silver pro-
duced by the Altai and the Nertschinsk mountains, have to be conveyed fidiii
an imnu'iise distance to the Russian markets. The gi,ldfrom the Kast-Sihi riaii
diggings is indeed easier to transport, but the provisions required by the tiidii-
sands of workmen employed during the summer in working the aui'lfiroiis
sands, have to be brought to them, frequently from a distance of many Imiuhvd
versts.

The millions of furs, from tlie squirrel to the bear, likewise require consiilcr-
able means of transport; and, finally, the highly important caravan-trade with
China conveys thousands of bales of tea from Kiachta to Irbit. Siberia has in-
deed many navigiible rivers, but a glance at the ma]) shows us at once that tiny
arc so situated as to afford far less facilities to I'oimnerce than would lie tlie
case in a more temjierate climate. They all flow northward into an iiilios|iit;i-
ble sea, which is forever dosed to navigation, and arc themselves ice-bound ilnr-
ingthe greater jiart of the year. Erorinous distances separate them from cacii
other, and there are no navigable canals to unite them.

On some of the larger rivers steam-boats have indeed been introduced, ami
railroads arc talked of; but there can be no doubt that, for many a year to
come, the can and the sledge will continue to be the chief means of transport
in a country which, in consequence of its peculiar geographical position, is even
in its more southerii ])arts exposed to all the rigors of an Arctic winter.

Thus at Jakutsk (G'2^ X. lat,), which is situated but six degrees farther to
the north than Edinburgh (55' 58), the mean temperature of the coldest nioiith
is —40°, and mercury a solid body during one-sixth part of the year; whilo ;it
Irkutsk (:2° 10' X. lat.), situated but little farther to the north than Oxfonl
(51° 4G'), the thermometer frequently falls to —30°, or even —40°; teinpc'M-
tares which are of coiu-sc quite unheard of on the banks of the Isis. For those
dreadfid winters in the heart of Siberia, and under comparatively low degrees
of latitude, there are various causes. The land is, in the first place, an iminonsc

SIBEIJIA— FUK-T1{ADE AND (iOLl)-DIUGIX(iS.

soo

iiliiin slantinj? to the nortli ; moreover, it is situated iit siicli :i .listanco from tho
Atluiitie, lluit boyonil the Tral the western sea-winds, Mliicli brin^' wanntli to
our winters, assume tlie cliaraeter of

(•(iM land-winds; and, linally, it merges

i,i tlie south into tiie high 3Ioi>goIi-

;ui ]ihiteau, whicli, situated 4000 feet

alidve th(! level of tho sea, has of

ceiuse b\it little warmth to impart

ti) it in winti'r ; so that, from what-
ever side tho wind may blow at that

si'iison, it constantly eonveys cold.

but in summer tlio scene midergoes

a tiital change. Under the inllueiico

of tlie sun circling for months round

the North I'olc, iloods of warmth are

jiDured into Central Siberia, and rap-

idlv cause the thermometer to rise;

i!0 neighboring sea refreshes tho air

uitli a cooling breeze; whether tho

wind c(jme from the heated IMongoliau

ilcserts, or sweep over the Siberian

plains, it imljibes warmth on every :

side. Thus the terrible winter of J a- ;

kiitsk is followed by an e<inaliy i)n- i

moih rate summer (58° ;i'), so that rye

and barley are able to ripen on a .''oil

\\\\\A\ a few feet below the surface is

piTpetually frozen.

The l)oundIess Avoods of Siberia
liarbor a nundjor of fur-bearing an-
imals whose skins form one of tlio
cliiif products of the countrv. Among
tiuse jiersecuted denizens of the for-
est, the sable {Martes .i7V>t7//u«), which
closely resembles tho pine -marten
(Miu'tts abktum) in shape and size,
deserves to be particularly noticed,
both for tho beauty of its pelt, and its
iiiiportance in tho fur-trade. Sleeping
iiy day, tho sable hunts his ])rey by
iii;4lit ; but though he chiefly relish-
es animal food, sucli as liaros, young
hinls, mice, and eggs, lie also feeds on
h' rries, and the tasteful seeds of the P'lnus ccmhra. His favorite abode is near
tlie banks of some river, in holes of the earth, or beneath the roots of trees. In-
cessant persecution has gradually driven him into the most inaccessible forests;

14

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lil'lifl-

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Wi\

WW

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210

THE POLAR WOULD.

tho (lays are no iiioro wlion tlic Tiiii<tusc Inintor willincrly gavo for a coppor
kottlu as many saltle skins as it would liold, ov -when thu Kanicliatkan trapper,
could easily catcli seventy or eii^lity sables in one winter; but Von IJaer still esli-
mates the animal produce of all ISiberia at 4,5,000 skins. The finest are cauirht
in the forests between theLcna and the Eastern Sea,butKanR'hatka furnislics the
greater luiniber. A skin of the finest (piality is worth about forty roubles oi
tlie spot, and at least twice as niudi m St. Petersburg or Moscow, particularlv
when the liair is long, close, and of a deep blackish-brown, with a thick brown
nnderwool. Skins witli long dark hair tipped with wliite arc liighly esteenu "1,
but still more so those which are entirely l)lack — a color to which the Iviissians
give the preference, while the Chinese have no objection to reddish tints. In
consequence of this dif'*^erence of taste, the sables from tlie Obi, wliich are gen-
erally larger Lat of a lighter color, are sent to Kiachta, while ^he darker skins,
from Eastern Siberia, are directed to St. Petersburg and Leipsic.

The chase of the sable is attended with many hardsliips and dangers. The
skins arc in the highesc perfection at the connnencenient of the winter; accord-
ingly, towards the end of October, the hunters assemble in small comj)anies, ami
])roceed along the rivers in ))oats, or travel in sledges to the ])laco of rendez-
vous— taking with them provisions for three or four months. In the deep and
solitary lorest they erect their huts, made of branches of trees, and bank up tliu
snow round them, as a further protection against the })iercing Avind. They iio\>'
roam and seek everywhere for the traces of the sable, and lay traps or smncs
for his destruction. These are generally pitfalls, -with loose boards placed over
them, baited with fish or flesh ; fire-arms or cross-bows arc more rarely used, as
thev damage the skins. The traps must be frequently visited, and even ihon
the hunter often finds that a fox has preceded him, and left but a few worlii-
less renmants of the sable in the snare. Or sometimes a snow-storm over-
takes him, and then his care must be to save his own life. Thus sable-hunt-
ing is a continual chain of disappointments and perils, and at the end of tlie
season it is frequently found tiiat the expenses are hardly ])aid. Until now
the sable has been but rarely tamed. One kept in the palace of the Arcii-
bishop of Tobolsk was so perfectly domesticated, that it was allowed to stroll
about the towTi as it liked. It was an arch-enemy of cats, raising itself furi-
ously on its hind-legs as soon as it saw one, and showing the greatest desire

to fight it.

In former times the ermine {MusUhi crmhica) ranked next to the sal)lc as
the most valuable fur-bearing animal of the Siberian woods; at present the skin
is worth no more than from five to eight silver kopeks at Tobolsk, so that tlie
whole produce of its chase hardly amounts to 200,000 roubles. Tiiis little ani-
mal resembles in its general appearance the Aveasel, but is considerably lai'trcr,
as it attains a length of from twelve to fourteen inches. Its color, which is red-
dish-brown in summer, becomes milk-white during the winter in the nortlicrn
regions, with tho excei)tion of the tip of the tail, which always remains bhak.
Its habits likewise greatly resend)le those of the weasel; it is equally alert ni
all its movements, and equally courageous in defending itself when attacked.
It lives on birds, poultry, rats, rabbits, leverets, and all kinds of smaller animals,

SIBERIA— FUR-TRADE AND GOLD-DIGGINGS.

211

and will not hcsitato to attack a proy of imich greater sizo than itself. Althoiicjh
viii'ioiis species of ennine are distrilmted over tlio whole forest region of the
norlli, yet Siberia produces the finest skins. Tlio largest come from the Kolyma,
or are brought to the fair of Ostrownoje by the Tchutchi, who obtain them
ironi the cohlest regions of America.

The Siberian weasel (IVrt/vvj siljcrivct), which is mucli smaller than the cr-
inino, is likewise hunted for its soft and j)erfeclly snow-white winter dress — the
ti]) of the tail not being black, as in the latter.

The sea-otter, or kalan {I'Jti/ii/dris hitri,'i),{he most valuable of all the Rug-
sian fur-bearing animals, as 110 silver roubles is the average ])rice of ti single
skin, is nearly related to the weasel tribe. The enormous value set upon the
KJossv, jet-black, soft, and thick fur of (he kalan sufiiciently exjihiins how the
liussian himters have followed his traces from Kamchatka to America, and
ahiiDst entirely extirpated him on many of the coasts and islands of Bering's
Sea and the Northern Pacific, where he formerly abounded. Ilis habits very
niurli resend)le those of the seal ; he haunts sea-w;ished rocks, lives mostly in
tlie water, and loves to bask in the sun. His hind feet have a membrane skirt-
iiiu' the outside of the exterior toe, like that of a goose, and the elongated form
of liis tlcxible body enables him to swim with the greatest celerity. Tiie love
of tlio sea-otters for their young is so great that they reckon their own lives as
nothing to protect them f rona danger ; and Steller, who had more opportunities
tlian any other naturalist for observing their liabits, aflirms that, when deprived
of their offs])ring, their grief is so strong that in less than a fortniglit they waste
away to skeletons. On their flight they carry their young in their mouths, or
drive them along before them. If they succeed in reaching the sea, they begin
to mock their baflied pursuer, and express their joy by a variety of antics.
Sonu'timcs they raise themselves upright m the water, rising and falling with
the waves, or holding a fore paw over their eyes, as if to look sharply at him ;
or tliey throw themselves on their back, rubbing their breast with their fore
paws; or cast their young into the water, and catch them again, like a motiier
playing with her infant. The sea-otter not only surpasses the fish-otter by the
beauty of his fur, but also in size, as he attains a length of from three to four
feet, exclusive of the tail. His food consists of small fishes, molluscs, and erus-
taceiius animals, whose hard, cal'j'ireous covering his broad grinders arc well
adapted to crush.

Next to the sea-otter, the black fox, whose skin is of a rich and shining
black or deep brown color, with the longer or exterior hairs of a silvery-white,
furnisiies the most costly of all the Siberian furs. The average price of a sin-
gle skin amounts to CO or 70 silver roubles, and rich amateurs will willingly
pay 300 roubles, or even more, for those of first-rate quality. The skin of the
Siberian red fox, which ranks next in value, is worth no more than 20 roubles ;
tlie steel-gray winter dress of the Siberian crossed fox (thus named from the
black cross on his shouhlcrs), from 10 to 12 roubles; and that of the Ai'ctic
fox, though very Avarm and close, no more than G or 8.

riie bear family likewise furnishes many skins to the Siberian furrier. That
of the young brown bear ( Ursus arctos) is liighly esteemed for the trimming

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<»f pclissi's ; l)ut llin,t of llio oldiT aniniiil has little value, and Is used, like tliiit
of the polar Lear, as a rug or a foot-dolli in sled<j;es.

The lynx is liiijlily i>rized for its very tliick, soft, nist-colored winter dress,
striped with darker brown. Tt attains the size of the wolf, and is distiiimiislu d
from all other niendx'rs of the cat tribi', l>y the ])eneils of loni; Itlaek iuiir \vlii( h
tip its erect and pointed ears. It loves to lie in ainhush for the passint; reui-
♦leer or elk, on some tliick branch at a considerable distance from the groniid.
With one prodigious bound it leaps upon the back of its victim, strikes its tal-
or i into its llesh, and opens with its sharp teeth the arteries of its neck.

Thoui;'li singly of bnt little value, as a thousand of its skins are worth no
more than one sea-otter, the s(juirrel plays in reality a far more important part
in the Siberian fur-trado than any of the before-mentioned animals, as tiie total
value of the gray peltry which it furnishes to trade is at least seven limes
greater than that of the sable. Four millions of gray squirrel skins are, on an
average, annually exported to China, from two to three millions to Kumpc,
and the homo consumption of the Russian Kmpire is beyond all doubt still
more considerable, as it is the fur most commonly used hv the mid<lle classes.
The European scpiirrels are of inferior value, as the hair of their winter dress
is still a mixture of red and gray; in the territory of the Petschora, the gi'ay
first becomes predominant, and increases in beauty on advancing towards the
east. The squirrels are caught in snares or tra])s, or shot with blunted arrows.
Among the fur-bearing animals of Siberia, we have further to notice the vary-
ing hare, whose winter dress is entirely white, except the tij)S of the ears,
Avhich are black; the Uaikal hare; the ground-squirrel, whose fur has iiiic
longitudinal dark-brown stripes, alternating with four light-yollow ones, ami
the suslik, a species of marmot, whose brown fur, with white spots and stripes,
fetches a high price in China. It occurs over all Siberia as far as Kamchatka.
Its burrows are frccpiently nine feet deep; this, however, does not prevent its
being dug out by the hunters, who likewise entrap it in spring when it awakes
from its winter sleep.

Sunnning together the total amount of the TJussian fur-trade. Von Uaor es-
timates the value of the skins annually brought to the market by the Ifussian
American Fur Company at half a million of silver roubles, tiie produce of Eu-
ropean liussia at a million and a half, ami that of Siberia at three millions. As
.agriculture decreases on .advancing to the north, the chase of the fur-bearing
animals increases in importaiice. Thus, in the most northern governnu'nts of
European IJussia — Wjatka, Wologda, Olonez, and Archangel — it is one of llic
chief occupations of the inhabitants. In Olonez .about four hiuidred bears are
killed every year, .and the immense forests of Wologda furnish from one hun-
dred to two hundred black foxes, three hundred bears, and three millions of
squirrels.

Although the sable and the sea-otter are not so nimierous as in former times,
yet, upon the whole, the Russian fur-trade is in a very flourishing condition;
nor is there any fear of its decrciising, as the less valuable skins — such as those
of the squirrels and 'ires, wliich from their numbers weigh most heavily in
the balance of trade — are furnished hy rodents, which multiply very rajiidly,

Sini:UIA— FUR-TRADK AND GOLD-DIGGINGS.

21:}

and find an inexhaustible supply of food in the forests and ])a.si,.irc-gronnds of
Silicria.

The chase of the fur-bearing animals affords the Xorth-Siliorian nomads —
suc'li as t!\e Ostiaks, Jakiits, Tuiigusi, and SanioTedes — the only means of pro-
curing tiie foreign articles they re(iuire; hence it taxes all their ingi'nuity, and
takes up a great deal of their time. On the river-banks and in the forests
they lay inmunerablo snares and tnqts, all so nicely adajtted to the size, strength,
and peculiar habits of the various creatures they are intended to capture, that
it would bo almost impossible to improve tliem. An industrious ,Iakut will
lav about live hundred variou" *rai)s as soon as the iirst snow has fallen ; these
lie visits aljout five or six times in the course of the winter, and generally finds
.some animal or other in every eiglith or tenth .snare.

Tlie i)roduce of his chase he brings to the nearest fair, where the t;?.v-gath-
erer is waiting for the jassak, which is now generally j)aid in money (live pa-
jicr roubles = four shillings). With the remainder of ids gains he purchases
iron kettles, red cloth for henuning his garments, powde" and shot, rye-meal,
glass pearls, tobacco, and brandy — which, though forbidden to be sold publicly,
is riciiiy suj)itlied to him in private — and tiien retires to his native wilds.
Fiom the smaller fairs, the furs are sent by the Uussian merchants to the
larger staple places, such as Jakutsk, Xertschinsk, Tobolsk, Kiachta, Irbit,
Xishne-Xovgorod, and finally St. Petersburg and Mosco^v ; for by repeatedly
sorting and matcliing the size and color of the skins, their value is increased.

About thirty years ago firs were still tiie chief export article of Siberia — to
China, European Russia, and Western Europe — but since then the discovery
of its rich auriferous deposits has made gold its most important produce. The
]U'('cious metal is found on the western slopes of the Ural chain and in West
Siberia; but the most jiroductivc diggings are situatoil in East Siberia, where
tliey give occupation to many thousands of workmen, and riches to a few suc-
cessful speculators.

The vast territory drained by the Upper Jenissei and its tributaries, the Su-
perior and the ^Middle Tunguska, consists for the greater part of a dismal and
swampy primeval forest, which scarcely thirty years since was almost totally
unknown. A few wretched nomads and fur-hunters were the only inhabitants
of the Taiga — as those sylvan deserts are called — and scpiirrel skins seemed all
they were ever likely to produce. A journey through the Taiga is said to bo
one of the most fatiguing and tedious tours wliicb it is possil)le to tnako. l"p-
liill and down-hill, a narrow path leails over a swampy ground, into which tlu;
horses sink up to their knees. Tiie rider is scarcely less harassed than the
patient animal which carries him over this unstable soil. Xo bird enlivens the
solitary forest with its song ; the moaning of the wind in the crowns of the
trees alone interrupts the gloomy silence. Tiie eternal sameness of tlie scene
— day after day one constant succession of everlasting larches and fir-trees — is
as wearying to the mind as the almost impassable road to the body.

But suddenly the sound of the axe or the creaking of the water-wheel is
liearil ; the forest oi)ens, a long row of huts extends along the banks of a riv-
ulet, and hundreds of workmen are seen movinif about as industrious as a hive

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Tin: POLAR WOULD.

of bocs, Wlmt is tho raiiso of nil this notivify — of this sudden chMnfTo from a
death-like ([uiet to a feverish life':' These are tlie ijold-lii Ids ; tiio sands of
tiieso s\vaiii|iy tjroiiiids are mixed, like tiiose of liu' I'aetoiiis, witli fjold, imil
tlieir fortunate possessore would not exeliango tlieiu for tlie finest meadows,
cornlields, or vineyards.

lu'dor Popow, a hunter of tlio provineo of Tomsk, is said to liave hcni
the iirst discoverer of u:nld in Siberia; and (lovoriiment havinij granted per-
mission to ])rivate ])ersons to seareii for tiie jtrecious metal, a few enterprisin.,'
me 1 directed their attention to the wild spurs of the Sajan ^[ountains. A hiil-
liant, success rewarded their endeavors. In the year ^^:m an explorinL,'-partv,
sent out hy a merchant named .Fakin l{esaiu)W, discovereil a rich deposit of
auriferous sand near the banks of the Crreat liirussa; ami in 18:]9-40, similar
deposits were found alouL; several of tlu> tributaries of tho I^'pper Tunt,'usk;i,
and still farther to the north, on the ()ktolyk,a rivtdet that Hows into the I'it.

Tiio expenses of a searching-party amount, on an iiverage, to liOOO silver
roubles (i'GOO) ; and as very often no gold whatever is found, these liazanhms
explorations not seldom put l)oth the jnu'sc and the ])erseverance of their uiiiler-
takers to a severe trial. Thus Nikita ^Maesnikow had spent no less than 'JiJo.oiiO
silver roubles (£52,000) in fruitless researches, when lu! at length discovered tho
rich gold-field on the Peskin, which, as we shall presently see, amply remuner-
ated him for his previous losses.

Of the difficulties which await the gold-searchers, a faint idea may be fonneil,
on considering that tho whole of the auriferous region, which far surpasses in
size most of tho European kingdoms, consists of one vast forest like that almve
described. Patches of grassdand on which liorses can feed are of very rare oc-
currence, and damp moss is the only bed the Taiga affords. As the gold-search-
ers are very often at work some hundreds of versts from tho nearest village, iIkv
arc obliged to carry all their provisions along with them. Their chithcs arc
almost constantly wet, from their .^ leeping in tho damp forest, from the frequent
rains to which they are exposed, and from their toiling in the swampy ground.
Scarcely have tliey dug a few feet deep when tho ])it fills with water, whicii
they are obliged to pump out as fast as it gathers, and thus standing up to tlieir
knees in the mud, they work on until tliey reach the solid rock, for then only
can they be certain that no auriferous layer lias been neglected in their seanli.
When wo consider, moreover, that all this labor is very often totally useless,
their perseverance can not but bo admired ; nor is it to be wondered at tliiit
exploring-partios have sometimes encam])ed on tho site of rich gold-deposits
without examining the spot, their patience liaving been exliausted by reiieated
failures in the vicinity. When the winter, with its deep snowfalls, stuMciily
breaks in upon the searchers, their hardships become dreadful. Tho frost ami
want of food kill their horses, their utensils have to bo left behind; and drag-
ging their most indispensable provisions along with them on small sledges, tliey
are not seldom obliged to waJe for weeks through the deep snow before they
reach some inhabited place.

But even the severity of a Siberian winter does not prevent the sending out
of cx|)loring-parties. Sucli winter explorations arc only fitted out for tho more

SIUKUIA— FUU-TRADK AM) U()I,r)-I)IG(ilN(iS.

ais

acciiiato oxainiiiatimi of vrr)j swiiinpy iuirifi.'rous uronnds lliat liavo boon (US'
(•(ivi'i'dl ill tlic previous your, iiiitl wlicru it is li'ss ilitlii'iilt to work in llii' fro/on
sciil than to ('(^iitend wltli tiiu water iu suinnuT. A wiiitor-parly travels with-
out Iiorsi's, tlic workmen tlitinselves Iransportini^ all that they rcciuiri- on liufht
sli'iliii'-*. They are ol»li<,a'd to break up tiie obdurate soil with jiickaxes, and tiio
s;uid thus loosened lias to bo thawed and washed in warm water. After their
(iiiv's work, they spend the nit,dit in huts made of the branehos of trees, whero
tlii'V slee|) on the hanl ground. It requires the iron constitution of a' Sil)erian
ti) licar »iic!> liarilsliii)s, to which many fall a prey, in spite of their vigorous
iicaltli.

A i;i)ld-deposit having been found, the fortunate discoverer obtains the grant
(if a lot of ground, 100 sashens (UOO feet) broad, and 2500 haslieiis (or 5 versts)
loiii,'. Two adjoining lots are never granted to the same person, but a subse-
(|ii(nt purchase or amalgamation is permitted. At first Ciovermuent was satis-
iii'il with a moderate ta.v of 15 percent, of the produce; sul)sc(iuently, liowever,
this was doubled, mitil within the last few yeiirs, wlu'ii, the golil production
liaviug been found to decrease, tlie primitive impost was returned to, or even
vciluccd to 5 per cent, for the less productive mines. JJesides this tax, from four
til ciglit gold r-Mibles per pound of gold, according to the richness of the dig-
•.'iiiifs, have to be paid for police ex[)enses. Only a twelve years' lease is granted,
alter which the digging reverts to the crown, and a new lease lias to be pur-
cliasL'd. As the severe climate of the Taiga limits the working-time to four
iiKiiiths (from 3Iay to September), the period of the concession is thus in reality
lint more than four years.

The first care of the lessee is, of course, to collect the necessary provisions
and working apparatus. The distant stcp])e of the Kirghese furnishes him
willi dried or salted meat; liis iron utensils he purchases in the factories of the
Tral ; the fairs of Irliit and Nishne-Xovgorod sujiply him with every other arti-
cle; and rye-meal and fishes lie easily obtains from the Siberian peasants or
traders. l}y water and by land, all these various stores have to be transported
ill siinmior to the residence or establislunent of the gold-digger on the border
of the Taiga. The transport through the Taiga its. If t:ikes place during the
winter, on sledges, at a very great cost; and the expense is still more increased
if tiino has been lost through inattention, as then all that m.ay still be wanting
lias to bo conveyed to the spot on the backs of horses.

^lost of the men that are hired for working in the diggings are exiles— the
remainder generally free peasants, who have been reduced in their circum-
stances by misfortunes or misconduct. The procuring of the necessary work-
men is an .affair of no small trouble and expense, liefore every sumnicr cam-
paign the agents of the gold-diggers travel about the country like recruiting-
sergeants, and after giving many fair words and some liimd-money, they tak'3
tile passport of the man engaged as a security for his apjiearance. But although
a passport is an indispensable document in Siberia, yet it not seldom happens
that the workman finds means to obtain a new one mider some other name,
and, engaging himself to a new master, defrau<ls the first of his hand-money.

It may be easily imagined that, as the workmen only consist of the refuse

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Tin: I'OLAU \V()1U-I),

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of Rocif'ty, tlioyrcatcst (liHciiilitu! is necessary to kee|i tliem in onler. 'I'lie svs.
leiii of :i secret, ]M)licc, so dierislied liy .'ill arliitrary ,<.'()VcrMiiU'rits, is here ia.
temled lo its utiiiiist limits; scarcely lias a siis|iici(iiis word fallen an\oii'4 llic
uorliinen, when the director is inmiedi,'itely iiiforine(l of it, and takes his iiii:i<.
ures aceordinuly, Kvery man knows that ho is watched, ami is liimself a spv
upon )iis companions.

Ifofnnnin relates an instance of a plot sinfjnlarly nipped in the htid. Tn mic
of tlu' Lrold-<li'_';,'inn's on the Noiha, tile workmvn,at tlu' instillation of an niidc --
overseer, had refused to perform a task assigned to them. It w;is to he fcinc.l
that the spirit < 1' insnliordinalion would t^ain Ljrouiid, and extend over all tl;c
neiyhborini; diu'.Lrin^s, The director, consi'quently, si'ut at once for militarv ;iv.
sistaiu'e ; this, however, ]ii'oved to be umieccssiiry, for when the Cossacks arrivcil
at Iho Xoil)a,a thunder-storm arose, and at the very monu'nt they came ridiiii,'
up to tlio diyying a Hash of liuditninu' killeil tho ritiu'lcader in tlut midst of llic
jnutineers. .\s so:in as the men recovered from the iirst shock of their surprise
and terror, they all ex 'lainied, "This is the JndLrment of (iod!" and, wiilumi
any further hesitation, at once returned to their duty.

IJesides free rations, the ordinary waives of a conunon workman arc l.') nm-
bles banco, or 1 '2 shiHiu'^'s a month, but more experienced h.ands reci'ive 51) (ir
even (!() rcmbles. The ])ay dates from the (hiy when the workman makes his
,'ippearanco at the residence, and th(>nceforward, also, his rations are served out
lo him. They consist of a pound of fresh or salt meat, or an equivalent portion
of fish on fastin<i;-days, oa!)ba<j;e and groats for soup, besides fresh ryedircMil
and 7*'(/.s' (the favorite national liovcrage) <iil libitKin. The whole minilxr of
workmen employed in a iXold-dii^ujing subdivide themselves into separate socie-
ties, or artells. Each of these elects a chief, or head-man. to whom the provis-
ions for liis artell are weiu'hed out, and to wliom all the other common interests
are intrusted. The sale of spirituous licpior is strictly forbidden, for its use would
render it impossible to maintain order; and, according to hiw, no gui-.sliop is
allowed to be opi'ni'<l witliin (!() versts of a digging.

The pay and the liberal rations received would alone be insufficient to allure
■workmen to the diggings, for, as we liave seen, the voyage ihere and hack is
extremely irksom(>, and the labor very fatiguing. An excellent plan has couse-
(piently been devised for their encouragement. The contract of each workiniui
distinctly speciiies the rpiantityof his daily work, <'onsistingof a certain nuiiilier
of wheelbarrows of sand — from 100 to 120, according to the distance from the
spot where it is dug to the j/lace where it is washed out — each reckoned at three
ponds,* Avliicli one party has to fdl, another to convey to the wash-stands iiml
a tliird to wash.

The task is generally completed by noon, or early in the afternoon. For the
labor they jierform during the rest of the day, or on Sumhays and holid.'iys,
they receive an extra pay of two or three roubles for every solotnik of uo',.!
tliey wash. Every evening the workmen come with the produce of their bee
labor to the office, the gold is weighed in their presence, and tl>e artell credited
for the amount of its share. This free-work is as advantageous for the inxs-

* Tlio puiiil i" r<(iiiil to 111 |i(niiiil.i. The pDiid is ilividod into 90 solotniljs.

SinKIUA-I'lIt-THADI': AM) (JOf,!) DKiOIXUS.

917

(lis as till' laborers. The furiiuT I'lijoy !i net iiroflt <if citjlit or ten ronlilcs per
sitjiitiiik, ami all llio workiiiLf I'Vpcnscs arc of ('(Hirsi' put to llio cliaru;)' of tlin
(iiiitract labor; am' tlu; latter earn a yrcat deal of money, aocordiiii,' to tlieir lii-
(liisfry or irood-inek, for wlieti ti)rtiiiie favors an arteii, its share may atiioiiiit to
!i ciiiisiilerable sum. Diiriiii^ ilofiiiamrs st!iy at tlie Hirussa, eaeh workman of
;i cciluiii arlell earned in one afternoon 7'J ronbles, and tlie Sunday's work of
Mimtlu'r of tliese associations yave to each of its members Ki.'i roubles, or t'l.
The Mitisans — who, thoui^h employed in a L;old-mine, are not enyai;ed in diir-
u'iiiu' oi' washiiii; tli(> auriferous sand—are also rewarded from tinu^ to timt(
liy a day's free-labor in jilaces which are known to be rich. On one of tiiesu
(K'CMsinns a C'ossack on the Oktoiyk received ;i()() roubles for his share of the
unilil tliat was washeil out of 4!) wheelbarrows of s.'uid. These of course Jire
cxtiaiirdiiiary cases, but ihey show how much a workman ukii/ t^ain; and be-
iii;; of course exaitLferated by report, are tho chief inducemenls which attract
the workmen, and keep them to their duty.

If the free-labor is nnprodiictivo, many of the workmen desert or tjive up
ficc'-luhor altoLfether, and in bo'h cases the master is u loser. To prevent this,
ills ('ustf)niarv, in many of tho diuiiinjis, to pav tho workmen a fixed sum for
their extra work.

At the end of tho season the workmen are paid off, a:<d receive provisions
for tlicir honie-jonrney. (Jeiierally, tho jiroduco of their siunmer's lalxjr is
spi'iit.iu the first villatres they reach, in ilrinkiiiLT and y'lmbliiiij; ; so that, to bo
able to return to thi-ir families, they are obliLjed to bind themsi'lves anew for
the next season, and to reci-ivc hand-money from tho ayent, who, knowiui; their
weakness, is generally on tho spot to take advantage of it. iVfter spendini^ a
lout,' winter full of want and privations, they return to the Taiga in spring, and
thus, through their own folly, their life is spent in constant misery and hard
labor.

During the winter the digging is deserted, except by an under-overseer and
a few workmen, who make tho necessary ])roparations for tho next campaign,
roccivf! and warehouse tho provisions as they arrive, and guard tho pro|)erty
against thieves or wanton destruction. Tho upper-overseer or director, mean-
while, is fully occupied at the residence in forwarding the provisions and stores
that iiavo arrived there during the summer to tho mine, in making tho neces-
sary ])urchases for tho next year, in sending his agents about tho country to
t'ii-''Ui' new workmen ; and thus tho winter is, in fact, his busiest time. With
the last sledge transport he returns to the digLcing, to receive the workmen a.i
they arrive, and to see that all is ready for tho summer. As his situation is
one of great trust and responsibility, he enjoys a considerable s.alary. Maes-
nikow, for instance, ])aid his chief director 40,()()0 roubles a year ; and GOOO or
HOOO roubles, besides free station, and a percentage of the gold ]>roduced, is
the ordinary emolument.

It is thus evident that the expenses of a Siberian gold-mine are enormous,
hut when fortune favors tho undertaker he is amply rewarded for his outlay;
!iu annual produce of 10, ]r),or L'O ponds of gold is by no means uncimmon.
In the year 1S45, 458 workmen employed in tho gold-mine (jf !Mariinsk, be-

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TUK POLAIt WOUL!).

lonjjincc to ^fcsHrs. (J<)1ii1m1(i\v ami Kiisncznw, |iinclMi'cil hi poiKls lf».', Ilis. of
tilt' imicli-ciivclcil iiictMl; in llir year Isci tlir mine of OlLjirisk, l)clun<,'in',' ti>
I/iciiti'iiant Miili'winsky, yieliliil HJ |i<)iiils .T7| I''--; inul in Isft, the iiilidr ,,['
101 I witrknuii, ('in|ilny('il in flu- mine of KicxIiiwumIw isli^nsk, iHluni^'in.,' id
ISIcssrs. Iviisni'zow ami S(litM'lii'i,'oI(>\v, iirodiiicil no los than s7 |iiiiii|s || |1k
of fj;<)lil. IJut oven Kri'sdnwosdwislu'nsk lias ln'i'ii (li>lanci'(l liy tin- iiiinc i,t
Spasky, sitiiutetl iicai- tlic smirci's of tlic I'fskin, wliicli, in tlir vcar |>|.',
yicldcil its fortiinatu jiossis.sdf, tlus ahovi'-nuuliDiii'd I'omistHor N'ikita .MM(<i.
liikow (oiio of tile fi'W iiii'ii will) wore already i-xtrcniily ri*'li licforc tlu' Silic.
riaii aiiriftTous df|i()sits wen? discuvcrod), tin- ciiorinoiis (|iiamity of loo iinihU
of yold ! J''roni isio to IS45, Maosiiikow cxtrnetod from tliis mine no li ,s
lliaii ;!JS jMtuds tl ll»s. of j^old, worth 4,1M.'3,174 silviT roiiliU's, or ahoiit i'lllo.ddn.
StiH more rcci'iitiy, in IHilo, thu (lawrilow muie, lii'loiiging to thu house nl l.'ju.
panovv, prodiici'd lOi'.l ponds of pure yold.

15nt in Silioria, as clsowhcrt', miiiiiiLy operations arc frcqiu'iitly doiinud id
end in disappointment, particularly if the space destined to he woiked in iW
follosvini^ Slimmer has not heeii carefully examined heforehand, as the ore is
often very uneciually distrihuted. A speculator, haviiitf discovere<l a Lrold-iniiii',
examined four or live samples of the sand, which trave a liiLchly satisfaclni'v re-
sult. I)elitj;hted with his good-fortune, ho made his arranLrenieiits on a ^rainl
scale, and collected jirovisions for .500 workmen ; but wlu'ii operations heffiii,
it was found that ho had, unfortunately, hit upon a small patch of aiirifcnms
8and,tho vicinity of wliicli was totally void of yold, so that his 500 workiiun
produced no moro than a few pounds of ore, and ho lost at least i' 10,000 liv
liis adventure.

Tho entire gold produce of East Siberia amounted, in 1845, to 84S pnmls
no lbs., and in 185(5 to about 1100 ponds; but latterly, in consequence of the
increasing wages and dearness of provisions, which has caused many of tlii!
less productive mines to bo abandoned, it has somewhat <liminished. In is(li),
.11,700 men, 019 women, and 8751 horses and oxen, were employed in the Si-
berian gold-mine.

As may easily be imagined, the discovery of these souivies of wealth in tlio
desert has caused a great revolution in tho social state of Siberia. The ridirs
so suddenly ac(|uired by a few favorites of fortune, have raised luxury to ;iii
unexampled height, and encouraged a senseless prodigality. Some utir/d.'y"'
having been offered for .'500 roubles to a miner suddenly raised from penury
to wealth, '* Fool !" said tho upstart, with the superb mien of a coiKpieriiiir
hero, to tho fish-dealor, " wilt thou sell mo these excellent sterlets so clieaii?
Here are a thousand roubles; go, and s.ay that thou hast dealt with ?»('.'"

The small town of Krasnojarsk, romantically situated on the Jenissei, is the
chief seat of the rich miners. Hero may bo seen the choicest toilettes, tlio
most showy equipages, and champagne (which in Siberia costs at least £1 a
bottle) is tho daily beverage of tho gold aristocracy. Unfortunately, Krasiic-
javsk had, until very recently, not a single bookseller's shop to boast of; niul

♦ A species of sturgeon highly eitremed by epicures.

iSlHEHIA— FLUTIIADK AND UOLDDIOUINUS.

210

wliilo lliniisnnd-i were I.'ivislu'il on vanity nml sensual onji>ymcnt», not .1 nuiMo
\\:is i|i'Vi>l('il to tlu' inipi'ovi'nu'nl of tlic niiml.

[,iss rich in ifoM than tlio provinci' of Jfiiixfisk, Imt riclur in ciiiiix r ami
iriiM, 'Mill :iImi\(' all in platina, is tlii' I'ral, wlici'c mining iruiustry was first iniro-
(liiii'il l»y IVti'i' tilt! (ficat, in tlio last VL'ars of llic st'vi'ntccntli century, ami has
-.iiKi' a('<|iiireil a colussal ili'Vflo|ini('nt. Tliom^li ifolil was discovi'iH-il in llic I'la-
li.iii iirnvini'f of I'fi'niia as early as I71"i,yct its in'mlnclion on a larj,'<.' scale is of
inure iiiiMleni (late. In tlie year is 10 tiie whole <|nantity of yolij fnrnishei' liy
the IimI amountt'd only to 5 j)oinls ;i.') lijs., whilo in IMM it luul increaseil to

40.") |MI11(|S.

Tlie discovery of the precious nu'tals on the estates of the larye niine-propri-
(tors iif tlie I'ral, who already before that tinio wero ainoni; the weiltliiest men
(it till' emiiire, has increased their riches to an enormous I'xteir. 1 1 1 jj;iven u
Kiinipeaii ceielirity to the names of .lakowlew and Dcmidoff. Wi-un Isselsk
iitid Wcrchne Ta^'ilsk, in tho province of IVrmia, lielonniuL; to the .lakowlew
f.imily, have an ex!;'iit of nmri' than three millions of acres, with a population
iif 11,0011 souls. IJesides iron and coppi'r, their chief produce, theso estutoH
yicldcil, in lH;i4,r)S ponds of (fold.

Nisliiie-Tanilsk, helonu'ini;, since 1 T'JT), to the Demldofl's, is a still more maij-
nilicciit possession ; for it may truly Ix? said, that perliaps nowhere in the world
aie 1,'rcater mineral riches conuiri'ixated in one spot than here, where, besiden
v;ist (luaiitities of iron and copper, the washintf of the sands produced, in ls;U
no less than 'JO ponds of s^'old, and 1 l:t ponds ;'. lbs. of platina. The estate e.v-
tiiids over four millions of acres, and its population, in 18;M, amounted to
l!ii,oi)0 souls.

Tlic town of Xishne-Taijjilsk has about ir),000 inhabitants, and Ilelmersen
("Travels in the Ural") praises tho Demidoft's for their zeal in carryiuijf tho
civilization of Kuropo to the wilds of the Tral. In an excellent elementary
schiiol, I'll) boys are clothed, fed, and educated at their expense. Those pupils
who (listinjiuish themselves by their abilities are then sent '0 a hiiilier school,
such as the Demidoff Lyootun in .Taroslaw, or the University of Moscow, and
aftir the termination of their studies obtain a situation on the estates of the
family. The palace of tho Demidoffs has a fine collection of paintinujs by tho
first Italian masters; but it is seldom if ever inh.'ibited by the proprietors, who
prefer Florence .and Paris to tho Ural. The founder of the family was an em-
inent i^jmismitli of the town of Tula, whoso abilities trained him the favor of
IVtcrtlu: (Jreat, and tho ijift of the mines on which the colossal fortune of his
ik'sctudants has been raised.

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THE POLAR WOULD.

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CIIArTEU XVIIT.

MiPDF.xnonrrs AovKNTriiKs in T.\iMriu,.\Np.

For wliiit riirp<isp was ^IIcMiMuldrir.s Vnyiif^n to 'raiimiHiiinl imdcrtakrii ? — Dillicultiop and Olivlmli'i.—
I'.xiiidiiiiiii (Idwii the TaiiiMir Itivor to tin: Polar Sim. — Stnrin on 'I'ainmr Lake. — l,oss of tlu' l!(i^it._
iM iiMcnilcirtV ill ami alone in 7.') X. Lat. — Saved by a t;ratiTnl Sanioi. do. — L'liniato ami Vi'i;<'taliiiii of
'I'aiinnrland.

/ \\ followiiiixllio contours of lliu Siberian const, wc lind to tlic o;isl of X(iv:i
^ ' Zrnihlu a vast tract of territory jtrojcctino; towards tlic Pole, and cxtiiul-
in<; its promontories far into the icy sea. Tiiis country — wliicli, from lis prin-
<'i|ial river, may Ite called Tainmrland — is the most northern, and, I neeil li-nllv
add, the most iidios|)ital)Ie part of the Old World. Tiie last hiils of the jJus.
sian fi.shermen are situated about the nioutli of tiie Ji'tiissei, but tlu' whole toni-
tory (jf liie Taimur ITiver, and the regions traversed by tiie lower com-sc oi tl.c
ChatanLja and the Piisina, are c()ni]iletely uninhabited.

Kvi'U aloiii^ the upper course v)f these two last-nanu'd rivers, the po|iiil;itinii
is exceediniily scanty and scattered ; and the fi'W Samoi'edes who migrate diir-
im^ the sunmuT to the banks of (lie Taimur, gladly leave tiient at the appnimli
of winter, the cold of which no thermometer has ever measuretl. As may o,i>i-
ly be imaLrineibTaimurlanil has but few attractions for the trader or llu' fur-
hunter, but for the naturalist it is by no nu'ans without interest.

Wc have seen in a former chaptc"' how \'on liaer, prompted by tlie disiiihr-
ested love of science, travelk'd to Xova Zi'Uibla to I'xamine the productimis ol
a ci'lil hisiditr siimnu'r beyoinl the Tttth dci^ree of latitude. The instructive ir
suits of liis journey rendi're(l it doubly desirable to obtain information ahoiil
the effects of sunmier in a conthic/ital climate, situated if possible still farliu'i'
to the n(.rt]i ; and as no reiriou could be belti'r suited to this purpose tliaii t'lc
interior of the broad mass of Taimurlaml, the Academy of Scii'uccsof St. I'clirs-
bur<; resolved to send thither a scienlilic expedition. Fortmiately for tiio suc-
cess of the tmdertakiiiLr, \'on ^liddeiidorff, the eminent iiatm'alist, whose effir
of se'-vice was yl.'idly accepted, was in e\ery resjiect the rii^ht^ man iti tiic ri^lii
place; for to the most nntiritiL; scientific zeal, and an niiwa\eriii<x ilcleriniiiatieii.
he join 'd a physical sti'eni,'tli and a ni.amial dexterity rarely found united willi
h'aniiiij.;. In the La|iland moors he had learned lo bivouac for nii^hts tou'ctlni'.
while chasin<f the waterfowl, and on foot he was able to tire the best-lraiiii^'i
walrusdnmter. He tmderstood how to construct a boat, and to steer it willi lii-*
own hand, ami every beast or bird was doomecl that came within reaeli of lii-^
imerrint; ball. In one word, no traveller ever iihm^i'd into the Arctic wilN
more indeiieiideiit of bair.ii.'ii;e, followers, or the means of transport.

On April 4 we iind .^Iiddendorff, accompanied by Mr. Hrandt, a Danish foi-
ester, and a smL:;le servant, on the ice of the Jeiiissei between Turiichaiisk ami

MlDDENDOHFF'a AUVLNTLHES IN TAIMUKI.ANI).

w^ 1

pudiiio. Ilorc liis ('()in));mi()iis wcro :itt;u'kt'(l by iiicash's ; but us it was liij;!>
tiiiu' til n"M-\i till' CliataiiLja bi't'orc tlif iiicltiiin; of tlic snosv, tlic itaticiits were
OMivliilly pai-ktHl u|) in boxi'slinod witli skins, ami llic wliolf party — wIiksc innn-
licrs, incanwliik', li!itl bi'cn inrri'astMl by tlu- aildilion of a topo^raitluT and of
tiiii'i' C'ossai'ks — enu'ri^rd ffoiu tlie n-Lrion of forrsts on April i;i, liavin<j; to face
;i cdld of — M0°, and !i storm that almost ovcrturiii'd their sledtjes. With
Tiinu'iise LT'iides they traversed the tundra in a noilh-i'asterly direction as far as
the riisiiia, and thence passini; on from one Samo'iede lionle to another, at k'ULTth
ivaclu'd Koromioie Filippowskoi (71' rj' lat.) on the r>oi;anida,an alHueiit of the
Clutii, which is itself :i tributary of the Chat anna. Here a halt was made,
|i;ntlv because all the ]>arty except ^Middeiidorff were by this time attacked w i(h
the riiuiiiuLj epidemic, and partly to wait for the Samo'iedes, whom they intend-
(il til join on their summer migration to the north. Durinu; this interval ^Mid-
(jiiiildrff made an excursion to the ('hatanii'a, for the purpose of 'catherinL!; in
foiination about the voyage down that river, and to make the necessary jirepara-
lidiis. In the village of ("hatangsk, however, he found nearly all the inhabitants
siiffcriii!^ from the measles ; mid as no assi. tance was to In; expected from tliein,
Ik' rcsdlved to alter his route, and to proceed as soon as possible to the Kiver
Tiiiiiiur, which w<iuld in all probability afford him the best nu'ans for penetr.it-
iii'j; to the I'xtreme coidines <if continental Asia. .\s this most Hort/icr/i/ river
iif the ( )1(1 World lies far beyond the boundaries of arboreal growth, a boat-frame
(if twelve fi'ct on the keel had to be made at Koromioie before si'tliiii; out.
biaiiilt was left behind with part of tlu; company, to make a proloim'ed series
(M luetcorolonical observations, and to gather as complete a collection as possible
•if the animals and )ilants of the cou'iti'v, whik; .Arnhleiulorff starti'd on his ail-
voiituroiis tour (INIay 1!)) with sixty-ei^ht. reindeer, niuler the uuidance of a few
SaiiKiiciles on their progress to the north, and accom|)anied only by the toposj.
i:i|iiicr, an interpreter, and two Cossacks. 'J'lie diHiciiltics of this journey, sintu!
a liiiat-fraiue, fui'l, provisions, physical instruments, apparatuses for the preser-
validii (if (ilijecls of natural liist< vy, forniini^ altogether a load for many sledtres,
had t(i be transported aloiin' with the travellers, would h;ive been <j;reat at all
tiiius, but were ikcv considerably increased by the epidemic liaviim also seized
llic tribe (if Sanioi'edes which ."Middendorff exjiected to find near the small Ifiver
Niiuaia, and which was to niiide him farther on to the 'raimiir. At leiiijlh,
allcr a search of three .;,iys, he found the remnant of the horde, which had been
il('ciiiiatc(l and reduced to a deplorable condition by the e|ii(leinic. In vain he
MHiufiit for the well-known faces of the chief iier'^oiiaLi'es of the horde, with whom
lie had iicif(itiate(l on the Iioiranida — " they wi're all dead.'" Of thirty-live per-
siiiis, (iiic only was completely healthy; a second could hardly crawl about ; but.
(he dtlicrs lay ]irostra«e in tludr tents, conuhiiin' and di'oaiiiiiL; under their skin
('iivciiii;4s. Leaving; seven corpses on the road, the}' had advanciMl by slow jour-
neys to join IMiddendorff, until fliey broke down, so that instead of receiviii^^
aid at their hands, he was now obliijji'd to help them in their distress — an assist-
ance wliicli they amply repaid, as we shall see in the sei|uel.

I iildrtunatidy the illness had prevented the Sainoiede women from sewiiii^
togctlier, as they had promised, the skins that were necessary to coniplelo the

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THE POLAR WOKLD.

coverinpfof llu? travollors' tent, so that tlioyhad much to suffer (lurincf.i vinluiit
snow-storm, which raiicil from 3I:iy 27 to 80. Thus after another lonsi' <Ul;iv
and an irreparahk' loss of time, considerinuf the extreme shortness of the sum-
nier, Mi(hlendorff was not able to start from tlio Xowaia before ]May ;il, Tlip
softening of tiie snow rendered tlie advance of tlie sledges extremely difrunit.
so that it was not before June 14 tliat he reached the Taimur at a considcralilL'
distance above the point where the river discharges its waters into the lake.
Encamping on a steep declivity of its bank, Middendorff now set about hiiilij.
ing his boat. On Juno ;{0 the ice on th'; river began to break \\\i, and on Julv
5 the navigation of the stream was free. IJy the light of the midnight sun the
boat '.vas launched, and christened " The Tundra," to commemorate the dilli-
culties of its construction in the deserts of 74° N. lat. Constant north wimls
retarded the voyage down the river and over the lake, beyond whicli the Taimnr,
traversing a hilly country, is inclosed within steep and picturesque rocks. Tin-
increasing rapidity of the stream now favored the travellers, and the storms
were less troublesome between the mighty rock-walls ; but unfortunately Mid-
dendorff, instead ol being able, as he had cx])ccted,to fill his nets vith iisli as
lie advanced, and to establish depots for his return journey, found hiiiisclf
obliged to consume the provisions he had taken with him in the boat. On Au-
gust G the lirst night-frtist took i)lace, and from that time was regulaily ii|nat-
ed. Yet in spite of these warnings, Middendorff continued his journey ilouii
the river, and reached the sea on August 24, in 70° X. lat. Jiul now it was
liigli time to return.

"The fear ^ leaving my undertaking half unfinished," says IMiddeiirlorff,
" had hitherto encouraged me to persevere. The great distance from any liii-
man habitation, the rai)id stream, against which we had now to contend, and tin-
advanced season, with its api)roaching dark nights and frosts, made our rotmii
an imperative necessity, and I could have but little reliance on our reniaiimi;.'
strength. The insiifiicient food and the fatigues of our journey, often proloiiu'-
ed to extreme exhaustion, had reduced our vigor, and we all began to feci the
effects of our frefpient wading through cold water, when, as often happciicil,
our boat had gromided upon a sliallow, or when the Hat mud-banks of the riv-
er gave us no other alternative for reaching the dry land. It was now also the
second month since we had not slept under a tent, having all the lime passud
the nights behind a screen erected on tiie -iars of the boat, as a shelter against
the wind. Provided with a good load of drift-wood, collected on the shore of
the Polar Ocean, we began our return voyage on August '2G. The borders uf
the river were already incrusted with ice. "Wading became extremely irksoiiic,
the river having meanwhile fallen above six feet, and the shallows fre'iuciilly
forcing us to step into the water and pull the boat along.

" Fortimately the wind remained favorable, and thus by rowing to the utmost
of our strength, and with the assistance of the broad sails of our 'Tundra,' we
stirmounted two rapids which, encased between abrujit rocks, seemed to dity
our utmost efforts.

"On the ;nst, a malicious gust of wind, bursting out of a narrow gorgf,
threw our boat against the rocks and broke the rudder. The frost and wtt,

MIDDEXDORFF"S ADVENTURES IX TAIMURLAXD.

223

toiicther ^.•ith the shortness of our provisions, tried us sorely. Not a day pass-
ed without sloet and snow,

"Oil Septumber 5, while cndoavorincr ♦o douhlo duriiicj a violent storm a
rockv island at the northern extremity of hake Tainiur, one wave after another
ilaslu'd into the boat, which I could only save by lettint; her run upoti a sand-
li:uil<. The violent wind, with a temperature of only +27^ at noon, covered
our clothes with solid ice-crusts. We were obliged to halt four days till the
storm ceased ; our nets and my double-barrelled gun ])roved daily more and
more unsuccessful, so that hunger combined with cold to render our situation
almost intolerable. On the 8th, while on the lookout for jitarniigan, I saw
throiiudi my telescope a long stripe of silver stretching over the lake, and, re-
turning to my comrades, informed them that we must absolutely set off agahi
till' next morning, regardless of wind and weather.

"On the following day the ominous imlications of tiie telescope rendered it
nci'issarv to approach the more open west side of the lake ; which I followed
until stopped by the ice, along whose borders I tiien sailed in order to reach the
vivur, M'liich must still be open. ISIeanwhile the wind had completely fallen, and,
to our astonishment, we saw the water in our wake cover itself with a thin
crust of ice as soon as we passed. Tiie danger of freezing fast in the middle
of the lake was evident."

Unfortunately, while endeavoring to reach the river, the boat was crushed
between two ice tloes, and was with great difficulty dragged on shore. Tiio
only chance of rescue now was to meet with some Samo'iedes on the upper
course of the river, for these nomads never wander northward beyond the south-
ern extremity of the lake, and from this our travellers were still at a great
distance.

" We made a large liand-sledge," contimies 3Iiddendorff, " and set off with-
out loss of time on the 10th, in spite of the rainy weather, Nvhich had complete-
ly dissolved the sparing snow upon the hills. The sharp stones cut into our
skdiie-rimners like knives, and after having scarcely made three versts, the ve-
liiclc full to pieces. The bad wcatiier forced us to stop for the night. The fa-
tigues of our boat-journey, the want of j)ro|)er food, and mental anxiety, had
for several weeks been undermining my health : a total want of sleep destroyed
tlio roinainder of my strength, so that, early on the Uth, I felt myself quite
unable to proceed."

In this extremity ]\[iddendorff .adopted with heroic self-deni.al the best .and
only moans for his own preservation and that of his comrades. If, by depart-
Hiif without loss of time, they were fortunate enough to reach the Samoiedes
before these nomads had left the Taimur country for the south, he also might
bu rescued; if they found them very late, they at least might expect to save
their lives; if the Samoiedes could not be found, then of course the whole party
was doomed. Thus jMiddendorff resolved to separ.ate at once from his com-
rades. A remnant of flesh extract, reserved for extreme cases, was divided into
live equal portions; the n-tur.alist's dog, the faithful conipanion of all his pre-
vious journeys, was killed, thougii reduced to a mere skeleton, and his scanty
fltsh similarly distributed among the party. The blood and a soup made of the

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THE POLAll WORLD.

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bones sorvcil for tlio partiiicf repast. Thus of his own free-will, tlir; winter liav
iiig already set in, MicUlendorff, HI and exhausted, reniaiii mI quite alone in tiio
icy desert, behind a sheltering rock, in 75'' N. lat., several hundred versts from
all human dwellings, almost without fuel, and with a miserable sui)ply of foo,!.
The three first days he was still able to move. He saw the lake cover itself ((im.
pletely with ice, and the last birds depart for the south. Then liis stren<,ftli ut-
terly failed him, and for the next three days he was unable to stir. When lu wns
again able to move, he felt an excessive thirst. He crawled to the lake, liidkc
the ice, and the water refreshed 1 'm. liut he was not yet free from disease, ainl
this was fortunate, as want of appetite did not ir.ake him feel the necessitv dt
food. Now followed a succession of terrible snow-storms, which complctclv
imi)risoned the solitary traveller, but at the same time afforded him a hettii'
shelier against the wind.

" My companions," he writes in a letter to a relation, " had now left me
twelve days; lunnan assistance could no longer be ex]iected; I was conviut'cil
that I had only myself to rely ui)oi), that I was doomed, and as good as nunilxT-
ed with the dead. And yet mj' courage did not fors:ike mo. J^ike our si|uir-
rels, I turned myself according to the changes of the wind. During the ion.;
sleepless nights fancy opened her domains, ami I forgot even hungir and tliiist.
Then Boreas broke roaring out of the gullies as if he intended to sweep luc
away into the skies, and in a short time I was covered with a comfortable snow-
niantle. Thus I lay three days, thinking of wretches who had been iinimirid
alive, and grown mad mi their dreadful prison. An overwhelming fear (if in-
sanity befell me — it oppressed my heart — it bectune insupportable. In vain I
attempted to cast it off — my weakened brain could grasp no other idea. Ami
now suddeidy — like a ray of light from heaven — the saving tliought ilai^lail
upon nic.

"3Iy last ])icces of wood were quickly lighted — some water was thawed ami
Avarmed — I poured into it the spirits from a Hask containing a specimen uf nnt-
ural history, an<l drank. A new life seemed to awaken in me : my thoiigiits ic-
turned again to my family, to the happy days I had sj)ent with the friends i>f
my youth. Soon I fell into a profound sleep — how long it lasted I know nnt—
but on awakening I felt like- another man, and my breast was lilled with grati-
tude. Appetite returne<l with recovery, and I was reduced to eat leather aii>l
birch-bark, when a ptar,nig;m fortunately came within reach of my gun. Hav-
ing thus obtained some food for the journey,! resolved, although still very fee-
ble, to sot out and seek the provisions we had buried. Packing some articles uf
dress, my gnu and annnunition, my journal, etc., on my small liand-sledge, I ]'ni-
ceeded slowly, and fre(piently resting. At noon I saw, on a well-known dtriiv-
ity of the hills, three black spots which I had not previously noticed, and as tii'.v
changed their position, I at once altered my route to join them. AVe approaih-
ed each other — and, judge of my delight, it was Triscrhnn, the Samoiede cliiff-
tain, whom I ha 1 previously assisted in the prevailing epidemic, and wlio lunv,
guided by one of my companions, had set out with three sledges to seek mv.
Eager to serve his benefactor, the grateful savage had made his reindeer wamkr
without food over a space of 150 versts where no moss grew.

i ^

1

MII)I)i:NIX)UrF"S ADVENTURES IX TAIMrULAND.

"I now hoard lliat my coiiipanioiis liiul fi)rtiiii:iti'ly rcaclu'd tlio Samoiodcs
four tiays after our st'paratioii ; but tlie droadful siiow-stonns had preventt'd the
iioiiiads from comiiiLf sooner to my assistance, and had even forced tlienx twice
to retrace their steps.

"On SeptemlKT .'to tlie Samoiedes brnnjvlit mo to my tout, and on October
9 we bade tlie Taimur an eternal farewell. After live months we hailed with
iloliLrht, on October "JO, the ver<;o of the forest, and on the followini^ day we
roai'liod the smoky hut on the iJouanida, where wo had left our friends."

llaviuLf thus accompanied ^Niiddeiidorff on his adventurous wanderinujs
tluDUijjh Taimuria, I will now i;ive a brief accoimt of his observations on the
climate and natural product ions of this northern land.

The remark of Saussure that tlie difference of temperature between li,Li;lit and
siiiule is <;jreatcst in summer, and in the lii^li latitudes, was fully contirmetl by
Miilileiidorff. While the thermometer marked — iiT"^ in the shade, the hillsides
exposed to the sun were drippini; with wet, and towards the end of June, though
llie mean teniperature of the air was still below the freezinu;-point of water, the
snow had already entirely disappeared on the sunny side of the Taimur liiver.
Torrents came brawlini,' down the hills; the swollen rivers rose forty or sixty
feet above their winter level, and carried their icy covering along with them to
tiic sea.

On August ^,'m the very miiMle of the short Taimuriaii summer, in 7t° 15'
of latitude, ^Middemlorff hunted butterflies under the shelter of a hill, bare-foot-
I'll and in light under-clothes. The thermometer rose in the sun to +tjs\aiid
dose to the ground to +.'^0\ while at a short distance on a spot exposeil to the
iiorlii-eastern air-current it fell at once to -{-'27°.

Tlie moisture of the air was very remarkable. In ^lay thick siinw-fogs al-
most perpetually obscured the atmosphere, so that it was impossib.j to ascer-
t;iia tlie jiosition of the sun. It appeared only in the evening, or about midnight,
and tlien regularly a perpendicular c( . mm of luminous whiteness descended from
its orl» to the earth, and, widening as it approached the liori/on, took the form
ami the appearance of a colossal lamp-tlame, such as the latter appears when
swMi through the mists of a vapor bath. From the same cause parhelia and
lialos were very freciuont.

During the daytime the snow-fogs, in perpetual motion, either entirely veil-
ed the nearest objects, or niiignilied their size, or e.\hibitt'(l them in a dancing
motion. In June the snow-fog became a vapor-fog, which daily from time to
time [irecipitated its surplus of moisture in form of a light rain, but even then
the nights, particularly after eleven o'clock, were mostly serene.

Kxperieiice proveil, contrary ti> Arago's opinion, that thunder-storms take
Jilace within the Arctic zone. The perpetual motion of the air was very re-
m;ukal)le. The sun had merely to disa])pear behind a cloud to jiroduce at once
:i gust of wind. Towards the end of August, the southern and the northern air-
currents, like two conteniling giants, began to strive for the mastery, until linally
tlio storms raged with extreme violence. IJut in these treeless deserts their fury
limls nothing to destroy.

It is impossible to forna any thing like a correct estimate of the quantity of

15

:: .'M

H n

i J ;

■I! i'

II 1

'■ii

!i' I.

mmn

iiilt;

220

Tin: POLAR WOHf.D.

snow wliicli annually falls in llic liiijlu'st latitudes. So much is certain tiiat it
can not he small, to jutJLre by tlie violence aii<l swelliuLf of the rivers in sprini,'.
Tiic sunnnits of tiu! hills, an<l the ('"clivities exposed to the reii;nin<x winds, aic
constantly depiived of snow, which, liowever, Jills up the bottom of the vallevs
to a considerable heiujht. (Jreat was ^liddeiidorlFs astonishment, while travel-
linij over the timdra at the end of winter, to lind it covered with no more than
two inches, or at the very utmost half a foot, of snow; the dried stems of the
Arctic plants everywhere jieepim,' forth al)ove its siu'face. This was the natu-
ral c()nse(|Uence of the north-easterly storms, which, sweepin;^ over the nakcij
plain, carry the snow along with them, and form the snow-waves, the compass of
the northern nomads.

It is extri'inely jjrobable tliat, on advancing towards tlie pole, the fall of snow-
gradually diminishes, as in the Alps, where its quantity likewise decreases on
ascending above a certain height.

On measuring the thickness of the ice, MiddendorfO was very much surprise(l
to iind it nowhere, both in the lakes and on the river, thicker than eight feet, and
sometimes only four and a half; its thickness being constantly proportionate to
the (piantity of snow with which it was cohered. At first he could liardiv hc-
lieve that this simple covering could afford so ethcacious a }irotection against the
extreme cold of winter in the T4th degree of latitude, but the fact is well known
to the Samoiedes, who, whenever they retpiire water, always make the holu
where the snow lies deepest.

The tmiilras of Taimuria were found to consist principally of arid ])latcau\-
and undulating heights, where the vegetation can not conceal the boulders ami
the sand of which the crust of the earth is formed.

The withered tips of the grasses scarcely differ in color from tlie dirty yel-
low-brown moss, and the green of the lower part of the stalks appears as tlnini'^li
a veil. Xothing can be of a more dreary monotony than this vegetation when
sju-ead over a wide surface; but in the lianlly percejitiblc depressions of the
plains where the spring water is able to collect, a fresher green gains the upper
hand, the stalks are not only longer, but stand closer together, and the grass,
growing to a height of three or even four inches, usurps the place of the moss.
Here and there small patches oi Dri/ufi (>ctop(t(ihi,ov Casuh^pe titr(if/(>ii<i,Mh\
much more rarely a dwarf ranunculus, diversify the dingy carpet, yet willionl
being able to relieve its wearisome character. But very different, and iiidecil
truly surprising, is the aspect of the slopes which, facing the Taimur lake or
river, are protected against the late and early frosts. Here considerable patches
of ground are covered with a lively green, intermingled with gayly -colored llow-
ers, such as the brilliant yellow Sieversia, the elegant Oxytropis, the bine and
white Saxif ragas, the red Armeria al2}ina,im(\ a beautiful new species of Del-
phinium. All these various flowers are not dwarfs of stunted growth, for I'olc-
mones, Sisymbrias, Polygonums, and Papavers above a foot high decorate the
slopes, and Middendorff found .an islet in the Taimur covered like a field with a
Senecio, of which some of the most conspicuous specimens were more than a foot
and a half liigh, and bore no less than forty Howers above an inch in diameter.

The progress of vegetation is uncommonly rapid, so that, as Middendorff re-

MlDOKNnOHFF'S ADVKNTURKS IN TAI.MIKLAXD.

227

marks, if any ntio wislios to soo the ci'ass cfrow, lio must travel to tlio Taimiir.
Scaivfly do tliu lirsl k-uvi's pec'i) forth wlicn tliu blossoms also appear, as if, con-
scious of tlio oarly approach of autumn, they felt tliu nt'ccssity of bringing their
seeds to a rapid maturity under this wintry sky.

With regard to the animal creation, the general law of polar uniformity was
fullv conlirmed in Taimurland. The same lemmings were found which ])eo-
]ilc the whole north of Asia and America, and as high as 75" N. hit. they found
tlic traces of the snow-hare, which inhabits the complete circle of the Arctic re-
gions of tiio globe. The Arctic fox, everywhere at home in the treele^s wastes,
is liere also pursued by the northern glutton; and following the herds of the
reinileer, the wolves, and the Samo'iedes, roams up ami down the tundra. The
]itanuigaii, which in Scandinavia and on Melville Island feeds on berries !iiid
imils, appears also as a summer visitor at the mouth of the Taimur in 75° 4' N.
lat., and tlie ivory gull of the northern European seas likewise builds its nest
(HI the rocks of that distant shore.

Tlie more vigorous vegetation on tlie sheltered declivities of the Taimur i)ro-
viiks food for a comparatively greater number of insects than is found on the
coasts of Nova Zembla. 1 Jei's, hornets, and three different species of buttertlies,
Im/zed or hovered round the flowers, and caterpillars could be gathered by
(luzeiis on the tundra, l)ut tlieir mortal enemies had ])ursued them even here;
and ichneumon Hies crept out of most of them. Two spiders, several flies,
iriiats, and tipula>, a curcnlio, and half a dozen carabi completed ]Middendorff's
eiitomological list, to which, no doubt, further researches would have consid-
erahly added.

Thus, at the northern extremity of Asia, as in every other part of the world,
tlie naturalist finds the confirmation of the general law that, where the means
of life are given, life is sure to come forth.

it.-'

■f

(I.!

. M

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Hi

HI

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^'W$W.

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p ll

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'

Till:: roI.AK WOULD.

CIIAITKU XIX.

rilK JAKl'TS.

Tlii'ir cin'rixclic Niil' iialily. — Tiicir I>rsc(-ii', — 'I'lK'ir )_'li«imv ('li;ir:u'tT. --Siininicr iiinl Winli'r Ilv

'lliv .liiUiit llnr-

li

iM<' IN

rivs of I'.iiiliiiiliici' (if llic .l,iluit>

Siii|ii'i!-iii;^ Idial .Mi'iMiiiy. TlH'ir inniiiiiil I >c'\tciiiy. I.'allni,

'I'ljcir Sliai'iUK.'
liai'iU, Cariii't^

iifVis-
.laKiit

(iliitloii^. — Sii|icr.-li,iiiiis I 'car ol llu; .M(niii.aiii-.-|iiiiL l-JL^^clici. --() Hiring; .^ ni llor-L-luiir. — I

iii|'rijvi>

N'li:

The l;

.lalMit.

^["^lliO .I.'ikiits aiv :i rciiiiirknlily cucTn'ctic, race, for i1i()1il;1i sulijcct 1o the .M

J

i^-

covitt' yoke, llicy luit only siiciT^sfiilly iiiaiiiliiiii lliiir laiiLi'iiaLTc ami man-
iicrs, 1)111 even impose their own tniiij,iie ami eiistnins ii]i()ii the Kiissians wlm
have settled in their eniiiitry. '''hiis in .Jakiitsk, or the "ea|iital oF the .lakiils"
as with not a little ol national jifide and seU'-eoni|ila<'eni'y they style that ilrearv
city, their lanu'iiani; is luuch more lTe(|nently spoken than the iiussian, lor al-

most

tlie artisans ai'e

J

iknt.-

an>

1 e\en the rich Inr-mefehant has not sr

iiiiiii

11 Jaknt wile, as no I

lussian now (

lisd

iins an

liance wi

th one of that natimi,

At ^\mninsk(»ie, an oii^inally IJnssiaii settlement, .Midtleiidofft' found tin'
ti'i'eatfst dillienlty in proeniin^' a uiiidu aide to s]ieak the IJiissian lan^•nal,^', ami

the TiiiiLiiise whom he mi't with hetween Jakntsk and Ochotsk nnderstunil

ami

J;

ikut.whiih is tlms the dominant laiiLrnau'e from tlu' basin ei' tin'

1.

ena to the extreme eastern conlinesuf Siberia. In truth, no liiissl.aii

wnrkiiiaii

(•an competi' with ihe.Iakiils, whose ennniini^ and ell'rontery would make ilililli-
c'ult even for a -lew to jirosper amoni;' them.

Though of a ^fonuolian pliysiou-iiomy, their lani:iiaL''o, which is said to he
mteHii;il)lo at Cuistantinople, distinctly points to a Turk extraction, ami their
traditions speak of their oritiinal seats as situated on the ISaikal and Antrnra,

whence, retreatiiiL!; oelore more |

10W

erfiil hordes, thev advanced to the I

I'lia,

where in their turn thev disiiossessod tl

III' weaUer

tril

les which tiiev hniiiil in

lossesslon of the count rv

At iireseiit their child' ahode is .'iloiiu- the 1

laiij.

it

that immeiisu river, which they occupy at least as far southward as thi' Ahlaii.
Kastward they are found on tlu; Kolvina, and we

stwart

1 as far as the Jcni-sii.
Their total inimher amounts to .about I'oii.iiOo, and they form the chief part of

the I

lopula

tiou of the vast but almost desert province of Jakntsk

Tl

ley are

essentially a p;

is

toral

peop

am

1 their chief wealth con>i-

III

horses and cattle, thou^'li the northern portion of their nation is reduced In tlie

reindeer ami

tl

le iloi;'.

r>esides the breedii

)f liorses, the Iiiissian fiir-tiail

has developed an industrial form of the hmiter's state, so tliat

anion'.

the

J I

kuts property accumulates, ai

id we have a lii'^her civili/ation than wil

found elsewhere in the same latitude, Icelaml, Finland, ;md Norway alom' e\-

•ial and reserved disposition, thev iirefer a solitary set

tie

cepted. Of an nusoi

nient, but at the same time they arc very liospitable, and give the stranger \vl

TIIH .1 A KITS. 880

cl.iims llu'ir assisfniu'c !i fricndiv wtli'nmc. \"ill;iij('S coiisisliiiG; of scvcr.'il iiiils,

111' villi

rts, lire rare, ;inil foiiiicl niilv lictwccii .Inkiitsk aiiil llic Al'laii, w licrc tl

]iii|MiLili()ii is sdimtwliat, dciiscr. I5cyt)ii(l tlic WiTclidjaiisU riil^c llic solitary
huts MIT frc'(|iU'iitly several liunilrcd voists ajiart, sij tlial tlif iiiaivst iiei^liltors
sdMictinii'S <li> not sec each otliiT ]nv yrars.

In suiiiiMcr tliL' .laUut hfi'dsii u livi' in (/^'n.w, !i;,dit conical tci:1s ilxcd on
|i(i|rs and covchmI witii liii'cli rind, and dnriu^' tlic wiioif season tiny ai'c jicr-
|alually cin|(loyL'd in niakinif liay for liu' lon^' uiiitcr.

la tl'J N. lat., and in a climate of an almost nnparalldcd severity, llie rearin;;
(if their cattle canses them far more tronMe tlian is the case w ith any other pas-
toral |ie()|ilc. Their sn^ply of hay is fre(inently exhausted Itei'ore the end of
the wiiitt'r, and from March to ]May their oxt'ii must t^eiierally he content with
willdW and bircli t\\ i^'s ur saiilinu's.

A JAKIT vii.i-A(a:.

At the betfinniiiii' of the cold

season

the J,

ickut e\(iiaii'j.'es his summer tent

firl

IS warm winti'r residence, or vourt,a hut liiiilt of lieams or 1

(inx. Ill

th

iiiu of a truncated ))yramid, and thickly covered with turf and clay. Plates
ice servo as windows, ami are rejilaced hy fish-ldadders or |

if

laiier stceiiea ni

as soon as tlie thaw 1

X'U'MIS.

Tl

K' earthen tioo

r, for it is l)ut rartlv lio.arded.

1"^ '^iiierally sunk two or throe foot below the surface of the uroiind. The scats
ini'l sleeiiinix berths are ranired alonu' the sidi's, and the centre is (ccu|iie(l by
the l.-irfniti'd/, or heartli, the smoki' of which finds its exit tliroULch an a]iei'ture in
tile nM)f. Clothes and arm- are sus|iended from the walls, and the whole premi-

'T ')f ^ n^w^ni

■ ' im

. li m

lij'

Mi.

jiH

I ,f

III I

-iU

ir

'. I ',

ini!!

M

980

THK POr.All WOULD.

b:s cxliiltit a pad pictiirp of disonlor ami fillli. Near tlio yoiiit arc staltlos for
tlio cowN, l)iit when llio cold is VL-ry sevt'iv, llicsi.' useful animals arc icciIvcmI
into the family room. .\s for the horses, they remain ni^ht .'uid day willidut
a shelter, at a temperature when mercury freezes, .and aiii oliliL^cd to feed oii
the withered autumnal j^rass which they tind under the snow. These creatures
ivhosu powers of endur;nu!e arc* almost ineredil)U', chanu;e their Iniir in sinnnur
like tho other qn.adriiiieds of the Arctic ri'i,d(Uis. They keep their strenmh
thouLch travelling; ])erliaps for mon'iis through the wilderness without .any iiiIilt
food tlnm the parched, half-rotten trrass met with on the w.ay. They ret.iin
their teeth to old aye, and remain yonuij; much lon^'er tli.an our liorses. "Ih;
who thinks of improvini; the .Jakut horse," says \'on ^lidilendorlT, " aims at
somethinLjIike i)erfi'ction. Fancy the worst conceival)le roads, .and for nourish.
nient the bark of the lait-li and willow, with hanl u:rass-stalks instead of cats-
or merely travel on the post-road to Jakut sk, .and see the horses that liavu
just run forty versts without stoppinix, and are covered with pi'rspiration ami
foam, eatin<:f their liay in the open air without the slightest coveriiiLr, at a tern.
per.ature of —40"."

IJiit the .Taknt himself is no less hardened against the coM than his faitiifiij
horse. "On December !)," says Wr.ani;ell, "we bivouacked rouml a lire, at a
temperature of —28°, on an open pastnre-!jjround, which afforded no slultir
ajj;ainst the northern blast. Here I had an exci'lleiit opportunity for aihniiiiii,'
the unparalleled powers of endin'iuice of our Jakut attendants. ()u the lini','-
est winter journey they take neitlier tents nor extra coveriiii; aloiii^ with tium,
not even one of the larirer fur-tlresses. While travelliu'j;, the Jakut coiitci;ts
liimself with his usual dress; in this he _i;enerally sleeps in the open air; a
horse ru<j; stretched out n|>on the snow is his bed, a wooden satldle his pilluw.
With the same fur jacket, which .serves him by daytime as a dress, and wliicli
he ])ulls off when he lies <lown for the ni.n'ht, he decks his back and sIiouMlis,
while the front part of his body is turned towarils the fire almost without any
coveriiiij. lie then stops his nose and ears with sm.all pieces of skin, and cnv-
ers his face so as to leave but a small openinu; for breathinjj; — these are all tlic
precautions he takes .against the severest cold. Even in Siberia the Jakut s arc
called 'men of iron.' Often h.ave I seen tliem sleeping at a temperatiue uf
—4° in the open air, near an extinguished bivouiic fire, .and with a thick ice-
rind covering their almost unprotected body."

^lost of the Jakuts h.ave an incredible sharpness of vision. One of tlaiu
told Lieutenant Anjou, pointing to the i)lanet Jupiter, that he had often sciii
yonder blue star devour a smaller one, .and then after a time cast it out again.*
Their local memory is no less astonishing ; a ])ool of water, a laige stone, a
solitary bush imi)rints itself deei)ly into their remend)rance, and guides tlicm
after a lapse of years through the bomulless wilderness. In manual dexterity
they surpass all other Siberian nations, and some of their .articles, such as their
poniards .and their leather, might figure with credit in any European cxlii'ii-
tion. Long before the liussian coutiuest they m.ade use of the iron ore on the

* IIiiinl)oI(U lilipwiso mentions an artisan :>f Ui'cslau whose siglit was so sharp as to cnaltic liiiii tu
point out the position of .liipitor's satellitus.

TllE JAKUTS.

881

Wiliii t<< rnaiiiifiu'tiin! tlicir own knivt's iiiid iixc"), wIi'k-Ii, citlicr from tho excel-
lence (if tlie iii.'iteriiil or ol tlie \vorkiiiiiiislii|i, rarely l>iv;ik, even in tlie severest
,,i,|,|— ;i perleetioii wliicli tlie best Slielllelil ware iloi'S not alliiin. Smee liniu
iiiniieiiioiiiil lliey liave been ac(|iiainte(l with tlie art of strikiiij^ lire with Hint
iiml steel, an invention iniknown evi'ii to the ancient (Ireeks ami lionians.
Their leather is perfectly water-ti^ht, and tin; women make earjiets of whitu
;iiiii ei)loi'e<l skins, which are even exjiorteil to Hnrojie. Ills almost sn|>erllu-
oils to mention that a jieople so eapalile of heariiiu; liar(lslii|is, so sharp-wit led,
mill so ea'_'er for -fain as the Jakiits nnist neeils piirsnt! the iiir-heariiiLj ani-
mals with which their forests alxnuid with nntiriin; zeal ami a wonderful dex-
terity.

The horse renders the .Takut services not less important than those of tlio
ri'iiiileer to tlie Samo'iede or the Lapp, llesides nsinijf it for carryin^f or ridiiii;,
tiic .lakiit makes articles oi' dress out «»f its skin, ami lishini^-ni'ts (»f its hair;
liiiiled horse-meat is his favorite food, and sour mare's milk, or /i-iniii/ss, hin
chief heverai^'c. Of the latter he .also makes a thick porridLje, or nn/tiituif, by
luixiiiLj it with rye-tlonr, or the inner rind of the larch oi' lir tree, to which he
ficijuently adds dried lish .ami berries, .and, to rendi'r it perfect, a (piantity f»f
ratu'id fat, of which he is immoderately fond. He is in fact a yross feeder,
ami some professional tiluttons are ca]>alile of consiiminLr snch astonishint; mass-
es as to shame the ai)|ietite even of an Ks(|nimaiix. Dnriiii^ his stay at .Ta-
kiit^k, Sir (leorii'e Simpson |»ut the abilities of two distimiiiished artists to tho
test, by settiiiL"- two ponds of boiled beef and a ]ion<l of melted butter before
tlii'iii. Each of them ^ot a jiond of meat for his shari'; the butter they were
allii.ved to ladle out and drink iid l!l>iti()n. The one M'as old and experienced,
the other yoimi; and fnll of zeal. At first the latter had the advantav;e. " His
tirlli are Lfood," said the elder champion, "but with the assistance of my saint
((•I'lissiiii; himself), I will soon come njt to him.''

Wiien about half of their task was linishcl, Sir (leorge left his jioble guests
tn tlie care and inspection of his secretary, but when he returned a few lu)ur.s
after, he was informed that all was consumed, while the champions, stretched
out on the floor, coniirmed the secretary's report, and expressed their thanks
for the exorbitant meal they h.ad enjoyed by respectfully kissinu: the ground.
After one of these disgusting feats, tlie gorgeil gluttons generally remain for
tlin e or four days plungeil in a torpid stato like boa snakes, without eating or
•liiiiking, and are freijuently rolled about on the ground to promote digestion.
It may also be noticed, as ;i ])r()of of the low state of intellectu.al culture among
the Jakuts, that at every wedding auiong the richer class two professed virtuosi
in the art of gormandizing are regularly invite<l for the entertaiuinent of the
liiicsts. One of theni is treated at the bridegroom's expense, the other at that
of the bride, and the party whose ehampion gains the victory considers it as a
gooil omen for the future.

The Jakuts, besides being a pre-eminently pastoral people, arc also the uni-
versal carriers to the east of the Lena. For beyond Jakutsk, the only roads are
narrow paths leading through swamps, dense forests, or tangled bushes, so
that the horse affords the onlv means of reaching the more even and lower

.i, ill

!.:i

■il! t

liiij

f

98a

TIIK I'or.All WOIM.F).

lev

couiitrli'H wluTc rcimlccr or tln^js cni lie [iil.iclicil to slcilycs. Wnliiiiit tin
Jakiit iind his Iioinc, tlu.> KiiNsiiin would never liusc Ihcii aide to |ieneli';it( |<
tlie Sea of OcIioInU, ami IVoiii theiice to llic Ali'iitian cliaiii ; luit tor liim, i
never woiiltl liavi' settled on ilie Kolyma, nor liavi- opeiieil a eoiuinercial inter-
cutii'Nu witli tile Teliiiktelii and tin* western ivs(|uiniau\.

IJefore the possession of the Ainoor had opened a new road to coiniiK rce,
thousands of pacl<-horses nsed annually lo cross the Stanowoi liills on the wav
to Ocholsk; and when \vl' consider the tlreadfnl hardships of the jotiniev, \vr

alll-

can not wonder that tiie road was nioro thickly strewn with the skeldnn
fallen horses than the caravan routes throni;h the desert with the hones u| |
ished camels, IJut the ilaknt fears neither the icy cold n\ the liivouac nor tlu;
jtaiiL's of liniiu-er, wliicli, in spile of his woltisii voracity, he is ahle to support
with stoical fortitude. He fears neither the storm on the naked hill, nor tlu,'
gloom of the forest, nor the depth of tlu' morass; and, l)idtlinLr deliance tn
cvc'I'y thiiiij else, fears only the invisihh^ powi'r of " Ljesehoi," the spirit of ilic
mountain and the wood. The traveller wonders when he sees on an eminence
crowned with lirs an old tri'c from whose hranches hanij hmiches of liorse-liair,
The Jakut who leads tho caravan soon explains the mystery, lie disinounts,
and iihickiiiLta few hairs from the mane of his horse, attaches them with a '^reiit
shttw of respect to si branch, as an offeriiii; to jiropitiate the favor of LJc^clu j
on the jounu'y. Even those Jakuts who pass for Christians still pay this mark
of respect to tho dethroned divinity (d' their fathi'rs; and there can he iid
doubt that tliey still retain tho old belief in Schamanism, and an abject fear nf
all sorts of evil spirits.

AVhile travelling,' they sini;' almost jtorpofually melancholy tunes, correspoiul-
ing with the habitual gloom of their national character. The text has laoru
variety and poetry, and geiienilly cek'brates the beauties of nature, the stati ly
growth of tho pine, the murmuring of the brook, or the grandeur of the iiiDunl-

am.

Tl

10 smgers Jiro mostly nnprovisatores, am

1 to conciliate the favor of I.

schei, they praise the desert through which they pass as if it weri' a paradise.
Like tho impoverished Samo'iedi' or Lap]), the indigent Jakut, who pnssisv
es neither cattle nor horses, settles lU'ar some stream. His only domestic Miii-
mul is his dog, who carries tho lish on a light sicdgo from the river-bank to liis
lint, or follows him into the woods onliis hunting expeditions. With the skins
of fur-bearing animals ho pays his_/</.s',sv//', and is glad if tho surplus jiliows hlni
to indulge from time to time in the luxury of a pijie of Circassian tobacco.

%i

\V|{AN(ii:i.L.

988

CTTArTKi: X\'.

\vi;.\N(.i:i,i-.

llii iII-tlML.'iii>lii'iI S('t-vl('o«« ns un Arctic lApldnT.— Kidiii I'llorsliiir;* tn .T.iktit^U In Icifl—Tnidc of

.l;il\il'rk. — I'liillI .lilkilt^k ti) Ni-liMi-Kiil\ lii>U.— 'I'lii' II .hil.iliv, - iMcMdfiil Cliliiiitc cil' Ni>liin'Ki>-

|viii.,k. SmiiiniT I'liiniici*. — Vi'^'ctulinii. — Animal Lilc — Uiiiiilccr-liiiiiliii),'. — I'liiiiiiii'. — liiiiiiil.itiiiit.

— Tlic .silicriiiii Pdj;. — First .luiiriicvH over ilic Ice nf tlw I'oliir Sea, iiiiil l'..\|iliiriitiipii nf tlic Ciiust
licvdiiil Cap'' Slicla:;Mkiii in l^JI. — hrcadl'iil Piihhitm anil llarcl-liipi.— Miiliii-clikin's ,Slcil:.'i'.joiirucy
(ivir llic I'olar Sea in lH2'.'.— La>t Ailvunturcs on tlic I'ular Sea.— A IJiin Wit l.il'e.— lirliirii In St.
rctersliiiri^.

''pilK ('\|H'ilili(ms wliifh Ii.kI Ir-oh sent out, diirliij; tlio rt'iixn of tlio Kiii|ir('«»
A Aiiiiii fill' (lie cxiiloratiuii of tlio Arctic sliorcs of Kiifstoni Silicri.i, liiid pcr-
foiiiu'd tlicir task so badly as to li'avt,' llii'iii still almost totally iiiikiiowii. To
till ii|i this blank in u:c'oirra|)liy, tliu KiiipiTor Alcxaiidor ordiTcd two new v\-
|iiilitiinis to 1)0 lilted out in Is^'O for tlio inirposo of accurately ascertaiiiiiii;
the liiiiits of these extfi'ine frontiers of liis inniieiiso empire. Of the one which,
iiuilcr l,ieutenant An joii, commenced its operations fi-om the month of thu
.iaiiM. ind comprised within its raiii,'!' New Siliena and the other islands of the
l.iiiliuw i^roiip, lint liltle has lieeii comiiuinicated to the jmlilic, all his papers
lia\iiii,' lieen accidentally biirin'd ; hut the travels of Lieutenant von Wranijell,
the conimantler of the second expedition, have obtained ."X world-wide celebrity.
StartiiiL; from the mouths of the Kolyma, lie not only rectilied the errors of lliu
(MMsl-line of Silii'i'ia, from the Indinirka in the west to Koliutsehiii Isjainl in
the east, but more than once ventured in a sleduie upon the Polar Ocean, in
the hopes of discoveriii!^ a lart;e coimlry supposed to be situateil to the north-
wani of Kotehioi and New Siberia.

WraiiLCi'll left St. IVlersburix on Mardi 2^, 1820, and oxperiencinix in his
jiiuniey of li.'joo miles repeated alternations of spriiiLf iiiVl winter, arrived at
Iikiitsk, where the ijjar.lcns were in fidl flower, on M;.y 'JO.

After a month's rest, a short journey brouifht hun to the banks of tlie Lena,
on which he embarked on Jiuio 21, to <lescend to .lakutsk, whicli lie reached
DM July 27. This small town of 4000 inhabitants bears the irloomy stamp of
llic IriLi'id north, for thoutili it lias a few irood houses, its dwelliniis cliietly con-
sist of the winter yourts of the Jiiknts, with turf-covered roofs, doors of skins,
luid windows of talc or ice. The only " sicrlit" of this dreary pl.'ice is the old
niiiiDiis ostroi^ or wooden fort built by the Cossacks, the coinpierors of the
coiuiti-y, in 1047. J.-ikutsk is the centre of the interior trade of Siberia. To
this place arc brought, in enormous quantities, furs of all kinds, wtilrus-teetli,
and mammoth-tusks, from distances of many thousand versts, to an amount of
half a inillion jiounds.

The commercial sphere of the .Takutsk mercliants is of an immense extent.
Dtniiii» a coKl of ten and twenty degrees they set out for the Liichow Isles, for

'fli

1

hi

h

( ' I

m

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111 t

1'* ■

III'''

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234

:UE rOLAli WOULD.

(he fiiir oi Oslrownojo, for Ocliotsk, or Kjaclita. .lakutsk inort'liants wcic tin
lirsl who vi'iitiircd in crazv ships across tiu' Sfa of Kanicliatka, and di

SlHJVL'lCi

the island of Kadjiak, cinhly (h's^rci's of h)nij;iUnU' from tlicir lionii>.

On Si'ittcnihi'r I •_' Wranni'U K'ft .lakiitsk, wlicro rcjxnhir travollinsj: ends, :is

from thcnci' to Kolymsk, and ^I'ni'raliy tlironiilioiit Nortlicru Sihrria, -.'icrc iiic

no lioati'n roads. Thi! nlmosl that ran hi' h>oUc'd Jor lire foot or horse tracks

leadinu: tl' 'niih inorassi's or (an^k'd fori'sts, and over rocks and nioinilaiii'..

Travclh'rs proceed on horseback throuii'h iho hilly conntry, and, on reaciiiiiL;

till' plains, use slednes drawn either hy reindeer or iIoljs.

In this manner Wranu;ell crossed from the basin ot tlio Lena to that of ilic

Yana, never ex|periencinu- a hiuher temperature than -j-'J'^and fre(iuentlv en-

durinjjf a cold of more than —!•_', dnriniLr the journey over the interv

liills, and then tnrninu; eastward, traversed the ISadaranv,

habited desert, chiellv consistiii'' of

swamiis.

T\

lese

ISadi

eiiiM','
iiiiiii-

iranv lu'ver entnciv

a com

pletely

dry uj), even after the lonufest summei'-dronu;ht. At that time a solid <'nist is
formed, thronuh which the horses freipiently bri'ak, but I hey are ))reserv('il
from totally sii,i,',iLC in the mire by the perpetually frozen underLfround. Notli-
iiiL!; can l)e more dismal and dreary than the Hadarany. As far as the cvt,'
reaches, not hint;; is to bi' seen b\it a eoveriiiLj of dimry moss, relieved here ainl
there on some more elevateil spots by wretched specimens of dwarf-laniics.
The winter is the only season for traversini; this treacherous waste, but woe to
the traveller should he be overtaken by a snow-storm, as for miles an 1 miles
there is no shelter to be found but that of soiiu' ruinous iiowarni

or

post-stalii

At lentrth, liflv-two davs after le.aviu'jr .lakutsk, Wran<_rell arrived on Ni

veinber 'J at Nishne-Ivolymsk, the appointed head-(piarters of tiit* v\\

icihlioii,

wnere lie wa.s w

elcomed with a cold of —40

or

I'l below the frec/.iuL

• mil

of water.

Kvi'n in Siberia tlie climate of this place is ill-reputeii for its si'veritv, wliicli

IS as n

put
inch due to its uid'avorable position as to its liii.vh Latitude (tis' N,),
Tile town stands on a low swampy island of the Kolyma, liavinu: on the west
the barren tundra, and on the north the Arctic ()ce:m,so that the almost cuii-
st.ant north-west winds have full scoiie for their violence, and cause freiiiuiit

snow-storms even in summer.

The mean temperature of the whole year is only + It". The river at Nisluic-
Kolynisk freezes early in September, but lower down, where the current is less
rapid, loadetl horses can sometimes cross on the ice as early jis Aiii,nist 'Jo. ;ior
does the ice ever melt before .lime.

Although the sun reni;iins lifty-lwo days above the horizon, the li^^Iit, nli-
scured by almost perpetual mists, is accompanied with little heat, and llic

Milai'

disc, eoni|iressed by refraction into an elliptical form, may be looked at wiili
the naked eye without inconvenience. In spite of the constant lijiht, the cniii-
moil order of the parts of the day is plainly discernible. When the sun sinks
ilown to the horizon, all nature is mute; but when, after a few hours, it rises
ill the skies, every thinif awakens, the few little birds break out in feeble twit-
ter, and the slirivelh'd Howers venture to open their jietals.

Allhoiiiih winter and summer are in reality the only seasons, yet the iiiliiili-

WRANGELL.

',^:!.'i

Itants f;iii(\v tlicy have s|)riii<jj wlu'ii aboul noon tlio rays of tlio sun lii-Lti" to
in;ik(' tliriiist'lvi'S felt, wliicli i^rncrally takes place ahoiit tlu' MiiiMli' of .Marcii,
luit tlii?; so-callitl spriiiij; lias frci|ii('iit niijfht-frosts of twenty degrees. Their
ai'.tiiiini is reekoni'd from tlu; time wIu'M the rivers lu-Lliii to freeze over, tiiat is,
from tlie tirst days of September, Mheii a cold of thirty degrees is already hy
ii(( iiK'ans uncommon. .\s may easily l)e siipposi'd in a climate like this, the
vcu'clatioii of siimuier is scarcely mori' than a struggle for i'xisteiice.

Ill the latter end of .May tlie stimti'd willow-liiishes put out little wrinkled
leaves, and those banks which slope towards the south lu'come clothed with :i
si'iiii

slmw

-verdant hue; in .lime the temperature al noon attains 12"; the ilower.s
themselves, and the Iterrydjearing plants Itlossom, when .sonu'times an icy
iilast from the se;i di'slroys tlus bloom. The air is clearest in .Inly, and the
ti'iii]uM'atiire is usually mild, but then a new plague arises for the tornu'iit of
man, Millions and millions of nios(|uitoes issiii' from the swamps t>f tlut tim-
(Ira. and compel tlu! inli!d)iiants to seek refiigt! in tlii' dense and pnigent sinoko
oF tiie " dymoknry, ' or large heaps of fallen leaves and damp wood, which are
kiiidli'd near the dwellings and on tin; pasture-grounds, as the only means of
kcciiiipj; off those abominable insects.

lii'se tormentors, iiowevei

re not without use, for they compel the rein-
deer to migrate from the forests to the sea-shore and the ice, thus e.\pf)sing
them to the attack of the hunters, and thev also prevent the horses from strav-
iiig ill the plains, and wandi'ring beyond the protection of the smoke.

Scarcely is the mos(iuito plague at an end, when the dense autumn fogs rising
ficiiii the sea spoil the enjoyment of the last mild hours which precede the nine
months' winter. In January the cold increases to — 4") ' ; breathing then l»e-
eoiiies ditliciilt ; the wild ceiiideer, the indigenous inhabitant of the Polar region,
withiliaws to till' thickest part of the forest, and stands there motionless, as if
(le|irived of life.

With the 'Jiid \o\ ember begins a night of thirty-eight <lays, relieved in some
degree iiy the strong refraction and the white of the snow, as well as by the
iiKioii and the aurora. ( )n the 'JStli December the ilrst pale gTmiiiiering of dawn
a|p|iears, which even at noon di>es noi, <)I)scure tlu* stars. With the re-appear-
an ■■' (if the sun the cold increases, and is most intense in February and March
at the rising of the sun. Hveii in winti-r completely dear days are very rare,

u" cold sea-wind covers the land with mists an

.1 f.i

The character of the vegetation cori'i'spcnds with that of the climate. ^loss,

stiiiitec

dwaiiish willow-shriil
.f tl

IS, are

that, the place produces. Th

Neighlionng valleys ol tin- .\iiiuj, protected by niountains against the sea-wn

1 b

>t th

d.

Ma\e

a somewhat riclu'r llora, for here trrow bi'rry-bearing |ilanls, the birch, the

miliar, a

bsintl

tl

ivme, am

I th

low-creepmg ceilar.

IIS pover

tv,l

lowever,

of the vegetable worlil is strongly contrasted with the profusion of animal life
liver tliesi! shores and on the I'olar Sea, Ileindeer, elks, bears, foxes, sables,
and gray s(piirrels lill the uplanil forests, while sloiie-foxi's burrow in the low
giiMiiids. Knormous nights of swans, gi'cse, and ducks arrive in sprii
seek dcsi'rts where thev tnav moult and build their nests in safetv. Kagles,

iir, and

•wis, and gulls pursue their prey along the sea-coast ; ptarmigan rim in troo|

)M

fi'i i:i

m\

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V i

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till

1^' A^'U

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23G

THE POLAR WOULD.

among the bushes; little snipes are busy among the brooks. In tlut morasses
the crows gather round the liuts of tlie natives; and when tlie stui shiius in
spring, the traveller may even f-oinetimes hear the note of the iineh, and in jui-
tumn that of the tlirush. ]>ut tiie landscape rv,inains dreary aiul dead ; all dc-
notes that here the limits of the habitable earth are i)assed,and one asks wiili
astonishment what could induce human beings to take up their abodf in sd
comfortless a region?

In the district of Kolymsk, which surpasses in si/e many a European kin;,'.
dom, the population, at the time of Wrangell's visit, consisted of ;t2;"i Ivussi.ms.
10;U Jakuts, and ll.'JO Jukahires of the male sex, of whom 217:1 had to pnv tiic
;(^sw^/l•, consisting of }^0:t fox and 28 sable skins, worth G704 roubles, bisidis
which they were taxed to the amount of 10,847 roubles in money Tims tli^
liussian double-eagie made, and no doubt still makes, the poor peo])le of Kulviiisk
pay rather dear for the honor of living under the protection of its talons.

The Cossacks, in virtue of their descent from tlie original coiKpierors of
the coiuitry, enjoy the enviable privilege of being tax free; tin y are, liowcver,
obliged to render nnlitary service when required. Tiiey form the small !f,n-
rison of Nishne-Kt)Iymsk, and every year twenty-five of them repair to llic t'.iii-
of Ostrownoje, to keep the wild Tclnditchi in check. The Russians are eliidlv
the descendants of fur-hunters or of exiles; and though tliey have adopted the
native clothing and mode of hfe, they are still distinguishable by their inoiv
muscular frame. The women, who are somewhat better-looking than liu' le-
male Jakuts and Jukahires, are fond of music, and their traditional smius
dwell on the beauties of nature — the rustling brook, the flowery mead, tlic
nightingale's note — all things belonging to a world of which they have no iiiia.

Tlu; dwellings of the Ifussians are hardly to be distinguished from the umiis
of the native tribes. They are made of drift-wood, .and, as may easily lie in -
agincd, are very small and low. The interstices are carefully stop}ied up with
n\oss, and the outside is covered with a thick layer of clay. An external niml
wall rises to the heiglit of the roof to keep off the wind. In a hut like tins
Wrangell spent nnmy a winter month, but when the cold was very intense, lie
was not able to lay aside any part of his fur clothing, though sitting closo ton
large fire. When he wanted to write he had to keep the Inkstimd in hot w:itir;
and !it night, when the fire was allowed to go out for a short time, his bedelotla's
were always covereil with a thick snow-like rime.

The existence of the )»eople of Kolymsk depends upon fishing and luuitiiiLT,
in which they are assisteil by their dogs. These faithful, but cruelly-treMtciJ
animals, are said to reseml)le the wolf, having loner, pointed, j)rojc(ting nosis,
sharp and upright ears, ami long bushy tails. Tlieir color is black, Inown.
reddish-brown, white, and spotted, their howling that of a wolf. In saiiiiiur
they dig holes in the ground for coolness, or lie in the water to escape the inus-
(piitoes ; in winter they burrow in the snow, and lie curled up, with their iinscs
covered with their bushy tails. Tlie preparation of these animals for a jouriuy
nnist be carefully attended to; for a fortnight at least they should be put on ii
small allowance of hard food, to convert tiieir superfluous fat into (inn flesh;
they must also be driven froni ten to twenty miles daily, after which tluy havu

■ i i'li ,:

WRANGELL.

237

been known to tnvvol a Inuidrcd miles u day without bciiicf injurod by it. .A
tuiini consists conunonly of twelve dogs, and it is of iniportauce tiiat they shouM
k' accustomed to ilraw togethtr. The <(uick and steady goini:; of the team,
as weli as the safety of the traveller, inainly dejiends on the docility and sa^
tracity of the foremost doiij or leailer. No pains are therefore spared in liis edu-
cation, so that ho may understand and obey his master's orders, and prevent the
rest from starting off in pursuit of the stone-foxes or other animals that may
chance to cross their path. Their usual food is frozen fish, and ten good lier-
riiiu's arc said to be a jiroper chiiiy allowance for each dog while on fluty.
When not actively employed, they are oliligeil to content themselves with offal,
and towards spring, when the winter's provisions are generally exhausted, they
suffer the keenest hunger.

This season is also a liard time for tlie wandering tribes of the neighbor-
hood. Then they Hock to Nislme-Kolymsk, and to the other IJussian settle-
ments on the Kolyma, but here also famine stares them in the face. Tiierc is,
indeed, a public corn magazine, but the price of Hour is raised by tlie cost of
transport to such an exorbitant height, as to be completely beyond the reach of
the majority of the people. Three such dreadful springs did Wrangell pass at
Koiynisk, witnessing scenes of misery never to be forgotten.

Ihit when the distress of the peoi>le has reached its highest point, relief is
Ciiierally at hand. Troops of migratory birds come from the south, and fur-
nish some food for the despairing po))ulation. The supply is increased in Juno,
when tlie ice breaks on the Kolyma, for in spite of the faultiness of the nets
and the want of skill of the iisliernien, the river is tlie principal source of plenty
(luring the summer, and supplies, moreover, the chief provisions for the follow-
ing wint'M'. l)Ut with these gifts the Kolyma brings the plague of inundations,
so that (bu'ing the summer of isi'-i V\'rangell was obliged to spend :i whole
week on tlie flat roof of his hut.

The chief resource of the Jukahires of the TJiver Anluj is the reindeer oliaso,
tlie success of which mainly decides whether famine or some degree of comfort
is to be their h»t during the coining winter. The jjassage of the reindeer takes
jiluce twice a year ; in spring, when the mos(piitoes compel them to seek the
sea-shore, where they feed on the moss of the tundra, and in autumn, when the
increasing cold forces them to retire from the coast. The spring migration,
wliicli begins altout the middle of IMay, is not very profitable, partly because
tlio animals arc meagre, and tlii'ir furs in bad condition, and partly because it
is more difiicult to kill them as they pass the fro/en rivers, Tlie chief hunting
is in August and September, when the herds, consisting each of several thou-
sand deer, return to the forests. They invariably cross the river at a particular
spot, where a fiat sandy bank makes their landing easier; and here they jiress
more closely together, under the guidance of the strongest aniir.als of the herd.

The passage takes jilaee after some hesitation, and in a few minutes the
river is covered with swimming reindeer. The liunters, liidden in creeks or
hcliiiid stones and bushes, now shoot forth in their small boats and wound as
many as they can. While they are thus busy, they run some risk of being over-
turned in the turn'.oil, for the bucks defend themselves with their horns, their

vl

f i

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I', I

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I'M

rm\h

1 . 'M

■

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1

l!5

ij

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1 ■'!

238

THE POLAR WORLD.

teeth, ami their liiiul losjs, wliilo llie roos cfonerally attempt to sprinji with tlicir
fore feet upon tiie edi^e of tlie boat. When the liunter is thus overset, h'v nlv
chauco of safety is to clintj to a sfroni; animal, \vhii'li safely brin<j;s him to tiic
sliore. ]>nt the dexterity of the hunters renders such aeeidents rare. A pMul
limiler will kill a hundred reindeer au<l more in half an hour. In the iiu;iii
time the other boats seize the killed animals, whieli beeome their jiroinrtv,
■while those that are merely wounded and swim ashore belong to the hiiiiUrs,
who, in the midst of the tumult, where all their energies are taxed to tlic iit
most, direct their strokes in such a manner as only severely to wound the larirc r
animals. The noise of the horns striking against each otlier, the waters tinged
witli blood, the cries of the hunters, the snorting of the affrighted animals, form
a scene not to be descril)ied.

The people of the Aninj were alreaily suffering great distress when, (in
September !'_', IH'Jl, the eagerly-exi)eeted reindeer henls made their apmar-
ance on the right bank of the river. Never liad sucli n multitude been seen;
they covered the hills, and their horns might liave been mistaken at a distance
for a moving forest. In a short time numbers of the Siberian tribes had as-
sembled, ready to destroy them. Hut the wary animals, alarmed by some cir-
eumstancu or other, took another road, and, leaving the banks of the river, vim-
ished on the moimtains. The despair of the jieople may be imagined ; somo
lamented aloud and wrung their hands, otliers threw themselves upon tiie
ground and scratched up the snow, others stood uiotionless like statues — a
dreadful image of tlie universal misery. The later fishing-season likewise failed
in this deplorable year, and many hundreds died in the following Minter.

While the men of Kolymsk are busily employed during the short sunuiui-
in hunting, fishing, and hay-making, the women wander over the country, ]i;ir-
ticularly in the mountains, to gather edible roots, aromatic herbs, and beniis
of various kinds, which latter, however, do nf)t every year arrive at maturity.
The berrv-trathering lu're, like the vintage elsewhere, is a time of merrinunt.
The younger women and girls go together in large parties, passing whole d.iys
and nights in the o])en air. When the berries are collected, cold water is
poured over them, and they are preserved in a fro/en state for a winter tre.it.
Social parties are not unknown at Kolymsk, and are ])erhai)s not less entertain-
ing than in more refined communities. Floods of weak tea (for the aromatic
leaves " which cheer, but not inebriate," are very dear at Kolymsk) form the
staple of the entertainment ; and as sugar is also an expensive article, every
guest takes a lump of candy in his mouth, lets the tea which he sips flow by,
and then replaces it upon the saucer. It would be considered very umnanncrly
were he to consume the whole piece, which thus is able to do duty at more
than one soh'cc. Next to tea, brandy is a chief requisite of a Kolymsk party.

The busiest time at Kolymsk is in February, when the caravan from J;i-
kutsk arrives on its way to the f.air of Ostrownoje. It consists of about twer
ty merchants, each of whom leads from ten to forty sumpter horses. This is
the time not only for s.ale and purchase, but also for hearing the hist news from
the jjiovincial capital Jakutsk, and receiving intelligence six months old from
Moscow and St. Petersburg.

"VVRANGELL.

239

From this short account of Kolytnsk life it may well he imacinoil what a
sensation it nuist iiuvo niado in so .sechulod a phicc when Wraiiici'll arrived
thiic in XuVL'inbcr, and informed the people that lie was come to sjtend the
lii'itcr part of the next three years amoiiij tiiem.

The winter was passed in preparation for tlie next sprimjj exju'ditions, for
ihu'iiiir tlie long Arctic nit^ht the darkness ))revents travellinu:, and tiiu snow
mMiuircs a peculiar hardness or sharpness from the extreme cold, so that then
four times the nundter of dotjrs would l)e needeil. IJnt as in summer the thaw-
ini; is likewise a hindrance, Wranijell had in reality only ahout ten weeks every
viiir. from 3Iarcli till the end of May, for the aecomi)lishment of his task.

As may easily he supposed, it Mas no easy matter to make the necessary
ananjrements for an expedition recpiirinsj; some hundreds of dotis, and provis-
imis for several weeks; hut sueli was the energy displayed hy Wrangell and
liis coiiengues, that on February 19, ly.'l, tliey were able to start on their first
journey over the ice of the Polar Sea, which they reached on tho 25th. Nine
^Icilgis, witli the usual team of twelve dogs to each, were provided for the
]in'S(nf oxcm'sion, six of whieli were to carry provisions and stores, lo be dis-
tiihiited in different depots, and then to return. The provisions for the dogs
(■(Hisisted of 2400 fresh herrings, and as mueh "jukola" as was eciuivalent to
sl.'id dried herrings. The increasing cold and the violence of the wind made
tiavelliiig \ery ditticult. To guard the dogs from being frozen, the drivers
wile oliligeil to j>ut clothing on their boilies, and a kind of boots on their
firt, which greatly impeded their running. At times the frost was so intense
that the mercury congealed wliilo Wrangell was making his observations. He
tliii«i <lcscribes the manner in which lie passed the nights on the Polar Sea in
ills tent : —

" Uetween tea and supper tho sledge-drivers went out to attend and feed
tlii'ir dogs, whicli were always lied up for the night, lest they should be tempt-
(il away by the scent of some wild animal. Meanwhile, we were engaged in
I'oiiiiiaring our observations, and in laying down on the map the ground whicli
we had gone over in the course of the day; tho severe cold, and the smoke
whii'ii usually tilled the tent, sometimes made this no easy task. Supper always
consisted of a single dish of fish or meat soup, Avhich was boiled for tis all in
the sinie kettle, out of which it was eaten. Soon after we had finished our
iiicai, the whole party lay down to sleep. On account of the cohl we could
not lay aside any jtart of our travelling-dress, but we regularly changed our
lioots and stockings every evening, and hung those we had taken off, with our
till' caps and gloves, on the tont-poles to dry. This is an essential precaution,
jiarticiilarly in respect to stockings, for with damp clothing there is tho great-
est risk of the part being frozen. We always spread the bear-skins between
the frozen ground and ourselves, and the fur coverings over us, and, being well
tired, wo usually slept very soundly. As long as all the sledge-drivers contin-
ued with us, we were so crowded that we liad to place ourselves like the spokes
of a wheel, with our feet towards the fire and our heads against the tent wall,
hi the morning wo generally rose at six, lit the fire, aiid washed ourselves be-
fore it with fresh snow ; we then took tea, and immediately afterwards dinner

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(wliii'li was similar to tin- siippL-r of llio iiij^ht btfoiv)- Tlic fciit was tl
struck, aiiiU'Vi'iy tliiiii^packctl ami slowed on llio slcdgt'S, aiul at nine we iisuullv
took our (K'parture."

Tile eliief imiiediiiients to journeying on tlie ice were foinid to be tlie 1

mill-

mocks, often ei,t;lity feet liii^di, wliicli lie in ridujes at certain dist;

uices, |iar;il

perhaps to the shore. Aloni^ the line o;- lines where the ice is periodicaHv
broken, it is J'orcetl by pressure ami the tossiuij; of a tempestuous sea into iIkisc

irrepiiar ridi^'es throiiL^h which Wran^ell had sometimes to mak

e a wav wiih

crowbars for half a mile. Th

polmyas, or spaci's ot opi'ii water in ti

f

midst of the ice, offeri'd li'ss hindraiu'e, as they mii:;lit be avoided; but in this
neiii'hborhood, and sometimes even wlii're no hole in the ice was visiiilc, layers
of salt were met with, which cut the dons' feet, and at the same time incrc.iscl
the labor of the draft, the sledges moving over the salt with as much (lilliciilty
as they would over gravel.

In spite of all these hindrances, Wrangell extended liis exploration of tln'
coast iifty versts beyond Cape Shelagskoi, where the want of fuel and provis-
ions eiunpelled him to return. The depots ^\llich ho had made us hv ;i<\-
vanced, were found partly devoured by the stone-foxes and gluttons, so tliat
the party was compelled to fast during the two last days of the joiirnev. Aft-
er an absence of three weeks Xishue-Kolymsk appeared like a second ('a]m:i
to Wrangell, but time being precious he allowed himself but a few dav;' rest,
and started afresh, on .March 'JO, for Cape Shelagskoi, with the intention of |icii-
ctrating as far as possible to the north on the ice of the Polar Sea. The cnr-
avan consisted of tweiitv-two sled jres, ladi'U with fuel and

jirovisions for iliii'l\-

days, including food for 240 dogs So imposing a train had certainly never
been seen before in these desolate regions, for the part of the coast lu'twccii
the Kolyma and Cape Shelagskoi is wholly uninhabited; on one side the nc-
casional excursions of the liiissiaiis terminate at the Harauow rocks, and on
the other the Tchuktchi do iu»t c'oss the larger Haranow IJiver. The intcrveii-

coiisn

Icrc.l

ing eighty versts of coast are never visited by either party, but
neutral ground. On April 1 WrauLTell reachi'd the borders of the Polar Sen,
and jH'oceeding northward to 71° ;n', found the thickness of the ic(>, wliieli lie
measured by nu'ans of a hole, to be about a foot, very rotten, and full of sail ;
the soundings, twelve fathoms, with a bottom of soft green mud. The wiml
increasing in violence, he heard the sound of the water beneath, and felt tlii'
undulatorv motion of the thin crust of ice.

Oiu

J)OSltlOII,

savs

the bold e

xplorer, " was at least an anxious one; tl

nior

e so as we could take no step to avoid the impending danger. I iieluvr
few of our jjarty slept, except the dogs, who alone wei'e unconscious of the
great probability of the ice being broken up by the force of the waves. Next
day, the wind having fallen,! had two of the best sledges eniptied, and pLici'il
in them jirovisions for twenty-four hours, with the boat and oars, some peles
d boards, and proceeded northward to examine the state of the ice; direrliiiLi

an

IV :is

^I. von ^latiuschkin.in case of danger, to retire with the whole j>arty as f
might be needful, without .awaiting my return. After driving through tho
thick brine \tith much difficulty for seven versts, we came to a number ol large

WHANCiELL.

241

fissiircH, wliich \\v passed with sonic trouble by llic .'lid of the boards wli'uih wo
liad l)r()ii<xhf with us. At last the lissiires became ko numerous ami so wide
that it was liard to say wlictiicr the sea beneath us was really still e(»vered by
a connected coat <;f ice, or only by a number of detached tloatinj^ fraLrments,
having; everywhere two or more ic;'l of water between them. A sini^le .yust
of wind would have been sntlicient to drive these fra<;mentsajjainst eaeh other,
and luinLC already thorouu;hly saturated with wati-r, they would have sunk in
;i few minutes, leaving nothini; but sea on the spot where we were standini^.
It was manifestly useless to attempt goinij farther; we hastened to rejoin our
coiiipanions, and to s.eek with them a place of f,'reater .security. Our most
iioiliiern latitude was 71 " i'-i' at a distance of 'J15 versts in u straii^ht line from
tlic lesser IJ.aranow rock." After rejoimni^ liis companions, and while still on
tlie fro/A'ii sea, so thick a snow-storm came on that those in the hindmost
sle(l'4(! could not see the leadinu; ones. I'nable either to pitcih their tent or to
li','lit a lire, they were exposed during; the niLfht to the whole fury of the storm,
with a tcmperatere of +7 \ without tea or soup, and with nothiiiij to (pieiieh
tlicir thirst or satisfy their him<fer but a few mouthfuls of snow, a little rye
liisi'uit, and a half-spoilt fish. On April 2S they arrived at Nishne-Kolymsk,
alter an absence of thirty-six days, durini^ wliich tliey had travelled above HOO
miles with the same dogs, men and animals having ecpially suffered from eold,
liuiiger, and fatigue.

Neither discomfort, however, nor danger prevented Wrangell from under-
Inking a third exeursion in the following spring. He had great dittieulty in
procuring the necessary dogs, a disease which raged among them during the
winter having carried off more than four-iiftlis of these useful animals. At
length his wants were supplied by tlie people of the Indigirka, where the sick-
'icss had not extended, and on M.'irch It, li^'J'J, he again set out for the? borders
of the IVIar Sea. During this expedition a Large extent of coast was aecu-
lateiy surveyed by AVr.angell, who sent out his worthy assistant ^Vratiuschkin,
witli two eompanions, in an unloaded sledge, to see if any farther advance
coulil he made to the north. Having accoiniilished ten versts, ]\Iatiuschkin
was stopped by the breaking up of tin; ice. Knormoiis masses, raised by the
waves int() an almost vertical position, were driven airainst each other with a
ilreadful crash, and pressed downward by the force of th(! billows to re-appear
airain on the surface coveri'd with the torn ii]) green mini which here forms the
iMPttoin of the sea. It would tire the readier were I to relate all the miseries of
their return voyage; snflii'e it to say that, worn out with hunger and fatigue,
tliey reached Nishne-Kolynisk on May 5, after an absence of lifty-seven days.
Siicii sufferings and perils might have excu ed .all further attemjjts to discover
the sii|)posed land in the Polar Sea, but nothing daunted by his repeated fail-
ures, Wr.anfTell determined on a fourth expeilition in 182."i,on which he resolved
to start from a more easterly point. On leaehing the coast, the obstacles were
found still greater than on his previous visits to that fearful sea. The weather
was tempestuous, the ice thin and broken. It was necessary at times to cross
wide lanes of water on pieces of ice ; at times the thin ice bent beneath the
Weight of the sledges, w liieh were then saved only by the sagacity of the dogs,

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242

THE POLAR WORLD.

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who, aware of the danger, ran at their greatest speed until they found a solid
footing. At length, ahout sixty miles from shore, they arrived at the edge
of an immense break in the ice, extending cast and west farther than the eye
could reach.

"We climbed one of the loftiest hummocks," says Wrangell, "whence wo
obtained an extensive view towards the north, and whence we beheld the wide
ocean spread before our gaze. It was a fearful and magniticent, but to us h
melancholy spectacle! Fragments of ice of enormous size floated on the sur-
face of the water, and were thrown by the waves with awful violence against
the edge of the ice-field on the farther side of the channel before us. The col-
lisions were so tremendous that large masses were every instant broken awnv,
and it was evident that the j)ortion of ice which still divided the channel from
the open ocean would soon be completely destroyed. Had we attempted to
ferry ourselves across upon one of the floating pieces of ice, we should not liave
found firm footing upon our arrival. Even on our own side fresh lines of water
were continually forming, and extending in every direction in the field of ice
behind us. Wo could go no farther. AVith a painful feeling of the impossi-
bility of overcoming the obstacles which nature opposed to us, our last lio|ie
vanished of diseovering the land, which we yet believed to exist. We saw
ourselves compelled to renounce the object for which we had sti'iven throni,'!!
three years of hardships, toil, and danger. We had done what honor and duty
demanded ; further attempts would have been absolutely hopeless, and I de-
cided to return."

Tiiey turned, but already the track of their advance was scarcely discorniblp.
as new lanes of water had been formed, and fresh hummocks raised by the sea.
To .add to their distress, a storm aro.<!e, which threatened every moment to
swallow up the ice island, on which they hoped to cross a wide space of water
which separated them from a firmer ground.

" We had been three long hours in this position, and still the mass of ice
beneath us held together, when suddenly it was caught by the storm, and hurled
against a large field of ice ; the crash was terrific, and the mass beneath ns
was shattered into fragments. At that dreadful moment, when escape seemeil
impossible, the inipulse of self-preservation, implanted in every living beinjr,
saved us. Instinctively we all sprang at once on th'> sledges, and mged the
dogs to their full sjieed. They flew across the yielding fragments to tiie tielil
on which we had been stranded, and safely reached a part of it of firmer charac-
ter, on which were several hummocks, where the dogs immediately ceased run-
ning, conscious, apparently, that the danger was j>ast. We were saved I We
joj-fully embraced each other, and united in thanks to God for our preservation
from such imminent ])eril."

But their misfortunes did not end hero ; they were cut off from the deposit
of their provisions ; they were 360 versts from their nearest magazines, and tlio
food for the dogs was now barely sufficient for three days. Their joy may be
imagined when, after a few versts' travelling, they fell in with Matiuschkin and
his party, bringing with them an abundant siipply of provisions of all kinds.

To leave nothing undone which could possibly be effected, Wrangell ad-

WRANGELL.

243

vanced to the eastward aloni? iJio coast, past Cape Nortli, seen in Cook's last
voyngo, and proueodi'd as far as Koliutscliin Island, where he found some Tchuk-
t( hi, who had come over from lierliig's Strajts to trade.

Witli this journey terminated WranLfell's labors on the coasts, or on the sur-
face of the Polar Sea, and, at the hesjinning of the following winter, we find
liiiii takinij a final leave of Nishno-Kolymsk. On January 10, 1824, he arrived
at .Jakutsk, and a few months later at Petersburg. If we consider the ditti-
piilties he had to encounter, and his untiring zeal and courage in the midst of
privaiions and dangers, it is only fair to admit that his name deserves to be
ranked among the most distinguished explorers of the Arctic world.

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244

THE POLAK WOULD.

CIIAPTEK XXr.

THE TUXCiUSI.

Their Rolationsliip to 'dm Mintclioii. — Drciidfiil Conditinii nf tlio oiitnist N'oiiiacls. — f'hnrnrtrr of
tlio'riinnu>i. — TliiirOutlit fur llie Cliase. — licar-lmiitiiiL,'. — |)i\clliiigs. — l>iit. — A Ni^jlit'N Ihilt wiili
Tiiiigiisi in tlio I'oicMt. — Ucliutsk.

^I'^llorcill liotii holoDiiiiiu to llic saiiu' stock, tlit' fiiti' of tlic Tiiiii^nisi inul
-*- Maiitclioii liiis liccii very ditliTi'iit , tor lit tlic siimc time wlicii tlic latter
(■onqiR'rL'd tin- vast ("liiiu'so Kiii|>irr, tlu' ioriiuT, alter liaviiiu; spread over tlir
proatcst part of Ivist Sihcria, and driven before llieni tlie Jakuts, tlie Jiikaliiii.
tliu Telmktelii, and many other aboriginal tribes, were in tlieir ttirn subjiejalcd
by tiie niii^litier IJiissians. In the year KJIO the ("ossaeks first encoiinttnij
tho Tunirusi, anci in 1U44 tlie li.st .Mantehon eni|ieror mounted th" Chiiicx'
tlirono. The same rare whicii here imposes its yoke npon millions of subjects,
there falls a prey to a small number of adventurers. However strange llu'
fact, it is, however, easily explained, lor the Chiiu'se were worse armed and less
disciplined than tlie Mantchon, while the Tmiiiusi luid nothing; but bows ami
arrows to oppose to the Cossack lire-arms; and history (froin Alexander tlic
(treat to Sadowa) teaches us that victory constantly sides with the best
weapons.

In their intellectual development we find tlio same dill'erence as in tlicir
fortunes between the ^lantchon and the Siberian Tiini,Misi. Two hundred ami
fifty years ago the former were otill nomads, like their northern kinsfolk, aicl
could neither read nor write, and already they have a rich literature, and llitir
laiiirn.'isic is spoken at the court of I'.'kini;; while the Tuntjusi, oppressed ami
sunk in poverty, are still as ignorant as when they lirst encountered the (Us-
sacks.

According to their occupations, and the various domestic animals emplnycil
by them, they are distinguished by the names of Keindeer, Horse, Dog, I'tn-
est, and IJiver Timgusi; but although tlicv arc found from the basins of llic
I'ppor, Middle, and Lower Tunguska to the western shores of the Sea of
Ochotsk, and from the Chinese frontiers and the Haikal to the Polar Ocean,
thoir whole nnmbcr does not amount to more than 30,000, and diminishes IVom
year to year, in consequence of the ravages of the small-pox and other cpiiloin-
ic disorders transmitted to them by the Russians. Only a few rear horses ami
cattle, the reindeer being generally their domestic animal; and the impovoi-
ished Tunguse, M-ho has been deprived of his herd by some contngious disor-
der or the ravages of the wolves, lives as a fisherman on the borders of a ri\er,
assisted by his dog, or retires into the forests as a promyschlenik, or huiiici".
Of the miseries which here await him, Wrangell relates a melancholy instance.
In a solitary hut in one of the dreariest wildernesses imaginable, he found .i

TIIK TINUU.SI.

2».-.

Tiiii'_'iis(' and Ills dauijliti'r. Wliilo the flit her, with liis loiii; Hiiow-slincs, was
|)iirsiiinir a riimli'er lin- several days tom-tluT, this uiilVtrtiiiiatc yirl ri'iiiaiiii'd
;il(iii( and hflpU'ss in the iiiit — which cvi'n in sinnnKT atlonh'd hut an iin|K'rl('Ct
slii'llii"a!,'ainst the rain and wind — ('\|>i)scd to (he cold, and rrc(|ncntly to hun-
aml witliont tiu' iiast ocfU|iation, No woucUt that tiio iinpovt rished

i-'i'i'i

rini'_'iisi not seldom siniv into (•.•»nnihaIisMi. Ni'itiicr the rt'indi'cr nor the (hnjs,
ivcs anil <iiihlifn of tiieir more rortunateeonntrvnieii, are secure from

IIIPl' tlic w

tlir

Hacks and voracity oftlu'sc outcasts, who, in their ♦■irn, are treati'd lil<e
wild tiiasts, and <leslioyed wiliiout iniTcy. A l»arterin<; trade is, however,
cairicd on with them, hut oidy at a distance, and hy signs; eadi party depos-
itiii'/ it^ goods, and following every motion of the otlier with a suspicious eye.
The IJussiau (JovernmenI, anxious to relieve the misery of the impoverished
iKimads, lias given orders to settle them along the river-hanks, and to |)rovide
thi'Mi with the necessary fishing implements; but only extreme wretehedm-ss
(Mil IikUicc the Tunguse to reliinpiish the i'rec life of the forest. His careless
temper, his ready wit, and sprightly maimer, distinguish him from the other
Silicrian trihes — the gloomy Samoi'ede, the uncouth Ostiak, the reserved Jakut
—lint he is said to he full of deceit and malice. His vanity shows itsell'in the
quantity of glass heads with which he decorates his dress of reindeer leather,
from his small Tartar cap to the tips of his slio(>s. When chasing or travelling
his reindeer throu'di the woods, he of course lavs aside most of his fmerv,
1 puts on large water-tiudit hoots, or sari, well greased with fat, to keep otf

fill
:iMi

the wet of the morass

II

IS huntuig api)aratus is extremely simple.

sma

11

ii\c, a kettle, a leathern hag containing some dried tish, a dog, a short gun, or
merely a how and a sling, is all he re(|iiires for his expeditions into the forest.
With the assistance ot his long and narrow snow-shoes, he tlies over the daz-
zling plain, and protects his eyes, like the .Iaknt,witli a net made of hlack
liiii'se-hair. He never hesitates to .attack the hear single-handed, and gener.allv

masters him

Tl

le noinai

1 T

uni'iis(> n

aturally recpiires a ii.,)vahle dwelling.

His tent is covered with leather, or large pieces of pliable bark, which are easi-
ly rolled up anil transported from place to place. The yomt of the sedentary
Timgiise resembles that of the Jakut, and is so small tli.'it it can be very
(|iiiekly and thoroughly warmed by a fire kindled on the stone hearth in the
centre. In his food the Tunguse is by no means dainty. One of his favorite
(lislies consists of the contents of a reindeer's stomach mixed with wild berries,
ami spread out in thin cakes on the rind of trees, to be dried in the air or in
the sun. Those who have settled on the Wiliij and in the neighborhood of
^.( rtsehiiisk, likewise consume large ipiantitii's of brick tea, which they boil
with tilt and berries into a thick porridge, and this unwholesome food adds no
(liiiiht to the yellowness of their complexion.

Ihit few of the Tuiignsi have been converted to Christianity, the majority
lieiiig still addicted to Shamanism. They do not like to bury their dead, but
place them, in their holiday dresses, in large chests, which they hang up be-
tween two trees. The hunting apparatus of the deceased is buried beneath

the chest. Xo eerei

monies are useil on tne occasion, exce

?pt wl

len a

SI

lainan

lia|i]i('iis to be in the neishborhood, when a reindeer is sacrificed, ou whose

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TFIK Por.AFl WOIIIJ).

Hcsli tlio Rorcoror nnd tlio rt'latiotis resale thciHHclvcs, while tlic Rpirlts to
wliMiii tlic aiiiinal is siippoHcil to lie otVi-rcd arc oMi^cil to (diitcnt tluMiisclvcs
witli till' miu'll ol'tlu' Imnit Cat. As amoiiij tin- Samoii'ilcs or tiic ()^ti;lks,
woman is a iiiai kclalili' waii' aiiioiiij; the 'riiii<,'iisi. Tiii' IjitiiiT uivcs liis(|iii|._'l|.
tiT ill iiiarriaKf for twi'iity or a liiiinlrcd ri'iinlt'i'r, or tiic britU'grooiii \h i)\t\\'^v,\
to t'urii her hand hy a loii<; period ofHorvico.

In Kast Sil)cria tiii' Tiiiii,'iisi divide with the Jakiits the task «>f convcviii"
U'oods or travellers tlirounh the lorests, and alVord the straiii;er rre:|Uiiit im.
port unities for aiiiniriiii,' their ability and ijjood-hiinior. On hallinif aficr ;i
•lay's journey, the reindei-r are nnpaeked in an instant, the saddles ami ilic
<;oods ranged orderly on the i;roiind,aiid the bridles eolleeted and Iimiil.' oii
hranehes of trees. The hungry animals soon disappear in the thicket, wiicic
they are left to provide for themselves. The men, who meanwhile have lucii
hnsy with their axes, tlrns^ ii larch-tree or two to the jilaee of encainpniiut.
Tho fiiiialler hranclus are lopped oil' and eolleeted to serve as beds or scits
upon the snow, while the resinons w<iod of the larger trunks is soon kimllcd
into a lively lire. The kettle, tilled with snow, is suspended ironi a stnui,'
forked branch |ilaeed obliijiii'ly in the ground over the Hre, and in a lew iiiiii-
utos the tea is ready — for the Tunifusi proceed every evenini; accordini,' tfi tlic
same method, and are eonseipiently as expert as loiiLf and invariable practice
can make them. Comfortably seated on his reindi'cr saddle, the traveller iniiv
now amuse himself with the danees, which the Tunnusi accompany with an
aj»reeable Kong; or if he choose to witness tlieir ngility in athletic exercises, it
only costs him a word ofencoura<j;ement, and a small donation of brandv. Two
of the Tnngnsi hold a rope, and swiniji; it with all their niiglit, so that it ddis
not touch the ground. Meanwhile a third Timguse skips over the rope, )pirks
up a bow and arrow spans the bow and shoots the arrow, without once toiicli-
ing the rope. Some i)artienlarly bold and expert Tungusi will dance over a
sword which a jierson lying on his back on the ground is swinging almiit
with the greatest rapidity. Should our traveller be a friend of chess, the Tmi-
gnsi are equally at liis service, as they are passionately fond of this noblest df
games, especially in tho Kolymsk district. Like all other Siberian iioniails,
they visit at least onee a year the various fairs which are held in the sniall
towns scattered here and there over their immense territory — such as Kiitii>k,
Olekminsk, Hargusin. Tschita, and Ochotsk, which, before the oiiening of tlu'
Amoor to trade, was the cliief port of East Siberia.

Ochotsk IS one of the drei'.riest ]>laces iinagiiiabh> ; at least no traveller who
ever visited it has a word t > say in its favor. Not a single tree grows liir
miles and miles around, and the wretched huts of which the town is coiiipusiMl
lie in the midst of a swamp, which in summer is a fruitful source of malaria
and pestilence, Tlic IJiver Ocliota, at whose mouth Ochotsk issituateil, dues
not break up before the end of May, and the ice-masses continue to pass tlic
town till the 15tli or 'Jtttli of June, Soon after begins the most unpleasant tiiiic
of all tho year, or " buss " of the Siberians, characterized by thick fog and a pi'i-
]»etual drizzling rain. The weather clears up in July, but as early as August
the night-frosts cover the earth with rime, Salmon, of which no less tliMU

THE TLNULSI.

MT

fdiirtcoii flifTcn'nt si^'cIch live in tlic Sni of Ocliotsk, nrc tlic only f'>*><l wliicli th(»
ii(iL;li'»<»i'li"><Ml iilVonls; all other ncct'Hsiirics of life comu' from .lakutsk,inHl iir«
(if ciMirsi' I'noi'riioiisly dear. .Meat appears only from time to tiiiic on the ta*
lilisofthc wcaltliuT nicrcliantH, and lircad is an article of luxury. No won-
der that the scurvy ravaLfes every winter a place so ill-provisioned, and that
at the time when the lirst caravan of pack-horses is expected to cross tin.- Al-
(hill .Mountains, the people of Ochotsk, unable to restruiii their impatience, i;u
(lilt aloni;f way to nu-et it. As the former trade of the phu-e has now no doubt
liccii transferred to the settlements (U» the Amoor, it may well be supposed
tliiit Ocliotsk has lost most of its former inluibilanls, who can only be con-
gratulalud on their change of reaidcncf.

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UKUIN(i S MONrMKNT AT rrTROr.MI.OVSIi.

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CIIAl'TEIi XXII.

GEOKGE WILLIAM STKLLKR.

His nirtli. — Filters tlm Russinn Scrvico. — Scicntifir .Tournoy ui Kamcli.itkn. — Acmmpiirlos Hcrini; on liis
soconil Voyage of Discovery. — I.,aiicls on tlic I^laml nl' Kaiak. — Slianiofiil Coniliict of lii'riiin.— Sliiji-
wrucit on Ucriiif; I.-laml. — Iforiiin"a Dciitli.— Ketiirii to Kaincliatka.— Loss of Troj urty. — IVrsiciiiiuiu
of tlic Siheriaii Atitlioiiiics. — Frozen to Dealli at Tjiinu'n.

GE()K(;E WILLIAM STKLLKK, OIK" oftlio lucst .listinsruisliod natiinl.
ists of tlu! past ci'iitiirv, was Ixirii at Wiiisliciin, a small town in Kiaii-
conla, in the year 170'.). Aftor coniplctnici; his stiulics at iho u.iivt'rsitics of
AViltcnbcrir md Halle, lie tiirnoil liis tliounljts to IJussia, wliicli, since tlic ic-
forins of'Czar Peter tlie (Jreat.and tlie jiroteetion wliieli that monarch ami liis
Ruccessors ail'onled to (lerman learninij, had lieeome the land of jiidiiii.'- > lor
all adventufoiis spirits.

Iliivint;' heen appointed snr2;<'<in in the IJnssian army, which at that time was
hesieojini; l)an/.i<;, he went with a transpoft of wounded soldiers, after I lie sin-
render of that town, to St. PetershnrLT, where he arrived in ITiit. llcic lii<
talents we "e soon appreciated; after a lew years I'e was nanu'd a nieiiihcr ol'
the Imperial Academy of Sciences, and sent hy (Joverninent, in 1 T-iS, to exam-
ine tlie natural productions of Kainchatka. The ahility and zeal witli which
he i'ullilled this mission is proved liy the valualtle collections which he sent to
the Academy, and hy his iiuinerous memoirs, which are still read with iiit>iisl
in the present day.

In iTn he accompanied Herini; on his second voya'jfc of discovery, the nli-
ject of which was to determine the distiiiice of .Vmeriea from Kamch itka. ainl
to asei'rtain tlic separation or the junction of Loth continents in .i liiLrlni

GEORGE WILLIAM STELLER.

249

latitiuU' — rv question wliich liis first voyage had loft uiulocidcd. Xotliiiig
cDnltl '•»' iiioiv atrivcablo to a man like Stcllcr, tiian tiie prospoots lield out
to liiiii l>v an ox]K'diti()n to unknown icijions; and we can easily iniaLjino tlio
dili'ilit with wiiich the naturalist embarked on hoard of the "Saint IVter,"
(•(iii'.muiided hy IJeriuij in ju-rson. Aceoinpanied hy the ''Saint I'aul,'" under
Tscliiriiiow, they sailed on June 4 from the IJay of Avatsclia.

Tlie expedition hail eost ten years of preparation, and hrouijht misery ai\d
mill niion many of the wild Siberian tribes, for all that was necessary for the
oiitlit iiail to be conveyed by compulsory labor from the interior of the eonti-
miit over mountains and rivers, through dense forests and pathless wilds, and
it scoiMcd Irom the very beginning of the voyage as if the curses of the unfor-
luiKiIc natives dung to it. Much valuabU' time had been lost, for tlie ships
(iiiLrlit to have sailed at least a month earlier, and liering, who from ilhiess con-
staiitlv kept to his cabin, was by no means a ii . commander for u scientific ex-

]i('(litinll.

After a ft-W days a dense fog separated the vessels, which were never to meet
air.iiii ; and as the "St. Peter" held her course too nnich to the south, the Aleu-
tic cliaiii remained undiscovered, and the first land was oidy sighted after four
weeks in the ncighborliood of IJering's May. , During the whole of this passage
Stcllcr liail to endure all the vexations which arrogant stupidity coidd inflict
ii|i(in a man anxious to do his duty. It was in vain that he repeatedly pointed
(Mit tlic signs which indicated the presence of lainl not far to the north, in vain
tiuit lie entreated the comnninder to steer but one day in that direction. At
lust, oil July 1"), the high mountains of America were seen to rise above the
horizon, and the vessel anchored on thi' 10th near to the small island of Kaiak.

On the following day a boat was sent out to fetch soiiu> fresh water, but it
\v;i-; with the utmost dilliciilty that Stcllcr could obtain permission to join the
|i:iitv. All assistance was obstinately denied him, and accompanied by his
only servant, a Cossack, he landeil on the unknown sliori\ eati'cr to make the
iiust of the short time allotted him for his researches. lie immeiliately di-
rc(tc(l his steps towards thi' interior, and had scarcely walked a mile when
lie iliseovered the hollowed trunk of a tree, in which, u i\'W hours before,
tlic savages had boiled tlu'ir meat with red-hot stones. He also Ibund several
pots iillc(l with esculent herbs, and a wooihMi instrument for making fire, like
tlioM- which are used by the inhabitants of Kamch.itka. Hence he conjectured
that the aborigines of this p.art of the American coast must be of the same ori-
gin as the Kamcliatkans, and that both countries uuist necessarily approach
tMch oihi'r tc.vards the mnlh, as the inhabitants could not possibly traverse
such vast extents of ocean in their rudely-constructed boats.

i'lirsuing his way, Stcllcr now came to a path which led into a dense and
shady forest. liefore entering, he strictly forbatle his ("ossack to act without
coiiiaiaii(ls,iii ease of a hostile encounter. The Cossack had a gun, with aknile
;iiii| hatchet; Stcllcr hiinsclt" only a Jakut |)oniard, which he lia<l taken with
him t ) iligout plants or stones. After half an hour's walking, they came to a
|ihiccvtn.\vu with grass. This was immeiliately removed, and a roof or plat-
torin discovered, consisting of strijis of bark laid upon poles and covered with

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THE POLAR WORLD.

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stoiips. Tliis platform opened into a cellar oontaininc» a larcje quantitv of
smoked iisiies, and a few bundles of the imier bark of the larch or tir tree
Mliich, in ease of necessity, serves as food throughout all Siberia. There were
also some arrows, dyed black and smoothed, of a sine iar sujjerior to lliuse
"scd in Kamchatka.

After Steller, in spite of the danger of being surprised by the savages, liad
accurately examined the contents of the cellar, he sent his Cossack back !ii:;iiii
to the place where the boatmen were watering. He gave him specinuiis nt'
the various articles Mliich he had found, ordering him to take them to ('ii|i-
tain J>ering, and to recpiest that two or three men might be sent to liini liir
further assistance. In the mean time, though (piite alone, he continued liis
investigations of the strange land, aiwl having riadied the summit of a liill,
he saw smoke rising from a forest at some distance. Overjoyed at the siirlit,
for he now couhl hope to meet with the natives and to complete his knowl-
edge of the island, he instantly returned to the landing-place with all the
eagerness of a man who has something important to communicate; and as
tiie boat was just about to leave, told the sailors to inform the captain of his
discovery, and to beg that the small pinnace, with a detachment of anned
men, might be sent out to him.

Meanwhile-exhausted with fatigue, he sat down on the beach, where ho
described in his pocket-book some of the more delicate plants he liad collect-
ed, Avhich he feared might speedily wither, and regaled liimself with the ex-
cellent water. After waiting for about an hour, he at length received an an-
swer from l>ering, telling him to return immediately on board, uidess he clioso
to be left behind ; and we can easily imagine the indignation of the disap-
pointed naturalist at this shanu'fid command.

On the morning of July 'J 1, IJering, contrary to his custom, ai»|)eared on
deck, ordered the anchors to be weighed, and gave directions to sail back
again on the same course. The continent he had discovered was not even
honored with a single visit, so that Steller could not help telling the Russians
they liad merely come thus far for the )>urpose of carrying American water to
Asia. Any conscientious commander would have continued to sail along tlio
tmknown shore, or, considering that the season was already farailvanced. would
have determined to winter there, and to pursue liis discoveries next spring;
but, unfortunately for liering and his companions, the course he adopted
proved as disastrous as it was ilishonorable.

Three months long the ship was tossed about by contrary winds and
Ftorms ; the islands of the Aleutic chain, though frecpu'iiJy seen throiigli tlic
nusts, were but seldom visited ; the scurvy broke out among the dispirited,
ill-fed crew, their misery increased from day to day, and their joy may he im-
agined when at length, on November 5, a land was seen which they tiiiniy
believed to be Kamchatka — though in reality it was mendy the •lesert ot
lierimr's Island, situated a hundred miles from that peninsida. Kveii tliose
who were nearly half dead crept upon deck to enjoy the welcome sight ; every
one thanked <Jod, and the ignorant otticer, convinced that they were at tlif
entrance of the Jiay of .\vats(dia, even named the several mountains; hut

GEORGE WILLI A 51 STELLER.

251

their mistake soon bccaino a])j)aroiit wlicn, on ronndinfjj a small promontory,
fDiiic well-known islets were missed. As tiiey liail no doubt, however, that
the liiiid was really Kamchatka, and the had weather and the small number
of haiuls lit to do duty renderinu; it dillieull to reach tiiu (Jnlf of Avatscha,
it was resolved to run into the liay that lay before them, and to send notice
Ihiiii tlience to Nishne-Kamehatsk of their safe arrival,

Steller was amonu; the first to laud, and probably the very first of the
iiaitv who discovered tin; mistake of the i.i'ctlhiit naviiiators to whom the
(Xiicditiou had been intrusted. Sea-otters came swimmiuif to him from the
luinl, and he well knew that these much-persecuted animals had lonjj^ since
(lisiippeared from the coast of Kamchatka. The number of Arctic foxes, too,
wlio showed no (ear at his approach, and the sea-cows gambollinc^ in the
water, were sure sit;ns that the foot of man ha<l not often trodden this shore.
Stc'Her was also the first to set the good example of making the best of a
had situation, instead of uselessly bewailing his mislbrtunes. lie began to
dvct a Iiut for the i'ollowing winter, and formed an association with several
of the crew, who, whatever might await them, promised to stand by each
otlicr.

DiM-imx the following davs the sick were gradually eonveved on shore.
Some of them died on board as soon as they were brought into the open air,
dtlurs iu the boat, others as soon as they were landed. "On all sides," says
Stiller, iu his interesting account of this ill-fated voyage, "nothiug was to be
strii hut uiisery. liefore the dead could be buried, they were mangled by the
t'(>\(s. who even ventured to approach the helpless invalids who were lying
witJKiiil cover on the beach. Some of these wretched sutierers bitterly com-
[ilaiiu'd of the cold, others of hunger and thirst — for many had their gums so
swcilK II and ulcerati'd with the scurvy as to be unable to eat."

"On November IU," continues the naturalist," I went out hunting for tlie
tiist time with .Messieurs Plenisiu'r and IJetge; we killed four sea-otters, and
dill nut return before nitiht. We ate their fiesh thankfully, and ])rayed to
<i<"l tiiat lie miiiht continue to provide us with this excellent food. The
cnstly skins, on the other haiul, were of no value in our eyes; the only ob-
ji'its which we now esteemed were knives, neeiUes, thread, ropes, etc., on
wliicii before we had not bi'stowe(l a thought. We all saw that rank, sci-
ciic'c, ami other social distinctions wvw now ol'no avail, and could not in any
way contribute to our prt'servatiou : we theri'fore resolvi'cl, before we were
Inicci'i to do so by necessity, to set to work tit once. We introduced among
"■< live u community of goods, and regulated our housekeeping in such a man-
iiir as not to be in want before the winter was over. Our three ("ossacks
Were ol)lig(>d to obey our orders, when wi' hail <lecided u]ion something in
"''iinnion; but we began to tri'at them with greater ]ioIiteness, calling them
hy their names and surnames, and we soon found that Peter Maximowitsch
M'lvid lis with more alacrity than formerly Petrucha (a diminutive of Peter).

" Voc. H. — The whole ship's com]iany was formed into thrie parties. The
"lie had to convey the sick and provisions from tlu' ship; the second brought
'*■•"»!; the third, consisting of a lame sailor iind myself, remained ;it liome. —

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252

THE POLAR WORLD.

tlic fornu>r busy makini; u slcd^jt, wliik' 1 actcil as cook. As our party was
the first to or<;aiiizi' a housiliold, I also pcrloniu'd tlu' duty of briuijiui; wariri
soup to some of our sick, until they liad so far recovered as to be able to lielh
tlienisehes.

'•The barracks beiiiLj tliis (biy ready to receive the sick, nianv ol tliim
were transported under roof; but for want of room, they lay evcrywIuTc im
the irround, covered with rai^s and clothes. No one could assist the (itiicv
and iiolhinu; was heard but lanii'ntations and curses — the whole aironlin..' sd
wretched a slight, as to make even the stoutest heart lose coura'_'c. On
Xovember I") all the sick were at leiiirth landi'd. We took one of tlum,
named IJoris Siind, into our hut, and by (Jud's help he rec<tvered williin tiinr
months.

"The fbllowinuf (biys adtled to our misery, as the messeniiers we had siiit
out brought us the inlelliixence that we were on a desert island, without ;uiv
communication with Kanu-hatka. We were also in constant fear that llic:
Ptormy weather miulit drive our ship out to sea. and aloni^ with it all oiii'
provisions, and every ho|)e of ever returninu; to our honu's. Sonu'times it was
impossible to ixvi to the vessel for several days together, so boisterous was
the surue; and about ten or twelve men, who had hitherto been able to wdik,
now also fell ill. Want, nakedness, irost, rain, illness, impatience, and de-
spair, were our daily companions.''

Fortunately the stormy sea drove the ship upon the strand, better fliaii it
could probably have been (b)ne by human etibrts. Successively many (il'llic
scorbutic ])atients died, and on December 8 the unfortunate commauili r of
the e.\|»edition paid his debt to nature.

Titus IJerinur, bv lurth a Dane, had served thirtv-six vears with di^liiu-
tion in the Hussiau navy, but aire and infirmities had completely dampcil his
enemies, ami his death is :i warning to all who enter upon imdc itakinirs
above their s.rensth.

In the mean tinu' tlie whole ship's company had established itself fir the
winter in five subterranean dwelliuL's; the u'cneral health was visihly ini-
provinir, merely by nu-ans of the c\<"ellent water, and by the fiesli nuai tin-
nished by .sea-otters, seals, and manatees; and the only care nc,v was to irain
sufVicicut strength to be able to undertake the work ot (U'li\ ci'ance in spiiii'j.

In April the shipwrecked mariiu-rs l>eiran to build a sm.aller ship out nt the
limbers of the " St. IVter," and. such w.as the alacrity with which all hamU
set to work, that on Anuust 1-"! they were able to set out.

"When we were all embarked," says Sieller. ''we lirst perceived lum
niucli we should be inconvenienced Ibr want of room ; the water cask-. |iiii-
visions, and baiXifaiT'' takiiiir up so tiuicIi space, that our tbrty-two nn ii (iln'
three ship's oHicers and mysidf were somewhat better oil' in the cabin) ttnilil
hanlly creep between them ainl the deck. A iireat (lUiintity of the liciiiiiii,'
and clothiiiu; had to be thrown overboard. .Meanwhile we saw the li'tf^
snortiiiL!; about our deserted huts, and ":reedilv tlevoiiriiii; remnants of tat
and meat.

"On the Htli, in the morniii'j:. we weicrbed .iiichor, ami steered out nf tlic

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GKOIIGE WII.LIAM STELLKU.

253

Iiav. The woatlicr boiiiiij beautiful, and tlio wind favorable, we were all in
jjoimI spirits, and, as we sailed alonq tlie island, pointed out to eaeh other the
u<'!l-kiiown mountains and valleys whieh we had frequently visited in quest
of'^'anio or (or the purpose of reeonnoitrini;. Towards evening we were op-
iiositt' the farthest ))oint of the island, and on the 15th, the wind eontiiniing
I'avdPabie, we steereil direet towards the Hay of Avatseha. About niidniijht,
h(pW(V( r, we perceived, to our great dismay, that the vessel began to till with
\v:it('r from an unknown leak, whieh, in eonse<pience of the crowded and
,iv( iloadv'il state of the vessel, it was extremely ditticnlt to find out. The
iiiini|is wtre soon choked ))y the shavings left in the hold, ami the danger
ranidly increased, as the wind was strong and the vessel badly built. The
vails were imniediately taken in; some of the men removed the baggage to
loiik for the leak, others ke|)t continually pouring out the water with kettles,
while others ajain cast all superfluous articles overboard. At length, after
the liu'litening of the ship, the carpenter succeeded m stopping the leak, and
tlms we were once more saved from imminent danger. . , . On the 17th we
H^'liti il Kamchatka, but as the wind was contrary, we did not enter the har-
lior lu lure the evening of the 'JTth.

"Ill spite of the joy we all felt at our deliverance, yet the news we heard
nil (iiir arrival awakened in us a liost of ctniilictiiig emotions. "We had been
'.'ivcii up for lost, and all our property had passed into other hands, and been
iiKKtly carried away beyond hope of recovery. Hence joy and sorrow alter-
nated within a i'vw moments in our minds, though we were all so accustomed
to |irivation and misery, as hardly to feel the extent of our losses.''

Ill tlie year 1744 Steller was ordered to return to St. Petersburg; but his
(amliir had made him jiowerfiil enemies. Having reacheil Novgorod, and re-
iuiciii',' ill the idea of once more mixing with the civilized world, he was siid-
ilciily onUieil to appear before the imperiil court of justice at Irkutsk, on the
(■liap_'(' of having treacherously sold powder to tlie enemies of liussia. Thus
olili^nd to ictiirii once more into the depths of Siberia, he was at length dis-
missed by his judges, alter waiting a whole year for their verdict.

Once more on his way to St. I'etersburjr, he had already reached Moscow,
when lie was again summoned to apjiear without delay before the court of
Irkutsk. A journey to Siberia is, under all circumstances, an arduous nnder-
takiiig ; what, then, must have been Steller's feelings \> hen, instea<l of enjoy-
ing' the repose he had so well merited, he saw himself obliged to retrace liis
steps tor the fourth time for the purpose of vindicating his conduct before a
lasenlly tribunal ? On a very cold day his Cossack guards stopped to re-
tiesli tliem:<'lves with some brandy at an inn by the road-side, and Steller,
«ho r.'inaiiied in the sledge waiting for their return, fell asleep, and was
frozen to death.

He lies buried near the town of 'ji'men, and no monument apprises the
nntiiialist, whom the love of knowledge ;nay lead into the Siberian wilds, that
his unfortunate ))redecessor was thus basely requited after years of exertion
in the interests of science.

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THE POLAR WORLD.

cmiiCIl AT I'ETUOl'AVLOSK.

CHAPTER XXIII.

KAMCHATKA.

Clim.itk'. — Fertility. — Liixnri.int VoKPt.itinn. — Fisli. — Sea-birds. — Kamcli.'itk.in'nirfl-cafchcrs.— Tlif Har
of Avatsclin. — IVtropavlosk.— 'I'lic Kaincliatkaiis. — Tlieir physical and morul (iuulitios.— Thi' Fn-
liUaria Sarrana. — The iMuchamor. — Hears. — Dogs.

THE poninsnla of Kaincliatka, though imniberinfr no more than GOOO or "OdO
iiihal)itant.s, on a surface iMjiuillinj^ Groat Britain in extent, lias so many
natural resources that it could easily nuvintain a far greater number. Tlu' cli-
mate is much more tfunperate and uniform than that of the interior ol Silnria.
being neither so excessively cold in winter, nor so intensely hot in sunuinr;
and thoui»h the late and early ni<jht-frosts, with the frequent fogs and rains,
jirevent the cultivation of corn, the humid air produces a very luxuriant lurlia-
teou.s vegetation. Not only along the banks of the rivers and lakes, but in tlic
forest glades, the grass grows to a height of more than twelve feet, and many
of the Compositip and I'mbellifcra? attain a size so coloss.al that the /fnirliiim
dulce and the Seneclo cannabifolhis not seldom overtop the rider on horseliack.
The pasture-grounds are so excellent that the grass can generally bo out tlirici'
during the short summer, and thus a comparatively small extent of land alTorils
the winter su]ij)ly for all the cattle of a handet. Though the cold wimls pre-
vent the growth of trees along the coast, the more inland mountain slopes and
valleys are clothed with woods richly stocked with sables and squirrels.

KAMrnATKA. 2.>,-,

N'o romitrv in tlio world has a groator aldUKlanco of excellent fisheries. In
fjpririi; tlic salmon ascend the rivers in snch amazing numbers, that on pluiiuing
;i dart into the stream one is almost sure to strike a fish ; and Stellcr aHlrms
that the hears and dogs of Kamchatka catch on the hanks more fish with their
iiaws and mouths than man in other countries, with all his cunning devices of
(t or aii<.de. As the various birds of passage do not all wander at the same
•imc ♦<) till' north, so also the various kinds of fishes migrate, some sooner,
(itli( IS later, and consefiiiently ))rofusion reigns during the whole of the summer.
Kniiinir. was astonished at this incalculable ai)\m<lance of the Kamchatkan riv-
ers, for in one of them, when the water was only six inches deep, he saw muhi-
tmli's of {'hAvkit^* {Sluf/orcp/uilits) iiH long as his arm partly stranded on the
liariks, partly still endeavoring to ascend the shallow stream. As the waters
contain sucli an incredible multitu<le of fishes, we can not wonder that the
rocky coasts of the peninsula swarm with sea-fowl, whose breeding and roosting
[ihuTs arc as densely peopled as any others in the world. At the entrance of the
Avatscha Hay lies a reinarkalile labyrinth, of rocks, separated from each other
by narrow channels of water, like the intricate streets of an old-fashioned city.
Till' tliiod has everywhere scooped out pictures(|ue cavities and passages in
these stupendous masses of Ktoi;e, and the slightest wind causes the waves to
heat with terrific violence against their feet. Every leclge, platform, and pro-
jeetion, every niche, hollow, and crevice is peopled with sea-birds of strange
and various forms. In the capture of these birds the Kam( ; dkans display an
iiilrcpidity efpial to that of the islanders of St. Kilda or Feroe, and trtist solely
to tlicir astonishing agility in climbing. IJarefooted, without ropes or any
iitlicr assistance, they venture down the steepest <leclivities, which are frequent-
\y only ac('essii)lo from the top, as the foaming breakers out off all access from
hi'low. The left arm clasps a basket, which they fill with eggs as they advance,
uhih> the right hand grasps a short stick with an iron ho.-k to drag the birds
fniin tlui <'r('vi('es of the rock. When a bird is caught, a dexterous grip wrings
its ni'i'k. and it is then attached to the girdle of the fowler. In this manner an
oxpert cliiuber will kill in one day from seventy to eighty birds, r-nd gather
ahovi' a luuidrcj eggs.

Thus the population of Kamchatka is quite out of proportion to the riches
of its pasttu'es an<l waters. Its scanty Inhabitants arc moreover concentrated
on a few spots along the chief rivers ami bays, so that almost the whole penin-
sula is nothing but an uninhal>ited wilderness.

Infoic the contpu'st of the country by the Russians it had at least twenty
times its present population, but the cruelty of the Cossacks and the ravages of
the small -poxcaused it to me't .iw.ay almost as rapidly as that of Cuba or Ilayti
lifter the arrival of the Spaniards. At that time the sable and the sea-otter
Were considered of far greater importance than man; and unfortunately liiis-
fia has too many deserts to people, before she can think of repairing past er-
rors and sparing inhabitants for this remotest corne;- of her vast Asiatic eni-
liirc.

As the peninstila is too distant from the highways of the world to attract
the tide of emigration, it is also seldom visited by travellers. The few stran-

;'r

i'*.

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r'i

i'll

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2.-10

THE POLAR WOULD.

ircrs, liowcvfT, wild have sailccl aloiiy tlio coasts, or inado excursions info tlic in.
ti'i'ioi' of tlic connlry, s|i('al\ witli cnlliiisiasin of tlio lioldness of its rockv iimin,
oiitorii's, the inaLrniticrnce of its hays and mountains, ami only iCLrrcl ilmt
ilurini^ tlu! <.'r(att r part of tlio year an Arctic winter veils tlic beauties i,| tin,
lanilsca|ic nmler mists ami snow.

Tlirouu'liout its whole leuLrth Kanicliatka is travcfsod hy an AI|iiiie cliuin
risini^ in some of its peaks to a heiulit of It.ooit or 1(!,500 feet, ami nuniliciin.r
no less than 'Js active volcanoes aloiiLj with many others whose fires are cMinct.
A land thus nnderniinecl with suhterranean lires must be possessed of ninnv
mineral riches, liut as yit no one has ever thoui^ht of seokint;; for them or htit.
tinjj them to use.

Owinij; to the Lrre.at humidity of the climate and the (piantities of r;iin at-
tracted by the mount.'iins, Kanichatk.a aboumls in sprinu's. In the IuwImhIs
they mish forth in such numbers as to rendir it very dilliculi to travel aiiv di-
tance on foot or horsi'back, even in winti'r, as they pre\i'nt the rivers U-om
freeziui;. No doubt many a mineral spring — cold, tepid, or warm — tiiat would
make the fortune of a (lerm.aii spa, here flows unnoticed into the sea.

K;imchatk;i has many I'xcellent harbors, ami the maLrnifici'iit IJay of Avatsdia
would alone l>e able to afford room to all the navies of the world. Its sti'(|i
rocky shores are almost everywhere clothed with a species of beech (/<^^(/-/
J'Jriiuinni), inlermini.ded with luxuriant irrasses and herlts, and the higher s!ii|its
are Lfern'rally covered with a dense underwood of evergreens :md shrubs of ilc-
cidnous foliaL^e, whose chanires of color in autumn tin<;e the Landscape with yel-
low, red, and brown tints. ISut the chief beauty of the IJay of Avatsdia is tlic
prospect of the <listaiit mountains, formin;^ a splendid panorama of lantasiic
peaks and volcanii; cones, amontj which the Slreloshnaja Sopka towiTs pn-iini-
neiit to the heiuht of I 1,000 feet. Close to this <iiant, but somewhat nearer to
the co.ist, risi's the active volcano of Avatsclia, which frequently co\crs tlir
whole country with ashes.

The vast 15;iy of Avatscha forms several minor creeks : amonir others the lia-
ven of St. I'eter ;uid I'aul, one of the liimst natural harbors in the worM. uliciv
the IkUssians have estal)lished the seat of their ixovermnent in the small Inunut
I'etropavlosk, which hardly immbers .")00 inhaltitants, but has .acipiirtil ^»\\w
celebrity from the unsuccessfid attack of the Knirlish and French forccsiii IsJt.

Mr. Knox thus descriltes I'etropavlosk: "To make a counterfeit rilni-
jiavlosk, lake a lotj villaLje in the liackwoods of a western state in Aiiiciic:!,
and place it near a little harbor, where the firoiind slopes licntly to the u:;iii-.
Arrantje iiuist of the houses alonti a simple uupaved stri'et, and drop the n >i in
a hiirixledy-jiiLrirledy fashion on the slopint^ hillside. All linildinu's inu>l lie liui
one story liiiih, anti those of the poorer sort tli.atched with trrass. Tlic IkIIt
class may have iron or board roofs paintc<l for preservation. The houses ut liir
oflicials and the foreitjn merchants may bo commodious, and built -f lu wn lim-
ber, l»ut the doors of all must bo low, and heavily constructe.l, to exclinic tlic
winter cold. Kvery dwelliiiLT must contain a brick stove that presents a side I"
each of two or three rooms. In winter this stove will maintain a teniperaturo
of about 08 decrees in all the rooms it is intended to warm."

KAMCHATKA,

M7

:l ■

h

!:V

r£TKUrAVU>dK.

Besides some Jakut imtnistrants, ilio oliiof stock of tlio scanty population of
the eouiitiy consists of the descentlaiits of the primitive Kanichalkans, wlio, in
"liite of fiiMjuenl intermarriages with their eoncpierors the Cossacks, have still
U'taiiu'd many of their ancient maimers. They are of a small stature, hut Itroad-
slinuldcred, their cheek-bones are prominent, their jaws uiu'ommonly l»r<»ad and
pnijeeting, their noses small, their lips very full, their hair liLu^k. 'I'ho color of
tile men is dark brown, or sometimes yellow ; the women have fairer complex-
ions, which they endeavor to preserve by means of bears' guts, stuck upon their
faces in spring with fresh lime, so as not to be burned by tlie sun. They also
paint their cheeks with a sca-wccd, which, when rubbed upon them witU fat,
gives them a beautiful red color.

The Kamchatkans are a remarkably healthy race. Many of them attain an
age of seventy or eighty years, and are able to walk and to work until their

17

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I I

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258

THE POLAU WOULD.

i f

I

dentil. Tlicir liair Rcldom turns gniy before tlieir sixticfli year, and ovrti tlip
oldest men have a firm and elastic- step. Tlie weii^lit of their Ixxly is j^rcati r
than that of the Jakuts, thoni^h the latter live on milk and tiesh, while fish is
the almost exclusive food of the Kainchalk;ins. The round tuhenlcs of iIk.
FritHlarid Hi:rr<ni<i,\\, species of lily with a dark purple tlower, likewise hjnv
an im|)ortant |)art in their diet, and serve them instead of bread and micmI.
" if the fruits of the bread-fruit tree," s.ays Iviltlitz — who has seen both |il;iiits
in the jilaces of their yrowth — " are i)ro-eminent amoui; all others, as alTonliiiir
man a perfect substitute for bread, the roots of the Sarrana, which an? vcrv
similar in taste, rank perhaj)s immediately after them. 'Piie collect in-jj of tlicsc
tubers in the meadows is an important smnini'r occupation of the women, .uul
one which is rather troublesome, as the plant never yrows yreijariously, so that
cneli root lias to be souijht and dui; out separately with a knife. Fortunately
the wonderful activity of the Siberian lield-vole facilitates the labor of K.ulier.
iiii; the tubers. These remarkable animals burrow extensive winter nests, wiih
live or six storediouses, which they fill with various roots, but chiefly with tlioso
of the Sarrana. To find these subterranean treasures, the Kamchatkaiis use
sticks with iron p'li.its, which they strike into the earth. The contents of three
of these nests are as much as a man can carry on his back. A species of fuu-
tjus, called muchamor, affords a favorite stimulant. It is dried and eaten raw.
Besides its exhilaratiujjj effects, it is said to pnxluec, like the Peruvian Coca, a
remarkable increase of strent'th, which Iiists for a considerable time.

Fishiiiu; and huntiiiijj supply all the wants of the Kamchatkaiis, for th(>y have
not yet learned to prolit in any decree worth mciitionini,' by the luxuriinice of
their meadowdands. They i)ay their taxes and purchase their foreign luxuries
— meal and tea, tobacco and brandy — with furs. The chase of the costly se:i-
otter (which from excessive persecution had at one time .•iliiiost become extinct)
has latterly improved. IJesides the fur animals, they also hunt the reindeer, the
arijali, the wolf, and the bear, whose skins supply them with clothini;.

Bears ;ibound in Kamchatka, as they 1ind a iiever-failinc: supply of fishes
and berries, ami Krinaim assures us that they would loni!; since have extirpateil
the inhabitants, if (most probably on account of the plenty in which they live)
they were not of a more irentle disposition than any others in the world. In
s]irinfr they descend from the mountains to the mouths of the rivers, tu levy
their tribute on the mitrratory troops of the tishes, fre(iueiitly eatiiii; only tlie
heads. Toward autumn they follow the llshes into the interior of the country
as they ascend the streams.

The most valuable domestic animal in Kamchatka is the (b)?, who liiis llie
usual characters of the Kscpiimaux race. He lives exclusively on tisli, wliidiln'
catches very dexterously. From s])riii<;f to autumn he is allowed to roam at iili-
erty, no one troublinir himself about him ; but in October, every proprietor enl-
lects his doys, binds them to a ])ost, and lets them fast for ■•; time, so as to de-
prive them of their superfluous fat, and to render them more lit for ruiiniiii.'.
Durinjx the winter they arc fed with dried fish every morning and eveniiiir, hi't
while travellimr they get nothing to eat, even though they run for hours. Their
strength is wonderful. Generally no more than five of them arc harnessed to a

KAMCHATKA.

8ii9

ll- ill

iKKis rmutNO.

I '

k1('(I;j:o, and will drac; witli case (lirce fiill-m'own persons, and sixty ponnd«'
uci^lit of InLTj^fajxe. Wlicii lit^lilly liulcn, pucIi a slodye will travel fiuiu ;)() to
40 viTstH ill a day ovor l)ad roads and tlirou^jjh tlio deep snow; on even roads,
from 80 to 140. Tlic horse can never l)u used for .sledi^ing, on account of the
ijccp snow, into which it would sink, atnl of the nuincrons rivers and sources,
wliich arc citlior never frozen, or nierelv covered with a thin sheet of ice, un-
alile to hear the wii;iht of so lavije an animal.

JX

DOO-TEAM.

n ii

Tiavelliiig with dojis is, however, both dancorous and diilicnlr. Instead of
tilt' wliip, tiic Kaindiatkans use a crooked stick with iron rings, which, hy
llii'ir jingling, give the leader of the team the necessary signals. Wlien tiie
•logs do not sufticiently exert themselves, the stick is cast among them to rouse
tlicm to greater speed ; but then the traveller must be dexterous enough to

;! 1 '-(•'''

MO

TIIK POLAIi WOULD.

pick it up ngain while tho nledi^o nhootn along. Diiriii!]^ n nnow-Htnnn tliu dix'n
keep thfir tntiHtoi- warm, und will liu qiiiutly near liiiii for Iioui-h, ho tliat lie lian
merely to prevent the snow from covering him too deeply and Huffocatiiig liini.
The dogs arc alno excellent weather prophetn, for when, while resting, they dig
holes in the hiiow, n storm may with certainty be expected.

The sledge-dogs are trained to their fntiin.' service at n very early period.
Boon after birth they arc placed with their mother in a deep pit, so as to rco
neither man nor beast, and, after having been weaned, they are again condcinii.
ed to solitary confinement in a pit. After six months they are attached to ;i
sledgo with other older dogs, and, being extremely shy, they run as fast as
they can. On returning home, they are again continud in their pit, w.iere tln-v

DOOS TOWINO BOATS.

remain imtil they arc perfectly trained, and able to perform a long journey.
Then, but not before, they are allowed their summer liberty. This severe edii-
cation completely soiirs their temper, and they constantly remain gloomy, shy,
quarrelsome, and suspicious.

To return to the Kamchatkans : travellers praise their good-nature, tlifir
hospitality, ami their natural wit. Of a sanguine disposition, they arc happy
and content in their poverty, and have no cares for the morrow. Being ex-
tremely indolent, they never Avork utijoss when compelled. They readily adopt
strange manners, and no doubt education might produce valuable results in so
pliable and sharp-witted a race. Unfortunately tho Hussians and Cossacks
who have settled among thcin do not afford them the best examples. They

KAMCHATKA.

Mt

h.'iVf lori^ Kirict' boon convortod to tlio (trcok Church, hut it in niipponcd that hap-
tisti) li:iH not fully ofTucc*! all tnu*ON of KhamuniHin. Furmorly thoy ha*l many
jroils, the ihief of whom was Kutku, the creator of lienvon and earth. Kut fur
from li(in<irin<; Kutku, they coMtinually ridicnU'd him, and made him the con-
Ht.'tiit hiilt of their satire. Kutka, however, had a wife, Chachy, who waH cti«
(lowed with all the intellitferiee in whieh her HpouHc was supposed to he deli-
cicrit, and who, u.s id the case in many mortal liouHekeopin^H, was conHtaiitly ex-
orting her ingenuity in repairing the bhindcrit of her lord and mustor.

I

I'

' ;!'<

■V\ i:

THE 1H)LAU WOULD.

KKAME WOKK OK TCULKTCHI UOUSB.

|!li

I li

CIIAPTKR XXIV.

TIIK TCHUKTCIII.

TJio 1,1111(1 of the Triiuktolii. — Tlicir iiulopondent Spiiit and cominnrrial F.ntorprisc. — IVrpctiml ML-ra-
liiiiis.— Tlio I'nir of Ostiowiinjc. — Vi.sit in a Tiliiktcli I'ulo^'. — li.icos.— Tiliuklcli ItayailiT's. Tim
'IVniiyjjU, or Ki'imlciT Tcliukiclii, — TliuUnkilon, or Suilciitury Tcliuklclii. — I liiir Mode of l.iU^.

AT tlu! fxtivino iiortli-castern point of Asia, homidod hy tlu' I'nl.ir Ocean
on Olio side ami tlio Sc.i of Ik'riiii» on tlio otlier, liis the laml of tln'
Tfliiiktclii. Tlio fi'W trav.'llors wlio have ovor visited tliat l)k'aiv itiuinoMtiny
describe' it as one of the ilreaiiest rei^ions of the eartli. Tlie cliniale is iIicmiI-
fiilly cold, as may l)e e.\])ecte<l in a conntry eonfined between icy seas. IJiforc
July L'Oth there is no appearance of aninnier, and winter already sets in aliinit
AuL;ust 2()th. The lower grounds shelvin^f to the north are intersectiil with
numerous streams, which, however, enjoy their liberty but a short time of tlu'
year; the valleys are mostly swampy and lilleil with small lakes or poinls;
while cm the bleak hill-slopes the ^'acciIlilIm and the dwarf birch or willow
»pariii<»ly veij^etate under a carpet of mosses and lichens. The eastern, m.illi-
eastern, an 1 partly also the southern coasts abound with walruses, sca-lioi!'*,
mid seals, while the reindeer, the arirali, the wolf, and the Arctic fox ociMipy
the hiiid. Durim; the short summer, ^xol<i^c, swans, ducks, and wadinjj;-l»iiils
freque , the marshy irri iiuls ; but in winter the snow-owl anil the raven alone
remain, and constantly f<tl!ow the i)ath of the nomndic inhabitants, fn this
desolate nook of the Old World lives the only aborijjjinal people of North Asm
which hai known how to maintain its liberty to the present day, anil wliieh,
proud of its independence, looks down with sovereijjn contempt upon its re-
iR.iois, tlie Korjaks, who, without offering any resistance, have yielded to the
•uthoritv of Uussia.

THE TCIIUKTCIII.

203

''M

Tilt' rulers of Siberia have indeed confined the Tclmktflii within narrow
limits, b\it here at least they obey no foreign ruler, and wander, uninoleMted
1)V till' h''";nirer, with their numerous reintleer herds, over the naked tundras.
A ii:itiir;il distrust of their powerful neij^hbors has rendered thc'u loni; unwil-
liiii,' to cuter into any coinujercial intercourse with the Kussians, and to meet
tlicMi at the fair of Ostrownoje, a small town, situated not far from their fron-
iK'is. iin a small island of the Aniuj, in 08° N. lat.

This renuttest tradiui^-|ilace of the Old World is not so miimportant an
iiii,'!i! be supposed, from the sterile nature of the country, for the Tcliuktehi
:irt' not satislied, like the in(h)lent Lapps or tSamoiedos, wilii the produce of
tluir reindeer herds, but strive to increase their enjoynu'nls or iheir property
liy an active trade. Fmni the East Cape of Asia, where, crossint? IJerinj,''*
Snails in boats covered with skins, they barter furs and walrus-teelh from the
iKitivcs of America, the Tchuklchi como with their "joods and tents drawn on

;rt

' I

TOIICKTCIII ( ANDE.

slcd^xos to the fair of Ostrownoje. Other sledges laden with lichens, the food
of the reindeer, follow in their train, as in their wan lerin^s, however circuitous,
they not seldom pass throuirh rej^ions so stony and desert as not even to alTord
tin so fruiral animals the sliifhtest rejiast. Thus reijidatint,' their inovcnu-nts
liy the wmits of their licrds, they recpiire five or six moiiihs for a journey
\vliich,i[i a direct line, woidd not be much Ioniser than a thousand versls, and
arc almost constantly wanderinjx from place to place, tliouLrh, as they always
carry (lu'ir dwdlinLrs aloMjf with them, they at tlie same time never leave honu'.
One of these snail-like caravans j^eiierally consists of (ifty or sixty families, and
one fair is scarcely at an end when they set off to make their arrangements for
the next.

Tobacco is the primum mobile of the trade which centres in Ostrowiioje.
Their pipes are of a peculiar chariicter, larger at the stem llu.n the bowl, wl
holds a very small quantity of tobacco. In smokim;, they swallow iho fu
of the tobacco, and often, after six or eight whiffs, fall back completely int

v!:r

T.jii

u wf j H

III

Ml,,

t 1

264

THE POLAR WOULD.

TCnUKTCni PIPE.

catt'il for the time. The desire to procure a few of its narcotic leaves iiuhicos
tfio American Kscjiiimatix, from the ley Cape to Bristol IJay, to semi tlieir ])ro(l-
uee from liand to hand as far as the Gwoedew Islands in Bering's Straits,
where it is bartered for the tobacco of the Tchuktchi, and these again princi-
pally resort to the fair of Osfrownoje to purchase tobacco from the llussiais.
(ienerally the rchukt(!hi receive from the Americans as many skins for half a
poud, or eighteen pounds, of tol>acco-leaves r.s tliey afterwards sell to the Hus-
KJans for two pouds of tobacco of tlie same quality. These cost the Hassian
merchant about 100 roubles at the very utmost, while the skins which he obtains
in barter are worth at least 260 at Jakutsk, and are more th.nn double that sum
at St. Petersburg.

The furs of thi- Tchuktchi principal!y consist of black and silver-gray foxes,
Ktone-foxes, gluttons, lyiixes, otters, beavers, and a fine species of marten wliich
docs not occur in Siberia, and approaches the sabl" in value. They also bring
to the fair bear-skins, walrus-thongs and teeth, sledge-rimners of whale-rihs, and
ready-made clothes of reindeer skin. The American furs are generally packeii
in R.a<!k8 of seal skin, which are made in an ingenious manner by extracting the
bones and flesh through a small opening made in the abdomen.

The Russian traders on their part bring to the fair, besides tobacco, iron-
ware— particularly kettles and knives — for the Tchuktchi, and tea, sugar, and
various stuffs for their countrymen who have settled along the Kolym.i.

But Ostrownoje attracts not only Tchuktchi and Hussians; a great num-
ber of the Siberian tribes from a vast circuit of 1000 or 1500 versts— Jiika-
hires, Lamutes, Tungiisi, Tschuwanzi, Koriaks — also come flocking in tlicir
pledges, drawn partly by dogs, partly by horses, for the j>inpose of barterin?
their commodities against the goods of the Tchuktchi. Fancy this barbaious
assembly meeting every year during the intense cold .and short days of the ht^
ginning of March. Picture to yourself the f.antastic illumination of th( ir roil
w.atch-fires blazing under the starry firmameit, or mingling their ruddy glare
with the Aurora flickering through the skies, and add to the str.ange sight the
hoUow sound of the Shaman's drum, ami the howling of several hundreds of
himgry dogs, and you will surely confess that no fair has a n>ore original cliai-
acter than th.at of Ostrownoje, A government commissary, assisted by some
Cossacks, superintends the fair, and receives the iuconsiderablc market-tax
which the Tchuktchi p.ay to the Emperor.

THE TCIIUKTCIII.

2G.1

All prcliminarios having been arranged, the orthodox Russians) repair to
tlie cliapel for the jturpose of hearing a solemn mass, after which, the hoisting
of a tlag on the tower of the ostrog announces the opening of tlie market.
At this welcome sign, the Tchuktchi, comjdetely armed with spears, bows, and
arrows, advance with their sledges, and form a wide semicircle round the
fort, while the llussians, and the oilier visitors of the fair, ranged opposite to
thi'Mi, await in breathless silence the tolling of the bell, which is to begin the
active business of the day. At the very fiist sound, each trader, grotes«piely
liidcn with packages of tobacco, kettles, knives, or whatever else lie supposes
best aide to supply some want, or to strike some fancy of the Tchuktchi, rush-
es as fast as he can towards the sledges, and in the jumble not seldom knocks
down a comjietitor, or is himself stretched at full length on the snow. But,
unmindful of the loss of cap and gloves, which he does not give himself time
to pick up, he starts afresh, to make up for the delay by re<loubled activity.
Before lie re;H''u's the first Tchuktch, his elo(pience breaks forth in an inter-
minable How, and in a strange jargon of Kussian, Tchuktch, and Jakute, he
inaises tlie excellence of his-tobacco or the solidity of his kettles. The iniper-
tiirhalile gravity of the Tchuktch forms a remarkable contrast with the greedy
eagcnu'ss of the Russian trader ; without reidyiiig to his harangue, he merely
sliiikes his head if the other offers him too little for his goods, and never for
an instant loses his self-possession : while the Russian, in his liurry, not sel-
dom hands over two pouds of tobacco for one, or pockets a red fox instead of
a black one. Although the Tchuktch have no scales with them, it is not easy
to deceive them in the weight, for they know exactly by the feeling of the
hand whether a quarter of a pound is wanting to the ])oud. The wlude fair
seldom lasts longer than three days, and Ostrownoje, which must have but very
few sta'.iouary inhabitants indeed (as it is not even mentioned in statistical ac-
counts, ttliich cite towns of seventeen souls), is soon after abandoncil for many
months to its ultra-Siberian solitude.

IJut before we allow the Tchuktchi to retire to their deserts, we may learn
something more of their habits by accomiianyi'.g Mr. Matiiisclikin — Wrangeirs
companion — on a visit to the ladies of one of their first chiefs. " We enter ihe
outer tent, or ' namet,' consisting of tanned reindeer skins sup])orted on a slen-
der frame-work. An opening at the top to let out the smoke, and a kettle '
the centre, announce that antechamber and kitchen arc here harmoniously ble-
ed into one. IJut where arc the inmates? Most jirobably in that large
made of the finest skins of reindeer calves, which occupies, near the kettle, the
centre of the 'namet.' To penetrate into this ' sanctum sanctorum' of the
rdiuktch household, we raise the loose flap which serves as a door, creep on all
fours through the opening, cautiously re-fasten the flap by tucking it under the
flooi'-skiii, and find ourselves in the reception or withdrawing room — the ' polog.'
A snug box MO doubt for a c(d<l climate, but rather low, as we c.in not stand up-
nglit in it, and not (piite so well ventilated as a sanitaiy commissioner would
approve of, as it has positively no opening for light or air. A suffocating
smoke meets us on entering, we rub our eyes, and when they have at length cot
accustomed to the biting atmosphere, we perceive, by the gloomy light of •

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THE POLAU WOULD.

train oil lamp, thv? worthy family siiuatlini; on tlio floor in a staUi of almost
<!oiiii)li'tr ii;i(lity. Willioiit lu'ini^ in tlio least eml' "irassi'd, Mailamo Li'dil iind
her (lanu;littr ii-ciivc ns in tluir i>rimilivi! coslnmc : Inil to siiow us limi the
'IVlMiktclii know Imw to icecivt! company, and to do honor to their fjiiosls, iImv
imnu'diati'ly insert strinijs of jj;lass beads in their greasy hair. 'I'lieir liiis|iit;ili.
ty e(|iialM their politeness; for, instead of a eold reeeption, a hot dish of lioilcd
reindeer llesh, copiously irrii^ated with raneiil train-oil l»y tiie experienced liand
of the nustress >if tiie household, is soon after smokinLj before us. rnfoiliuiiiic-
ly our effeminate tasie is not up to the /idiit f/'nU of her oidinary -utjand wliilc
Mr. I.eiltt does ample justice to the artistic talent of his spouse, hy r.ipidiv linli.
ing down pieces as larue as a list, we are hardly al)le to swallow ;i morsel."

])iu'ini;r his \isit at Ostrownoje, .Matinschkin had a favorahh! opporlimilv of
bcconuu!; ac<piainted with the sports of the Tchuktchi, tiie chieftain, Maknniol,
iiavini; set out jiri/es for a race. These' consisted of a valuable sihcr lox, a
first-r it(! bea\('r skin, and two line! walrus-teeth. Nolhini^ <';ui bi> more acl-
niirable than the lleetness (d the reindeer or the dexterity of their drivers;
and the nihility iiispl.iyed in the foot-racu by the Tchuktchi, runniiii^ at full
speed, in th ir heavy winter dresses, over a distance of iiftoen versts, i,'ivcs a
)\'\<j:\\ idea (d their muscidar powers. Afti'r the races, the spect:iti>rs are treated
to a Lji'and choreixniphic display. The Arctic; bayaderes, muflled from liciid
to fiKit ill their slil'f skin ijainieiits, form a narrow circle, slowly nioviiit,' thdr
feet backward and forward, and llercely gesticulatinti with thei"' hands, whilst
their fat'cs arc- di>.torte(l into a tho\isand horrible iirimaces. The sini|inj; that
acconipaidcs the ballet has no iloubt its charm for native ears, but (o slraii'.'ciH
it seems no better tha. a kind of j,n'unl. 'I'he representation is closed by three
lirst-rate (irtishs oxecutiui,' a particularly fa\orite dance. The f.aces of their
countrymen express tho Kame intense admiration with which a Kiiropean dilil-
l.ante follows the graceful pirouettes of a Taglioni, while the liUssi.m ^nus;.*
see only three greasy monsti'rs alternately rii'hing towards each other and
starting back, mitil at length they stop from sheer exhausiion. As a token of
their satisfaction, the Russians regale tho fair performers with a «up of l.i.indy
and a roll of tobacco, and both parties take leave of each other willi niuhml
])roti'stations of satisfaction and friendship.

Though most of the l{eindeer or nomadic; Tchuktchi have been baptized, yet
Wr.ingell supposes tho oeremony to have Iteen a mere fmancial speculation mi
their part, and is convinced that the power of the tihamaiis is still as gre:il an
ever. An epidemic had carried off a great iiinnber of persons, and .also wlmle
herds of n'indccr. In vain the Shamans had recourse to tludr usual conjiir.i-
tions, the jdague continuetl. They consultecl together, ami directecl that one ot
their most respected chiefs, named Kotsclion, must lie sairrificed, to appease llie
irritated sj)irits. Kotschen was willing to submit to the sentence, but iiimi'
could be found to execute it, until his own son, piev.ailed t)n by his f.'ithei's ex-
hortations, and terrilied by his threatened curse, plunged a knife into his heart,
and jrave his body to the Sh.amaiiK.

P(dygamy is general nn'ong the Tchnktohi, niid thoy rhaiigo their wiv(>« an
often as tlioy jileask - biill, though tiio women ore certainly glavos, ihejr an' »!•

THE TCIIUKTCIII.

207

lovvttl iiioic iiifluonco, and arc subjected to loss labor than amoncf many sav-
•i(fc'-i. Anioii'4 oliicr hvatlu'iiish and detestable eusloins, is tliat of killiim all
clcfiii'riu'il cliilili'eii, and all olil people as soon us tliey becoiiw; nntil for tlit;
ImiiNliip-^ and fatij^iics of a nomad life. Two years before Wrani^ell's arri-
v:il al Kolvnia tlierc was an instanee of this in the eas^- of one of their richest
cliirfs. NVaiitka's father beeaine inlirni and tired of life, and was put to tleath
;it hi-< own expi'ess desire by some of his nearest relations.

l!i>iilf^ till' waiideriiiijf, or Reindeer Tchiiktchi, who eall themselves Temiygk,
ili.ic are otiicrs, dwelling in fixed habitations alonj^ the borders of the sea at
111 riii'/'^ Straits and the (Jnlf of Anadyr, who differ C':i)sideral>ly from tin?
Iciiiiicr in apjiearance and lani^uaye. These Onkiion, or stationary Tehnktciii,
licloiiLr to the wiile-spread Ks(piimanx family, and, like most of their race, sub-
sist liv hinilin'4 the whale, the walrus, and the So'al. They live in a state of
iilijcit (icpciidcnce on the nomad Tehuktehi, und are poor, like all lishermen,
while some of the Tennyjj;k ehieftains possess several thousands of n'indeer,
:uiil are continnally addiiiLj to their wealth by trade. Of <roiirse there is an
lutive e\(lian:,'(! of (rommodities between tl;e two; the Onkiion furnishini^
tlioim> of walrus hide, walrus-teeth, train-oil, etc., and reeeivini; reindeer skins,
or n-ady-madc clothes of the same material, in return.

Tiny live in small settlements or villai^es spread aloiiLT the coast; their huts,
raised oi\ fiaiiie-works of whali'-rib ami covered with skins, resemble a larye
iii(",'alar cone rep)sinij on its side, with the apex directed to Jlu; north, and
the l),i>e slulvin<4 abruptly to the south. Here is the small opcnini;, (^loseil by
a tl.ip of |o()S(! skin, which selves as a door, while the smoke escapes .and the
liu'lit enters throni:h a round hole in tlie roof. At the farther or northern end
of tlii-i strn-ture is a second low s<|U;ire tent, » Dvercil with donlile reindeer
."•kins, t lie polo^r, which in wiiit<.'r serves both as the dining and bed room of
the family.

The Onkiion eatcli seals in a kind of net made of leather straps, wliich they
spread out under the ice, and in which the anim.al en'airules itself with the
liead or nippers. When the walrus, which is particularly abundant about
Koliutschin Island, efe('|(s on shore, they steal upon it unawares, cut off its re-
treat, and kill it with their spears. Like the Ks(piimaux, they use doLjs to dra'4
their sledjres.

The number of the Tehuktehi is (jreatcr than on(> miij;ht expect to find in
SI) sterile a country. AecordiiiL; to the IJussi.an missionaries, there were, some
years back, .')2 nlusses or vi' lieges of the Onkiion, with 15(58 tents, and 10,000
inhahitants; and Wr;in<,'ell tells us that the Teimyu'k are at least twice as i;n-
iiierouH, so that the entire poi)ulution of the land of the Tehuktehi may possi-
bly aiuouiit to 30,000.

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THE POLAR WORLD.

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AN ALEt'T.

CHAPTER XXV.

BERING SEA— TIIK RUSSIAN FUR COMPANY— THE ALEUTS.

DerinRSea.— I'lmlaska.— TliB I'ribilow Islands.— St. Matthew.— St. Ijiuroncc.— IkrinR'o Strait*.— Tlif
Hus.-ian Kiir ("oinpaiiy. — 'I'Iip .Mfiils. — Tlieir ("liuractcr. — 'I'lirir Skill and Iiitr('|)iility in liiintiii(,' tin'
Soa-ottcr. — The Soa-bcar.— Wli.ili'-cliasitiK. — Wulru3-.slau|.;litcr. — Tln! Sea-lion.

T>KIlIN(r SEA is extremely interestins: in a gcoixr.iphical point of view, as
-■-' tlie teinj)erature of its coasts and islands exliibils so striking; a contrast
with that part of the Arctic Ocean which extends between (Ireenlaml, Ictlaml,
Norway, and Spitzbcriien, and affords us the most convincing jtroof of tlic
})enefils we owe to the (liilf Stream, and to the mild south-westerly winds
which sweep across the Atlantic. While through the sea between Icilaiid
and Scotland, a part of the warmth generated in tlie tropical zone jjcnctratcs
by means of marine and aerial currents as far as Spitzbergen and the wcstciii
coast of Nova Zembla, the Sea of Hcring is completely deprived of this advan-
tage. The lo' g chain of mountainous islands which bounds it on the suiilli
serves as a ban ier against the mild influence of the Pacific, and instead ot
warm streams mi.xing with its waters, many considerable rivers and deeji bays
yearly diseh:.rge into it enormous masses of ice. Thus .as soon as the naviira-
tor enters IJering Sea he pt'rceives at once a considerable fall in the tempera-
ture, and finds himself suddenly transferred from a temperate oceanic reg'""
to one of a decidedly Arctic character. In spite, therefore, of their conipara-
tivcdy southerly position (for the Straits of licring do not even reach the Arc-
tic Circle, and the Andrianow Islands are ten degrees farther to the south than

! I

BEHINO SEA— THE ALEUTS.

269

the p'oroc's), those fricful watorH nn>, with regard to climate, far loss favorably
HJtiiiitfd than the Heas of Spit/beruen.

The same gradual ditUreiiees of temperattjre and veijetation which we
tiiid ill Tiialaska, tlie IVibilow Islands, St. Laurence, and the Straits of IJe-
riii'.', within 10° of latitude, occur in theShetlanil Islands, Iceland, !?ear Islaml,
;ii)(l Spilzbercten at distances of almost 'J0° ; so that in the Sea of 15crin<; the
iiMicase of cold on advancing to the north is about twice att rapid as in the
\v:it( IS between North Europe and North America.

Tlie loni; and narrow peninsula of Aliaska, which forms the south-eastern
li.iiinilarv of this inhospitable Hca, shows us its influence in a very marked de-
nvc, for while the climate of the northern side of that far-projecting land-
tc<ii','ue has a decidedly Arctic character, its southern coasts fronting the I'a-
ritic enjoy a temperate climate. The mounlain-chain which, rising to a height
lit' five or six thousand feet, forms the backbone of the peninsula, serves as the
liMiiiularv of two distinct worlds, for while the northern slo|)cs are bleak and
tncicss like Iceland, tlu! southern shores are covered from the water's edge
witli niaijriiticent forests. While on the m)rthern side the walrus extends his
ixciirsions down to 50° 30' N. lat., on the southern ex|)osure the humming-
hiiil is seen to Hit from flower to flower as high as 01, the most lujrtherly
|ioiiit it is known to attain.

Tlie Feroi' Islands ((31° N. lat.) have undoubtedly a no very agreeable cli-
m.iti' to boast of, but they may almost be said to enjoy Italian skies when
lomiiaicd with Unaiaska (•'•f' N. lat.), the best known of the Aleutian chain.

The Scaii(liiiavian archipi-lago is fiHMpiently obscured with fogs, but hcnt
tlii'v are perpetual from April to the miildlo of July. From this lime till the
cii'l of September the weather improves, as then the southerly winds drive the
tiisx'^v region mon! to the norlli, and enable the sun to shine (luring a few se-
rene (lavs upon the bleak shores of I'lialaska. Hut soon the I'olar air-streams
n"'-;iiii (lie su|)reiiiaev, and a dismal veil oiiee more shrouds the melancholv isl-
mill. Of Sitk.'i, the chief town of Aliaska, Mr. Whymper says : " It enjoys the
unenviable position of being about the most rainy place in the world. Uain
(•t;is( s only when theiH! is a good prospect of snow." Snow generally begins
to full early in October, and snow-storms occur to the very cud of May. There
are veais in which it rains continuallv during the whole winter. In the Imtocs
some serviei'-trees are to be seen twelve feet high or more, while nothing like
a tree ever grew in I'nalaska. The dilu>rence between tlie temperatures of the
siiiiimer and winter, wiiieli in the I'Vrois is confined to very narrow limits, is
nuicli more considerable in Unaiaska, though here also the moderating influ-
ence of the sea makes itself felt. Thus in summer the thermometer rarely
lisos above 06°, but on the other hand in winter it still more rarely fulls be-
low -2".

Of course no corn of any kind can possibly ripen in a climate like this, bet
tlie (lamp and cool temperature favors the growth of herbs. In the moist low-
lands the stunted willow-bushes arc stifled by the luxuriant grasses; and even
oil the hills, the vegetation, which is of a decidedly Alpine ^'liaracter, covem
tlie eartli up to the line of perpetual huow ; while several social plants, such

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, ♦

ns tlip Litpiriuji twotArniius awd tlio lihododeiulnm kamtsrhadalicum^iXvi'wwXi^.
tlu'si' tlisriiiil n^ioiis with lln-ir biillijiiit i-olur. Tlu' lively i^rcfii ol'ijio nicid.
OW8 roiniiulH one oC tlie valley of I'rHcivii, ho well known to all AI|»iiM' t()iiii>ts.

TliP rtKPSscs and liclicns Ix'i^in already at, I'tialaska to assume tliat |iriui)Mii
nancp in llic Flora wliicli ehuracteri/.es the I'li^jid zone.

A few degrueH to ih(j north of ihe Aleutian chain, which extends in a loner

HKUINO SEA— TIFK AI.nUTS.

271

line from (lie promontory of Aliaskii to Kaiiiclialkii, aro pitiintod tlio IVihllow
IslamN, St. (it'orm' and >t. I'aul, wliiili arc riK'hralc*! in tlif history of tln' fnr-
tiailc, tlu' fornu-r as the cliicf lirootlinix-jihu't' ttf the sca-hi'ar, the hitler as that
(if the Kca-lion. Chaniisso was htnick with tlicir wintry aspei-t, for here no
hli(lt(H'tl valleys and lowlands promote, as at I'nalaska, a more vii,'orons w^-
clalioii. The roiimii'd harks tif the hills and the sealtered roeks are eovered
will) hiack and i^ray liehens ; and where the melting snows alford a siitlicient
moist lire, sphaiiniim, mosses, and a few weeds oeeupy tluMiiarshy ground. The
frozen earth has no springs, and yet these desolate islands have a nH)re soiitli-
cilv situation than the Orkneys, whi're harley grows to ripeness. IJefore
lliise inlands were discovered l»y the Kiissians they had heen for ages this iiii-
(listiirhed home of the sea-hir<ls and tiie large eetaeean seals. Under lliissian
sii|ieriiitendeiii'e, some Aleuts liave now heen settled on hoth of them. The
iiiiiumfialilf hinls «)f sea-lions, wliieh cover the naked shores of St. (Icorge
a'* far as the eye can reach, presiMit a slniiige sight. The guillemots have
taken possession of the places niioceupi»'d l)y their families and lly •earlessly
among them, or nestle in lln- crevices of the wave-worn rock-walls, or i)etween
the lariic hoiildrrs wl'ch rnrm a hank along the straml.

Still farther to the north lies the uninhahiled island of St. Mattlx-w ((>'_'"
\. lat.). A settlement was once attemptcil ; hut as the animals which had
luiii ri'ckoned upon for the winter supply of food (h'parted, the unfortunate
cojiiuists all died of hunger.

Ko'is are so (Ve<pient ahoiit th(> island of St. Laurence that navii^alors liave
often passid close liy it ((1"»" X. lat.) without, secni'^ it. Chaniisso was sur-
prised at the heauty and the numhers of its dwariish fh)wering Iierhs, which
niiiiiHlcd him of the highlands of Switzerlaml, while the nei^hhoring St.
Laurence May, in the lan<l of the Tehiiktchi, was the image ofwinlrv desola-
tion. In .Inly the lowlands were covered with stiow-liclds, and tlu- liw plants
lioic the .Mpiiie character in the most marked degree. I'nder this inclement
sky, the mountains, uiipioti'cti'd hy vegettition, rapidly fall intoihcay. Kvery
winter splits the rocks, and the summer torrents carry the fragments down to
tliiir I'cct. 'I'he groiin<l is everywiu're covered with blocks of stone, unless
wlicic the sphagnum, liy tlu^ accumulation of its tlecoinpo;<ed remains, has
formed masses (if peat in the swampy lowlands.

On saiiiM'4' tluouLrli l>erin''"s St raits, the traveller mav se(\ in clear weaflu'r.

illi the Old ami the New World. On both sides rise hi'di i

noimtanis, prc-

(■i|iilonsly from the water's edge in .Asia, loit .'separated from tlie sea hy a
hi'oad alius ial hell on the American si<le. The sea is deep(-sl on the Asiatic
honlir, where the current, flowing from the south with lonsidcrahle rapidity,
lias also the ijreatest force. Here also wliali's may he ol'teii seen, and large
lii'iils of walruses.

Ill former times the hauhar of the Ksquiniaux was the only hoat ever seen
111 the straits, and since Semen Deshnew, who first sailed round the eastern
point of ,\sia, Kuropeati navigators had hut rarely passid them to explore the
scasheyoiid; hut ncently this remotest part of the world has hecomc the
icine of an active whale-fishery.

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THE POLAR WOULD.

A HA I DAK,

Tho shorpa of Px'rinjj Soa aro naked and Mrak, and tl>c numcrouH voliu.
nooH of th« Aleutian eliain pour out llu'ir lava-streams over unknown wililcr-
nesses. But the watern of the sea are teeming; with life. (»i<;antie ali:a', siicli
ns are never seen in the torrid zone, form, round the rocky coasts, vast siili-
marine forests. A iiost of fishes, whales, walruses, an<l seals, fill the sea ami
its shores, and innumerable sea-ltinls oecupy the elilfs. IJut tlu'se treasnics
of tlu! oeean, whieh for aujes furnished the Aleuts and other wild trilies willi
the means of cxistenee, iuive alst> heen the oauso of their servitude. IIa<l tlic
8oa-otter not existed, tho wihl children of the sttil mijjtht possibly still he in
possession of their ancient freedom; and hut f(tr the sea-hear and the walrus,
the whale and the seal, the banners of the C'/ar would scarcely have met llic
flag of Knglanil on the continent of America.

As (ho whole fur-trade of tlio Ilinlson's IJay Territory is concentrated in
tho hands of one mighty company, thus also one powerful association enjoys
tho exclusive commerce of the eastern jjossession of IJussia. The rei^ions un-
der the authority of the Ivussian Vnr Company* occupy an immense space, as
they comprise not oidy all tlic islands of IJering Sea, but also the American
coasts down to 55" N. lat. The extreme j)oints of this vast territory are situ-
ated at a greater distance from each other than London from Tobolsk, but the
importance of its traile bears no ])r(rp)rtion to its extent.

Tlie company, which was founded in the year 1709, under the Emperor
Paul, had, in 18:10, thirty-six liunting settlements on its own territory (tlic
Knrile Islands, tlie Aleutic chain, Aliaska, Uristol Bay, Cook's Inlet, Norton
Sound, etc.), besides a cliain of agencies from Ochotsk to St. Petersburg. Its
chief seat is New Ardiangel, on Sitka, ono of the many islands of King
George III.'s \rchipelago, first accurately explored by Vancouver. The mai;-
niiicont Bay of Norfolk, at the heail of wliich the small town is situatcl,
greatly resembles a Norwegian fjord, as wc here find the same steep rock-

• Since last yp.ir [ISfiT] ilic Russian Oovommfnt hM soM her American poxBeflslons to tlic t'nltft
Htatra, tint as it is not yet known liow furttie Intcrefts of the Russian Fur Company have been affected
\ty the chance, I may l>e allowed to speak of hrr in the present tcnea.

i ^
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BF.ni\(} HEA-TIIK ALKlTf'.

'273

walls ImthiiiLf their prcriiiilnuH hides in tlio ciiu'ralil waters, and clothed with
dense pine ttirestH wherever a tree can ^^row.

A iiiiml'er (»f isU'ts seat tend over the surCiiee oftlie hay add to tlie l»ea(lty
lit the seine. The furs cdneeteii \<y the ciMiiitany are i liielly those of Heu-
licus, sea-otters, Coxes, heavers, l)ears, iyiixi's, Anieriean martens, ete., antl nre
|i;nily Ciirnished hy the siiltjeets of its own territory (Ah-uts, Kadjaelts, Ke-
iiiri/.<'s,'relmL;atehi, Aiiasiians), who are eonipeUed to Imnt on its aeeonnt,and
piirtiv olitaiiied hy l)arler from the independent trilies <d' the mainland, or
tioiii tlu' Hudson's IJay Company. Tiie greater part is sent to Oehotsk or
till' Amoor, and from theiiee thron^h Silteria to St. IVtershiir!? ; the rest to the
t'liiiiesc ports, where tiie skins cd' the yoimj; seadtear always tind a ready
iii;irkit.

(Mail the ahoriijinal trihes wliieli inhahit the vast territory of Knssiaii
Aiiii tiia, tlie inost worthy of notice is that of the .Aleuts. Less fortunate
iliiii tlieir independent relatives, tiie ICs(|iiimau\ of the north— who in th«
iiiiiUl of privations maintain an impertnrltahle ixayety of temper — these isl-
iiiwlers have heen elfeetually spirild)roken under a foreiurn yoke. In 1HI7
the enicl treatment of their masters had reduced them to ahout a thousanil ;
Miu'c that tinu' their niimher has somewhat increased, the comp.-my h.-iviiiir at
liimtli discovered that man is, after all, the most valnahlc production of a
hiinl, and that if depopiilalinM increa ' <l still full her, they woidd soon have
iitmoie hunters to supply them with turs.

Kvcry .Aleut is Ixmnd, after his ciLthteenth year, to servo the company
limr )/4(ii'i> ; and this forced lahor-tax does not seem at first sii,'ht immode-
riilc, hut if we consider that the islanders, to whom every forei'^n 'irticle irt
sii]i|ili(d from the warehouses of the company, ai'c invariahly its dehtors, we
CUM iiiil (lonlit that as loti<r as the Aleut is ahle to hunt, he is (diliircd to do so
fur tlie waives of a slave. The llishop Ivan Wenianunow, who resnU'd ten
yens at I'nalaska, draws a picture of tiiis people wlii<h exiiihits evident
murks of a lonj; servitude. They never (juarrel amoiifj each other, ami their
|i;\ticiice is exemplary. Xothinif can surj)asH the fortitude with which they
nnlure pain. On the other iiand, they never show excessive joy; it Hcems
imiM)s>il(le to raise their fcelini^s to the jiiti-h oi' tleliiiht. Kven after a lon<»
tiot.a child never grasps with cauenuss the prolfered morsel, nor does it on
uny occasion exhihit the mirth so natural to its aire.

in huiitinjj; the marine animals, tlio Aleuts exhihit a wonderful skill and in-
trepidity. To catch the sea-otier, they assetnhle in .April or May at an njv
piMiitcd spot, in their Hijlit skin hoats, or haidars, and choose one of their most
ri'spictid chiefs for the leader of the expedition, which trenerally nunihcrs
troiu lifty to a hunch'ed hoats. Such hunting-parties are annually organized
troiu the Kurile Islands to Kadjack, and consec|uently extend their operations
"vcr a line of ;U)00 miles. On the first fine (V\\ the exiie<lition sets out and
proceeds to a distance of ahout forty versts from the coast, when the haidars
t'>rni into a long line, leaving an interval of ahout i'.'iO fathoms from hoat to
"oat, as far as a sea-otter diving out of the water can he seen, so that a row
of thirty haidars occupies a space of from ten to twelve versts. When the

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23 WEST MAIN STRF.ET

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THE POLAU WOULD.

miinber of tlic l)oats is cfrcator, tlie intervals are rcclnood. Every man now
looks u])on the sea witli ijreat attention. Nothing escapes tiie eye of tlie
Alent ; in tlie smalK'st black spot appearing but one moment over the siufact'
of the v.ntcrs, he at once recognizes a sea-otter. The baiilar which iirst sees
the animal rows rajiidly towards the spot where the creature dived, and ncnv
the Aleut, holding his oar straight up in the air, remains motionless on the
spot. Innnediately the whole scpuidron is on the move, and the long, straiudit
line changes into a wide; circle, the <:entre of which is occupied by the baidar
with the raised oar. The otter, not being able to remain long under water, ic
appears, and the nearest Aleut immediately greets him with an arrow. Tliis
tir^it attack is ;Hdd()m mortal ; very often the missile does not I'ven rcadi its
tnark, and the sea-otter instantly disappears. Agaiii the oar rises from tlie
next baidar; again tlie circle i'orms, but tliis tune narrower than at first ; the
liitigued otter is obliged to come oflener to the surface, ari'ows tly from all
sides, and linally tiie animal, killed by a mortal sh )t,or exiiausted by r(|irat-
cd wounds, hills to the share of the archer who has iiit it nearest to the luail.
If several otters appear at the same time, the boats form as many rings j>-()-
vided their numl)er be sulliciently great.

The boldest of all hunters, the Aleuts of the Fox Islands, pursue the sea-ot-
ter also in wintei'. If, during the summer chase, the rapidity and n^gulanty
with which all the movements are j)erformed, and the sure eye and aim (li'tlic
archers command the spectator's admiration, this winter cliase gives him (jcca-
sion to wonder at their courage. During tlie severest winter-storms the otter
shelters liimsc if on the shore of some small uninhabited island or on a sdliiaiy
rock, and after havimi; carefullv ascertained that no enemv is near, coils liimMJt'
n[) and falls asleep. While the storm still rages, two Aleuts apjiroacdi the idck
in two single baidars from the leeward. The hunter in the ftiremost baiil;ir
stands upright, a gun or a club in his hand, and waits in this position till a
wave brimis him near to the summit oi" tlie rock. lie iiow springs on laml,
and whiie his companion takes care of the baidar, approaches the slet'piiig otli r
and shoots if or kills it with his (dub. With the assistance of his coniiianieii
who lias remained on the water, he springs back into his baidar as soon as ilio
crest of a wave brings it within his reach.

The sea-bear is nearly as valuable as the sea-otter to tlie fur company, as tlw
woollv skin of the young animal is the only one of the whole seal trilie wliiih
is reckoned amouix the finer iieltrv. The sea-bears are ehietlv killed on the
Commodore and Pribilow islands, particularly on St. Paul, where they arc
hunted by a certain number of Aleuts located there under Kussian superin-
tendence. The chase begins in the latter part of September, on a cold, foiiry
day, when the wind blows from the side wliere the animals are assembled nn
the rocky shore. The boldest huntsmen open the way, then follow the oldir
jieople and the children, and the chief ])ersonage of the band comes last, to lie
the better able to direct and survey the movements of his men, who are iiH
armed with clubs. The main object is to cut oH'tlie herd as quickly as jiossi-
ble from the sea. All the grown-up males and females are spared and allowed
to escape, but most of the young animals are sentenced to death. Tlio.'ie

BEIIING SEA— THE ALEUTS.

275

wliicb -^ro only four moutlis ol>. (llioir furs Ikmugj most liiLcMy ]irizc'(() are
(l(i(iiiiL'(l without exc'C'ptiou; ".vliilc; of tliu others that lia\o attaini'd an aLTc of
one. two, or three years, only the jnales are killed. For several tlays afttr the
inassacre, the mothers swim about the island, seekiujf and loudly wailing fur
their youii^''.

From October 5 8t. Paul is <j;radually deserted by the sea-bears, who then
miirrate to the south and re-a])pear towards the end of April, the males iirrivinj;
first. Facii seeks the same s[)ot on tlu; shore wiiieh he occupied during tlie
lirecediiiii' vear, and lies down among the large stone blocks with which the flat
l)earli is covered. About the middle of ]\'ay the far more numerous females
hctriii to make their appearance, and the sea-bear families take full ])('s^ession
of the strand. Each male is the sultan of a hen! of b'males, varying in immber
acciinliiit; to his size and strength; the weaker brethren contenting tliemselves
witli half a dozen, whik^ some of the sturdier and tit'rci"; fellows preside over
harctiis '_'()() strong. Jea! 'Usy and mtrusion fi'e(|ucntly give rise to terri!)le bat-
tles. The full-grown male sea-bear, who is about four or five times larger than
tlu- female, grows to the lengtli of eight feet, and owes his name to his shaggy
blackish fur, and not to his disposition, which is far from being cruel or savage.

Armed with a short spear, a single Aleut does not hesitate to attack the co-
lossal whale. Approaching cautiously from behind in Ins baidar until he reach-
es the hi'ad,he phuiges his weaj)on into the animars Hank under the foi-e tin,
and then retreats as fast as his oar can carry him. If the spear has peiu'trated
into the llesh, the whale is doomed ; it dies within the ne\t two or three days,
and the currents and the waves drift the carcass to the next shore. Kajh
sj.oar has its peculiar mark by which the owner is recognized. Sometinu's the
baiiiiU- dies not escape in time, and the whale, maddened by pain, furiously
lashes the water with his tail, and throws the baidar high uji into tiie air, or
sinks it deep into the sea. "^I'he whale-fishers are highly estuMued among the
Aleuts, and their intrepidity and skill well (leser\'e the general admiration. Of
cnui'sc many of the whales are lost. In the sumnu'r of is;!l, lis whales were
wonuded near Kad jack, of which only forty-thi'ee wt^n^ foiuid. The others
may have been w.nfled far out into the sea t<; ri'gale the sharks and sea-birds,
(ir driven to more distant slK)res, whcsse inhabitants no doubt gladly welcomed
their landing. WrangcU informs us that since ls:!o the IJussiaii^ have intro.
I'iUeed the use of the harpoon, and engaged some Fti'_;ii>h liarjionners to teach
the Aleuts ;i more profitable method of whale-catching, but we are not told
hiiw the experiment lias succeede(l.

The company, besides purchasing a great quantity of walrns-leeth from the
Teli'.iktelii of the IJcring's Straits and ]>ristol r>ay, send e\cry year a detach-
ment of Aleuts to the north coast of Aliaska, where generally a large muniier
fif young walruses, probably (b'ivei\ away by t!;e older ones, who prefer the vi-
cinity of the polar ice, spend the sumtner months.

The walruses herd on the lowest edge of the coast which is within reach of
the spring tides. When the Aleuts prepare to attack the animals, they take
k'ave of each other as if they were going to face death, being no less afraid of
the tusks of the walruses than of the awkwardness of their own companions.

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Arm !(1 witli lances and heavy axes, they stealthily approach the walruses, and
having disj)osed their ranks, suddenly f. il upon them with loud shouts, and en-
deavor to drive them from the sea, taking care that none of them escape into
the water, as in tliat case tlie rest would irresistibly follow and i)recipitate the
huntsmen along with them. As so<)n as the walruses have been driven far
enough uj) the strand, the Aleuts attack them with the'r lances, strikinir ak
them in places where the hide is not so thick, and then jjressing with all tluir
might against the sjjcar, to render the wound deep and deadly. The slaughter-
ed animals tumble one over the other and form large heaps^ whilst the hunts-
men, uttering furious shouts and intoxicated with carnage, wade througli tlic
bloody mire. They then cleave the jaws and extract the tusks, which are llio
chief objects of the slaughter of several thousand walruses, since neither tiioir
flesh nor their fat is made use of in the colony. The c".rcasses are left on the
shore to be washed away by the spring tides, which soon efface the mark of the
massacre, and in the following year the inexhaustible north sends new victims
to the coast.

Sir Cleorge Simpson, in his " Overland Journey round the World," relates
that the bales of fur sent to Kiachta are covered v.ith walrus hide ; it is then
made to ])rotect the tea-chests which find their way to ^loscow, and afl(!r ail
these wanderings, the far-travelled skin returns again to Xi sv Archangel, where,
cut into small ])ieces and stamped with the company's mark, it serves as a inc-
dium of exchange.

The skin of the sea-lion {Otar'ui Stdlcri) lias but little value in tlie fur-
trade, as its hair is short and coarse, but in many other respects the unwielily
animal is of considerable use to the Aleut. Its hide serves to cover his bai.
dar; with the entrails ho nakes his water-tight kamleika, a wide, long shirt
which he puts on over h's dress to protect himself against the rain or tlie
spray ; the thick webs of its flippers furnish excellent soles for his boots, and
the bristles of its lip figure as ornaments in his head-dress.

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ALASKA.

?'7

FOKT ST. MICUAEL.

CHAPTER XXVI.
ALASKA.

Purchase of Alaska by tho United States. ^Tlie Russian American Telegraph Sclicme. — WhATnpor's
Trip up tlie Yul<oii.— Dojis. — Tlie St.irt. — K.xU'Uipore Water-(ilt':'r. — Snow-sho-s. — Tlie Frozen Yu-
lioii.— L'iuler-;;roiiiHl IIiiuscs. — Life at Nuluto. — Cold Weather. — Auroras. — .Vppniarh of Summer.
— lircaliinn-up of tlie Ice. — Fort Yulcou. — Furs. — Descent of tlie Yukon. — Valim of (ioods. — Arctic
ami Tropical Life. — Moose-huiitinij. — Deer-corrals. — Lip Ornaments. — Canoes.— Four-post Coffin.
—The Keiiaiau Indians. — The Aleuts. — Value of Alaska.

TX 1867 the Russian Government sold to the United States all of its posses-
-■- sions in America, comprising .in area of more th.an 500,000 square miles, equal
ill extent to France, Germany, and Great Britain, stretching from 51° 40' north
liititude to the Arctic Ocean. The sum paid was about seven and a quarter
iiiillioiis of dollars. In this purchase is included Mount St. Elias, the highest
Jicak in Xorth America, rising to a height of more than 1 8,000 feet, and one of
tho loftiest single peaks on the globe. The real value of this new acquisition
was quite unknown to both buyer aiid seller. In tlie southern part, and on the
islands, there is considerable vegetation and forests of large trees ; and it is
said tiiat tiiere is some mineral wealth. But the greater part of the territory
is t'SsontiuUy Arctic. It now bears the designation of tlie Territory of Alaska,
ati abbreviation of AliaAa, the name of the peninsula stretching into the North
Pacific Ocean.

Little information has as yet been gained of tliis region. The most impor-
tant is the result of a journey np the River Yukon, performed in 18GG by Mr.
Frederick Wliymper, an artist connected with tlicTekgraph E.\pedition. This
telegraph enterprise was undertaken in the confident expectation that the ca-

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hies laid directly across tlic Allantic would fail, and tliat telcn;ra])liic cotnnnuiica-
lions lii'twoiii I.diidon and New York must be mainly hy land. Tim ]n()|i()Sril
line, startinii from llic mouth of llio Amoor, to wliich i)oint it was already con-
structed, .sjiould heiid around (lie head of the Sea of Okotseh, thence run east-
ward and nortliward throuirli Kanicliatka to the C.'id degree of north lati-
tude, tlien cross tlie nari'ow Strait of JJering, and run southward throuLili wliut
was then Kussian Anierica, British Colundtia, Wasliington Territory, and Ore-
gon, to San I'^rancisco ; thence across the American continent to New Voil<.
A dispatch IVoni London to New York by this route would travel sonu lhiii'_f
more than 2."),(M)0 miles, while the distance in a straight line across the Atlantic
was about iiOOO miles. The company undertaking this enterprise had survcv-
ed a considerable i)art of the distance, and expended some millions of dollars,
when it was announced that the Atlantic cable was a success, and the work was
aliandoni'd.

In the mean while 'Mr. Whymper undertook a trij) up the gre;it IJivi r Yu-
kon. Tills is essentially an Arcti(^ river, though its mouth is far southward of
the Arctic Circle. It is proltalily the greatest of the Arctic rivers, and in Icii'^th
and volume of water is e.\cee(kMl ity not more than six rivei's of the globe.

The party of which ]\Ir. "Whymper was one consisted of six Kuvopeans ami
three Indians. In Ociolier, 1SG.">, they .started from L'nalachleet, on Noiiiii
Sound. A trip of lM)() miles would bring them to Xulato, a liussian tradin^--
post TOO miles from the mouth of the river, which hero runs almost ])arallul
with the coast.

They were to travel on foot over frozen rivers and through deep snow. To
convoy their siip])lies they had foiu' sledges, each drawn by iive dogs. Such a
team will di'aw about ."50 pounds. The dogs of this rcgi(jn are not of .a gond
class. jh\ ^Vhymper thinks they have in them <iuite as much of the woil as uf
the dog. Their usual food is lish ; their rcgul.ar daily allow.ance in winter is a
dried salmon a day: in summer they are expected to lish for themselves. Tiny
will, however, eat almost .any thing, and, if they can get enough. Mill g'ow fat
n])on it. They even took kimlly to be.ans, provided they M'ere boik'd soft — u
thing which Kane couhl never induce! his Ks(|uimaux dogs t ) u;; lertake.

They set out on the 27th of October at 11 o'clock — that is, just after su!i-
riso — the thermometer st.anding at ;10^ below freezing-point. Their trip was
begun a little too early, fo'" the deep snow had not become packed hard, and a
bit of thaw would tr.ansform it into slush; and the strciims which they had to
(iross Were not all frozen ovei'. Fortunately, they had a light skin boat, which
not only stood them in good stead now, but served them afterwards for more
than a thousand miles of winter travel. Whenever they came to a frozen
stream, the Indians would break a hole through the ice to get a draught of
water. They always lilled up the hole with loose snow, through which they
Kucked the water. This they said was to filter out the little red worms with
'.vhich they said the water was infested.

The travellers wore snow-shoes ; the use of wliich, although indispensable in
going over the soft snow, is very fatiguing, obliging the wearers to lift a do?t'n
pounds of snow at every stej). Somelitnes they had to break a path for the

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ALASKA.

279

>I(.(li,'('f The men woulil cjo on ahead for a ppaop, tlion return and Klart on
iii.';iiii, tlius Inivorsiii^ tlie distance three times. Often they could not accom-
iilisli more tlian tea mi'es a day.

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At noon on the llth of November, a fortnight after starting, they canglit
ill tlie distance a glimpse of a faint bluish streak, varying the white monotony

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TllK POLAU WOULD.

ol tlie fict'iic. This Uicy know marked tlio course of tbo cjroat river towards
wliich tlii'y were leiidini;. I'lLsliiiiLj eai^erly on, at sunset they broke out ol t||..
woods, shot tlown a steep bank, and stood on an inunense plain of siiow-eovered
ice. It was tiie Vukon, frozen solidly over as far as the "ye could re.ich, cxueiit
that lu'i'e and there was :i faint streak of open water. From bank to bank tlic
<listanee was more than a mile, and this they afterwards found was the n()iiii;i!
breadth of the river for seven humlred miles below, and a thousand miles al)(»ve.
Not tinfrecjuently it spread out into broad lai^oons four or live miles wide. The
Yukon is one of the t,'reat rivers of the ylobe. In length .and volume of uaicr
it is exceeded only by the Am:i/.on, the .Mississippi, and perhaps the Plata, it
exceeds the Nile, the CJan^es, the VoI,t,'a, the Anioor, and has afHueiits to wliicji
tlie Illiine and IJhone are l)i;t Ijrooks. It rises far within tlie JJritisli Posses-
sion:, and its iiead-water' almost interlock witli those of llie Mackenzie, wliich
empties into the Arctic Ocean. A portaL,'e of only eighty miles intervenes l)c.
tween tliese rivers at jioints where each is uavigal)l(! for l)oats forty feet hwt,
and drawing two feet of water. Over tliis portage the Hudson's l>ay Conipimy
transjiort u])on men's l»aclv3 tlio goods for trading with tlic Indians on the I 'p.
per Yukon. INIr. Wliymper thinks that a flat-l)ottomed stern-wlieel sle.uiu r.
like those used on the Upper Mississijjpi, could ascend the Y'ukon for ei^'litcoi
hundred miles, and taj) the whole fur-ljearing region. IJut as the river is frozen
solid for eight months out of the twelve, tie steamer could hardly make more
than one trip a year.

The travellers stopped two days at the Indian winter vill.'ige of Coltog. The
houses M'ere built mainly under-ground. First, a little slianty is put up, under
wliich a liole like a well is dug ; thence a branch like a sewer runs some yards,
along which one must crawl on hands and knets to reach the proper dwelling,

UNDER-GKOUNU UOUSE.

■.\

which is a square hole in the earth, o\cr which is raised a low domc-sliapcd
roof, with a hole in tlie top to let out the smoke of the fire, which is built di-
rectly underne.'ith. "When the fire gets low the smokediole is covered with a
skin, which keeps in not only the heat but the manifold scents engendered by
the crowded occupancy. The slight heat from below makes the roof a favorite
trysting-])lace for the dogs, and every now and then one conies tumbling down
through the smoke-hole upon the 're below, adding the odor of singed hair to
tliose arising from st.ale fish, old skin garments, and other uniiamable abomina-
tions. Coltog is a rather favor!il>le sample of an Indian winter village in Alaska.
From Coltog the travellers proceeded up the river two days' journey to Nu-
lato, the most northern and most inland of the Russian Company's fur-posts.

ALASKA.

281

It stiinda in latitmlc 65°, and lonjritiKU! 158°, upon n level slip of laml 1)i)uiii1«m1
oil two sides iiy tlie threat river ami on:: of its main branches. Notwitlistaiid-
in" tiie lii.Ljli latitude, trees of cuiisiilerable size grow tiiere, and during the l>rief
sununer the grass is luxuriant, and berries abound. The post is a little fortress,
Hurrounded by a pieket, wliieli is elosed at night to cxelnde the Indians, who
cMiiil' annnul in large ininibers. Tiie house appropriated to the travellers was
iiuilt of li>'4s, forming one side of the lillli! s(piare. The windows wen- of seal-
•'ut instead of glass; and as there is during the winter oidy two or three hours
of davliicht, tiie light was never any of the best. J>y eanlking the lloor with
iiKiss, and carpeting it with skins, the main room was kept eomfortalily warm,
(\((]it near the lloor. If one hung a damp garnieiit from the rafters it would
steam at the top, while frozen stiff at the bottom. The temperature at the
roof was sometimes 05°, while near the floor it was l". Water for daily rse
was hauled on a sle<lge from the river. To get at it, they were obliged to
break through solid iee four feet thiek. Nevertheless, the Indians contrive to
catch iiimiense (piantities of lisli by coustrueling a weir of wicket-work, and
keeping holes open in the ice.

VI

FisuTUAi's ON TiiK yi;kon.

Winter fairly set in soon after the party had taken up their abode at Nulato,
On llie 2d of Xovembcr the thermometer indicated the moderate temperature of
2° above zero. It suddenly fell to '20° below zero, and kept on steadily falling
until tile 5th of December, wdien it simk to 58° below zero, that is, ninety de-
<j;i'ecs below tlie freezing-point of Avater. This was the coldest day, but there
were during December an<l January eleven days when the thermometer sunk
below the freezing-point of mercury. It is to be noted that after .i certain
point the human system seems to take lil'de additional note of tlie temperature
as indicated by the thermometer. When the mercury froze, 72° below the
freezing-point of water, it did not seem very cold, provided there was no wind ;
while one day when the therinotneter was 44° higher, wc find this note : " A
north wind blew, and made us feel the cold very decidedly. It is M-ondcrful
liow searching the wind is in this ,;orthern climate ; each little seam, slit, or

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tonr in your f.ir or woollen clotlnii!:^ makcH you nwam of its existence, jitnl
on</s nose, c.'trs, and ani^les <,'eneraily are the speeial .sul't'erers." One .lay wiien
tlio tliernioineter stood at 10", an expedition started off for the coast : and unco
when it was at ;i2", ulndf-elad Indian eanie to the post with liis ciiild, ikj heiur

clad, brimming sonic game; he did not seem to think the day remarkably culil.
The shortest day of the winter was December 21, \vlien the sun was an hour
and fifty minutes .above tlie liorizon.

During tlie winter Mr. Whym])er made many capit.il sketches out-of-doors,
while the temperature was sixty degrees below ireezing-point. Among these

ALASKA.

888

is ;i roinnikalild anrora horcalis on tlio 21st of Doccmhor. It was not the con-
viiiiioii.il aitli, but u graceful, uinlulatiiig, ever-cliangiiiL; snako of palo t-locliio

light; evanescent colors, pale as those of a hinar rainbow, ever and again flit-
tiiiLi; through it, and long streamers and scintillations moving upward to the
bright stars, which shone distinctly through its hazy ethereal form. The night

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w!iH boaiitifiilly nilin mid cli-ar; cold, but not intensely so, the tliormonutir
Htaiiditii,' at +1(1".

So jiasMcd tin- Idtii,' wiiitiT montlis. Karly in April tlioro oatiu! siirnsof sum.
incr— ftir in tlic Arctic roj,'ionH tlioic is pru|K riy no sprini,' or antunni. On the
9th (lies niadu llii-ir appi-arancc Next day liic willows wcru sc( u liiiddiiHr.
I»ul (or anotlicr for(ni:,'lit tin- wcatlicT was vaiialijc On \\w 'Jsili the tiivt
^oosc pnt in liis appcaiaiici'. iJul for another f(trtniulit llii; ire in tiic ii\i r i,,.
niained unbroken. The first si^rn of breaking,' up was on the IJih uf .M;,v.
That day inos(|uitoes showed themselves. Next day came swallows and wiiij
j^eese in abundance. Sliil another fortniL,'lit, diiriuL,' which a steady sticMin nf
broken ice caini> down, bearini,' with it whole trees torn uj) from the banks.
On the 2Hli of May the river was tolerably dear of ice,

Tiie Hnssians had already p)t ready for a tradinLf-excursion u|) the Vnkdn
to an Indian lra<liii<.'-place U40 miles abo' ^, the farthest jioint ever visited iiy
(hem. They had a hni,'e skin boat, fitted with mast and sail, manned bv ci^Iif,
nu'ii, carrying!:, besides men and provisions, two tons of Lroods. The Aniericins
went with them, though meanini^ to <xo far beyond. They had their own iiltic
boat, laden with six or seven hundred pounds of stores of all kinds. The rivd-
was still fidl of ice and drift-wood. A lar<fe tree widd sometimes pass under
the bow of the llussian boat, and fairly lift it out '' the water. These skin
boats seem to be the best of all for this kind of naviL^ation. Thev uive wnv
without harm to a blow which would break through a bark canoe.

One can scarcely conceive the rapidity with which summer coiues on in
these rcLrions. On the 27th of ]\Iay the river was yet full of ice. Ten d;ivs
after they had to lie by during the noontide heat, the thermometer standing at
80° in the shade.

The Americans reached Fort Yukon on the 0th of June, liaving, in Iwentv-
nine days, rowed and tracked six hundred miles, A ftiW weeks later, with tiie
current in their favor, they descended the same space in seven days. Fort Yu-
kon lies a little within what was formerly IJnssian America, and the Hudson's
Bay Company paid a smsill sum for the privilejjfo of its occupancy. Here the
Americans remained a month, being l;osi.ilat)Iy entertained. The fori had
quite a civilized look. There were freshly-phistered walls, glazed windows,
open lireplaces, magazines, store -houses, and a great fur-room. C'anipeil
nrouTul wer(> Indians of many tribes, locally designated as " Foolish Folks,"'
" Wood Folks," « F.irch-bark Folks," " Hat Folks," " Hill Folks," and tlie like.
Some wore their native costumes ; others were tricked out in the odds and
ends of civilized attire. The fur-room was a rare sight. From the beams
hung marten-skins by the thousand, while the cheaper sorts were lying in huge
heaps o!i the floor, Skins are here the regular currency. The beaver is the
unit, estimated at about half a dollar. Two martens count as one beaver, and
so (m by a recognized scale. Fox-ski. is are numerous. The most valual)le is
that of the black fox, worth twenty times more than any other. There is a story
that an unlucky employe of the company once bought the skin of a white fox,
which the Indian seller had cunningly dyed black, paying for it more pounds
than lie should have paid shillings. The overplus was deducted from his salary.

ALASKA.

S8S

Oil tlic 8tli of July tlio tmv(lI«Ts Htartcd on thoir return jniimcy, tiiidcr a
<(;iliitc fiKin tlii'ir li()H|iital)l(; hosts. They canoed ilowri tlie river day and ni'^Iit,
uiilv ntii|i|»ini,' two or tliree tiines a day to prepare tlieir tea and eook tlnir lisli.
It was a lioliday cxuur»iuii, thu current 8\veepin<^ them along ut the rutu uf four

. ■':il^i

miles nn hour. Onco, by aid of rowing, they made forty-five mih^s in seven
hours. Tiiey followed the river clear to its mouth. For the seven liundred
miles below Nulato, near where they had struck the river on their npward
journey, the region is comparatively poor. It lies out of the way of traders ;
fish are plenty and cheap enough. Five needles were considered a fair price

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THE I'OLAIl WOUF.D.

for a lliirty-poiiiid HJiIinon ; and, Kiiys Mr. WliyinixT, "tobacco wi'iit f.iii'ir
than wc had ever known it to do before." On the '2'.Ul of July tlicy riaclinl
the inouti; of llie river, wlieiiee two days' sailinj^ np llie coast brought tluin («
St. IMicliael's. The whole voyage of JItOO miles between Fort Yukon and !St,

\i J

Micliacrs had taken fifteen and a iialf days. At St. IMivhaePs tliey were told
that tlie Iclei^raphicr enterprise had been abandoned, and that all employed in it
were (o return to California.

The result of this expedition adda considerably to our knowledge of tlio

A r. ASK A.

Arctic regions. It cotifinns wliiit li:i.s Ihh-ii toM us by Tliclmnlson, Iviini', Hull,
Mild all otiiiT Arctic, explorers as to tlie siipcralmiidaiKH^ of animal life cxisliii'^
ill certain seasons in tlie nortliern i'ei^i(»iis. Stranj^e as i', may sei'm, tropical
1 Mciiii-tropical countries are tilniosl bare of liviii;^ creatures. Strain and li

nni
par

IH

Iv wandered for weclvH throu<;li llio tliick forests of (Jenlral America, never
ivvhvj; an animal, and rarely u bird, iiud the river appeared to In: almost, destitute
if li^ll. Iliit life iibounds in tlie Arcli(i regions. Tlio rivers swarm witli lisli
t, l(e^L,'iiii; fo be caiii^Iit. The Kamcliatdales liave reindeer by the llioii-
Wlivmper and his friends, (biiiiii; their brief stay at Nulalo, bouL,dit
f ei''ht, hundred white hares with which to cover their blankets : the

Mlinos

sMIli

llic SKIMS O

lllillMMS

had

iisei

1 tlie llesh for food. Moose-meat, varied l>v Iieavi

ti

10

slam

liii" food of those who have <j^ot, tired of salmon.

'I'l

u! delicacies ar(!

iiKiose s nose aiK

I ;i beaver's tail. So abnudant are tin- moose on tlit! Vuk(

)n

tliat the natives think it iiardly worth while te wastes powder and sliot in kill-
iiii^ tlieiii. When an Indian in Ids canoo conu'S upon u moose swimmiii;; in
tlic water, lie <fives ithase until the ca-eaturo is fatiujued, ami then stabs it to the
heart with his knife. Tiiey have also an ini^eiiious way of c.orrallini^ deer.
Tiny hiiilil a lonu; elliptical inclosiire of stakes upon :i trail made by tin; deer.
Jx'twecu i'a''.h pair of stakes is ;v slip-noose. ,\ herd of di'cr is <lri\'en into this

inclosure; they try to run out be-
tween the stakes, ^et caii^Iit by tht;
nooses, and so lall a ready prey to the
guns of the hunters.

The native population of Alaska

is estimated at about (10,(1(10. I''ri)i

11

the
St. K
K

ith

soiiiiiern noundarv up

to M

las and on the islands livi

oiint
tl

Hi

oloscliiaiis.

est una

led

at L'(),()()0.

)f

ire ot iniddliiiLr stature

>f

ipper-coiored compU'xion, with round

f;

ices, thic

IS, ami

bl;

icu iiair.

lie

men wear various oriiauienls in their

ears and

noses

the

Momeii, wlieii

r-ll" OUNAMKNTS.

}'ouiitr, insert a piece ot ivory in a slit
made in the under lip, increasiii'j; it in
size from year to year, until at last th(!
ornament i^ets to Ik; four inches wide,

leof
f

Jies f

roiii tlie sn

jirojeetinif six inc

lli(( face. The baidars or c

nines o

tlic Kolosehiiins an! diii^ out of a sln^h? t ice, and will carry from twelve to
lilly persons. They are usually propelled by paddles, tIioU!j;h upon lon^ voy-
ti'^cs they ;iio riLr!Jje<l with two oi" more masts and sails of niattiut^ oi canvas.
J'lii y, and indeed all of the tribes, do not bury their dead, but deposit their
runiaiiis in ;in oblont; box raised upon jiosts, with the canoo and ( ther pos-
H'ssioiis of tho deceased over the box.

Next northward of llio Koloschians conic the Kcnalans, who stretch almost

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THE POLAR WORLD.

A DAIUAK.

across the continent to Hudson's Bay. Those living upon the Yukon call tlioni
Co-yukons, tliat is, People of the Great lliver, " Yukon" in their language sig-
nifying river. They are much feared by the surrounding tribes, and have ofttii

■ rfstrt#~:W*.

FOUn-POST COFFIN.

pivcn no little trouble to the'r Russian masters. Many of these wear a bone
ornament stuck through the septum of the nose.

ALASKA.

289

TANANA INDIAN.

Tlie Aleuts, who inhabit the Aleutian Islands are, to a considerable extent, of
mixed blood, Russian and Koloschian. They have advanced in civilization far
ijoyoud any other of the Esquimaux race. Not a few of them have received a
fair education, and among the priests of the Greek Church there are not a few
who go through the service of the chur.",h in the Greek language, with a full
uiKlerstiuiding of the words of the service.

Quito nine-tenths of the whole territory of Alaska is purely Arctic, and is
not only luunhabited but uninhabitable. The other tenth is now sparsely in-
habited, and there is little reason to suj-jjose that the population will ever be
greatly beyond its present number. Except in special cases, the possible popu-
lation of a i.o"ntry Is measured by its agricultural cai)acity. Leaving out of
view the extreme northern })arts of Alaska, the best accounts as yet accessible
show that at St. MichaLTs lettuce, parsnips, and turnips can be raised by sowing
tlRin in beds. At Fort Yukon potatoes not much larger than cherries can be
raised. At Sitka potatoes will grow a little larger. On some of the islands
the inhabitants can even venture upon barley. The forest-trees, which flourish
in isolated jtarts, will soon be exhausted, as far as any profitable use of them is
concerned. Fish and furs constitute almost the sole value of Alaska. The
fisheries are among the most valuable in the world. The furs will soon be ex-
hausted, unless prompt measures are taken to prevent the capture of fur-bearing
animals in the breeding season.

19

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290

THE POLAll WOULD.

CHAPTER XXVII.

THE ESQUIMAUX.

Tlicir wid.^ Extension. — Climata of t'.io llpgioiis tlioy iiiliabit. — Their physical Appearanc. — Iliiir
Uivs.s. — Snow Iliit>. — Tlic Kiiyalt, or tlie IJaidar — Hunting Ap|iaratii.s and Weapons. — Ei:inifv I'o-
twoen thu I>([niMianx and tli;! lliid Indian. — Tlic " liloody I'alls. " — Cliaso of the Keindicr.-lliiil.
I'atcliinii:. — Wlialc-huntinL;. — Various Strafa.^ems ciiiployod to catch the Seal. — Tim " Kie|i-liiitlul<."
— Itcar-hunting. — Walrus- luinting. — Awakloli and Myouls. — Tlie Es(|niinaiix Doj;. — tlanics niifl
Sports, — .Vn:;eliol;s.— .Mor.il Character. — SeH'-reliaiic.'. — InteUigencc. — Iligliuli. — Commercial Ea-
(icrncss di' llie ICMpiinianx. — Their Voracity. — Seasons of Distress.

OF till llic uiK'ivilizod nations of the globe none range over a wider .space
than tlie Jvsquiinau.v, who.se various tribes extend from Greenland ami
Labrador, over all tlie coasts of Arctic America, to the Aleutic cliain and tlio ex
trenie nortli-eastern point of Asia. Many are independent, others suhjcct, t<i
the Russian, Danish, or British rule. In Baffin's I?ay "iid Lancaster Sound tlity
accost the whale-fi.sher ; they meet him in the Icy Sea beyond Bering's itraits;
and while their most southerly tribes dwell as low as the latitude of A'iuiiiia,
others sojourn as high as the SOth degree of northern latitude, and proliably
roam even still higher on the still undiscovered coasts beyond — a nearness to
the pole no other race is known to reach.

Tlio old Scandinavian settlers in Greenland expres.sed their dislike for tlioiii
in the contemptuous name of Skraeliiigers (screamers or wretches) ; tlie scaiiit'ii
of the Hudson's Bay ships, who tr.ade annually with the natives of Xortherii Lai)-
rad:- and the Savage Islards, have long called them "Seymos" or " Sucke-
mos," names evidently derived from the cries of " Seymo," or " Teymo," witli
which they greet the arrival of the ships ; they speak of themselves simply as
" Inuit," or men.

With few exceptions the whole of the vast region they inhabit lies beyond
the extremest limits of forest growth, in the most desolate and inhospitahlo
countries of the globe. The rough winds of the Polar Sea almost perpetually
blow over their bleak domains, and thus only a few plants of the hardest na-
ture—lichens and mosses, grasses, saxifragas, and willows — are able to subsist
there, and to afford a scanty supply of food to a few land animals and birds.
Ill iiuk'cd would it fare with the Esquimaux, if they were reduced to live upon
the niggardly produce of the soil ; but the sea, with its cetaceans and lislies,
amply provides for their wants. Thus they are never found at any considera-
ble distance from tlie ocean, and they line a considerable part of the coasts
of the Arctic seas without ever visiting the interior.

It may easily i)e supposed that a race whose eastern branches li.ave for sev-
eral centuries been under the inlluence of the Danes and ^Liiiglish, while in the
extreme west it has long been forced to submit to Russian tyranny, and whose
central and northern tribes rarely come into contact with Europeans, must

THE ESQUIMAUX.

291

show some variety in its manTiers and inodo of life, and that the same descr-p-
tidii is not applicahle in all points to the disciples of the Moravian brothers in
L;i!)ra(lor or Greenland, to the (Ireck-Catholic Aleuts, and to the far more nu-
iiu'voiis heathen Esquimaux of continental America, or of the vast arcliipelago
k'voiid its northern shores. Upon the whole, however, it is curious to observe
how exactly, .amidst all diversity of time and place, these people have preserved
iiiKiltcred their liabits and manners. The broad, Ihit face, widest Just below the
eves, tlie forehead generally narrow and tapering upw.ard ; the eyis narrow ami
more or less oblique ; all indicate a Mongol or Tartar typo, differing greatly
from the features of the conterminous lied Indian tribes. Tlieir complexion,
w hen relieved from smoke and dirt, also approaches more nearly to white than
that of tlu'ir copper-colored neighbors. Most of the men are rather under the
iiu'dium Knglisli size, but they can not be said to be a dwarfish race. Thus
Siinpson saw in Camden Bay three Escpiimaux who measured from five feet
ten inches to six feet; .and among the natives of Smith Strait, Kane, a rather
short man, met with one a foot taller than himself. The females, however, are
all comparatively short. The Es(piimaux are all remarkably iHoad-shouKlered,
anil though their muscles arc not so firm as ilioso of the European seamen, yet
they sinpass in bodily strength all the other natives of America. In both sexes
tlio hands and feet arc remarkably small and well-formed. From exercise in
hunting the seal and walrus, the muscles of the arms and back arc much devel-
oiieil in the men, who are moreover powerful wrestlers. When yotmg, the Es-
quimaux looks cheerful and good-humored, and the females exhibit, when laugh-
ing, a set of very white teeth. Could they be induced to wash their faces,
many oi Uicse savage beauties would be found to possess a complexion scarcely
a shade di.rker than that of a deep brunette ; but though disinclined to ablu-
tions, for which the severity of their climate may serve as aa excuse, they are
far from neglecting the arts of the toilette.
• Unlike the Hare Indian and Dog-Rib females, in whom tl)e hard rule of their
lords and masters has obliterated every trace of female vanity, the Es(iuimaux
women tastefully j)lait their straight, black, and glossy hair; and hence we may
infer that greater deference is paid to thorn by the men. They also generally
tattoo their chin, forehead, and cheeks, not, however, as in tlie South Sea Isl-
ands, with elaborate patterns, but with a few simple lines, which have a not un-
[ileasiiig effect.

From Bering's Straits -astward as far as the Mackenzie, the males pierce
the lower lip ne ir each a.igle of the mouth, and fill the apertures with labrets
of blue or green quartz, or of ivory resembling buttons. ]Many also pierce the
septum of the nose, and insert a dontalium shell or ivory needle. Like the Red
Indians, they are fond of beads, but their most common ornament consists in
strings of teeth of the fox, wolf, or musk-ox--somelimes many lumdreds in
iiuinher— whicli are either attached to the lower part of the jacket, or fastened
as a belt round the waist.

Tiieir dress is admirably adapted to the severity of their climate. With
tlieir two pair of breeches made of reindeer or seal skin, the outer one having
the hair outside and the inner one next the body, and their two jackets — of

.■ .'■

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203

THE rOLAR WORLD.

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wliidi tlio upper one is provided with a great hood — witli tlioir watcr-tii;lit
seal-skin boots, lined with the downy skins of birds, and their enormous gloves
tliey bid defiance to the severest colil, and even in the hardest weather pursuu
their oceiipations in the open air whenever tlie moon is in the sky, or dmiii<»
the doubtful meridian twilight. Tlie women are perfect in the art of makiiw^f
water-tight shirts, or " kamleikas," of the entrails of the seal or walrus, wliuli
in summer serve to replace their heavy skin jackets. They also sew their IkjoIs
fo tight that not tlic slightest wet can penetrate, and with a neatness of
which the best shoemaker in Europe might be proud. The dress of tlie two
sexes is mucii alike, the outer jacket having a pointed skirt before and behind,
but that of the females is a little longer. The wonun also wear larger ho(M|s,
in wliich they carry their children ; and sometimes (as in Labrador) tlie inner
boot has in front a long, pointed llap, to answer the same purpose.

Tlie Es(piimaux are ecpially expert in the construction of their huts. As
soon as the lengthening days induce the tribes about Cape Bathurst and tla-
mouth of the ^laclcenzie to move seaward on the ice to the seal-hunt, a m;irv(l-
lous system of architecture comes into use, unknown among any other Ann ri-
ean nations. The line i)ure snow has by that time acquired, under the action
of the winds an<l frosts, sufhcient coherence to form an admirable light build-
ing material, which the Esquimaux skillfully employ for the erection of nuist
comfortable dome-shaped houscii. A circle is first traced on the smootli snr-
face of the snow, and slabs for raising the walls cut from within, so as to clear
a space down to the ice, which is to forni the floor of the dwelling, and whoso
evenness was previously ascertained by probing. The slabs for the dome are
cut from some neighboring spot. The crevices l^'tween the slabs are ])lugi;cil
up, and the seami5 closed, by throwing a few shovelfuls of loose snow over \\w
fabric. Two men generally work together, and when the dome is complctcil
the one within cuts a low door and creeps out. The walls being only three or
four inches thick, admit a very agreeable light, which serves for ordinary pur-
poses; if njore is required, a wiiulow of transparent ice is introduced. The
proper thickness of the walls is of some importance; one of a few inches ex-
cludes the wind, vet keeps down the damp so as to prevent dripj)ing from the
interior. Tiie furniture of this crystal hut is also formed of snow (the scats,
the tal)le, tlie sleei>ing-])laces), and, when covered with skins, is very comfort-
able. l>y means of antechambers and ])orches, with the opening turned to lee-
ward, warmth is insured, ;md social intercourse facilitated by contiguous build-
ing, doors of communication, and covered passages. By constant practice tlio
lCs(|uimaux can raise such huts almost as quickly as we could pitch a tent.
When M'dintock for a few nails hired four Esquiiuaux to build a hut for his
party, they com))lcted it in an hour, though it was eight feet in diameter ami
five and a lialf feet high.

In spite of its fragile materials, this snow-house is durable, for *he wind has
little effect on its dome-like form, and it resists the thaw until the sun acquires
a very considerable power. Of course a strong fire could not possibly be made
within, but such is not needed by the Esquimaux. The train-oil lamp suffices
to dry liis wet clothes and boots when lie returns from hunting; and the crowd-

THE ESQUIMAUX.

293

in;; of the inmates encrenders a sufllcieiitly Wujjx tt'inperature \n kei']) liiiii
Wiinii. Ilaviiicf also a decided predilection for raw flesh and fat, he re(|uire8
no ureal expenditure of fuel to eook his dinner. The lower i)art of liis dwell-
iii'4 l)('in!j; under the surface of the snow, likewise promotes its warintii.

Ihit of whiitever materials the hut of the Ks<iuinuui.v may he coiistnicted —
of snow, as I have just descrihed, or, as is fre<iuently the case, of stones, or
cirtli, or drift-wood — everywhere, from Bering's Straits to Smith Sound, it is
ciMially well adapted to the climate and to circumstances. Thus when Dr.
Si'orc'shy landed in 1H22 on the eastern coast of Greenland, he discovered some
(K'serted Es(iuimaux huts, which jjjavo proof both of the severity of the cli-
uiate, and of the ingenuity evinced in counteracting its rigors. A horizontal
tunnel about fifteen feet long, and so low as to render it necessary to creep
tlimugh on hands and feet,oi)ens with one end to the south, and leads through
tliL' other into the interior of the hut. This rises but little above the surface
(tf the earth, and, as it is generally overgrown with moss or grass, is scarcely
to hu distinguished from the neighboring soiL The floor of the tunnel is fre-
quently on a level with that of the Init, but often also it is made to slant down-
ward and upwar(i, so that the coldei, and conseciuently heavier, air without is
still more effectually kept off from the warmer air within ; and thus the Es(jui-
inaux, without ever having studied physics, make a practical use of one of its
fumlaniental laws. Hut their most ingenious invention is uiKpiestionably that
of the one-seated boat, the " kayak," or the " baidar." A light, long, and nar-
row frame of wood, or seal or walrus bone, is covered water-tight with seal-
skin, leaving but one circular hole in the middle. In this the Es(juinnuix sits
with outstretched legs, and binds a sack (which is formed of the intestines of
tlio wliale, or of the skins of yoiuig seals, and fits in the opening) so tightly
rouiul his middle, that even in a heavy sea not a drop of Avater can jieiietrato
into the boat. Striking with his light oar (which is paddled at each extrem-
ity) alterniitely to the right and to the left, his. spear or harpoon before him,
aiiilniaintauiing his equilibrium with all the dexterity of a rope-dancer, he flies
lib' an arrow over the water; and should a wave upset him, he knows how to
right himself by the action of the paddle. The " oomiak," or women's boat,
likewise consists of a frame-work covered with seal-skins, and is roomy enough
to hold ten or twelve people, with benches for the women who row or paddle.
The jn;ist supports a triangular sail made of the entrails of seals, and easily
ilistendcd by the wind. The men would consider it beneath their dignity to
low in oneof these omnibus boats ; tliey leave this lal)or entirely to tlie women,
who, to the tact of a monotonous song, slowly propel the oomiak through the
water. Judging of foreign customs by their own, the Esquimaux between the
Mackenzie and Coppermine rivers made the strange mistake, as Sir John Ivich-
anlson relates, of supposing that the English sailors whom they saw rowing in
company were women. One of them even asked whether all white females had
beards.

The weapons oi the Esquimaux, and their various fishing and hunting im-
plements, likewise show jxreat ingenuity ami skill. Their oars are tastefully
inlaid with walrus-teeth ; they have several kinds of spears or darts, adapted to

"^1

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II .11

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20't

THE POLAU WOULD.

I ,

tlio size of the v.'irions aniinals wliich they liunt ; and tlieir elastic hows
Mtrougljr bound witli strings of soal-gut, drivo a six-foot arrow with iniLiriii'^r
oertaintJy to a distant inarl;. To bring down a larger animal, the shaft is
armed witli a sliarp ilint or a pointed bone; if intended to strilie a bird, it is
Kinaller, and lilimted.

Tlie liarpoons and hniees used in killing whales or seals have long shafts of
wood or of the narwhal's tooth, and the barbed point is so constructed that,
when the blow takes effect, it is left sticking in the body of flie animal, while
the shaft attached to it by a string is disengaged from the socket, and hccoiius
a buoy of wood, t^eal-skins, blown up like bladders, are likewise used as biiovs
for the whale-spears, l)eing adroitly stripped from the animal so that all the nat-
ural a|)ertures are easily made air-tight.

With e(pial industry and skill the Es(]uimaux put to use almost ovory part
of the land and marine animals 'which they chase. Knives, spear-poinis, ami
fish-hooks are made of the horns and bones of the deer. The ribs of the wliale
are used in rooiing huts or in the construction of sledges, where drift-tinilicr is
scarce. Strong cord is made from stri})S of seal-skin hide, and the sinews uf
musk-oxen and deer furnish bow-strings, or cord to make nets or snares. In
default of drift-wood, the bones of the whale are employed for the constnictiiin
of their sledges, in pieces fitted to each other with neatness, and firmly sewed
together.

During the long confinement to their huts or "igloos" in tlio dark winter
months, the men execute some very fair figures in bone, and in walrus or fossil
ivory, besides making fishdiooks, knife-handles, and other instruments neatly of
these materials, or of metal or wood.

Thus in all these respects the Esquimaux arc as superior to the Red Indians
as they arc in strength and personal courage; and yet no Norwegian can nime
utterly despise the fdthy Lapp, and no orthodox Mussulman hjok down with
greater contempt upon a " giaour," than the Loucheux or Chejipewayaii upon
the Esquimaux, who in his eyes is no better than a brute,, and whom he ap-
proaches otdy to kill.

In his "Voyage to the Coppermine River" Ilearnc relates a dreadful instance
of this bloodthirsty hatred. The Indians who accompanied liim having heard
that some Esquimaux had erected their sunnner huts near the mouth of tliat
river, were at once seized with a tiger-like fury. Ilearne, the only Euro|)ean of
the party, had not the ])ower to restrain them, and he might as well have at-
tempted to touch the heart of an ice-bear as to move the murderous band to
pity. As craftily and noiselessly as serpents they drew nigh, and, wlieii tlie
midnight sun verged on the horizon, with a dreadful yell they burst on the huts
of their unsuspecting victims. Xot one of them escaped, and the monsters de-
lighted to prolong the misery of their death-struggle by repeated wounds. An
old woman had both her eyes torn out before she received the mortal blow. A
young girl iied to Ilearnc for protection, who used every effort to save lur,
but in vain. In 1821 some human skulls lying on the spot still bore testimony
to this cruel slaughter, and the name of the " Bloody Falls," given by Ilearnc to
the scene of the massacre, will convey its memory to distant ages. No wonder

THE ESQUIMAUX.

205

(liat the hiitc of tli»^ Ksqulmaux is no less intense, ami tint they also pursue the
IiidiiniH, wliercver they can, with their spoars and arrows, like wihl boasts.

" Year after year," says Sir .Tolin Hiolianlson, "sees tlio Esfpiitnaux on tho
Piiliir coast of Ai'ierica oeeupied ii. a uniform eireht of pin'si ts. When tlie
rivers open in sprinj;, tliey proceed to tiie rapiils and fulls to spear the salmon,
wliii'li at that season come swimming stream upward. At the same time, or
ciiiiii'r in more southern localities, they hunt the reindeer, which drop their
vdiuiLCon tho coasts an<l islands while tho snow is only ]»artially molted. Where
tlic open country affords tho huntsman no opportunity of approachmj^ his ijanie
iiiipfvccived, deep pits arc dug in tho snowy ravines, and superficially covered
\utli snow-tablets. Tho wind soon effaces tlic traces of the human hand, and
thus many reindeer are snared."

In summer the reindeer are killed irtly by driving them from islands or
narrow necks of land nito tho sea, and then spearing them from tlieir kayaks,
iiiiil |iartly by shooting them from behind heaps of stones raised for the pnrj)Ose
(if watcliing them, and imitating their peculiar bellow or grunt. Among tho
viirious artilicos which they I'Mijiloy for this purpose, one of tho most ingenious
consists in two men walkirig directly yVowi tho door they wish to kill, when the
animal almost always follows them. As soon as they arrive at a largo stone,
(MIC of tlie men hides behind it with his bow, while tho other, continuing to
w;ilk on, soon loads tho deer within range of his companion's arrows.

Tlie nmltitudes of swans, ducks, a'ld goose resorting to the morasses of tho
northern coasts to breed, likewise aid in supjilying tho Es(piimaux with food
(lining their short but busy summer of two months. For their destrnction a
very ingenious instrument has boon invented. Six or eight small balls made of
walrus-tooth and pierced in tho nnddlo arc separately attached to as nnmy
tiiongs of animal sinew, which are tied together at tho opposite end. When
cast into the air the diverging l)alls describe circles — like the spokes of a wheel
— and woe to tiio unfortunate bird that comes within their reach.

On the coasts frofpiented by whales, the month of August is devoted to tho
pursuit of these animals; a successful chase insuring a comfortable winter to
a whole community. Their capture rerpiiros an association of labor; hence
along the coasts of the Polar Sea tho Esrpiimaux unite their huts into villages,
for whose site a bold point of coast is generally chosen, whore tho water is
(k'(.'p enough to float a whale.

Wiicn one of those huge creatures is seen lying on the water, a dozen kay-
aks or more cautiously paddle up astern of liim, ti'l a single canoe, preceding
the rest, comes close to him on one quarter, so as to enable the men to drive
the spear into the animal with all tho force of both arms. This spear has a
long line of thong and an inflated seal-skin attached to it. Tho stricken whale
immediately dives ; but when he re-appears after some time, all the canoes again
paddle towards him, some warning boiiig given by the seal-skin buoy floating
on the surface. Each man being furnished like the first, they repeat the blow
as often as they find an opportunity, till perhaps every line has been thus em-
ployed. After chasing him in this manner sometimes for half a day, he \y at
length so wearied by the resistance of the buoys and exhausted by loss of

VMH

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206

THE POLAR WOULD.

blond ns to 1)0 oMiytMl to rise more and more often to tlic surface, and \h lliiallv
idlk'd and towed ashore.

Tliouifli in many parts seals are rauylit at esery season of tlie year, yet tlic
great Imnt takes place in sprinij^, wlien they play in the open lanes near <'ie
eoasts, or eonie out on tlio ice to Lnsk in the sun. In spite of their M'ariness,
they are no match f(tr the Kscpiimaux, who have carefully studied all tluir
hahits from infancy. Sometimes the hunter .approaches them l)y iniitiilint;
tiieir forms and motions so perfectly that the p(»or animals .are not undeccivnl
until one of them is struck with his l.'UUie; or else, by means of a white screen
jtushetl forward on a sledge, the lnmt( r comes within range and jiicks out the
best-conditioned of the band. As the season draws near midsummer, the scmjs
.iru more ajiproacliable; their I'ves being so congested by the glare of the siiu
that they are sometimes nearly blind. In winter they arc iissaulted wliilo
working at their breathing-lioleH or when coming up for respiration.

If an Ks(pnin.aux lias any reason to su])pose that a seal is busy gnawing be-
neath the icejHie innne<liately attaches himself to the place, and seldom leaves
it, even in the severest frost, till he has succeeded in killing the animal. For
this purpose he first ))nilds a snow-wall about four feet in height, to shelter liini
from the wind, and seating himself under the lee of it, dei)osits his spears, lines,
and other imi)lements upon several little f(jrkod sticks inserted into the simu,
in order to jirevent the smallest noise being made in moving them when want-
ed. IJut the most curious precaulioii consists in tying his own knees togetlier
with .a thong so securely as to ])revent any rustling of his clothes, wlii-li niiglit
otherwise .alarm the animal. In this situation a man will sit (juietly sonietinu's
for hours together, attentively listening to any noise made by the seal, and
sometimes using the " keep-kuttuk" in order to ascertain whether the aninml
is still at work below. This simple little instrument — which affords ninitlier
striking proof of Ksfpiimaux ingenuity — is merely a slender rod of bone (ms
delicate as a fine wire, that the se.al may not see it), nicely rounded, and ha-, ing
a point .at one end .and a knob .at the other. It is inserted into the ice, ami
the knob remaining above the surface, informs the fisherman by its motion
whether the seal is employed in m.aking his hole; if no,, it remains uiiilis-
turbed, and the attempt is given up in that place. "When the hunter supposes
the hole to be nearly completed, he cautiously lifts his spear (to which the lino
has been previously attached), and as soon as the blowing of the se.al is distinctly
lieard — and the ice coiise(piently very thin — he drives it into him with the force of
both arms and then cuts .aw.ay with his "panna," or well-sharpened knife, the
remaining crust of ice, to enabh; him to repeat the wounds and get hiin out.
The " neituk " ( Phora Itixpidd), l)eing the smallest seal, is held, while struggling,
either simply by hanl, or by putting the line roinid .a spear with the point stack
into the ice. For the "oguke" {Phoca barhata), the line is passed round the
man's leg or arm ; and for a walrus, round his body, his feet being at the same
time firndy set against a hummock of ice, in wliich position these people can,
from habit, hold ag.ainst a very lieavy strain. A boy of fifteen is equal to the
killing of a " neituk," but it requires a full-grown person to master cither of the
larger animals. This sport is not without the danger which adds to the ex-

THE KSQIIMAUX.

807

citc'inc'iit of success, paiticiilarl} if tlio creature struck .l>y tlie liiuiter Ik* a larye
ni'ul or walrus ; for woe iM'tide liiiu if lie does not instantly plant his fi'ct lirniiy
in till' ice, ami throw irmisflf in siu-li a position that the strain on the line is as
iicarlv as |)ossil)li' broui^ht int(» the direction of tlie leni;th of the* <|iine of his
liack and axis of his lower limits. A transverse imll from one of tlu'se power-
till animals w<iuld douhle hiiu up across the air-hole, atid perhaps lireak his hack ;
(ir if the opcnini; he lars/e, as it often is when the sprini^ is advanced, he
would he draLTi^ed under water and drowne(l,

As the I'olar hi'ar is as yreat a seal-hinifer as the Es(|iiiinaux, one of the
iisii.il methods employed hy the latter to catch these hears is to imitate the mo-
tions of the seal hy lyiti<^ flat on the ice until tlu! bear approaches sntliciently
m':ir to insure a L,'ood aim; hut a Ltmi is lucessary to practise this strataiji'in
with success. Seeman (" Voyaufi; of the Herald ") mentions anotlun' ingenious
mode of caiiturint^ the hear hy taking at; vant:w,'e of the well-known voracity of
the animal, which <;encrally swallows its food without much mastication. A
tliick and strong piece of whalehone, about four inches bioad ami two feet!on!.r,
is rolled np into a small compass, anil carefully enveloped i;i blubber, forminj^
a round ball. It is then jilaced in the open air at a low temperature, where it
sniiii becomes liard and frozen. The natives, armed with their knives, bows, and
arrows, toLrether with this frozen bait, jiroceed in ipiest of the bear. As soon
ar the animal is seen, one of the natives discliarL!;es an arrow .at it ; the monster,
giiKirtiiiu: from this assault, chases the party, then in full retreat, until, meetini^
with tile frozen blubber dropped in his path, lie greedily swallows it, and con-
tinues the pursuit — doubtless fancying that there must be more where that
came from. The natural heat of the l)ody soon causes the blubber to thaw,
when the whalebone, thus freed, springs back, and frightfully lacerates the
Btomacli. The writhing brute falls down in helpless agony, and the Esipiiin.aux,
luinTing to the spot,so(m put an end to his sufferings.

The Ksciuiiiiaux of Smith Sound hunt the bear with tlic assistance of their
ilogs, which are carci'iiUy trained not to engage in contest with the liear, but to
retard his tlight. While one engrosses his attention ahead, a second attacks
him in the re.ar, alw.ays alert, and each protecting the other; and thus it rarely
happens th.at they are seriously injured, or that they fail to delay the animal un-
til tlieir masters come up. If iiioro be two luinters, the bear is killed easily ;
for one makes a feint of thrusting a spear at the right side, and as the animal
tuiiis with his arms towards the threatened attack, tho left is unprotected, and
receives the de.ath-wound. But if the hunter is alone, he grasps the lance firm-
ly in his hands, and provokes the animal to pursue him by moving rapidly
across its path, and then running as if to escape. But hardly is its long, tin-
wieldy body extended for the chase, than, with a rapid jtimji, the hunter doubles
on his track, and runs back towards his first position. The bear is in the act
of turning after him again, when the lane - is plunged into the left side below
the slioulder. So dexterously has this thrust to be made, that an unpractised
hunter has often to leave his sjicn: in the side of his prey and run for his life;
but even then, if well-aided by the dogs, a cool, skillful man seldom fails to kill
his adversary.

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Wliilo tlio «('!il, tmrwlial, ainl wliilc wlialc fiirnisli tlio sfaplf food of iIk.
iiiort! Hoiitlicni (frci'iiliimlcr, tlic wulniH is tlio cliitf rcsoiirri; of ilu; Sniiih
Soiitid Ks(|uiiiiaii.\. 'I'lio inaiiiici' of liuntitiL; this animal ili'iicmls miicli on i|„'
H('a.s(»ri (if tlic year. In Hprini;, or the Inoctlinij-si'ason, wluii tin- walrus is in
Ills j.'lory, Ik; is taken in two waVM. Soinotiiiics In- lias risen \>y tliu nitlo of mi
ic'i'lurLr, wlii'i'i' tlio cniTonls liavo worn away tlio lloo, or tliioimli u tido nack
and, oiijoyiiiLi; tlio huiisliino t'to loii'j, tiniln liis rolroat, out, off hy tlit; froozint,' up
of ilio o|ioiiiii.i^; fur liko llio soal,tlio walrus ran only work fioni ImIuw at. his
broatliinj^diolo. When thus caiiylit, tlio Ks(|iiiiiiaiix, who with koin hiinior.
craft ar(; scoiiriiii,' the tloes, soeiit, him out hy their doys and Npear liiiii. IVe-
(|Uenl!y the female and her <'alf, aeconi|iaiiied l>y the L,'riiii-\ isai,'eil liitlnr, iuc
Neon MiriiiiiL,', in lovins,' trios, from craek to crack, and sportiiii; in the oj)(iiiii<_rs.
While thus on their tour, they invite their vigilant t'lioniios to the second iiietli-
od of capture. This also is by tlio lanee and harpoon ; Imt it often heconies a
regular hallle, the male ifallantly frontiiiLr the assault, and charniii'^ the hunters
with furious bravery. In tlio fall, wlieii the pack is but partially closcii, the
walrus arc found in numbers, liannin<^ around the neutral roLjion of mixed ice
nnd water, and, as this becomes solid with the advance of winter, followiiiLrit
more ami more to the south.

Tiie Ksiiiiimaux at this season approach them over the yoiniL,' ice, and as-
sail them in cracks .and holes with harpoon and lino. This lishory, ;is the sea-
son grows colder, darker, and more tempestuous, is fearfully li;izardous. K'auc
relates how, durinLj a time of famine, two of his Ks(|uim;iiix friends, .\wakliik
and ]\Iyouk,(lelerniined to seek the walrus on the o]ioii ice. They succeeded in
killiiiLT a larne male, and wore retin'iiin^ to their villap', when a north wiml
broke up the ice, and they found themselves afloat. 'I'lie impulse of a Kuro-
lieaii would have been to seek the land ; but they knew that the drift was ill-
ways most daiiLrorous on the coast, and uru;ed their doi^s towards the nearest
iceber,!:;. They reached it after a struuLrle, and, by cfreat efforts, made jTnod
their landiutj, with their doi^s and the halfduiteherod carcass of the wall as. It
was at the close of tlic last moonliLtht of December, and a complete darkness
scttleil around them. They tied the dojjs down to knobs of ice, to prevent
tJieir losinij their foothold, and prostrated tlieniselvos, to escape beiiii^ blown
off by the violence of the wind. At first the sea broke over them, but tiny
gained a higher level, and built a sort of screen of ice. On the fifth nigiit af-
terwards, so far as they could judge, one of Myouk's feet was frozen, .'iiul
Awaklok lost liis great toe by frost bite. But they did not lose courage, and
ate their walrus-meat as they floated slowly to the south. It was towards tlio
close of the second moonlight, after a month's imprisonment, such as only
these iron men could endure, that they found the berg had grounded. They
liberated their dogs as soon as the young ice could bear their weight, and at-
taching long lines to them, which they cut from the hide of the dead walrus,
they succeeded in hauling themselves through the water-space which always
surrounds an iceberg, and reaching safe ice. They returned to their village
liko men raised from the dead, to meet a welcome, but to meet famine along
with it.

Tin; KsiiiiMAtX. ao«

Til tlic form of tlu'ir hoilii's, tlicir short prickod t'firs, tlilck furry (^oat, nii<l
lii^liv t;iil, till' (loi^s of tli(' I'lsijnimaiix so ii'/aily ri'scmlilc tliK wolf of llic.io
ri''iiip|i<, tliat wlifii of a I'lLflit or liriiidU'd color, llicy may t'a^iily at a little iIIh-
t.iiuc III' iiii.-itakin for that animal ; hut an oyo aciuistomctl Id l)oth, ihtccIvom
ili;il I hi- wolf always kocps his head down and his tail hctwrt'ii his h^xs in riin-
11111'.'. whereas tlu! di)i,'s almost always carry their tails handsomely curled over
llir liack. 'I'heir hair in the winter is from three to four inches Ioiil; ; l)Ut lio-
KJilcs this natin'D furnishes them diiriiii,' this rij^'orous season with a tlTwk mi-
(Ici-coalinjx of dose, soft wool, which enables them to hrave the most iiiclement
wcailiir. They do not bark, hut have a lonijf melancholy howl, like that of the
wolf. When drawing a sledLfe, they have a simple harness of deer or seal skin
!,'oiii'_' nuuid the neck by one bii,dit, .and anolher lor e;ich of the fore leys, with
u siii!,de tliotii; leading; over tht! b.ack, and attaclieil to the sleili^'e as a tr.'ico.
TliiiULrh they appear at lirst sii,dit to be huildled toijfether without rei^ard to
i'(",'iilarity, considerable" attention is really paid to their arranueiiient, parlicular-
Iv ill the selection of a iIol; of peculiar spirit and sai^acity, who is allowed by a
Idii'.'cr tr.ace to precede the rest as leader, and to whom, in turnini^ to the riylit
or left, the tlriver usually addresses himself, usinj^ certain words as the carters
ilo with us. To these a iifood leader attends with admir.'ible precision (espec-
iiillv if his own niuue be repe.ateil at the same tinu'), lookiii'^ behind over his
shoulder with tjreat earnestness, as if listening; to the directions of the driver,
who sits (piite low on the fore |*art of the sledge, his whip in hand, aiul his feet
overhanging the .snow on one side.

On rough ground, as among hummocks of ice, the sledge would be freipu-nt-
ly overturned if the driver did not repeatedly get off, and, by lifting or draw-
ing it to one siile, steer it clear of those obstacles. At all times, indeed, except
on a smooth and well-made road, he is pretty constantly employed thus with
his feet, and this, together with his never-ceasing vociferations and fi'eipient
use of the whip, renders the driving of one of these vehicles by no means a
[ik'iisaiit or easy task.

"• The whip, ' says Kane, who from assiduous pr.ictice at length attained a con-
siileiable proficiency in its use, " is six yards long, and the luuidlc but sixteen
inches — a short lever to throw out such a length of seabhide. Learn t*) do it,
however, with a masterly sweep, or else make up your mind to forego driving
slcilges; for the dogs are guided solely by the lash, .and you must be able to
hit not only any jjarlicular dog of a team of twelve, but to acconip.any the
fi'iU also with a resounding crack. After this you find tliat, to get your lash
hack, involves aiu:)ther difliculty ; for it is apt to entangle itself .among the dogs
and lines, or to fasten itself cumiingly round bits of ice, so as to drag you lie.ad
over heels into the snow. The secret by which this complicated set of require-
nunts is fulfilled consists in properly describing an arc from the shoulder with
:i stiff elbow, giving the jerk to the whipdiandle fron\ the hand and wrist alone.
The lash trails behind as you travel, and when thrown forward is allowed to
extend itself without an effort to bring it back. You wait patiently, after giv-
ing tlu' projectile impulse, until it unwinds its slow length, reaches the end of its
tether, and cracks to tell you that it is at its journey's end. Such a crack on

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300

THE rOLAR WORLD.

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the cfir or fore foot of an unfortunate dog is signalized by a howl quite unmis-
takable in its import."

The mere labor of using this Avhip is such that the Esquimaux travil in
couples, one sledge after the other. The liinder dogs follow meehanicallv, mid
thus re(|uire no whip ; and the drivers change about so as to rest each other.

In the summer, when the absence of snow prevents the use of sledges, tlu'
dogs are still made usefid, on journeys and hunting excursions, by beiiii; ciii-
ployed to carry burdens in a kind of saddle-bags laid across their shoiililcrs.
A stout dog thus accoutred will accompany his master laden with a weiglit
of about twenty or twenty-five pounds.

The scent of the Esquimaux dog is excellent, and this property is turned to
account in finding the seal-holes, which they will discover entirely by the snail
at a very great distance. The track of a single deer upon the snow will in
like maimer set them off at full gallop at least a quarter of a mile before dicv
arrive at it, and wit]> the same alacrity they pursue the bear or the niiisk-ox.
Indeed, the only animal which they arc not eager to chase is the wolf, of wliicli
they seem to have an instinctive dread, giving notice at night of their ap-
proach to the huts by a loud and continued howl.

In spite of their invaluable services, they are treated with great severity l)v
tlieir masters, who never caress them, and, indeed, scarcely ever take any no-
ti'-e of them except to punish them. But notwithstanding this rough treatniont,
the atiachment of the dogs to their masters is very great, and this they dis-
play, after a short absence, by junq)ing up and licking their faces all over with
extreme delight.

It may be supposed that among so cheerful a people as the Esquimaux tlitre
are many games or sports practised. One of their exhibitions consists in mak-
ing hideous faces by drawing both lips into the mouth, ])()king forward the chin,
S(juinting frightfully, occasioiudly shutting one eye, and moving the head from
side to side w:, if the neck had been dislocated.

Another jierformance consists in repe'.iting certain words with a guttural
tone resembling ventiiloqi'ism, staring at the same time in such a manni'r as
to make their eyes appear ready to burst out of their sockets with the eviTtinn.
Two or more will sometimes stand up face to face, and, with great quickness
and regularity, respond to each other, keeping such exact time that the sdund
apjiears to come from one throat instead of several. They are fond of music,
both vocal atid instrumental, but their singing is not much better than a iuiwl.

The Esquimaux have neither magistrates nor laws, yet they are orderly in
their conduct towards each other. The constitution of their society is palri-
archal, but there is no recognition of mastership except such as may be claimed
by superior i)rowess. The rule of the head of a family lasts only as long as lie
has vigor enough to secure success in hunting. When liis powers of mind
and body are impaired by age, he at once sinks in the s(.cial scale, associates
with the women, aiul takes his seat in the ooi'iiak. They rarely quarrel auiuug
themselves, and settle their disputes either by boxing, the parties sittmg down
and striking blows alternately until one of them gives in, or before a court of
honor, where, after the accuser and the accused have richly abused and ridi-

■ 14

THE ESQUIMAUX.

801

cr.R'd each other, the case is decided by the priests or " ancjokoks." These
woiidt'i-workers, who enjoy a great . cputatioii as sorcerers, soothsayers, or ined-
itiiii'-ineii, employ ventriloquism, swallow knives, extract stones from various
parts of their bodies, and use other deceptions to imi)rcss tlieir dupes with a
lii^li opinion of their supernatural i)owcrs. Like the members of the learned
iiiiifcssions elsewhere, they have a certain lanyuaijfe or jar!j;on of their own, in
wliich tliey communicate with each other. Tiie heatlien Es(iuiinaux do not
;i|i]H;ir to have any idea of the existence of one Supreme IJeinjjf, but believe in
a iiniiil)er of spirits, with whom on certain occasions the angekoks pretend to
lidlil mysterious intercourse. Even in Old (Greenland the iuHuence and teach
iiiLTs of the missionaries have not entirely obliterated the old superstitions, and
tlic mysteries of the amrekok, though not ojjcnly recognized near the Danish
scttli'Mients, still hold theii- secret power over many a native who is professedly
a t'lnistian.

Captain Hall liighly praises the good-nature of the Es((uimaux ; but in their
beliavior to the ohl and infirm they betray the insensibility, or rather inhu-
manity, commonly found among savage nations, fre(|uently abandoning them
to tiieir fate on their journeys, and allowing them to perish in the wilderness.

Among themselves " Tiglikpok " (he is a thief) is a term of reproach, but
tluy steal without scru])le from strangers, and lire not ashamed when detected,
nor do they blush when reproved. Parry taxes them with want of gratitude ;
and tliough they have no doubt rendered good services to many of our
Arctic navigators, yet sometimes, when they fancied themselves the stronger
party, they have not hesitated to attack or to murder the strangers, and their
good behavior can only be relied upon as long as there is the power of enforc-
ing it.

One of the most amiable traits of their character is the kindness with whidi
tlioy treat their children, whose genllciiess and docility are such as to occasion
their parents little trouble, and to retider severity towards them quite inmeces-
sary. Even from their earliest infancy they possess that quiet disposition, gen-
tkntss uf demeanor, and uncommon evemiess of temper for which, in mature
age, they are for the most part distinguished. " They .ire just as fond of Jilay,"
says I'ariy, " as any other young people, and of the same kind, only that while
til Knglish child draws a cart of wood, an P2s(piimnux of the same age has a
skdgo of wlialebon ; and for the superb baby-house of the former, the latter
Imilils a miniature Imt of snow, and begs a lighted wick from her mother's
lamp to illuminate the little dwelling."

When not more than eight years old, the boys arc taken by their fathers
on their sealing excursions, where they begin to learn their future business;
and even at that early age they are occasionally intrusted to bring homo a
sledge and dogs from a distance of several miles over the ice. At the age of
eleven we see a boy Avitli his water-tight boots, a si)ear in his hand, and a small
coil of line at his back, accompanying the men to the fishery under every cir-
cumstance ; and from this time his services daily increase in value to the wholo
tribe.

lu intelligence and subceptibility of civilization the Esquimaux aro far su-

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pcrior to the neighboring Indians, They have such a good idea of the liy(h'ojT.
laphy and bearings of the sea-coasts whidi tliey frequent as to *ba\v accurate
charts of them. Thus Parry, in liis second voyage, was guided in liis (intra-
tions by the sketches of the talented Iliglhik; and wliile lieediey was at K()t/(.
hue Sound, liie natives constructed a cliart of the coast npou tlie sand iiist
marking out the coast-lino with a stick, and regulating the distance bv the dav's
journey, Tiie hills and ranges of mountains were next shown by elevutidus of
sand ')r stone, and the islands represented by heaps of pebbles, their propor
tions being duly attended to, "When the mountains and islands were erccti il
tiie villages and fishing-stations were marked by a number of sucks placed un-
vight, in imitation of those which are put up on the coast wherever these pco-
pie fix their abode. In this manner a complete hydrographical plan was drawn
from Cape Derby to Cape Krusenstern,

The Escpiimaux have a. decided predilection for commercial pursuits, and
undertake long voyages for the purjioses of trade. Thus on the continental
line of coast west of the Mackenzie, the Point Barrow Escpiimaux proceed
every summer, with sledges laden with whale or seal oil, whalebone, walrus-
tusks, thongs of walrus hide, and seal-skins, to the Colville IJiver, where llu v
meet the Esquimaux from Kotzebue Sound, who offer them in exchatiije arti-
cles procured from the Tcluiktchi in the previous summer, such as iron and
copper kettles, knives, tobacco, beads, and tin for making pipes. Alxinl ten
days are spent in bartering, dancing, and revelry, on the flat groiunl belw eeii
the tents of each party, i)itched a bow-shot apart. The time is one of jileasant
excitement, and is passed nearly without sleep. About July 20 this friendly
meetinLC is at an end: the Kotzebue Sound Esquimaux ascend the Colville on
their way homeward, while those from Point Barrow descend to the sea, to
pursue their voyage eastward to Barter Reef, where they obtain in tratlic iVoin
the eastern P^squimaux various skins, stone lamps, English knives, small white
beads, and, lately, guns and ammunition, which in the year following they ex-
change for the Kotzebue Sound articles at the Colville, along with the produce
of their own sea-hunts.

In this manner, articles of Russian manufacture, originally ]iurchased af tlie
fair of Ostrownoje by the Tchuktchi, or ivom the factors of the Russian Fur
Company on Sledgo Island, in Bering's Straits, find their way from trihe to
tribe along tlie American coast as far as Repulse Bay, and (compete among the
tribes of the Mackenzie with articles from Sheffield oi Birmingham,

A hunter's life is always precarious — a constant alternation between aluiii-
dance and want ; and though the Esquimaux strikes many a seal, white-lish, nr
■walrus in tlie course of tlie year, yet these animals do not abound at all sea-
sons, and there are other causes, besides improvidence, which soon exhaust the
stores laid by in times of abundance. Active exercise and constant exposure
to cold are remarkable promoters of atomic change in the liuinan body, am! a
very large supjdy of food is absolutely necessary to counterbalance the effects
of a rapid organic combustion. As a matter of curiosity. Parry once tried
how much an Escpiimaux lad would, if freely supplied, consume in the course
of a day. The following articles were Mcighcd before being given to hini:

I ■';

THE ESQUIJLVUX 803

he was twenty hours in getting through them, and certainly did not consider
the quantity extraordinary.

Iba. oz.

Sea-horse fl.'sh, hard frozen 4 4

" " boiled 4 4

Bread and bread-dust 1 12

Total of solids 10 4

Tlif fluids were in fair proportion, viz., rich gravy soup, IJ pint ; raw spirits, 3 wine-glasses ; stroiin
';ro,', 1 luiiildjr ; water, 1 gallon 1 pint.*

Kane averages the Esquimaux ration in a season of ))lenty at eight or ten
pouiuls a day, with soup and water to tlie extent of lialf a gallon, and finds in
tliis excessive consumption — which is rather a necessity of their peculiar life
mill organization than the result of gluttony — the truecxi)lanation of the scarci-
ty from which they frequently suffer. In times of abundance they hunt in-
tloinitably without the loss of a day, and stow away large quantities of meat.
An excavation is made either on the mainland — or, what is preferred, on an isl-
and inaccessible to foxes — and the flesh is stacked inside and covered with
heavy stones. One such cache which Kane met on a small island contained
theik'sh of ten walruses, and he knew of others equally large. But by their an-
cient custom, all share with all; and as they migrate in numbers aS their neces-
sities jivompt, the tax on each particular settlement is not seldom so excessive
that even considerable stores arc unable to Avithstand the drain, and soon make
way lor pinching hunger, and even famine.

* Captain Hall, who in his search after the remains of the Franklin expedition has now spent sev-
eral years anmn;; the Es(iuiniaux, has so far acquired their appitite that he is able to consume 9 lbs.
of meat a day without any inconvenience.

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CHAPTER XXVIII.

TIIK FUR-TRADE OF THE HUDSON'S BAY TERRITORIES.

The CdUi'ciir ik's liuis. — Tlio Voyai;ctir. — The liircli-bark Canoe.— The Canadian Fiir-trudc in tlip hist
Century. — Tlic iiadson's Buy ('()ni])any. — IMoody Feuds between the N(irth-wrst ('(inipaiiv of Cm.

ada and tlie Iliid-nn's Hay Company. — Their .\nialj^aniation into anew ('onipanv in \x2i. Itccoii-

struc'tioii of llio Hudson's Hay (,'onip:iny in lHt;3. — Forts or Houses —The .\ttiha\\nie^' — Inllncme

of tlie Coni)iany on its sava,!:;o Dependents. — Tlie Black Bear, or Bariliil. — Th^i Brown \]:\r Tlio

Cirizzly Bear. — 'I Ik^ liiK'cooii. — Tlie .American Glutton. — The Fine JIarten. — The P<'kan, or Wood-
shock. — The Chiiif^a. — The Jlink. — Tlio Canadian Fish-otter. — The Crossed Fox. — The jilatk or
Silvery Fo.x. — Tho Canadian Lyn.x, or Fishu. — The Ice-h ire. — The Beaver. — The Musquash.

4 S the desire to reach India by the sliortest road first made the civilizi'd
-^•*- M'orld acquainted witli the eastern coasu of North America, so tlie extt'ii-
8ion of the fnr-lrade has been tlie chief, or rather tlio only, motive wliicli oriifi-
nally led the footsteps of the white man from tho Canadian Lakes and tiie bor-
ders of IIudsoiTs Bay into the remote interior of that vast continent.

The first European fur-traders in North America v/ere French Canadiiins—
coiireiirs des bois — a fitting surname for men habituated to an Indian forest-
life. Three or four of these "irregular spirits " agreoing to make an e.\|i(.Mli.
tion into the backwoods woidd set out in their birch-bark canoe, laden with
goods received on trust from a merchant, for a voyage of great danger and
hardship, it might be of several years, into the wilderness.

On their return the merchant who had given them credit of course receivwl
the lion's share of the skins gathered among the Ilurons or tho Iroquois; the
small ])ortiou k'ft as a recompense for their own labor was soon spent, as sailors
spend their hard-earned M'.iges on their arriv.al in port ; and then they st;irtO(l
on some new adventure, until finally old age, infirmities, or death prevented
their I'evisiting the forest.

The modern " i'oya(jeur,^'' who has usurped the place of the old " (•onn'xrs!,"'
is so like them in manners and mode of life, that to know the one is to become
acquainted with the other. In short, the voyageur is merely a coureur suhjeet
to strict law and serving for a iixed pay ; while the coureur was a voyageur
trading at his own risk and peril, and acknowledging no control when once
beyond the ])ale of European colonization.

The camel is frequently called the " ship of the desert," and with equal jus-
tice tho birch-bark canoe might be named the " camel of the North Aniericiiii
wilds." For if we consider the rivers Avliich, covering the land like a net-work,
are the only arteries of communication; the frequent rapids and cataracts; tlie
shallow waters llowing over a stony ground whose sharp angles would infalli-
bly cut to jneces any boat made of wood ; and finally the surrounding deserts,
where, in case of an accident, the traveller is left to his own resources, we must
come to the conclusion that in such a country no intercourse could possibly be

THE FUR-TRADE OF THE HUDSON'S BAY TERRITORIES.

805

cMiiic'I on without ;i boat made of materials at once flexible antl tough, and ca-
niihle moreover of beiiig easily repaired without the aid of hamiiier and nails,
of s;iw and plane. Tliis invaluable material is supi)Iied by the rind of the jiaper-
liirc'li, a tree whose uses in the Hudson's IJay territories are almost as manifold
as tliose of the paini-trees of the tro[)i(;al zone. Where the skins of animals
are rare, tlie pliant bark, ])eek'd off in large pieces, serves to cover the Indian's
tLiit. Carefully sewn together, and ornamented with the quills of the porcupine,
it is made into baskets, sacks, dishes, plates, and drinking-cups, and in fact is, in
oiic word, the chief material of which the household articles of the Crees are
f.i:ini'(l. The wood serves for the manufacture of oars, snow-shoes, iuid sledges ;
aiil in spring the sap of the tree furnishes an agreeable beverage, which, by
li;)iliiig, may be inspissated into a sweet syrup. IJeyond the Arctic Circle the
iMper-hirch is a rare and crooked tree, but it is met with as a shrub as far as
lj;i° X. lat. It grows to perfection on the northern shores of Lake Snj)erior.
near Fort William, where the canoes of the Hudson's IJay Company are chier-
Iv niainifactured.

A bircli-bark canoe is between thirty and forty feet long, and the rinds of
whiili it is built are sewn together with filaments of the root of the Canadian
iir. In case of a hole being knocked into it during the journey, it can be i)atch-
C(l like an old coat, and is tlien as good as new. As it has a flat bottom, it does
not sink deep into the water; and the river must be almost dried up which
could not carry such a boat. The cargo is divided into bales or jtarcels of from
90 to 100 pounds; and although it frequently amounts to more than foiu- tons,
yet tlie canoe itself is so light that the crew can easily transport it upon their
shoulders. This crew generally consists of eight or ten men, two of whom
must be experienced boatmen, who receive double "pay, and are placed one at
the helm, the other at the poop. When the wind is fair, a sail is unfurled, and
serves to lighten the toil.

Tlu! Canadian voyageur combines the light-heartedness of the Frenchman
with the apathy of the Indian, and his dress is also a mixture of that of the
licd-skins and of the European colonists. Frequently he is himself a mixture
of Gallic and Indian blood — a so-called " bois-brfile," and in this case doubly
iii^lit-liearted and unruly. With his woollen blaidict as a snrcoat, his shirt of
stri|»ed cotton, his pantaloons of cloth, or his Indian stockings (^f leather, his
moccasins of deer-skin, and his sash of gaudily-dyed wool, in which his
knife, his tobacco-bag, ami various other utensils are stuck, lie stands high in
his uwn esteem. His language is a French jargon, richly interlarded with
hnliaii and English words — a jmnble fit to drive a grammarian mad, but
which he thinks so euphonious that his tongue is scarcely ever at rest. His
supply of songs and anecdotes is inexhaustible, and ho is always ready for
a dance. His politeness is exemplary: ho never calls his comrades otherwise
than " mon frere," and " mon cousin." It is hardlv necessary to remark tliat
ho is able to handle his boat with the same ease as an expert rider manages
his horse.

Wlien after a hard day's work they rest for the night, the axe is immediately
at work in the nearest forest, and in less than ten minutes the tent is erected

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an(1 the kettle simmering on the fire. While the passengers — perhaps some
chief trader on ji voyage to some distant fort, or a Hack or a llichardson on IiIh
way to the Polar Ocean — are wanning or drying themselves, the indefatigahlu
" voyageurs" *lrag the unloa>led canoe ashore, turn it over, and examine it care-
fully, either to fasten again some loose stitches, or to paint over some damaged
part with fresh resin. Under the cover of their boat, which they turn against
the wind, and with a flaming fire in the foreground, they then bid deliance (o
tlio weather. At one o'clock in the morning "Level level level" is called;
in half an hour the encampment i; broken up, and the boat reladen and laundud.
At eight in the morning a halt is made for breakfast, /or which three-(iuartei's
of an hour are allowed. About two in the afternoon lialf an hour's rest siiillcos
for a col I dinner. Eighteen hours' work and six hours rest make out the (l,iv.
The labor is incre<lil)le; yet the " voyageur " not only supports it williont ii
murmur, but with the utmost cheerfulness. Such a life recpiires, of course, an
iron constitution. In rowing, the arms and breast of the "voy.ageur" are ex-
erted to the utmost; and in shallow places he drags the boat after him, wadiiii,'
up to the knees and thighs in the water. Where he is obliged to force his w:iv
against a rapid, the drag-rope must be pulled over rocks and stumps of trees,
through swamps and thickets ; and at the ])ortages the cargo and the boat
have to be carried over execrable roads to the next navigable w'atcr. Then
the "voyageur" takes upon his back two packages, each weighing 00 poinids,
and attached by a leathern belt running over the forehead, that his hands may
be free to clear the way ; and such portages sometimes occur ten or eleven
tunes in one day,

P'or these tods of his wandering life ho has many compensations, in (he
keen appetite, the genial sensation of mrscular strength, and the flow of spirits
engendered by labor in the ]»uro and biacing air. Surely many would ratlier
breathe with the " voyageur" the fragrance of the pine forest, or share his rest
upon the borders of the stream, than lead the monotonous life of an artisan,
pent up in the impure atmosphere of a city.

During the first period of the American ftu'-trade the " coureurs des hois "
used to set out on their adventurous expeditions from the village " La Cliine,"
one of the oldest and most famous settlements in Canada, wliose name jioints
to a time when the St. Lawrence was still supposed to be the nearest way to
China. I low far sonic of them may have penetrated into the interior of the
continent is unknown; but so much is certain, that their regular expeditions
extended as far as the Saskatchewan, 2500 miles l)evond the remotest European
settlements. Several factories or forts protected their interests on the hanks
of that noble river ; and the French would no doubt have extended their do-
minion to the Rocky Mountains or to the Pacific if (he conquest of Canada by
England, in 1 7G1, had not completely revolutionized the fur-trade. The change
of dominion laid it f)rostrate for several years, but our enterprising countrymen
soon opened a profitable intercourse with the Indian tribes of the M'est, as (heir
predecessors had done before them. Now, however, the adventurous " coureur
des bois," who had entered the wilds as a scmi-indej<endent trader, was obliged
to serve in the pay of the British merchant, and to follow him, as Ins " voyar

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TIIE FUR-TUADE OF THE HUDSON'S BAY TERRITORIES.

307

iroiir," deeper and deeper into the wilderness, xintll finally they reached on the
Atliabasoa and the Churchill Itiver the Indian hunters who used to sell their
skins in the settlements of the Hudson's Hay Company.

Tliis company was founded in the year 1G70 by a body of adventurers and
merchants under the patronage of Prince Rupert, second cousin of Charles II.
The charter obtained from the Crown was wonderfully liberal, com[)risin;4 not
only the grant of the exclusive trade, but also of full territorial possession to
all perpetuity of the vast lands within the watershed of Hudson's Bay. Tho
Company at once established some forts along the shores of the great inland
Boa from which it derived its name, and opened u very lucrat< j trade with the
Indians, so that it never ceased paying rich dividends to the fortunate share-
holders until towards the close of the last century, when, as I have already men-
tioned, its prosperity began to be seriously affected by the energetic competi-
tion of the Canadian fur-traders.

In spite of the flourishing state of its affairs, or rather because the monop-
oly which it enjoyed allowed it to prosper without exertion, the Company, as
long as Canada remained in French hands, had conducted its affairs in a very
indolent manner, waiting for the Indians to bring the produce of their chase to
the Hudson's Bay settlements, instead of following them into the interior and
Btimiilating them by offering greater facilities for exchange.

For eighty years after its foundation the Company possessed no more than
fonr small forts on the shores of Hudson's Bay ; and only when the encroach-
ments of the Canadians at length roused it from its torpor, did it resolve like-
wise to advance into the interior, and to establish a fort on the eastern shore
of Sturgeon Lake, in the year 1774. Up to this time, with the exception of
the voyage of discovery which Ilearne (1770-71) made under its auspices to
the mouth of the Coppermine River, it had done but little I'or tho promotion
of geographical discovery in its vast territory.

Meanwhile the Canadian fur-traders had become so hitcful to the Indiana
that these savages formed a conspiracy for their total extirpation.

Fortunately for the white men, the small-pox broke out about this time
among the Redskins, and swept them away as the fire consumes the parched
grass of the prairies. Their unburied corpses were torn by the wolves and
wild dogs, and the survivors were too weak and dispirited to be able to under-
take any thing against the foreign intruders. The Canadian fur-traders now
also saw the necessity of combining their efforts for their mutual benefit, instead
of ruining each other by an insane competition ; and consequently formed, in
1783, a society which, under the name of the North-west Company of Canada,
at first consisted of sixteen, later of twenty partners or shareholders, sorr.c of
whom lived in Canada, while the others were scattered among the various
stations in the interior. The whole Canadian fur-trade was now greatly de-
veloped ; for while previously each of the associates had blindly striven to do
as much harm as possible to his present partners, and thus indirectly damaged
his own interests, they now all vigorously united to beat the rival Hudson's
Bay Company out of the field. The agents of this North-west Company, in
defiance of their charter, were indefatigable in exploring the lakes and woods,

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THE POLAR WORLD.

tlio plains and tlio mountains, for tbo purpose of est!il>li.slilng now triidin'^-sta.
lions at all convenient points.

'I'lie most eelel)rate(l of tliesc ])ioneevs of oointnerce, Alexander I\IacI<(iizie
reached, in tlie year 17^0, tlie mouth of tli»; <j;rcat river wliich hears his name
and saw tlie wiiite (h)lp!iins yainhol ahout in tho Arotio Sea. In a second vov-
ftijo lie crossed tho Uocky I\Iountains, and followed tho course of the Fmscr
Iliver initil it disdiarLTes its waters into the (fcort^ian Clnlf opposite; to \'aii-
convcr's Island, lien; lie Avroto w'th perishablo vermilion the foUowin" in-
scription on a rock-wall fronting the gulf: —

A. Mackenzie

arrived from Canada by land,

22 July, 1792.

Tho words were soon effaced liy wind and weather, hut tho fame of tlie ex-
plorer will last as long as the English language is spoken in America.

Tho energetic North-west Company thus ruled over the whole continent
from the Canadian Lakes to tho Uocky ^Fountains, and in ISOO it even crossed
that barrier and established its forts on tho northern tributaries of the Cohuii-
bia Itiver. To tho north it likewise extended its operations, encroachini,' mkhi'
and more upon tho privileges of the Hudson's Bay Company, which, roused to
energy, now also piisheil on its ])osts farther and farther into tho inferior, and
establisiud in ISIJ a colony on the Ued IJivor to the south of Winipeg Lake,
thus driving, as it were, a sharj) thorn into the side of its rival. Hut a power
like tho North-west Comjiany, which had no less than ")() agents, TO iiitcrprel-
crs, and 1 120 voyngours in its pay, and whose chief managers used to appear
at their annual meotings at Fort William, on tho banks of Lake Superior, with
all the pomp and pride of feudal barons, was not inclined to tolerate this en-
croachment; and thus, after many quarrels, a regular war broke out between
the two parties, which, after two years' duration, loil to the expulsion of tlin
Hod River colonists and the murder of their governor, Sein]ile. This event
took place in the year 181G, and is but one episode of the bloody feuds wliidi
continued to reign between the two rival companies imtil 1821. At Hrst sight
it may seem strange that such acts of violence should take jilace between
Hritish subjects and on IJritish soil, but then we must consider that at that
time Eiinipean law had little power in the American wilderness.

The dissensions of the fur-t'-adors had most deplorable consoqueiu'es for
the Hedskins; for both companies, to swell tho number of their adiierents,
lavishly distributed spirituous licpiors — a temptation which no Indian can re-
sist.

Tho Avhole of the hunting-grounds of the Saskatchewan and Athabasca
wore but one scene of revelry and bloodshed. Already decimated by tlic
smallpox, tho Indians now became tho victims of drunkenne.=!s and discord,
and it was to be feared that if the war and its conseepient demoralization com-
tiniied, tho most important tribes would soon bo utterly swept away.

The (iiiances of the belligerent companies were in an equally deplorable
state; tho produce of tho chase diminishoJ from year to year with the in-

) ;

THE FUH-THADi: OF THE HUDSON'S I5AY TKRinTOlJIKS.

aOi)

frcasc (if tlu'ir cxpc'inliturc; imd thus llic Hiidsoii's r>;iy Company, wliicli used
t(i -ratify its sharelioMors witli (liviiK'uds of r>0 and •-'.") ]>vr ciMit., was unable,

from 1R08 to 1814, to distribute a single shilling among them. At length -,vi8-
(loin prevailed over passion, and the enemies came to a resolution which, it

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taken from llio very l)C!^inniii<;, would liavo savod tliciu hotli a groat dcil of
tiTiistin! and many crimes. Instead of (tontinuinj^ to Hwintj tlu( tomahawk
tlicy now smoked tin; calumet, and »mal.i;amated in IH-JI, under tlu; name of
the " Iluilson's Uay Company," and umler tlio wimj of the charter. Tlie iJiil-
ish (jovenimeiit, as ;\ dowry to the impoverislu-il couple, presented them with ,1
lici'Mse of exclusive trade throughout the whole of that It'rritory w hieli, uihI, r
the name of the Hudson's May and North-west territories, exlemls from hah.
rador to the raciiic, and from the Red liiverto the I'olur Ocean. This licitiso
was terminahle in 21 years, hut in iH.'iS it was renewed aijain for llie same 1 c-
riod. The trood effects of peace and union soon became apparent, for idkr n
few years the Company was enabled to pay half-yearly <lividends of live per
cent., and the Indians, to whom brandy was now no longer supplied unle.ss as a
medicine, enjoyed the advantaijes of a more sober lif(>.

About IS 18 the Imperial (lovernment, fearin.^ tliat Vanconvoi's Isjainl
miylit be imnexeil by the L'nitc'd Stati's, resolsed to plac<! it under the niiinie^c-
mont of the Hudson's 15ay C()mi)any. This was accordiiiLjly done in ISIO. .\
license of exclusive trade and nianaiieinent was i^i'atited for ten years, t( rinina-
ble therefore in 1850 (the time of expiration of the similar license over thu
Indian territory).

These were the ])almy days of the Hudson's Bay Company. They hcM
liupert's Land by the royal charter, which was ])erpetual; they held Vancou-
ver's Island and the whole Indian territory to the Paciliu by exclusive licenses,
terminable in ISJO; and thus maintained under their sole sway about 4,0()i),uuo
scpiare miles— a realm lander than the whole of Europe.

For the ten years ending,' ]May 151, 1802, the averauje net annual profits of tlic
Company amounted to £81,000 on a i)aid-up capital of X'400,000, but a jjortioa
only of this income was distributed as dividend.

In 18(i;! the Company was reconstructed, with a capit.'il of £2,000,000, for tlu;
purpose of enlaririncc its operations — such as openini^ the southern and inoro
fruitful districts of the Saskatchewan or the WinipoL!; to European cnloni/a-
tion ; but the northern, and by far the lari>-er jiortion of the vast domains over
which, .after the dismemberment of British Columbia and tlie Slikine territory,
it still holds sway, have too severe a climate ever to be cultivated, and, milrss
their mineral wealth be made available, nnist ever be what they are now— a
fur-bearing region of gloomy pine-forests, naked barren -grounds, lakes, and
morasses.

Over this vast extent of desert the Company has established about 150 trad-
ing-posts, called "Ao»<scs," or ''^/br^s," wliich, liowever, consist merely of a few
magazines and dwelling-houses, protected by a simple wall, stockade, or j)aiisadc
sufticiently strong to resist any sudden attack of the Indians. Among the tribes,
witli whom a friendly intercourse has long s>d)sisted, and whose fidelity ni;iy
implicitly be trusted, no guard is ever kept, and it is only in forts more recent-
ly built in remote parts that precautions are taken.

These forts are always situated on tlie borders of a lake or river, both for fa-
cility of transport .and for the purpose of catching fish, particularly the s])eciM
of Coregonus, or white-fish, wliich, from its importance to all the natives of

Pfp'

THE Fim TRADE OF THE HUDSON'S BAY TEUHlTOUIEa. 31!

Iluiicvt's Land bctwoon the uveal Canadii lakoa nn-' iho Arctic Sea, tlin Croon
call Attiliau-m<% or thu '• ri'iiKli'cr of tliu waters." In many of llio trading-

If I'

posts it forma the chief food of the wliitc residents ; and it is asserted that
though deprived of bread and vegetables, a man may live ujion it for months or

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THE POLAR WOItLD.

I'Viii veins without, tiiincf. Aocoril'mi; to Sir Joliii Iliclifinlsoii, jio fisli in ,iiiv
oomitry or hcii oxci-ls tiic whiti'-lisii in ll;ivor ami wholi'Hoim'iU'MM, ami it is ;liu
most lu'iulicial article of tlict to iIk- IJcil Indiaiis near tliu Aretic Circle, heiii"
olitaine(l with more certainly than the reimleer, ami with less ch.im^e of ahculo
in summer and winter.

Eiich of the principal forts is the seat of a chief factor, or tjoneral ndnili
tralor of a district, and of a (thief trader, who transacts the business with th
ln<l

\\i-

lans.

I'loides these principal fiinctiiviarios — out of whom the Ljovernor is cl

loscn

— the Company employed, in IStiO, 5 siirLfeons, 8" clerks, 07 jiostmaslers, Ijim

■permanenl st'rvants, aiK

I .■)()()

vovayeurs.

hesid

es temporary employes of dii

eiit ranks, so that the total nmnlier of persons in its pay was at least
IJesides this little army of innnediate dependents, the whoh; male Indian popu-
lation of its vast territory, amoimtinL? to aliout |0(),()()() hunters and trappers,
may he considered as actively employed in the servici' of the Company. Ann-
ed vessels, holh sailini^ and stem, are employed on the north-west coast to cai-
ry on the fur-trade witii the warlike natives of that distant region. More tlimi
twenty years a^o this trade alone jji,ave employment to about louo men, occu|i\-
iiii^ '21 permanent establishments, or enu;aired in navi'j;atiny live armed sailiiiij;
vessels and one armed steamer, varvin'j; from loo to ;iOO tons in burden.

The inlluence of the Comjjany over its savai,'e dependents may justly hu
called beneiicial. Jloth from motives of humanity and self-interest, every effort
is made to civilize them. No expense is spared to preserve them from tliu

TKADEK's CAMl".

Till': i'ii{Ti{.\[)i: OF Tin: iiidson's bay rKHiUToiiii's.

3l:J

wiiiit into Wiiicli llicir iiiiproviiK'nco ti>o often |tliiii;;cs tlicm ; mnl tin* cxntiiido
of an iiillt'xiWIc htniiiflitfoiwunlncss serves to yain their eontliletice. Tliis mhmiiI
iirc|i(>n(lerance, and tlio ailiiiiration of tlio Indian for tlie siiperior kiiowleilixe
iiml arts of tlie Knropeans, exiilain how a mere liamlfnl of wliite men, scatli red
over an eiiorinons ti riilory, not only Ii'ad a life of [leifei't security, hut exi'reise
MM almost ahsolute power over a native popuhttion onlnumix-rinix lliein at least
scvd,;! hnmired times. Tiie Indians have in course of time acfpiire'! munyniw
uiMils, ami have thus hecomi' more and m<»re di'pcndeiit (,n tin' white traders.
The savaixe hunter is no lonu'er the free, self-dependent man, who, without any
foniu'n assistance, was al)lo to nnike ami manufacture, with his own hands, all
the weapons and articles needeil for his maintenance. Without Knylish fire-
arms and lishinu'-ijcar, witlnnit iron-ware and woollen hiankets, he could no louLf-
cr exist, and the nnforlunate trihe on which the Company should close its stores
\\(i\il(l soon perish *''»r want. "History," says I'mfosor Hind," does not fur-
nish another example of an association of private individuals exertim; a power-
ful iiiiluence over so larye an extent of the earth's surface-, and administerini^
llicir aiVairs with siu'h coiisunnnate skill and unwaverini,' devotion to the ori^i-
iiiil uliji'cts of their incorporation.'"

Tlie stamlanl of exchanire in all mercantile transactions with the natives is a
licaver skin, the relative valui! of which, as oriLjinally estahlished liy the traders,
dilTcrs considerahly from the present worth of the arlicK'S represented hy it;

Imt tlie Indians are averse to ehauLre.

TI

ley receive their principal

oiitlit of

ciiithiii',' and ammunition on credit in the autumn, to he repanl hy their winter
Imiits; the annniiit intrusted to each of the hunters varying with their reputa-
tions for industry and skill.

The furs which, in the course of the year, arc accumulated in the various
forts or tradinijj-stations, are transported in the short tinu! durinij which the
rivers and lakes are navigahle, and iti the manner deserihed at the heifimiiiiij of
the chapter, to York Factory, or Moose Factory, on Hudson's IJay, to Montreal
or Vancouver, and shipped from thence mostly to London. From the more
distant posts in the interior, the tr.ansport often requires several seasons; for
travellini^ is necessarily very slow when rapids and portatj;es continually inter-

ru

|il navii^ation, and the lon:^ winter puts a stop to all intercourse whatever.

Th

(Is from Kiirope, consist imj; (besides those mentioned above) of
ilk hainlkercdiit'fs, or neck-cloths, of heads, and the universal

piiiited I'ottoii or s

fiivorit" t'.diacco, re(piire at least as much time to tind their way into the distant
interior; and thus the Company is not seldom ohlit^ed to wait for four, live,
or six years before it receives its returns for the articles sent from London,
It iniist, however, be confessed, that it amply repays itself for the tedioiisness
of delay, for Dr. Armstrong was told by the Esipumaux of C"a|)e Uathurst— a
trihe in the habit of trading with the Indians from the ^lackenzie, who are in
direct eomiminication with the Hudson's l>av Companv's agents — that for three
silver-fox skins — which sometimes fetch as high a price as twenty-five or thirty

'uin

eas apiece at the annual sale of the Company — they had got from the trad-
ers cooking utensils which might be worth eight shillings and si:;pence !

The value of the skins auiiually imported into England by the Company

i:

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314

THE POLAR WORLD.

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amounts to about £150,000 or £200,000. Besides, many of its furs arc bartered
for Kussian-American peltry, and a large qu)>ntity is exported direct to Cliiiui.

After tliis brief account of one of the moht remarkable niercaiitilo associa-
tions of any age, some remark ou the chief fur-bearing animals of the Hudson's

THE FUR-TR\DE OF THE HUDSON'S BAY TERRITORIES.

315

Biiy territory may not be without interest. Among those, the bhick bear,
niuskwa, or baribal (Ifrsiis amerieamts),h one of the mo.st valuable, as his long
hail— unlike that of the brown or the white bear — is beautifully .smooth and
(yl.issv. He inhabits the forest regions of North America, but migrates accord-
ill',' to the seasons. In spring he seeks his food in the thickets along the baidcs
of tlie rivers or hxkes ; in summer he retreats into the forests; in winter ho
(■itl'.cr wanders farther to the south, or hollows out a kind of laii beneath t.'io
pict (if an overthrown tree, where, as the cold is more or less severe, ho either
timls a retreat after his excursions, or liibcrnates buried in the snow. He feeds
cliic'tiv on berries, grain, acorns, roots, eggs, and honey; though, when i)resse(l
liv liiniger, he will attack other quadrupeds. He climbs upon trees or rocks
witli great agility, and, being very watchful, is not easily got at in sunnner.
SoiiK'tinies, liowever, his caution brings about his destruction; for, from fear
of sonie possible danger, or at the sligiitest noise, he rises on his iiind legs to
look over the bushes under Mhich he lies concealed, and thus offers a mark to
tlie hiillct of the lumter. In the winter, when the snow betrays his traces, ho
is more easily shot, and his skin and flesh are then also in the best condition,
hi spite of ids ajiparent clumsiness and stolidity, the mnskwa is more alert
tluiii the brown bear, whom he nearly api)roaches in si/.e ; he runs so fast that no
iiKiii can overtake him, and is an excellent swimmer and crnnber. AVhen attacked,
ho ifcnorally retreats as fast as possibK; into the forest; but if escape is im-
pos.slhle, he turns furiously upon his pursiu'rs, and becomes exceeilingly danger-
ous. ])ogs alone are incapable of mastering him, as he is always ready to re-
ceive them witli a stioke of his fore j)aw; but they are very useful in driving
Iiiiu up a tree, and thus giving the lumter an opportunity of hitting him in the
rii^'ht spot. Wiien in a state of caj)tivity, the baribal, in his mild and good-
huiiiored disposition, is distinguished from the brown and white bear. His
fiu' is also nmch more valuable than that of the brown bear.

It is not yet fully ascertained whether the American bron-n bear is identical
witli that of Europe; the resemblance, however, is close. In sunnner he wan-
ders to tiie shores of the Polar Sea, and indulges more freipier.tly in animal
food iliau the baribal. He is even said to attack man when pressed by hunger;
but all those whom Sir John Ilichardson met with ran away as soon as they
saw liiin.

As the grizzly bear [Ursus fcro.r) is found on the Rocky I^^ountains up to
tlic latitude of 01°, he undoubtedly deserves a place among the subarctic ani-
ui;iis. The skin of this most formiilable of the ursine race, who is about nine
feet louir, and is said to attain the weight of eight hundred pouinls, is but little
prized ill the fur-trade. He is the undoubted monarch of his i.ativo wilds, for
even tiie savage bison flies at liis approach.

Although the raccoon {Proci/oii lotor) is more commonly found ni Canada
and the United States, yet he is also an inhabitant of the Hudson's Bay terri-
tories, where he is met with up to 50° N. lat. This interesting little animal,
wiiicli,like the bears, applies the sole of its foot to the ground in walking, ha.s
an average length of two feet from the nose to the tail, which is about t(!n inch-
es long. Its color is grayish-brown, with a dusky line running from the top ol

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THE rOLAR WOPLD.

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tlio licad down tlic micldlo of the face, ami ending below the eyes. The t;iil is
very tliiekly covered willi hair, and is annulated witli several bbck bars on a
yellowi.^ii-wiiile ground. Its face is very like that of the fox, whom it euuals
in cunning, wliile its active and phiyful iiabits resemble those of the inonkev.
Its favorite iiaunts are the woods, near streams or lakes, f(jr one of its ninsf
marked jieculiai'ities, from wliicli it has received its sjiecilic name nUotDrjOv da-
Avasher, is its habit of |ilungiiig its dry food into water Ijefore eating it. The
raccoon devours almost any thing that comes in his way — fruits and grain of nil
sorts, birds' nests, mice, grasshoppers, beetles : while the waters yield him li.slics,
crabs, and oysters, which he is very expert in opening. His fur forn-s no in-
considerable article of commerce, and is viM-y fashionable in IJussia. In IS4l
lll,-'ilG raccoon skins were imjiorted into St. Petersburg, and more than lialf a
million Mere stapled in JA'ip/ig, intended, no doubt, for smuggling across tlie
frontier.

The fur of the Ameri<'an glutton, or wolverine, is much used for nniffs and
linings; yet, from its being a notoricnis robber of their traps, the animal is as
much hated by the Indian hunters as the dog-fish by the northern fishermen.

The Iludson's 15ay territories can not boast of the sable, but the American
pine miu'ten {Mmic.'i alji'ditni) is not much inferior in viliie, as its dark-bidwn
fur is remarkably fine, thick, and glossy. It frecjuents the woody districts,
where it preys on birds, and all the smaller qu:idrupeds from the htire to tiic
mouse. K\ en the scpiirrel is incapable of escaping the jtine marten, and .liter
liaving vaulted aiid clind)ed from tree to tree, suiks at last exhausted into its
gripe.

The i)ekan, or woodshock {Martes canadensis), the largest of the marten lani-
ily, is also the one which most richly supplies the fur-market. It is found over
the wiiole of North America, and generally lives in biu'rows near the l)anks of
rivers, as it princii)ally f^'eds on the small (pnidrupeds that fretpient the water.

Several species of ermine inhabit the Hudson's l»ay territories, but tiuir
skins are of no great iinj)ortance in the fur-trade. Like many other species of
tiie marten family, they eject, when irritated or alarmed, a fluid of a felid odor;
but, in this respect they are far surpassed by the chinga {Jf'p/n'tis r/il/ii/n),
whose secretion has so intoler;ii)le a smell that the least (piantity snllices ti nio-
duce nausea and a sense of suffocation. This animal is frecpiently biuiid near
Hudson's ]>ay, whence it extends farther to the north. In sjiite of the formi-
dable meiuis of defense with which it has been ;irined by nature, it is of u<e to
man, for its black and Avhite striped fur (which, as may easily be supjinscil,
never ai)pcars in the European market) provi<les the Indians with coveriuLZS
or tobacco-pouches. IJefore seizing the chinga, they irritate it with a long
switch until it has re]ieatedly emptied the glands from which the noxious va-
por issues; then suddenly springing upon it, they hold it up by the tail and
dispatch it.

The mink (Tlson amerkaniis), another member of the weasel family, is one
of the ,iiost important fur-bearing animals of the Hudson's l>ay territories. It
resembles the small Etiropeau fish-otter {VIsnn liitnola), but its skin is far more
valuable — the brown hair with which it is covered being much softer and thick-

THE FUR-TR.VDE OF THE HUDSON'S BAY TERRITOHIES.

S17

er. As its tecs are coiiiioctod by a small web, it is an excellent swininicr, and
as fonnitlablu to the salmon or trout in the water as to the hare on laiul.

Tlie Canadian fisli-otter {Ltitni canadensis) far surpasses the European spe-
cies, both in size and in tlie beauty of its glossy brown skin. It occurs as far
iiortliward as 0G° or (j1° hit., and is generally taken by sinking a steel trap
iii'iu- t!ie mouth of its burrow. It has the habit of sliding or climbing to t;io
top of a ridge of snow in winter, or of a sloping moist bank in summer, where,
IviiiLT »•! the belly, with the fore feet l;ent backward, it gives it-cif with the
liiiid legs an impulse which sends it swiftly down the eminence. This school-
boy sport it continues for along time.

The red fox {Vulpcs f ulcus), which is found throughout the Hudson's Bay
territories, has likewise a nnich finer fur than our common fox. It is of a bright
ferriiLriiious red on the head, back, and sides; benealli the chin it is white,
while tlie throat an<l neck are of a d.-irk gray, and the under i)arts of the body,
toward tlie tail, are of a very pale red. Tiic crossed fox {(.'ants decussatus),
tluis niiined from the black cross on its sliouhlers, is still more valuable; its
skin— tl'.e color of which is a sort of gray, resulting from the mixture of black
1111(1 wiiite hair — being worth four or live guineas. Peltry still more costly is
fiirnislieil l)y the black or silvery fox {Canis arffcntatus), whose copious and
lieaiitiful fur is of a rich an<l shining black or deep brown color, with the long-
er or exterior hairs of a silvery white. Unfortunately it is of such rare occur-
renee that not more than four or live arc annually brought to a trailing-post.

The Canada iynx, or jiishu {Li/nx canadensis), is smaller than the European
species, but has a finer fur, those skins being most valued which ajiproach to a
pale or whitish color, and on which the spots are most distinct. It chiefly feeds
on the hare {fjcpus anuricanus), which is not much larger than a rabbit, and
is found on the banks of the ]\Lu'kenzio as far north as GS" or 09^.

t^liU nearer to the I'ole, the ice-hare {Lcpus f/lacialis) ranges as far as the
I'any Islands (75° X. lat.), where it feeds on the arctic willow, and other high
iiortheru plants. Its favorite resorts arc the stony districts, where it easily
fiiiils a refuge; in winter it burrows in the snow. In summer its back is gray-
ish white, but as the cold increases, it becomes white, with the exception of the
tips of tiie ears, which remain constantly black.

Foinieriy the beaver (C (storjiher) was the most important of the fur-bear-
iM'4 animals of the Hudson's IJay territories. In the year 174:5, r27,0()0 beaver
skins were exported from ^lontreal to La Koehelle, and 'J(),700 by the Hudson's
Hay Company to London. At |)resent, the e\])ortation hardly amounts to one-
third of tills <iuaiitity. As the beaver chiefly lives on the barks of the willow,
the beeeli, and the poplar, it is not found beyond the forest region ; but along
tlie hanks of the ^Mackenzie it reaches a very high latitude.

The musk-rat, ondatra or nuiscpiasli (Fiber :^ibtt/iiciis)—\\h'wh is about the
size of a small rabbit, and of a reddish-brown color — is called by the Indians
the younger brother of the beaver, as it has similar instincts. Essentially a
hank-haunting animal, it is never to be seen at any great distance from the
water, where it swims and dives Avith consummate case, aided greatly by the
webs which connect the binder toes. It drives a large series of tunnels into

ii)

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■■if-:;' ¥

818

THE POLAR WORLD.

;u^

the bank, branclung out in various directions, and having several entrances all
of whicli open under the surface of tlic water. If the animal happens to live
upon .1 marshy and uniformly wet soil, it becomes a builder, and lives in curi-
ously-constructed huts, from three to four feet in height, plastered with "icat
neatness in the inside, and strengthened externally with a kind of basket-work
of rushes, carefully interlaced together. The judgment of the animal shows
itself in the selection of the site, invariably choosing some ground above tlie
reach of inundation, or else raising its hut on an artificial foi.idation- fdi-
though obliged to reside near fhif, submerged banks, where the soft soil is full
of nourishing roots, it requires a dry home to rest in.

In winter the musquash villages — for the huts are sometimes built in siidi
numbers together as to deserve that name — are generally covered with tliitk
snow, under which this rodent is able to procure water, or to reach the provis-
ions laid up in its storehouse. Thus it lives in case and plenty, for the marten
is too averse to the water, and the otter too bulky to penetrate into its tunnels.
But when the snow melts, and the huts of the musquash appear above the
ground, tiio Indian, taking in his hand a large four-barbed sjjcar, steals up to
the house, and driving his weapon through the walls, is sure to pierce the ani-
mals mside. Holding the spear firmly with one hand, he takes his tomahawk
from his belt, dashes the house to pieces, and secures the inmates. Another
method employed by the Indians to capture the musquash is to block up the
different entrances to their tuniuls, and then to intercept the animals as they
try to escape. Sometimes the gun is used, but not very frequently, as the mus-
quash is so wary that it dives at the least alarm, and darts into one of its holes.
Tiic trap, however, is the ordinary means of destruction. The soft and glossy
fur of the musquash, though worth no more than from Gd. to Qd., is still a not
inconsiderable article of trade, as no less than half a million skins arc annually
imported into England for hat-making ; nor is there any fear of the musquash
being extirpated, in spite of its many enemies, as it multiplies very fast, and is
found near every swamp or lake with grassy banks as far as the confines of the
Polar Sea.

THE CREE INDIANS, OR EYTHINYUWUIC

81»

m

m

UUMTINQ BISON IN TUB SNOW.

';;

CHAPTER XXIX.

THE CREE INDIANS, OR EYTIIINYUWUK.

The various Trilics of the Croos. — Their ConqHO'Jts nnd suhsequpnt Defeat. — Their Wars with the TOack-
feet. — The! r("liaractcr.—T:itf (Klin;;. — Their Dress. — Fomhiess for their Children. — TheCreo Cradle. —
Vapor Uaths. — Games. — Their religious Ideas, — The Crec Tartarus and Klvsium.

^piIE various tribes of the Crccs, or Eythinyuwiik, range from the Rocky
-*■■ ^loimtaiiis aiul tlic plains of the Saskatchewan to the swaini)y shores of
llmlson's Day. Towards tlic west and north they border on the Tiinie, towards
the east and south, on the Ojibbeway or Sauteurs, who belong like them to the
great family of the Lenni-lenapc Indians, and inhabit the lands between Lake
Willi peg !ind Lake Superior.

About sixty years since, at the time when Xapoleon was deluging Europe
with blood, the Crees likewise played the part of conquerors, and subdued even
more extensive, though less valuable domains.

Provided with fire-arms, which at that time wore tmknown to their northern
and wester'i neighbors, they advanced as far as the Arctic Circle, imposing
tribute on the various tribes of the Tinne. But their triumphs were not raoro
dur.il)le than those of the great European conqueror.

The sinall-pox broke out among them and swept them away by thousands.
Meanwhile the Tinne tribes had remained untouched by this terrible scourge ;
and as the .agents of the Hudson's Bay Comp.any, advancing farther and farther
to the west and north, had likewise made them acquainted with the use of fire-
arms, they in their turn became the aggressors^ and drove the Crees before them.

;:i.

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820

THE POLAR WOULD.

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Their foriiior conquerors now partly niiiifratcd to tlio south, antl leaving tlm
forest region, where they had liunteil tlie reindeer and the elk, spr- id over the
prairies of tiie Sasl<atche\van, where tliey now pursued tlio herds of Itison
sometimes drivinu; them over a precipice, or cliasing tiiem on foot tiironi;h liio
snow, IJut in their new abodes they became enjjjaged in constant feuds wiili
tiieir new neighbors the Assiuiboins and Bhicivfeet, wiio of course resented
their intrusion.

Tile romance in which tlie manners and cliaractcr of the Indians are por-
trayed iiiiglit lead us to attribute to these people a loftiness of soul for wliidi
it would be vain to look in the present day, and which without much .skcj)ti(iMn
we may assert they never really possessed. Actions prompted only by tlic ca-
price of a barbarous people have been considered as the results of relliicd sen-
tiinent ; and savage cunning, seen through the false medium of prejudice, as-
sumed the nobler proportions of a far-sighted jiolicy. IJut though the history
of the wars of the Iinlians among themselves and with the Europeans nflonis
but few instances of heroism, it abounds in traits of revolting cruelly, and in
pictures of indescribable wretchedness.

A large party of IJlackfeet once made a successful foray in the territory of
the Crees. But meanwhile the latter surprised the camp where the aggressors
had left their wives and children ; ar.d thus, when the l»la<;kfeet retiinicd to
their tents, tiiey found desolation and death where they looked for a joyful wel-
come. In their despair tliey cast away their arms and their booty, and relirtil
to the mountains, where for throe days and nights they wailed and mourned.

-•iS^SW*

^iPiiE^

A UEUD OF BISON.

THK CKI:E INDIANS, Olt EYTIIINYlWrk'.

821

DKIVINU BISON OVEK A I'UIiCU'lC U.

In tlio year 1840 a bloody war broki'
nut l)ct\v('on tlio Crees ami the Black-
ft'i't, arising as in general from a very J
tiitlin!? cause. Peace was at length con-
cliuled, but while the two nations were
ci'lfl^rating this fortunate event with
!.';i!iiL's ami races, a Cree stole a ragged
l)l;iiiket, and a new fight immediately
began, lleturning home, the IJlackfeet
iiift a Cree chieftain, with two of his
wiu'riors, and killed them after a short
altercation. Soon after the Crees sur-
prised and murdered some of the Black-
feet, and thus the war raged more furiously than ever. Sir George Simpson,
who was travelling through the country at the time, visited the hut of a Cree
wIhi liiid been wounded in the conflict j.t the peace meeting. As in his flight
lie hort over his liorse's neck, a ball had struck him on the right side, and re-
miiiiied sticking near tlie articulation of the left shoulder. In this condition he
Iiad idrcady lain for three-and-thirty days, his left arm frightfully swollen, and
the rest of Ins bodv emaciateil to a skeleton. Xc.ar the dving savatre, whose
glassy eye and contracted features spoke of the dreadful pain of which he dis-
dained to speak, lay his child, reduced to skin and bones, and expressing by a
licrpetual moaning the pangs of illness and himger, while most to be pitied
lierlm]is of this wretched family was the wife and mother, who seemed to
be sinking under the double load of care and fatigue. During the night the
"medicine-man" was busy beating his magic drum and driving awiiy the evil
spirits from the hut.

Although the Crees show great fortitude in enduring hunger and the other
evils incident to a hunter's life, yet any unusual accident dispirits them at once,
ami they seldom venture to meet their enemies in open warfare, or even to sur-
prise them, mdess they have a great advantage in point of numbers. Instances
of personal bravery like that of the Esquimaux are rare nideed among them.
Superior in personal a])pearance to the Tinne, they are less honest, and though
perhaps not so much given to falsehood as the Timie, are more turbulent and
mare prompt to invade the rights of their countrymen, .as well as of neighbor-
ing nations.

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THE POLAU >\()1{LU.

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Tattooing is almost universal aiiu)n<; tlicin. TIio women aro in ccnoral ron-
tent with having one or twolinus ilrawii from the (•(•iirms (»!' tiie muiilh towards

the angles of the lower jaw, but some of the men have their hotlios covered
with lines ami figures. It seems to he oonsidereil hv nu).st rather as a jnuot or

Tin: f'REE INniANS, OR EYTHINYUWUK.

:J33

■Oi

t'oiivii'^c than an ornanicnt, ns the operation is botli painful and toilious. Tlio
liiu's oil tlio face are fornieil by dexterously runnitii? an awl under the eutiele,
ainl tlicn drawing a cord, dipped in charcoal and water, through tiie canid thus
f iiiiii-d. Tiie jMinetures on the body are made by neeiUes of various sizes, set
ill ;i fnuue. A number of hawk-bells attached to this frame serve, by their indse,
to cover the groans of the sufferer, and prol^djly for the saino rea^ ju the process
is act'onipanied with singing. An indelible stain is produced l)y rubbing a lit-
tlo fiialy-powdered willow-charcoal into the ])uncture. A half-breed, whose arm
\v;l^' amputated by Sir John Ilichardson, declared that tatooing was not oniy
till! laoie painful oj)eration of the two, but rendered infinitely more difficult to
k'lir l»y its tediousness, having lasted, in las case, three days.

The Crees are also fon<l of painting their faces with vermilion and charcoal.
Ill gcnenil the dress of the male consists of a blanket thrown over tlio shoulders,
!i k'.itliern shirt or jacket, and a jiiece of cloth tied round the middle. The
women have in addition a long petticoat, and both sexes wear a kind of wide
liose,wiiicli, reaching from the ankle to the middle of the thigh, are suspended
liy strings to the girdle. These hose, or " Indian stockings," are commonly or-
iiiiiiicnted with beads or ribands, and fron\ their convenience have been univer-
sally adopted by the white residents, us an essential part of their winter-cloth-
ini;. Their shoes, or rather soft boots (for they tie round the ankle), arc made
of (licssed moose-skins; and during the winter they wrap several pieces of
lilaiikct round their feet. Tliey are fond of European articles of dress, such as
great-coats, shawls, and calicoes, which, however showy they may beat first, nn
soon reduced to a very filthy condition by their custom of greasing the face an. I
hair with soft fat or marrow. Tiiis j>ractice they say j)reserves the skin soft, oiid
]irotects it from cold in the winter and the moscpiitoes in summer ; but it /en-
tlt'i's their i)resence disagreeable to Europeans who may chance to be seated
near them in a close tent and near a hot fire.

The Cree women are not in general treated harshly by their husbands: a
groat part of tiie labor, however, falls to the lot of the wife. She makes the
liiit, cooks, dresses the skins, and for the most part carries the heaviest load ;
but when she is unable to perform her task, the husband does not consider it
beneath his dignity to assist her.

The Crees are extremely indulgent to their children. The father never
chastises them ; and the mother, though more h sty in her temper, seltlom lie-
stows a blow on a troublesome child.

The cradle in nse among theni is well adapted to their mode of life, and is
one of their neatest arliciles of furniture, being generally ornamented with beads
aiul bits of scarlet cloth, but it bears .a very strong resemblance in its form to a
miininiy-case. The infant is placed in this bag, having its lower extremities
wiaiiped up in soft sphagnum, or bog-moss, and may be hung up in the tent or
to tlio branch of a tree, without the least danger of tumbling out ; or, in a jour-
ney may be suspended on the mother's back by a band which crosses the fore-
head so as to leave her hands free. The sphagnum forms a soft elastic bed,
which absorbs moisture very readily, and affords such a protection from the
winter cold that its place would be ill supplied by any other material.

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THE POLAR WORLD.

' A CUEE VILLAGE.

Tlie ordinary wigwams, skin tents, or *' lodges " of the Tiiine and Crocs are
exactly alike in form, being extended on jioles set up in a conical manner ; Init
as a general rule the tents of the latter are more commodious and more fre-
quently supplied with a fresh lining of the spray of the balsam-fir. Tiiey also
occasionally erect a larger dwelling of lattice-work, covered with bircli-lmrk, in
which forty men or more can assemble for feasting, debating, or perfi)riiiiiiL;
some of their religions ceremonies. The entire nation of tiie Eythinyuwuk cul-
tivate oratory more than their northern neighbors, who express themselves more
simply and far less fluently.

Vapor baths are in common use Avith the Crecs, and form one of the chief
remedies of their medicine-men. The operator shuts himself up with his jiatient
in the small sweating-house — in which red-hot stones besprinkled with water,
and having a few leaves of a species of ^»vo?»s strewed around them, produce
a damp atmosphere of a stifling heat — and shani])00s him, singing all the time a
kind of hymn. As long as the medicine-man can hold out, so long must tlie
patient endure the intense heat of the bath, and then, if the invalid be able to
move, they both ])lunge into the river. If the patient does not recover, he is at
least more speedily released from his sufferings by this powerful remedy.

The Crees are a vain, fickle, improvident, indolent, and ludicrously boastful
race. They are also great ganiblers, but, instejul of cards or dice, they play
with the stones of a species of pnoius. The diflicully lies in guessnig the liuin-
ber of stones which are tossed out of a small wooden dish, and the hiuiteis
will spend whole nights at this destructive sport, staking their most valuable

THE CRKE INDIANS, OR EVTIIINYrWl'Iv.

835

artii'lt's. Tlipy liavo, liowcvcr, a iimcli more manly amusement, termed the
<'cioss," alllioiiiili tilt y tlo imt eiiLtaitc even in it without (le|tositiii<x cousider-
nlile stakes. An extensive meadow is chosen for this sport, and the articles
staked are tied to a post, or <leposited in the custody of two old men. The com-
batants hciui^ stripped and painted, and each provided with a kind of nicket,
ill shape resemhlinj^ tiie letter P, with a handle tdmut two feet lon;^, and n he.-xtl
looselv wroutjht with net-work, so as to form a shallow bai;, ranj^e themselves
oil (lilTcreiit sides. A hall heiiiix ""W tossed up in the mid<lle, each party en-
deavors to drive it to their I'-spective |Lrf>als, and much dexterity and a<:;ility is
displayed in the contest. When a nimble runner irets the ball in his vronH, he
ROts olf towards the <j:oal with the utmost speed, and is followed by the rest, who
cii(lc:ivor to jostle him and shake it out, but, if hard pressed, he dischar<;es it
witli a jerk, to be forwanled by his own party or bandied back by their oppo-
nents until the victory is decided by its jjassinj; the <j;oal.

Ncitlicr the Ksipiimaux nor the Tiiine have any visible objects of worship,
but the Crees carry with them small wooden timires rmlely carved, or merely
till' to|.s of a few willow-bushes tied toirether, as tiie representatives of a mali-
cious, or at least capricious beinir, called Kepoochikann. Their most common
petition to this beinij is for plenty of food, but as they do not trust entirely to
his favor, they endeavor .at the same time to propitiate the animal, ixn imaiiina-
IV representative of the whole race of larger <puidrupeds that are objects of the
chase.

Though often referrin2j to the Kitche-m.anito, the " Great Spirit," or " blas-
ter of Life," they do not believe that he cares for his creatures, and consequent-
ly never think of praying to him. They have no legend about the creation, but
they speak of a deluge caused by an attempt of the fish to drown Woesack-oo-
tdiai'lit, a kiiitl of demi-god, with whom they had (piarrelled. Having construet-
trl a raft, this being embarked with his family and all kinds of birds and beasts.
After the flood had continued for some time, he ordered several waterfowl to
dive to the bottom. They were all drowned ; but a musk-rat, dispatched on
tlie same errand, returned with a mouthful of mud, out of which Woesack-
ootcliacht, imit.'itiiig the mode in which the rats construct their houses, formed
a new earth. First a small conical hill of mud ajipeared .above the \\ater; by-
aiul-hy, its base gradually si)reading out, it became an extensive bank, which
tiie rays of the sun at length hardened into firm land. Xotwitlistanding the
power that Woesack-ootchacht here displayed, his jierson is held in very little
lovcrence by the Indians, who do not thmk it worth while to make any effort
to avert his wrath.

Like the Tiime, the Crees also have a Tartarus and an Elysium. The souls
of the departed are obliged to scramble with great labor up the sides of a steep
iiiouiitain, ujion attaining the summit of which they are rewarded with the
prospect of ,an extensive jilain aboujiding in .all sorts of game, and interpersed
hoie and there with new tents pitched in pleasant situations. While tliey are
absorbed in the contemplation of this delightful scene, tlicy are descried by the
inhabitants of the happy land, who, clothed in new skin dresses, approach .and
Welcome, Mith every demonstration of kindness, those Indians who have led

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.yoful livps,V)ut the \m\ Iinliiins nw toM to rcfiirn fioin wlioiicn thoy came, ninl
widiout TiKtre ('crciiioiiy iirc liiirlid <li)\vu tlio |iroci|iic('.

Ah yet ('liristi.'iiiity li.'iH inadi- Imt littK- proi^Tcss mimoiil; (lie Tiidiiiiis of |',ii|.
lull Norlli AmiTica, its Ikik'IIIs Ih'Iiil; liitluTtn ciiiirmtd td llu' Ojiljljcwuyis ,,|
Liikc Huron, imtl to a Hinall immlu'r of tlio CiHfCMof tliu Iliidsoir.s Hay tcniinrv.
Till! W('ll-f('(l Sautc'iirs of tin; Winipcg arc as (li.«*incliiit'il to be coiivcrti'd as ilic
buffalo-lmiitcrs of tliu prairica.

I i I" .(1

rili: TINNfi INDIANS.

837

'I

niAITKIf XXX.

Til r, -I'l N N K I NDI.VNS.

Tim v.iiiniH Trilii'M cif till' Tiiiiii' lihliiiii".— 'I'lh' Itn^'rili-.— CliiiliiiiK.— Till' Iliro Itidiiinji.— IV,'ra<lrd
.state (if thr Wdiiii'ii. -I'lMiiicil SdciMli-ts. — Cliiinii'ti!!'.— Cruelty to lilt! .\k>'iI "ii'l liillriii.

1"^IIK 'riiiiii' Iiiiliiiiis, wliKsc viirioMs trilu-s f.'iiiirt' from llii; T.owcr .Macki'iizio
III the rpiKT S.'iskiilflu'W.'iii, ainl IVuin New Calcilciiiiii tn tlic lirail of Clics-
tirliiM Inlet, occii|iy a coiisidir.ililc |iart nt tlu- tcrritoiics n|' tlic HikI.soii's Hay
('iiiii|iaMy. 'I'o tlicir race JKloiiif tlic Slr(»ii<,'l>()\vs of tlii' Kocky .MoiiiitaiiiH ; tlio
ilcavcr Imliaiis, lictwcni Peace lliver ami tlic west Itraiicli of llic Macken-
zie; the lleij-kiiives, thus iianii'tl from tliu copper knives of wliicii tlieir native
ori'x fiiniisli (lie materi.ils, and wlio roam Ijctweeii tlic (treat Kisli Kivcrand tlio
Coppciiiiiiie; tlic ll.arc lMiIi;ins, wlio inhabit the thickly wooded <listriet of tlio
.Mackenzie from Sl.avc L.ake downw.ird; the l)oL;-ril»s, who occupy the inland
coiiiitry on the cast from Martin Lake to the Coppermine; the Athahascans,
who fre(|iient the Klk and Sl.ive IJivcrs, and many other trihes of inferim- note.
Tlie 'rimic, in LTcncral, have moi' rci^nlar fe.'itiires than the p]s(|uimaiix, and,
taken on the whole, exhihit all the characteristics of the red races dwelling
fartlier south; bnl their ntter disrcLrarcl of cleanliness and their abject he-
Imvior (for when in the company of white people they exhiliit the whine and
air <if invelcrate meinlicants) give them a wretched apjiearance. Mackenzie,
the lirst European who beeaino acipialnted with the Dog-ribs, describes them
as an ngly emaciated tribe, covered with dirt and l)esmearcd with grease from
head to foot. 3Ioro than hixfy years have passed since ^lackenzie's journey,
hilt his ncconnt of them is true to the pr'sent day. The women are even
iiiflier and more lilthy than the men, for the la'.ter at least paint tlieir unwashed
faces and wear trinkets on festive occasions, while the females leave even their
hair without any other dressing than wijiing their greasy hands on the matted
locks, wlieii they have been rubbing their bodies with marrow. The clothing
of tile men in summer consists of reindeer leather dresseil like shammy, which,
wlicn newly made, is bcantifnlly white and soft. "A shirt of this material,"
says Sir John Kichardson, to whom we are indebted for the best account of the
various nations inhabiting the lliidsoirs IJay territory, " cut evenly below,
roaches to the middle ; the ends of a piece of cloth secured to a waist-band
hang down before and behind ; the hose, or Indian stockings, descend from the
top of the thigh to the ankle, ami a pair of moccasins or shoes of the .same soft
leather with toi)s which fold round the ankle, complete the costume. When
the hunter is e(piii)|ied for the chase he wears, in addition, a stripe of white
hare-skin, or of the belly part of a deer-skin, in a bandana round the head, with
his lank, black elf-locks streaming from beneath; a shot-pouch sus])ended by
an embroidered belt, a fire-bag or tobacco-pouch tucked into the girdle, and a

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S2S

THE POLAR WORLD.

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long fowlinj-picco tlirown carelessly across the arm, or balanced on the back of
the neck. The several articles here enunierateil are oriiaiuenieil at the seanis
and lienis with leather thoiii^s woimd roun<l with jtorcupine quills, or more or
le«s embroidered with bead-work, according to the industry of the wife or
wives. One of the young men, even of the slovenly Dog-ribs, when newlv
equipped, and trii)|)ing jauntily over the moss- ground with an elastic step, dis-
plays his slim and not ungraceful figure to advantage. J>ut this line dress onco
donned is neither laid aside nor cleaned while it lasts, and soon acquires a diiiuv
look, and an odor which betrays its owner at some distance. In the camp h
greasy blanket of English manufacture is worn over the shoulders by dav, iiiid
forms with the clothes the bedding by night."

In winter they clothe themselves with mooso or reindeer skins, retaining tin-
hair, while a large robe of the same material is thrown over the shoulders, jiinl
hangs down to the feet in place of the blanket. The women's dress resenildes
the men's, but, the skirt is soniewh.'it longer, and generally accompanied by a
petticoat which reaches nearly to the knee. The t-Min of dresf here dcscrilud
is common to the wholo Tinne nation, and also to the Crees, but the niatcri;!!
varies with the district. Thus moose-deer, red-deer, and bison leather are in
use among the more southern and western tribes, and the Hare Indians make
their skirts of the skins of the animal from which they derive theii suinanK".
As this, however, is too tender to be used in the ordinary way, it is torn into
narrow strips, twisted slightly, .nnd plaited or worked into the required shape.
Such is the closeness and fineness of the fur that these hare-skin dresses are
exceedingly warm, notwitlistanding the closeness of their texture.

The Ilarc Indian and Dog-rib wonu'u are certainly at the bottom of llie
scale of humanitv in Xorth America. Not that thev are treated witli crucllv,
but that they are looked upon as inferior beings, and in this belief they them-
selves .icquiesco. In early infancy the boy discovers that he may show any
amount of arrogance towards his sisters, who, as soon as they can walk, are
liarnesseil to a sledge, while the tiny hunter struts in his snow-shoes after the
men and apes their contempt of the women. All the work, except hunting and
fishing, falls to their share ; yet they arc in general not discontented with their
lot.

It would be vain to look amnng the Dog-ribs for the stoicism popularly
attributed to the Indians, for they shrink from pain, shed tears readily, and are
very timorous; but .all, young and old, enjoy a joke heartily, and when youni;
are lively and cheerful. When bands of their nation meet each other after a
long absence, they pi-rform a kind of dance. A piece of ground is cleared for
the ])nrpose, .and the dance frecpiently lasts for two or three days, the parties
relieving each other as they get tired. The two b.ands commence the dance
with th.eir backs turned to each other, the individu.als following one another in
Indian file, and holding the bow in the left hand and .an arrow in the right.
They ajiproach obliquely .after many turns, and when the two bands are closely
back to back, they feign to see e.ach other for the first time, and the bow is in-
Htantly transferred Ic the right hand and the arrow to the left, signifying that
it is uot their intention to use them against their friends. Their dancing, which

,.,::.

THE TINNfi INDIANS.

330

thev accompany by a chorus of groans, compared by Sir John Richardson to
the deep .sii^h of a i)avior as lie brings his raininer down upon tlie pavement, has
not tlio U-'ast pretensions to grace ; their knees and body are lialf bent, and, from
their iiea\ y stamping, tiiey apjiear as if desirous of sinking into the ground.

The Dog-ribs are practical socialists, :ind their wretched condition results
in a ','reat measure from this cause. All nuiy avail themselves of the produce
of a hunter's energy or skill, and do not even leave him the distribution of his
own "anie. When it becomes known in a camp that deer have been killed, the
oM men and women of each family sally forth with their sledges and divide the
quarry, leaving the owner nothing but the ribs and tongue — all he can claim of
riu'ht. Unable to restrain their appetite, all the community feast in times of
abiuulaiice, however little many of the men (and there are not a few idle ones)
iiiav iiave contributed to the common good. Taught by fre«]uent sufferings,
tlie more active hunters frequently withdraw from the worthless drones, leav-
iii!^ tlieni at some fishing-station, where, with proper industry, they may subsist
comfortably. Fish-diet is, however, not agreeable to their taste, and as soon as
reports of a successful chase arrive, a general movement to the hunting-ground
ensues. If on their march the craving multitude discover a lioard of meat, It is
devoured on the spot; but they are not always so fortunate. The deer and the
hunters may have gone off, and then they are obliged to retrace their steps,
many perishing by the way.

The Don-ribs are not conspicuous for hospitality. When a stranger enters
a tent he receives no welcome and ])roffer of food, though he may lielp liimself
from a piece of meat haniring on the wall or join the repast. Though great
liars, they do not steal the white man's property like the Esquimaux and Crees,
and when visiting a fort, they may be trusted in any of the rooms. As to their
religious belief, the majority of the nation rccogni/e a Great S|)irit, while others
doubt his existence, assigning as a reason their miserable condition. They are
in great fear of evil spirits, which, as they imagine, assume the forms of the
liear, wolf, and wolverine, and in the woods, waters, and desert places they fancy
tlioy hear them howling in the winds or moaning by the graves of the dead.
Tliey never make offerings to the Great Sjiirit, but deprecate the wrath of an
evil being by the promise of fi sacrifice, or by scattering a handful of deer-hair
or a few feathers. They believe in a state of future happiness or torment.
Tlie soul, after death, crosses a broad river in a boat, and thus endeavors to
reach the opposite shore, which is ailorned with all the beauties of jiaradise. If
laden with crime, the boat sinks under the weight, and the unfortunate soul, im-
mersed in water, strives in vain to reach the blissful abode from which it is for-
ever banished.

Formerly when a Tiniie warrior died, it was customary for the family to
abandon every article they possessed, and betake themselves, in a perfectly des-
titute condition, to the nearest body of their own jieople or trading-post. The
advice of traders is gradually breaking down this absurd practice, which Avould
alone suffice to keep this people in a state of perpetual poverty. In other re-
"Iiects also, European influence begins to make itself felt. Since 1840 Roman
Catholic missionaries are at work among the Chepewyans, and have taught many

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330

THE POLAR WORLD.

of their converts to rcarl and write. The Athabascans had formerly hut a small
breed of dogs, now a stouter race has, in some resiiects, ameliorated the o(jii(li.
tion of the females, aiul the introduction of the horse, which has more rcceiitK-
taken place, holds out j)rospects of a still greater improvement. The Tiiuio are
as giddy and thoughtless as children. When accompanied by a white maii
they will perform a long journey carefully, but can not be depended upon to
carry letters, however high the reward may be that has been promised tlieiu on
reaching their destination, as the least whim suffices to make them forgot their
commission.

They are generally content with one wife at a time, and none but the chiefs
have more than two. The successful wrestler takes the wife of his weaker
countryman, who consoles himself for his loss by endeavoring to find one weaker
than himself.

Tender and alTectionato parents, the Tinne are totally indifferent to the sor-
rows of helpless age. During the stay of Sir George Back at Fori IJeliance,
an old wonii'n arrived there on Easter Sunday, clothed in ragged reindeer skins,
worn down to a skeleton, and grasping with both her hands a stick to support
her body, bent double by age and want. The story of the poor creature was
soon told. She had become a burden to lier family ; her former services had
all been forgotten, and she had been told " that though she still seemed to live,
she was in reality dead, and must be abandoned to her fate, In the new fort
she might find assistance, for the white strangers were powerful medicine-men."'
This had happened a month before, and all this time she had slowly crejjt along,
appeasing her hunger with the berries she found here and there on the way.
When she reached the fort it was too late; she died a few days after her
arrival.

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THE LOUCIIEUX, OR KUTCHIN INDIANS.

331

CHAPTER XXXI.

THE LOUCIIEUX, OU KUTCHIN INDIANS.

The rnii.itrics tlioy inhaliit. — Tlu'ir Appearance and Dress. — Tlieir I.ovo of Tincrv. — Condition of the
Women. — .Strange l^'ustoms. — ("liuracter. — Fends with the Ksqnimaii.x. — Tlieir su.spicioHS and timo-
rous Lives. — I'oiiiuls for catcliini^ Keiiidecr. — Tlieir l.od^'cs.

OX tlie b.auk.s of the Lower ilackcnzio, to the west of Crreat Ticar Lake, in
tlie territories drained l)y the I'eel Kiver and by the I'^jjper Yukon,
dwell the Loucheuv, or Kuteliin Indians, whose language is tottilly different
from that of tlie other North Anieriean tribes, an<l whose customs and manners
also vary eonsideruljly from tho.se of ail their neighbors, both lleil-skins and
Esquimaux.

Tliey are an athletic and fine-looking people, with regular features and a
coniplcxion of a lighter copper color than that of the other Hed Indituis, so that
many of their women would be reckoned handsome in any country. The fe-
males tattoo their chins and use a black i>igment when they paint their faces,
while the men employ both red and black on all occasions of ceremony, and al-
ways to be ready, each carries a small bag with red clay and black lead suspend-
c'll to his neck. Most commonly the eyes are encircled with black, a strii)e of
tlie same runs down the middle of the nose, and a blotch is daubed on the upper
part of each cheek. The forehead is crossed by many narrow red stripes, and
the skin is streaked alternately with red and black.

The outer shirt of the ivutchin is made of the skins of fawn reindeer, dress-
I'll with the hair on after the niamier of the Ilare, T)og-rib, and other Chepe-
wyiii tribes, but resembles in form the analogous garment of the Es(|uimaux,
lit'ing furnished with peaked skirts, though of smaller size. The men wear
these skirts before and behind; the women have larger back skirts, but none in
front. In winter shirts of hare-skin are worn, and the pantaloons of deer-skin
have the fur next the skin.

None of the neighl)oring nations pay so mticli attention to personal cleanli-
lU'ss. or are so studious in adorning their ])ersons. A broadband of beads is
woiii across the shoulders and breast of the shirt, and the hinder part of the
ihvss is fringed with tassels wound round with dyed porcupine riuills and strung
with tlie silvery fruit of the oleaster {A'/rrtir/nxs ar>y<:ntr<i); a stripe of beads,
slriing in altern.'ite red and white S(]uares, ornament the seams of the trowsers,
ami iiands of beads encircle the ankles. The jioorer sort, or the less fortunate
hunters, w.io are unable to procure these costly trinkets in the same enviable
iihMndance as the rich, strive to wear at lejist a string of Iteads, and look down
with contemptuous pity upon the still tnore needy class, which is reduced to
ailorii itself with porcupine quills only.

In consequence of this passionate fondness for beads, these ornaments serve

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as a medium of exchatigo among the Kutcliii), and Sir Jolin Richardson tl>.
marks that no sucli near approach to money has been invented by the nations
to the eastward of the Jlocky ^Mountains. The stanthird bead, and one of die
most value, is a large one of white enamel, manufactured in Italy onlv, an,! j^,
with difHculty procured in sufficient quantity to satisfy the demand, as heads
are more i)rized than Englisii cloth and blankets.

AnotlifM' article very much in request among the Kutchin is the large ribhcd
dentalium shell which is collected in the archii)elago between Oregon and C'mik'
Fairweather, and passes by trade from tribe to tribe until it finds its wav at
length to the Yukon. With this shell they adorn their mittens, and even at-
tach it to tlieir guns, which have been lately introduced, and are in great dc-
mand. All men carry powder and ball, whether they own a gun or not and
obtain for it a share of tlie game.

The tribes on the Yukon tie their hair behind in a cue, or " chignon," and
daub it with grease, and the down of geese and ducks, until, by the rejicti-
tion of the process continued from infancy, it swells to an enormous tlilcknuss,
so that the weight of the accumulated load of hair, dirt, and ornaments causes
tlie wearer to stoop forward habitually. The tail-feathers of the eagle and
fishing-hawk arc stuck into the hair on tlie back of the head, and are removed
only when the owner retires to sleep, or when he wishes to wave them to and
fro in a dance.

The principal men have two or three wives each, wliile tlic bad hunters are
obliged to remain bachelors. A good wrestler, however, even though poor, can
always obtain a wife.

The women do all the drudgery in winter except cooking, and do not eat
till the husband is satisfied. In summer they labor little, except in drying
meat or fish for its preservation. The men alone jiaddle while the women sit
as passengers, and husbands even carry their wives to the shore on their arms,
that they may not wet their feet — an instance of gallantry almost unparalleled in
savage life. The Esquimaux Avomen row their own " oomiaks," and the Clieiio
Avyan women assist the men in paddling tlieir canoes. On the whole, the so-
cial condition of the Kutchin women is far superior to that of the Tinne wumuii,
but scarcely cqn;d to that of the Esquimaux dames.

They do not carry their children in their hoods or boots like the Es(|uimiiu\-,
nor do they stuff them into a bag with moss like the Tinne and Crees, hut tlu y
place them in a seat of birch-bark, with a back and sides like those of an arm-
chair, and a pommel in front resembling the peak of a Spanish saddle, by wliicl!
they hang it from their back. The child's feet arc bandaged to prevent tliciu
growing, small feet being thought handsome, and consequently short unslmpcly
feet are characteristic of the jieople of both sexes. A more ridiculous or insane
custom can hardly be imagined among a nation of hunters.

The Kutchin are a lively, cheerful jieople, fond of dancing and singing, in
which they excel all other Indians ; leaping, wrestling, and other athletic exer-
cises are likewise favorite amusements. They i>re inveterate talkers. livery
now-comer arriving at a tra<ling-post makes a long speech, which must not be
interrupted. The belief in Shamanism is still in full vigor among them.

THE LOUCIIEUX, OR KUTCHIN INDIANS.

3153

Though a treachcons people, they have never jx't imbrued their hands in
European bloc ., but there are frequent feuds among their various tribes, by
which one-half of the population of the banks of the Yukon has been cut off
within the last twenty years. From a constant dread of ambuscade, they ilo
not travel except in large jiarties ; and thus a perpetual feeling of insecurity
embitters their lives, which are alieady rendered sufH(;iently hard l)y the sever-
ity of an Arctic climate. The agents of the Hudson's IJay Company have en-
deavored by good advice, and the distribution of lai'go presents, to establish
peace, but have only met with partial success.

Like the Tinne, the Kutchin arc in a state of i)erpetual warfare with the Es-
nuimaux ; and though they always charge the latter with treachery, yet there
can be no doubt that the accusation might, with full justice, be retorted upon
thenisolves. One of the hostile encounters, mentioned by Sir J. Ilichardson, de-
serves notice, on account of its resemblance in some particulars to the meeting
of Joub and Abner, recorded in the Second Book of Samuel. A party of each of
tlie two nations having met on the banks of a river, the young men of both
parties ruse up as if for a friendly dance. The stream glides peacefully along,
the setting sun gilds the jiine forest .ind sparkles in the waters ; all nature
breathes peace. IJut the Esquimaux having, according to their custom, con-
cealed their long knives in the sleeves of their deer-skin shirts, suddenly draw
tlieiu in one of the evolutions of the dance and plunge them into their oppo-
nents. A general conflict ensues, in whidi the Kutchin, thanks to their guns,
ultimately j)rove victorious. " Another incident," says Sir John Richardson,
" wliicli occurred on the banks of the Yukon in 1845, gives us a farther insight
into the suspicious and timorous lives of these people. One night four stran-
gers from the lower part of the river arrived at the tent of an old man who was
sick, and who had with him only two sons, one of them a mere boy. The new-
comers entered in a friendly manner, and when the hour of repose came, lay
down ; but as they did not sleep, the sons, suspecting from their conduct that
tliey meditated evil, feigned a desire of visiting their moose-deer snares. They
intimated their purpose aloud to their father and went out, taking with them
tlieir bows and arrows. Instead, however, of continuing their way into the
wood, they stole back quietly to the tent, and listening on the outside, discover-
ed, as they fancied, from tlie conversation of the strangers, that their father's
life was in danger. Knowing the exact position of the imnatts, they thereupon
shot their arrows through the skin covering of the tent and killed two of the
strange Indians ; and the other two, in endeavoring to make their escape by the
' door, shared the fate of their companions. This is spoken of in the tribe as an
exceedingly brave action."

During the siunmer the Yidcon Kutchin dry, for their winter use, the white-
fish {C>re//oniis albus), wh'u-h they catch by ]danting stakes across the smaller
rivers and na'iow parts of the lakes and closing the ojienings mIiIi wicker-bas-
kets. They take the moose-deer in snares, and towards spring mostly resort to
tlie mountains to bunt reindeer and lay in a stock of dried venison. On the
open pasture-grounds frequented by this animal they construct large pDunds.
Two rows of posts firndy planted in the ground, and united by the .addition of

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THE POLAR WORLD.

strong horizontal bars into a vogular fence, extend their arms for nearly the
length of a mile in the form of a l{omaii V. The extremity of the avenue is
closed by slakes with sharp points sloping towards tlie entrance, on whicli the
reindeer, driven together and hotly jjiirsued by the Indians, may impiile ihcm.
selves in their desperate flight. The structure is erected with great labor us
the timber has to be transported into the open corntry from a considerable dis-
tance. Some of these may be a century old, and they are the heredihnv ims-
session of the families or tribes by whom they were originally constructed.

But in spite of all their contrivances and the use of iire-arms, the Kiihliin,
wliose numbers on the banks of the Yukon are estimated at about a tiidusaiid
men and boys able to hunt, are frequently reduced to great distress, lloncc
the old and infirm are mercilessly left to their fate when game is scarce, ;uid
famine makes itself felt. Attem))ts have been vainly made to better the ((ui-
ditiou of the northern Indians by inducing them to tame the reindeer. Tlieir
sui)erstition is one of the obstacles against tliis useful innovation, for they tear
that were they to make .some of the reindeer their captives, the remainder would
immediately leave the country. "And why," they add, " should we follow like
slaves a herd of tame animals, when the forest and the barren ground provide
\is with the elk, the wild reindeer, and the musk-ox, and our rivers an<l lakes are
filled with fishes that cost us nothing but the trouble of c:itching them?"'

Each family possesses a deer-skin tent or lodge, which in sunnner, when in
quest of game, is rarely erected. The winter encampment is usually in a gni\e
of spruce-firs ; the ground being cleared of snow, the skins, which are prepared
with the hair, are extended over flexible willow i)oles which take a semicircular
form. This hemisjiherical shape of lodges is not altogether unknown among
the Chepewyans and Crees, being that generally adapted for their va|)or baths,
framed of willow ])oles, but their dwelling-places are conical, as stiff poles are
used for their construction.

When the tent is erected the snow is packed on outside to half its hciglit,
and it is lined e<puilly high Avithiu with the young spr.iy of the spruce-fir, that
the bodies of the imnates may not rest against the cold Avail. The doorway is
filled up by a double told of skin, and the apartmetiL has the closeness :-.id
wannth but not the elegance of the Esquimaux snow hut, which it reseiiil)lcs
in shape. Though only a very sm.^II fire is kept in the centre of the lodge, yet
the warmth is as great as in a logdiouse. The provis'>ns are stored on the
outside under fir branches and suow, and further protected from the dogs by
sledges being placed on top.

I'

ARCTIC V0YAGE8 OF DISCOVERY.

385

CHAPTER XXXTT.

ARCTIC VOYAGES OF DLSCOVEUY, FROM THE CABOTS TO BAFFIN.

First ScpiKlinaviiin Discoverer of America. — The Ciiliots. — AVill()iij.'lil)y aiult'liancellDr (l").');!-l."ij|). —
S(('|ili('ii l!iiiroiinli (l.')."i(;). — Kroipi-licr (1.'i7")-1.')7M). — Davis (l.'x.') l.'iKT). — llarcnt/., ('(inielis, and
iiiMiit (l.V.tl). — Wintcrintr of tlic Diitcli Xaviijatiirs in Nova /emhla (l.iOfi-lJUT). — Joliii Kiii^ht
(llliii;).— .Murdered hy tlie Ks(iiiiiiiaiix. — Henry lluilsoii (1(>()7-Iti01l). — Itallin (ll!l(!).

L()X(r before Colunibiis sailed from the port of Palos (14t)'2) on that evcr-
ineinorablo voyapre wliicli changed the geograpliy of the world, tlie Soati-
iliniiviaiis hail ahx-ady found the way to North America. From (Treeiihuid,
wliicii was known to tlieni as early as the ninth century, and which they bejjan
to colnnize in the year 085, they sailed farther to tlie west, and gradually extend-
(m1 their discoveries from the coasts of Labrador, Xova Scotia, and X^ewfound-
iiiiul, to those of the present State of Rhode Island, which, from the wild vines
tlicy there found growing in abundance, they called the "good Vinland."

Jiiit a long series of disasters destroyed their (Jrceiiland colonies about the
end of the fourteenth century, and as Scandinavia itself had at that time but
very little intercourse with the more civilized nations of Southern Europe, it is
lint to lie wondered at that, despite the discoveries of (iilimbjorn and Eric the
IkUil, the great western continent remained unknown to the world in general.

One of the tirst consequences of the achievements of Columbus was the re-
(Jisroceri/ of the northern part of America, for tlie English merchants longed
to have a share of the commerce of India; and as the Pope had assigned the
eastern route to the Portuguese and the western one to the Spaniards, they re-
solved to ascertain whether a third and shorter way to the Spice Islands, or to
tliL' fabulous golden regions of the east, miglit not be found by steering to the
iioitii-west. In pursuance of these views John and Sebastian Cabot sailed in
1497 from Bristol, at that time our first commercial iiort, and discovered the
wiinio American coast from Labrador to Virginia. They failed indeed in the
oliject of t' jir mission, but they laid the first foundations of the future colonial
LTcatiiess of England.

A second voyage, in 1408, by Sebastian Cabot alone, without the companion-
si. ip of his father, had no important results, but in a third voyage which he
uinlertook in search of a north-west passage, at Henry VIII.'s expense, in !51G
"!' 1")17, it is tolerably certain that that great navigator discovered the two
straits which now bear the names of Davis and Hudson.

Tile French cxjieditions of Verazzani (15'2;j) and Jaccpies Cartier (1524),
liuwcver memorable in other respects, having been as unsuccessful as those of
Cortereal (1500) or Gomez (1524) in discovering the desired north-western pas-
sage, Sebastian Cabot, who in 1549 was created Grand Pilot of England, start-
ed ill his old age another idea, which has become almost equally momentous iu

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the liistory of Arctic discovery — the search for a north-eastern route to Chinn
Accordingly, in the year iuS.'l, a squach-on of three small vessels, under tlic
command of Sir Hugh Willoiighby, Chancellor, and Durfoorth, set sail fnm,
KatcliflV, witli the vain hope of reaching Iiulia hy sailing round North Asia
the formation an<l vast extent of which were at that time totally unknown.

Off Seiijan, an island on the Norwegian coast in iat. COA", the sliips iiintcil
company in a stormy night, never to meet again. Willoughby and I)nifu(,ii||
reached the coast of Nova Zemhla, and ultimately sought a harltor in |,a|i.
land on the west side of the entrance into the White Sea, wliere the (aptMiii-
general, oHicers, and crews of both ships wvn; miseralily frozen to death, as sonic
Kussian lishermeu ascertained in the following spring. How long tlnv siis.
tallied the severity of the weather is not known, i)ut the journals and a will
found on board the " Admiral" proved that Sir Hugli Willouiihbv and most
of that shijt's company were alive in Jamiary, 1554. They died the victims of
inexjierience; for had they, as Sir John llichardsoii remarks, been skilled in
hunting and clothing themselves, and taken the precaution moreover of lavin'^'
in at the begimiing of the winter a stock of mossy turf such as the countiv
prochices for fuel, and above all had they secured a few of the very niaiiv stals
and belugie which ab( unded in tiie sea around them, they might have preservid
their lives and passed "xu endurable winter.

Chancellor was either more fortunate or more skillful, for after having loni;
been buffeted about by stormy weather, ho eventually reached St. Nicholas, in
the White Sea. From thence he proceeded overland to ^loscow, and delivered
his credentials to the Czar, Ivan Vasilovitch, from whom he obtained many
privileges for the company of merdiants who had fitted out the expedition. In
1554 he returned to England, and sliortly afterwards was sent back to liiisfiia
by Queen !M.ary for the purpose of negotiating a treaty of commerce between
the two nations. Having satisfactorily accomplished his mi.'sion,he oiuo more
set sail from the White Sea, .accompanied by a 3Iuseovite ambassailor. lint
this time the return voyage was extremely unfortunate, for Chancellor, after
losing two of his vessels off the coast of Norw.ay, was carried by !i violent tem-
pest into the Hay of Pitsligo, in Scotland, where his ship was wrecked. He en-
deavored to save the ambassador and himself in a boat, but the small pinnace
was upset ; and although the Russian safely reached the strand, the Englisli-
man, after having escaped so many d.angcrs in the Arctic Ocean, was drowned
within sight of his n.ative shores.

In 1556 the ^luscovy Company fitted out the Serchthrift pinnace, under the
command of Stephen Hurrough, for discovery towards the HiverObi and farllur
searcli for a north-east passage. This small vessel reached the strait between
Nova Zembla and Vaigats, called by the Russians the Kara date, but the
enormous lu.asses of ice that came floating through the cliannel compelled it to
return.

In spite of these repeated disappointments, the desire to discover a northern
route to India was too great to allow an enterprising nation like the English to
abandon the scheme as hopeless.

Thus in the days of Elizabeth the question of the north-west passage was

ARCTIC VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY.

837

a'_':iiii revived, and Martin Frobislier, wlio )iad solieited nierelmnts and nohles
(Imiiiix fifteen years for means to nndertaUe " the onlif (jrcat thiiiij It/t uitilotif in
t/ic \riifUl,''' sailed in tlie year 1570 wilii three small vessels of ;t'), .'Ut, an<l 10 tons,
on no less an errand than llic circnnmaviyation of Xorthcrn Amerieii. The
reader niav smile at the iynoranee whieh encouraged siieh efforts, but ho can
not fail to admire the iron-hearted man who ventured in such wretched nutshells
to face the Arctic seas. The expedition safely reached the coasts of Greenland
mill I-abrador, and brought home some glittering stones, the lustre of which
wiis erroneously attributed to gold. This belief so inflamed the zeal for new
expeditions to " Meta Incognita," as Frol/isher had named tht; coasts he iiad
discovered, that he foimd no dilliculty in equipping three ships of a much larger
Mze, tliat they might be uMe to hold riuro of the anticipated treasure. At the
entrance of the straits which slili bcai his name, he was prevented by the gales
and drift-ice from forcing a passage to the sea beyond, but having secured about
200 tons of the supposed golden ore, the expedition was considered eminently
RiU'ccssful. A large sipiailron of fifteen vessels was eonsecjuently fitted out in
1578 for a third voyage, and commissioned not only to bring back an untold
amount of treasure, but also to take out materials and men to establish u colony
on tliuse desolate shores. Hut this grand expedition, which sailed with such
extravagant hopes, was to end in disappointment. One of the largest vessels
was crushed bv an iceberg at the entrance of the strait, and the others were so
beaten about by storms and obstructed by fogs that they were at lengvh glad
to return to England without having done any thing for the advancement of
trengraphical knowledge. The utter worthlessness of the glittering stones
having meanwhile been discovered, Frobisher relinquished all further attempts
to push his fortunes in the northerti regions, :vnd sought new l.-xnrels in a sunnier
clinio. lie accom»">anicd Drake to the West Indies, commaiided subsequently
one of the largest vessels opposed to the Spanish Armada, and ended liis heroic
life while att.acking a small French fort in behalf of Henry IV. during the war
with the League.

Tiie discovery of tlio Xorth-western Passage was, however, still the great
enterprise of the day, and thus sundry London merchants again " cast in their
adventure," and sent out John Davis, in 158."), with liis two ships, " Sunshine"
and " Moonshine," carrying, besides their more necessary equipments, a band
of music " to cheer and recreate the spirits of the natives." Davis arrived in
si^dit of the south-western coast of Greenland, where he saw :i high mountain
(Sukkertoppen) towering like a cone of silver over the fog which veiled the
dismal shore. The voyagers wore glad to turn from the gloomy scene, and to
steer through the open water to the north-west, wliere, on August G, they dis-
covered land in latitude GG° 40' altogether free from " the ])esters of ice, and
ankered in a very fair rode." A friendly understanding was established with
tlie Esquimaux, and a lively traflic opened, the natives eagerly giving their
skins and furs for beads and knives, until a brisk wind separated the strange
visitants from their siraple-mindeil friends. The remainder of the season was
spent in exploring Cumberland Sound and the entrance to Frobisher's and
llndson's Straits.

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In tho following; year Davis uiidertook ii socoiid voyncfo to (lio iiorfli-wcsf.
for wliich tliu " Suiisirmo" and " MooiiHliiiit' " were aiiain i'ii,i,Mt,'i'<l, w itli iwn
other VL's.Mt'l.s. On June L'f», l")SO, iio landed on tlie coast of (Jreuiiland, in lati.
tude Oi", and soon after steered to tlie west. The enormous iee-floes wliieh ns
is wi'li known, eome driftini^ from I>artin s May until the season is far adviniccd,
opposed his proi,'ress. For some days ho coasted these Hoatinj/ islands, wlun a
fog eame on, during which ropes, sails, and cordaire were alike fast frozen, and
the seamen, ho]K'less of accomplishing the passage, warneil tlieir cctnnnainlcr
thai "by iiis over-boldness he might cause their widows and fatherless children
to give him bitter (uirses."

Touched by tliis appeal, Davis ordered two cf his ships to return home, atnl
pushing on in the " 3Ioonshine " with the boldest of his followers, he rcaclicd
the American shore, which he coasted from OV" to 57° of latitude. Off tiic
coast of Labrador two of his sailors were killed by the natives, and Septinilicr
being ushered in by violent gales, he gave up further attenipts for the year, ami
returned to Kngland.

On June 10, ITjsT, wu once more find him on the coast of < Jreenland, in liis
old tried bark the "Sunshine," in company with the " Kliz.abith" and a pin-
nace. The supplies for this tliinl voyage being fin-nished under the e\|ir('ss
condition that the expenses should be liiihtened as iinicli as iiossilile bv ii^ilin"
at all suitable times, the two larger ships were stationed for the i)urposc near
the part of the coast which they had formerly visited, while Davis steered loi-
Avard in the small and ill-conditioned vessel which alone remained at his dispo-
sal, lie lirst sailed along the Greenland coast as far as 7'2° lat., where, having'
fairly entered I>atlin's Hay, he n.'inied the jioint ;it which he touched Sander-
son's Hope, in honor of his chief patron, and then steered to the west, initil lie
once more fell in with the ice-barrier which had jirevented his progress ilio
year befori". Time and i)erscveraiice, liowevor, overcame all obstacles, and l)y
July 10 he had crossed to the opposite side of the strait which bears his name.
lie then sailed for two d.ays up Cundierland Strait — which, it will be reimni-
bered. ho discovered on his first expedition — but believing this passage to he
an inclosed gulf, he returned, and again passing tho entrance to Hudson's i!ay
without an effort to investig;it(! it, repaired to the rendezvous appointeil fortlic
two whaling-vessels to meet him on their way to England. IJut wlm c'ln
])aint Ids astonishment and consternation when he found th.at his companions
had sailed away, leaving luni to find his way home in his miserable pinna(<',
which, however, landed iiini safely on his native shores? This was the last of
the Arctic voyages of that gre.at n.avigator, for the spirit of the nation w:is
chilled by his three successive disappointments; and all the zeal with wliiili iic
l)leaded for a fourth expedition proved fruitless.

Ho subse(piently made five voyages to the East Indies, and was killed on
Decend)er 27, 100.5, on tho coast of Malacca, in a fight with the ^Malays.

Seven years after Davis's last Arctic voyage the Dutch made their first ap-
pearance on tho scene of northern <liscovery. This persevering people had jii>l
then succeeded in casting off tho Spanish yoke, and was now striving to gain,
by the development of his maritime trade, a position among the neighboring

AlUTKJ VOYAGKS OF DISCOVKKY.

330

states, whicli tlic smalliioss of its territory hcoiiumI to deny to it. All the
kiiKHii avumii's to the treasure's of tlio sojith were nt that time too well guanU
id hy the fleets of Portugal and Spain to admit of any rivalry; but if fortuno
fiiv(tred them in linding the yet nnexiiloretl northern i)assage to India, tiiey
iniiiht still hope to secure a lion's share in that most lucrative of trades.

Animated by this laudable spirit of enterjirisc, the merchants of Amster-
(lain, Knkhuizen, and Middelburg fitted out in l")'.tt an expedition in ([Ucst of
t!if north-eastern passage, which they intrusted to the connnand of Cornelius
t'orneliszoon, IJrant Ysbrantzoon, and William IJarentz, one of the most ex-
perienced seamen of the day. The three vessels sailed from the Texelon Juno
0, and having reached the coast of Lapland, sejiarated into two divisions ;
liiirentz choosing the bolder course of coasting the west side of Nova Zem-
blu as far as the islands of Orange, the most northerly points of the archipel-
ago; while his less adventuuous comrades were contented to sail alotig tho
Uussian coast until they reached a strait, to which they gave the very a[»pro-
priate name of Vaigats, or " Wiml-hole." Forcing their way through the ice,
wiiii'li almost constantly blocks up the entrance to the Kara Sea, they saw, on
riiunding a promontory at the other end of the strait, a clear expanse of blue
open sea, stretching onward as far as the eye could reach, while the continent
trended away rapidly towards tho south-east. They now no longer doubted
tliiU they had sailed round the famous Cape Tabin — a fabulous headland, which,
according to Pliny (an indisputable authority in those times of geographical
i!,morance), formed the northern extremity of Asia, from whence the voyage
was supposed to be easy to its eastern and southern shores. Little did Brant
iiiid Cornelius dream that within the Arctic Circle the Asiatic coast still
stretelied 120" to the east ; and fully trusting their erroneous imjjressions, they
started in full sail for Holland, eager to bring to their coimtrymen the news of
tlieir imaginary success. Off Russian Laphuul they fell in with Barentz, who,
having arrived at the northern extremity of Nova Zend)la — a higher latitude
than any navigator is recorded to have reached before — had turned Ijack be-
fore strong ojiposing winds and flouting ice, and the three vessels returned to-
gether to Tcxel.

Siicii were the hopes raised by the discovery of the imaginary Cape T.ibin
that, losing sight of their habitual caution, the merchants of Middeibnrg, Enk-
huizen, Rotterdam, and Amsterdam immediately fitted out a tlcet of six ships,
laden with all sorts of merchandise fit for the Lidian market. A little yacht
was added, which was to accompany the fleet as far as that promontory, and
thence to return with the good news that the scjuadron had been left steering
Avith a favorable wind right off to India, But, as may well be stipposed, these
saiiiruiiie hopes, built on the unsubstantial fabric of a vision, were doomed to u
woful disappointment, for the " Wind-hole Strait," doing full justice to its
name, did not allow the vessels to pass; and after fruitless efforts to force
their way through the ice-blocks which obstructed that inhospitable channel,
tiiey returned crestfallen to the port whence they had sailed a few jnonths be-
fore with such brilliant expectations.

Although great disappointment was felt at this failure, the scheme of sailing

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roiiiiil CaiH' Taltiii In Imlia was, litiwovcr, lutt al»aiiili)iic(l liy tlin jtcrscvciitii*
Aiiistcrilatiu'rs ; ami. i>ii .May Irt, l.TIM), Ht'i'iiixkcrk, Uari'iitz, ami ('(iriidis Ifvi,
oiu'e imirc startcil f(ir ilic imrtli-cast. Hear hlaml ami S|iit/.li('rt,'cii wcic dis.
(•Mvcrcil, \vlici('ii|Miii till' >lii|is !^f|iarat(il, Cnriiclis ami licciiiskcrk rttiirniii"
to ilnllaii'l, uliilc llart'iit/., slowly makiiii,' liis way llir(>in,'li the U>'^ ami icr, .id.
vamnl to llic ninst iiirtlicrii imiiit of Nnva ZciiiMa, lite crew lu'iii'j; cncuiir.i'j, ,i
by the liiliiii^'s tliat troiii llif liiu'li rlilTs of OraiiLTi' l^ilaml clear o|i(ii water li.i.l
Ik'cii seen to ili(> soiilli-cast. Tlii' ci'l'ort to rcacli this iiivitiiii; cIimiiiicI was Inis.
tratt'd i>y tlic ice, « liicli ".'atlifi'cd alioiit the >lii|> as it lay near sliorc, ami '^'r.KJ-
iially (•(dlccliiiij; iimlcr ami afoiiml it, raised it I'ar aliove the level of the mi.
All liopt' of reliini before llie next siiuiiiier now vaiiislied, Itiit these liravc
sailors siiltiiiilted with rcsij^iiatiou to their fate, " llioii'j:h iiiiich 'grieved," suvs
(ierrit de Veer, who was liiiiiself an eye-witness of all the ineideiits he relates.
" to live tlier.' all that, cold winter, which we knew would fall out to he ex.
treinely hitter."" Vortuiiately ;i i|iiaiitity of drift-wood was found on the strand.
which scTvocl the Diilchineii lioih for the construction of a small hut, ;nid tor
fuel.

As early as .>e]tteinlier the jj;i'ound was frozen so hard that they tiied in
vain to dii^ a trrasc for a dead comrade, ami their craiMiie<l linLTers eoidd IimiiIIv
l)uilil the hut, which was the more necessary, .as the vessel, <'rackini,' umli r tlie
|iressureof the ice, nave siLfiis of speedily hreakim.' up altogether. I'.y the iniilille
of October the rude dwellini; was completed, and thoULrh its accommodaiioii \v;is
scanty, they were ijlad to take up their abode in it at once. The liest place liv
the central (ire was assiyiu'd to a sick comrade, while .all the r«'st anaii'^iil
their beds iis Itestlhey could on shelves which had been Imilt roumi the wall-.
An exainiiiatioii into the state of their provisions showeil the necessity of re-
ducini; their daily rations of bi'ea<l, chees*', .and wine, but by settiiiLj tr.aps tlicy
e.auiiht a ujood many Arctic foxes, which 'jave them an occasional supply <if
fresh food. The sun li.ad now entirely taken his departure, .and the lonir winter
iiiiiht of the 75'' 4:t' of latitude set in, duriiii^ which snowdrifts and imjieludiis
Minds coiilinecl them to their miser.able luit.

'•We looked pitifully one upon the other," s:.ys De \'eer, " beiiii; in irrcal
fear that if the extremity of the cold ,<rrew to be more and more, we shoultl all
die there of cold, for that what fire soever we made would not warm us."

The ice was now two inches thick upon the w.alls, and even on the sides df
their sleepim;- cots and the very clothes they wore were v.hitened with frii>t.
Vet in the midst of all their sufferiiiLfs these brave lueii .naiiitained cheertiil
hearts; and so jrreat was their elasticity of spirit that, remeinbcrimr Jamiary 5
was Twelfth Kve, they resolved to celebrate it as best they niiu'ht. " And then."'
says the old ciironicler, " we prayed our ^Nfaister that we niiudit be merry tli:il
ni^dit, and said that we were content to spend some of the wine th.at ni.'lit
which we had spare<l, and whicb was our share (one class) every second day.
and whereof for certaine days we bad not dranke, and so that nii,dit we ukkIl'
merry and drew for kins. And therewith we liatl two pounds of mc.al, wlarc-
of we made pancakes with oyle, ami every man had :i wliite biscuit which wo
sopt ill the wine. And so supposing that \.e were in our owne country and

AHCriC VOYAOKS OF DISCOVKllY.

81 1

amoiii^st our friomls, it ('((lufortc'il ih well jw if we lunl niadr a great I»aiii|iict
ill (iiir owiu" liousc. ^\ii(l Wf also inailc triiikils, ainl mir i^iiiiiicf was kiriLf oi
\ovaya Zi'inlya, which is at It'ast son milts imi;; ami lyilh hi'twcfii two seas."

On .Faiiiiary '-'I llu- ciIlT"' <»f the mid apitcarcd ahovc the liori/im, ami tlio
si'.'lit was a j"»yfiil (mic imltrd. Sow also llu' fiiiii)iis snow-storm erased, and
tliipiiu'li tho Bevorily td" the cold eontimied uiiahalnl, they were better ahle to
liriM' llie outer air ami to reeruit their stniiixlh liy exercise. With the re-
turn III' (layliuhl the bears came a^aiii aixtut the house, and some beiiii; shot, at-
ford.il a very seasoiial»le su|i|ily of ;,'rea.se, so that they were alile to i(urri lamps
and pass the tiiue iu readiii!^'.

Wlieii summer returned it was found impo^-silile to diseuLfau'e the ice-bouml
\c<<i(!, and the only hopes of cseapiuLC Irom this dreary prison now rested on
two Muail b(»als, in which they linally (piilted the seeiu' of so much sufl'erini;
(III June n, ir>!HI, On the f(»urth day oF their voyau'e their barks l>ecame
sinM'iinndeil by eniu'inous masses of lloatiuL; ice, which so crushed and injured
thcni that the crews, tjiviiiu; ur- all hope, took a solenm lea\e oi each other.
i'liil iu tliis desperate crisis they owed their preservation to the presence of
mind and ability of Dc \'eer, who, with a well-secured rope, leaped from one
iicliliick to another till he reatdied a larL." r lloe, on which (irst tli-- sick, then
tlic stores, the crews, ami finally the boats themselves went fairly landed. Here
tiiey were obiii^eil to remain while the boats underwent the necessary repairs,
and duriiiLj this detention upon a lloatinu ice raft the Ljall.ant Marentz closed the
I'vcntful voyaij;e of his life. He died as ho had lived, calndy and bravely, think-
in;,' less of himself than of the welfare of his fellow-sufferers, fu- his last words
Wire directions as to the eoursi' in whi(di they were to steer. His death was
liillerly ujouineil by the ioui,di men under his ciMnmanil, ami even the prospin-t
ohi return to their homes could not console them for the htss of their beloved
leader. After a most tedious passacje (for by July '-'H they had oidy reached
the southern extremity of Nova Zembl.a) they at lenurth, at the emi (d' Aui,'ust,
anivcd at Kola, in IJussian I.apland, where, to their ylad surprise, they fouml
their old comrade, John ('(unelison Hyp, with whom they retnriuMl to Am-
stenlani.

.AlcanwhiU' the spirit of discovery had once more recovereil in Eni^laml from
llie cliill thrown upcui it by so many previous disappointments. In KIOi.', Wey-
nimitli, while attemptini; to sail up the promisiiiu,' inlet, now so well-known as
the entrance to JIudson's J>ay, was repulsed by a violent storm, and in l(j(i(i a
niciancholy issuo awaite<l the next expedition to the north-west, which sailed
under the commami of John Kniudit, a brave and experieni'ed sailor. Driven
liy stormy weather amonij the drift-ice on the coast of Labrador, KniLcht was
tiin to take shelter in the lirst cove that j)resented itself, and lost no time iu or-
<leriiii; his damajj;ed ship of bu-ty tons to b(> drawn hi^h up on the dry sand be-
yond the tiile mark, where she iniuht underiro the lU'cessary repairs.

This position, however, not proviu^' satisfactory, he manned his boat lU'xt
day, and while tho i-est of the erow were busy at work, sailed across to the
other side of the inlet to seek for some more convenient anehoraLje. Leavlntj
two nu'u in diarize of the boat, he landed with his mate and three of ids men to

I

4 J

■I ;i'

i'l'l

h t

IIIP

(i<t i J

! -T^'^ ■ !■

842

THE POLAR WOHLI).

explore the strniitro const. Tlicv climlM'il tlic stoi-p arclivity of the slinro I'm.
geivd for o moment on tl>o summit of tlus cliffs, and hcforo tlisap|iL'arinif on tin.
other side excliani^eil <;n'etin,i;s of farewell with their messmates in the liunt
who little ima.Lriiied that it wan .1 partiniir forever. Evening came on, and iIkh
darkened into niuht; miiskets were tired andtrumj)ets sounded, liut no .•uiswcr
was made, and eleven o'cloek arriving s.ithout any sign or signal of the inissjn.r
party, the men who had tarrieil on shore mournfully returned to the sliiii wiil,
tlip dismal ti<lings of the loss of their hrave eommander and his coniradcs.

During this nulancholy night, passed in alternate lamentations and plans for
seareh and rescue, the ice had so accumulated in the ehai:nel which the unfor-
tunate Knight cross( ,1 the day before, that though the hoat was speediiv riLT'^i ,1
for the expedition, and the party who occupied it were one and all uncontrolla-
bly p.ager to start, the morning light convinced the most sanguine of the iii'er
inipossihility of f(<rcing their way a<'ross the gulf. Thus passed two wretdinl
d.ays of uncertainty, rendered doiihly miserable by the iiiactivitv to which tlnv
were condemned, when on the night of the second day the little encampment
was attacked by a large party of natives, whose hostility left no douiit alpoiit
the fate which had befallen their inissi?ig friends. A volley of muskelrv soon
dispersed the savages, but fearing fill in'e attacks, the <'rew, now onlv eiulit in
Ttund)er,at onie resolved to put to sea in their <'r;i/.y l)ark, which, thonuli dc-
prived of its rudder, and so leaky that the )iumps were obliged to be eoiistantlv
at work, safely ear; led them to Newfoundland.

In the year 1(>07 ileiiry Hudson made the first attempt to sail across tlie
North Pole, a ]/!an started in Iol'7 by Robert Thorne, but not yet acted upon
by any one diiririg the eighty ycirs that had since passed. He reached the east
coast of (ireeidand in 7;i" of latitiide,and then proceedeil to the nortlieni ev-
trcmity of Spit/.bergeii, but all his efforts to l.-umch forth into the unknown
ocean beyond were batlled by the ice-liilds that opposed bi« progress.

In his next voyage (lOOS) he vainly tried for the north-east passage, hut liis
third voyage (1000), which he performed in the service of the Dutch, letl to the
discovery of the inagnilicent river whic.i still bears bis name, and at wiiose
mouth the "Km|)i'e City" of the griat American republic has arisen.

In April, KilO, we lind him setting sail on the last and most celebrated of
his voyages. In .all but its commander, this expedition was miserably iinii'.c-
tpiate to the object of its mission, for it consisteil only of one vessel of lifty-live
tons ju'ovisioned for six months, and manned by a crew who speedily prove d
themselves to be utterly tinwortliy of their leader. On entering Jlmlson's
Straits, the large masses of ice which eiicumbered the surface of the water and
the thickness of the constant fogs luiide them lose all courage, and they earnest-
ly begged their commander to return at once to England. Uut Hudson pressed
on until at last his little bark emerged into a yast opei; water rippling and
sparkling in the morning sunshine. ][udson's I>ay ( xpaiided before him, and
the enraptured discoverer was fully convinced that tlio north-western route to
Imiia now lay open to the mariners of England.

It was the beginning of August, and the dastardly cre»v considering the pn»
eage elected, urged an immediate return ; but IltulBon u.:s determineil 011

^

ARCTIC VOYAGES OF DISCOVEUY,

;{43

oointilt'tinL; tha advi'iitnre, aiul wiiitoriiiL;, if jM)ssil>U', on the sunny slioros of
Iiidiii. For tlirt'u niontlis lie coiitinncd tnickin!^ tlio south coasts of tlint vast
nnitlieni Mi'iliturranoan, but all his hopes of findiuL; a new channd oponinsjf to
tlio south proved vain, until J«t len<j;th the ship was frozen in on November 10
ill the south-east corner of James's Hay. A dreary winter awaited the ice-bound
stauKii, with almost exhausted provisions, and unfortunately without that
luniic ]iatience and concord which had sustained the coiu'ai^'e of liarenlz and
liis I'diiipanioiis under trials fir more severe. But sprinrj came at last, and
ii'vivctl the spirits of their leader. His ship was once more atloat, once nnu'e
his f.iiK'y induhjced in visions <)f the s>nmy Kast, when, as he stepped on deck on
tlic iiKiiniiiu: of .lune '21, his arms were suddenly pinioned, and he f(»inid him-
silf in tlie power of three of his men.

lii'iuiiy, remonsfance, entreaty, command, all failed to draw a word from
the stiiltl)orn mutineers, and Hudson resiLTued iiimself bravely to his fate, a id,
with the (piiet dignity of a noble nature, lookt.-d on calmly at the ominous prep-

anititiiis u;oiniX forwan

SlUi

[ill

open

boat

was in waitini;' and into this

IIikImui — his hands beiiii? previously tied behind his back — was h wered ; some
jiiiwilcr and shot and the carpenter's box came next, followed by the carpenter
Iiimself, .John Kiuij, whose name oii^lit to be held in honorable remembrance,
as lie alone amoiiij; the crew rcnniined true to his master. Six invalids were
also forced into the boat, which was then cut adrift, and the vessel sailed on-
ward on its homeward course. Nolhini; more was ever heard of Hudson;
hut the riiiL'lcaders of that dark conspiracy soon paid a terrible penalty. Some
fill ill a liLrlit with the Ks(|nim;nix, and others died on the iionieward voyage,

(111

niitr w

hich thev suffered from the extremcst famine

Tiic account of the great expanse of sea which had been reached gave new
viu'or to the spirit of discovery, and new expeditions sallied forth (Sir Thomas
lliiltoii, lUrj, (iibbons. Kilt, l>yIot, 11)15), to seek aU)ng the western shores of
IlinUiiirs IJay the j)assage which was to open the way to India. All efforts in
tliis direction were of tiourse doomed to disappointment, but Haftin, who sailed
ill KilC), with directions to try his fortune beyond J)avis's Straits, enriched
ir((iu'ra|)liy with a new and important coiuiuest by sailing round the enormous
hay which still bears his name. During this voyage he tliscovered the en-
tiaiiccs of Smith's, .Jones's, and Lancaster Sounds, without attempting to ir.ves-
tiu'ale these broad highwavs to fielils of later exploration. He believeil them
to lie mere inclosed gulfs, and this i»elief liecame so lirmly grounded in the
Ipiililic mind that two full centuries elapsed before any new attempt was made
to seek for a western passage in this direction, whih' Jens >runk, a Dane, sent
out in 101!) with two good vessels, umler the patronage of liis king, Christian

IV.; I-

ox am

IJ;

m

u^s (l(i:tl-l():!->). Knight and Marlow ( ITl'.l), Mi'ldli'ton (1741),

•or and Smith (174G), confined their efforts to Hudson's iJay, and, by their
rc|i('at('(l disap])ointments made all expeditions in cpiest of a north-western
passage apjiear well-nigh as chimerical as those of the knight-eirants of
romance.

iM'

til -1

lU-hU

■in

n

n

111

H

jf*

844

THE POLAU WOULD.

i :

CHAPTER XXXTII.

ARCTIC VOYAGES OF 1)[!^C()VEUY, F1U)M BAFFIN TO M'CLINTOCK.

Buchan and Franklin. — Udss and Parry 1H]S"). — Discovery of Molville Island. — Wintor IL'.rlicir risig.
1820). — KranUlins lirst land .Foiirno. . — Dreadful SutU'rinfjs. — Parry's second Vovaj^e (1?<-.'1 ifj:i).
— Ili^'link. — I.yon (tM-.'l). — Parry's third Voya^je (l>i'_M). — FranUlin'M .second land .lonrncv ti> ihe
Sliores of tlic I'olar Sea. — lieeehey. — Parry's sledi;e .lourney towards the Pole. — Sir .loliii Host's
second Jonrney. — Five Years in tlie Arelic Ocean. — Back's Discovery of (ireat I'isli Itivor.— Iha^e
and .Simpson (!8;'i7 Isli'.l). — Franklin and Cro/ier's last Voyaiie (ISl.'i). — .Searcirnif; l'.N|ii(lilinns.—
l{icIiard:son and l!ac. — .Sir .James lloss. — .Vnslin. — Penny. — Do Haven. — Franklin's lirst W iiitir-
([narters discovered In- Omnianey. — Kennedy and Uelliit. — In^leliidd. — Sir !•",. lielelier.—Ki licit.—
M'Clure's Di^Cl)very of the North-west Passage.— I'ollinson. — liellot's Death. — Dr. liae learns tlio
Death of the Crews of the " FJ'ebns"' and "Tenor." — Sir Leopold M'Clintock.

^T^IIE failure of Captain Pliijips (aftcrward.s Lord ]Miil<jravi') in tlie Spitzber-
-*- iH'U seas (177.'J), and tliat of tlte illnstrious Cook (ITTO), in liis atieni]it to
cii'cunuiaviiiate the nortliern shores of Anieiiea or Asia liy way of tiie Striuts nf
Bering,', entirely damped, for the next forty years, the spirit of Arctic discov-
ery ; but hope revived when it became known that Captain Scoresby, on a wlml-
inj^ expedition in the Greenland seas (ISOO), had attained 81° ;!0' N. lat., .•iinl
thus approached tlie polo to within 540 miles. No previous navi^jator li.'id
ever readied so far to the north; an open sea lay temptiii<fly before liiiii,;iii(l
the absence of the ice-I)link proved th.'it for miles beyond the visible hcrizdii no
ice-field or snow-covered land oppo.sed his onward cour.<e; but as the olijcct nt
Scoresby's voyai^o was strictly connnercial, and he himself answcralile to the
owners of his vessel, he felt oblii;ed to sacrilice his inclinations to his duty. luiil
to steer ai;;un to the south.

Dtn-inu' the Continental war, indeed, England liad but little leisure to jjiosc-
cute di.><coverics in the Arctic Oce.'in ; but not long after the conehision of peace,
four stout vessels (ISIS) were sent out on that mi.ssion by (Jovermiient. Two
of these, the " Dorothea," Captain IJiichan, and the "Trent," Commander Luii-
ten.int John Franklin, were destined to prf»ceed northward by way of Spit/licr-
gon,and to endeavor to cross the Pol.ir Sea. After nnnuml»ered dillicnlties, tlio
expedition was l)attling with the ice to the north-west of that wintry arcliipila-
go, wlien, on ,Iiily ;)0, a sudden gale compelled the commantler, as the <Mily
chance of safety, to " take the ice" — that is, to thrust the ships into an openiii!,'
among the moving masses tiiat cotdd be perceived. In this very ha/.irdoiis cip-
eration,the "Dorothea" — having received so much injury that she was in d.in-
ger of siidving — was therefore tiirtu'd homeward as soon as the storm subsidcil,
and the "Trent" of necessity accompanied her.

The other two ships, which sailed in the same year, tlie " Isabella," conuiiaiMl-
od by Captain John Hoss, .-ind tlie " Alexander," by Lieutenant William I'M-
w.ard Parry, had been ordered to proceed up the middle of Davis's Strait to a

••iiiijlito

ARCTIC VOYAGES, FROM BAFFIN TO MCLINTOCK.

845

hi^h noithoni latitude, and then to stretcli across to the westward, in the hope
of IpL'iiiij able to pass the northern extremity of America, an<l reach IJerini^'s
Strait hv that route. ^\s rcspetits the puri)osca for which it was sent out, this
cxiuMJilion likewise endetl in disappointment ; for thou<j;h lloss ilefined more
clcarlv the (Jreeiiland coast to tlie north of the Danish possessions between
(";i|ic .Melville and Smith's Sound, he was satisfied with inakinj» a very cursory
cxainination o*" all the 1,'reat channels leadint; from IJaltin's IJayinto the Polar
Sea. After sailimj; for some little distance up Lancaster Souml, he was arrest-
,.,1 liv tlie atmospheric deception of a ran<j;e of mountains, extending rij^lit
ucrif^"! the passaufe, ami conchidinij it useless to ])ersevere, he at once — to tlio
Sivat astonishment and mortification of his otlicers — abaiuloned a course which
was to render his successor illustrious. As may easily be ima<iine<l, the man-
ner in which Ross had conducted this expedition faile<l to satisfy the authori-
ties at home ; and thus, in the followini; year, the '• Ileda" and " (Jriper" were
(•nniinissioned for the purpose of exploring tlie sound, wliose entnuice only hail
liccii seen by Hatlin and Koss. The former ship was placed undi'r the Com-
iiiaml i>f I'arry, and tlu' latter under that of Lieutenant Matthew Liddon.

With this brilliant voyage, the epoch of modern discoveries in the Arctic
Orcan may proju'rly be saiil to begin. Sailing right through Lancaster Sound,
over llie site of IJoss's imaginary Cntker Mountains, Parry passed IJarrow's
Strait, and after exploring Prince Ilegent Inlet, whence the ice compelled
liim to return to the main channel, he discovered Wellington Channel (.'vugust
'.'.'), and soon after had the satisfaction of announcing to his men that, having
readied llO" W. lung., they were entitled to the king's bounty of iTiOOO, se-
(•iiie(| l)y order of council to " such of His Majesty's subjects as might succeed
ill iieiict rating thus far to the west within the Arctic Circle." After passing and
iiaiiiiiig Milville Island, a little progress was still lUiule westward; but the ice
was now rapidly gathering, the vessels were soon beset, and, after getting free
witli great ditficulty. Parry was only too glad to turn back and settle down in
Winter Harbor, It was no easy task to attain this dreary ))ort, as a canal, two
miles and a third in length, had first to be cut through solid ice of seven inches
average thickness; yet such was the energy of the men that the herculean
laliDP was executed in three tlays. The two vessels were immediately unrig<jjed,
tlie decks housed over, a heating apparatus arranged, and every thing made as
eoiiifortablu as possible. To relievo the monotony of the long winter's ni'_dif,
|i!ays were :ic!ed every fortnight, a school established, and a newspaper set on
fiMii— eertainly the first i)eriodical ever issued in so high a latitude. During
tlie (lay the men were employed for ext'irise in banking up the ships with snow
iir making excursions within a certain distance; and when the weather foii)ade
their leaving shelter, they were obliged to run roimd the decks to the tune of a
harrel-organ.

In January the cold became more and more intense. On the iL'lh it was
">1° below zero in the o|)en air, and on the 1 tth the therinonu-tfr fell to .")4^.
On Kebruary '24 a lire broke out in a small house which had been built near
the ships, to serve as an observatory for Caiit.ain Sal>ine, who accompanied the
expedition as astronomer. All hands rushed to the spot to endeavor to sul>

if

;(!!*'

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■I'

3

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^■iiii ! .!(

^1 ,.'i

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346

THE POLAK WOULD.

due the flames, but liavint^ mil y suow to tlirow ou it, it was fouud iinpossililc to
extiutjuish it. Tlie snow, iiowevr, covered lliu astroMoniicai instruments, aiul
secured tlieni from tlu' iire. Tiie tiiennouieter was at tiie tiuje 44'' below /,(.,,,
and the faces of nearly the whole jiarty i^rew white aiul frost-bitten after fivo
minutes' exposure, so that the surii;e(i;i :ind two or three assistants were busilv
employed in rubbinu; the faces of their comrailes willi snow, while the laltcr
were workinijf miujlit and main to extintiuish the llames. One jxtor fellnw in
his anxiety to save the dippiiiij-needle, carried it out without puttiiii,' on l.js
gloves; his hands were so benumbed in conse([uence, that when pluniieil into ,i
basin of (!old water it instantly froze, from the intense cohlness imparted to it.
and it was found necessary to resort, some time after, to the amputation oi ,i
])art of four tintrers on one hand and tiiree on the otiier.

February ^^ w.as !i memorable d.ay — the sim beiiiL,' visil)le from the iiiaiiitiiii
of the "llecia," from wheiwe it was last seen on November II. The weallicr
i^ot considerably mihler in INIarch ; on the Gth the thermometer rose to /eio,
for tlie iirst time siiu'c December 17, and on April ;J() it stood at the freezini;-
point, which it liad not doiu' since September 1_'.

At leiiijth May appeared, l)rinij;ini; the lon<i' summer's day of the hii.'li nortli-
ern latitudes; but as many a week nmst still pass before the vessels could move
out of their ice-bouml harbor, I'arry started on .Tune 1 to explore the interior
of th(! island, which at this early period of the season still wore a verv drearv
■aspect. r»ut such was the rapidity of vegetation, that by tlu; end of the nionth
the laiul, now compK'tely cl(!ar of snow, was covered with the purple-colored
saxifraije in blossont, with mosses, and with sorrel, and the tir.ass was from two
to three inches loin,'. The )iastur!iLre ajjpeart'd to be excellent in the v;i!levs,
and, to judire by the muuerous tracks of musk-oxen and reindeer, there was no
lack of .'mimals to enjoy its .abundaiu-e.

It was not before Auu'ust 1 that the ships were released from their ten
months' blockade in Winter Harbor, when Parry once more stood boMlv for
the west ; but no amount of skill or patience could penetrate the obstinate mass-
es of ice that blockeil the passasie, or insure the safety (tf the vessels under the
repeated shocks sustained from them. Findini; the barriers insuperable, lie
i^i've w;iy, and steering; homeward, reached J^ondou on Nu\end)er ;i, ;s2o,
where, ;is may well be imagined, his reception was most enthusiastic.

While I'arry was en<.'aL!:e<l ou this wonderful voy.-iire, Lieutenant Franklin
atid Dr. IJichartlson, .accompanied by two midshipmen, (leorife IJ.ack and IJolnri
llood. and :i sailor, John Hepburn, to whom were adih'd during the course nl
the jouiiiey a troop of Canadi.ans and Indians, were jienetratinii by laud to llie
mouth of the Coppermine IJiver for the purpose of exatuinintj the miexpi'inil
shores of the Polar Sea to the east. An idea of the difliculties of this under-
takiriijr may be formed, when I mention that the travellers started from I'ort
A'ork, IFuilson's IJay, on Auijust .'to, 1819, ;md after a boat voyaije of Tui) miles
up the S.askatchewan arrived before winter at Fort Cund)erland. The ne\t
winter ftund them 700 miles farther on their journey, established duriuLr lln'
extreme coll ,at Fort Knterprise, as they calletl a lo<x-house bdilt by them on
Winter Lake, where they spent ten months, dependinir upon fishing ami tlio

ARCTIC VOYAGES, FROM BAFFIN TO ^ICLINTOCK.

347

snciTss of tht'lr Indian hunters. Diiriiii* tlie suninRT of 1821 tlicy aeconi-
iilislicil the rcniaiiiini; 'Mi niik's to tlw inouth of tlif Coppcrinino, and o-i .luly
•jl Fiaiikliii and his jiarty enil)ari<t'd in two hirch-bark canoos on their voyage
of exploration. Tn these frail sliallops they skirled the desolate eoast of the
Ainctii'an eoiitinent 555 miles to tiie east of the Coppermine as far as I'oint
Tmiiairai'i, when the rapi<l «leorease of their provisions and the sliattered state
(it tlie canoes imperatively oompelled tlieir return (Auirust 22). And now
IpeL'aii !i dreadful land-journey of two months, accompanied by all the horrors
nl ((lid. famine, and f:itii>ue. An esculent lichen (tripe de rodie), with an occa-
sidtial ptarmiuan, formed their scanty food, hut on very many days even this
|i(ior supply could not be obtained, and llieir appetites became ravenous. Some-
tiims lliey had the jjood-fortunc to pick up pieces of skin, and n few bones of
(leer wliich had been devoured by the wolves in the previous spring. The bones
npie rendered friable by burning;, and now and then their old shoes were added
to til. repast. On reachinc: the Coppermine, :i raft had to be framed, a task
anoiiiplislied with the utmost ditticulty by the cxhauste<l party. One or two
of the Canadians had already fallen behind, and never rejoined their comrades,
mill now Hood and three or four more of the party broke <lown and could
pniceed no farther. Dr. Kichardson kindly volunteerini; to remain with them,
wliile Back, with the most vi<j;orous of the men, ])ushed on t.i send succor
from Fort Enterprise, and Fnmklin followed more slowly with the others.
On n'acliini^ the louc house this last party fouiul that wretched tenement desolate,
witluio deposit of provisions and no trace of the Indians whom they had ex-
pected to meet there. "It would be impossil)le,*' says Franklin, ''to describe
our sensations after cnterinijj this miserable abode and discoveriiiL; how we had
liccii nciileeted ; the whole party she<l tears, not so mndi for our own fate as
fur that (if our friends in the rear, whose lives depended entirely on our 8ei.dini»
iimnciliate relief from this place."' Their only consolation was a yleam «.f hope
.'ilTonlod them by a note from IJack, statinijj that he had re:\ched the deserted
liiit two days before, and was going in search of the Indians. The fortunate
disciivcry of some cast-off deer-skins and of a lu'ap of acrid bones, a provision
woitliy of the place, sustained their flickering life-flame, and after eighteei miser-
alilc (lays they were joined by Dr. Ikichardson and Hepburn, the soie survivors
of their party. Lieutenant Hood, a young officer of great promise, having been
miinit red by a treacherous Canadian, whom liichardson was afterwards obliged
to slidiit through the head in self-defense.

'■ I'pon entering the desolate dwelling," says Tvicliardson, " we had the satis-
f;i(tiiiii of enibracing Captain Franklin, but no words can convey an idea of the
filth ami wretchedness that met our eyes on looking arouiul. Our own misery
liad stdhMi upon us by <legrees, and we were accustomed to the contemplation
"f each other's emaciated figures; but the ghastly emuitenances, dilated eye-
hulls, and sepulchral voices of Captain Frankliti and those with hiii' \v ere more
tliaii we could at first bear.'' At length, <iti Novendier 7. when the few sur-
vivors of the ill-fated expedition (for most of the voyagers died fr(un sheer ex-
haustion) were on the jioint of sinking under their sufferings, three Indians
stilt by Back, whose exertions to procure them relief had been beyond all j<raise,

i

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848

THE POLAK W(JhLn.

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brotiijlit tlioin tlio succor tlu-y hail so loiiu; been waitincr for. Tlio oa^crnoss
with wliicli tlii'V feasted on dried meal ami excellent lonuues may well lie im.
ai^iiu'd; but severe pains in tlie stomach soon warned the.Mi that after so loii"
an abstinence they must be cxceediiiijly careful in the ([uantity of food tMktn.
In a fortniirht's time they had sutliciently recruited their strength to lie aMc to
join 15ack at Moose D(!er Island, and in the followiiiji; year they retmind to
England.

Parry's second voyaije of discovery (1821-1823) was undertaken for the
jmrpose of ascertaininiy whether a communication mi^ht bo found Intwec n Kc-
gent's Inlet and IJowe's Welcome, or throULdi llepulse Hay and thence to ilic
north-western sliores of America. The tirst sunnner (1S2I) was spent in the
vain attempt of forcinijf u way thro\i^h Frozen Strait, IJepulse I5ay, the laii^c
masses of ice in these waters holdinsj the ships helpKssly in their L'rasp. iumI
often carrviiM' them back in a few davs to the vcrv spot which thev had 1( It ;
month before. Owiiii? to these rebuffs, the season came to an end wliilc tlieir
enterprise was yet scarcely be<fuii, and the ships took up their (piartcrs in mii
open roadstead at Winter Island to the south of ^lelvilh; Peninsula. Moidis
the winter amusetnents and occupations of the first voynjre, the nioiiotiniv <if
the winter was pleasantly broken during February by friendly visits frmii a
]iarty of Ks(piimaux. iVmonij tlu'se a yf)un<; woman, IliLrlink, distinijnislicd lici--
self by her talents. Her love for music amouiited to a passion, ami her (|iii(k-
n;!s.s of comprehension \sas s.ich ;hat .die soon beca.ne an esiablished iniir
preter between her own ])eople :uiil the Knjilish. The nature of a map Iwiviii^
been explained to her, she readily sketched with clialk upon the tleck the (Mil-
lines of the adjoininij coast, and continuini;; it farther, deliiu'ated tlic wliulc
eastern shore of ^lelville Peninsula, roundini; its northern extremity by a Imuf
island and a strait of sulllcient magnitude to afford a safe passage for the slii|i<.
This information irreatly encoura!j;ed the whole |)arty, whose sanguine anticipM-
tions already fancied the worst part of their voyage overcome, and its tniili
was eaiierly tested as soon as the ships could once more be set afloat, wiiidi
was not till July 2.

After ruiiiiiii;j; the ixfoatest daiiircrs from the ice, they at lemjth readied tlu'
small island of !u:loolik. near the entrance of the channel, the situation of wliiili
had lieeii accunitely laid down by the Esquimaux woman. IJut all their ctfuits
to forc(> a jiassage throuuh tlie narrow strait proved vain, for after stniLT^liii,'
sixty-live days to tret forward, they had only in that time reached forty niilis
to the westward of lirloolik. The vessels were therefore airain placed in win-
ter (iiiarters in a channel between Ii;lo(»lik and the land; but haviiiu; asceitainnl
by boat excursions the termination of the strait, Parry lhoiii:lit it so pidini>iiiL'
for the ensuiny sinnmer that he at once named it the " Ilecl.a and Fury Strait.
liul his hopes were once more doomed to disajipointmeni by the ice-olistriutdl
channel, and he foniul it utterly impossible to pass throuiih it with liis slii|i<.
His return to FiiLrland with his crews in health, after two winters in the liigli
latitudes, was another triumpli of judirtnent and discipline.

In the foUowinuf year two new expeditions set sail for Polar America. Ca])-
tain Lyon was sent out in the '' (Iriper," with oitlers t<. laiul at Waiter nivcr

AllCTIC VOYA(JKS, KKO.M lUFFIX TO MCLINTOCK.

349

offlN'P'ilse Uny, ami llioiici' to cross ^Ii'lvillo Pi'iiiiiMila, iiiid itroccod ovorland
to roiiit Tiiinaiiaiii, wlicio Fraiikliir.s jounicy oiuUmI. J>iU a succession of
(liciiilliil storms so criiij)lctl thu "Griper," while eiideavoriiitj to ))roceed on-
wiinl lip Jiowe's AVelcoiue, that it became lu-cessary to return at once to Eng-

laiKi.

Such was the esteem and .ffeclioii Parry had acquired anion<; tlie compan-
ions of his two loriuer voyages, that when lie took tlie command of a thinl ex-
inMlitiDii, with tlie intention of seeking a passage through Prince IJegent's In-
|(t, thcv all volunteered to ace jnipany him. Krom the middle of July till nearly
tlic middle of September (1824), the " Ilecla" and the " Fury" had to contend
willi the enromous ice-masses of IJaiKn's Day, which would infallibly have
cnislicd vessels less stoutly ribbed; and thus it was not before September 10
that tlicy entered Lancaster Sound, which they found clear of ice, except hero
and there a solitary berg. Hut new ice now began to form, which, increasing
(laiiv in thickness, iteset the ship, and carried them once more back ag.ain into
Hatrm's Hay. Hy perseverance, however, aiui the aid of a strong easterly !)roeze,
I'anv regained the lost ground, and on September '27 reached the entrance of
i'ort Howen, on the eastern shore of Prince Hegeiit's Inlet, where he passed the
winter. Hy July 10 the vessels were again free, :md Parry now sailed across
ilie inlet to examine the coast of North Somerset; but the tHoating ice .so in-
jured tlu! " Fury" that it was found necessary to abandon her. Her crow and
vahiahles were tlierefore received ou board the '" Ilecla ;" the provisions, .stores,
and boats were lande<l, and safely housed on Fury Point, off North Somerset,
fiu- the relief of any wandering Esuuimaux, or future Arctic explorers who
might chance to visit the spot, and the crippled ship was given up to the mercy
of the relentless ice, while her companion made the best of her way to Eng-
lan.l.

Ill spite of the dreadful sufferings of Franklin, Richardson, and H.ack during
their tirst land journey, we lind these heroes once more setting forth in 1825,
(letevmiiied to resume the survey of the Arctic coasts of the American conti-
nent. A far more ade(|uate prei)aration was made for the necessities of their
journey th;m before; and before they settled down for the winter .it "Fort
IVanklin," on the shores of Cireat Hear L;ike, a journey of investigation down
tlie Mackenzie IJiver to the sea h.i<l been brought to a successful end. As soon
as ilic ice broke in the foHowing summer, they set out in four boats, and sepa-
rated at the point where the river divides into two main branches, Franklin and
Hack proposing to survey the coast-line to the westward, while Pichardson set
out in an easterly direction to the mouth of the Coppermine Kiver. Franklin
arrived at the mouth of the Mackenzie on July 7, where a large tribe of Escpii-
niaux pillaged his boats, and it was only by great pnulenco and forbearance
that the whole party were not massacred. A full month was now spent in tho
tedious survey of 374mile8of coast, as far asPeturn I{eef,more than 1000 miles
distant from their winter-quarters on great Hear Lake. Tho return journey
to Foit Franklin was safely accomplished, and ihoy arrivotl at their house on
Septenilur 21, where they had the pleasure of finding Dr. Pichardson and Lieu-
tenant Kendall, who, on their part, had roached tho Coppermine, thus connect-

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890

THE POLAU \V(J»LI).

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A(i^

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iw'j; Sir Jolin Frniiklin's fornior disonvi'rics to tlic eastward in Coronation (^ilf
wiili those made liy liini on this occasion to the westward of the Mackin/ic
Tile coltl dnring tlie second winter at Fort Kranl\iin was intense, tiie tlicniioiu-
eter Htanilini? ut one time at 5H" heh)W zero; bnt the comfort tliey now enjoMil
formed a most pleasinif contrast to tiie sipmlid misery of Fort Kiiterprisc.

When Franivlin left Fni^land to |iroceed on this expedition, liis Hrst wile wiis
then lyiiij; at tlie point of deatli, and indeeil expired tiie day after liis dcii.tri-
uro. JJnt witli iieroic fortitude slio nrj^ed him to set ont on tlie very d.iv ini-
pointed, entreatinLC him, as he valued her peace and his own <flory, nut to di l;i\
a moment on her acconnt. His feelint,'s may be imagined when he raiscij <iii
(larry Island a silk t1a<^ •which she had made and given him as u partiii',' Lrift
with tlie instruction that he was only to hoist it on reachiiiij the Polar Sea.

AVhilo Parry and Franklin were thus severally em|)l()yed in searchintr tiir a
western jtassai^e, a sea expedition under the command of Captain JWci Ikv IkkI
been sent to Ijering's Straits to co-operate with them, so as to furni>Ii pic)vi>-
ions to the former and a conveyance home to the latter — a task more ciiNilv
jdanneil than executed; and thus wo can not wonder that mIich the '• IIIiinsiimi"
reached the appointed place of rendezvous at Chamisso Island, in KotzclpiU'
Sound (July 25, iH'j(J),slic found neither Parry (who had lonij since iciiiriinl
to Kiiirland) mn- Franklin. Yet the bariije of the " JJlossom "—which was il'h-
patched to the eastward under charyo of ^Ir. Klson — narrowly missed imitiii,'
the latter; for when she was stopped by the ice at Point IJarrow, slie was inily
about 150 miles from Return Ueef, the limit of his discoveries to the westwanl
of the 3Iacken/ie.

In the year 1827 the indefatigable Parry undertook one of the most extra-
ordinary voyages ever performed by man ; being no less than an attempt tn
reach the Nortli Pole by boat and sledge travelling over the ice. His lidpis i.t
success were fomided on Crosby's authority, who reports having seen ic( -liiMs
so free from cither fissure or hummock, that had tliey not been covered with
snow, a coach might have been driven many leagues over them in a direct line;
but wlien Parry reached the ice-fields to the north of Sjiitzbergen, he found tliciii
of a very different nature, composed of loose, rugged masses, intermixed with
jiools of water, which rendered travelling over them extremely arduous and slow.
The strong flat-bottomed boats, specially prepared for an anipliil>ious joiiriuy,
•with a runner attached to each side of the keel, so as to adapt them for siid'^-
ing, had thus frequently to be laden and unladen, in order to be raised over the
hummocks, and repeated journeys backward and forwanl over the same grouinl
were the necessary consequence. Frequently the crew had to go on hands .iinl
knees to secure a footing. Heavy showers of rain often rendered the siirfM'c
of the ice a mass of slush., and in some places the ice took the form of sliarp-
pointed crystals, wliich v'ut the boots like penknives. But in spite of all tluM?
obstacles, they toiled chcei fully on, until at length, after thirty-five days (if in-
cessant drudgery, the difcovory was made that, while they were apiiareiitly ad-
vancing towards the l»ole, the ice-field on which they were travelling was drift-
ing to the south, and thus rendering all their exertions fruitless. Yet, thmiu'Ii
disappointed in his hope of planting his country's standard on the nortlicrn

I'M;

f-.

AUCTIC VOYAIJKS. FIUKM BAFFIN TO MCl.INTiX K.

:r)t

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axis of till' ulnlu', Parry ha<l tlio ulory of rcachiinj lli»' liiylicst aiitliciitioatcd
latitude ever yet attaiiietl (h2 ' Ki' :t(»"). On llu-ir return to the " llecia," which
awaiteil them uudor Captain l-'oiester in Trouronboriy IJay, on the northern
coast i>f S|iitzl)eri^en, the boats encountered II ilreatlfnl storm on the open sea,
wliiili ol)(ii,'ed them to hear up for Walden Island — one of the most northerly
I'lu'ks of the archipelago — where, fortunately, a reserve supply of provisions had
iiicii deposited. *' Kvery tiling belonyiiiLT to us," says Sir Kdward Parry, "was
ridw conipletely drenched by the spray and snow ; we had been iifly-six hours
witliiiiit rest, and forty-eiyht at work in the boats, so that by the time they were
tinlDadcd we had barely strength to haul them up on the rooks. However, by
(lint of !,'reat exertion, wc manaLCi'd to yet the iioats above the surf, after which,
!i hot supper, a bla/iny lire of drift-wood, ami a few hours' (piiet rest restored
us." He who laments over the deLTeiieracy of the human race, and supposes it
to have been iiKtre viijorous or endowed with <ire;iter jiowers of endmance in
ancient times, m;iy perhaps come to a different opinion when readiii^ of I'arry
ami his companions.

Thus ended the last of this j^reat ii.aviirator's Arctic voyaj^es. Horn in the
year I TOO, of a family of seamen, I'arry at !in early aye devoted liimself, heart
ami sitiil, to the profession in which his father had yrown old. In his tweuty-
ciu'lith year ho discovered Melville Island, and his subsecpient exp^'dition con-
lirincd the excellent reputation he had accpiired by his first brilliant success.
From the years IHJ!) to 1h;}4 we lind him in New South Wales, as IJesident
(oiiunissioner of the Australian Ayricultunil Company. In the year 18;}? ho
was appointed to organize the mail-packet service, then transferred to the Ad-
miialty, and after iilliny the post of Captain Superintendent of the Hoyal Naval
Hospital at Ilaslar, was finally appointed (Jovernor of Greenwich Hospital. He
dicil in the summer of !«.")"> at Kms.

Ten years had el.ipst'd since Captai?i John Uoss's first nnsnccossfnl voyaye,
wlie:! the veteran seaman, .anxious to obliterate the repro.adi of former failure
liy some worthy achievement, was enabled, throuuth tlie muniliceiu'e of Sir Felix
liootli, to accomplish his wishes. A small Liverpool steamer, bearing the rath-
er presumptuous name of the '' Victory," was purchased for the voyaye, .1 rather
unfortunate selection, for surely nothini; can be more unpractical than |)aildle-
l)o\cs amony ice-blocks; but to m;ike amends for this error, the commander of
the expedition was fortiuialc inbeiny accompanied by his nei»hew. Commander
.Iiiiiics Ross, who, with every (puility of the seaman, united the ze:il of an able
naturalist. He it was who, by his wtll-executed sledye journeys, made the
chief discoveries of the expedition ; but the voy.'vyc of the '* Victory " is far less
remarkable for successes achieved than for its unexampled ])rotraction during
a period of live years.

The lirst season ended well. On Aucust 10, 1 829, the " Victory " entered
I'liuce ?'eyent's Inlet, and reached on the l:!th the spot where Parry, on his
third voyaye, h.id been obliged to abandon tin- " Fury." The ship itself had
heeu swept away; but all her sails, stores, and provisions on hand were found
untouched. The hermetically sealed tin canisters in which the flour, me.at, bread,
wine, spirits, sugar, etc., were packed l)ad preserved them from the attacks of

{'!

H

• 'I.

■Vt .■!

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Tilt: I'OLAU UOIM.I).

tlic wliiif Ix'.'irs, !ii)il tlicy wcro fituii<l as ^jood iiflcr fi)ur years ns iluv liinl liccn
(111 tin- (lay when tlic " l-'iiry" startctl on Iicr voya>;c. It wastotliis discdvciv
that tilt' ori'W of tlu' '■ N'ii-tory " ownl tlioir hMl»sc(|iu'iit prcsiTvalion fop liow
fise roiiM tlii'V have passt-il foiii-wintcrs in tlii' Arctic wastes?

On Aiiu'ust I,") Cape (larry '.vas attaiiieil, tiie most soiitlieni point of ilie inlit
whieii I'arry liail ivaciied on ii.i lliini voyai^e. l''o<,'s and drift-ice ir|',.,,i|y ,.,,.
tarded llie protjiTss of tliu Lvcpeditioii, liut Koss moveil on, tlionyli slowix m,
lliat aliout tlie middle of September the map of tlie norlliern reuions \\;is cn-
richeii hy sonic .")()() miles of ni v.iy-discovered coast. Hul now, at the heuin-
ninir of winter, ihi' "N'ictory" was oMi^'d t<» take refnir<' in Felix IFarhur,
wliere the iisdess steani-enLcine was thrown overboard as a nnisance, ainl ilic
tisiial jireparations ma<le for spendiiiLt the cohl season as jileasantly as pnNsjl,],..

'I'he followini; spring,' (from May 17 to .Iiine lit) was emjiloycd liv .I.iims
Koss on a sU'du'e journey, which leil to the discovery of KinLT Williani"> Si.iuicl
and Kim; William's Land, ami durini; wiiicli that couraijeous mariner piiulia-
tt'd HO far to the west tiiat ho liad only ten days' provisions — scantily meuMincl
out — for a return voyayc of 'JOO miles throuirh an empty wildenn'ss.

After twelve months' imprisonment, tin- " N'ictory" was released froin tlio
ioc on Seplemltcr 17, ami proceeilcd once more on her discoveries, lim tlic
jieriod of her lilterty Wiis short, ft)r, after :idv:nicinif three miles in one cuMiiiiii;!]
b.attle ai^ainst the currents and tiic drift-ice, she again froze fast on the •J7tli nf
tlie same month.

In the foliowiiiij sprint; we again see the iiidefatigalile James Koss oxtcinl-
ing the circle of his sledge excursions, and planting tlie llritish (lag on the situ
of the Northern Magnetic Pole — which, liowever, is not invari.alily fixed to nw
8p«»t, as Avas then believed, but moves from place to jilace within the giaci.il
zone.

On August '2S, 18;}], the '' Victory" — after a second imprisonment of eleven
months — was w.arped into open M'ater; but after spending a whole moiitli tn
advance four miles, she was encompassed by the ice on Septemlier 'J7, and (Hici'
more fettered in the dreary wilderness.

As tliere seemed no pntspect of extricating lier next summer, they resolved
to abandon her and travel over the ice to Fury IJeaeli, there to avail themselves
of tlie boats, provisions, and stores, wliich would assist them in reaching Davis's
Straits. Accordingly, on May 'JO, 1 H:\2, the colors of the " Victory " were hoist-
ed and naile(l to the mast, and after drinking a parting glass to the ship with the
crew, and having seen every man out in the evening, the captain took his own
leave of her. " It was the first vessel," says Koss, " that I h:id ever been olilige.l
to almndon, after having served in thirty-six, during a period of forty-two years.
It was like the last parting with an old friend, and I did tiot pass the |"iiiil
Mliere she ceased to be visible without stopping to t.ake a sketch of this ineliiii-
eholy desert, remlered more melancholy by the solitary, abandoned, helpless
home of our past years, fixeil in immovable ice, till time should perform on her
his usual work."

After having, with inci-edible difficulty, readied Fury Beach, where, thanks
to the forethought of Sir Edward Parry, they fortunately found a sufficient num-

' V I

AH( TIC VOYAOES, FROM BAFFIN TO MCLLNTOCK.

tm

Ikt of boats l<ft for their purimsc, niid all tlio provisions in jjooil ronilition,
tlicv .set out on August 1 — ji oonsiiUrablo extent of open Moa hcinj^ visildi.' — anil
[ilUT much buflVtint; ainont^ the ice, roachetl the north of the inlet by tho
end of the month. Hut hero they were cloometl to disappointment, for, after
pcvcral fruitless attempts to run alonj; Harrow's Strait, the ice ohlii^ed them to
iiniil their boats on shoic ami pit<'h their tents. I);iy after (l;iy they lingered
till till' third week in September, but the strait continuing one impenetrable
mass of ice, it was unanimously agreed that their only resource was to fall back
auain on the stores at Fury Heaeh, atid there spend a fourth h»ng winter within
the Arctic Circle. They were only able to get half the distance in the boats,
wliicli were hauled on shore in Hatty Hay on September 'Jt,aiid performed tho
rt'*t of their journey on foot, tho provisions being dnigged in sledges. On Oc-
tober 7 they once more reached the canvas hut, dignified with the name of
"Somerset House," which they had erected in July on the scene of tho
"Kiuv's" wreck, and which they hail vainly hoped never to see again.

They now set about building a snow-wall four feet thick round their dwell-
incr, and strengthening tho roof with spars, for the purpose of covering it with
Kiiow, and by means of this shelter, and an additional stove, made themselves
toliiaiily comfortable, until the increasing severity of the cold and the furiou.s
^'.ilcs coiiliiied them withiii-doors, and sorely tried their p.itienco. Scurvy now
bigaii to appear, and several of the men fell victims to the scourge. At tho
paiiie time, cares for the future darkened the gloom of their situation ; for, should
tliiy be disappointed in their hopes of escaping in the ensuing summer, their
failing strength and diminishing stores gave them but little hope of surviving
another year.

It may easily bo imagined how anxiously the movements of the ice wcro
watched when the next season opened, ami with what beating hearts they em-
harked at Hatty Hay on August lii. Making their way slowly among the mass-
es of ice with which the inlet was encumbered, they to their great joy found,
on the 17th, tho wide expanse of Harrow's Strait open to navigation.

Hushing on with renewed spirits. Cape York soon lay behind them, and, al-
ternately rowing and sailing, on the night of the 25lh they rested in a good
harljor on the eastern shore of Xavy Hoard Inlet. At 4 o'clock on the follow-
ing morning they were roused from their slumber by the joyful intelligence
of a ship being in sight, and never did men more hurriedly and energetically
set out ; but the elements were against them, and the ship disappeared iu tho
liistant haze.

After a few hours' suspense, tho sight of another vessel lying to in a calm
relieved their despair. This time their exertions were successful, and, str.ingo
to say, the ship which took tliem on board was the same " Is.abella" — now re-
ihueil to the rank of a jjiivate whaler — in which Hoss had made his first voyage
to tlic Arctic Seas.

Tile seamen of tho "Isabella" told him of his own death — of which all Eng-
land was persuaded — and could hardly believe that it was really he and his
party who now stood before them. Hut when all doubts were cleared away, the
'''.?g'"g w'as instantly manned to do them honor, and thundering cheers wel-

23

I 'i;

1:1

B

i: !i

it' !

■ I'

fa

],:•

! !■

ii.nt

Tin; I'oi.Aic noui.D.

rdiiHMl I'oss mill Ir* L'.illaiit band mi liiianl ! Tlio hci-iic tlinl now followed c,,,,
not Im' liiiic 1' lolil tliiiii ill l{iis>'s own wniil«.

" 'l'liiiiii,'li we liad not lictii Mi|i|poit»'d liy mir iiaiiu's niid cliaracfcrs, ««• v|ii>ii|i|
not till- I«'SH liavc claiiiird from » liaiily llic attciilions tliaf wi- rt'ccivrd ; fur n, \.
cr w a> M'cii ;i iiiurc iiiist-raMi' set <•! writclus. I'lisliavcn siiici- I know not u Ik n,
dirty, iIicsmiI in ra^'s of wild luaxl", ami starved |o tiie very ltone?». our iraunl imd
uriiii looks, when contrasted with lliose of tlie well-dressed and w«llfed iik n
ariiiind ns, niaile ns all feel (I lielievi' fur the liist tiiiu-) what we reailv wen. .m

Will as W li.il Me seelllecl to otIiel'S. I'mt the IlldiertHlS snttw IoipK tjn' |,l;i,(. „f

all other feeliie^s ; in such a emwd and suih eoiifnsion, all serious tlioie^rlii ^j;,,.
iiii|H)ssil)le, while the iiew l)iiny;ini'y of mir s|iirits made ns alnindaiitlv williii"
to he aniiised hy the sei'iii- whieh imw o|Kiied. I'ixei'y man was lime.'rv , ainl
was to he fed ; !ill were raLrmd,aiid were to he elothed ; there was n<>t nuc i,,
wliniii washiii',' was in.t indispeiisahl", nor one whom his heard did n<>i di |mivi'
of all human semManee. All, I'Very tliin-^ tuo, was to lie done at once; it \\:,<
washiiiLr, dressin'r, shaving'. i'atiiiLr, all intermingled: it was all the materials nf
each jiimhled tnirelher, while in the midst of all there were inlermiiiahle (|iii>-
tions to he asked and aii'>wered nil hnth sides ; the adventures of (he ' \ii|urv.'
oiir own esca|KS, the |iolilics of Kiiiiland, and the news, which was nuw Iniir
years old. lint all snhsided into peace at last. The sick were accomiiHH|;iii .1.
the seamen disposed of, ;ind all was dmie for ns which care and kindness cdiiM
jicrform. Ni'^ht at leiiixth liroiiiriit <piiet and siMiotis tlioiiLjIits, and I tni>.| tin re
WAS not a man anionic ns who did imt then express where it was due his Ljiaii-
tilde for that interposition which had raised ns all from a desp.air which ir nc
coiild now forget, and h;id linm^ht ns from the hoiilers of a most distant <^\-.\\o
to life, and friends, and t-ivilization. Lon'4 accnstonied. howi'V -r, to ;i cold lidl
on the hard snow or the hare rocks, few eonid sK'ep amidst the comfort of mir
new accommodations, I was myself compelled to leav the hed which hail heiii
kindly assimieil me, and take my ;iliode in a chair for the niyht ; nor did it hire
much hetter with the rest. It was for time to reconcile ns to this sudden and
violent clianiie, to hreak throiiLdi what had heconie liahit,;ind to inure us once
more to the usaLTcs of our former days."

The " Is.'ihella" remained sonui time Ioniser in Uallin's i'>;iy to ]irosecutc the
fishery, and thus our Arctii; vovaijers did not return to Kiejiland hehire (/ct'ilur
1"), ls;tn, when they were received as mon risen from the tiravc. Wherever l!ii->
appeared, he was met and escort«'d hy a crowd of sympathizers; orders, iiieil.iU,
and diplomas from forei^rn states and learned societies rained down upon liiiii.
London, l/iverpool, Mristol, and Hull presenteil him with the fii'edom oj their it-
!«pective cities; ho received the honor of kniuhthood; and, thonu'h last, iM't
least, Parliament granted him .i'JOOU as a remniipration for his pecuniary cui-
lay and privations.

Tt m:iy easily he imaifined that his lnn!:;-protracted absence had not liven ;il-
lowed to pass witlionl awakeniiiLT a stroni; desire to hriuL: him aid and assist.
ance. Thus, when Captain (afterwards Kear-admiral Sir (Jeorijre) IJack. th.it
iiohle I'aladin of Arctic researcli, volunteered to lead aland expedition in (luesl
of Koss to the northern shoro of America, ,i'4O00 were immediately raised liy

■' i '

AIUTIC VOYAdKS. FlloM UAri'IN TO M ILINHU Ic

IN

imhlic siil)scri|itic>ii lo dcfr.iy i'X|i('tiH('s. While (lt'c|) in llic Am('ii<':m \vil<N,
Jlii.k was u'rulilir.l with tlic iiilflliiciicf tli.il llic ohjcci of liis .sfarcli liu<i saffly
iinivt'il ill Kii'_'laiiil ; liiil, iii^fi'.'ul "f rcliiiiiiii:; Ihmuc, ilic iiiilflali'^iililc f.\|)l(tri'r
ic-iilvcil l(» liaiM' till' iiiikmiuii <uiirsc uf llic 'riilii-il-sclin, or (Jicat Fish Kivor,
iliiwti to till' tlisiaiit Kiiilcl will re it pwiiis its waters into llw I'olar Seas.

Ii uiiiilii tal<i' a voluiiic li» relate liis ailveiitiires in this cxiu'ditioii, the niim-
hciii>s falls, easeailes, and ia|»i<ls that ol/stnicteil his prni^ress ; the sloriiis and
MKiw-drifls, the horrors of the deserts throiiL-h w liieh he forced his way, until hy
fiiiallv (Jiilv'-'H) reaehe(l the mouth of tiie 'I'liiu-it-selio, or, rather, the broad I'.stil-
;ii\ ihrouu'li which il diseiiil)t»iiuo,s itself into the I'olar Sea. His intention
was to I roeei'il to I'oiiit 'l'iiriiMv:ain, l»ut the ohstacles were iiisurinoiinlalile, even
hv liiin. Kor ten days the exjiloriiii; |»arty iiad a eonliniialion of wet, chilly,
fdiriry weallii and the <»nly veiictatioii (fern and moss) was ko daiii|i that il
udiiM not Itiirii ; Ixiiiii '1'"^ without fuel, tln^y had only diirini,' this tiino uiio
hot meal. Almost without water, without any means of warmth, and .sinkintj
kiicc-(h'"p as they proceeiled on land, in the soft slush and snow, no wondiT
that some of tile hest men, lteiiuml»e(l in their liinijs, and ilispiriteil iiy the pros-
|M(l hcforc! thcni, l*rokc out for a moiueiit inimuiuuringut the hardness of tlieir
duty.

Oil Aii'jjust I.TjSeeint; the inipossihility of proceeding oven a single mile far-
ther, !iack assembled the men around him, and uiifiirliiiL': the llritish flag, which
was saluted with three cheers, he announced to them Ids determination to ro-
tiini. The dilllculties of the river were of course (huibled in the ascent, from
li:i\iiii; logo against the stream. Alt the obstacles of rocks, rapids, sand-banks,
,'iiid loiiu; portages had to be faced. They found, .'is they went on, that many
lit ilu' deposits of pnivisions, on which they relied, liad been (U'stroyed by
wiilvcs. After tlius toiling on for si\ weeks, tlu'y were ultimately stopped by
iiiic most formidable perpendicular fall, which obliged them to abamhin their
l)o;it; and proceeding on foot — each laden with a pack of alxtut T") lbs. weight
—they ultimately arrived at their old habitation. Fort lidiance, after an ab-
sence of nearly four months, exhausted and worn out, but justly proud of hav-
iiiu' accomplishe(l so diflicult and dangerous a voyage.

The Fish Wiver has since been named Back's Hiver, in honor of its discover-
er; and .urely no geograjihical distinction has ever been more justly merited.

This indefatigable explorer had scarcely returned to England (Sept. 8, IH.'J')),
wlu'ii he once more set out on liis way to the Arctic regions; but his ship, the
'• Terror," was so (iisabled by the ice that she was scarcely able to accomplish
tile return voyage across the Atlantic, without allowing her to make any new
discoveries.

The land expedition sent out by the Hudson's Bay Company (18.T7— TO), under
tlie direction of Peter Warren Dease, one of their chief factors, and yir. Thomas
f^ini]i>.in, proved far more successful. Descending the Mackenzie to the sea,
tlicy surveyed, in July, 18;j7,tliat ]>art of the northern coast of America which
Ii;id been left unexamined by Franklin and Elson in 1825, from lleturn Reef to
Cape Barrow.

Although it was the height of summer, the ground was found frozen several

SAO

TFin I'OLAU WOULD.

flP f

inches lulow tlio surface, an<l the spray froze on tlie oars anrl ricrctinT of tluir
lioats, which iho drift-iec along the slioro ulliniutely obliged them to leave
behind.

As tliey went onward on foot, heavily laden, the fref|uent necessity of wadiiifT
np to the middle in th(> ice-cold water of the inlets, toi;ether with the constant
fogs and the sharp north wind, tried their powers of endurance to the ntniest-
bii* Simpson, the hero of the expedition, was not to be deterred by any tliiii"
filiort of absolute impossibility; nor di<l he stop till he had reached I'nint
I?a'row. Intleed, no man eouM be more lit than he to lead an expedition like
this, for he had once before travelled "JOOO miles on foot in the middle of
winter from VorU Factory to Athabasca, walking sometimes not less than
fifty miles in one day, and without any protection against the cold but an onli.
nury chith mantle.

After wintering at Fort C'onildeiicp, on Great Hear T.ake, the next season
\vas profitably employed in descending the( 'oitpermine Uiver, and traciiiL; nearly
IK) miles of new coast beyond Cape Tiirnagain, the limit of Franklin's survey
ill 1821. The third season (l«;{f») was still more favored liy fctrtune, for Sini|>siin
succeeded in discovering the whole coast biyoiul Cape 'I"nriiagai;i as far as
Castor and Pollux Uiver (August •_'(!, ls:i',t),(iii the eastern side of the vast arm
of the se.i which receives ihe waters of the (Ireat Fish K'iver. On his rctinii
voyage, he traced sixty miles of the south coast of King William's isiainl, iiikI
a considerable part of the high, bold shores of N'ictoria Land, and reaclieil I'.Mt
Contldenn: on ScplendK'r 'J I, after one of the longest and nmsl succe>sful Iki.iI
voyages ever performed in the I'olar waters, having traver.seil more than lOiH)
miles of sea.

Fnforfunately he was not destineil to reap the rewards of liis labor, for in
the following year, while travelling,' from the |{ed Kiver to 'Aw Mississippi,
where he intended to embark for Fngland, he was assas inated by iiis indian
guides; and tiiiis died, in the thirty-sixth year of his age, one of the best nun
that have evi'r serv'd the cause of science in the frozen north.

On May _'(>, ls|.", Sir-fohn Franklin, now in the sixtieth year of liis age, and
Captain Crozicr, sailed from Fngland, to make a lu'W titteiiipt at the norlli-wcst
passage. Never did stonier vessels than the "Frebiis" and "Terror," will-
triod in the Antarctic Seas, carry a liner or more ably commanded crew ; in ver
before had human foresight sosti'aitied all her resoin'ces to insure success ; and
thus, when tl'c commander's last ilispatches from the Whalelish Islands, I'.iil-
lin's r>,!y (.fuly 12), previous to his sailing: to Lancnstpr Sound, arrived in Fult-
land no one doubted imt that h(> was about lo udd :i new and brilliant chapter
tc the history i>f Arctic discovery.

His return was confiilently expecf I towards the .'id of IRlT; but when
th" win;.'r pas^e I and still no tidings came,the anxiety at his prolonijed absence
iM'came griieral, and Ihe early pact of istH witncNsed the bcLrimiing of a series
of searching expeditions lltte(l out at the public cost or l>y privtite muniiiceiice,
on a sca'e exceeding all forimT exampli'8. The " Plover" aiitl the " lleraKl"'
(isjs) A\ ere sent to P.ering's Str'.it.-' lo nu'ct Fraidvlin with supplies, should lio
Hucceeil in gelliu'^ thither. In spring Sir John HiehavUson liurried tothcflhureR

;<;

AHCTIC VOYAGES, FROM BAFFIN TO .MCLINTOCK.

357

of tlie I'oliir Sea, anxious to Hml tlie traces of liis lost friend, lie was aceom-
piinied l»y Dr. Kac, wlio had just returned from tlie memorable land expedition
/lt)4(j-47), during which, after crossing the isthmus which joins Melville
Peninsula to the mainland, he traced the shores of Committee ]>ay and thet-ast
.•oast of IJoothia as far as the Lord Mayor's Day of Sir John Iloss, thus pivx ing
tlial (k'solafe land to he likewise a vast jieninsula.

I'lUt in vain did IJae and Hichardson explore all the coasts between tho
Miuki'nzie and the (,'oppermine. Tlie desert remained mute; and Sir James
Koss (" Enterprise ") and Captain IJird (*' Investigator"), who set sail in June,
lb4^, tliree months after Dr. IJichardson's departure, and minutely examined all
the sliores near Harrow Strait, proved ecpially unsuccessful.

Tliree years had nt)w passed since Franklin had been expected home, and
even llie most sanguine began to despair; but to remove all doubts, it was re-
solved to explore once more all the gulfs and diannels of the Pdlar Sea. Tims
ill the year IS.IO no less than twelve ships sailed forth, some to I5ering's Straits,
Fonu' to the sounds leading from IJallin's iJay.* Other expeditions foUoweu
iii IHii'J and IH.'jM, and tiioiigh none of them succeeded in the object of their
search, yet they enricheil the geogr.iphy of the Arctic World with many intcr-
c.^lini,' discoveries, the most important of whicii I will nf>w briefly mention.

Overcoming the ice of llatlin's IJay by the aid of their powerful steam-tugs,
Austin, Ommaney, and IVniiy reached the entrance of Lancaster Sound. Here
tiuy separated, and while the "licsolnte' reniiiineil behind to examitie the
lu'iuliliorhood of Pond's I >;'.y, Ommaney foiuid at Cape Iiiley (North Devon)
till' first traces of the lost expedition. He was soon joined by IJoss, Austin,
Penny, and the Americans, and a minute investigation soon jiroved that Capis
Spencer and Iieecliey Island, at the entrance of Wellin<_Mon CIianne!,had been
tlie site of Franklin's first winter-fniarters, distin<'tiy marked by llie reina'iis of
a large stcn-ehouse, staves of casks, eiii|ity pcmniican-iins, and, most toiicMiig
relic of all, a little garden shaped into a iie.at oval by some flower-loving sailor,
and filled with tin; few hardj* plants which that bleak clime can nourish. Mean-
uliile winter approacheil, and little nnu'e c(.\ild be done that season; so all tho
vessels which had entered Harrow's Strait now took up their winlor-quarters at
the soiitliern extremity of Cornwallis Laml ; with the exception of tho "Prince
Albert," which set sail for England before winter set in, and of the Americans,

i

■ ;

mm-

' ,, ■ nnrin(''» Strait*.

is.jd IH.i,). '• I',iitLT[)rise, ( aptaiji ■ illiusoii, »

Is.'iii. Is.M. '•Hosoli.U',"('u|itiiiii .Austin, » , . c. ■. .^ n- . i j

. , . ' ' - Laii('iii«trr .Strait and rornwiillis I.M.ind.

Ki.iii, IM.il. "AssiNtunce," ( iiptam (Jiiiiiuiiicy, »

A('('(inipaiii<'<l liy two steam tciidcrs, ciHicirod In- I.iriitcnunt Slinritrd Osborne aud

I.ipiilrnant !•". 1.. M'Clinlork.

1880, 1851. " Liidy Franklin, " Master I'emiy, neoompiiiiicd Iiy ttio " Sophia," Master A. StewaU,

nndor Admiralty Order^^, ti> l.anraMi'r Slr.iit and Wellinfton Cliannel.

If60. " Prince Alliert.'M 'aptnin I'orsytti, I)iloni;ing to Ijwly I'Vaiiklin, to liegcnt's Iiiltt. and

IJeorliey Island.

18511, IS.M, "Advance," Liotitennnt Do Haven. I'. S.N.)

1850, ISJl. " Kesnie,"S. V. (Iriirin. l^q,, f.S.X. »"

Fitted Ht tile expense ol II. (jriiinidl, Lsq., of New Tork, to LancMtar Strait aud

Wallingtoii ClMiinal.

w

a58

THE VOLAR WOHl-I).

\iii

l\

hi

,^ V.

m

■i ♦■

who, perroiviiig tlio impolicy of so many sliips prossini; to tlie wcstwanl on oik.
l>arallol, tiirhotl huck, l)Ut wito soon sinit up in tlio jiack-ici', wliidi forci^ln lnn.r
months kept tlirm jirisoncrs. Tilt- " Ki'scue " and ''Advance" were driliid
Itackward and toiwanl in WellinLfton C'iiamiel until in Decemher a teiiilic
stcu'm drove them into IJarrow's Strait, and still farther on into Lancaster Sinnnl.
Several times durini; t'uis dreadful passaj,'e they were in daiiLCer from tin. iro
ojiening round them and closiuLj sucKlenly aj:;ain, and only escaped heini,' ''iiii)-
jted" liy their small size and strong build, whuh enabled them to rise aixivi'
ihe opposing eilges instead of l)eing crushetl between them. Kven on thciinr-
rival in liaflin's IJay the ice did n(it release them from its hol<l, and it w;is imt
till June !), Is.")!, that they reached tiie Danish settleim.'nt at Disco. Afur ic-
cruiting his exhausted crew, the gallant De Haven determined to ntiun .iihI
jirosecutf the search during the remainder of the season ; but tluMliscimrMirin.^r
reports oflhe whalers induced him to change his purpose, and the ships uiA
crews reached New York at the beginning of October, having passed tlirou^ii
perils', such as few Iiave endured and still fewer have lived to recount.

Meainvhilo the English searching expeditions had not icmaimd inactivo.
As soon as spring came, wdl-organi/ed sledge expeditions 'vere dis|iatcliid in

all directions, but they all returned with the same invariable tale ol disa] im-

meiit.

As soon as Wellington Channel opened. Penny boldly entered the icc-IiiiK s
with a boat, and, after a series of ad\entures and ditriciilties. peiietralcil ii|i
Queen's ("hamiel as far as IJaring Island and C !;)e IJeecher, where, n est n hie-
tantly, he v, as compelled to turn back.

A fine open sea stretched invitingly away to the luirth, but his frai^ile l)ci:il
was ill-e(|nippe(l for a voyage of discovery. Fully persiiadi'd that Franklin niu^t
have followed this routi', he failed, however, in convincing «. aplain Austin nf tlic
truth /f his theory, .and as, without tiiat otlicer's co-operation, nothing could in'
effected, he was compelled to follow the course pointed out iiy the Adniiriilty
sfpiadron, which, .after two inel'fectual attempts to enter Smilli's and .Iniio's
Somids, retui'iied to Kngland.

The '' I'rince Albert"' having brought home in ls.")0 the intelligence nf iln'
discoveries at I5eechi'y Island, it was resolved to jiroseciite the search iliiriii'4
the next season, and no time was lost to retit the little vessel and send lici- diin'
more on her noble errand, under the conui'and of NN'illiam Kemiedy ( ls.')l— 'r.'l,
to examine I'rince l{(gent\s Inlet, on the coast of North Somerset. Findini: liic
passage obstructed by a barrier of ice, Kemiedy was obliged to take a tdu]""
rary refuge in Fort IJoweii, on the eastern shore of the inli't. As it was vciy
undesirable, however, to winter on tlu' opposite coast to that along which l;iy
their line of search, Kcmu'dy, with four of his tnen, crossed to Fort I.coji. jij,
amid m.asses of ice, to ascertain whether any docnnu'iits had been kit at tliis
point by ])revious searching parties. None having bei'ii found, they prtjiaitd
to return; but tollieir dismay they now found the inlet so blocked with ire ;is
to render it alKohitcIy impussibk' to reach the vessel either l>y boat '>r nii ludt.
Darkness was fast closing round lliem, the ice-Hoe on which they stood tincatrii-
cd every instant to be shivered in fras'inents by the contending ice-b!ocks m liirli

iililSiJ

AHCTIG VOYAGES, FUO.M BAFFIN TO MCMNTOCIv

35!)

craslu'il furiously ajjaiust it: unless tiny instantly returned to sliur;', any ino-
iiK'iil iiiiLrlit piDvc tlieir last. A hitler cold ni^lll (September lit, ls,")l ), with
III) slifller l»ut their l»oat, nndt'r wliieh each man in turn took an li(*ur's rest — tlie
ntlici'^, fatii^ui'd as tlii'y wt-re, seekiie^ safety in hri>k t'Xercise — was spent on
tlii-i iiiliospitahle shore, and on the lollowiuLf TiiorninLT they dise(nered that the
^lu|) iiad disappeared. The drift-iee had carried her away, leaviiiu' Ivenneily
aiul liis comi»auions to bravu thu winter as well as tiny (•otili|,and t' endeavor
111 tlic sprinir to rejoin their vessel, which must have driftecl down tiie inlet, and
was laosl likely by this time nnprisoneil by tin- i( e. Fortunately a depot <d
iiiovisions, left by Sir James Uoss at Whaler I'omt, was tolei'alily near, and
liiuliiii,' all in n'ood preservation, they iieu'an to til up a lauiu-li, which had been
li'ft at the sanu; place as the stores, for a tempoi-ary atiode. Here they sal, on
Octiitjcr 17, rounil a cheurfullire, nianufacturiuu' winter L,'arments and cuupleti'-
Iv ivsiirnetl to their lot, when suddenly, to their iiiexpressiiiie joy, tlie\ heard the
-i\w\<\ of 'vell-known voices, and Lieutenant l>ellol,the secouil in command of
tin' '■ rriiice Albert," appeared with a party of seven men. Twice before had
tins i_':illaiit French voluntet-r made unavailinij; attempts to reach the deserteil
|i;iriv,wlio soon fori,Mt llieir past misery as they a''companie«l their friends oack
(0 till' ship. In tlie following; spriii',' Kennedy and iSellot e\plorec| Norlh
Sdiiurset and I'rince of Wales' Land, traversiie^ with their sled^.o- 1 1(M» miles
of desert, hut without discoverinL^ the least traces of i-'ranklin oi' his comrades.
Vet ill spite of thi'se freipieiit disappoliilments the searching; expeditions were
imt iriveii over, ami as Wi'lliiii,'ton Chaimel .and the sounds to the north of ISaf-
lin's Kay appeared to offer the best chances, the spriiiLC of Is.').' witnessed tin;
(l(|)arture of Sir Fdwurd IJeleher and C.iiilain IiiLrlelieid'' for those still unknown
rc.NiMis.

The voyai.M> of the latter proved one of the most successful in the annals of
Aictii' iiaviiralioii. Fioldly pushiiii; up Smith's Sound, which ha<l hitherto batlled
I'VciT research, hiixh'lield examiiieil this noble chaiiiiel as far as T^i :!() N.lal.,
when storiiiy weather drove him (lack. lie next attempted ,Fone>'s Somnl, and
Hitefed It siilliciently to see it expand into a wide channel to the northward.

The s(piailron which sailed under the command f)f Sir Kdward IJelcher was
(•li;iri;cd with the double mission of proseciiliiej; the discoveries in WelliiiLCtoii
Chaiiiiek and "f all'ordiiiL; assistance to CoHiiison and .M'Clure, w ho, it will be
iciiicinbereil, had sailecl in ls:)(i to Ueriim's Strait^.

At lieechey Island, where I lie " North Star" w as Nta'ioned as ih'p'it-ship. the
> I ladroji sep...-ated, lielclu'r proceedjie^ with the '• .V-^'-i^lance " ;md tin' '• l'i<t-
iiicr" up Welliii'^liui ('hamiel, while KelKtt, witli the •• Kesnlnte" and •• Intn'p-
i'l." steered to the >vest. Scarcely ha'l liie latter reached his wiiiter-i|UarleiH
(Scpieiiiber 7, ISoii) at De.aly Flaiid. on the boiilh coa>l <d .Melville Islaml, when

Is.V:. "I-i;ilK.lT,i|naiii V. IiiL'l.'fi Id I.ii'l.v Fraiililiii'i vi"l.

ls",j iM.vi. '1 .V^sist.iiici!." Sir Kilwaril 1Ii'1<I'ct, to I.uiica»U'r Siininl, Wflliii^'toii Clianiiel.

l^'-'-ls.pi. " l!«'si'liiti'.'"(' ijitiiiii Kcllttt, l,iiii>'a>tir Stroit, M.lv illf, oii'l lt.uik»'» IslauJ.

l-''c'-lf.,'i|, '• I'iiiiiiM'r." l.ii iiti'iiaiit Sill rani <)>lMinii.'.

ts.V.' 1m:,4. " liitri'iild,' Caiifaiii M'ClinlniU.

IS.Vi ls.'i4. ' NiM-lli Star, 'Caplaiii I'liilnii.

i:

•il H

'I'm

m~

■I I

1 . W^

MO

THE PULAU WOULD.

jKirtios woro sent out to doposit jx-ovisions at >ai'ioiis points of the coast fortlie
slfilijL' p.'irlii's ill till- i-nsuiiii^ spriiii;.

Tiiu (lilliciiilics of transpoit oviT ihc broken snrfaeo of the dfsert wIkm ,1,..
nudc'il of snow may he estimated from tiic faet,tliat tiiouu;ii tiie distance lidm
tiie norili to (lie sontli eoast of ]\leh ille Island is no more tiian tliirtv-six inihs
in a direct line, Lieutenant M'Clintock recpiired no less than nineteen divs Id
reaeh tlie Ileela and (liipei (Inlf. SiniilM' difHeultu-.s awaited laeiitenant
Meeiiin on liis way to Liddon (rulf, htit he was amply rewarded Itv findiipr ,,[
Winter JIarho.- dispatehes from ^I'Clure, siiowinu; that, in April, 1851, tlic '-In.
vestit^^ator " was lyiiii: iii !\rercy IJay, on the opposite side of Hanks's Stiiiit. mikI
that consequently the north-west passage, the object of so many heroic efforts
was at last discovered.

On ^larch !), 1853, the '■'■ Tlesoli'te" opened her sprincc campaign witli T.idi.
tenant I'ym's slecb^e jom-ney to Mercy l>ay, to briiiLC assistance to M'C'liirc, or
to follow liis traces in case he shi;uld no longer be there.

A month later three other sleilgo expeditions left the ship. The one uiidcr
M'C'lintock proceeded from the Ilechi and Griper linlf to the west, and retiiiii-
cd after one hundred ami six d.ays, having explored I'JOO niil'-s of coaNt-ii
sledge journey without a parallel in the history of Arctic research, I Iioii-jli mar.
ly eipialleil by the second paity under Lieutemuit Mechani, which likewise start-
ed to the west from Ljcldon (iulf, ;ind travelled over a tliousand miles in nini'.
ty-three d.ays. The third p.-nty, under Lieutenant Hamilton, which pmci m (lid
to the north-east towards the rendezvous ajipointed by Sir Kdward IJelclicr tliu
I>recediiig summer, was the lirst th.at returned to t'le ship, but before its ;ini\al
aiKstlier party had found its way to the " Resoh. '"—pale, worn, enmcialcl
figures, slowly creeping along over the uneven ice. A stranger niiglit iiavc
been sii, : rised ,'it the thundering hurrahs which hailed the rjigi^ed troop from
a dist.'ince, or at tlie warm :nicl cordial greetings which welcomed (hem on ijtck,
but no wonder that .M'Clnro and his heroii; crew were thus received by tin ir
fellow-seamen after a three years' imprisonme'.it in the ice of the Pf)lar Sc;i.

On Au'jfiist 1, |s.")0, the "Investigator," long since separateil from lur cdii-
sort, the '' Knter|irise," had nii't the " Herald "' .and " IMover '"* at ('.ape Lishiiriic,
beyond UeriiiK's Straits, and now plunged ;ilone into the unknown wildiriusscs
of the Arctic Ocean. She reached the co.ast of Uanks's Land on Septeiulicr ti,
discovered Prince All>ert Land on the (Ith, and then sailed up Prince of Wales'
Strait, where, oil October 0, she froze in for the winter. In tlie same niontli,
howcvi'i", .'i sliiltre cx] edition was '•eiit to the northern extremity of the strait,
which established the fact of its coiiimiinication with Parry Sound and l>arrou"s
Strait. h\ tlie following July the " Investigator," though set free, was ]irevc!it-
ed troin ))enelratin<,' into the soiiml by impassable barriers of ice. Notliiii'^
now remained i.iit (o redirn to the southern extremity of the strait, and then Id
adv;iiice along the west coast of Panks's Land to the north. This course was fel-
lowed with tolerable ease till August '20, when the ship \ias driven between tlio
ice and the beach a little north of Prince Albert Cape. Here she lay in conipar-

• Tlicsc two vi'sscN liail liooit sent in the your 1817 to tlv Polar Sea beyond IJcriiUj's .Strait«, wlnn
Uiev iliscovtri'il the " llcrilil " and " I'lovrr " Islands.

ARCTIC VOYAGES, FROM BAFFIN TO MCJJNTOCK.

3ttl

ativc safety (ill the 2f)tli, w lien tfio imiiu'U u' {loc to wliicli slu' was :it(aclu'(1 was
niiscil edgeways out ot the wulcr, troiii llie ]irt'ssiir(' of suiTouinlint; ice. and
lifti'il ](fr|ti'inlicularly some twenty-live feet. Tlie sliijlitest iidiUtional prissuro
would liave thrown tlie delicately-poised vessel <'titifely (tver, but fortiniately a
Iai'i;e piece from underneath was I'eiit awa}', and aftei' oi!o or two frii^htful os-
cillations the tloe righted U^it-'lf and drifted on\var<l, hearing the .ship mdiarmed
upon its course.

During the succeeding month, every day 1irou',dit its perils. Now forced
•tsheie by the pressure of the ice, now hurried along amidst its inclosing masses,
the adventurers, slowiy working their w;iy aloi g the north coast of IJanks's
Liud, at length lound refuge in a h.arhor to which the appropriate name of
Morcy Hay was thankfully given. Here they spent two winters — the interven-
int; suiiiiner having failed to release the ship. In the spring of 18").} Lieuten-
ant I'yin brought tliem the joyful news that the "Resolute" was not far o^T,
Siiili had been the adventures of M'Clure up to the moment when K-jlleti wel-
conii'il him on bo:ird.

Meanwhile neither the sledge ])arties of the " Ilesolute," nor tiioso which Sir
Eilu.ird llelcher had si'iit out in all directions from his first winteiMpiarters in
N'or'huinberland Sound (TO'^ ."j"-'' X. lat.), on the W(\st side of (ninnell Peninsula,
had heen able to discover the least traces of Franklin. The winter (IS"(;{-.j4)
passed, and in ihe following April liieuteiiant ."Mecham f(Mind in I'rince of Wales'
St''ait,and later on IJam^iy Island, :it its southern outlet, ilocuments from Col-
liiiMin, bearing date August 'JT, is.ji.', and giving full intelligence of his pro-
ceedings since his separation from the " Investigator." While ^I'Clure was
achieving in iHoO the discovery of the north-west passage, CoUinsoii, having
arrived in Bering's Straits later in the season, was unaiile to double Point Bar-
row. Ill IS.'jl, however, he succeedeil in getting round thai projection, and pur-
suiuLC the contii.ental chamiel as easily as his precursor had done, followed him
thniugh I'rince of Wales' Stniil ; but, though hi' penetrateil a few miles farther
into .Melville Sound, he found no passage, and returning to the south end of iho
strait passed the winter of lS.')l-.")'2 in Walker Hay. Next summer he carried
his ship through Dolphin and l^nioii Straits and Dease Strait to Cainbridgo
Bay, where lie spent his second winter (is.')'.'-,j.'!). His sledge parties explored
the west side of Victoria Strait, but a deficiency of coals cttmpelled him to re-
turn the way he came, instei»d of attem])ting to force a passage through tho
channel. He did not, however, get round Harrow Point on his return without
passing a third winter on the northern coast of America.

On returning to the '' liesolute," Lieutenant Mecham found all hands busy
l>rcpariiig to leave the ship, Sir K. Helcher having given orders to abandon her,
as well as the " Assistance," " Pioiu ;'r," .and " Int r<'|)id," which had now been
blocked up above .1 year in the ice, and had no chance of escaping.

Thus tho summer of lsi.")4 witnessed the return to Knglan<l of tlie " North
Star,'' with all those brave crews which had spent so many unavailing efforts,
!i!id in niinieroiis boat and sledge exeiirsiuns had explored so m.aiiy known
and unknown coasts in search of Franklin; and thus .also M'Clure and his com-
rades, abandoning the " Investigator " in Mercy IJay, returned home through

ry

„i it.

i f'i

i4m'\

:.i :i,i

'i&i

Tin: i»()i,Aii woKiJ).

Duvls's Straits, after Iiaviiivr ciilcrcd the I'olur Ocraii at tlic Strait of I
Ilf liail, linwtvcr, Imcii iirccccliil liy Ijciilciiaiit ( it ^>.\vtll ainl .Mr. W

xririif,
yiiiiiai.

wlio, (III an fXfiiisiiiii to Ih'ccIu'V Island in liic snninicr of ls."iH, lunl il

ifiu nici

wi

ill ami jfiincd ilic " I'li<i'ni.\," Captain Ini,d(ti(lii, w Im, aci-niii|ianifil Itv liis
friend i,ieMlenanl ImIIkI, hail eniivt'Ved |ir(>\ i>iiins to Sir \\. Uelclier's Miiiadi...i

lUll

1 was aiiont to return to Kn^laml. DnrinLf tliis fxpi'diiion Meliot,

W llDV'

many excellent <|Malities had made liini a iniiversal favorite, \v;,s MiifortunaU Iv
ilrowned liy a fall into an iee-i-rcvice during; a >led'^e exeni'^ion. .\ >|(iim iiionu-
nieiil, erected Ik fore (ireenwieh llosjiital r^'Hiiiids I'ji^iland o'. the '^alliint Nnlun.
ti.'cr whose i;ame is nloriously linkeil with thai of l-'ranklin in Aieiie lii-iurv.

Years had thus |ia-<>ed without hrin^'iii'.; any tidings of the '• i-irehii.- " .mil
" 'I'erroi' " .sill' e the di-co\(.ry of their lir>l \\ iiiter-(|ii;irters, until at last, in ihr
s|iriii'.,' of is.')l,l)r. l!ae. of the jliidson's Hay ('oiii|iaiiy, while entrained in tin.
siir\cy of llu' r>ooiliian i>lliiiius. fell inwiih a parly of l'i-<piiniaM\, w ho inf.irin.
»'d him that in llie sprim; of ls.")(» some of their eoiintrynieii on Kimr \N'illiaiii'>
Isl.and had seen a party of while men niakin'.i- iheir way to the maiiil;(n<l. N
of them eoiild spe.ak the {•]sipiiiiian\ laii'_nia'_'e intelliLiihly. hut hv si'_'ii> l
L:a\e tin 111 to niider>l;iiid that their ships had lieeii niished liy ire, aiicl ihat
llley were now ".Joiie,' to where ihey e\peeled to find deer In shoe'. ,\| ;i
later dale of the same season, hiit hefoi*' the hieakiiiLT ii|> of the ice, ilie lio.lics
of some thirty men were disc.'Vi'i'eil on the coiiliiieiit a <lay"s ioiiriii'V fiuin
Hack's tlieat I'"ish lii\er, .and li\(' on an isiaml near ''. Some of ilie ImiiIJcs
hail lieeii liiiried ( pi'oh.alily those id the first victiiiis o| i.imiiie). soiiii' were in ;i
tent, others under the hoat which had lieiii turned oxer to form a sIm lu r. mul
several lay scattered ahoiit in different directions. ( )f those found on the i^laml,

escdpe slr;ippeil over

olic

nv

oiii- was supposed to lia\t' lieeii :iii ollicer, as lie li.id ;i lei
his shoiililer, ;iiid his doulii"-li;irr( lied txmi lay iindeiiieaih him. The nniiihind
ci'iidilioii of s,.\-eral of the corpses and the contents of tiie ketiKs leli no doiihl.
th.atoiir wretched coimtryiiieii had heeii drixcn to the last resource of caniii-
lialism, as a me.aiis of proioii_dn'4 existence. Some silver spoons and forks, a
round silver pl.ate, eii'_'r;iveil "Sir ,luhii {'"ranklin, K.( Ml.," a si.ar or ordt r, with
the motto, " Nee asper.a terreiil," w hii'h l)r. Wae )iurclia:.eil of the I'isipiiniaiix,
corrolior.ated the truth <d their narr;iti\e.

'I'liiis it was now known how part (d" the unfortunate mariners had peridnd.
Imt the f.ite of the expedition w.as still enveloped in mystery. What Ikh! Im-

civnic <it tile ships an

I of t

le u'l'eater p.ai'L oj their Cl'eW'

.\ihI \\;is i'Vaiikh

• lie o

f the party seen hy the i'isipiimaiix, or had an earlier de.ith shorhiied h

Millerm'_'-^ .

To sohc ;it least this mournful secret — for every hop • thai he mi'jlil still
he .alive had loii-j" since wanished his ni hie widow resolved to spend all hw
availalile means — since iio\crniiii'iil woiifl no hMcjer prosecute the seardi—
and with the assistance of Iier friends, hut mostly ;it her o,, n I'Npcii.si'. liltcil
out a small screw steamer, the ''Ko\" which the LT.illant M*( Tnitock, alicaily
distiiiL'uished in perilous I'olar voyii;i(s, vdhmteered to comm.and. .\iioilicr
.iVrclic oHicer, Lieutenant Ilohson, likewise c.anie forw.ard to ser\i' «illioul pay.

At lirsi it seemed as if all the I'leineiits had conspireil at.j.ainst the snccesx nt

khCTIC VOYACIKS, rUO.M BAFFIN TO MCI.INTOCK.

:t(i3

tliis work of picfy, for in llic Hiiiniiicr of |Kj7 tlic lloatiir^ icf off Melville l»!iy,
III) lilt' coast of (iri'i'iiiaiiil, sei/eil tlie *' Fox,'' ami afti'r a ilreary winter, various
narrow escapes, ami eii^iil iiKMitiis <>f iiiiprisDiniieiit, carried Iter liaelv nearly
li'oo ._rcii';ra|tliical miles, even to ti-\\' N. lal. in tlie Atlantic.

Al icn'_Mli, oil .\|tril -J.'j, is.js, the •• Fox" i;<»t free, and, haviiiL? availed lier-
mK' 'if till' scanty stores and provisions uliiili tiie small l)ani>li settleineiit of
ll.ilstfiiiiiirir art'ordeil, sailed into Harrow Strait. Fimlin^i Franklin ('liani)el
.,l]stni('ted witli ice, slie tlieii turned back, and steaininuf up Prince Iteirenl's
Ihlit, arrived at tlie eastern opcninir of IJellot's Strait. Jlere the passage to
ilii. wc>-t was aiTiiiii foiiml Idockivl willi ie»', and after live inclTectual attempts
!n iiiiv-. till! " Fox "' at lenLTtli took up lier wintcr-(juarttrs in Tort Keinietly, on

liic iiiiri

licrn sidi- of tin- strait.

On liis lirst sledi,'e excursion in tlic followini; sprinir, IM'Clintock met at
(■;i]ic N'ictoria, on Uw soiitli-west coast of I'looiliia, with a party of Ksipiimanx,
wh't iiiforiiied him that some years hack a lar'^c ,>.|iip had liei'ii crii>hed liy the
iic nut in the sea to the west of Kini^ Willianrs Islaml, i)Ut that all the peuplu
hmU'il safely.

.MitliiiL.' witli the same F,si|uiman\ on Ajnil 'J'l, he learned, .after much anx-
i'liK iiii|uiry, that liesides the ship w hich had lieen seen to sink in deep water,
;i ^tciiinl one hail heen forced on shore hy the ice, where they supposcij if still
niiiaincd. liut much l>roken. They iidded ih.at it was in the fall ol the year —
ih;il is, Au'.Mist or Septeiiilier — when the shi)

IS WCI'e (

lestidved ; that ail ih

uhili' people went a\\ ay to the (Jreat l-'ish lii\er, takin-^ a lioal or boats with
iliiiii, and that in tlie iojlou iu',' winter their hones were foiiml there.

Tln>e lirst indications of the fate of Franklin's expedition were soon fol-
juwid liy others. On .May 7 MClintock Inward from an old Kscpiimaux woman
I'll Kill',' William's Island that many of the white men dropped iiy the way as
iliiv wiiit to the (ireat Uiver; that some were biiriecl, and some were not.
Tiicv dill not themselves witness this, but discovered their bodies during the
winter Lilluwiiiix.

Nisitiii',' the shori' alon<_' which the retri'atiiiLf crews inii'^l have nianiied, he
ciuiie, shiirlly alter niidniixht of .May ■_'">, when slowly walkiii'.; alon-j .'i fraxcl
ii'l'_'i' mar the beach, which tlu' winds kept partially bare of snow, upon a hu-
man -keieton, partly exposeil, with hero and there a few fragments of elothiiiL;
.•ili|M aiiii',' tliimi'jh the

snow,

A iiiiiNt careful examination of the spot," says M'diiitock

was lit course

iiiMili', tlie snow reuiovi'd, and every scr.'ip of clotliiiiif ixalhered up. .\ poekel-
lii'iik, which bein>4 fro/.eii hard eoiild imt be examined on the spot, alfoided
stroll!,' Lrrounds for hope that some inforinatioii mi'^lil be subseipiently obtained
ii «|i( dill'/ tile owner, and the iiiai

if t

I'll (il Ilie jir

• t crews.

'I'll

e Victim was !i

\'iMM',' man, sliiihtly built, and perhajis above the coniiMiin hei'^ht ; the dress
;i|il'eareil to be that of ;i steward. The poor m;in seems to lia\i' selected tluj
liaic ricf;.fe top, as affordiii!,' the least tiresome walkiii'_', and to have f.iiieii upon
ce in the position in wliich we found him. It was a nielaiuholy truth
lliat ijie old woman s[iake when she .said, * The} fill down and died as they
Walked aloni,'."'

Ills ta

f C!

i^ i

Ji

•e

.--♦1-!!:

If

m

S^ggwaiMfiiaaisgssigtgw^.-''-'

Ji'

'■ H ■ill' . li (t y H'

8U4

THE POLAH WOKLD.

ISIcainvliilo Lipiitcnniit llohsoii, wlio wmh explorint; with niuithcr sloduc imr-
ty till' nortli-wt'stcrii coast of Kiiii; William's Land, had iiiailc the htiil nioro
important <liscovt'ry of a record yiviiii; a laconic account of tliu Franklin ex-
pt'flitiou np to the time when the ships were lost and ahandoned. It was loinul
on May (» in a lartxe cairn at I'oint Victory. It stated briefly that in ls|,-, t),,.
"Krebus"and "Terror" had ascended Welhntfton Chaimel to hit. 77", and rc-
turneil Ity the west side of Ctrnwallis Island to Heechey Island, win ic tlicv
spent the first winter. In iHKi they proceeded to the south-west, throii'_'Ii I'kI
Sound and Friniklin Sound, .and eventu.ally reached within twelve miles of t||,.
north extremity of Kiui^ Willi;im's Land, when their |)roL,'ress was arrtstiil liy
the ice. Sir .John Franklin died on June 11, 184T, havini; conipletcd—twci
months before his death — the sixty-lirst year of an active, eventful, and hnnor-
able life. On April '22, 1H4S, the ships were deserted, havinsj been beset since
Sei»teniber 12, 1^!40. The ofliccvs and crew, consistini; of 10.5 souls, under llie
command of Captain Cn^zier, landed with the intention of startiiii^ for i'ljiik's
Fish IJiver, which, as we have seen, tlu'y were never destined to reach.

(Quantities of dothint^ and articles of all kinds were found lyint; about tlie
cairn, as if these men, aware that they were relreatinu; for their lives, had then
aban(h>ne(I every tliiii'jf which they considered superlhious.

Tlnis all (h)ubts altont Sir.Iohn Franklin's fate were ;it lenu'th removed. He
at least had died on board his ship, and been sp.ared the miserable end of his
comrades as they fell one by one in the dreary wilderness.

The two wrecks have disappeared without leavini^ a trace beliind. A sin-
pic document, some coins and pieces of |)late — this is :ill that remains of tho
gallant ships which so hopefully sailed forth under one of the noblest seamen
that ever served in the navy of Great IJrilain.

It is a curious circumstance that Fr.anklin'.s ships perislied within si^Iit (if
tho lieadlands nametl Cape Franklin and C^^\^^i Jane Franklin by their dibcov-
crer, Sir James lloss, eighteen years before.

i !

ii'.,iii,i

KANE AND I1AYE8.

869

CHAPTER XXXIV.

KANIv AND IIAYKS.

KiMc nalln up Smith's Sniin'l in tlio " Ailvaiicp " t'lS'i.T).— Winters in Rcnssclner Hny.— Sloil^e iIourn«y
nlmu til" •'"■i»t «'• (irciMilaiiil. — Till! riircf-liKiiiicr TiiiTct-*. — IViinysoii's Mnntiniciit. — Tliu (ircut
Hum' iililt (ilai'icr. — Dr. Iliiycs cro-scs Kcjiiiicily Cliuinil. — Miirtiin'!i Discovery of \Vasliln;:ton
I,;iii'l —Mount I'urry. — Kiinu resolves upon n seeond Wii.lerint; in Ilcii-'selai r lluy. — Departure and
licliirn of I'art of llie Crew. — .Sulfcrinns of llii- Winter. — 'I'lie Sliip aluniloned. — lloat .lonrney to
l'|iernavik. — Kani''s Death in the ll.ivana { iH.'iT). — Dr. Iliye^'.s Voya;_'e in INi'.d. — lie winters at
Port I'i'nike. — Cro-ses Ki'nnedy Cli.innel. — Iteaclies Cape I nioii, tlic in^sl nortliern known Lund
ii|iiiii the (ilolie. — Koldewey. — I'lans lor future Voyaycs to tlie Nortii I'(do.

1\ |M(iiit of (Inimatic iiitorost, few of tlio Aivlic v.\|H'tlitioiis can rival tlio scc-
niiil ami last voyaijc of \h\ KaiiP, wliicli, to avoid iiitcrniptiiij; tln! iiarrativo
of till- (liscovoiy of Fi-aiikliii'.s fato by Dr. li:i,o and Sir James M'Clintock, I
li.ivc rcfiaiiicd from inciitioniiiix in cIironoloLticiii ordi;r.

Wc.iiv in liody, l)iit <,'ri'at in miiid, tiiis rcinarkaliic man, who had aci-oinpa-
iiii'il the first (irinncll oxpcilition in tin- capacity of snr<('on, sailed from IJoston
in is.Vi. as CDininandcr of tlic " .\dvaiicc," with a crew of 17 olliccrs atid men,
to wliicii two (trecnlanders were siihsctptently added. His plan was to pass lU)
liutliirs l»iiy tc its mtisf northern attainahle p<tiiit, an<l tiieiice pressinuj on
towiiiiN the poll! as far sis hoals or sledges could reach, to e.\aminu the coast-
iiii("i fur vestii^es of Franklin.

iliiltlin!.^ with storms and icehcrors, he passed, on Anmist 7, 1S5.1, the rocky
|ioit;ils of Smith's SiHind, ("ape Isaltella and (".ape iVlexaiider, which had been
(liv(c)V(i((l the year Ixfore l>y Iiiiilelield ; left Cajie Il.itherton — the extieme
poiiii iiitiiineil l)y that naviijator — Ijcliind, and after many narrow escapes from
.'«lii|i\vrcck, seciirecl the " Advance " in Ueiisscl.'icr \>:\\\ from wiiicli she was dcs-
tiinil iievrr to emcrixe. His diary L;ives ns a vivid accoiuit of the first winter
ill' s|i('iit in tiiis haven, in lat. T.'^' its', almost .as f;ir to the north as the most
iKirihcrn extremity of S|iil/,lier'4en, .and in a far more rii^oroiis clim.ate.

">'/'/. I". + 1 t ' K.— The hinls liave left. The sra-swallnw.s, which aI)oiind-
cii wlicii we tirst reached here, and even tlie yonm; ItnrLjomasters that lintjered
after tlicni, have all taken their iieparture for the sontli. Tiie Ion:; " iiii,'ht in
ttliicli no man can work" is dose at h.aml ; in .another month we shall ht:<c the
CUM, Astronomically, he should dis.-ippear on October 'Jt, if mir horizon were
fill'; Iput it is oi)s|rncted by a moiinlaiii ridLTe; .and, makini^ all allowance for
rtfrnctidu, we can not coinit on seein^r him after the lOtli.

"Sijit. 11. — The loiiij starimj day, which has ciiuii; to \is for more than two
months, to the exclusion of the stars, has beLrnn to intermit its brinhtiicss.
Kvcii Aldebaran, the red eye of the bull, tl.ared out into fai'-.iliar retiolU'ction
as early as ten o'clock ; and the heavens, thonijh still somewhat reddened by the
painly tints of midnight, gave ns (^apella and Arctnriis, and even that lesser

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liu'lit of liiiiiif in('t)inni.«i, ilic pillar star. Sircfi'liini: my neck to Inok unioin-
forlahly at tlic iinlicatioii nt' i.iir cxlicmt' iiortlicrmicsM, it was li.iid |,> it;ili/f
tint lie was not diicctly osiiln inl ; and il iiiailc iiir si'_'li as I ima'siincl ihf U\\
(Ir-jfrccs (if (lisiancf tlial s;'|iaral»'(l oiir /cnilli from llic pole o\ it wliicl, j,,. in,,,,,

"0«/. js. Tlic iMi'oii lias rraclu'il luTurt-ati'st iKirlliciii <lfcliiiatioii of aliout
'.'.'»' .'I.'i . Slir is a u'loiiciiis (ilijcci ; .s\vtr|iinvr aroimd tlic licavciis, at the ln«,M
part of her ciiivc, slw is still it' aliovc the lioii/.oii. For fi^dit davs slic Ims
l.frii makiii',' Iut rircnil willi nearly iinvaryiii'j; lirii;lilni'ss. li i^ one of iIki
spaiklim,' n'u'lits that l»rini; liack the nnnioiy of slii;4ii-l)ills and sonars ai
glad i'iimmuniiii;s uf hearts in lands tiiat are far awav.

'■ A 'I/'. 7. -'I'lie darkness is coniiiiLT on with insidiou»t Nfeadiness. and In ail-
\anees can only lie jierceived liy comparing; one day with its fcildw of mhiu;
time liaek. NN'e still read the thermometer at noonday without a liudil.;nid tin-
lilaeix masses of the hills are plain for alioiit live hours, with their udariie.' patch-
es (if snow; lint all the rest is darkness. The stars of tlie sixth ma'.'iiiiihii'

shine out at i nday. Kveept upon the island of Spil/,lier'_ren, wiii'l" has ihc

advantaiies of an insular <'liinate, and tempered liy ocean currents, im ( liri^-
lians liavo wintered in so hi^di a latitude as this.* 'I'hey are {{iissi.ni sailni>
w ho made the encounter there — men imired to li;u'dships and cold. < >nr d.-ii k-
ness has ninety d.ays tn nm iiefore wc .shall u'et liack Jiij.ain «'\(n to ijic cuii-
tfsted twiliLrht of to-day. Alto^^'ether our winter will have lieeii .sunless funnic
hundred and forty day*.

".\''/'*. !•. — Wishinir to i:<'t till' altitude of thi> cliffs (in the soiilli-wesf n\if
(if our liay liefm-e the d;irkness set in tliorou'^hly, I started in time to icich
them with my Newfoundlanders at noonday, the thermometer indii alinu' -'^l
lielow zero. Fireside astroiKuners can hardly realize the ditlicnlties in tlie \v;iy
<»f (ihsi'rv.ations at such low tempcr.atures. The lire:ith,:md even the warmlli
of the face .and liody, cl.iud the se\tant-arc and L,'l;isses with :i line ho.•u•-lrcl^l.
It is, moreover, .an unus\ial feat to rncii.sure ;i liasi-line in the snow at ."i.i lnjow
freezinLT.

".N"'"'. •_'!. — Wv have scliemes imiumer.alile to cheat the moiiotonou<i suli-
tude of our winter — a f.incy li.all ; :i newsp.aper,' The Ice lllink ;' a fov-cliMM'
round the decks.

"/Ac. I.'i. — We have lost the last vcstiirc of onr midday twili^dit. We can
not see print, ;md h;trdiy paper; the linu'ers can not lie counted a foot fp'iii
the eyes. .Noond.ay .and midiii'^dit .arc alike; .and, except a vaL'ne udimiiii r in
the sky th.al seems to deline the hill outliiu-s to the south, we h.ave iintiiiii.: in
tell us that tliis .\rctic world of ours has ,a sim. In the d.arkiu'ss, and consec|f,iiil
in.icthin, it is .almost i ' 'in that we seek to create lo|iics (if thought, and, by a
l(irced»excitement, to w rd olT tho i'lU'ro.avhmcnts of disease.

"./''//. 'Jl. -I''irsi traces of returniui^ light, the southern horizon haviii;: f"i'
Ji short I 'me a distinct orange tinge.

"/•(/'. '.'I. — We have li.ad the sun for some days silvering the ice lictwccii
the heaill.ands of the liay, and to-day, tow.ards noon, I started out to he the

* IIcii—iIjct Il;irl)()r is sihiatcd I hi' liiglicrtliun Sir K. IMcli'jr'* winter-quarters In Noithumlwr-
lanil Soiinil, I'll .'r.' .

i •

KANE AM) IIAYKS.

86?

'# '

fliisl of iny party ti) wclcdiiic liiiii lta<'k. It was tiit; loiiijcst walk and fonirlu'st,
ciiiiili llial I lia\(' had >iiicc our itiiprisoniiiciil. and sciirs y and trcncial ilcliuily
h.'ivo made nu' ' sliort o' wind.' I)iit I nianaL;cd to attain my ultjoct. I ssiw liini
(iiicc ni>>n', and u|M)n a iiroji-ctjng crag nestled in tlie siin»liiiiL>. Il was liki- Itatii-
Jul; in iii'ilunit'd water."

TliMs this tcrrihie winter iiiijht drew to its end, and the tinu- cnnu' for un-
(liilakiiiic llie slcd'^'c journeys, on whicli the success of tlic exiicdition mainly
ilcjicndcd. Cntortnnatcly, of the nine niairniticcnt Newf(iim<llan<lers and thu
tlinly-livp Ksiiuimaux di'<^s orii,'iiially possessed hy Kane, only six had ■airvived
!ia c|ii/.n(itic malady which raided aniuic^ ihcni during' the winter: their nmn-
lii r wa-. however, inci'eiiscd liy some new |>urcliase.s from the Ksqiiimaux who
vi>ilcd the ship at the l»e'_'iiminLr of April.

Tims scantily provided with the means of tnmspnrt, Kane, thouirh in a very
wciik condition, set out on .\pril '.'."i, is")!, to foi'ce his w.ay lo the north. IIo
found the (Jreenlaml coast lieyoml IJensselaer l»ay fxtremeiy pictnresipie, tho
clitic risin',' holdly from the shore-line to a heiirht of sometimes more than a
tlii>n«and feet, .and evliiiiitiny every freak and caprice of ;irchitectur,al ruin. In
one -|Mit the slopini; ruhhisli at the foot <d' the coast-w.all led up, like .an artili-
ciiil cinseway, to u yorLte th.at was slieamiiii,' at m^iuday with the soutlu-ni sun,
while everywhere else the I'ock stood out in the hiackesf shadow. Just ;it the
dl'.'e of this I>rii,dit openiny rose? the dre.amy seml)lance of a castle, 11 uiked with
tri|ile towers, completely isolate il and delined. These were called tlic "Thrcu-
lirotlier Turrets."

''Farther on, to the north of Latitude T!*", a siiiirle cliff of trreenstono rears
itscH from acrinnhled hase of sandstone, like the holdly-chiselled r.ampart of .an
Miuient city. At its northern extremity, at the hriiik of a <leep r.avine which
lias worn its way amoui; the ruins, there stands a solitary column or minaret
tower, as sharply iinished as if it h;id been cast for the Place Veiidome. "N'et
the IcnL'th of the shaft alo?u' is ISO ftct, and it rises on a ?)edestal, itsi'lf I'so
ft'tt lii'_di, I rememlier well the emotions of my party, as it first hroke upon
oiH' view, ('old .and sick as I was, I IirouLjlit h.ack a sketch of it which may
liuve interest for the reader, thoU'^li it scarcely suir<j:ests the imposiui; ditinity
of this ma'4iiilicent landmark. Those who are happily familiar with the writ-
iM'js (if Tennys(»n, and have communed with his spirit in the solitudes of a
wilderness, will apprehend the imjjulso that inscribed the scene with liis
name."'

Iiiit no rock formation, however strlkiiii; or impressive, e(pialled in Lrramlcur
the maixniiiceut <jlacier to which Kane has driven the name of Iluinltoldt. Its
Miliil ulassy w.all, dimmishintj to a well-pointed wedL'e in the perspective, rises
;iiHi feet !il)()ve the waterdevel. With an unknown, unfathomable depth below it
.anil its curved face sixty miles in leiitfth — from C.ape Aii.assiz to Cape Forbes
— VMiiislies into unknown sp.aco at not more th.an a sinu;le d.ay's railroad travel
fi'om the pole.

Ill spiu; of the snow, wlilcli liad so accumulated in drifts that the travellers
were forced to nnlo.ad their sledixes .and carry forward the cargo on their backs,
beating a path for the dogs to folhnv in, Kiuie came in sight of the Great Gla-

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THE POLAR W(JHLD.

ciiM- on Mny 4 ; but this progress was dearly oarnccl, as it cost him tlie last
reiuiiaiit of his streiigtli.

" I was seized witii a sudden pain," says tlio intrepid explorer, " and fainted.
]\Iy limbs became rigid, and certain obscure tetanoid symptoms of our wii:tpr
enemy, the scurvy, disciostnl themselves. I was strapped .ipon the sledge, ami
the march contimied as usual, but my j^wers dinnnished so ra))idly that I conM
not resist the otherwise comfortable temperature of 5'^ below zero. 3Iv Idt
foot l)ecoming frozen caused a vexatious delay, and the same ni<;lit i« bccainc
evident that the immovability of my limbs was due to dropsical effusion. On
the 5th, becoming delirious and fainting every time that I was taken from tin.
tent to the sledge,! succumbed entirely. My comrades would kindly pcrsuaik'
me that, even h.ad I continued sotuid, we could not have proceeded on our jour-
ney. The snows were very heavy, and increasing as we went ; sonu" of thr
drifts perfectly impassable, and the level floes often four feet deep in yiiMing
snow.

"The scurvy had already broken out among the men, with symptoms like
my own, and Morton, our strongest man, was beginning to give way. It is tlie
reverse of comfort to me that they shared my weakness. All that I slioiiKl re-
member with pleasurable feeling is that to my brave comi)anions, thumsflvus
scarcely able to travel, I owe my preservation.

" Tiiey carried me back by forced marches. I was taken into the brig on
the 14th, where for a week I lay fluctuating between life and death. Dr. Ilayos
regards my attack as one of scurvy, complicated by typhoid fever."

Fortunately summer was now fast approaching, with his cheering sunbeams
and his genial warmth. Tiie seals began to appear on the coast in large num-
bers, and there was now no want of fresh meat, tl>e chief panacea against lliu
scurvy. The snowd)untings returned to the ice-crusted rocks, and the gulls and
eider-ducks came winging their way to their northern breeding-places.

Vegetation likewise sprang into life with marvellous rapiility, and the green
sloping banks not only refreshed the eye, but yielded juicy, anti-scorbutic herbs.

Kane's h.ealth slowly but steadily improved. lie was, however, obliged to
give up all further sledge excursions for the season, and to leave the execution
of his [dans to his more abled)odied companions.

Thus Dr. Hayes, crossing the sound in a north-easterly direction, reaehcil
the oi)positc coast of Grinnell Land, which he surveyed as far as Cape Frazer
in lat. 79° 45'.

This journey was rendered uncommonly slow and tedious by the excessively
broken and rugged character of the ice. Deep cavities fllled with snow inter-
vened between lines of Inunmocks frequently exceeding twenty or thirty feet in
height. Over these the sledge had to be lifted by main strength, and it ro
quired the most ]iainful efforts of the whole party to liberate it from the snow
between them. Dr. Hayes returned on June], and a few days later 3Iorton
left the brig, to survey the Greenland coast beyond the Great Glacier. Tho
difficulties were great, for, besides the usual impediments of hummocks, the
lateness of the season had in many, places rendered the ice extremely unsafe, or
even entirely destroyed the ice-ledge along the shore. Thus for the last days of

KANE AND HAYES.

liis onward journey lie was olilijrcd to toil over tlie roc^<s and alont» tlic beach of a
sci whicli, like the fiiiiuliiir waters of tlio south, dashed in waves at liis feet.
.Mmtoii and his eonipanion Hans, tlie Esquiniau.v, readied on June i'O, 18r)4,
('Mpc Constitution, a Ijold iieadhmd, wiiore the surf rolled furiously aLCainst high
overliiuij^iiig cliffs, which it was found impossible to pass. Cliiubiiii; from rock
to rock, in hopes of doubling the promontory, Morton stood at this termination
(if his journey, and from a height of ;>i)0 feet looked out upon a great waste of
\v;iters, stretching U) the unknmvn north. Numen/Us birds — sea-swallows, kit-
tiwakes, brent-geese — mixed their discordant notes with the novel music of dasli-
iii'_' waves ; and among the flowering plants growing on the rocks was found
;i crucifer {/f ■•^j/o'is pi/(pn'i'<(),i\ni dried pods of which, still c<»ntaini!ig seed,
li.id survived the wear and tear of winter. From (.'ape Constitution the coast
of Wasiiiiigton Land trended to the east, but far to the north-west, beyond the
(ijiiti waters of tlie chamu'l, a peak, terminating a range of momitains similar iu
tlicir features to those of Spitzbergen, was s' ju towering to a height of from
•loW) to ;iOOO feet. This peak, the most remote northern land at that timo
known upon our globe, received the nanio tjf Mount I'arry.

^Meanwhile the short summer was wearing on, and, as far aa the eye couhl
rcMrh. the ice remained inflexibly solid. It was evident that many days must
still elapse before the vessel could possibly be liberated — but then most likely
winter would almost have returned — a dismal prospect for men who knew by
exiiericncc the long fearful night of the 70° of latitude, and who, broken in
lieMltli and with very insufficient supplies of ])rovisions and fuel, were but. ill
iinned for a second encounter. Xo wonder that many of Kane's companions
thought it better to al^andon tho vessel than to tarry any longer hi those frozen
solitudes.

lint though it was horrible to look another winter in the face, tho resolution
of Kane could not be shaken. On August 24, when the last hopeof seeing the
vessel once more afloat had vanished, he ealleil the officers and crew together,
and ex]ilained to tliem frankly the considerations which determined him to
reiimin. To abandon the vessel earlier would have been unseemly, and to reach
rpevnavik so late in the season was next to impossible. To such of them,
li'iuever, as were desirous of making the attempt, h^^- freely gave his permission
so to do, assuring tliein of a broth('r''s welcome should they be driven back. He
tlieii directed the roll to bo calleil, and each man to answer for himself. In
result, eight out of the seventeen survivors of the party resolved to stand by the
lii'ig. The others left on the '2Sih, M'ith every appliance whicli the narrow
circumstances of the brig could furnish to speed and guard them. When they
disappeared among the hummocks, the stern realities of their condition pressed
tlieiiiselves with double force on those whom they left behind.

The reduced numbers of the party, the helplessness of many, the waning
ctlicieiicy of all, the impending winter, with its cold, dark nights, the penury
of their resources, the dreary sense of increased isolation — all combined to
tleprcss them. lint their energetic leader, leaving them no time for these
irl'ioniy thoughts, set them actively to work to make the best possible prejia-
vations they could for the long cold night to come.

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rm: polau world.

lie liad carefully studied the Esfiuitnaux, and determined that their form of
habitations and their i.iode of diet, without their unthrift and lilth, were tin.
safest and best that could bo ado])ted. Tlie deck was weu j)ad<led with nio.><s
and turf, so as to form a nearly coUl-])roof coveriniij, and, down below, a space
some eii^hteeii feet ^^■Juare — the ajjartment of all uses — was inclosed and ijackcij
from floor to ceiling with inner walls of the same non-conductiii<; material. 'I'lu.
floor itself, after having been carefully caulked, wasctnered with [Manilla oakum
a cou])Ie of iiich.es ileep and a canvas carpet. The entrance was from tiie hoM
by a low mo.ss-lined tunnel, with as many doors and curtains to close it up jh
ingenuity could devise. Large banks of snow were also tlirown u[) aloi:"- the
brig's sides to keep off the cold wind.

All these labors in the open air wonderfully imi)roved the lioalth of tlie v\-
ilcs, and their strength inctreased from day to day. A friendly intercourse wms
opened with tl>o Esquimaux of the winter settlements of Ktah and AiKiamk,
distant some thirty and seventy miles from the .ship, who, for ])reseiits of me.
dies, ]»ins, and knives, engaged to furnish walrus and fresh seal meat, and to
show the white men where to find the game. Connnon lnmting-])arties were
organized, visits of courtesy and necessity paid, and even some personal attacli-
ments established deserving of the name. As long as the Americans remained
])risoner.s of the ice, they were indebted to their savage friends for invahiMlile
counsel in relation to their hunting expeditions, and in the joint hunt thev
shared alike.

The Es(]nimaux gave them supitros of meat at critical periods, ami t!iev
Avere able ti> do as much for them. In one word, without the natives, Kane
and his companions would most likely have succumbed to the winter, and the
p]sqnimaux on their part learned to look on the strangers as benefactors, and
mourned their departure bitterly.

On December 12 the jiarty which had abandoned the shij) returned, hav-
ing been unable to ]»enetrate to the south, and w.as received, as had been prom-
ised, with a brotherly welcome. They had suffered bitterly from the cold,
want of food, and the fatigues of their march among the Inumnocks.

"The thermometer,' says Ka'ie, " was at —50"; th.ey wi're covered witii
rime and snow, and wei-e fainting with hunger. It was necessary to use cau-
tion in taking tliem below; for, after an exposure of such fearful intensity mmiI
duration as they had gone through, the warmth of the cabin would have pros-
trated them completely. They had journeyed three hundred and fifty miles;
.■md their last run from the bay near Etah, some seventy miles in a right line,
was through the hummocks at this appalling temperature. One by one lliey
all came in and were housed. Poor fellows ! as they threw open their E>(|ui-
maux garnuMits by the stovo, how they relished the scanty luxuries which wc
had to offer them ! The cofftj, and the meat-biscuit soup, and the molasses.
and the wlieat bread, even the salt ])ork, which our sc u'vy forbade the rest of
us to touch — how they relishe(l it all ! For more than two months they had
lived on frozen seal and walrus meat."

Thus Kane, by his determination not to abandon the ship, proved the saviour
of all his comrades ; for what would have become of them had he been less firm

, -A"'

KANE AND HAYES.

871

in liis resolution, or if liis courage had failed iiiin during the trials of that
ili-fudful winter';'

" February eloscs," says the heroic explorer ; " thank God for the lapse of
its tu•eIlty-ei^hl days! Should the thirty-one of the coniinijc March not drag
us farther downward, Ave may hope for a successful close to this dreary drama.
]Jv April 10 we should have seals; and when they couie, if we remain to wel-
(•(iiiio thcui, we can call ourselves saved. i>ut a fair review of our i rospects
tells me that I nnist look the lion in the face. The scurvy is steadily gaining
(in us. I do my best to sustain the more desperate cases, but as fast as I par-
tiallv buihl up one, another is stricken down. Of the six workers of our parly,
as I counted them a month ago, two are unable to do out-door work, and the
rcniaiuing four divide the duty of the shij) among them. Hans musters Ids re-
niainiuLT eiiei'gies to conduct the hunt. I'etersen is his disheartened, moping
assistant. The other two, Iionsall and myself, have all the daily oflices of
lionschold ,'uid hospital. We chop live large sacks of ice, cut six fathoms of
ciilit-inch hawser into junks of a foot each, serve out the meat '.vhen we have
it, hack at the molasses, and hew out with crowbar and axe tlie pork and dried
apples; pass up the foul slop and cleansings of our dormitory, and, in ;i word,
ciiuk, sci(llioni::c, and attend the sick. Adiled to this, for live nights ruiming
I li,"ive kept watch from 8 p.m. to 4 a.m., catching such nap.s as I could in the
(lay without changing my clothes, but carefully waking every hour to note
'JicrincMneter.'."

With March came an increase of sufferings. Every man on board was
tainteil with scurvy, and there were seldom more than three who could assist
in caring for the rest. Tlie greater mnnber were in liieir bunks, absolutely un-
ahlc to stir. Had Kane's health given w:iy, the whole party, deprived of its
leading spirit, must inevitably have jierished.

To al)andon the ship was now an absolute necessity, for a third winter in
licnsselaer Bay would have been certain death to all; but before the boats
could be transportetl to the open water, many preparations had to be made,
and most of the party were still too weak to move. The interval was employed
by Kane iu an excursion with his faithful Esqunnaux to the (rreat Glacier.

At length on 3Iay ;.'(), 1855, the entire ship's company bade farewell to the
"Adv.ince,'' and set out slowly on then- homeward journey. It was in the soft,
subdued light of a Sunday evening, June 17, that after hauling their boats with
nuicli hard labor through the hummocks, they stood beside the open se.a-way.
l)Ut lifty-six days had still to pass before they could n.'ach the port of Uper-
navik. Neither storms nor drift-ice rendered this long boat-journey danger-
ous, but they had to contend with famine, when they at length reached the
open hay, and found themselves in the full line of the great ice-drift to the At-
lantic, in boats so unseaworthy as to require constant bailing to keep them
atloat. Their strength had decreased to an alarming <legree ; they breathed
heavily ; tlieir feet were so swolL'n that they were obliged to cut open their
canvas boots ; they were utterly unable to sleep, and the rowing and bailing be-
came hourly more difiicnlt.

It was at this crisis of their fortunes that they saw a large seal floating — as

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is the custom of ilicsc imiinuls — on a kthiiII patch of ice, ami spctnincrly aslpop.
"Trc'tiibliiiL; with anxifty," says Kane, "wo prcparoil to crawl down upon hini.
Peterson, with a larLje Knirlish rifle, was stationed in the how, and stockings
wero drawn over the oars as niuillers. As we neared the animal, our I'xcitc-
inent bi'caine so intense thai the men could hardly keej» stroke. Uv was nut
asleep, for lie reared his head when we were almost within rille-shot ; and to
this day I can ri'memher the hard, careworn, almost despairini^' e.\pres>ion nf
the men's thin faci ,•> as they saw him move; their lives depended on his cmii-
ture. I depressed my hand nervously, as a signal for Petersen to lire. ]\l'(i;iiv
iiung upon liis oar, and the boat slowly, but noisi'Iessly suri,dni,' ahead, seeiiud
to mo within cert.iin ransj^e. Lookin;^ at Petersen, I saw that the poor fcllou-
was paralyzed by his anxiety, trying vainly to obtain a rest for his >_r\ui a!,';iiii>t
the cut-water of the boat. The seal rose on his fore ilippers, gazed at us hii' ;i
moment with frightened curiosity, and coiled l\imself for a jilunge. At th;it in-
stant, simultaneously with the crack of our rit'e, he relaxed his lon^c length on
the ice, and, at the very brink of tlu! water, his head fi'U helpless to one siiie.
I would have ordered another shot, but no discipline could have controlled the
men. ^Vith a wild yell, each vociferating according to his own impulse, tlicv
urged their boats njion the Hoes. A crowd of liands seized the se;d and hoiv
him up to safer ice. The men seemed half crazy. I liad not reali/.iMl \\n\v
much we were reduced by absolute famine. They ran over the Hoe, crving
and laughing, and brandishing their knives. It was not live minutes belnn.
every man v/as sucking liis bloody fingers, or mouthing long strips uf raw
blubber, !Not an ounce of this seal was lost."

Within a day or two another seal was shot, and from that time forward
they had a full supply of food.

When KaiK', after an al)sence of thirty months, returned on October 11,
1855, to New York, lie was enthusiastically received. Well-deserved honors uf
all sorts awaite<l him on both sides of tlie Atlantic; but his health, ori'^'inallv
weak, was com])letely broken by the trials of his journey, and on Februaiv ID,
1857, he died at the Havana, in the thirty-seventh year of his age. In liini the
T'nited States lost one of her noblest sons, a true hero, whose name will ever
shine among the most famous navigators of all times and of all nations.

In 18(i0, Dr. Hayes, who had accompanied Kane on his journey, once more
sailed from America for the purpose of comj)leting the siirve}' of Keiiiudy's
Channel, .and, if jiossible, of pushing on to tlie pole itself. After several narrow
escapes froiii ice-licMs and icebergs, his schooner, the "United States," was at
length com])elled to take up her winter-(|uarters at Port Foulke, on the (irccii-
land coast, about twenty iniles in latitude to tbe south of Peiissel.aer llarlmi'-
Tliaid<s to an abundant supply of fresh meat (for the neighborhood aboiuidcd
witli reindeer), and also no doubt to the inexhaustible fund of good-huinor
which prevailed in the ship's company, thoy passed the winter without suffer-
ing from the scurvy:, but most of the dogs on which Dr. Hayes relied for his
sledge exj)editions ir the ensuing spring were destroyed by the same ei>ideniic
which 1 ad been so fat.al to the teams of Dr. Kane. Fortunately some fresh
dogs could be purchased and borrowed of the friendly Esquimaux, and thus,

. ^

KAN'E AND IIAYKS.

Dl

ouilv ill April, lR01,Dr. ITiivcs k-fl tlii' scliooncr, to plunjic into tlic irv wildcr-
,i,.,s, IlaviiiLf previously iiscoi'taiiK'<l lliat. an aclvaiicf aloiiLf tlic (iiffiilainl
shore was utterly iinjiossibli', liu resolved lo croNS tlie sound, and to try Iiis
fortunes aluiii^ tlic coast of Griiiiiell Land. Of the diilieulties wliicli lie had to
(•milliliter his own wo'ds will jjtive the best idea.

'•jiy .vinditiLt to the ri^lit and left, and by occasionally rctraciiii^ our stcjis
when we had selected an iiiipraetieable route, we nianaLTed to get (jvcr the lirst
fuw iiiiles without iiuieh eiiil>arrassiiieiit, but farther on the tract was routjh i)ast
ilisrii]itinn. T can compare it to nolhlng nut a ]iroiiiiseuoiis accuniulation of
idcks closely packed togetlier and piled n}» over a vast plain in gretit heaps and
t'luUess ridges, leaving scarcely a foot of level surface. 'J^lie interstices between
these closely acciiiiiulated ict'-inasses are iilleil ii]), to some extent, with
ilrifled snow. The reader will readily imagine the rest. He ■will see the
slulges winding through the tangled wilderness of broken ice-tables, the
men ond dogs pulling and jmshing np their respective loads, lie will see
them clambering over the very suniinif of loftv ridges, through which there is
no opening, and again descending on the other .side, the sledge often plunging
over a pri'cipice, sometimes caiisizing ami freipiently breaking, .\gaiii he Avill see
the party baiHed in their attempt to cross or find a ]iass, breaking a track with
shovel and l.andspikc, or .again, unable oven Avith these appliances to Jiccom-
jilisli their end, they retreat to seek a better track; ami tiny may be lucky
eiiongli to find a sort of gap or gateway, upon the wiiidii g and uneven surface
of which they will make a mile or so Avith comi)arative ease. The snow-drifts
:ire soiuetimes a Iii'lp, and sometimes a liinderance. Tlii'ii' surface is uniformly
hard, but not always firm to the foot. The crust fie(iuently gives way, and in a
most tiresome and provoking manner. It will not (piile bear tlie weight, and
the foot sinks at the very moment when the other is lifted. But, worse than
this, the chasms between tlie liummocks are frequently bridged over with snow
in such a manner as to leave a consiilerable space at the bottom (piite unfilled;
and at the very moment Avlien all looks promising, down sinks one man to his mid-
dle, luiother to the neck, another is buried out of sight; the sledge gives Avay,
and to extricate the whole from this unhappy ]»reilicanient is piol)ably tiie labor
of hours. It would be dillicult to imagine any kin<l of labor Tiiore disheartening,
or which would sooner sap the energies of both men and animals. The strength
tr.'ive way gradually; and when, as often happened after a long aiul hard day'.s
work, we could look Ixack f rom our eminence and almost tire a riile-ball into our
last snowdiut, it was truly discouraging."

Xo wonder that after thus toiling on for twenty-five days thoy had not yet
reached half-way across the sound, and that they were :ill broken down. IJut
their liold leader was fully determined not to aiiandon his enterjirise Avhile still
the faintest hope of success remaineil, and, sending the main party back to the
schooner, he continued to plunge into the hummocks with three picked coni])an-
ions — Jensen, M'Donald, Knorr — and fourteen dogs. After fourteen days of al-
most superhuman exertion the sound Avas at length crossed, and now began ."X
scarcely less harassing journey along the coast. On the fifth day Jensen, the
strongest man of the party, completely broke down, and leaving him to the

I 1 1

ii-'ii'i ml

374

THE FOLAlt W()I{LU.

ii ; . f

rrv

cliiirijc,' of M'Dotiiilil, Dr. ILiycs now imslicd on witli Kiiorr nloiic, until, on M;iv
18, he rcacluMl tlio bonier of u (li'('|> lj;iy, wIkto fiirdici" iiroiiitss to tln' ninili
\v;is stopped hy fottcn lev. imd criicks. IJi^Iit licfori' liini.on tlic oppdsj^. j.i,|,,
of tlic fritli, rost! Mount i'arry, lliu lofty peak lirst wen liy .Morton in Is,")! tii.iu
till' shores of Washinu^ton Land; and farther on, a nol>U' headland, ("ape I'nidn
— tiie most nortiierii known land njion the tilohe — stood in i'aint ontliiu; aLrain^t
the dark sky of the open sea. Thus ])r Hayes divides tiie honor of extreme
northern travel witli I'arry.

On July 12 the "I'lntecl States" was ri'leased from her icy tramineis, iiml
Dr. Hayes once more allenipted to reaeli the opposite eoasl and eontinue liis
discoveries in (irinnell Land, hut the sehooni'r was in loo eripph'd a slate to
foroo lu.'r way thron^h the pack-ice wliicii lay in her course, ami compelled lier
commander to return to IJijston.

Thus ended this remarkahie voyau;o ; htil havincc done so much, Dr. Haves
is eager, and resolved, to do still nu)re. Fully convinced l)y his own expeiiincu
that men may snhsist, in Smith's Sound independent of support from home, lie
proposes to establish .1 self-sustaining colony .at Port Foulke, which may he niiule
tlic basis of an extended ex](Ioralion. Without any second party in the Held to
oo-operate with him, and under the most adverse circumstances, he, by dint ef
indomitable persevei'ance, pushed liis discoveries a himdi'ed mik's fartliei' to tiie
north and west than his ])veilecessors; and it is surely not over-sanu'uine t()(\-
pect that a party better provided with the means of travel may be able to trav-
crso the 480 miles at least which intervene Ix'twoeu IMoiint Parry and the jmle.
The o|)en sea which both [Morton and himself found beyond Kennedy ChaniiLl
gives f;iir i)romiso of success to ;i strong vessel that may reach it after iiavinrj
forced the ice-blocked passage of Smith's Sound, or, sliould this bo im|irncti('ii-
ble, to a boat transported across the soimd and then launched u]ioii its wateis.

Cajitain Sherard Osljonie, who is likewise a warm partisan of this route. Ims
been endeavoring to interest riovernmciit in its favor; but in the opinion of
other scientific authorities an easier passage seems open to tlie navigator wlio
may attempt to reach the pole by way of Spitzbergen. To the east of tliis
archi|)elago the Gulf Stream rolls its volume of comparatively warm water fnr
on to the north-east, ami possil)ly sweeps round the pole itself. It was to tlu;
north of Spit/bergen that Parry reached the latitude of 82° 45'; and in I^:i7
the "Truelove," of HulV'' sailed through a perfectly open sea in 82° ;]0' X., 15'
E., and, had she continued her course, might possibly have reached the pole as
easily as the high latitude which she had already attained.

TliC distinguished geographer, Dr. Augustus Petermann, who warmly advo-
cates the route between Spit/,I)ergen and Greeidand, has, by dint of perseverance,
succeeded in collecting among his countrymen the necessary funds for a recon-
noitring voyage in this direction. Thanks to his exertions, ]\ray 24, 1808, wit-
nessed the departure of n small ship of eighty tons, the "Germania," Captain
Koldewey, from the port of IJergeii, for Shamion Islan<l (Tf)' 14' X. lat.). tlio
highest i)oint on the east coast of Greenland attained by Sabine in 1823. Here
the attempt to explore the unknown Arctic seas beyond was to begin ; hut,

• " Athenteuiii," Dec. 3, 1853.

'II M.iv
'• ii'iril,

I hi, 111

riii(jii

l,-.'lillst

KANE AND IIAYP:S.

373

mectinOT ^^itli ononnons masses of drift-ice on lier re)H'!ite(l eixleavors to ])eiie-
triitf til tlie nortli-east, the "Geniiaiiia" has been oblii,'i'(l to retiini, after reacii-
iiiir the liiijli hititude of 81° 5', ami accurately stirveyiiii^ a small part of the
Greenland coast hitherto l»ut imperfectly ex[ilore(l. An expedition on a inoro
txti'asivo scale is to renew the attempt in 1N0!>.

A tliinl route to the pole is no less strenuously reconnnench'd by M. (Justavo
T.niiilicrt. a French hydro<j;rapher, who, having sailed through IJering's Strait in
;i whaler in 1805, is persuatlcd that this is the right way to reach the [iroblemal-
ii:il open North Sea, which, once attained, promises a free passage to the navi-
(.Mtor. Lilteral subscriptions have been raised in Paris for the accomplishment
iif liis plan, and an expedition under h's command will most probably set out
ill 1809.

Thus, after so many illustrious navigators have vainly endeavored to roach
the poi", sanguine projectors are still as eager as ever to attain the goal; nor is
it probable that man will ever rest in his efforts until every attainable region
of the Arctic Ocean shall have been fully explored.

«.u,

, liiifl

»'<(>

Till-: POLAU NVUltLD.

CTTAPTEU XXXV.

NKWl'OrNDLAN'l).

Its (Icsiilntft Aspppt,— iMirrsts.— MiirslicM.— Itiirrpiii.— INjihIs. — I'lir-licnrinn Anim.il-i.— Srvcriiv nf ('|i.
mute,— St. .Idlin'.i. — DiscDVcry of Xi'wfoimilliiiiil liy tin; ScaiiiliimviaiK.— S'r lluni|iliic'v (lilliit.—
Ii'ivalry <if tlii' l'ji{;li-li iiiiil I'itmcIi. — lin|icirtaiu<' nf tlic l'i-licii(>. — 'llji' llaiiU> dl' Niwl'ipuii'lUn.l.—

Millie uf I'Uliiiit^.— Tliroatirs, lliailcis, S|ilittvis, Salttrs, aial I'atkcrs lo^h uial .SUiriiis.—.Vul-

catoliiiig.

Z^""* KXKHATJA'" voilcil -with mists, X'cwfoimillniiil npiicars at fifst si^'Iit
^-^ i^Iodiiiy ;m<l rfpiilsivo. Alii'iiin flilTs, sliowiiiLC Iutc iiiid tlicrt' li'accs df a
scanty vi'irotat inn, rise .sti'i'ji and Iiaiv tnnii tiic sea, ami lur miles ami miles
till' rye sees nothintj hut bfowii iiiils or liinlicf moimtaitis, dcsnlalc and wild jis
tliuy ap|)t'ai'ed in tiio I'levcntli coiitiiry to the l»old Xorwt'nijui naviLratipis wlm
fifst lamk'd on itsdcsiTt shore. Tiie waves of tlie ocean liave everywliere cur-
roded liio rocky coast into fantastic jiimiacles or excavated deep L,'rnttoes in , s
tlanlis. In one of tliese cavliieH tiiu action of tlie siifi^e lias produced a n iii;iii<.
able plicnonicnoii, known under the name of" Tlie Spout." In stnrniv wciiIut
the waves penetrate into the hollow and force their way with a dreadful iinisc
from an aperture in the rock its a gigantic fountain visible at a distance nf
several miles.*

The interior of the country corresponds with the forbiddintj appear.'uue nf
the coasts, and offers nothing but a succession of forests, marshes, and Iparnns
The forests, if they may thus bo called, generally grow on the (h'clivities of the
hills or on the si(K'S of the valleys, where the su|)ertluous waters lind a natiii'iil
drain. The trees consist for the most part of fir, spruce, birch, pine, tmd juni-
per or hirch ; and in certain districts the wydi-hazel, the mountain-ash, the iM-
cr, the aspen, and some others are fouiKh The character of the timber varies
greatly iiccording to the nature of the subsoil and the situation. In some parts,
more especially where the woods liave been undisturbed by the axe, trees of
fair height and girth may be found; but most of the wood is of stiiiitiil
growth, consisting chiefly of fir-trees about twenty or thirty feet high, ami
not more than three or four inches in tliameter. These commonly grow so
closely together tliat their twigs and branclies interlace from toji to bottom,
■wliile among them may be seen innumerable old and rotten stumjis and brandi-
es, or newly-fallen trees, which, with the young shoots and brushwood, form a
tangled ami often impenetrable thicket. The trees are often covered with lich-
ens, and tufts of white dry moss are entangled about the l)ranches. Other
green and softer mosses spread over the ground, concealing alike the twisted
roots of the M.anding trees and the pointed stumps of those which have f.ilkii,

* Tor an nccount of the similar iihcnonuna of tlio " RiilTailcro." on the Mexican coast, and of ttio
" 8oiitlicur," Mauritius, see " The Sea ami its Liviiij; Wonders," 'M eil. p. iV2.

^f.

NKWFOLNDLAN'D.

877

the >li;iri> r(lLr<'« '>i' slippery siirfiicc of tlic iiiiiU'.'rDim r -ks and boiiMors, ninl llic

||(il(> Mini pitfalls llctWt'CII tlu'Ill. KVfiy ^t(■|l llinill'^ll ^il(•^0 Wnmls is CilllSt'-

iimiitlv a niiittir of irrt-at, toil ami anxiety. In tlie lieat of siiininer, wliile tlio

,y Is ai'e so thick as to sliut out every lireatli of air, tliey are at tlie same

[ynv too low and too thinly leaved at top to evehide the fays of the siui,the at-
iiiM>|.liire ')ein!X further rendered close and stillinL' hy the smell of the tiirpeii-
liiic wITu'li e.viides from the trees.

Inclosed ill these i;ioomy woods, larLre open tracts, called marshes, arc found
iiivciinir tl"' v:iileys ami lower lands, and fri'(|iK'ntly aUo at a coiisiderahlc
liiiilit aliove the sea on the nndulatim^ hacks of the iiionntains. These tract*
■,\w ((iNcreil to a depth sometimes of several fi'ct with a ureeii, soft, and spongy
iii(i^>i. lioimd together Ity strai^Ljliiiij tjrass and various niarsh-|ilaiits. 'I'hi' siu'-
l.iii' ahoiinds in hillocks and lioli*, the tops nf the hillocks haviiiLC often dry
(ris[i moss like that on tin- trees. A liouldcror small craLC of rock occasionally
|iniinides, covered with retl or white lichens, and hen.' and there is a liaiik on
whirli the moss has become dry and yellow. The contrast of thesi' colors with
till' dark velvety u-reen of the wet moss fre(|iu'ntly t^ives a peculiarly rich appear-
.iiiic to the marshes, so that when st'cii from a little distanco they ini^lit easily
lie mistaken for luxuriant ineadow-tirounds, hut a closer inspection soon destroys
the illusion, and shows, instead of nutritious i,'rass and aromatic ll(»wers, nolhiiiL;
IjiiI a carpet of useless cryploifamic plants. Except in lons^f-coiitiimed droiijjfhts
or liard frosts, these marshes arc so wet as to l>c unal)k' to hear the Weitjht of a
]ursiin walking' over them. A march of three miles, sinkiiii; at every step into
till' moss, somctinu's knee-deep, and always as far as the ankle, is, it may well
he supposed, toilsome and fatii,'uint;, esj)ecially when, as must always bu tho
ciisu in attem|)tin!f to ](enetrate tho country, a heavy load is carried on tlu!
slidMldcrs. This thick coatini^ of moss is precisely like a jjjreat spoiiijo sjtreatl
over the country, and bt'coines at the mcltiiiLT of the snow in the spring thov-
(Miu'lily saturated with water, which it long retains, and which every shower of
mill continually renews.

Tlic " barrens " of Xewfoundland are those districts •which occupy tlio sum-
mits of the hills and ridy;es, and other elevated and exposed tracts. They aro
covered with a thin and scrubby vegetation, coiisistiiiLT of ber'T-bcaring jilants
ami dwarf bushes of various species, resembling the moorlands of the north of
Kiiuhind, and differing only in the kind of vegetation and its scantier (juantity.
IJare patches of gravel an<l boulders and crumbling fragments of rock aro fro-
(|Ui'iitly met with upon tho barrens, and they are generally altogether destituto
<jf vegetable soil. But only on tho barrens is it possible to explore tho interior
iif the country with any kind of i-ase or expedition. These different tracts arfl
mine of them of any groat extent ; woods, marshes, and barrens frotpiontly alter-
ii;itiiig with each other in tho co irsc of a day's jouriu'y.

Another remarkable feature of Newfoundland is the almost incredible num-
hcr of lakes of all sizes, all of whicli are indiscriminately calleil ponds. They
iirc scattered over the whole countiy, not only in tho valleys but on the higher
lands; and oven in the hollows of tho summits of the ridges and the very tops
of tho hills. They vary in size from i)Ools of fifty yards in diameter to lakes up-

mi

r

m

^\ m

M'3

I

(jHH'ili

' ; ^ Mil

'•'! I

i: p; !*

m

m

M'i

m

n78

Tin; I'OI.AK WOULD.

'. t-V.

ill ill

wiinl of tliii'ty miles lorii; ami fmir or lisr miles .'icro'vs. Tlio iiimilu'r of ihnMt
wliieli exceed ii eoiiiile of iiiiles in extent iiiiist on tin' wliole ainonnt to Mveril
liiimli'eilN, w hile tliox' uf II smaller .size are al»solMtely eoniitlcss, It is mi|,|„(S(.,i
that a full third o| the siiifai'ciof tlio island is covered i»y froh wah r, mid iliis
recUoniiii; is rather below than al)()Vo the mark. In a eonntry so alumdanilv
jirovided with lakes or ponds, it seems straii'^e to liinl no ims iLralilc tImts
The imdnlatin;,' surface of tin' land.uilii its alirMpt hills ami (Ueii ynllies is
wiihoiit all donltl.oiie cause of this al»sence of larifer streams.

Ilai'h |iond or small set of i)onds comnninicales with a vallev of its own
down u liith it sends .an in>iL;nilicant lirook. which takes the nearest course to
the sea. 'I'he chief cause, however, hoih of the vast alinndance of imndN and
the com|)arative scantiness of the hrooks, is to Iti- found in the i,'real cnaiiu.^r ,,f
inoss which spreads over the country, and i^'tains the w;.lcr like a simhiuc, al-
luwiiii; it to dniin off hut slowly and gradually.

'i'lu' wihls of Newfoundland are tenanted liy luimeroiis fi -lie.arin^ aniiiial-i,
affordinLT a LCi'eat source of t:;ain to some of the lishermen, w ho in w inti r tum
furriers. Arctiii foxes are here in all their variety. I leavers, once nearlv ex-
tirpated, l)Ut now unmolested owinixto the low value of their fur, are incrcasiii"
in nurnliers. Ihown hears are pretty nunu'roiis, and I'olar iiears sonmlinics HikI
their way to the northern promontory of the island upon the ice wliic comics
driftiiiLt d(»wii in spriiii^ from Davis's Straits. l\y way of contrast, in lidt mum-
niers the tropical hummin'.,f-l)ird has lieen known to visit the southern siiorcs
of Newfoundland. IJeindi'er are ahiindant, hut unfortunately their (iiciuic")
the wolves liavc! likewise increased in imtnl»er, since the reward jfiveii hy lliu
Colonial (lovermuent, foi* their destruction has ce.ased to he paid.

Allhou!_di in the same latitude as (.'entr.al France and the south of (Jermaiiv,
Newfoundland Iniv. ;i loniT and severe winter, owin<; to the two v.ast streams of
Arctic, water, the Davis's Stfaits and Hast (Greenland currents, which comliino
and mil l>y its shores; and tliu summer, tliouLjh .soinetinies intensely hot. is so
short ami so frcMiueiitlv obscured l)v fo"s that, even were the soil less sterile, a"-
riculture must necessarily bo conliued to narrow limits. The little wheat ainl
barley, cultivated on the iiisidf; lands far al)ove tiu' sea->h<>re. is often cut ijrecii,
and carrots, turnips, ))otatoes, ami ciibb.aiies are nearly .all tiie esculent vegeta-
bles which the land lias been provi'd c.ap.able of producini;.

Hence we can not AvomU'r that the whole island, which is cfnisidoralily lar^'cr
than ScotlaiKl, has only about !I0,(MI(» iuh.abitants, and even these? would liavo
bad no inducement to settle on .so iinpnimisintT a soil if the riclies of the sen
did not amply compciisato for the delicieiicies of the land. Fish is the staple
produpo of NewfouiKlland. .and the bulk of its population consists of poor ilsli-
ernien, who bave established themselves aloiiij; tlio deep bays by which the coast
is indentctl, and catch near tho coast vast quantities of cod, which they briiii»
in and onro at their leisure, in order to have it ready for the shijis when they
arrive. With the outer world tlioy liuvo little communication, and a visit to
St. John's, the capital of the island, forms an epoch in their solitary lives.

This town lies at the head of a wide and secure bay. and consists of a main
street fronting the water, from which narrow, dirty lanes and alleys branch out

NKWrolNDLANI).

ST'J

tdwnnls (lit! laiiil. Tlu' <liii.L'y, iiii|p:iiiifcil liuiiscs arc li\ult i)f won.l, tlic (iov-
tiiiiiHiil cililii'i's only l.iih/ coii-liiiclt'il of lirick or .sfniu'. 'I'lic loii'^ imwh ni
\\i.h-Mil'JV!< aloiiij tlif sliuic ailraci ttic >-li'aii'^'i r"s allctitinii, lnil lir i> >till iinn'i'
a^tiiai-'lii'il at tin- niiinllcss •/[{{ ami Imci- >Iiii|ps, wliicli at (iici- ti'U liiiii lie is
ill ;i iilaic wliiTc lliiiMy >aili>is ami lisja rmcii f'oriii the mass of tlic |io|ni!a-
ijiiii. In tlic- wiiilrr St. .lojin's i>i comiiarativtly iloci ti'il, as it tiicii lias no more
til 111 alioiit |n,(»iiu iiilial/itants, but llicir immlHM- is (IouI)IlmI or tii'liiccl (liiriiij^
till' li>liinL.'-'««'!isoii.

'i'lic i«laml of Xfwfotimllaml, llrst seen ami vi>itc(l In llio cli'vciitli ('(..nirj
liv till' NorsL' colonists ot (iri'i'iilaml, anil tlitn nttiiiy lorLiiittiii, was rL'ili>cov-
niil ill I H»T or 1 H'S liy .lolin and Sciiastian Calmt.

'I'Ih' rii'lincss ot its coil-lisJKM'ics soon attractid attention, ami li>licrnicn from
S|i.rni, l'"ran('(', I'ortnLfal, ami Knifland annually visited its banks. Tlio best liar-
liiHs aliiii',' the e(»ast were occii|iied by tlie first comers in sprini; — a circnm
stiinrc wliii'li Lravc rise to rrii|iieiit ijiiarrils. To obviate tliis lawless slate of
;ill:iiis, Sir I liiiii|ilirey (lilliert was sent out by (^ueen lOli/.alM'lli in l.')s:; to tak(!
|i(»si'ssion of (lie land. He dividid tin- coast about St. .lolm's into disti'icts,
a:iil tiiu lirilisli settlers wiHin'j,iy aLrreed to pay a tax to (ioverninent in tlie ex-
|ii'Ct;itii'n of seein'^f tlieir interests belter |irotected. Tin- new arrangement bad
11 iiciuliiial elTeet on tlie trade of Newb)nniilaml, lor in 1(11.") more than '2,')i)
Kii'ilisli vessels visited Si. Jolin's, and i,'raibially tlie wliok' of tliu eastern coast
vi the island was occii|(ieil by Knu'lisli lisliermeii.

The Frencli on their part coloiii/ed the north and sonih sides of the island,
;iii.l ff'Mided the town of I'lacentia, oik c a very coiisiiler;ible place, but now rc-
(huiil to iiisiL^niticancc. The rivalry of the French was naturally a throat sourro
fif jealousy to a nation ill-accuslomed to brook any foreii^n inti'usion into its
coiiiiiicrcial interests. Thus, after the war of the Spanish succession, (ireat
biitain deinamied and oittained by the Ti'caty of I'ti'echt the sole possession
of Newfoundland; and Louis XI\'., anxious for peace on any terms, willini^ly
nccciU'il to this sacritice, merely resi'rvin<4 for his subjects the rn^ht to dry on
tliu sliiires of the island the fish they had cauudit on the banks. \)y the subsc-
<(Ut'iit treaties of Paris the French were restricted to tlu^ small islands of St.
PiLTre and Miipielon, but not allowi'd to erect fortifications of any kind.

besides the Eniflish and the French, the Americans also ii.'ivu the riijfht to
fidi iiM the b;mks of Xewfoundland ; for when KiiLdand acknowledj^'cd the in-
lii'liciiilenre of the I'nited States, a formal article of the treaty of peace secureil
tu the latter the lishini; privilej^es which they had previously enjoyed as col-
on ii's.

The value of the dry codfish alone ex]iorted every year from Xewfoundland
is on ni', averajje about £400,000, while the total value of the exported produc-
tions ii lish, oil, and skins is upward of .£700,000. This, from a population
of 80,000 or 90,000, proves that the people of the island ouudit to be happy and
piosperous ; but unfortunately a system of credit renders the bulk of the fish-
oniieu entirely dependent on the merchants, and want of education is a further
so'irce of evil.

Though vast quantities of cod are taken along the shores of Newfoundland,

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THE POLAR WOPLD.

yet the most important fishery is carried on on tlie hanks at some (lisl;,iii.(.
from the ishind.

The (ire at JJank lies twenty leatines from tlie nearest point of land fromlm.
itude 41" to 4{)% and extends ;iO() miles in leiiu'th and To in breadth. To tliu
east of this lies tlie FaNc iiank; the next is styled the Green I'.ank about 'Jio
miles long and I'JO broad; then lianiinero, about the same size, witli scNcial
other shoals of less note, all aboundiiii,' with lish, but ehiftlv with coil tlie
great magnet which sets a.IioIo fleets in motion. In winter the eod niiie lo
the deeper waters, but they re-appear in March and April, when their purMu is
liasten to the spot, not only from the bays and coves of Newfoundhind hut
from (iiH'at l>ritain, the United States, and France.

While lishing, each man has a spac." three feet and a half wide allotted to
him on deck, so as not to interfere with iiis neighbor. The h ics are from tliliiv
to forty fathoms long — for the cod generally swniis at that dejith. Tlic dii, |
baits used are the scpiid, a species of cuttle-lish, ami the capi'liii, a small saliiKni
abounding on the North American coasts. The herring and the lauiice, aii.i
ii shell-lish called clam, which is found in the belly of the cod, are likewiso used.
In spring particularly the cod rushes so eagerly ujion the b'lit, that in ilic
course of a single day a good fisherman is able to haul up four liiiii(hc(l. nur
after another. This is no easy task, considering the size of tiie fi-h, whicli du
an average weighs fourteen jiounds, but has been taken four feet tiuee iiiclics
long, and forty-six pounds in weight. "When a large iisli, ti^o iioavy for tlic
li:ie, has been caught, the fisherman calls on his neighlxtr, who strikes a Imuk
attached to a long pole into the fish, and then safely hauls it on boar<l.

Mindful of the proverb which recommends us all to strike while the iron is
hot, the fishermen continue to catch cod for hours, until so many are heapeil mi
the dirk that to make room it becomes necessary to " dress tliem down."' This
is done on long ])lanks made to rest with both ends on two casks, and tlius
forming a narrow table. First, each man cuts out the tongues of llie iisli liu
lias caught, as his wages are reckoned by their Tiiimber, and then the wlnA;
crew^ divide themselves into t/irottfcr.i, /ii-adov, ,y >/!((('>'{<, S(tih}'>i, and jn «■/>•! rs.
The throater begins the operation of "dressing" by drawing his kuih' acmss
the throat of the cod to the bono and ripping open the bowels. He then passes
it to the header, who with a strong wrench pulls off the head and tears out tliu
entrails, wiiich lu- casts overbo.ard, passing the iish at the same time to the
splitter, who with one cut lays it open from head to tail, and aln.ost in tlic
twinkling of an eye with another cut takes out the backbone. Afti'r separatiiii:
the souiids, which are placed with the tongues and packed in barrels as a deli-
cacy, the backbone follows the entr.ails overboard, while the lish at the same
moment is jiassed with the other hand to the s;ilter. Such is the amiuiiiL;
quickness of the operations of lieading and splitting, that a good workman will
often decapitate and take on! die entrails and backbone of six iish in a minute.
Every fisherman is supposed to know something of each of these operations, and
no rivals at cricket ever entered with more anlor into their work than do some
athletic champions for the i)alm of "dressing down" after a " day's cateli."'

Generally the fog is so dense that one ship does not see the other, ahhoiigli

NEWFOUNDLAND.

381

both may l>c so near that the crews <listnictly hear eacli otiier's voices. Frc-
iiui'iitlv one is hardly able to see to the distance of a few feet, and the hirge dr()j)S
of the condensed mist fall like rain from the yards. During; calm weather the
a-ipi'ct of the sea is so dismal that it recjuires all the Imoyant spirits of a seaman
til resist its de|)ressin!jj indnence. For days the calm remains unbroken, and
no SI mild is lieard but that of a lish darting out of the water, or the screech of
a seu-hird flitting over the sea. liut sometimes a storm breaks this awful
silence of nature. At such times the fishing-ships, hidden in mists, run the
'_n'c:itest danger of striking against each other, although signaldanterns and
aiann-trunipets are used to give warni;ig. A tremen(h)us wave bursting ou
the fleck often strikes them with such force as to sink them or dash them to
|;!ccTS aiiainst the rocky coast. Thus many a widow and orphan has a mournful
talc to relate of the dangers of the cod-tisliery on the banks of Newfoundland.

In sdiue parts of the coast where the water is sutticiently shallow the cod-
fi~h are now caught in sieves or nets. This operation refjuires more capital to
(ommeiice with than the mere boat and hooks and lines of the common fisher-
iiR'ii, and, like all improvements, met at iirst with nuich opposition, on the plea
tliat it must interfere witli the interests of the poorer class. It is obvious, liov.-
I'Vi'i', tliat tlic use of the net is advantageous to the trade at large, for shoals, or,
astheyaie termed, " schools," of ilsli may sometimes be seen sweeping along
shore, which but for th-; net wouhl escape altogether. Bt'^ides, there seems
siidi an in' alc'jlable abinidance of tlie fish that there will always be enough to
hook, enough to jig, enough to net, and more than enough to go away.

"One calm July evening," says Mr. Jukes,* "I was in a boat just outside St.
.lohii's harbor, when the sea was i)retty still, and the lish were ' breaching,' as it
is tonaed. For several mih's around us the calm sea was alive M'ith lisji. Tiny
witl; sporting on the surface of the water, flirting their tails occasionally into
the air, and as far as could be seen the water was rippled iuid broken by their
movements. Looking down into its clear depths, codfish under codfish of all
sizes appeared swinnning about as if in t port. Some boats were Hsliing, but not
ahite couhl they get, the lish being already gor<;ed with food. 1\mI tlie ground
ken sliallow enough to use nets, the harbor might have been filled with fish."

Besides the cod-fishery, seal-catching is also carried on witii considerable suc-
cess on tho eastern coast, which intercejjts many innnense fields and islands of
iw as they move southward in the spring from the Arctic Sea. The interior
parts of these drifting shoals, with the lakes or openings interspersed, remain
unbroken, and on them myriads of seals may be foiuid. In the montii of IMarch
or A]iril, as soon as the icf'-fields descend with the currents from I)avis's Straits,
many small ships, not only from the harbors of the east coast of Newfoundland,
but even from the distant Scotch ports, particularly Aberdeen, put out to sea,
and i)ol(lly plunge into all the openings of the ice-fields to make war upon the
seals. Armed with firelocks and heavy bludgeons, the crews sur|u-ise the ani-
mals on the ice. In this way thousands are killed yearly from the north, but
their numbers have latterly decreased, and the seal-catehers pay the penalty of
their heedless and indiscriminate slaughter,

•" Excursions in Newfoundland."

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THE POLAK WORLD.

ciiaptp:r XXXVI.

GUEKNLAM).

A mystciiniis RoRion. — Ancient Scamliimviaii Colonists.— Their Decline and Fall.— Hans Eirmlo. — His
Tiiuh ami Success.— roinulation of (io<Uhaab. — llcrrenliutli Missionari s. — l.inclcniiw— Tlic s, ,„ ^,

liys. — Claveriji;;. — 'I he l).ini>li .'Selllenienis in (iicenlaml. — Tlic < li'MMiland I>i|iiiiiiavix. Si ;il-c lUli-

inj;. — Tlio W'liite l)ul|iliin. — 'I'ln' Narwhal. — Sliark-lisl;'ry. — ri>kcrMas.sct. — Itirils.— jjciml,., r Imnt-
ini^. — Inil'^;<'iioiis Plants. — Dril't-wooil. — Mineral Kln^^doiii. — Mode of Life ol' the Ureinlaml l,-(|iu-
nianx. — The Danes in (jreenl.ind. — ISeantifiil ."ieemry, — Ice Caves.

TX many respects Groi'iiliincl is one of tlie most remarkable ooir.itrics of the
-*- Arctic zone. Tlie wiiole of tlie iiortiierii coast of coiitiiicntal Aiiurica
from Capo I.isburno to ]>elle Isle Straits is known; the liorders of Silteria front-
ing the icy ocean have been thoroughly e.vplored by water and by land ; tlio
distance of Spitzbergeii and Nova Zembla from the pole has long since hcpii
determined; but how far Greenland may reach to the north we know nut —
though nearly a thou.sand years liavc pass.'d since the Icelander (Tuiinlijoni
(970 A.D.) iirst saw its high mountain coast, and in spite of all the attcin]ds
made since tliat time to circumnavigate it. The interior of the island— or (m;-
tinent as it may perhaps more justly bo called, for it has a surface of at least
ToO,000 sq.. are miles, and is |)robably larger than Australia — is also unknown;
for of this vast extent of territory only the narrow sliores of the coast-line
seemed to bo inhabitable, or even accessible to man. On penetrating into tlie
deeper fjords, all the valleys are found blocked with glaciers, which, on climb-
ing the heights, are seen to pass into a monotonous plateau of ice. or neve, MJiiili
seems to cover and conceal the whole interior. Thu.s, from its physical cont'iL:-
iiration, Greenland may well be called a mysterious region ; and, strange to sa\,
the history of the decline and fall of its first colonists is as little known as its
geograpliy.

We have seen in a previous cl'.apter tliat Iceland, so peaceful in the present
day, was peo))led in the ninth century with a highly turbulent race of jarls and
vikings. One of these worthies, called Erik Kauda, or the Red, having twice
dye.i his hands with blood, was banished by the Althing (982) for a term of
years, and resolved to pass the time of his oomjiulsory absence in exploring the
land discovered by (Tiinnbjorn. After spending three years on its western
coasts, he returiu'd to Iceland, and made so favorable a report of the new coini-
try, which — knowing the adv.antages of a good name — ho called Greenland, tli.it
in 98G he induced a large body of colonists to sail with him and .settle there.
Other emigrants followed, and in a few years all the habitable places of South-
ern Greenland were occupied.

The colony, which soon after its foundat'on adopted the Christian religion,
was divided into two districts, or " bygds " (from the Icelandic " byggia," to

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GHEENLAND.

383

, I

iiiliabit), by an iiitorvi'iiinii triu-t of land named Ubypl, the " niiinliabitablc " or
"uiiiiilialjitcd." Tlie West JiviLfd readied from bit. 00" (biwn to 02°, and eon-
tiiiR'il, ill its best days, ninety farms and four eliurebes. Soiitli of it lay ibe
(Icsfit, " Ul)yijd," of seventy y-eoi;ra|)liical miles, ternunated by tlie East Bygd,
consisting; of 100 farms, and having' two towns, (rardar and Alba, one cathcdial,
!iiul eleven clnirches. Tlie whole population may jirobably have amounted to
oriOO sonls. Tli'j eonntry was ixoverned by leelandic laws, and the iirst of its
ci^iitceii bishops, Arnold, was eleeted in 1 121, the last beiiiLI Eni'ride Andrea-
son, who was consecrated in 14O0. In spile of its poverty and distanci., (irce'i-
lainl was oliliged to contribute its mite to the revenue.^ of the Papal chair, for
MC read in the ancient annalists that in i;!20 its tiiliiite, eonsistinir of walrns-
t(rtli,was sold by the Pope's agent, IJertram of Ortoiis, to a merchant of Flan-
ders for till! sum of twelve livres and fourteen sous.

The time, however, was now fast appi'oaching when the (ireenland colony
was not only to cease paying tithes and Peter's pence, but to be svvpt away.
During the course of the fourteenth century it was visited by one misfortuno
after ;iiiother. Tiie bl.ack death, which carried off twenty-five millions of Euro-
])eans,(lld not spare its distant fjords (1;54S-!1), the Esquimaux harasscid the
sui'vi\ors with repeated attacks, killing some, and cai'ryiiig away others ca])tive.
A hostile tleet, suspected to be I-'nglish, laid waste the country in 141H; and,
finally, tiie revolutions and wars which broke out in Scandinavia after the deatli
of (>u('eii Margaret of Waldemar caused (Jreenland to be entirely neglected and
foigotten. The last cohmists either retreated to Iceland, or were destroyed by
tlio Esiiuiinaux, and nnny years elapsed before Greenland was again thought of
as a ]ilace where Scandinavians liad once been living. At length King Fi'ederick
II. of Denmark sent out Mogens lIeineson,a famous " sea-cock," as the chroni-
clers style him, to the south-eastern coast of (Jreenland (1-581), to see if men of
a Norse origin still dwelt along those ice-bound fjords. lieineson reached the
coast, hut the great transparency of the air, which in the Polar regions freipient-
k causes strange optical delusions, led him into a singular error. After having
.sailed for many hours in the same direction, and still seeing the mountains which
seemed quite near recede as ho advanced, he fancied himseit fettered by an in-
visihlo power, and thus the famous "se.a-cock" returned home M'ith the report
that, detained by a magnetic roul" ho h'' I not been able to reach the land.

In 100.5 King Christian IV. of Denmark sent out a new (ri-eenland expedi-
tion, consisting of three ships, undei* tiie .'omniaml of (iodske Lindenow, and
the guidance of James Hall, an English i)ilot. This time no magnetic rocks in-
tervened ; but the ships having separate(l. Hall landed on tlic west coast, which
.Kid already lieen rediscoverctl and visited by Davis, Hudson, Batlin, and other
Arctic iiavigato''.s ; while Lindenow, anclioring off Cape P'arewell, kidnapped two
Ks(|uini;uix, \\ ho afterwards died of nostalgia in Denmark. But neither Linde-
now, who the year .after again nnnle his appearance on the western coast of
lireeiiland,nor two later expeditions under Carsten Hichardson .and Dannell, were
ahle to effect n landing on any part of the eastern coast. It was in sight, but
tlie drift-ice made it in.accessible. They were equally unsuccessful in finding
iiny traces of the lost colony, which came at lengtii to be regarded as a mere

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Scandinavian myth. Kut while no one else oared about its existence, the anient
Hans E<j;e(le (burn in Xorway, January '.U, 1080), pastor of Vaage, in ili^ Lof,,.
ten Islands, still coTitinuod to cherish its memory. He h;id read in the aiiciunl
clironicles about the ohl Christian coirniutiities in Greenland, aiw^ could not he.
lieve in tlieir total extinction. He felc the <leeiiest concern in tl e fate of their
descendants, and the thought that after so long a sej>aration fr'jni the iiiotln.)'.
country they must needs I)e jtlungc*! in barbarism ;ind heatlun darkness left
liiiu no rest by night or day. At length lie resolved to devote his life to llnir
fipiritual welfare, and to become the apostle of rediscovered or regenerated
(xreenland. His zeal and perseverance overcame a thousand difficulties. Nei-
ther the public ridicule, nor the cohlnoss of the authorities to whom he vaiiilv
a})plied for assistance, nor the exhortations of his friends, could damp his ardor.
At length, after years of fruitless endeavors, after having given up his liviier
and sacrificed liis little fortune in the prosecution of his ])i.ms, he succeeded in
forming a Greenland Company, with a capital of Onoo dollars, and in obtaiiiiii',' ;iii
aimual stipend from the Danish Missionary Fund of ;?(){) dollars, to whicli Kin"
Frederic IV. added a gift of 200 dollars. With three ships, the largest of
which " The Hope," had forty colonists on board, Egede, accompanied by liis
wife and four children, set sail from the i)ort of Bergen on May 12, ITiJI.and
reached (ireenland on July ;<, after a long and tedious ])assage. The winds liad
driven him to the wesfern (loast, in latitude 04°, and here he resolved at once
to begin his evangelical labors with the Esquimaux. A wooden chapel w.is
speedily erected, which formed the first nucleus of the still existing settlement
of (Jodthaab.

IJut if the life of worthy Egede had for maiiy a year been full of trouble he-
fore he went to (rreeuland, trials still more severe awaited him during his mjios-
tolical career. He had not merely the suspicions of the Esquimaux, the enmity
of their medicine-men, the severity of the climate, ami not seldom even famine
to contend Avith. His own coimtrymen, disappointed in their hopes of carrying'
on a lucrative trade with tlie Greenlanders, resolved to abandon it aitogetliei',
and, after ton laborious years, the Government not only withdrew all furtliei' as-
sistance from the mission, but even ordered the colony to be broken up. All
his companions, with the excei)tion of a few volunteers who engaged to sliiue
his fortunes, now returned to Denmark ; but Egede, though his health had been
so shattered by almost superhuman exertions that he had long since been obliged
to leave all active duties to his son, resolved, like a faithful soldier, to die at liis
post. In 1/38 his perseverance was at length rewanled by tlie grateful news
that the king, at the entreaty of Count Zinzendorf, the founder of llerrenliutli,
had consented to bestow an annual grant of 2000 dollars on the Greenland mis-
sion, and that three Moravian brothers had arrived to assist him in his work.
Thus he could at length (173.5) return with a quiet heart to his native country,
where he died, universally regretted, in 1758, at the age of seventy-two.

It may easily be su])posed that, during liis long stay in Greenhuid, he anx-
iv^isly sought the traces of his lost count''ymen,for the desire to help them had
first led him to that Arctic country. Xothing in the physiognomy of the V.s-
quihiaux or in their language pointed in any way to a European origin, ami

GREENLAND.

883

even their traditions said not n word of the old Norse settlers who had once
inhabited the land. The ruins of some churches, and other buildings scattered
here and there along tlie west coast, alone attested their existence, and formed
a link l)etween the past and the present. Thus if Greenland still had inhabit-
ants of Scandinavian origin, they must necessarily be contine<l to the eastern
coast beyond Cape Farewell. Hut Kgeile was as little able as his predecessors
to penetrate through the ice-belt which, both by land and sea, completely sepa-
ratc'il it from the rest of the world.

For many years after iiis death it remained unknown and inaccessible; and
I,o\vcnorn, who was sent out in 1786-87 to renew the attempts of lleineson
and Lindenow, had no better success. No doubt many a whaler may have ad-
mired its distant mountain peaks glowing in the evening sun, or may have been
driven by the storm against its shores, but the Scoresbys were the first to de-
terinino accurately the position of part of its well-fenced coast. In the year
1817, Captain Scoresby the elder, deviating from the usual course of the whalers,
steered through the western ice, and reached the cast coast of Greenland be-
yond 70°. He could easily have landed; the coast which had so fretpiently
bafflwl the attempts of previous navigators lay invitingly before him, but ho
could not sacrifice his duty as the commander of a whaler to curiosity or re-
lown. And thus, without having set his foot on shore, he sailed back into the
open «!oa. On a later visit, however, he landed in the sound which bears his
name. In the year 1822 Scoresby the younger succeeded in more closely ex-
aniiniiig the land. Leaving the usual track of the whalers, he had steered to
tlie west, and threaded his way through the drift-ice until, between 70° 3;3' and
71° 12 N. lat., the coast of Greenland lay before him. No coast that he had
ever seen before had so majestic a character. The mountains, on which he be-
stowed the name of Uoscoe, consisted of numberless jagged stones or pyramids,
rising in individual peaks to a height of 3000 feet, and a chaos of sharp needles
covered their rough declivities.

On July 24 he landed on a rocky promontory, which he named Cape T-ister
(70° 30'), and, climbing its summit, continuc<l his excursion along its back, which
was between three .and four hundred feet high. Here and there between the
.nones, which were either n.iked or thinly clothed with lichens, bloomed Andro-
mtdd (i'traf/niia,a Sd.v/'thtr/a opposi(!/<>lHi,n Papnvor nndicnnh, ov a Ranun-
i}idi(s iiii'iili.i. At Cape Swainson he again descended to the shore, which here
formed aflat strand about COO feet broad. Souk deserted Esipiimaux huts soon
arresteil his attention. Ch.irred drifl-wood an<'. a quantity of ashes lay scattered
al)oiit the hearths, and proved that these dwellings h;id not been hnig forsaken.
Scarcely a bird was to be seen on land, but countless auks and divers animated
the waters. A great number of winged insects — butterflies, bees, mosquitoes
—flew or buzzed about, particularly on the hillocks between the stones. On
•bily 25 he once more lan<led on Cape Hope, where he again found traces of in-
habitants. Bones of hares ami fragments of reindeer horns lay scattered about
on the gro'ind. The skidl of a dog was planted on a small mound of earth,
for it is a belief of the Greenland Esquimaux that the dog, who finds his way
everywhere, must necessarily be the best guide of the innocent children to the

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THE POLAR WORLD.

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land of souls. The heat, which soon put an end to this excursion, was so gteat
that many of the plants had shed their seeds, and some were already complete-
ly dried up and shrivelled.

The part of the coast of East Greenland discovered by Scorcsby, and that
which was visited the year after by Clavering, lay, however, too far to the north
to afford any clue about the extinct Scandinavian settlements, even supposin"'
them, as was then still believed, to have been partly situated to the cast of Cape
Farewell. At length in the year 1829, Captain Graah, who had boon sent out
by King Frederick VI. of Denmark, succeeded in exploring the south-eastern
coast of Greenland, from its southern extremity to the latitude of Oo' 18',
beyond which no colony could ever have existed ; and as he nowhere found
either the most insignificant ruins or the least traces of an ancietit Christian
settlement in the language and customs of the natives, it was now fully proved
that the east bygd of the old chroniclers was, in reality, situated on the south-
western coast of Greenland, in the present districts of Julianshaab and Liolite-
nau, a coast which, in comparison with the more northern colonies of Frederik-
shaab and Fiskernas, distinctly trends to the east.

The present Danish settlements, which arc confined to the more sheltered
fjords of its western coast, are divided into a north and south inspectorate, the
former extending from lat. 67° to 72°, and comprising the districts of Upernavik,
Onienak, Jakobshavn, Christianshaab, P]gedesmindr, and Godhavn, on Disco
Island ; while the latter contains the districts of Ilolsteensborg, Sukkortoppen,
Godthaab, Fiskernassc*;, Frederikshaab, and Julianshaab.

In the year 1855 the population of the South Inspectorate consisted of C128
aboriginal Greenlanders, or Esquimaux, and 120 Europeans; that ofthoXorth
Inspectorate, of 3516 of the former, and 128 of the latter ; a very small runiber
if we consider that it is scattered over a space of 12° of latitude. In a country
li"ke this, such towns as Godhavn, with 150 inhabitants, or Godthaab, the most
populous of all, with 330, pass for considerable cities.

But, in spite of its scanty population, Greenland is a valuable possession of
the Danish crown, or rather of the Danish company which entirely monopolizes
the trade, and manages its affairs so well that the orreenlander receives for iiis
produce only about the sixth part Oi its price at Copenliagen. According to
the average of six years (1850-1855), the total value of the exports from
Greenland amounted to 378,588 rix-doUars; that of the importations fiom
Denmark, to 104,215; but in the latter sura was included not only the ))rice
paid to the Greenlanders for their goods, but all the stores and provisions
necessary for the agents and servants of the company, the missionaries, and the
administration of the colony. The trifling amount which, after all dednclions
and charges, the poor Greenlander receives for his seal-skins or his blubber,
he generally spends in tobacco, candy-sugar, coffee, and sea-biscuits, for his real
wants are amply supplied by his own country, and he has not yet learned to
invest his gains more profitably. Like all other Esquimaux, he depends chiefly
upon the sea for his subsistence. Of the various species of PhocaB found in
the Greenland waters the most valuable is the hispid seal {Phoca hispida),
both from its uumbers and from its frequenting the fjords during the whole

li

GREENLAND.

381

year; while the larger Greenland seal {Phoca grcenlandica) is not stationary
like the former, but leaves the coast from March to May, and from July to
September. The Cystophora cristata, or hooded seal, remarkable for a globular
sac capaMe of inflation, on the head of the male, appears in the fjords only
from x\pril till June. It is the most pugnacious of all the seals. In the south-
ern districts, where the seal-hunting must be chiefly carried on in open water,
the Grcenlander relies upon his boat, the kayak. When the animal is struck,
the barbed point of the harpoon detaches itself, by an ingenious mechanism,
from the shaft, which otherwise would be broken by its violent contortions ;
and as the line is attached to a bladder, it can easily be recovered.

Among the cetaceans, the white dolphin {Delphinopterus leucas) and the
narwhal (Jlonodon monoceros) are the most valuable to the Grcenlanders of
the Xorth Inspectorate, from 500 to 600 of these huge animals being annually
caught. The former makes '.ts appearance a short time after the breaking up
of the ice, and again in autumn ; in summer it seeks the open sea. Sometimes
large herds of the white dolphins aro cut off from the sea by the closing in of
the ice in the neighborhood of the land, so that several hundred may be killed
in the course of a few days. The narwhal is caught only 'n the Omenak fjord,
which it visits regularly in Novamber. As its chase is both diflicult and dan-
dorous, the Grcenlanders generally hunt it in company, so that after a narwhal
has been struck with the first harpoon or lance, others are ready to follow up
the advantage. The larger whales are now seldom caught, but the dead body
of a fin-back is not seldom cast ashore, and affords a rich harvest to the neigh-
borhood. Sometimes masses of oil, evidently proceeding from dead whales,
are found floating in the fjords. In 1854 ninety-five tons of this matter were
collected near Holstcinburg.

The fishes likewise amply contribute to supply the Greenlander's wants.
The shark-fishery {Scymnus microcephalus) is of considerable importance.
Tlie entrails of seals and other offal are placed in the openings of the ice to at-
tract these sharks to the spot, where they are caught in various ways, particu-
larly by torch-hght, which brings *hem to the surface. The fishermen, watch-
ing the moment, strike them with a sharp hook, and then drag them upon the
ice. They are also caught with strong iron angles attached to chains. They
are captured for the sake of their livers, which yield a good deal of oil. It has
very recently been ascertained that a valuable substance resembling spermaceti
may be expressed from the carcass which was formerly wasted, and for this
purpose powerful screw presses are now employed. About 30,000 of these
gluttonous animals are caught every year, and the fishery may be greatly ex-
tended, as the bottom of the ice-fjords absolutely swarms with them. Their
capture is attended with far less trouble and danger than in Iceland, where
they are pursued in boats, and in a capricious and tempestuous sea. Improv-
ing upon the old Esquimaux methods of fishing or hunting, the Danish resi-
dents set nets for the white whale or the seal ; for the former, they are attach-
ed to the shore, and extend off at right angles, so as to intercept them in their
autumnal southern migration, when they swim close along the rocks to avoid
the grampus. When the white whale is stopped by the net, it often appears

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388

THE POLAR WORLD.

at first to bo unconscious of the fact, and continues to swim against it and
then allows the bout to approach it from beliind. If eiitant^lod in tlio net it is
soon drowned, as, lilvc all the whale tribe, it is obliged to come to the Mirface
to breathe.

A large quantity of cod aro caught in various i)arts of tlie South Inspt'cto-
rate, particularly at Fiskernasset, which, being less subject to fogs and more
exposed to the sea-wind, offers i^culiar advantages for the drying of the fish
The capelin (Mallotita villosns), which in 3Iay and June visits the coiists of
Greenland in great numbers, is eaten both fresh or laid upon the rocks to diy
for the winter. The sea-wolf, the lump-fish, the bull-head, the Norway iiad-
dock, the salmon-trout, are likewise important articles of food. The lialihiit
grows to a huge size, and a smaller species {Ilippoglossuspinf/itis) is fislicd for
at the depth of 180 or even ;JHO fathoms. The banks frequented by iliis fisli
are most valuable to the neighboring Greenlanders. Many are no doubt still
nndiscovcred, others may be known by the dead fish floating on the stu-facc or
by the seals diving out of the water with a flat fish in their mouth. Lontj-tail-
ed crabs aro easily caught in many parts, and the common nnisscl ni;iT be
gathered almost everywhere at ebb tiile.

Crowds of birds nestle during the summer on the rocky shores, particularly
at Upernavik, where the largest breeding-places are found. They are general-
ly killed with p. nail blunted arrows. In the ice-fjord of Jacobshavn the gulls
are caugiit ingeniously by floating traps on which something brilliant or re-
sembling a fish is fixed. The eggs of the sea-birds .are gathered in vast num-
bers, and the feathers and skins of the eider-duck and auk are both exported
and used for the lining of boots.

Compared with the wealth of the seas, the land is very poor. The chase of
the reindeer is, however, nnportant, as its skin affords both a warmer and a
softer clothing than that of the seal, and serves moreover as a bed-cover or a
sledge-carpet. Reindeer-hunting is a favorite summer occupation of the Green-
landers, who annually kill from 10,000 to 20,000, and export about one-half of
the skins. Only a few cows, sheep, and goats are kept at Julianshaab. I"or
want of hay they aro fed with fish during the winter. In South Greenland the
potato is cultivated by the European residents as a luxury. The plant never
flowers, and even buds are rare. Turnips, cabbages, salad, and spinach like-
wise grow in South Greenland, but barley sown in the gardens scarcely ever
comes to ear. In summer the windows of the houses are gay with geraniums
and fuchsias and other flowers of a more temperate zone.

Among the indigenous nlants, the berries of the Emjyetrum nigrum, Vac-
cinium ulif/inosum, and Vaccmimn rutis idcea furnish the Greenlanders with
their only vegetable food. While the coasts exposed to the bleak sea-winds
afford scanty traces of vegetation, the valleys and hill slopes of the more
sheltered fjords are green during the summer, and justify the name bestowed
by Erick on the land of his adoption. Forests are of course out of the question
in Greenland, though in some places the birch attains a not inconsiderable
size. Thus in a dell at the upper end of Lichtenau Fjord a thicket of these
trees, fifteen feet high, surrounds a little lake fed by a watei-fall, the largest

■If I',

GREENLAND.

889

hitherto known in Grcctilantl. More generally, liowever, the trees, such as tho
beech, the Avillow, the elder, ete., merely creep alonij thu cfroa:'^^, where the
dense inattint? of tlieir roots and branches, minified with bnshes of the einpe-
tniin, or with mosses, lichens, and fallen leaves, forms u kind of turf which is
used as fuel by the Danes.

In some measure the sea makes up for tlie want of timber by casting on tho
shore a (piantity of drift-wood, the orij^in of which is still a matter of doubt,
sonic tracing it to the North American rivers, others to those of Siberia. It
consists mostly of the tiprooted trunks of coniferous trees. Sometimes also
large pieces of bark, such as those of which the Indians make their canoes, and
sewn together Avitli threads of hair, and drifted into the fjords.

The mineral kingdom, though it has within the last few years attracted the
attention of speculators, will hardly ever realize their hopes. Several attempts
to wfirk the lead and coj)|ier ores at Xanursoak and in the Aiksak fjord have
miserably failed. The cost of transport is immense, and the difficulty of ob-
taining the necessary workmen presents an insuperable obstacle to all minini^
operations in Greenland.

Tliough the (xreenlanders liavo now bcoti f(»r n.oro than a century under tho
inflnence of Christian teachers, yet their mode of life is still much the same as
that of their relatives tho wild Esquimaux on the opposite continent of North
Anicricn. Like them, they >iso tho " kayak," the " oomiak," and the sledge ;
like tiicni, they live in small winter huts of sione (the snow-house is unknown
tothcni) or in summer tents hung with skins, and they arc equally improvi-
dent in times of abundance. Their constant intercourse with Europeans has,
however, taught them the use of many luxuries unknown to the wild Esqui-
manx, and they are now great consumers of coffee. They are fond of instruc-
tion, but the immense space over which the population is scattered, and their
vagrant life during a great part of the year, are great hinderances to their ira-
provenicnt. They are also very good-natured, and live on the best terms with
tlie Danes who reside among them. Tiie latter, who, with the exception of the
Moravian missionaries, are all in the service of the Company, soon get attached
to the country, and leave it with regret ; sometimes even returning to close
their days in Greenland.

Tlie climate, though severe, is very healthy, and the lover of sport finds am-
ple opportunities for gratifying his favorite passion. In September, or at the
beginning of October, the last ships leave for Europe ; and then, till the next
April or May — when the first English whalers appear in the ports of Godhavu
or Upernavik — all communication with the civilized world is totally cut off.
Towards tlie end cf January or the beginning of February, when the days begin
rapidly to lengthen, frequent sledge-parties keep up a constant interchange of
visits between the various settlements. This mode of travelling over the lakes
and inclosed fjords is very agreeable in 3day, as then the sun is pleasantly
warm at noon ; and though he hardly disappears below the horizon, the nights
are sufficiently cold to convert the melted snow into ice hard enoi.gh to bear
the weight of a sledge. This is the best time for visiting many interesting
spots inaccessible at other seasous of the year, and for enjoying many a scene

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THE POLAR WORLD.

unHurpasscd in Switzerland itself. Here, ns on the Alps, the pincier anrl tho
Bnow-clnd peak nppc.ir in all tlieir grandeur ; here also, in the valleys, the suni.
mer brooks flow between well-clothed banks, and the Helvetian lakes arc vo,-.
thily rivalled l)y the magnificent fjords of CTreenland.

In many parts, tho waves, beating against tho steep coasts of tho islands
and fjords, render access difficult, if not impossible during the summer, hut in
winter or spring they may easily be visited across the 'n'x>. The surf has wmn
many caves in these precipitous rock walls, which are no loss remarkalik' lor
their picturesque basaltic forms than for the huge masses of ice on tliciisidts
which, in their tints and grouping, far surpass the stalacti'.es of the most re-
nowned European grottoes.

THE AInTaRCTIC ocean.

m

CIIAPTEU XXXVTI.

THE ANTARCTIC OCEAN.

Comparative View of the Antarctic ami Arctic Uc^'ioiis. — Inferiority of Climate of the former. — It»
Causes.— The Nuw Slietiiiiul Islaii(lH.--Stimli (iiori^iii. — Tlie I'cruviuii Stream.— Sca-birdi. — Thotii-
iint I'i'trcl.— Tlie Albatross.— Tlic rcnuiiin.— The Austral Whale— Tho lliiiichliuck.— The Kin-hack.
—The (ir.iiii|iiis. — [lattlc with a Whalu. — The iSuu-ch'phuiit. — 'lliu Soiilhcrii Sua-bcur. — The Sjea«
liiijiurd.— .Antarctic Fishes.

^piIK Antarctic rcj^ioiis are far more desolate ami barren than the Arctic.
-^ Here we have no energetic liiuiters, like the K.stiuimaii.v, chasing the seal
or the walrus; no herdsmen following, like the Samoicdes or the Lapps, their
rciiulcer to the brink of the icy ocean ; but all i.s one dreary, uninhabitable
waste. While within the Arctic Circle the inusk-o.\ enjoys an al)undance of
food, and the lemming is still found tiiriving on the bleakest islands, not a sin-
gle hind quadruped exists beyond .00"' of southern latitude.

Sininner Howers gladden the sight of the Arctic navig-itor in tlie most north-
ern lands yet reached ; but no plant of any description — not even a moss or a
liclieii — has been observed beyond Cockburn Island in G4° 12' S. lat. : and while
even in Spitzbergen vegetatioa ascends the mountain slopes to a height of 3000
feet the snow-line descends to the water's edge in every land within or near the
Antarctic Circle.

An open sea, extending towards the northern pole as far as the eye can reach,
points out the path to future discovery; but the Antarctic navigators, witli one
single exception, have invariably seen their progress arrested by barriers of ice,
and none have ever penetrated beyond the comparatively low latitude of
78" 10'.

Even in Spitzbergen and East Greenland, Scoresby sometimes found the
heat of summer very great ; but the annals of Antarctic navigation invariably
speak of a frigid temper.ature. In 1773, when Captain Phinps visited Spitsber-
gen, the thermometer once rose to +58^°; and on July 15, 1820, when the
"Ilccla" left her winter-tiuarters in Melville Island (74° 47' N.),slie enjoyed a
warmth of +56°. But during the summer months spent by Sir James lloss
in the Antarctic Polar area, the temperature of the air never once exceeded
+ 41° 5'. In Northumberland Sound (76° 42' X.), prob.ibly the coldest spot
hitherto visited in the north, the mean of the three summer months was found
to he 4-30° 8', while within the Antarctic Circle it only amounted to -f 27° 3'.

The reader may possibly wonder why the climate of the s nithern polar re-
gions is so much more severe tlian that of the high northern la itudes ; or why
coasts and valleys, at equal distances from the equator, shouhl in one case be
fomul green with vegetation, and in another mere wastes of snow and ice ; but
the predominance of land in the north, and of sea in the south, fnlly answers

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tlic qtu'ntion. Witliin the Arctit; Circle \vc sec vast continrntalmnJtics piojoct.
ini; far ti> tho inii'tli, so as to form an almost fontiiiuoiis hi-lt round the icy
HL'ii; while in the soiitlicni lii'mis|ilu>rt', the contiiioiitN taper ilowii in a vast ex-
tent of open (x-ean. In the north, tho plainis of Siberia and of the ll(iiis<iii\
Hay territories, warinetl l»y the siuiheams of Kiimnier, become at that KeaMiu
centres of ratliatim^ heat, so that in many jtarts the jjjrowth of forests, or even
tho culture of the cereals, advances as hi<;h us 70" of latitude; while the An-
turctiu hiiulH are of n comparatively stiiall extent, and isolateil in the ini<lst of
fri<;i<i waters, whose temperature scarcely varies from 4-'J!t' '2' even in ilic
height of summer. Mostly situated within the Antarctic Circle, and cunstanilv
chilled by cold .sea-winds, they uct ut every season as refrigerators of the atniuv
phero.

In the north, tlie formation of icebergs is confined to a few mountainous
countries, such as the west coast of Greenland or Spit/.bergen ; but the Antarc-
tic coast-lands generally tower to a considerable height aiwve the level of tho
Bca, and the vast fragments which are constantly detaching themselves from
their glaciers keep up the low temperature of the seas.

In the north, the cold currents of the Polar Ocean, with their drift-ico and
bergs, have but the two wide gates of the Greenland Sea and Davis's Strait
through which they can emerge to the south, so that their influence is cnntincd
within comparatively narrow limits, while the gelid streams of the Antarctic
seas branch out freely on all sides, and convey their floating ice-masses far and
wide within the temperate seas. It is only to the west of Newfoundhind tliut
single icebergs have ever been known to descend as low as 'M)° of latitude; hut
in the southern hemisphere they have been met with in the vi(;inity of the C.npo
of Good Hope (.3.')^ S. lat.), near Tristan d'Acunha, opj)osite to the mouth of the
Rio de la Plata, and within a hundred leagues of Tasmania. In the north, fin.il-
ly, we find the Gulf Stream conveying warmth even to the shores of Spitzl)orgcn
and Xova Zembla ; while in tho oi)posite regions of the globe, no traces of warm
currents have been observed beyond 5.5° of latitude.

Thus the predominance of vast tr.acts of flat land in the boreal hemisphere,
and of an immense expanse of oce.an in the Antarctic regions, suflicicntly ac-
counts for the a?stival warmth of the forinei-, and the comparatively low sum-
mer temporaturc of the latter.

It is unnecessary to describe in detail each of the desolate lands which mod-
ern n.avigators have discovered among the Antarctic ice-fields, but it may not
be uninteresting to compare one or two of these dreary wastes with the lands
of the north, situated in analogous latitudes.

The New Shetland Islands, situ.ated between 61° and 63° of Southern lati-
tude, were origin.ally discovered by Dirck Gheritz, a Dutch navigator, who, in
attempting to round Cape Horn, was carried by tempestuous weather within
sight of their mountainous coasts. Long forgotten, they were re-discovered in
1819 by M'-. Smith, a master in the royal navy — whom a storm had likewise
carried thither — and in the following year more accurately examined by Edward
Bransfield, whose name survives in the strait which separates them from D'Ur-
ville's Louis Philippe Land.

THE ANTAUCTir OC KAM.

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III 1820, tho " C'liiinliclt'iT," C'lipliiiii KorHler, wuh hi-iiI to Now Slii'tluml for
the |>ur|)o»t> of in!ikiii<{ iiiiii^iu'tic and otluT pliysical ul)Ni>rv»lioiiM, niul reiiiaiiit'd
for Hi'ViTal inoiiths at Docc-ptioii Islaii'l, wliicli wuh Hc-luctuil as u btatiuii from itH
giToi'iliiiLf the Ik'sI liarhor in South Shclhiml.

Though thi'.se islanils aru Nitiiato'l at about the Kanio distance from the polo
ns till' Faroe Islands which boast of numerous tlot'lvs of wheep, and whore the
H'H never freezes, yet, when the " Chanticleer " uppruached Deception I^<lanll, on
Jiininiy o (a month correspoiulinj^ to our July), so many icebergs were scatter-
ed iiltoiit, that Korster counted at one time no fewer than eighty-one. A gale
Imviiig arisen, accompanied by a tiiick fog, great care was neede<l to avoid run-
iiiiii,' foul of these floating cliffs. After entering the harbor — a work of no
sli'.'lit (litliculty, from the violence of the wind — the fogs were no frei|uent that,
fur the first ten days, neither sun nor stars were seen ; and it was withal so raw
and cold, that Lieutenant Kendal, to whom we owe a sliort narrative of the expe-
dition, did not recollect having suffered more at any time in the Arctic regions,
even at the lowest range of the thermometer. In this desolate land, frozen water
Itcconies an integral portion of the soil; for this volcanic island is composed
chiefly of alternate layers of ashes and ice, as if the snow of each winter, during
u series of years, had been prevented from melting in the following summer, by
the ejection of cinders and ashes from some part where volcanic action still goea
on. Early in March (the September of the north) the freezing over of the cove
in which tlie ship w.'is secured gave warning that it was high time for her to
quit this desolate port. With much difHcuUy and severe labor, from the fury
of the gales, they managed to get away, and wo may fully credit Lieutenant
Kcndars assertion, that it was a day of rejoichig to all on board when the
shores of Deception faded from their view.

In 1775 Cook, on his second voyage, discovered the largo island of South
Georgia, situated in latitude 54° and 55°, a situation corresponding to that
of Scarborough or Durham. Hut what a difference in the climate, for " we saw
not a river or stream of water," says the great navigator, " on all tho coast of
Georijia. The head of tho bay, as well as two ])Iaces on each side, was termi-
nated by perpen<licular icebergs of considerable height. Pieces were continu-
ally breaking off and floating out to sea, and a great fall happened while we
were in the bay, which made a noise like a cannon. The inner parts of the
country were not less savage and horrible. The M'ild rocks raised their lofty
summits till they were lost in the clouds, and the valley lay covered with ever-
lasting snow. Not a tree was to bo seen, not a shrub even big enough to make
a toothpick. The only vegetation was a coarse strong-liladed grass growing
in tufts, wild burnet, and a plant like moss, which sprang from the rocks. The
lands, or rather rocks, bordering on the sea-coast were not covered with snow
like the inland parts, but all the vegetation we could see on the clear places was
the grass above mentioned. ' To find scenes of a similar wintry desolation, we
must travel in the north as far as Nova Zembla or Spitzbergen, which are 20°
or 24° nearer to the pole !

Thus the influence of the cold Antarctic waters extends far within the tem-
perate zone. We can trace their chilling effects in Kerguelea Land (5Q° $.

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894

THE POLAR WORLD.

lat.), which when visited by Cook in the height of summer was found covered
with snow, and where only five plants in flower were collected ; in Tierra del
Fuego (53° S. lat.), wher^^ the mean summer temperature is fully 9^° lower than
that of Dublin (53° 21' N. lat.) ; in the Falkland Islands (51° 30'), which, thou<'h
flat and low and near Patagonia, have, according to Mr. Darwin, a climate sinii.
lar to tha which is experienced at the height of between one and two thousand
feet on the mountains of North Wales, with less sunshine and less frost Ijut
more wind and rain ; and finally along the south-west coast of America where
tlje Peruvian current and the cold sea-winds so considerably dejjress the snow-
lincj that while in Europe the most southern glacier which comes down to the
sea is met with, according to Von Buch, on the coast of Xorwav in lat. 07° •
the "Beagle" found a glacier fifteen miles long and in one part seven miles
broad descending to the sea-coast in the gulf of Penas, in a latitude (46' 50)
nearly corresponding with that of the Lake of Geneva.

" The position of this glacier," says Mr. Darwin, " may be put even in a
more striking point of view, for it descends to the sea-coast within less than 9"
from where palms grow ; within 4^° of a region where the jaguar and puma
range over the plains, less than 2^° from arborescent grasses, and (lookinfr to
the westward in the same hemisphere) less than 2° from orchideous parasites
and within a single degree of tree-ferns !" As the influence of the tropical tjiilf
stream reaches as far ns Spitzbcrgen, so that of (lie cold Peruvian stream, Mhich
issues from the Antarctic Seas, extends even to the equator, and not seldom re-
duces the temperature of the waters about the Galapagos to less than +58^",
so that reef-building corals, which require a minimum warmth of +00°, are
unable to grow near islands situated directly under the line.

Though the Antarctic lands are so bleak and inclement that not a single
quadruped is to be found within 60° of latitude, yet they are the resort of in-
numerable sea-birds which, belonging to the same families as those ot the north,
generally form distinct genera or species, for with rare exce])tions no bird is
, found to inhabit both the Arctic and the Antarctic regions.

Thus in the petrel family we find the fulmar {Procellaria glacialis) and the
glacial petrel ( P. gelkla) of the high north represented in the Antarctic Seas
by the giant petrel {^Procellaria gifjantea), which extends its flight from Pata-
gonia to the ice-banks of the south, where the Antarctic and the snowy petrels
{P. antarctica et nivea) first appear, cold-loving birds which never leave those
dreary waters, and are often seen in vast flocks floating upon the drift-ice.

The giant petrel, which has received from the Spaniards the significant r.ppel-
lation of " quebranta huesos,'''' or " break-bones," is a more powerful bird than
the fulmar. It is larger than a goose, with a strong beak 4^ inches long. Its
color is a dirty black, white below, and with white spots on the neck and back,
In its habits and maimer of flight it closely resembles the albatross, and, as wi(h
the albatross, a spectator may watch it for hours together without seeing on
what it feeds. Like the fulmar it feasts upon fishes, or the carcasses of seals and
cetaceans, but it also chases other birds. At Port Saint Antonio it was seen by
some of the ofiicers of the " Beagle" pursuing a diver, which tried to escape by
diving and flying, but was continually struck down, and at last killed by a blow

T

THE ANTARCTIC OCEAN.

S9S

on its head. Such is its voracity that it does not even spare its own kind, for
a gigantic petrel having been badly wounded by a snot from the " Terror,"
and falling at too great a distance for a boat to be sent after it, was immediate-
ly attacked by two others of the same kind and torn to pieces. It is a common
bird both iu ihe open sea and in the inland channels of Tierra del Fuego, and
the south-west coast of x\merica.

The wandering albatross {Diomedea exiilans), closely allied to the petrels,
and rivalling the condor in size and strength of wing, may truly be ranked among
the Antarctic birds, as it is seldom seen in a lower latitude than 36°, and in
creases in numbers towards the south. Freyssinet saw it most frequently be-
tween 55° and 59° S. lat., and it probably knows no other limits than those of
the Polar ice. It is found in every meridian of this enormous zone, but the
regions of storms — the Cajjc of Good Hope and Cape Horn — .are its favorite
resorts. Here it may frequently be seen in the full majesty of its flight.

The auks of the northern hemisphere are represented, in the austral regions,
by the penguins, who, as Buffon remarks, are the least bird-like of all birds.
Their small wing-stumps, covered with short rigid scale-like feathers, are alto-
gether incapable of raising the body in the air, but serve as admirable paddles
in the water, and on land as fore feet, with whose help they so alertly scale tho
grassy cliffs that they might easily be mistaken for quadrupeds. Their feet,
like those of the auks, are placed so far back that the body is quite upright
when the bird is standing on the ground, a position which ir^nders their gait
uncommonly slow and awkward, but greatly facilitates their movements in tho
water. When at sea and fishing, the penguin comes to the surface for the pur-
pose of breathing with such a spring, and dives again so instantaneously, that at
first siglit no one can be sure that it is not a fish leaping for sport. Other sea-
birds generally keep a considerable part of their body out of the water while
swimmings but this is not the case with the penguin, whose head alone appears
above the surface, and thus rowing at the same time with its wings a. id feet, it
swims so quickly that many fishes would fail to keej) up with it. Sir James
Ross once saw two penguins paddling away a thousand miles from the nearest
land. Protected against the cold by a thick layer of fat and a warm great-coat,
of feathers, it remains for months on the high seas, and seeks land only in tho
summer for the purp(<se of breeding. At this time it is found in vast numbers
on the Falkland Islands, Kerguelen's Land, Xew Shetland, or wherever in the
Antarctic Seas, perhaps even to tho pole itself, a convenient coast invites its
stay. On Possession Island, for instance, a desolate rock, discovered by Sir
James Ross in lat. 71° 56', myriads of penguins covered the whole surface of
the land, along the ledges of the precipices, and even to the summit of the hills.
Undaunted by the presence of beings whom they had never seen before, the
birds vigorously attacked the British seamen as they waded through iheir
ranks, and pecked at them with their sharp beaks, a reception whicli, together
with their loud coarse notes, and the insupportable stench of their guano, made
our countrymen but too happy to depart, after having loaded their boat with
geological specimens and penguins. There are sever.al species of this singular
bird. The largest and rarest {Aptenodi/tcs Fursterl) is generally found sin-

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THE ANTARCTIC OCEAN.

897

frly, wliilo tlio smaller species always associate in vast niimbcrs. Several were
cauijlit in lat. 77° by Sir James Koss aiul brought on board alive ; indeed it
was a very difficult and a cruel operation to kill tliem, until liydrocyanic acid
was resorted to, of Avliich a tablespoonful etfe(!tually accomplished the purpose
in less than a minnte. These enormous birds varied in weight from sixty to
seventy-five pounds. They are remarkably stupid, and allow a man to ap-
proach them so near as to strike them on the head with a bludgeon, and some-
times, if knocked off the ice into the water, they will almost immediately leap
u])on it again as if eager for a fight, though without the smallest means cither
of offense or defense. They were first discovered during Captain Cook's voyage
to the Antarctic regions, but Sir James Ross was fortunate in bringing the first
perfect specimens to Enghuid, some of which were preserved entire in casks of
strong i)ickle, that the physiologist and comparative anatomist might have an
opportunity of thoroughly examining their structure. The principal food of the
great penguin consists of various species of crnstaceous animals, and in its
stomach are frequently found from two to ten pounds' weight of pebbles, swal-
lowed no doubt to promote digestion. "Its capture," says Sir James Ross,
" afforded great amusement to our people, for when alarmed and endeavoring
to escape, it makes its way over deep snow faster than they could follow it: by-
lying down on its belly and impelling itself by its powerful feet, it slides along
upon the surface of the snow at a groat pace, steadying itself by extending its
fin-like wings, which alternately touch the ground on the side opposite to the
propelling leg."

Though the Antarctic Seas possess neither the narwhal nor the morse, they
abound, perhaps even moro than the Arctic waters, in whales, dolphins, and
seals, at least in the higher latitudes.

The austral smootli-backed whale {Bakcna cnistralis) differs from his Green-
land relative in many respects : the head is comparatively smaller, being only
about oi: -fourth of the total length, the mouth is broader, the baleen shorter,
the pectoral fins are larger and pointed, and the color is almost totally black,
the white on the lower surface being confined to a small part of the abdomen.
The skull is also differently formed ; and while the Greenland whale has only
thirteen pairs of ribs, the austral smooth-back has fifteen.

According to iMr. Bennett, the austral smooth-back seldom attains a greater
length than fifty feet ; but as it yields on an average from eighty to ninety
barrels of oil, its capture amply rewards the whaler's trouble. Though met
with in the highest latitudes, and roaming over the whole extent of the Antarc-
tic Seas, it resorts in spring to the sheltered bays of Xew Zealand, Australia,
Kerguelen's Land, Chili, the Falkland Islands, Algoa Bay, etc., for the purpose
of bringing forth its young. This of course makes its capture easier, but must
at the same time lead to its extirj)ation, or drive it to the most inaccessible re-
gions of the Polar Ocean. Even now the whale-fishery of the southern seas,
which twenty or thirty years ago employed hundreds of vessels, has much di-
minished in imjjortance : it is chiefly carried on by the Americans, the French,
and our Australian colonies, which have the advantage of being more conven*
iently situated than the mother-country.

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In the higher latitudes of the Antarctic zone the hunch-back and fin-back
whales abound ; but as the former is meagre and hardly worth the boiling, and
the latter, like the rorquals of the north, dives with such rapidity that he snaps
the harpoon-line or drags the boat a'ong with him into the water, they are sel-
dom hunted. Hence they will most likely continue to prosper in their native
seas, unless the improved missiles recently introduced in the whale-fishery can
be made to conquer them. The hunch-back is distinguished by the great
length of his pectoral fins, which extend to full eighteen feet, while these organs
are comparatively small in the fin-back. A kind of broad-nosed whale likewise
makes its appearance in the Antarctic Seas, but it is not yet determined whether
all these fin-backed whales of the south are distinct species from those of t'.ie
Arctic waters. A circumstance which seems to speak for their identity is that
fin-backs are met with in the intervening temperate and tropical seas, so that
no limits appear to have been set to their excursions.

The sperm whale, or cachalot, though partial to the equinoctial ocean, is also
found in the cold Antarctic waters. It was met with by Sir James Tloss among
the icebergs in 63° 20' S. lat. ; and near Possession Island (71° 50' S. lat.), where
the hunch-backs were so abundant that thirty were counted at one time in va-
rious directions, and during the whole day wherever the eyes tiirned their blasts
were to be seen. A few sperm whales were also distinguished among them by
their peculiar manner of blowing or spouting.

Among the dolphins of the Antarctic Ocean we find a species of grampus
no less formidable and voracious than that of the northern seas. On January
20, 1840, the American ship " Peacock," while cruising in the Antarctic waters,
witnessed a conflict between one of them and a whale. The sea was perfectly
smooth, so that the whole combat could be distinctly seen. At first the whale
was perceived at some distance from the ship lashing the water into foam, and
apparently making desperate efforts to shake off some invisible enemy. On
approaching, they found that an enormous grampus had seized it with its jaws.
The whale vainly turned and twisted itself in every direction, and its blood
tinged the water far around. The grampus had evidently the advantage, and
the other whales, of which there were many in sight, instead of assisting their
comrade, seemed only intent on their own safety. The grampus had a brown .
back, a white abdomen, and a large fin on its back. The speed at which the
monstrous animals shot through the water prevented the Americans from wit-
nessing the issue of the fight. The classical dolphin of the ancients has been
seen near the Cape of Good Hope, and most likely wanders far to the south, as
he is proverbial for his arrow-like rapidity, and can easily traverse a couple of
hundred miles in a single day. In the Strait of Magellan and about Cape Horn
are freqtiently seen the Delphinus superciliosus, whose turned-up mouth-cor-
ners give his countenance a peculiarly benevolent and friendly expression, belied
by his ravenous propensities, and the Delphinus leucoramphiis, who, like tlio
bjeluga of the north, has no dorsal fin, and by the liveliness of his movements
emulates the c'assical dolphin of the Mediterranean.

The seal family plays a no less important part in the zoology of the Antarc-
tic Seas than in that of the northern waters. Here we find the monstrous sea-

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THE ANTARCTIC OCEAN.

809

elephant {Ifacrorhimts elephant inus), so called not only from his size attaining
a length of twenty-five feet, and a girth at the largest part of the body of from
fifteen to eighteen, but also from the singular structure of his elongated nostrils,
which hang down Avhen he is in a state of repose, but swell out to a proboscis a
foot loiig when he is enraged. This gives the animal a very formidable appear-
ance, which, along with his bellowing and his widely-gaping jaws armed with
tusk-like canines, might strike terror into the boldest heart. But in reality tho
sea-elephant is a most defenseless creature, for on land it moves its unwieldy
carcass with the utmost difhculty, and a single blow upon the snout with a club
Suffices to stretch it lifeless on the ground. It used to be met with in consid-
erable numbers on all the flat shores or islands between 35° and 62° S. lat., but
as it yields a large qupntity of excellent oil, and as its skin, though merely cov-
ered with thick short bristles, is of some value from its great strength and
thickness, incessant persecution has greatly thinned its ranks, and in some parts
extirpated it. Thus Sir James Ross relates that the sea-elej>hant and several
otlier species of seals, which were formerly in great abundance at Kerguclen's
Land, annually drew a number of fishing-vessels to its shores. But at the time
of his visit (1840), after so many years of slaughter, they had quite deserted
the place. The flesh of the sea-elephant is black, and of an oily taste, but Anson
and his companions, after having been tossed about for several months on a
tempestuous sea and reduced to great distress by scurvy, relished it at Juan
Fernandez. The tongue is said to be a great delicacy.

As the soft jet-black fur of the young southern sea-bear {Arctocephalus falc-
landkus) is no less valuable than that of its northern relative, the eagerness
with which it is pursued may easily be imagined. Formerly vast herds of sea-
bears used to resort every summer to the New Shetland Islands, but soon after
the rediscovery of the group the American and English sealers made their ap-
pearance on its desolate shores, and in the short time of four years extirpated
the ursine seals, thus destroying by wasteful destruction what might have been
a permanent source of pi'ofit.

The southern sea-lion ( Otaria jiibata) is a larger animal than his northern
namesake ; and M'hile the latter is furnished only with an erect and curly hair-
tuft at the neck, a complete mane flows round his breast. The remainder of
the tawny body is covered with short smooth hairs or bristles. The sea-lioness,
who is much smaller than her mate, has no mane ; and as she is of a darker
color and has a differently shaped head, is trequently mistaken for another
species and called wolf, or lobo, by the inhabitants of the south-western coast
of America. The fore flippers of the sea-lion have the appearance of large
pieces of black tough leather, showing, instead of nails, slight horny elevations ;
the hind fins, which are likewise black, have a closer resemblance to feet, and the
five toes are furnished with small nails. It is a formidable-looking beast, par-
ticularly when full grown to a length of ten feet and more. The sea-leopard
(Leptonyx WedcMU), which owes its name to its spotted skin, is peculiar to the
southern seas. This large seal is from eight to nine feet long; the hind feet
have no nails, and greatly resemble the tail of a fish.

The Antarctic seals, dolphins, and petrels chiefly prey upon a genus of fish

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THE POLAR WORLD.

discovered at KcrgUflcn's Land, and named Notothcnia by Dr. Richardson.
Th(!80 fish, wliich are of an elonjijatt'd ccl-liite shape, conceal tliemselves from
the persecutioiiH of their CTieniics in the small cracks and cavities of tlie pack-
ice, and were fretpiently noticed by Sir Jjimes Itoss wiien driven fioin slieltor
by ti»e ship as it struck and passed over their protecting pieces of ice. They
in their turn live upon the smaller cancri and limacinas, and these again upon
creatures of a still more diminutive .size, until tinally the chain of created
beings terminates in the diatoms,'" which arc found filling these seas with the
inmutcst forms of organic life.

• " The Soa nml it« Living Woiidcrc," p iOX

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ANTARCTIC VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY.

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CHAPTER XXXVIII.

ANTARCTIC VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY.

Cook's Discoveries in tlie Antarctic Ocean — Uullinsliausen. — 'Wcdilell. — Hiscoe. — Itallony. — Dumont
(I'l'rvillL'. — Wilkes. — Sir .lames Koss crosses tlie Antarctic Circle on New Year's Day, 1811. — Dis-
covers Victoria Land. — DaiiticroiiB Lamlinf? on Franklin Island. — An Krnption of Mount Krelnis. —
The (ireiit Ice Harrier. — I'rovidential Kscape. — Dreadful Uale.— Collision. — Hazardous Passage bo»
twcen two Icebergs. — Termination of the Voyage.

BKKORE Cook, no n.avig.ator had left Euro])e M'ith the clear design of pcn-
etraling into the Antarctic regions. Dirk Gheritz indeed had been driv-
en by a furious storm far to the south of Cape Horn, and became the involun-
tary discoverer of the New Shetland Islands in IGOO ; but his voyage was soon
forgotten, and in an age when the love of gold or the desire of conquest were
the sole promoters of maritime enterprise, no mariner felt inclined to follow on
Ills track, and to plunge into a sea where most probably he would find nothing
but ice-fields and icebergs to reward his efforts. Nearly two centuries later a
more scientific age directed its attention to the unknown regions of the distant
Bouth, and Cook sailed fortli to probe the secrets of the Antarctic Seas. This
dungerous task he executed with an intrepidity unparalleled in the annals of
navigation. Beyond 00° of soutlu rn latitude, he cruised over a space of more
tlian 100° of longitude, and on January 30, 1774, penetrated us far as 71° of
soutiiern latitude, where he was stopped by mipenetrable masses of ice. Such
were the difficulties encountered from dense fogs, snow-storms, intense cold,
ami every tiling that can render navigation dangerous, that in his opinion the
laiuls situated to the southward of his discoveries must forever remain un-
known.

Again for many a year no one attempted to enter a field where the most
celebrated of modern mariners had found but a few desert islands (South
Georgia, Sandwich's Land, Southern Thule) luitil Smith's casual rediscovery of
New South Shetland in 1819 once more turned the current of maritime ex-
ploration to the Antarctic Seas.

Soon afterwards a Russian expedition under Lazareff and Bellinghausen
discovered (January, 1821), in G!)° 3' S. lat., the islands Paul the First and
Alexander, the most southern lands that had ever been visited by man.

The year after Captain Weddell, a sealer, penetrated into the icy ocean as
far .IS 74° 15' S. lat., 3° nearer to the pole than had been attained by Cook.
Tlie sea lay invitingly open, but as the season was far advanced, and Weddell
apprehended the dangers of the return voyage, he steered again to the north.

In 1831 Biscoe discovered Enderby Land, and soon afterwards Graham's
Land, to which the gratitude of geographers has since given the discoverer's
name. In 1839 Balleny revealed the existence of the group of islands called

26

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TIIE POLAR WORLD.

after liim, and of Sabiina Lfuul (00" S. Int.). About the same time three cnn-
nidorable expeditioiiss, iilted out by tlu; t^ovenuneiits of France, the L'liited
htiites, and Enghuid, made their apijearaneu in the Antarctic Seas.

Diunout d'Urvilie discovered Terre Louis Philippe (C;}" 31' S. lat.) in r,!).
ruary, 1838, and Terre Adelie (00° 07' S. hit.) on January 21, 1810. Ahii(.>t
on tlie same day, Wilkes, the commander of the I"'nited States Exjilorint; K\.
jiedilion, reached an ice-bound coast, wliicli lie followed for a len<,'th of l.joo
miles, and which has been called Wilkes's Land, to commemorate the discover
er's name.

I5nt of all the explorers of the southern frozen ocean, the palm UM(|uestiona-
bly belonys to Sir James Jioss, who penetrated farther towards the pule tii.in
any other naviijator before or after, and made the only discoveries of extuiisivo
land within the area boimded by the Antarctic Circle.

On New Year's Day, 1841, the "Erebus," Ca]itain James Clark Iloss, and
the "Terror," commanded by Francis Crozier, who died with Franklin in tlie
Arctic Sea, crossed the Antarctic Circle, and after sustaininjjj many M'VtTe
shocks in breakins? through the i)ack-icc, emerged on January 9 into a clear sea
of great extent; but the fog and snow-showers were so thick that the naviga-
tors coul.l seldom see more than half a mile before them. On the following;
day the fog began to «lis))erse, and on the 11 th, Victoria Land, rising in lufty
jteaks entirely covered with perennial snow, was seen at a distance of more
than one hundred miles. On steering towards ^Nfount Sabine, the higlicst
mountain of the range, new chains of hills were seen extending to the right
and left. After sailing for a few days to the south along the ice-bound coast,
a gale forced the ships to stand out to sea ; but on the morning of January lo,
the weather becoming beautifidly clear, allowed a fidl view of a magniiicunt
chain of mountains stretching far away to the southward. Ross was most
anxious to find a harbor in which to secure the ships, but every indentation of
the coast was found filled with snow drifted from the mountains, and forming
a mass of ice several hundred feet thick. It was thus impossible to enter any
of the valleys or breaks in the coast where harbors in other lands usually oo-
cur. Yet these inhospitable shores (72° 73' S. lat.) are situated but one or two
degrees nearer to the pob than llammerfest, the scat of an active commerce
on the Norwegian coast.

Favored by northerly winds and an open sea, the ships reached on January
22 a higher southern latitude (74° 20' S.) than that M-hich had been attaiiiiMl
by Weddell. Pursuing their way to the southward along the edge of tiio
pack-ice, which now compelled them to keep at a considerable distance from
the coast, they came on the 27th within two or three miles of a small island
connected by a vast ice-field with the extreme point of the mainland. Eager
to set his foot on the most southerly soil (70° 8' S.) he had as yet discovered,
Ross left the "Erebus," accompanied by several officers, and, followed by Cro-
zier and a party from the "Terror," ))ulled towards the shore. A high soutli-
erly swell broke so heavily against the cliffs and on the only i)iece of beacii
•which they could see as they rowed from one end of the island to the other, as
almost to forbid their landing.

ANTARCTIC VOYAGES OP DISCOVERY.

403

Yi\ irfi'at, skill and manaaonioiit T'oss siiccocdod in jumpinc; on to (lio rocks,
liv iinaiis of !i ropo some of the otHcers landed somewhat more e.'isiiy, l»iU not
wiilioiit nottiiiLT thoroughly wetted, and one of them nearly lost his life in this
litliciilt affair. The thermometer beint? at 'J'J^, every l>art of the rooks washetl
liv tiic waves was covered with , coatini; of ice, so that in jumpini; from the
lioat lie slipped from them into the water between her stern and the almost
iic'iiioiidicular rock on which his comi»aiiions had landed. IJiit for the prompt-
itiule of the men in the boat in instantly pnllini^off, he must have been crushed
between it and the rock. He was taken into the boat without having suffered
aiiv other injury than being benumbed by the cold.

The island, which received the name of Franklin, boro not the smallest trace
.if vcirctation, not even a lichen or piece of sea-weed growing on the rocks ; but
ihf wljite petrel and the skua-gull had their nests on the ledges of the cliffs, and
siaLs wt'Yv seen sporting in the water.

The following day was memorable for the discovery of the southernmost
known land of the globe, a magnificent inountiiin chain, to which tlie name of
Pany was given, in grateful remembrance of the honor which that illustrious
iiavjirator had conferred on Koss, by calling the most northern land at tlisit
tiiiio known by his name. It is not often that men are able to reciprocate such
loinplinients as these! The most conspicuous object of the chain was Moinit
Eicbns (77° 5' S.), an active volcano, of which Koss had the good-fortune to
witness a magnificent eruption. The enormous columns of flame and smoke
riMncr two thousand feet above the mouth of the crater, which is elevated
12.400 feet above the level of the sea, combined with the snow-white mountain
chain and the deejvblue ocean to form a tnagnificent scene. An extinct volcano
to the eastward of Blount Erebus, and !i little inferior in height, being by meas-
urement 10,900 feet high, was called "Mount Terror." A brilliant mantle of
snow swept down the sides of both these giants of the south, and projected a
peijicnilicular icy cliff several miles into the sea.

Gladly would Ross have penetrated still farther to the south, but all his
efforts were baffled by a vast barrier of ice, forming an uninterrupted wall,
450 miles in length, and rising in some parts to a iieight of 180 feet above the
sea-level. While sailing along this barrier, the ships were freipiently obliged
by the wind and the closely-packed ice to keep at a considerable distance; but
on February 9, having entered the only indentation which they liad perceived
throughout its whole extent, they had an excellent opportunity of g ning quite
elosc to it, though at no little hazard. This bay was formed by a projecting
peninsula of ice, terminated by a cape 170 feet high ; but at the narrow isthmus
wliich connected it with the great barrier it was not more than fifty feet liigh,
affording Koss the oidy opportunity he had of seeing its upper surface from
tile mast-head. It appeared to be cpiite smooth, and conveyed to tiie mind the
idea of an immense plain of frosted silver. Gigantic icicles depended from
every projecting point of its perpendicular cliffs, proving that it sometimes
thaweJ, which otherwise could not have been believed; for at a season of the
year equivalent to August in England, the thermometer at noon did not I'ise
above 14°, and the young ice formed so quickly in the sheltered bay astp warn

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THE I'OLAU WORLD.

I'M

them of the nciwssity of a Hpci'dy ri'truut. F!ivorc<l by the hroozc, and hv diiit
of yrcat exertion. (Iicy ultimately emerged from their <laiii,'eroiis positiuu, lnit
flearct'ly had they escaped when the wind «'ame direetly aijaiiist liiem, so tliai
had they liiiLjered but half an hour longer near the barrier they would eertainlv
have been frozen up.

On February lH the approaeh of winter oonvinced Ttoss that it was IiIltIi
time to relin(iuish the further examination of the barrier to tlie eastward; uinl
as no j)laee of security where it was ]>ossible to winter could be found ii|miii
any part of the land hitherto discovered, he reluctantly resolved to reero.ss tin-
Antarctic Circle, and postpone all attempts to reach the pole to the u^'xt season.
The return voyage was diflicult and dangerous. On March 7, the ships, wliilc
endeavoring to find a way through the pack-ice in lat. 05", had a narrow esiiipe
from imminent destruction. The wind having ceased, they found themselves
at the mercy of a lieavy easterly swell, which was driving them down upon iIr.
pack, in which were counted from the mast-head eighty-four large In ii;>, uinl
some Inmdreds of smaller size. As they rapidly approached this foiinid.ililu
chain, no opening could be discovered through which the shijis could |)ass; ihu
waves were beating violently against tlie bcr,r,s, and dashing huge in;isses of
pack-ice against their precipitous faces, now lifting them nearly to their summit,
then forcing them agsiin far beneath their water-line, and sometimes niidiii"
them in a multitude of brilliant fragments against their projecting points.
" Sublime and magnificent," says I{oss, " as such a scone must have appeared
under different circumstances, to us it was awful, if not appalling. For eiglit
hours we had been gradually drifting towards what to human eyes appcMrcd
inevitable destruction ; the high waves and deep rolling of our ships rendered
towing with the boats impossible, and our situation the more jjainful and em-
barrassing from our inability to make .any effort to avoid the dreadful calami-
ty that seemed to await us We were now within half a mile of the

range of bergs. The roar of the surf, w Inch extended each way as far as we
could see, and tlie crashing of the ice, fell upon the ear with fearful distinctness,
whilst the frequently averted eye as immediately returned to contemjilate tiio
awful destruction that threatened in one short liour to close the world, and all
its hopes, and joys, and sorrows upon us forever. In this our deep distress
* we called upon the Lord, and lie licard o.r voices out of Ilis temple, and our
cry came before Him.' A gentle air of wind filled our sails; hope again re-
vived, and the greatest activity prevailed to make the best use of the feeble
breeze ; as it gradually freshened, our heavy ships began to feel its influence,
slowly at first, but more rapidly afterwards, and before dark we found ourselves
far removed from every danger."

After passing the winter at Ilobarton, the capit.al of Tasmania, Sir James
Hoss, in the following year, once more crossed the Antarctic Circle to examine
the icy barrier which in his previous voyage had blocked his progress to tlio
south, and to renew his attempts to pass round or through it. But there were
new dangers to be encountered. On January 1 7, 1842, a fearful storm came on
as the "Erebus" and "Terror" were making tlieir way tlirough the pack-ice,
which was this time met with in a more northern latitude than the year before.

ANTARCTIC VOYAGES OF DISCOVKUY.

41).'»

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Tlio soa broko all llio Iiiiwsi'rs wliicli liclil llii'iii to ii larLrc pioi'o of floe, and
ilrove lliom lu'l|ili'.s>:!y aloiii; int(t tlio liravy jiack. Tli» v wen,' now iiivlvcd • i
:iiioit;iii of rollinLj frat^iiu-ntM of ice, wliifli wt'iv (la>luil aix.'iiiiNt tlicin l)y flii'
wiives witli NO iiiiich violence that tlioir masts (juivoroil as if they woiihl fail at
ivciy siicccssivo i)!o\v. The hxid era.shini^ noise of the slraininix i"id woikinLj
iif tile tiiiilters and decks, as tliey were driven !ii,'ainst some of llie lieavier
jiicirs, iniLx'it wtil appall tlie stoutest heart, and tiius hour passed away after
liiiiir. Duriim tliis terrilile scene tlic ships were at one time so close together
lliiit when the " Terror " rose to the top (jf one wave, tlu' " Krehus " was on the
tup (if tlie wave next to leewanl of her, tlie deep ehasni i)etween tlieni In inij fill-
1,1 with heavy rollinj^ masses; and as the ships descended into the hollow l)e-
trtciii liie waves, the maintopsail-yard of each could he seen, just level with the
iivst III the intervening wave, from the deck of the other, TIk; night, which
iiinv licgan to draw in, reiwh'red their condition, if possible, more hopeless and
Iiil|ik.>s than l)efore; but at midnight the snow, which liad been falling thidkly
fur several hours, cleared away, tis the wind suddenly sliifted lo the westward;
tln' swell began to subside, and the shocks which the ships still sustaineil, though
strong enough to shatter any vessel les;4 strongly ribbed, were feeblo compared
with those to whicli they had been exposed. On the following day, the wind
liaviiig moderated to a fresh breeze, the crippled ships, whose rudders had been
wHtiy shattered, were securely moored to a large tloe-]iiece in the now almost
motionless pack, whore, by dint of uncesising labor, the damages were repaired
in the course of a week, ami the vessels once more tittetl to fight their way to
the south.

On February 22 the great barrier was seen from the mast-head, just before
miiiiiiglit, and the following day, the wind bh)wing directly on to its cliffs, they
apliniached it within a mile and a half, in lat. 78° 1 1', the highest ever attained
ill tlic southern hemisphere. From this jioint, situated abo\it 5° of longitude
fai'tlior to tho oast than the indentation where the ships had so narrowly escaped
being frozen fast in the preceding year, the barrier trended considerably to the
northward of east, so that Ross was obliged to give up all Iiope of rounding it,
and extending his explorations towards the Jiolo, as the season was already con-
sitloialily advanced. On his return voyage to the Falklands, where he intended
to puss the winter, ho had already reached the latitude of <jO', and thought him-
self out of danger of meeting with bergs, when, in the afternoon of March 1:^,
the southerly wind changed to a strong north-westerly breozc. In the evening
the wind increased so much, and the snow-showers became so incessant, that ho
was obliged to i)rocoed under more moderate sail. Small pieces of ice were
also met with, warning him of the presence of bergs, concealed by the thickly-
falling snow, so tliat before midnight he directed the topsails of the " Erebus"
to ho eloso-roefed, and every arrangement made for rounding to until daylight,
(loeniing it too hazardous to run any longer. " Our people," says the gallant
explorer," had har<lly completed these operations, when u large berg was seen
ahead and quite close ; the shi]> was immediately hauled to the wind on the
port tack, with the expectation of being able to weather it ; but just at this mo-
ment the ' Terror ' was observed running down upon us, under hor topsail and

,»-1f

iti'tj

11 '• 'i'iif !<!

!'•

4on

TIIK I'OLAU WOULD.

foresail; anil as It was iinposHiMi! for lier to oloar both tlio hvvjf atnl titc ' Krp.
JiiiH,' folliHioii was iiu'vitiiliU'. Wv instantly liovc all al)ack to (liniinisli (Ik. \i.
olcncc of tlic wlKH'k ; Init tlio confussion wiicn slu' struck us was sucji as t,i
throw almost every one off liis fei't ; our bowsprit, foreto|iiiiast, aii<l ullier sinall-
tT spars, weru carried away, and the ships liani,'inij together entauifli ! hy tluir
riu'i.nni,', and dashin;.^ ai^ainst each other with fearful violence, were falliu'^ doun
upon tlu! weather face of the lofty heri^ iniiler our lee, aLcainst which tlic wa\(s
were breakini^ and foamiiiif to near the suuuuit of its perpendicular dills.
Sometimes the 'Terror' rose hi,!,'h above us, almost exposni>.f her keel to view,
and a>j;ain des('ende<l, as we in our turn rose to tlie top of the wave, tlire.ucniiii'
to bury her beneath us, whilst the erashiim of the lireakiuiX upper-works aiKl
boats increased the horror of the scene. Providentially the ships .L'niiliijillv
separated before we <lrifted down amoniist the foaniin<jc breakers, and 've
liad tlio yratitication of seeini? the 'Tern)r' clear the end of the beri.', .iiul if
foelinij tii;it slu; was safe, liiit she left us completely disabled; the wreck of
the spars so encumbered the lower yard tliat we were unable to make sail so
as to <fet headway on the ship; nor had we room to wear round, beiiiL,' bv this
time so close to the bcrcf that tho wavo», when they struck auainst it, ihn u
back their spray into thu ship. The only way left to us to extricate oiirsclvis
from this awful and appallinir situation was by resorting to iie ha/ardcms ex-
pedient of a stern board, which nothiiii; couhl justify duriiiij such a i.m1c but Id
avert the daiiLrer which every moment threatened us of beinf.^ dashed tu pieces.
The heavy roHiiitj of the vessel, and tho probability of the masts tfiviii',' uwav
each tinu' the lower yard-arms struck anaiiist the cliffs, which were towciin;,'
liij^h above our mast-heads, rendered it a service of extreme danirer to Ihhh'
the mainsail; but no sooner was the order fjiven, than the <larini.' spirit of tlio
]iritish seaman manifested itself — the men ran up the ritrLrinir with as mucli
alacrity as on any ordinary occasion; and, althoiiu;b more than once driven off
the yard, they after a short time succeeded in loosing! the sail. Amidst the it: •
of the wind and sea, it was ditlicult both to hear and to execute the orders tli.it
were jjfiven, so that it was three-quarters of an hour before we C(. '1 yet tlio
yards braced by, and the main tack hauled on board sharp aback — anexpeilicnt
that perhaps had never before been resorted to by seamen in such wc'itlur;
but it bad tho desired effect ; the ship jijr.thered sternway, plunciiiLr her stem
into the sea, and with her lower yard-arms scrapinti; the ru<,'!4ed face of tho
berix, we in a few minutes reached its western termination; the ' uiider-tow,' ;is
it is called, or the reaction of the water from its vertical cliffs, alone i>rev('iitiii;.'
tis beiii<4' driven to atoms against it. Xo sooner had wo cleared it than aiiotlur
was seen directly astern of us, against Avhich we wen; ruiminti;; and the dilli-
culty now was to get the ship's head turned round and pointed fairly tliioiinh
between the two herfjs, the breadth of the intervening space not exceeding tline
times her own breadth. This, however, we happily accomplished ; and in a few
minutes, after getting before the wind, she dashed through the narrow cliaiiinl
between two perpendicular walls of ice, and the foaming breakers which stntrli-
ed across it, and the next moment we were in smooth water under its lee. The
'Terror's ' light was immediately seen and answered ; she hud rounded to, wait-

I

ANTAlUTIi: VOYACJKS OF 1)IS( OVKUY.

407

incj fiir lis .... , iiiil, lis mxm as dny bniki-, we Irid tlio gnitificalioii of luarii-
iii,f fli;it slic liail mil suiiVrcd any Nciioiis daiiiav'i'."

Oil DfcciiilMT 17 Sir James K<iss sailed from tlu' Falkland Islands, witli tliu
iiitc'iilion of following; the track of Weddull, as, fi'oiiitiio ncoount of that darini^
n;ivi','"t'"'» ho liad cvltv reason to expect to tind u clear hea, which would enalilo
liim (iiiisiikraMy to extend the limits of t,'eo<j;i'a|»hi('al knowledge towards tlio
iMilf. lie was disappointed, for tliout^h he discovei'd some new land (<);i'-
04 ;io'S. lat.,C5''-57° W. lont,'.) to the nouiIi of iri'i-ville's Toito Louis Phi-
lippe, yet the pack-ice so blocked his progress that the farthest point he could
Mttiiia was in iat. 71° .'10' S., loni,'. 14^ r)l' W. On March 1 he recrosscd the Aii-
tiirctii; Circle, and on the 'JHth of the same nionlh dropped his anchors at the
(':i|ic, Tiius ended this most remarkal)le voyaye, so Iionoralili' to all ent,'ai^ed
111 It, for, as Sir .I(»hn Richardson justly remarks, " the perseverance, darinj;,
;iiiil cdolness of the commandiiiy oHicer, of the other otlicers, and of the crews
of tlu' ' Hi'elius ' and ' Terror,' was never surpassed, and have been rarely, if ever,
c(|ii;ilk'(l hy seamen of any nation."

Since then the " l'ail"<l'i," whidi had been sent out by the Admiralty for tho
pnr|Mise of observin<; maiinctic phenomena in a quarter of tho Antarctic Seas
tiiiit liMd not been visited by Sir James l{oss, attained the 7!ld parallel, but no
mure recent ex|»edition has been litted out to jirosecute his discoveries, and no
man ;ifter him has seen Blount Erebus vomitiny forth its torrents of tlamc, or
traced the stupendous barrier which stopped his progress to the pole.

■ Vl

iii;r

^1i#

408

THE POLAR WORLD.

STRAIT OF MAGELLAN.

!*;■

M9';;'

i I

CHAPTER XXXIX.

THE STUAIT OF MAGELLAN.

Description of the Strait. — Western Kntraiice. — Point Diincenes.s. — The Xnrrows.— Saint riiilip's R:iv.
— Cape Frowuril. — (Ir.ind Scenery. — I'ort I'ainine. — I ho Sc(I;;ei- Kiver. — Darwin's Ascent of Mount
Tarn. — Tlie IJachelor Kiver. — I'.nj;lisli lleach. — Sen Kcadi. — Soutli Desolation. — llarhor of ^^'rcv.-,
Williwaws. — Discovery of the Strait by Mairellan (dctoher '20. l,')_'i\ — Drake. — S.irniicnto.— (av-
cndish. — Schnnten and Le JIaire. — liyroii. — lionirainville. — M'.llis and Carlcret. — I\ini; and I'itz-
roy. — Settlement at I'nnta Arena.s. — Increasing Passage thron^h the Strait. — A fntnre lliixliway of
Commerce.

'T'^IIK ct'Iobratoil stniit which bears tlio name of ^rajrellan is generally \ih'-
-"- tared as the scene of a wild and dreaiy desolation ; but thoiii,di its cliinato
is far from beiii<r yenial, and its skies are often veiled with inists and rain, yet
nature can smile even here.

A <;lance at the map shows ns tlie extreme irrecftilarity of its formation, as
it is constantly chanifinij: in width and direction; now swellincf almost to the
magnitude of a Mediterranean Se."., and then again contracting to a narrow
passage; sometimes taking a rapid turn to the north, and at others as sudden-
ly deviating to the south. Islands and i.slets of every form — some mere naked
rocks, others cloihed with umbrageous woods — are scattered over its surface;
promontori^.-i without niunber, from the Patagonian mainland or the Fuegiaii
archipelago, protrude their bold fronts into its bosom, as if with the intention

I t J.ini-' ■

^

». I

THE STRAIT OF MAGELLAN.

409

of closing it altogether; and conntlcss bays and havens are scooped into its
rocky shores, as if tlie sea in a thousand different places had striven to open
anew passage to licr waters.

Tlie western entrance of this remarkable strait is formed by Queen Cathe-
rine's Foreland (Cajve Virgin s) and Point Dungeness, the latter having been
thus named from its resemblance to the well-known Kentish i)romontory at the
eastern mouth, of the chaimel. Although it rises at most nine feet above low-
wiiter mark, the snow-white breakers which the tides are constantly dashing
over its sides render it visil>le from a great distance. It is generally the resort
of a number of eea-lions. When the wind comes blowing from the north-east,
the passing mariner — who, from the shallow nature of the shore, is obliged to
keep at some distance from the Xess — hears their hoarse bellowing, which har-
monizes well with the wild and desolate character of the scene. Albatrosses
and petrels hover about them, while rows of grave-looking penguins seem to
contemplate their doings with philosophic indifference.

Beyond these promontories the strait widens into Possession Bay, which at
Punta Delgada and Cape Orange contracts to a narrow passage. This leads
into a wide basin, to which the Spaniards have given the name of Saint I'hilip's
Hay, and which again terminates in a second narrow passage or channel, a
formation resembling on a small scale the Sea of Marmora, which, as we all
know, has likewise the semblance of a lake, receiving and discharging its w.a-
ters through the Dardanelles .and the Strait of Constantinople. During the
rising of the flood, a strong current flows through all these b.ays and narrows
from the west, so as to allow ships an easy passjxge, even against the wind ;
hut during ebb tide the current turns to the east, so tliat at this time a ves-
sel, even when favored by the wind, makes but little jirogress, or is even
ol)liged to anchor to avoid losing ground. When ^fagellan, after sailing round
Cape Virgins, penetrated into the strait, this circumstance at once convinced
that gre.at navigator that he was not in an inclosed bay, but in an open chan-
nel, which would lead him into another ocean. Thus far the country on both
sides of the strait consists of nearly level i)lains, like those of Patagotiia ; l)ut
beyond the second Narrow.-; the land begins to assume the more bold and pic-
turesque appearance which is characteristic of Tierra del Fuego. Mount.ains
rise al)()ve mountains with deep intervening valleys, .all covered by one thick,
dusky mass of forest; while farther to the east scarcely a bush clotnes the
naki'd soil. The trees reach to an elevation of between 1000 and 1500 feet,
and are succeeded by a band of peat, with numite Alpine plants, and this again
is succeeded by the line of ])erpetual snow, which, according to Captain King,
descends to between 3000 and 4000 feet.

The finest scenery about the Strait of !^^agellan is undoubtedly to the east
of Cape Frow.ard, the most southerly point of the mainland of South America.
Tills promontory, which consists of a steep mass of rock about 800 feet high,
abutting from a mountain ch.ain of about 2000 or 3000 feet in height, forms
the boundary between two very different dinuites, for to the east the weather
is finer and more agreeable than to the west, where wind and rain are almost
perpetual.

Eiii

i: n

410

THE POLAR WORLD.

Urn ■

r ■ ^

On the Patagonian plains, the drought and the want of protection against
tlie piercing winds almost entirely impede vegetation ; but the country between
Cape Xegro — a little within the second Narrows — and Cape Froward or the
eastern shore of Brunswick Peninsula, is shielded by its situation against the
almost perpetual storms from the west, and enjoys, moreover, a suflioieiicv of
rain, and now and then serene weather. As, moreover, the soil in this central
part of the strait consists of disintegrated clay-slate, which is most favoruljlo to
the growth of trees, the forests, from all these causes, are finer here than any-
Avhcre else.

The country about Port Famine is particularly distinguished for the rich-
ness of its vegetation ; and both for this reason, and from its central situation
this harbor has become a kind of chief station for the ships that pass throufih
the strait. Several unfortunate attempts at colonization have been made at
Port Famine ; here many a naturalist has tarried, and thus no part of the
strait has been oftener described or more accurately observed.

"The anchorage," says Dumont d'Urville, who, in December, 1837, spent
several days at Port Famine, " is excelkiit, and landing everywhere easy. A
fine rivulet gives us excellent Avater, and the neighboring forests might furnish
whole fleets with the necessary fuel. The cliffs along the shore are literally
covered with mussels, limpets, and whelks, which afford a delicious variety of
fare to a crew tired of salt beef and peas. Among the plants I noticed witli
pleasure a species of celery, which, with another herb resembling our com
flower in form and taste, gives promise of .an excellent salad.

" I made use of my first Icisiire to visit the romantic, banks of the Sodfrcr
River, Avhich discharges its waters on the western side of the port. At its
irouth the swampy strand is completely covered with enormous trees heapt'il
upon the ground. Those naked giants, stripped of their branches, affoni a re-
markable spectacle: they might be taken for huge bones bleached bv time.
No doubt they are transported from the neighboring forest by the waters of
the river, which, when it overflows its banks, after a deluge of rain, tears
along with it the trees it meets with in its course. Arrested by the bar at the
mouth of the stream, they are cast otit upon its batdcs, where they remain
when the waters sink to their usual level.

" Having crossed the river, T entered the large and fine forest with which it
is bordered. The chief tree is the Antarctic beech {F<tf/>is hetnloidcs), which is
often from sixty to ninety feet high, and about three feet in diameter. Along
with this are two other trees, the winter's bark ( Wlntcria aromatica), and a
species of bcrberis, with a very solid wood ; but they are much less abundant,
and of a much smaller size. With the exception of mosses, lichens, and otlier
plants of this order, these foiests afford but little that is interesting to tiie
naturalist — no quadrupeds, no reptiles, no land-snails ; a few insects and some
birds are the only specimens to be gained after a long search. After collect-
ing a good supply of mosses and lichens, I returned to the boat for the pur-
pose of rowing up the n . Although the current was tolerably rapid, we ad-
vanced about two miles, admiring the beauty of its umbrageous banks. On
my return I shot two geese that were crossing the river over our heads, and

Plilil'

THE STRAIT OF MAGELLAN.

4tl

whose excellent meat amply supplied my table for several days. Tliis, together
with the little gobies which were abuiulaiitly caught with hand-lines, the largo
nnisscls wo detached from the rocks, and the celery-salad, gave me dinners lit
for an alderman. IIow often since have I regretted the plenty of Port Fam-
ine !"

In the month of February (1834), in the height of the Antarctic simimer,
3Iv. Darwin ascejided Mount Tarn, which is 2000 feet high, and the most ele-
vated point in the vicinity of I'ort Famine. " The forest," says our great nat-
uralist, "connneiiccs at the line of high-water mark, and during the iirst two
hours I gave over all hopes of reaching the summit. So thick was the wood
tliat it was necessary to have constant recourse to the compass, for every land-
mark, though in a mountainous country, was completely shutout. In the deep
ravines the death-like scene of desolation exceeded all description ; outside it
was blowing a gale, but in these hollows not even a breath of wind stirred the
leaves of the tallest trees. So gloomy, cold, and wet was every part, that not
even the fungi, mosses, or ferns could flourish. In the valleys it was scarcely
possible to crawl along, they were so completely barricaded by great mouUlcr-
iuii ranks, which had fallen down in every direction. "When j)assing over
these natural bridges, one's course was often arrested by sinking knee-deep
into the rotten wood ; at other times, when attempting to lean against a tree,
one was startled by finding a mass of decayed matter, ready to fall at the
slijilitest touch. We at last found ourselves among the stunted trees, and then
soon reached the bare ridge, which conducteil us to the summit. Here was a
view characteristic of Tierr.'i del Fuego ; irregular chains of hills, mottled with
patciies of snow, deep yellowish-green valleys, and arms of the sea intersecting
tli<> land in many directions. The strong wind was piercingly cold, and the
atmosphere rather hazy, so that wo di<l not stay long on the top of the mount-
ain, Our descent was not quite so laborious as our ascent; for the wei'jht
of the body forced a passage, and all the slips and falls were in the right di-
rection."

To the west of Cape Froward the strait extends in a north-westerly, almost
rectilinear direction, until it finally opens into the Pacific, between Cape Pillar
and Cape Victory. Hero a day rarely passes without rain, hail, or snow.
Where the dreadful power of the prevailing winds has free play, the mountain
Fides are naked and bare, but in every sheltered nook the damp climate produces
a luxuriant vegetation. The trees, however, do not attain any great height, and
at Port Gallant the beech is already decidedly stunted in its growth. This is no
doubt causeil by the excessive humidity of the soil, which in all lower situations
is converted by the continual rains inio a deejt morass. The trunks and the
branches are covered with a thick layer of moss, and the tree becomes rotten in
its youth. Rut many shrubs, herbs, and mosses thrive under the perpetual del-
uge; the latter particularly, covering large patches of ground with a spongy car-
pet. It may easily be imagined how difficult, or r.ather impossible it must be to
penetrate into the interior of such a countrj-. Yet even these wild inlx ..pitable
regions can boast of many a romantic scene. Thus the English Reach, which
extends from Cape Froward to Carlos Island, is bounded on both sides by lofty

MM

,! -i!

:!:, i'

I ' I

m '

412

THE POLAR WORLD.

mountains, their cones or jagcfed peaks covered witli eternal snow. Its soutli-
erii bank, formed by Clarence Island, is intersected with bays and charniels two
of which, IVIagdalena Sound and liarbara Cliamiel, lead through a maze of is].
ands into the open sea. Several glaciers descend in a winding course from tliu
upper great expanse of snow to the sea-coast, and many a cascade conies (lush-
ing down from rock to rock. Skogman* draws an enthusiastic picture of tlio
beauty of York Koads near the mouth of the small IJachelor IJiver. To tlie
south, behind Carlos Island, mountains rise above mountains, and snow-fields
above snow-fields; to the north lies the jagged colossus, which from its solitMiv
grandeur has been called Bachelor Peak, and at whoso foot the crystal river now
hides itself beneath a shady wood, and now rolls its crystal waters throiifrh a
green lawn, decorated with clumps of fuchsias. But in sjiite of its roniaiiti(!
beauty, the want of life gives a melancholy character to this solitary vale. Iw-
yond Carlos Island in Long Reach, the baidvs of the strait become yet more bare
and desolate. Vegetation descends lower and lower into the valleys, and even
l)ere the trees are misshapen and dwarfish. But the mountain scenervhas still
all the majesty which snow-fields and glaciers of a beryl-like blue inij)art to :iii
Alpine landscape. As Sea lieach shows itself, vegetation is almost totallv ex-
tinct, and on approaching t'lC mouth of the strait, the mountains become lower
their forms are less ])ictnresque, and instead of the stern grandeur which marks
the middle part of the strait, low, rounded, barren hills make their appeariiiice
which completelv justify the name of South Desolation, which Sir James Xar-
borough gav lu Lhis coast, "because it was so desolate a land to behold."

It may easily be imagined that the prevailing winds beyond Ca])e Frowanl
are extremely troublesome to ships sailing to the western mouth of the sti'nit,
and that if not entirely beatcji back, they can frequently only force the jiassai^e
after many efforts. Foi-tunately, the deeply indented coasts possess a muuhur
of small havens which may serve the mariner as stations chu'ing his gradual ad-
vance. Thus, close to the mouth of the strait, where, between Cape Vi"tory
and Caj^o Pillar, the sea during and after storms is so boisterous that even
steamers require their utmost strength not to be dashed against the rocks, a sc-
oire port, appropriately called " Harbor of Mercy," allows the vessels to watcli
for more tranqiiil weather, and to seize the first favorable opportunity for
emerging into the open sea. But even these harbors and bays are subject to
peculiar dangers from sudden gusts of wind that come sweeping down from tlic
mountains, and are known among the seal-catchers who frequent these danger-
ous waters under the name of willhcmrs, or hurricane squalls. For when tlic
wild south-west storms come rushing against the mountain-masses of Ticn;i
del Fuego, the compressed air precipitates itself with redoidjled violence over
the rock-walls, and then suddenly expanding, flows down the valleys or gullies,
tearing up trees by the roots, and hurling rocks into the abyss. Where such a
gust of wind touches the surface of the water, the sea surges in mighty waves,
and volumes of spray are wliirled away to a vast distance. If a shii) comes un-
der its influence, its safety depends mainly upon the strength of its anchor rojies.

Some situations are particularly subject to williwaws, and then the total want
* Voyage of the Swedish ship " EiiK^nie. "

1 I,

THE STRAIT OF MAGELLAN.

413

of vegetation aiifl the cviikat marks of ruin along tho mountain slopes warn the
mai iiier to avoid the neighborhood. In Gabriel Chamal Captain King saw a
spot where the williwaws, bursting over the mountains on the south side, had
Nuept down the declivities, and then rushing against tho foot of the opposite
hills, had again dashed upward with such fury as to carry away with them every
tiling that could ])ossibly be attached from the bare rock.

It was a meinor.able day in 'the annals of maritime discovery (October 20,
1521) when Magellan '-eached the eastern entrance of the strait that was to lead
liini, first of all European navigators, from the broad basin of tho Atlantic into
tjie still wider expanse of the I'acific Ocean. It was the day dedicated in the
("atliolio calentlar to St. Ursula and her eleven thousand virgi.is, and lie conse
(|iit'ntly named the j)romoiitory which first struck his view " Cabo do las Vir-
gines." The fiood tide, streaming violently to the west, convinced him that ho
was at the mouth of an open channel, but he had scarcely jirovisions for three
iiionths — a short allowance for venturing into an unknown world, and thus be-
fore he attempted the passage ho convoked a council of all his officers. Some
ttere for an immediate return to Europe, but the majority voted for the con-
liiuiation of the voyage, and Magellan declared that should they even bo re-
(liR'cd to eat tho leather of their shoes he would persevere to the last, and with
God's assistance execute the comn.ands of his imperial master Charles V. lie
then at once gave orders to enter the strait full s'A\, and on pain of death for-
bade any one to say a word more about a return or the want of provisions.

Fortunately the winds were in his favor, for had the usual inclemencies of
this stormy region opposed him, there is no doubt that with such crazy ves-
sels, and such discontented crews, all his heroism would have failed to insure
success. It was tho spring of the southern hemisphere, and iho strait showed
itself in one of its rare aspects of calm. Many fish were caught, and, as Pi-
gafetti, the historian of the voyage, relates, the aromatic winter's bark which
served them for fuel " wonderfully refreshed and invigorated their spirits."

The fires kindled by the savages on the southern side during the night in-
duced ^Magellan to give that part of the country the name of Tierra del Fuego,
or Fireland; while from their high stature and bulky frames, ho called tho in-
habitants of the opposite mainland Patagonians (patagon being tho Spanish
augmentative of pata, foot). Although several days were lost in exploring
some of the numerous passages and bays of tlie straits, its eastern mouth was
reached on November 28, and Magellan saw the wide Pacific expand before
him.

In 1525 Charles V. sent out a now expedition of six vessels, under Garcia
(le Loaisa, to circumnavigate the globe. The vice-admiral of the squadron was
Sebastian el Cano, who, after the death of Magellan, had brought the illustri-
ous navigator's ship safely back to Europe, and as a reward had been ennobled
with the globe in his coat of arms, and the motto, " Primus circumdedisti me."
Loaisa entered tho strait on January 26, 1526, but he was beaten back by
storms as far as tho River Santa Cruz. On April 8 he once more attempted the
passage, and emerged into the Pacific on May 25. Simon de Alcazaba, who in
1534 attempted to pass the Magellans with a number of emigrants for Peru,

414

THE POLAR WORLD.

""tm

fmWmW

was less successful, but in LOJit), Alfonso de Camarcfo, liavini; lost two vcsstls
in the strait, passed it with the third, and reached the ])ort of Callao.

Until now the Spanish Hatf had alone been seen in these remote ;ind solitarv
■waters, but the time was come when they were to open a j)assage to its most
inveterate foes. On Au_u;ust 20, 1570, Francis Drake, commissioned bv Oiicin
Elizai)eth to ))lunder and destroy the Spanish settlements on the west coast of
America, ran into the strait, and on December' C sallied forth into the Pacific

To meet this formidable enemy, the Viceroy of Peru sent out in tlie sMinc
year two ships under Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa, His orders were to inter-
cept Drake's passasjje through the strait and then to sail on to Spain. Tiiout:li
he failed in the ol)ject of his mission, yet Sarmiento displayed in the naviu^u-
tion of the intricate and dangerous passages along tlie south-west coast of
America, the courage and skill of a, consunmiate seaman, and he !j;ave the lirst
exact and detailed account of the land and waters of Fuegia. His vovai^o ac-
cording to the weighty testimony of Captain King, deserves to be noted as oiio
of the most useful of the age in which it was performed.

On his arrival in Spain, Sarmiento strongly jwinted out the necessity of es-
tablishing a colony and erecting a fort in the strait (at that time the onlv known
passage to the Pacilic), so as effectually to prevent the recurrence of a fnturG
hostile expedition like that of Drake. Commissioned by Philip H. to canv
his plans into execution, he founded a colony, to which he gave the name of
Ciudad de San Felipe, but a series of disasters entirely destroyed it ; and when,
a few years later, Cavendish, who had fitted out three ships at his own expense
to imitate the example of Drake, appeared in the strait, he found but three sur-
vivors of many hundreds, and gave the scene of their misery the apjiropriate
name of Port Famine, which it has retained to the present day.

vVfter Cavendish and Hawkins (1594), the Dutch navigators De Cordcs
(1599), Oliver Van Noort (1599), and Spilberg (1G15), attempted, with more or
less success, to sail through the strait with the intention of harassing and jilun-
dering the Spaniards on the coast of the Pacific.

Strange to say, no attempt had been made since Magellan to discover a pas-
sage farther to the south, so universal and firmly established was the belief that
Fuegia extended without interruption to the regions of eternal ice, until at
length, in 1616, the Dutchmen Schouten and Le Maire discovered the passage
round Cape Horn. Two years later Garcia de Nodales sailed through tlie
Strait of Le Maire, and, returning through the 3Iagcllans into the Atlantic, was
thus the first circumnavigator of Fuegia. In 1669, Sir John Xarborough hav-
ing been sent out by King Charles 11. to explore the Magellanic regions, fur-
nished a good general chart of the strait, and many plans of the anchorage
within it.

More than sixty years now elapsed before any expedition of historical renown
made its appearance in the strait. The dangers and hardships which had as-
sailed the previous navigators discouraged their successors, who all pi'eferred
the circuitous wav round Cape Horn to the shorter but, as it was at that time
considered, more ])erilou8 route through the strait. After this long pause, By-
ron (December, 1'764) and Bougainville (February, 1765) once more attempted

THE STRAIT OF MAGELLAN.

415

llie Magollans. The diflicultios oupountcrcd l)y thorn wore surpassoil by those
(if Wallis and Carteret. The former sjieut nearly four months (fiom Deeem-
bur 17, 1700, to April 11,1707) in u perpetual conflict with stormy weather
vliile slowly creeping through the strait ; ami the latter reijuired eighty-four
(.l.ns for his passage from Port Famine to Cape Pillar. No wonder that the
next circunmavigators, Ldtke, Krusenstern, Kotzjbue, i)referred sailing round
(';i|ie Horn, and that adventurous seal-hunters became for a long time the
sole visitors of these ill-famed waters. At length the IJritish (rovernment came
to a resolution worthy of England, and resolved to have the .Magellanic regions
c;avfiilly surveyed, and to contiuer them, as it were, anew for geographical
sciiiice. Under the command of Captain King, the "Adventure" and the
'•Diagle" were engaged in this arduous task from IS-JO to IH.'IO; but such
vcre the dangers they had to encounter, that Captain Stokes, the second in
command, after contending for four months with the storms and currents which
fivijncntly threatened to dash his vessel against the cliffs, became so shattered
ill mind and body, that after his return to Port Famine he committed suicide in
a lit of melancholy.

From 18;31 to 18:U Captain Fitzroy was engaged in completing the survey
of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, and the result of all these labors was a col-
lection of charts and plans which have rendered navigation in those parts as
safe as can be expected in the most tempestuous region of the globe.

Wliile formerly the passage round Ca|)e Horn was universally preferred, the
iiinrc accurate knowledge of the Strait of ]\ragellan, for which navigation is in-
debted to the labors of King and Fitzroy, has since then turned the scale in
favor of the latter.

For a trading-vessel, witl; only the ordinary number of hands on board, the
passage through the strain from east to west is indeed very diflicult, and even
(langorous ; but in the opposite direction, the almost constant westerly winds
rcmlfr it commodious and easy particularly during the summer months, in
wliich they are most prevalent.

For small vessels— clippers, schooners, cutters — the passage in both directions
is, according to the excellent authority of Ca|)tain King, much to be preferred.
Such vessels have far more reason for fearing the heavy seas about Cape Horn ;
they can mor-- easily cross against the west winds, as their manceuvres are gen-
eiaily very skillful, and they find in tlie Somid itself a great number of anchor-
ing-places, which are in.accessible to larger vessels.

For steamers the advantage is entirely on the side of the Strait, and they
consequently now invariably prefer this route. Here they find plenty of wood,
uiiich enables them to save their coals ; and moreover, from Cape Tamar as far
as tiie Gulf of Penas, an easy navigation for about 300 sea miles through the
channels along the west coast of America.

As the trade of the Pacific is continually increasing, and tlio Strait of Magel-
hm more frequented from year to year, we can not wonder that the old project
of settling a colony on its shores should have been revived in our days. About
the year 1840 the Government of Chili established a penal colony at Punta Are-
nas and Port Famine, Avliich miserably failed in consequence of u mutiny ; buli

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410

THE POLAR WORLD.

ill 185;} about one Imndrofl and fifty German oniicrrants were settled at Pimfi
Arenas, and when the " Novara " visited the strait in 1858, they were fuund in -i
thriving condition. Should the project of stationing steam-tugs iii the strait
and of erecting liglithousesat Capo Virgins and at the entrance of Smyth Chan-
nel be executed, the JMagellans would become one of the high-roads of com-
merce, and the dangers which proved so dreadful to the navigators of former
days a mere tale of the ])ast.

A HIGHWAY OF COMMERCE.

PATAGONIA AND THE PATAGONIANS.

417

TATAOONIANa.

i i

iH*,

'hii

CHAPTER XL.

PATAGONIA AND THE PATAGONIANS.

DilToroncf of Clim.ito between East nnd West riit:i<;onia.— Extraordinarj' Aridity of East Pataponia.—
Zodlofiy. — The (luaiiaco. — The Tucutuco. — The, l'atai;(inian ARouti. — Viiltuii's. — Tlie Tiirliey-buz-
zard.— Tlie Ciirrancha. — Tlie Chiiiiantio. — nar-.vin's Ostricli. — The Pata};oidaii;' — l",xai.'norate(l Ac-
ciiiiiits nf tlieir Stature. — Tlicir I'hyslonnuniy and Dress. — Kelif^ioiis Ideas. — Sii[i(Mstiti(ins. — .\stro-
noniic d Knowledfje. — Division into Tribes. — The Tent, or Toldo. — Tradiiif; Koutcs. — The great
Cacique. — Ii\troductioii of the Horse. — Industry. — Aniusenients. — Character.

T)-VTAGOXIA, the soutliorn extremity of the American contment, is divided
•^ by the ridge of the Andes into two parts of a totally different character.
Its western coast-lands, washed by the cold Antarctic current and o posed to
tlie Iiiiinid gales of a restless ocean, are almost constantly ohsciireil with clouds
and drenched with rain. Dense forests, dripping witti moisture, clothe the
Ktee|) hill-sides ; and, from the coldness of the summer, the snow-line is so low
that for GoO miles northward of Tierra del Fuego almost every arm of the
sea wliieh penetrates to the interior higher chain is terminated by huge glaciers
ileseeiuliiig to the water's edge.

East Patagonia, on the contrary, a vast plain rising in successive terraces
fiom the Atlantic to the foot of the Cordillera, is one of the most arid regions
of the globe. The extreme dryness of the prevailing westerly winds, which
nave been totally deprived of their humidity before crossing the Andes, and
the well-rounded shingles which comi)ose the soil, have entailed the curse of

27

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•118

THE POLAU WOHLD.

sterility on tlic land. Monotonous warm tints of brown, yellow, or li.riit |.,,i
everywiicrc fatigue llio cyi', which vainly souks for rest in the ihnk hlu,. ^U
and llnds refi'eshinL? },'reen only on some river-hanUs.

Many broad flat vales transseet the idains, and in these the vegetal inn is
somewhat better. The streams of former ages liuvo no dunbi hollow,,! tl,,.,,,
out, for the rivers of the present day are ntterly inade(|iiate to the t,i>k. Ou
aeeount of the dryness of the atmosiiiiei'e, the traveller may joiiriiev lor .l.as
in these ratai^onian plains wilhont lindini,' a droj) of water. Sprinns arc nuc
and even when found are generally brackish and unrefresliinLr. \Vliile tlic
"JJeaj-ie" was anchoring in the spacious iiarbor of I'ort St. .Iulian,a paitv (^n,.
day accompanied Captain Fitzroy on a long walk round the head of the liaihor.
Tliey were eleven hours without tasting any water, and some of the parlv weio
(piito exhausted. From the siunmit of a hill, to which the appi(.|iiiati" name
of "Thirsty Hill" was given, a fine lake was spied, and two of the party |,rn.
ceeded,witli concerted signals, to show whether it was fresh water. 'I'li,. ,liv
ai>pointment may bo imagined when the su))pO!>e(l lake was found to liu a
snow-white expanse of salt, crystallized in great cubes.

The extreme dryness of the air, which imparts so sterile a character to ihf
country, favors tho formation of guano deposits on the naked isian(|> alon;r
the coast, whidi arc frefpU'Uted by sea-birds. Protracted droughts are om n-
tial to tiie accumulation of this manure,for rei)eated showers of rain woiiM
Avasli it into the sea, and for this reason no guano deposits are found on llm
jjopulous bird-mountains of the north. A similar dryness of the atino>|,li( m
favors the deposit at Tchaboo on the Afi'ican coast, at the Kooria Xooria In-
lands in the Indian Ocean, and at the Chincha Islands on the Peruvian coa-t ;
and this kind of climate appears also to be i)articularly agreeable to the sea-
birds.

Considering tho excessive aridity of Patagonia, it seems surprising that tlir
country should be traversed from west to east by such considerable rivers as
the llio Negro, the (lallegos, and the Santa Cruz; but all those have their
sources in the Andes, and are fed by mountam torrents, which no doubt derive
their waters from the atmospherical precipitations of tlu' Pacitic.

The zoology of Patagonia is as limited as its flora, and greatly roseinbks in
its character that of tho mountain regions of Chili, or of the I'uiia or liiL;li ta-
ble-land of the tropical Andes of Peru and IJolivia, the height of which varies
from 10,000 to 14,000 feet above tb.e level of the sea.

In all those countries, situated in such different latitudes, tlie explorer is as-
tonished to find not only the same genera, but even animals of the same spoci( s.
The forest-lovinsc race of monkevs is nowhere to be found in treeless I'ataL'n-
nia. Xone of the quadrumana ventures farther south than 29° lat., but on tlio
borders of tho Rio Negro, the northern boundary of Patagonia, some small bati
are scon fluttoring about in the twilight.

Tho dark-brown yellow-lieaded Galictis I'ittata, an animal allied to the Civ-
ets and Genets, is likewise found there, but much more f re(iuently its relation the
Zorilla, which ranges from 30° lat. to tho Strait of Magellan, and, like the skunk
of tho north, has tlie power of discharging a fluid of ;in intolerably fetid odor.

ir

PATAGONIA AND TFIK PATACONIANS.

410

The ^'iiaiiiu'o is till' cliiinu'ti'risrK! ([U!i(lrn|U'il of the plains of P;ita!»()ni;i,
.,1h re it is lilt less usofiil to man tliaii tlii' wiltl ri'ltnlccr to tlic savairt! Iniiitcrrt
I, f till' niirtli. It raiiii-fs from tlic t'oidillcia ot IVni as far south as tlic i>laM(ls
iii.;ii' ('a|H' Horn, l»ut it !iiip('ars to l»f uuiw. fri'iincnt on tlif ]ilains of Sontli
'';it;i'4onia than anywlicri; I'lso. It is of t^rcati'i' size than tii(! llama, and re-
*cmMrs it so much that it was sup|iosf(l to lu,' the wild varit'ly, nntil 'I'sciindi,
ill his " Fauna IVruana," pointcil out tiu' spccititi (lilifrcnci' lictuccn Itolh.
The liuanaco is a nn^iv decant animal, with a Ion'/, slender neek ami iine leu's ^
In llcece is slioi'tei' and less line; its <'olor is hi'own, the under parls heini;'
wliilisli. It generally lives in small herds (d from half a dozen to thirty iil eacii ;
liiit iiM the hanks of the Santa Cni/ Mr. Darwin sawone henl which contanied at
Iiiist livu hundred. Tlionu'h extremely shy ami wary, it is no match for this
ciiiiiiin:/ of the savaj^e ; and, before the horse was introduced into I'ataLfonia,
man most prohahly could not have existeil in those arid plains without the
•.'iiaiiacii. It easily takes to the water, an<l this accomits for its presence on the
(astern islands of Fiieijia, where it has been followed by the puma, or .\nieri-
(Mii lion, who likewise pursues it on the plateaus of the C'ordilli'ra, l:.',t)UO feet
;ilii)Vc the level of the sea.

Tlie Ib'azilian fox {(''i/u'n ./.-.v/jv/) is jilso met with as far as the strait. It
i< sDiiiewhat smaller than our fov, but more rol)ustly built. In I'atai^onia it
incys cliictly upon the sm;dl rodents, with which the land, in spite of its sterili-
tv. is nerliaiis more rielilv stocked than ;mv other eonntrv in the world. Amoni'
ilu-i.' the tucutuco (C(c)in//n/ii ttKti/i //utiiftt), which may briefly be described as
a unawer with the habits of a mole, is one of the most remarkable. It .abounds
mar the strait, where the sandy plain is one vast burrow of these creatures.
This cmaoiis .animal makes, when beneath the <,n'ound, a very peculi.ar noise, eon-
sistiii::,' of a short nasal Li'runt, monotonously repeated about foui- times in (piick
siucussion, the name tucutuco beiii'j; Ljiven in imitation of the soinid. Where
till' animal is abundant, it may be beard at all times of the day, and sometimes
directly beneath one's feet. The tucutuco is noirturnal in its habits; its food
>■ .nsists chielly of roots, the search after which seems to be the cause of its bur-
ro wing'.

Auhmil;' the indii;'enous (|uadrnpeds of Pata<;njiia we find, moreover, a spe-
cii s of a^'outi {J)i(Kiij)r()<'tii pKtdijonicd), which in some measure represents our
li.nv, liut is about twice the size, and has only three toes on its hind feet; the
ilc'iant loni,'-eared mara {J><>lic/ii)ti'<p(it(it;o)n'ciis), which, unlike most burrowintr
aiiiiiials, wanders, eommonly two or three toixether, for miles from its home ; the
Jtii/'/ji/ii.'i ^lx(ir(e,n species of opossum; and the jiicliy {Daxi/pns )/itiint.Hs),i\
small arniadillo, which extends !is far south as ."iO^ lat.

It Would be vain to seek anionsj: the l'ata;j;onian birds for the splendid
]iliunai:e of the tropical feathered tribes ; their colors are simple iuid monoto-
nous, as those of the naked ])lains which are their home. IMany birds of ]»rey
iif [lie warmer reunions of America likewise frecpient the arid wastes of Pata-
,::i)iiia. AVhen a horse chances to perish from fatigue or thirst, the turkey-buz-
zanl {Viilfiir aio'd?) begins to feast u(>on its carcass, and then the carraneha
( Piili/ljoriis hrasiliensis) and the ehiiuango {Polyboras chlmanrio) pick its bones

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Tin: por-Aii W()i{Li).

clean. Tli()iii,'l> llioso blnls, wliieh well Hiipply tlio nlaco of our oanioti-cntwn
inaLrpii's, ami ravens, licnerally fenl in coiniiKMi, llu-y aro by no means on n
frienilly t'oolinir. When tlif <'urninelia is ipiietly seated on the luam li (,t
a tree or nri tlie iH'oinul, the eiiinianyo ofii'ti eoiitiiHies for a hmi,' time llvin.r
l)afi<\vartl ami lorwanl, up and (h»wn, in a seniieirele, tryin'^ eaeii time at tlio
bottom <d' the curve, to striku its larger relative, which lakes lillle notice ex-
cept l»y liohiiiiii,' its liead. T\n' carranclia, whicli is c(»mmon in tiie div and
open conntries,!ind likewiNc on the aric' slntres of the I'acilie, is also I'ound in-
hahitini,' the l<Mesls of West l'atat,'oiiia an<l Tierra del Fuei;o. The chimaii".)
is iiiiich smaller than the <iiirrancha. Of till the carrion feeders, it, is ijenerallv
the last which h'aves the skehton id' a dciid animal, iiiid may fre<|iientlv hcMcIi
within the rihs of a horse, like a prisoner behind a .Lfratiie^. It is freiinentlv
found on the sea-coast, where it lives on small li-hes.

The condor may likewise be reckoned ainoii!,' the Palaj^onian birds, as it
follows its prey, the yiianaco, iicross the Strtiit of Mai^ellan tis far as the eastern
lowlands of Tierra del Fnej,'<». In the winter fspt'citilly, when the cold loiccs
vast numbers i>f ifeese and ducks to ipiit the Antarctic! islands in tht; luLilicr
latitud«'s, all these birds of jirey, to which the crowned falcon {('lri;i(,n <•(,.
ronoU(s), the three-colored buzzard {ISitUo tn'rolur), tlio A^nia eai,'le) /A^
/^^Y'^'^ f///«/a), and several others must be added, live in liixin-y. ]\Iost of tlnm
aro likewise mi<,'ratory birds, and disappear in summer, with the defenseless
tribes on which they prey. The .MaLrellanic thrush (7'iir<fiis )n<ti/i/liiii!rns)
loaves in winter the stormy banks of the strait, and retires to the milder skiis
of tlio Kio Neijro, where it meets the timofnl Patayonian warbler [Or/ilim.'t
patdf/otiiiuiN), tlio nimble troglodyte {7'rui/lo(fi/ks jndlida), and the inconstant
fly-catcher ( ^fniiri<-iipep<iri!n/iifi).

A peculiar species of ostrich, the naiidu {li/ini Danfiiii), roams ovi'r ihu
plains of iSouthern Pat!iu;onia as f;ir as the Strait of Mai,'ellan. It is smaller than
tho iSoiith American ostrich {Itficd americdrnt), which inhabits the conntiv nf
La Plata .as far as a little south of tlio IJio Negro; but it is more beaiilitiil,
as its white feathers aro tipped with black at tho oxtremity, and its black oiits
in like manner terminato in white.

In tho same high latitude one is surprised to moot with .a member of tlic
p.arrot tribe {Psittitcus putdfioniciis) feedini; on the seeds of the winter's hark,
and to see humming-birds ( Trovltilus fDrJicatus) flitting about during the snow-
storms in the forests of Tierra del Fnego.

The iilains of Pat.agonia arc inhabited by a r.ice of Indians supposed to lio
gigjintic, but the descriptions of modern tr.avollors have disjielled the idea.
Thus Pigafotti, tho companion of ^Magellan, relates that tho Europeans only
reach to the waist of the Patagonians ; Simon do Weert tells us that they are
from ton to eleven feet high; Byron, who visited them in the last century,
reduces them to seven feet, .and Captain Knig linally, who .accurately measincd
them, found the medium hoiglit of the males .about five foot eleven inches. As
the P.atagonians have most likely not degenerated within the last few centuries,
wo may infer from those v.arious accounts that the travellers of theiireseiit day
arc less prone to exaggeration than those of more ancient times. So much is

PATAGONIA AND THE I'ATAOONIANH.

4tl

niciiii, tli!it the Patnyotilatis nro ii tino atlilctic race of iiu'ii, wiili rcinarkalily
lii'o.'nl r<liiMil<lt'i's ami tliifk tiiiisciilar rniil)s. The licad is lnni;, liruail, ami Hat,
iiikI the fin'ilicad low, with tlii' liair <,'ri)\viiii,' witliiii an inch of the cyi'hrowH,
vhicli arc hari' ; the eyes arc often |ilaci'il ()l(hi|iifly, ami have hnt httic t'.\|>i'fH'
j.iiiii; thi' foivhead ami the hwixa lips aiv jiroinincnt, so tliat if a |pci|i('mliciilar
line were dfawn btitwini tlic two, ihe ttiick tlal nose would hafilly wiidi it, and
liiit silclnrii pffiject beyond it. In spite of ihi>e enarse features tlie physidtjno-
iiiv of the yoiiiitr k'"'1^ '^ '•>' '"* "leans iinpU'asant,aM it has an aniiahie, lively ex-
|iitv><inn. All of ihein have small hands and feet, and D'Orhiyny Hays that
tlicv liave the linest Hhapes (»f all the savayes lie saw. Thoiitih they have a
wi'lc niniitii and thick lips, this fanlt is redeemed by their beautiful white teeth,
whirli never fall out even in old aj^e.

The color of the I'alMLronians is much darkir than that of the Pampas In-
dians an<l others farther to the north, and most closely resembles that of the
iinilatto; a fact totally at variance with the coinim»ii i)elief that the darknesi
(if llic human skin increases on a|iproachinif the e(piat(U'.

Tlie chii'f jianneiit is the nmiudi!, a wide, square mantle — ciLcht feet long and
marly as broad — which they wear sifter the fashion of the an(;ient Crreeks and
liiiiiiaiis, with one end haiiijing down to thi' earth. It generally consists of
i.'iiaiiaco skins neatly sewn toLfether with ostrich sinews. In cold weather the
iiKiiiiilie, which serves also as a blanket, is worn with the liair inside; the even
siiiface is therefore ornamente(l with re(l drawings. 'Sometimes they wear
linots of horse-leather, like the (Jauchos, fnun whom tiny have learneil to mako
tliciii; fornui'ly sandals of guanaco skin were alone in use. Their long black
liair is tied behind with a thong of leather or a piece of riI)bon; the women
|ilait and atlorn it with a number of ornaments of glass and copper. The taco
is nciierally painted red, white, and black, and a Patagonian is never seen witli-
(ml tlie little jioiich in which he carries the necessary colors. A reinarkablo
ciistiim,eommoii to all the Indian tribes as far as l»olivia,is that of eradicating
till' hairs of the beard, and the men may freipiently be seen plucking them out
with a |)air of jiincers.

The religious ideas of the Patagonians greatly resemble those of tlieir neigh-
hnrs the Aucas and the Piielches. The divine Acliekenat Kanet is reverenced
as the genius of both yood and evil; but beside this chief deitv thev have a

.—",—17 ► ^

nuip.her of inferior spirits, generally of a malignant nature, which can be held
in check only by the arts of their magicians. Like the shamans, or medicino-
iiu'u of the north, these impostors work themselves into an ecstatic state, in
which they predict things to come, or announce the will of the unseen gods;
lull their trade does not seem to be very lucrative if we may judge from the
had condition of tlieir mantles. They also act as physicians, for all diseases
are invariably ascribed to the agency of evil spirits.

The Patagonians are quite as superstitions as the Indians of the high north-
ern latitudes. They seldom cut their hair, but when they do, they cist it into
the river or carefully burn it, so that it may not fall into the liands of some ma-
lignant magician, who might use it to the hurt of its (piondain owner. When,
on journeying along a river, they see some trunks of trees descending with the

hM

■\

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hi

d22

THE I'ULAu WOULD.

i- '

current, they take llicin for evil spirits, and address tliom Mitli a loud voice. j|
by chance the trees are s\ve|)l hy less rapidly or are driven r(jund in a whiii-
pool, tiiey believe that lliis lakes place for the ))urpose of hearing; tlieiu. Tluv
then make llieni libei:)! ])roniises, which they faithfully keep. Thev cast tlicir
\veap</ns, their ornaments, sometimes even their horses with bound feet into
the water, fully ])erHuaded that by this sacrifice they have ave ■(! the iui>|iii--
tunes that otherwise would have befallen them. Like many other savage im-
lions, they believe in a future ])aradise, where they e\})ect to iind ;ii;ain all tlmt
they ]iri/ed on earth. F-u- this reason they immolate over the •^'ravcs of tluii'
friends all the animals that belonged to iheni, and inter with them all tluv inis-
KCssed.

The astronomical knowledge of the Pataironians is surprisiiitjj in a iicoiilc
ranking so low in the scale of civilization. Continually migraling over their mi iij
land, they soon felt the necessity of directing their movements during the duv
by the i)osilion of the sun, during the night by the stars ; and thus tluv ur.nln.
ally learned to observe tiie march of the constellations, and to note tiu times n\
their appearance and disappearance, givini.' them names, so ;is to be .•'lile to com-
municate their observations to each other. Their lively fancy traces in the
Htarry firmament the j)icture of the Indian's hunting expedition. The .Milkv
Way is the ])ath on which Ik; follows the ostrich; the '• Three Kings" are ihc
bolas, or l>alls, with which he strikes the bird whose fi'ct form the Snntiieiu
Cross; and the Magellanic ch)uds are he.i2)s of its feathers that have iiceii col-
lected by its jiursner.

When the Patagonians speak of the direction they intend to follow. Iidin
north to south or from east to west, they always indicate the consteilatinns ; mi
that in tliese South American jilains, as ni those of Ciialdea, ;i similar nece»ily
has led man to lay the tirst fouinlatnins of astronomical knowledge.

The Patagonians are divided into a number of small migratory tribes, eacli
consisting of, at the utmost, thirty or forty families. As they live e.\elii>ively
by the chase, it is evident that a few ilays would suffice to d-stroy or to drive
aw.ay the ganu' of a great exti'Ut of territory were they to assemble in largiT
nunibers. Not to perish of want, they are thus compelled to w.ander finiii
jilace to place in small companies, and to carry along with them their leatlurn
toldos, or tents. The toldo reposes on .'i frame of poles stuck into the earlli.ainl
is scarcely higher than six feet m its centre, so that one can hardly imagine Imw
a family of tall Pat.agonians can live in so small a space. The door is invaiia-
b!y to the east, so that early in the morning the chief of the family may sjirinkli
before it a few dropsof water as an oii'eringto the rising sun, for were thiss.ic-
riiice to be neglectecl, the evil spirits would infallibly wreak their vengi'ainu
upon the inm.att's of the tent. Ilorse-Iiides, or guanaco skins coarsely sewn to.
gether, covi'r the frame, .and afford but a scanty protection ag.ai'ist the r.aui ami
the much more frecpient wind. At the toj), as in the liaplander's hut, ;in oneii-
ing is left to lei out the smoke. The heartli is in the middle, and close hy lie
some earthen vases, and large vcjliite shells which serve as drinkiiig-horns. Tin'
inmates lie on skins, or sit ir. a corner cross-leggeil, after the Orieiitial fasiiioi:.
The excessive tilth of these wretcheil tenements makes their poverty appear still

PATAGONIA AND THE PATAGONIANS.

423

more sfiualKl than it really is. Thirty or forty toldos form a migratory village,
or tolderia. Tli()U<j;h the drcatlful sinall-pox epidemic from 1809 to 1812 do-
strovi'd whole tribes of I'atagonians, their present miml>c-r may still be estimated
at from eiLfht to ten thousand ; a small one, when compared with the size of the
foiintrv, vet large enough when we consider the sterile nature of its soil and the
vast space of desert needed to feed a sufficient number of guanacos and horses
for tlio wants i>f even a scanty population. J^acii tolderia .ipjiears to have its
tcrrittirv limited by the hunti.ig-groundsoF its neighl)ors, but commercial trans-
actions take i)lace between the various tribes, and occasion longer journeys.
One of the chief trading routes runs along the eastern foot of the Andes from
tlic Stiiiit of ^ragellan to the Kio Negro, as water is iiere everywhere found;
anotlicr, leading jiarallel with the coast frum the Kio Negro to Port St. Julian
aiiil Tnit Desire, is only frecpiented in the rainy season, and even then there are
wiilc sjiaces without any sweet water, and where it is necessary to triwel night
ami ilay so as to avoid the danger of dying of thirst.

Every year the various Patagonian tril)es wander to the sources of the Hio
XcuT", wliere they provide themselves with araucaria seeds, which serve them
as food, or witli a|»ples, which have nMdtiplied on tlie eastern spurs of the Andes
in the same astonishing manner as the jjeach-trees near the mouths of the La
I'lata. Tile apjile-tree was introduced by the first Spaniards who iniiabited the
Cliilian Andes soon after tiie coiKpiest; an<l when later the intruders were ex-
lu'llcd by tlie victorious Araucanians, the natives found their country enriched
by tliis valuable ac(iuisition.

One of the chief bartering rendezvous is the island C'holeclicl, Avhicli is form-
ed liy two arms of the IJio Negro, about eighty leagues from the month of the
river. Here the Patagonian exchanges his guanaco skins for the articles wliich
the Puelches, his northern neighbors, either fabricate themselves or procure in
a more easy maimer by stealing them from the white settlers in their neighbor-
iiood. This bartering trade is very ancient, and has always existed excepting in
times of war. In this manner tlie Patagonians were ]>rovided with horses soon
after the introduction of this valuable animal into the New "World, and thus
also articles of S])aiiisli manufacture soon found tlieii way as far as the Strait
of Magellan.

At jiresent there seems to be peace among all the Patagonian tribes, which
consider themselves as brothers, tliough freijuently sejxiratcil several liundred
leagues from each other.

Tlieir system of government is very simple. The whole nation has a chief,
or great cacicpie, whom tliey call caraskeii, and whose authority is very limited.
In war he jiresides in the assembly of thi' .ninor chiefs, and has the supreme
comniaiid in battle. In peace his sway is confined to his own tribe. He is as
poor as his subjects, and, far from enjoying a cojiious civil list, is obliged to
lumt for his subsistence like every other Patagonian ; the only advantage he
owes to his exalted station being a somewhat larger share of the products of
the chase; and ihis he is obliged to distril)ute among the more needy of his fol-
lowers, to maintain his intluence. The dignity of carasken is not always hered-
itary. To succeed his father, the son must first prove by liis eloquence, his

• i

, !■!

l!i!;:!5

' : hi' '

424

THE POLAR WORLD.

M :

1 t

■'-. \i

courage, and liis liberality thfit he is worthy to succeed him; and if he is fouiul
wanting, the Indian most distinguished by his moral and intellectual (luuii-
ties is elected in his place.

The Patagonians are very awkward fishermen ; they merely catch what
chance throws into their hands, and are uiiac(iuainted with nets or any otlur
piscatorial artifice. In this respect lliey are totally different from the Fiui'ians
who derive their chief subsistence from the sea. They have ever been a nation
of hunters, and before the introduction of the horse, they pursued their "wmc
on foot, using their bolas with great dexterity for the destruction of the "uanacvj
and the ostrich. Their dogs ;ifforded them a valuable assistance, and sincj tlicv
have become accomplished horsemen, their fleet coursers enable them to over-
take with ease all the animals of the wilderness. In times of scarcitv they
<lig for a small root, ^vhich is either eaten fresh or preserved dry. Ilorsu-flesh
is their favorite food.

The Patagonian toldos and their weapons are very rudely made, but their
skin mantles are not untastefully ornamented with rectilinear figures. In tlnir
war-dress they liave a very hideous appearance, and it would be diflicult to im-
agine a more diabolical figure than tiiat of :i tall I'atagonian ready for a iiuht,
liis broad face painted scarlet, with black or blue stripes under the eyes, ami
his coarse features distorted with fury. Their arms are bows and arrows, with
points of flint loosely attached with sim-ws, so as to remain sticking in the
wound. They are excellent archers, and use with skill the sling, the javelin,
and above all their formidable bolas, which serve them both for Ijringing the
guanaco to the ground or for breaking the skull of an enemy. When not c\\.
gaged in war or in the chase, the men, like most savages, pass their time in ab-
solute idleness, leaving all the household work to the women. AniiisciiKiits
they have but few. The use of dice they have learned from the Spa?iianls.
They are said to be a false and deceitful people, but their liospitality and good-
nature have been frequently extolled by travellers.

I t

,Mf

;' IS

THE FUEGIANS.

42r>

COAST Oi" rUEUlA.

CIIAPTETl XLI.

THE FUKOI ANS.

Tlicir iiiisoraMo rnnditioii. — Doi;ra(l;iti(iii of IJudy lunl Miml. — Powers of ^limirry. — XotionH of Ttiirfor.
— Causes of llicir low State of t 'uliivatioii.— Tlicir l-'ooil. — l.iiiipt*. — < 'i/ihirid linnnm. — ('oiLstaiit

IS. — Their prolialilc Oritiiii. — Tlirir NmiiliT, and

Mi;;ratioiis. — 'I'lip Fiicniaii Wif^v

-\V.

vari(iiis Tiile s. — Con-taiit Kciids. — Caiinilialisiii. — l,aiiL;iiaL:i'. — AilvciiturcMif I'lieuia ItaskiM. .leiii-
my Huttoii, and York Minster. — Missionary l.aliorn. — (' _'taiii (iardiiicr. — His laiiiciilulde I'.ml.

^PIIK wilds of Ticrra del Fiiei^o are iiiliabitiMl l)y a race of nun irciicially sup-
-*- ]iosoil to occupy the lowest gfado in tlic scalo of liuinanit y. In a far more
I'iirorous cliniato, the Ks(niiniaii\, tlieir northern anlipixh's, e.xliihit skill in tlieir
snow huts, tlieir kayaks, their weajjons, ami their ilress ; but the wretched Fiie-
uiaiis are ignorant of every useful art that could better their condition, and
c'lintiive searci'ly anv defense aijainst either rain or wind.

]'>iit

even atuon

g the KueLfians there are various <j;radcs of civilizati

on — or

nitlier barbarism. The eastern trilti'S, wliieh inhabit the extensive plains of
Kiiii; Charles's South Lan<l, seem closely allied to the I'ataLtoniaiis, and are
a very different race from the undersized wretches farther westward. A man-
lie iif ifuanaco skin, wilh the wool outside — the usual I'atauonian uannent —
ver their shoulders, ami leavinij their persons as often exposed

I Iv til

rown o

:iN covered, affords them soiiu' jirotection auainst the pU'rciiitf wind. The con-
ilitiou of the central tril)es in'.iabitinix the south-western bays and inlets of this
dreary country is much more miserable. Those farther to the west jios.sess
seal-skins, but here the men are satisfied with an otier skin or some other cov-
eiiiiir scarcely lartrer than a pocketdiandkerchief. It is laced across the breast
by strings, and according as the wind blows it is bhifted from siilu to bide.

5. I

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420

THE POLAR WOULD.

l)iit all liave not even this wretdii'd i^arment, for near "Wollaston Islaiul Mr
J)ar\viii saw a canoe with six FiU'i^iaiis, one of whom was a woman, nulud. h
Ava.s raiiiini,' la'avily, ami the fresh water, toLrethcr with the spray, tricklecl il,,\vii
their bodies. In aiiutiier liarbor net far distant, a woman, who was siukliii"
a receiitly-liorn child, came one ihiy alongside the vessel, and remaiiied thcic
out of mere curiosity, whilst the sleet fell and thawed on lier nakiMl JMOdm
and on the skin of '>er naked Laby ! These j)oor wretches were stunted in
their "growth, their faces bedaubed with white paint, their skins iiltliy, their li;iir
entangled, their voices discordant, and their gestinvs violent.

The Fuegians whom Cook met with in Cliristmas [Sonnd Mere (iiiiiillv
Avretched. Their canoes were made of the bark of trees stretched over a Iranu'-
work of sticks, and the l)addles which served to propel these miserable boats
wei-e snuill,and of an e(]ually luiserable workmanship. In each eaiioe sat fiom
ii\e to eiii'lit persons; but instead of greeting the strangers with the jdvlal
siiouts of the South Sea Islanders, tliey rowed along in perfect silence ; and
even when (piite close to the vessel, tliey only ntteri'd from time to time the
Mord '* IVscheriih I"' After re))eated invitations some of these sav;i<4cs canie
on board, but without exhibiting tlie least sign of astonishment or cnrinsiiv.
None were above five feet foin- inclies high; they had large heads, tiruad
faces, with j)rominent cheek-bones, flat noses, small and lack-lustre eyes; and
their black hair, smeari'd with fat, hung in mattetl locks over their sliuulders.
Instead of a beard, their chin exhibilt'd a few straggling bristles, and their
whole appearance afforded a striking ](icture of abjt'ct misery. Their shoul-
ders and breast v.cre broad and strongly built, but the extremities of the Imj.Iv
so meagre and shrivelled that one could hardly realize the fact that they be-
longed to the upper ])art. Tlie Itgs were crooked, the knt'cs disproportionate-
ly thick. Their sole garment consisted of a small piece of seal-skin, attached to
the neck by nu-ans of a cord, otherwise they were (juite nakeil ; but even these
nnserable creatures had made an attenijit to decorate their olive-brown skin

with sonu^ stripes of ochre. The women were as ugly as the men. Tliiirt I

consisteil of raw, half-putrid seal's ilesh, which made them snu'U so honilily,
that it was impossible to remain long near them. Their intelligence was on a
jiar witii the liltli of their bodies. The most t'xpressive signs were here of no
avail, (iestures wlTudi the most (bdl-heade(l native of any South Sea islai.d im-
nu'di.ately understood, these savages either did not, (»r would not give tlieiii-
selves the trouble to compreheml. Of the superiority of the Europeans tiny
appeai'ed to have no iilea. never expressing by the slightest sign any asloni^li-
nu'iit !it the siglit of the ship and the various objects on board. It would how-
ever be doing the Fuegiaus injustice to sup]iose them all on a level with tlie^e
wretches. According to Forster, they were most likely outcasts Ironi the
neighboring Irittes.

]Mr. Darwin, as well as Sir James I Joss, describes tlio Fuogians whom tliey
met with in the I5ay of (Jood Success and on Hermit Island as exeelleiil
mindcs. '"As often as we coughed or yawned," says the former, " or made any
ocld motion, they immediately imitated us. Some of our jjarty began to si|iiiiil
and look awry, but one of the young Fuegiaus (whoso whole face was ]iainted

,i:lS!.;- . ::■' !.

THE FUKtilANS.

427

lihirk. cxccplini? a wliito band across his eyes) siioccodcd in inakiiiir far iiinro
liiili'iiu-i ifi'iiiiacc'S. Tiicy could r. ,ii'at willi )icrtcct corrcctiu'ss cacli \\dr<l in
;niv siiitciicc wc addressed tiicin, and tlicy rctnenilu'rcd snrli words for soinu
time. Vet wc all iinow liow dilliciill it is to disliiiLfiiisli apart tiie .soinuls in a
InrciLrn ian_i,'na;,'o."

(Idsc to the jnnctioii of I'onsonhy Sonnd witli tlie l>ea<;-U' Channel, where
Ml'. Daiwin and iiis jiarty spent the niyht, a small family of '"'ne^'ians soon
jdiiiid llie strangers ronnd a hlaziiiu: lire. They seemed well pleased, and all
jiiiiicd in the chorns of the seamen's sonits. Dnrinn' the nin'ht the news had
>|iri;id, and early in the moriiiiiLC nther Fiie<j;ians .arrived. Sevi'ral of these had
run sii last that their noses were lileedini:', and their nioutlis frothed from the
i;i|iiditv wilii which they t.alked ; and with their nakeil bodies all hed.anhed with
lihuk, white, anil red, tlu'y lookeil like su many denKjns.

fl

i

Fl'EOIAN TUAUEnS.

Tliese people plainly showed that llioy liad a fair notion of barter, ^ir. Dar-
win y;ave one man a lar^e nail (a most valiiahK' present) without makiiiLT any
siu'iis lor a return ; luit he immediately ])icked out two fish, and Iian<led them
ii|i on the j)()int of his spear. Ih're at least we see si'jtns of a mental activity
favonihly oontrastint; Avith the slond indifference of tlie l''ueLrians seen by For-
sttr at Christmas Harbor; ami Mr. Darwin is even of opinion that in ireneral
tlie-c people rise above the Australians in ment.al power, althouixh their actual
iic'iuireiuents may be less.

The reason why the Fucgiaus are so little advanced in the arts of life,

i, I;

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ii: :i ;'

ifii

428

THE POLAIl WORLD.

are partly to bo soiiijjlit for in tlio nature of tlic laml, and partly in tlioir jiolitipal
Ktato, Tilt! pi-rfc'ct cM|uality anionij tin- iiulividuals in each trilic nnist ntanl
their eivilizution ; and until some (;hief shall arise with power siilHeieiit to se-
cure any ac(juired advantaifc, such as the doniesticiUed aniiuals, it seems scarce-
ly j)ossil»le tiiat tlii'ir eotiditioii can improve. Hut the chief causes of their
wretchedness are doubtless the barrenness of their country and liicir constant
forced mi aerations.

"With tlu! excepiion of the eastern Jiart, the habitable land is reduced to
the stones on the beach. In search of food they ar«! compelled to waiuh'r from
n]tot to spot ; and so steep is the coast that they can only move about iti tluir
canoes. Whenever it is hnv water, winter or summer, nij^ht or dav. tluv mum
rise to i)ick limpets from the rock; and the woiiu-n eitlier dive to coHcct sea-
ejfirs, or sit jtatU'Utly in their boats, .and with a baiti'd hair-line, wilhnut aiiv
lioek, jerk out little tish. If a seal is killetl, or the lloatint,' carcass xf a putriil
whale discovered, It is a fe.asl; and such luiserable food is .assi.-teil bv a few-
tasteless berries, chiefly of a dwarf arbutus, or by a irlobiiiar bright velldw fun-
dus {^Cifttfii'id Jhiru-lii!), \\\w\\ grows in vast mnnbers on the bet'ch - trees.
When younjr, it is elastic, with a smooth surface; but, when mature, it shrinks,
becomes touofier, aiid lias its entire surface deeply pitted or Iioiicv-comiImiI.
In this ni.'iture state it is collected in large (piantities by the women and cliil-
dren, .and is e.ateii uncooked. It has a mucilaginous, slightly sweet taste, with
a fjiiiit smell liki' that of a mushroom.

The necessity of protecting themselves .against the extremity of cold, ainl of
obtaining their food from the se;i, or by the chase of the reindeer or tlic wliiie
bear, forces the Esipiimaii.v to exert all their faculties, .and thus liiev liavc
raised themselves considerably higher in the scale of civilization than the Fiie-
pians,wliose mode of life re(|uires far less exertion of the mind. To kimrk a
limpet from the rock or to collect a fungus does not even call cunning into ( \-
ercise. Living chielly upon shell-(ish, they jire obliged constantly to chaiiu'e
their .abode, an<l thus they hardly bestow jmy thought on their dwellings, wliiih
are more like the dens of wild beasts than the habitations of hiinian being's.
The Fuegian wigw.ani consists of a few branches stuck in tlu' grouml. and \riy
imperfectly thatched on one side with a few tufts of grass and rushes. '!1m'
Avliole can not be the work of an hour, and it is only us^'d for a few ilays. Al
intervals, however, the inhabitants of these wretcheil huts return to the si.'i
spot, as is evident from the piles of old shells, often aiiioimting to several toii^
in weight. These lii'aps can be distinguished at ;i distance i>y the briuhl giKii
color of certain plants, such as the wild celery and scurvy grass, which invari-
ably grow on them.

The only articles in the manufacture of which the Fuegiaiis show some
8igns of ability are a few ornaments ;md their weapons, which .-.gain arc far
inferior to those of the Ks(piiniaiix. Their bows .are small and b.idly slia|ic(l.

their .arrcws, w hicli are

bi't

ween two and ihrei

feet 1

oil"',

feat I

d at one end

;ind blunted at tlu' otlier. The ]ioiiils .are only attached when the arrow i-
about to be used, and for this purpose the archer carries them .about with liini
in a leathern i)0ucli. The shaft of their larger .spears is about ten feet long,

ill

Ii'iliticnl
>*t ntard

lit to M-

IS scarce
of tlicii-
loiistaiii

TIIK FUEGIANS.

420

ami ci|nally thick at both ends. At one of the cxtiTmltics is n fissure, into whicli
aiKiinteil Luiiu with a liarbeil liook is inserted ami tightly Itoiind witii a fliread.
With tills weapon they most |»rol)al)ly attack the seals; tliey also use it to de-
tach the shell-lisli from the rocks helow the surface of the water. A second
s|ic;ir, loiiixer and litihter tlian the first, with a barbed jjoint, serves most likely
as a weapon of war; and a third one, much shorter and comparatively thin,
iiiav perhaps uo destined iov the birds. The females know how to niako

A FUEOIAN AND Illri FOOD.

pretty necklaces of colored shells and baskets of yrass stalks. Here, as witli
nil other races of mankind, we tiiid the i^erms of improvement, which only
roijiiire for their development the external impulse of more favorable circum-
stances.

If it be asked whetlier they feel themselves as miserable as their wretched
Mppcaraiice would lead us to believe them, it nmst be replit'd that most travel-
lirs describe them as a cheerful, <rood-hnniored, contented people; and as Mr.
I)urwin finely remarks, " Nature, by making hidjit omnipotent and its effects

!M::m

iiilSli,

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480

THE POLAR W(JKLI).

licrt'ditary, has fitted the Fiu'gian to the cliiua»o and the prodiictiuiis of liis
country."

The nuinbcr of tlicso savages is no doiiltt very small, as seldom more tli;iii
tliirty or forty individuals are seen to.uetlier. Tlie interior of the mountiiiiioiw
islands, which is as little known as the interior of Si)itzl)ergeii, is no doiilii c, nn.
pletely uninhal)ited ; as the coasts alone, with the exception of tin- eastern and
more level part of the country, where the guaiiaco finds jiastnre, are alilc to
furnish the means of suhsistence. The various trii)es, seiiarafeil fi.ini ciih
other by a deserted neuiral territory, are nevertheless eiiLraged in cniiNtMil
feuils, !is (juarrels are perpetually arising about the possession of some iiiiiint-
bank or fishing-station. When at war they are cannibals; juid it is eqiiuHv cr-
tain tliat when pressed in winter by hunger they kill and devour their cild wiun-
en befoi-e they kill their dogs, alleging as an excuse that their dogs catch otUis,
and old women do not.

It has not beeu aiseertained whether they have any distinct belief in a future
life. They sometimi's bury their dead in caves, and soinetinu's in the niduiitaiu
forests. Kach family or tribe has a wizanl, or conjuring doctor. Tluir laii-
guage, of which there are several distinct oi.alects, is likewise little known ; it
is, however, far inferior to the copious and expressive vocabulary of tiie Ksi|ui-
niaux.

In 18.".(), while Captain Fit/roy was surveying the coasts of Fuegia, he sci/cl
on a ]>arty of natives as hostagi's for the loss of a boat which hail \h-v\[ stulcn,
and some of these natives, as well .as ;i child belonging to .another tril)e, wimui
lie bought for a ]ieail l)Utton, lie took with liiiu to England, deterininiuLr to
educate them at his own expense. One of them afterwards died of tlic small-
]iox; but a young girl, Fuegia JJasket, and two boys, .Temiiiy IJutton (thus
named from his purchase-money) and York Minster (so called from tlu' unat
rugged mountain of York 3Iinster, near Christmas Sound), were placed iu a
scIkxjI at ^Y:dthamstow, and moreover h;id the honor of being ]»rest'i:tcil to
King Willi.'im and (^iieen Adelaide. Three years Jemmy and his conipaiiinns
remained in Fiigland, ;it the end of which time Captain Fitzroy was again sent
out to continue the survey, and took with him these three Fuegians, intemlini,'
to return them to tiio ]>l,ace whence they liad come. In this, however, he was
disappointed; but at their own reipiest York and Fuegia were, with .Iiiuniy,
dejiositeil at WooUya, a pleasant looking spot in I'onsonby Sound, beloiiL:iiig
to Jemmy's tribe. His family, consisting of his mother and thri'e brotli(i<,
was absent at the time, but they arrived the following morning. Jemmy ici-
ognized the sti'iitorian voice of one of his brothers ;it a prodigious distance, Imt
the meeting, as ]Mr. Darwin, who witnessed the sceiu', relates, was less interc^l-
ing than that between a horse turned out into ii iield and an old coniiianion.
There was no demonstration of affection; they simply stare<l for a short time
at each other. Three large wigwams were built for them, gardens planted, and
an abundant supply of every thing landed for their use. Jemmy, who had be-
come (piite a favorite on board, was short and fat, but vain of his personal ap-
jiearance; he used tilways to wear gloves, his hair was neatly cut, and he was
distressed if his well-polished shoes were dirtieil. York was somewhat coarse

THE FUEGIANS.

481

and less iiiti'Uijioiif, tli<Mii;li in some thliiLCs In,' coiiUl ho (jiiick. lie became at-
tacliiil to FiU'iiia, aii<l as liotli wore of tlie same tribe, they became man and
witV after their return to Tierra del Fue<j;o. Slie was tlie must mteliiyent of
the tlinc, and (|uiek in learniiij^ any thing, espei-ially langnages.

TliMs tliese semi-eivilized savages were left among tiieir Ijarbarous eountry-
111(11, witii the hope tiiat they migiit become the means of imj)roving tiieir whole
liilio; l»nt wlien Captain Fitzroy retnrned to the spt)t twelve months after,
hu fiiiiiiil the wigwams deserted and the gjirdeiis trampled nnderfoot. .Jemmy
came iiaddliiig up in his canoe, but the dandy who iiad been left plump, clean,
and well-dressed, was now turned into a thin, haggard savage, with long, disor-
(liiiil liair, and naked, except a bit of a blanket round his waist. He could still
speak Kiiglish, and said that he had enough to eat, that h ,' was not cold, anil
that ills relations were very good people, lie had a wife besides, who was de-

Clllt'l

ly the best-looking female in the company. With his usual good feelii

iir.

lie hrouglit two beautiful otter skins for two »d' Ids best friends, and some spear-
heads and arrows made with his own hands for the captain. He had lost all
his property. York Minster ha<l built a large canoe, and with his wife Fuegia
iiiui, several months since, gone to his own country, and hail taken farewidl by
an act of consummate villainy. He i»ersuaded Jt-mmy ami his mother to come
witli Iiiiii, and then on the way deserted them by night, stealing every artiide
(if tiieir property. It was tiie opinion of all on board that tluMamning rogue had
|il;iiiiu'd all tiiis htng before, and that with this end in view he had desired so
canicstly to remain witii Jemmy's tril>e ratiier than bi' landed on his own coun-
liy. I'iiglit years after an Fnglish vessel put into :i bay in the Magellans for
water, and there was found a woman, witlmut doubt Fuegia IJasket, wlio said,
"Ilow do!:* I iiave been to I'lymoulh and London." York ]\Iinster was also
seen ill 1H,")1. From Captain Snow, eommandi'r of the mission yaidit '•Allen
daidiiier," we have the last accounts of .leinmy IJutton in ISo."). Twenty-three
years had not obliterated his knowledge of the I^nglish language, but he was as
wihl and shaggy as his untaught countrymen. In s|iite of his superior knowl-
edge, he was treated as a very inferior ])ersonage by the members of his tril)(>;
Vet lie declared that though he loved Kngland, he loved his count I'y still better;
tliiit iiotliiiig should iiidiici' him to leave it, and that he would never allow any
(if Ills cliildreii to ipiit their native soil.

Other efforts have been made to civilize the F

ueLTians.

A Si

paiiish vess(

liMviiig licfii shipwrecked on the eastern coast in 17<J7, its erew v.as hos|Mtal)ly
treated iiy the natives, who even assisted in savinir the cargo. Out of gr:ititude,
the (ioveriior of Huenos Avresseiit out some missionaries, wlio, however, totally

dt

laiied to make any impression on tlie savages.

A no less unsuccessful attempt was made about the year is;!.") by Knglish mis-
sinii.nies ; and the expedition of Cajitain (iardiner, who, acconipaiiieil liy a siir-
,i:e'in,a catechlst, and four Cornish fishermen, sailed to Fuegia in is.jl, with the
intention of converting the natives, proved e(pi:illy fruitless, and had a far more
ti'agie end. His measures for securing thi' necessary supplies (d' food were so
ill calculated that the whole party died of hun<;er in Spaniards' Harbor, on the
southern coast. Captain ^Slorshead, of the " Dido," liad received orders on his

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THE POLAR WOULD.

STAUVATIO.N MEACII.

way to Valparaiso to visit the scene of the mission, and afford Captaiti (Jurdi-
ner any aid he inij;ht recinire, hut, on arriving; at tlie cove, lie found it dtsiitcd.
After a few days' seareh the bodies were discovered, ami fraLfUicnts of a jour-
nal written hy Captain (lardiner yave proof of the sufferings which they had
endured before death relieved tlioni from their misery. The spot has received
the uumu of kJtarvutiuu Beach.

CIIAULES FHANCIS HALL AND THE INNLITS.

4H8

SfKVKVlNO IN (iUHEM.ANU.

CIIAPTKIl XLII.

CHARLKS FHAXriS HALL AM) THE IXNUITS.

Hall- F.xpodition.— IIU ciiilv Lifi'.— IIU roiidin^' of Arcti^i .A('.\ontiirc.— His Il'^snlvo.— His Arctic Out-
lit _Stts Sail on tliu "(icdruK Ilciirv." — Tliu V<>ya;;o. — Kiiillii;zo. — Ilolstoiiilidrn, (ifot'iiland. — I'up-
iiliticiii of (ircciilaiiil. — Sails I'nr Davis's Strait.—* 'tiaiactcr (if I lie Iimnits. — \Vici'l« of tli« " Hoscnc."
— I'.lpicrliiii ; and Tookonlito. — 'I'lii'ir Visit to Kiif^lanil. — Mull's lirsl I'.xploration. — laiioponn ami ln-
riiiit I.ifc ill the Arctic Kinioiis. — liiiiMiiiH an l;.'loo. — Alni'i'-t Stai uil.— I"ii.'lit for I'lnul wiili lioj;'*.
— I'.li rliini; anivcs with a Seal —Mow lie caii^ilit it— A Scal-l'ca-t.— Tin" Iiiinii's ami SiaN. — 'I Im
I'lilar I'li'ar. — How li ■ tcaclns tlic liiiiiiits to latcli Seals. — At a Scal-liolc. — Doi^s as SiMl-liiiiitors. —
l>u_'s and licars. — I)o.i;s and Kcindii rs.— Imuiits and Wjilnis's. — More aliont Ij^loos. — Inniiit Iniple-
iiHiils. -I'ses oftlie Keindeer. — Innuit Iiiipiovidenre. — A De-r-feast. — A fi-o/.-n Didieaey. — Wliale-
skin as Food. — \VliaIe-}j;iiin. — llow to eat Whale Ligament. — I!aw Meat. — The Dre.s of the Innnits.
—A pretty Style. — lieli^^ioiis Ideas of the Inimits. — 'lln ir hindlv ( haraeler.— 'I'reatnient of tlm
A;;i(l and liilirin. — A Woman ahandoeed to die. — Mall's Attempt to rescue her. — 'I'lie In mi it Noin ids,
Hi lioiit any Ibrin of (!ovenin\ent. — Their Niimliers diniini^hinii. — .\ Sailor waiidiTs away. — Hall's
Seircli fur him. — Kinds him frozen to death. — The Ship free freni le ■. — I'reparalioiis to retiir'i. —
Iteset in the Ice-paek. — .Xnotlicr .Arctic Winter. — UrcaktnLt up of the lec. — Departure for Home. —
Todkoolito and herChild •' Ihitterfly."— Death of" Uiitterllv."— Arriv.il at Home.— Kesnlts of Ma'l's
I".x|iiMlitioii. — Immit Tradilions. — l)iseoveiy (if I'rotiishci- !!■ lies. — Hall imd'Ttakes a second K.\|iedi-
ti "11.— His Slatiineiit of its Oliject and I'ro-pects — Last Tidin^'s of Hall.

i MON'd till' most fc'inafkiililc ox]i('ilitioiis over tmili'i'1;ikcii in tlic Toliir wofM
^ ■■ is tliat of C'liafli's Ff.'iiu'is llall, pi'rfofiiicd iliiriii!; tlic yc.'ir.s jstio, ]si;i,a!iil
l^OJ. Its priinai'v olijoct was to discover tlie stirvivofs of Sir .lolm Ki'aiiiiliii's
;iai'ty; for at tliis titiie tlifrc was ^ood reason tolielieve fliat otit of the 105 who
Were luiown to lie livititj on tlie L'otli of A|iiii, ist^J, sottie were still siirviviii'.;.
Towards tlic main pnrpose of tlie uiidcftakiiigiiotliiiiLr was indeed areomplislied.
Hall came upon no traees of Franklin and his men ; hut he aerpiired .1 more ae-
fiinite knowledge of the Esf|uimatix— or rather as they call themselves, and as
wt' shall call them, the Innuits — a word meaning simply " men " or " people" —
and their mode of life than was ever before, or is likely to bo hereafter, gained

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UALI. AM) COMPANION!*, IN INMMT COSTIME.

by any other wliitp iiinn cajiablc of tcHiin; wliat, lio saw, ami a i)ait of wliiili lie
was. Tlio rcmarkalik' book in wliich y\r. Hall describes his cxpi'ilitioir' soonis
not to have conio nmler the notice of Dr. Hart wet;. It is proposed in this (IimI'-
ter to snpplenient the accoinit of the Ininiits from this work of M*'. Hall.

• Arctic Rcsewclies, and Life among Ihe Esquimi-tx, By Cu.VKLns Fk.V.ncis Hall. New Yo;k, 15flt>.

(;nAia-i:s fiiancis hall and tiik inniits.

4 lift

\h) to midillc lift' Mull li.'i'l resided in flic inland city of ("iiwinnafi. He luid
(.;i.f(.|Iv read every lliini; that lie eoiild find on reeord of the searclies made foi'
Fiaiil^li". I-ar,i;e ships and small ships hail lueii sent out. JJrave hearts and
(titiit liamls had been eiilisteii in tin- sciiich, hut with no taiiLjihle result heyoiid
nsi'crtaiiiiii.si tho spot where the survivin;,' 105 were when they ahandoneil tlieir
sliiiis and tuiik to the shnn-, liopini; to make their way tn their homes. Only
two (if these men wi're prnveii l(» have died ; and it was nmre tiian prohahle
th;il nf tlie 10.') known to have heeii liviie^ in lsls,soine would Vrt he alive in
IHdo, fur lint a few of ihi'su men, if liviie,', would he still of middle ai;'e.

Hall had reail the story of the sulTeiiiiLis ol Kane's parly dinin'j: the ionjx
mniitlis of the Areti(! winter, hut he had eome lo the eoiieliision that most <tf
llicsc resulted from the mode of life adopted hy them. The Iniiuits, In- knew,
iiviil to a >_'<i"d old ai,'e throiit^h a siieeession of such wintiTs, and he helievi'd
tliat acivili/.eil man eoiild live where a savau'e eoiil-l. This (•onvielion was eon-
tiriiicd hv one of Kane's eonipaiiions, who told him. " When we lived like the
Ks(|iiiiiiau\, we immediately reeovere(l, ami enjoyed our usual health. If I'rov-
iilfiicc had so ordered it that we should east our lot with the Ks(piimaux, I
Ii;ivc no (loiiltt that we would have lived quite as loiiu', tmd in <piite as !.^M)d
licallli as in the I'nited States or Kie_dand. White men ean live where Kstpii-
iiiMMV ean, ami freiiueiitly when and wlu're they ean not.''

So llall ','rew into tin* ei)nvietion that some of these lost ones could yet he
fniuid; and he writes, "It si'emed to me as if I had heeii nif/cif, if I may so
sjnak, to try mul do the work. ]\Iy heart fell scu'e at the thoui^ht of so yreat a
tiivvtcrv in eomieetion with anv of our fellow-ereatures, espeeiallv akin to our-
selves, vet remaininir unsolveil." How should he chey this call? His own
iiuaiis. heyond :i stout franu! and .stroimwill, were of the smallest. He hroach-
dl the project at the West, where it was received with favor. Then he came
Kist.and was met with like consideration. Funds were raised, and the expe-
ilitiiiii which Hall c(Hitemiilated was litted out.

This expedition consisted simply of Hall himself. The casli eontrihuted for
the outfit was just i}[)SO, of which more than a third was eontrihuted by Henry
(ii'iiiiiell, of New York. In addition to this was about a qii.arter as much in
tlic way of presents. "These," says Hall, " constitutecl all the moans and ma-
tcM'ial I had to carry out the threat undertakitu^ my miiiil had le<l me to emhark
Hall's list of the articles on his outfit for a three vears' residence and ex-

III.

IilMiation is worthy of reconl. It shows in what way his $980 in casli was ex-

lieiKlcd

"My outfit," ho writes, "for the vnyai;o and the whole of my exiiedition,
consisted of: — a boat, lentrth twonty-eiiiht feet, beam seven feet, <lepth twenty-
nine and one-half inches, drawinc!; eitjht inchos of w.ater when loaded with stores
;iiitl a crew of six persons; one sle<li:e; one half-ton of ]ieinmican; two liun-
ilrcd pounds of Horden's meat biscuit ; twenty pounds pork s<'rap ; one pound
preserved quince; one pound preserved ]ieaehes; two huiKb'ed and fifty pounds
powdor ; a quantity of ball, shot, and percu.s.xion caps ; one rifle, six double-bar-
relloil ccuns; one Colt's revolver; beads, noodles, etc., for presents; two dozen
pocket-knives ; some tin ware ; one axe, two picks, files, etc. ; tobacco and pijto.s ;

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TlIF POLAR WORLD.

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waarinc; apparel for self, and red sliirts for natives; stationery ami journal-
hooks; watcli, opera-glass, spy-glass ; sextant, pocket sextant, artiiicial iioii/,,11,
azinmlh eonipass, foniiuon eonipass, two pocket compasses ; llireo onliiiarv ain
two self-ri'gisteriiig tliernionicters. Some navigation-books and several Antic
works, with my 15ible and a few other volumes, formed my Horary.'" 'Phc l„,..,t
and iixlures cost one iumdrcd and twenty-live doliai's; meat, bis.'uit, penuniian
otc, about two hundred and lifty dollars; astronomical instruments, .•iljout iinu
hundred dollars; gmis and a(!coutrements. al)out two Inmdred and twcntv-livo
dollars; clolliing, lifty dollars ; ])ipes and ttdtacco, twenty dollars; trawHiiiix v\-
penses and express payments, sevi'nty-live dollars; dog-team, bought in (iicin-
land, lifty dollars. Tlie other items making up the nine humlrcd .and eiuiiiv
dollars are all duly given. It will be seen that the balance left for niinur, 1-ul
necessary, expenditures was very small.

New London, Connecticut, is the port from which vessels mainlv sail fur ilir
Arctic wiiale-tishery. Here was the place of business. Williams and liavni
largely engaged in that enterjirise. They relieved Hall of a gnat !o id nf
anxiety by a brief note, in which tliey saitl : "As a testimony of our pdxm-
al reganl, and the interest we feel in tiie proposed expedition, we will cuiivcv
it and its reipiired outilt, l)oats, sledges, provisions, instruments, etc., ficc df
charge, on the barque * (ieorge Henry,' to Northumberland Inlet; and, wIk a-
evor desired, wo will give the s.ame free jiassage home in any of our vcssc !>.''

On the 2i)th of May, ISOO, the " (Icorge Henry" set sail, with acrew, (.llici is
and men, of twenty-nine souls. Acc(>n»panying as tender w.as ;i schnoiicr. whiili
had a liistory. She was now known as the " Amaret ;" but uiulcr the iiaiiir nf
tho " liescue ' she had won fame in .\rctic research, for in her Kane li.ad inadc
his first .Vrctic voyage, iiall alw.ays calls her by her old name, and tlic ac-
count of her loss forms a striking episode in liis narrative.

We h.ive said that Hall's expedition consiste(l of himself alone. Hut wlicii
he started he had with him a comi)anion, who he hoped would greatly aid liiiii.

'J'his was Kudlago, ;in innuit, who liail
ac(piired sonu! knowledge of our lan-
guage in (Jreenland fnuu wlialcis, lia.l
come to the United States on a ulial-
iug-vessel, and w.as now anxious to re-
turn to (Jreenland. Hut he fill sick on
the voyage, ami died an the 1st ol July,
His last wonls were, "Do you sic tlic
ice?" for he knew that the appe;iraiKT
of U'c at this season wonM show that lie
was near his home. He die(l three Imti-
drc'l miles at sea, ami was cominiilci
to the ocean, Hall reading the fmini.l
service. A great iceberg — the slender
ono represented on page 4S of this vul-
umo — was drifting close by, and Hall named it " Kndlago's Mon'unent."'

On the 7th of July they reached Ilolsteinborg, the capital of the Danish col-

KCDLAliO.

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CHARLES FKANCIS HALL ANI) THE INNIITS.

4:!7

onv cf Greenland, a town consisting of twenty-four lioiiscs. Tlio entire popnla-
liiiiiof Greenland is estimated at about 'JtoO, of who n L';iOO are Innuits, and the
rt'inainder Kuroj)eans. Of the Innuitf, 1 700 live by sealinir, and KH) by tishinj; ;
till' otiiers being mainly mechanics and sailors, besides twenty native catechists.
Of tlie Kuroi)eans, thirty-one are " First and Second Governors ;" twenty-four
inis>i(>iiaries and priests; thirty-six clerks ; the others mechanics and sailors.
Tlif forty-four native and Europci'ii missionaries receive, in all, l.".,000 Dani>h
|i;i|i('r (liillars, equal to about §.sr)00 in specie. The head-schoolmaster has one
iiiindiTil and twenty-five paper dollars; three others receive one hundred dollars
iMcli ; tlirce, twenty-live dollai's ; two, six dollars. Of these last, one teaches his
(iwii two chiklren, who are the only ones in his district. There are also four
wdMicn, who get a dollar a year each for teaching children their letters. Tiie six-
teen Government employes get from forty to ninety dollars a year, besides pro-
visions for themselves and their families. JJrcad is baked for them every
furtnight. The currency of the colo?iy is pajier, the " six-skilling " note be-
iie' worth about three cents.

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Tlic native Greenlanders are by no means dclicient in intellii^ence. :\rr. II.'Il
?^y^'^ :i f.ir-sini!^ uf a wood-cut repn'Sfntin-j: a woman and child drawn and
cnuraved by one of them who had received n,. iiislrnetioM in art. and no eduea-
ti 'I. r,f any sort beyond that of the majority of his countrymen. The great
fi-^lival of Greenland is the birthday of the King of Denmark, in which all the
I"t'il'i'i'>n. native and European, who can be asserhbh-d. take part, his :\Iajosty
fi"'iiisl,it,ir tlie eheer. Hall gives a view of this ceL^bration, taken from a .Jraw-
iiii: iiia.le I)y a native. The original <lrawing was full of character.

Ilie "Hescue" having rejoin"d her consort, the "(Jeorge Ifenry,"' from whf>in
slif ha.l been separat'.d on the voyage, tlie captain ].roi)osed to set sad for his
ITi.pnsed whaling-ground on the west side of Davis's Strait. They sailed on the

Mill

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438

THE POLAU WOULD.

24t]j of July, Hall accompanyiii;;. TIncc d.iya after, tlioy oiicouiiti'red a violent
snow-storm, and were beset by ioubergs. On the 8tli of Au<4usl tliey aiicliorid
in a bay in latitude 03° 20', called by tiie natives Ookoolear, but by ILiH iiamu(l
Cornelius Grinnell IJay. Here and hereabouts the \>! alcio went to woik and
Hall bei^an his ac(|uaintance with tlie Esquimaux at home.

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WOMAN AND CHM.!). (DlttWIl Ulld EllgrUVUll by AN IN.NUIT. )

-m

CHARLES FRANCIS HALL AND THE INNUITS.

489

Amoii£f these was Kookcrjabiii, tlic widow of Kii(1Im<»o, ami of tliroc others.
•Till' Irmuits," writes Hall, " are a hapjty iK'o|>le. As they erowiletl our diiks,

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I '>iii' <lay noticed about a dozen women seated, and busily enijaijed at their work.
Two were mending one of the boat's sails, some were chewing seal-skins for

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THE POLAIl WOULD.

l'KEl'AUlN(i UDOT-SOI.ES.

liodt-sok's, others wero scwiiic:, wliilc out was lending a cross l)al)y. It is rare
to find an Innnit elilld wlio is not very ([uiet, l)Ut tiiis little fellow iiad eaten a
jtieee of raw hlnhher, which had tlisonlered liim. Some of the anuisinii tiitks
played hy tiicse Ks(|iiinianx women are especially deservinif of notice. The va-
riety of sj^anies ])erformed by a strinij tied at the ends, similar to a 'cat's cra-
dle,' completely throws into tlio sliade our adepts at liomc. I never before wit-
nessed such a number of intricate ways in which a simple strin<r could l)e uscij.
One arranp'ment represented a deer; another, a whale; a thinl, the wahiis ; a
fourth, the seal; and so on without end."

The short Arctic summer soon came to a close. On the niorniuij: of tlie
2Gth of September came li,ij;ht winds from the noi'th-west ; by noun it beirau In
snow, the wind increasing; to a gale. The whalinjjf-boats all came in, and prep-
arations were made for bad weather. During the night the storm grew IioMrly
III rccr. The " I Jescue " dragged her anchor, and was dashed ypon the rocks .in
utter wreck. Hall's little boat, upon Mhich he liad so much relied, was torn
from its moorings and lost,"<h)oming me," says Hall, "to a wreck of dis.ip-
pointment in the hopes I had cherished concerning her. The'tJeorge iltii-
ry ' was also in imminent peril, but outrode the tempest; but on her next
voyage, eighteen months later, was lost at a point hardly a hundred miles dis-
tant."

The" George Henry" was soon after Laid up in winter-quarters, fairly blocked
in by ice. Hall it\ the mean time had made himself act^uainted with the Ea-

CHARLES FUANCIS HALL AND THE INNUITS.

Ail

(juiiiKUix of the rojjioti. I'romiiieiit among these were .1 couple — husband and
\^if^. — wliose liistory is wortliy of record.

''''«\.v

One day — it was Xovoniber 2 — wliile Hall was writinsj in his cabin, he heard
a low, sweet voico sayinir, " (t()n(l-mornin2, Sir." Lookinij up, he saw a comely
Wdiniui, dressed in verv jfood imitation of civilized costume. He had heard of

-iflllf'

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It-

%r

t„ I •■!

'IS: :ti -

412

THE POLAU WORLD

T;IE OEOIUIE IIKNUY I.AII) I'i

I'OK TIIK \VINri:i!.

if^

IP:

litM' before, llcr name was Tookoolito. Slie was tlic wife of KIi'u rltiiiL', !i
fatliiT famous seal-limiler and |iilot. Seven years Itefore a Uiilisli wlmler li.id
tak»'ii tliem to Kiiiilaiid, wliere lliey were reeeivi'il as llie liuns nl' tlie il.i\.
Tliey ditieil willi Prince AHiert, and were introdneeil (o tlieCinei-n. Kliierldti;,'
llioii!j;lit that tlie ()neen was "very jtretty;" iinleed slie liore no very divt.irt
likeness to Ids own wife. Tookooiito tIionu;lit I'lince Alliert was ;i "very kiinl,
uood man.'" I>m|1i airreed that tlie Queen had "a very line pkaee." Tonkndliio,
as many tliousaiuls in the United States afli'rwards had occasion to know,
siKd<e Knt^lisli almost perfectly. Her hushand was less llneni, Imt still <|nite in-
telliLcilile. This p.aii' hecame Hall's constant companions in the Arctic rei:ions;
came with liim upon his return to the States, lemained there with him hir two
years, and went back with him 'ipon his 8t'con<I expedition, which now (Scpuiii-
ber, ISCIO) is not completed.

Karly in .Tami.ary Hall resolved to make an explorini» I'Xpedition with llic
dojJC-te.-.in which he ha<l bonirht at Holsteinbortr. The party consisted of liiiii-
Kelf, Ebierbinir, Tookooiito, .md another Ksipiimaux, r.amed Koodloc. The
«U*iUo was drawn by ten doirs — five of which belonged to Hall, and lixc to
Kbierbin;;. They rebel for food mainly upon the proceeds of their Iniiil-
inir, takin'4 with tin ni only n pound and a half of preserved mutton, llncc
poumls of salt pork, fifteen potuuls of sea-bread, three poumls of pork sci;ips
for soup, and a little coffee, pepper, and molasses. The trip lasted nearly a
month and a haK, duriuLr which time Hall learned to livt; like the Ks(|niinan\
in their snow cabins, and subsisted mainly iipon raw seal (lesh. 'Wiien he re-
turned to the ship it was hard for him to accusli»m himself to the ehaui^e from
the pure atmosphei'o of a snow-house to the confined air of a small c.'il)in.

CII .ULKS FRANCIS UWA. AND TIIi: INNIITH

443

i"'-

'•■ U 'I '■ I

■( t' ':

HTi)l!>J IIIIINH.

Il;i<l K.iiic l)iit known liow to ]);iss nil .Arctic winter, tlie world woiilil never
li;i\c liml occasion to ri'iid one of ilic most patlictic acconnts ever wiiltcii ol
Mil'IViiii^^ i;iiil(lii)i;ton, tlic captain i>f the " (n'or^c llcnry," iiad loariuil liic les-
son liy dear experience. I'"ive yeai's Id'fofe, when in eoniniand of anolliiT ve.s-
-A, 111' liad lost tliirteen of Ids nu'ii l)y scurvy. '• IJut," said lie, " I am not now
afraid of losing; any more men l)y .'t- nrvy wliile I have command over them.
Will luver there are appearances of il on hoanl, I will have every pork and Iteef
ii.inel - salt provisions of every kind — licadeil up at once, and every man shall
live upon hrcail and fresh provision, such as whale, walrus, seal, deer, hear, ptar-
iiiiu'an. duck, and the like. Il is not a little reinarkalile that persons alHietecl
willi sciirvv sei'Ui madiv inclined to salt provisions, \\hieh tliev know to lie in
llirir case ahsolute poisons. They will jm) :my lenij;th to ohtain salt pork, even
when they have fresh food in alpiindanee."

Mall's tirsl ni^jlit in :in ii^loo may stand as a sample of m.iny more. ^W'.
liti', with much aWridi;ment, from his journal :

'■ We encamped at "> p.m., havin-i foimd i,'ood material for huildino; a siiow-

ii'ia^

e. Kliierhiiejf and K<

oo at once commenced (^awiiiLj out snowdilo( ks

Willie i cariieil tiiem to a siii

ilahh

It f

or ereetni'^ the i^joo, whieli

tool'

K us

iiiu' hour to make

Is soon

111

as it was completed Tookoojito entered, .and eom-
iiiccd placing; the .stone i;imp in its proper position. Il v is irimmeil, and
■'iieti a kettle of snow was over il, m.akimx water for cfd'fee and soup. She then
pl.ced several pie<'es of hoard, which we h.id l)rou'j;ht with us, on the snow plat-
fiMiu where our heds were to he made, I'pon these wwr placed lanv.is and
deer-skins, .nml nnr Nleepin;^ .aeeommodations were eomplete. The di yinj; of
:iiiy thing that has Lvcumo wet during the day falls to the lot of the woni.tn.

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444

THK POLAR WORLD.

INNCIT HTONE LAMP.

SIk! pliiccs tlicm in a not lmti<4 "vcr tic

l!Ull|» !Ul(l attl'Iltls to lllClll tlllOM-ll thf

iiiixlit, ineaiiwliilL' iiifiidiiiL,' all ariicl.>i
of clolliiiiLj tliat iR'i'tl ii'|)aii's. l'ics( ntlv
our cvi'iiini^ meal was roa<ly. It cun.
sistcd of Ciiu'iiiiiati ' cracklini,' ' s. in,,
a l)it of raw salt pork, half a liiMiiii l..r
eafli,an(l coffcL'."

A snow-iiousf, built in au lioiir. i,
abaiidoiit'd wlioii tin- use fm- it jv ,,\(r
Tilt' dons jiro sunVrcd to enter. iumI np.
propriato any tliiiiir tliat is left ul,i,||
suits tlioir taste. Nothing; cninos amiss to llieni. On tlic tliinl iiiLclit II;;!! Imd
iiis liair cut l»y Tookoolilo, .and tlii' fliii|iin!ji;s were left on tiic lloor. Tlic d^^fs
Kwallowc'd tlifst", aiuoiicj otlicr things. Stonny wt-.-itlier soon caiuc on. 'i'lii ic
W!is no Jiuntincx or scalinir, and the p.arty had nothiiiy; to cat fxcopt sonic Mis of
raw, frozen wliale's-skin wliiih tiii'V fouutl in a cdc/ir, \\]m-]t a p.arty fioni ilic
sliip Iiad made a few weeks before. Not f.ar off was an i!_doo belonLrmu" to an
Inniiit nauieil I'ljjarn;^, wiioni tiioy knew. Hall went to it liopitiLT to lind some-
tliini; to eat. I'!.,'arnLi iiad just eoinu in, having spent two wlioie days and a
niLiiit in watching over a sealdiolo without sueeess. He had lieard the xal
blow, and tiiat was all. He bore liis disappointment coolly. "Away I '_'o to-
morrow again," iio said. He went next day, remained all niglit over the si il-
liole, and came back witli nothing. "Tiiis was very bad for the whole of ii>.,"
says Hall. How bad it was for the ]inor wife of rg.arng and her ehildn ti liiay
be inferred from her own words. Tlu-y were without food or light ; hi i- infant
was restless from hiniger. She said sim])ly, " ]Me got no milk, iiu'at ;ill gone,
blul)ber too ; nothing to eat, no heat ; must wait till get seal."

Hall was about tis near starv.'ition as were the Inmiits. All he had to cat
was a bit of the "black skin" of ii whale, and this he relislie(l ; he conld lia\c
e.ateii any thing which would have gone to keeji up internal heat, .and make h.^ic
and flesh. Khierbing was aw;iy hunting. At lenglh 'l'oid<oolito nianau'cd to
cxti'injiori/.e a warm tlinner. I'^rom the black skin she tried out eiionuh oil to
fill the lamp and lieat some snow-water. This was thi'ki'iieil with a couple of
ounces 'eft of a (piart of nu al which formed a p;irt of the stori's with wliirh
they set out. The ji.air shared the "pudding," and thought it excellent. '11. c
colli was severe. Within the dark iudoo the thermouK'ter stood at ;ibnnt /.cim;
outside,'-'.")' to .")J" below zero. I'nder these circinnstances Hal! kept at his journal,
sitting wr.apped in furs to keep from freezing. So passed ten ilays. Kliierliiru'
ha<l gone back to the vessel in order to bring back some food. Day by day
Hall went to tlu' top of a hill, straining his eyes over the snowy w.asic in hope
of seeing tlie approach of the messenger. On the evening of the •JIth id .1 in-
uiiry, fourteen days after their starting upon the cxp-odition. they were redact d
to their last r.ation of food, which w;is a ]>ieco of black skin two inches long, an
inch and a half wide, and three-quarters of ;m inch thick.

.'■A midnight footsteps were heard approaching; Il.all sprang from his bed

pvcrtlic
I'^li til.,
artii'lcs
'••^i iitly

CIIAULKS FHANCIS HALL AND TIIK INNLITrt.

11-.

and DpoiR'tl till' Hti(nv-l)li)ck door. Tlicrc wns ".lack,"' an Iniinit, wlio liml <.">i!«'
out mi a limit, witli liis sptar stniii;^ willi Ntrips of sialliliildnT. Hall's faMn--
itc linu liad lu'cn allnwid to ^Il'^'I> in tliu iyloo. Tlu' lialf-starvoil criatini'
scciiti'tl till- IdiiLlHT, <,'av(' a il< sprati' li-aji, ami i;ras|K'tl a iiortioii of tlie food,
nil 1 ill >|>it(' of all tlit> cfioi'ts of IIiill and tlic otlicis swallowed it. IStforc the
ijiMPi- ((iiild ln' closi'd all till' otliir do^js outside wife aroiisetl, aiul li'.ditiii-,' for a
^ll:,lv. Aiiioiii; lliem tliey yol iieaily llie wlmle. Next iiioriiiii^ llall went out,

< ?r;:

• iiii

"Mr. i>

III.! ;i|,.

uli, I,
II li:id

KllillTlMI FOU Kool).

Miiij '^'aziiit,' in tlie ilireetion from wliieii tlic approaeli of KLieiliiiii^ was hoped
Icir, saw sonietiiiii'j; Itlack moving; over tlie simw. It was l']i»ierl)iiii; with doi^s
:iU'l a sledire, loaded with provisions from tlie ship, and als(» with a ••(•.•il which
lie had caiiiiht that moiniiiLC. A yreat se;il-le;ist took plaee at once, which llall
tiiii-" descrihes:

" .\ccordini; to Iniinit eiistnm, :iii immediate iii\ itation w;is i^iveii \>\ the sik;-
I'r-isfiil hunter's family for every one to .atteiid a se;il-fe;i>t. Our IlcIoo was soon
crowded. My station was on the ilais, or lieil-pl.u'c, so that I could watch
wliat was 1,'oin^j; on. The tirsf thiiiLT done was to consecrate tlie lijiililier liy
spiiiiklin;,' water over it. Then our host proceeded to sep;ir;ite the hiuliher
and skin from the meat a-'d skeleton of the seal. The hody was then opened,
and the Wood .scooped out. The Mood is considered very precious. The liver
canie next, cut into pieces and eaten raw, I irettim; a .share. Then followed dis-
trihiitiULT the rihs, for social pickiiiLT, also eaten raw, I doinj; my duty, and l)e-
t'oniiii",' (piite :in Innuit ui all except in the quantity eaten. This 1 iniudit chal-
leiitrc UiV white man tu do. No hiinuui stuinuch but an Innuit's cuuld possihly

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44«

Tim POLAR WOUT-D.

IIIIIUI (,ll llll. .-.N>

liold uliat I saw tlicso iiicn niid woiiicn devour. Wluii the fciisf \v;is ciiilK],
llic <'(Piii|i;iiiy (lis|icrs('il. Titdkoolito tlicii sent iiroiiiiil liniiiitii'iil uilts ui m ul-
Miililicr fur liri'-l;iiii|is, ;ils() sonic soal-iiu'iit :iii<l lilond. Tliis is tlic ii-u;i| in..
toiii aiiKUi^ (lie Iiiiiiiits, Tlicy share cacli otlicr's success, and liear cirli ,,tli.
<r's wauls. (Uiu rally if it is found that one is siiort of prov i>i()Ms, it iii.iv he
known that all .are so."

The niaiuier in whicli Kliierhini; secured th.at iirccions se.a! is a strikin',' ex-
ani|>k' of Iniinit patience. On his way to the ship the do^'s discoveicij a s, :i!
hole. I [e marked the spot l»y nnikinir -'l small pile of snow dose hy, and >'|iiii I-
inLT a monthlul of lohaeco-juice npon it l»y way ol mark. <)n his reiiiin lie
f<innd thi' hole, ami determined to try to scenic the animal. So wrappiir.:- his
ft el and leixs in fins taken from the sledLTc, he took hi< po«iilion, spear in liaiid,
<i\(r tiie seal-hole. It was l.iiried two tcet deep under the miow. \\v tlmi-t
his spe.ar 'iroii'jh the snow auain ami aixain nntil he found the lillle ap( iiuic
hading; thronuh the ice; then in the d.aik niuhl lie scaled liiiii>elt elcp^,' li\,
wailiiiL.' to hear the hlowiii!.'' of the se;il. 'I'ow.ards niorniii'j: tiie wcieoiiie s'.iind
was lieard. One well-aimed ihinst of the spe.ar sr(aired the prize. Khieihin.:
was nearly fro/en. his nose lieiiii; froslliiltcii ; l>iit he suffered more from t!iii>i
than from cold. There was indeed snow all aroiiml, hut in that inleii-e cdlil
the month docs not retain sntlieii'iit calorie to melt a piece (d snow pl.aeed in it.
His lirsl call when he reached the IltIoo was for water. To w.itch all ni^lil :i'
a seal-hole woiild see in to li«' a sntrKaciit trial of patitiice and endurance; hui
llaH notes another time when Kliierhin^j; passed two wlioie days and ni;.'lil>-
wilhonl food liy a hole, and then hailed to scenre the seal.

To the Ini.iiit the seal is, in the hroadcst sense, (he staff of life. It i< to
llieni all that llocks ami herds, <jfrain-lields, forests, coal mines, and petroleinii
wells are to dwellers in more favored lands. It fiirnislies to them food.liul.
and clothin*,'. The seal is tiie most wary ami suspicions c,f (acatiircs ; to c.ip-
liire him demands a patience and <U'Xtenty which throws into the sh.ide all the
c'Xploits of deer-st.alkers and lion liiinter.o, " Xiitt hook," for so the Innnils nanie
the Kal, lias good reason for wariness, for liis chief entiny, " Ninoo,' the he.ir,

CIIAULE9 FRANCIS HALL AND TIIK INNUITS.

4t7

w AiiiNu uv A »i;ai. 111)1. i:.

a<^'ainst whom he has to keep constiitit \vritcl>, is !i keen lnintcr. The Iniui-
its !i('kv,.i\\li'(l!,'(' that " Ninoo" h;is t;uiu:lit tlii'in liow to cratch " Niitcliook,"
tilt' .•oiiiiuoii seal, and liis h'vj. coMsiii "()(..>!< -^'ook," the .siroat seah Hall, no con-
ti'iiiplihk. siiortsiiian, ackiiowloilgcs that he was never al.le to ;,'et within litle-

4i:'

iH

448

Tin: I'OLAIl \V()|{|,I).

•'r

■4 ' '

;,■?!'

1^ II

1 I.

nliut of !i sv:i\ wlicti ItUhkiii.Lj ii|K>ii iho \vv\ ytt Niiiun calclu's tliiiu \\\^\^ i,;^
own |i;i\vs ; ainl llii' Iiiiiuits, tair^lil by liiiii, outiif uilliiii tlic dislainc ,,| ;i
hprai'h fast.

Tlio way Niiioo <;(K"4 lo work at seal-lnintiiiLr ii|inn ilw ice, a('cuii|iii.j |., I,,,
imil ac'coimts, is tliis: lie sees fjir away ii|Mtii llic ice a lilack s|ii,i, wlii,), | ,.
knows to !»(> a Ni-al ri'stiiiLT at tin- vA-^f of his luiic, ami takiii.j a Micicssiun ,,f
"••a» iia|is," lianlly tcti sccuiids loiitr, liflin',' up lii- inail ImIwcch times, ainl ii:ii-
lowly Mirvcyiii'^ llic wlmlf liori/un. Niin"* iliiiLi^ iiiiiisilt ii|miii liis >ii|(., .,||,i
I'iccps aloiii,' wlicii till' seal's licail is down. 'I'lic niomi nt tlir s(al\ Iiiai| is
raisfij the 111 :ir stops sliort, and iK'uins "talking" lo tlic seal. 'I'hc >i.iiii,|
wliirli lie nllirs is ijiiilc distinct from his ortlinary voire. 'I'hc stal is rliaiiiK il,
sii'-prits no harm, ami down yocs his iuad for anolhcr nap. I''orward u'"i s
NiniHi, and so on for a Ioml; time, until he «;rts within Icapini; di^lanl'(• ; tlnii
one sprinix, i'liil il is ;ill over with Nntelionk. 'I'lie Ii.iiiiits s:iy tliat if ilnv
could only talk to Nntehook as cleverly .as N'inoo does, ihey would eatdi ni^.ir
seals. The Innnit imitates N'inoo.

Hall descrilies onr- of these hunts, the main actor hein;; an Inniiit ilimk d
Koojesse: " Koojesse had ' talk' with seals, and it w ;is with u'l'dil irilere^t ilni
I w.itclied him. lie lay down on one side, and cr.awled l»y hitches or jt lU to-
wards his victini ; then .as the seal r.aised its head I\oojesse would sln|i, ;iiid
comnu'iiced paw iuLC \villi Ids riuht hand and foot, while he nttenil his ' m ah
talk.' On this tho seal would feel .a ehioni, raise :md shake its tlippers li.,ili
ftire and aft, and roll over on its side .and hack as if perfectly i|elii,'i.tid ; alttr

iifipii:':

^hdi^i

l.oouiMi tuii :4i:ai.8.

niARIJ-.S FHANCIS HAFJ- AND TllK INNUITfl.

440

this it would drop its licad to slicj). Then Koojossc would liitoli aloiiu; till the
seal's head would i>o|( n\) njiain, which usually occurred every few inomentM."

ihed too near.

in ihis j)articuiar case the seal e:
ainl had thus broken the charm.

M'

M>1»

III the winter, when the weal lives uiuler the ice, its capture requires great

29

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430

THE POLAR WOULD.

8I':AI,'IK)I,B am> iui.uo.

Kkillaiiil pomoverance. She, for sonie-

\h<\\ till' innlc Hv:\l socins now not to be

lioiicftl, liiis n brrathinjx-liok' tliroiitjli

llu- ice, to wliicli slif tmist coiiu; now

niitl llwn for air. Upon lliu surfarc of

I ho solid iff, wliici: is c-ovi'retl with

Minw,thi' |)ros|icctiv(' nu'tlifr coMstriicts

un itiloo for iicr iirojrcny. Slic sorapcs

uff ihi' Know until she lias fornu-tl a

(hiMic, car-yinij; away the snow down

thioui^li the holf in tin' ice. I'pon tin-

shilf of ice surroundinLr tlio holo tlii'

yoinii; one is li<)rn,aii<l thore it is i'u;n-

larly visited liy the inolher. None but

very ki'en-seented animals, such as tiie

hear, ftix, and d(% can discover sueh

an i'jKo. The <h)_i; sometimes eaptiires

a seal. Hall describes snch an eviT?-

" Kbier';inLt ha<l ont- day been oni with

duL.rs und sK'd^e where the ice w;'s stili

lirm, when suddenly a se.al was noticed

ahead. h\ an instant the (Ikl's were off towards the prey, drawiiiLr the sle^bc

alter them at a niarvei!(>us nite. The seal for a moment acted as if iriiihtiiinl,

iind kept on the ice a si'cond or two too lontr, for just as lie pluiitxeil, .S/cA.

thf lic>;t se:i! and be;ir doi; I ever saw, caught him by the t.ail and ilijijiers. 'I'lif

seal strut'iiled violently, auil si> ijiil
Siiulr ; bi(t in a nioimnt more the I'lli-
er doiis laid hold, and aided in draLiL-'i'iu'
the seal out of his hole, w hi'n Smili
took it in charLTc. The prize was m-
eured wholly by the dnns."

Dous seem to liunl the seal 'iiil\
upon their master's account ; Iml tlie
fox and the bear capture him for tliciii.
selves. How the fox contrives to 'ict
into a seal iu:lo>) we .are not toM ; hut
as iliey ni.anaLre tc bieak open the \>v>\
jtacked provision-cases, we may !issaiiii'
that they know t ow to comiiiit liin-
'/lary upon the i-loo of a I'oor s( al. H
the Imiiiils are U; be believeil, tlie w:iy
the bear i^oes to work is this: ^\lltll
he lias scented out tne precise ]insiii(iM
o'' an inloo he j^oes back a little ili>"
lance, so as to !_M't .a i;ood ru;' ; Niil
WAITING Fou A iiLow. tlieii. giviiig a higii leap, comes dowu

(HAKLEa FIUNCia HALL AND TlIK IXNl ITS.

451

IKXi AND SEAL.

nitli nil Ills wciijht upon the roof of (lio (loiiio, cnishcs it in, and with liis jiaw
seizes llic youri!^ si'al, wlio was ((uictly aslcc|i upon tin- icc-siiclf. Tlio ciinninL:
Ikmi- ii not always satislicil with the littic infant soal, l»nt nscs it as a hail to
eiitcli its mother, llavini; cani^ht tlic younir o"('. "nd Imlilinu' it fast hy tlic
liiml thpiiers, tlie hear scrapt's away all tlu' snow, and ids the youn^; seal pathllc
ii'ioui in tilt' water; its cries draw the mother to the hole, and within reaeli
(i| ilie hear's paw, wlien one yrah is <j:i\en, and the anxifMis in >ther is seenretl.
At all events the Innuits practise this sort of strategy with tlu' seal, and they
(Icclive that they have learned it from the hear.

Tlie hear is to the Innuits the emhodimenl of all wisdom. They tell sto-
ries (if Ills sagacity which are hard to helieve. Thus they say that when lie
sees a walrus l»asking upon the ice at the foot of a high cliff, he nioin:ts to the
saiiimit of tile cliff, and picking up a hig stone Mings it down with perfect aim
11)1011 ihe head of the walrus and crushes its thick skull. If it should happen
tliit ihe walrus is only stunned, the hear crawls down the cliff, picks up a stone,
iiii'i with il liimniers away at tiie head of the walrus until the skull is hroken.
Tlii- >l(iry uf the Innuits needs coidirination, though Hall seems to credit it.

'I'lie dog is essential to the c'xislence (tf the Innuits. As they have never
'Idiiusticated the reindeer, wilhoiit the dog they could not travi'l from place to
[ilucc, which they are ohIiife(l to do in (uder to follow the inigratinns of tiie seal
;irid walrus, u|)oii which they mainly suhsist. Without him they could never
tiiiil out tlie holes in the ice through whii'li the seal comes up to hreathe in the
winter. Their do'^s seem to he much more intelligent and docile than those of
iiiiy other of the i'olar trihes. When one is found lo he more than usually in
telli'_friit he is carefully trained as .1 seal-dog. When the dog scents ;i seal-

Inile. which he does thou'di it i

t.

Il

s covered deep wu

der tl

le snow, he unernui;

ly

II' scent to the very spot.

Tiie Innuit |iroceeds to " prospect " hy driving the. slender spear thr

ousrr

mile.

he snow until he (inds the small opening in the ice which leads to tho main
He then withdraws the spear, taking the utmost cnre not to disturh the
HMow, and seats himself eU)so hy to nwnit the coming of the Real. He watches
f'>r hourB, an.l sometimes for days, before ho hoars the welcome '* blow." At

I, I

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if

433

THE POLAK WOULD.

ai'UAUlNH TllUUt'UlI 'I'lIK S.NOW.

the sc'coml or tliirtl puff, ho knows tliat the noso of the sc.il is at the bi-ii.tm nf
the hrt-athiiii^-liolo, porhaps two yanls below tho spot wIumo he is sluiniiiiL.'
The spear must he thrust with perfect accuracy ; for an error of a (|uait('r nf .in
inch on either siilu would miss the hole, and the spear-point would strike tlic

I

CIIAHLES FUANCIS H.VI.L AND TIIK INNIITS.

4S8

solid ice, and the seal woiihl be away in an instant. If tlit' Wow is wcll-aitncd
and at llie ri^lit instant, it |iifrccs the head <»f tlic unseen soal, who instantly
(iivis, and runs out the eij^ht (;r ten fathoms of lino which, fastened to the har-
.,i>on is lied around the waist of tiie Iiuiuit. The snow is then du<^ away, the
bii!it!iin"-holc enlarged, so as to permit the seal to be drawn through.

;s ij

■ .V , . I : i * *

IKKIrl AMI HKAIt.

The (lo'js also take special lUliirht in hunting the bear. When a team scent
a hear it is impossiide to restrain them. Once « hen Hall wiis nii a jouiiiey a
ill ;ir with her cub was seen im tlie ice at the fodt of a hi'.:li moiuilain. When
wiiliiii two huiiilred yards, the le.adinii iIol; was cut loose, ;nid he madi- straight
t<ir the bear; one by oni- the others were set free froiu I'le sleih^e, ;iiid ;ill were
iti liol pursuit. One do;^ set upon tin cub, ;md linally separated it froiu its
iimtlicr; another cauitht the ilam ; and I"Hh rifjlcd ilown .". precipice, up which
the hear scrambled a^rain and escaped, for it was so sttep that the d.i','s emilil
imt follow. All the do'^s, eleven in number, now set npnii llie cub. Il:ill c<iui-
iiiLTup, the young brute made at him; he r.in it through with his spear. lie
expected that the Immits would applau<l his courage and devterity ; but they
>li'i(ik iliiir heads and said tiolliing at the time, 'i'hey souu showed the utmost
"ictcnnination to leave the iM'i'^hliorhood, and expl.iined by sayirc_; that the old
htar wouM come back at ni','ht, snull the blood of the cub. and become en-
lauid, and kill them all. The Innuit^ avoid kiUin;,' .a y<iung bear until they
have dispatched the old one, for they nay that knowin-.^ the ih.ith of her yoiuig
mikes her a Imndrud timoB more terrible. Although the liver of the w»al it

454

TIIK POLAK WOIU.n

■J

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\t

liAltliKKAKK AND rill: ici'.i M>i:i:':

lulil to !>(' a ixrvnt ilclicacy, tlic riimiils Ticvcr cMt that or ilic \\r:\<\ ol ilir lM';:r;
iii>r, if tlu y can invvcnt ii, will they snl't'cr tliiir doLis Id iln s<>.

Tlic Iiiniiit dni^rs also soiiU'tiiiifs limit, llic rciiiilccr. ilalTs ilonx i,||(. ,v
tja\ (■ cliasf to a deer, and one of ilicm, Uarlx'kark, s|irmiir at its lliroal, and hit
tlirouuli skill, \viiid|ii|)c, jiiLHilar and tongue, taking nut the |iitcc as cIi-nK n,
tlioiii,di it had liiTii cut with a kiiih'. Ilarlickark was liroiiuht to tjic I'ni!' I
Stairs hy .Mr. Hall, and died there. Ilis stiil'i'ed skin ,-liowed him u> he a imMr
Ite.ast of unusual size.

The walrus enters l.arLTely info the sii|i|ilies uf the Inni.ils. They niaiiil.-i
iniicli rouniire and skill in liarpooMinti these iiriij;ainly he.ists. 'I'lie hunter l'"' ^
out armed willi ;i lance and a peculiar harpoon iiiaile for that |iur|i!)-.e .V lir,^
hide-rope is att.ached to tiio
head ol the liarpoiin,and coil-
ed aroiind the neck of fhi'
hunter, who er.iwls ahiie^ uti
til lit' coiiK s will, in sirikiiiL;
distance nl the walrus, who
lies liaskinir upon the i<'e. '1 he
walrus dives at hikc; the hun-
ter slips the coil olT frnin his
ni'ck, and fastens the end id it
to a spear driven into the ice;
thus tetheriiii; the animal. As
rtoDii as the wiilrus comes ii|>
ho i.s (iispati-lictl with a lung hkad ok keimieek

CIIAHLP:s FltANC'lS ilWA. AM) Till: INMITS.

4SS

r

.. J

Sl'i;.VUIMi TIIK WAI.Ill .■».

Iiiiico. SlioiiM tile Innuit f;iil tn ^lip olT tlic coil it\ tiii\o, lu' wmil>l iiit';illil.l\ I..-
ili.iwn into till- waliT, uiid iiliiio^t ciTtaiiily lose liis iifi"; l»»f as Hall ri'ConU w>
iiisfanc'o of such n. catastrophe, we infer that these rarely happen.

Tiio Inauits show remarkable ingenuity in availing themselves of every f,i

i i|

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TIIK P()I,AU WORLD.

M

"ii ^'>

cihty afT..r.|,Ml l.y their inliospitahlo cimliy. Of il„.ir it,'I.,oH or Hiu.w-lmuws

wo liav«- ahvady .spoken. In half an hour a conplo of men will hiiil.l „f

tiiese, which answiiH very well for a leinporaiy .shelter. When one im u, h,.
hnilt for a lon^'cr re.si<lenee, more eare is taken in the constrnetion. A sit,, j^
(•ho,sen where the sru.w is iiar.l -if possil.le, over a running Hlream, so thai tlity

CIIAHI-Kfl FHANTia U\U. AND TIIK IXNUITfl.

4.i7

WAI.Itl'H HUri.l. \NI) TI'HKS,

can olttaiti water without the la-
l)()r (tf iiitltiiivj till' iff, A lirclf
is iiiarkcil out for llic i^routiil
plan. Itliicks of Know arc <Mit
with a laru'c knife or naw. Tlu'sc
lilcxks arc thrt'u fctt loni;, ciijlit-
fi'ii inclicH wiili', ami six inclicH
liiiil--, .-lia|H'i| roiinilin;.', so that
carh I'lock forms the siicintnt oj
a cinlu <>f the |irn|i<)S('il iliainctn
of till- ii,'liio. Tiic lilocKs arc slight-
ly ta|>citc| off on the inner siile,
ami are laiil spirally, one man
liuilclin^ from within, while the
other hrintrs the Mocks from without. The conrses j;row smaller ami smaller
iin the tlonu' rises, until there is only a narrow open circle, into «liich a Mock
(if simw is ili'oppi'd liy way of key>tone, iiimlin'^ the \s hole ilonn' lirmly together.
Tlic man within now carefully examines j'\ery part, ainl if llie't are any open-
in,'^ left they are stoppcij up with >-no\v. A hole lor a door i> tlnii cut ; aiiil
thniii<_rh this are pa<^sei| the snowlihicks to linilil the ilivan, which forms the
(<i':it* aii.I iieij. A tuniicMike paxsa'_'e is then iIulj ami <'o\ i ml over. This is so
\i>\\ ami narrow that one must er.awl on all fours to pass ihroU'_''h il. The outer
iloiir of the passa'_'e consists of ;i Idock of ice or haril snow liltini; ('losely tc
llic opeiiin„' ami lurninL; upon a ^iirt of pi\(it. 'I'he usual ■lianietei' ol a f.amily
ii,'|oo is iwilve or sixteen feet, ami its heii,'ht ahout ei'^ht. It w ill accotumoilate
ten or a dn/en people.

When newly huilt, an i'^doo is one ot the juost hp.iuliful structures coticeiv-
ahlc. The hlocks are nmre transparent than die clearest alabaster .aii'l whiter
than the purest marhle, hut they sotui heconu- defacccl hy the smoku iiml the
filth of all kin<ls which r.ipidly .iccunnilates, .\part from lln' divan, almost tin-
"Illy artiile of furniture i^ (he stone lamp, which serves the purpose l>oth of
l:iiini .mil furnace. It remind-^ one of .an implement common among civilizuii
|M-ople, ami kmiun as an " litna."

The Iiiuuils show i,'real ilevti rity in the <'onstruction of their implemeiitH
and in the fahrication of tin ir cloihino. Their c.anoes have lieen the ailmira-
li'ia of every voya^jer in the Arctic re','ions, and they :ire wonderfully ilextenuis
ill the lu.ana'^enu lit of them. Tin ir '■lcd'_'cs have the runners m.ade of hiis of
hmie ingeniously tied toirether with the sinews of the ilcer. When they wish
tin in to run vcuy sirtoothly they shoe them with
ice, hy simply sipiirlini; fiom tlieir mouths .'i
ihin stream of wa'er upon the runner, where it
ciiiu'eals ill an inst.ant. The "oodloo,"<u' woman's
kiiih', is shaped like our conuuon nm.at-chopper.
It is made of hone, nu'rely i'iIltccI with iron ; Imt
in th(j hainls of an Innnit woman it takes the
place of the knife, Imlclict, Scraper, and «hcarH of xuf wuman* Kitira,

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THE POLAR WORLD.

ilM

INNIIT IMPLEMENTS.

her civili/.crl sisters, Tlio tliffcrcnt kimls of spears and liarpooiiv. iiseil in cMiifnr-
iiii; the sial, walrus, ami wliale are ailmiralily aila|itt'<i for ilicir purpose. W'c
ili)iil)t wlu'tlier We ('(Hild improve ii|ioti the desiirii, aii<l, with all our lai-ilitiis in
tlie way of material, vitv much in the way of exeeiition. 'I"hc Innuils Ii.im'
eiearly iiiveii their whole minds to the fabrieatimi of these weapons. They haNc
the how and anow, and are ipiiti' clever in its employment ; hut for ihcin it is
of little nsc t'xcept in the shootiiiii of birds, for a seal or walrus would not even
feel an arrow shot from the strouLjest bow.

vMthoUirh the Iimuits have never domesticatpd the reinileer, it yet plays ;i
frrcat part in their economy. Tiieir elothiiejf and beddinj; ix composed almost
wholly of deer-skin, which is one of the best non-conductors of heat known.
Kven when the thermometer marks TO degrees below the freezinix-poinf, tiny
never use but oue fur bedding; and Mr. Hall says that he has slept mukr i

niAULES FRANCIS IIAI.L AND TIIK INNIIIS.

4:.o

(Idzcii of the Iti'st woollt'ii hlnnkt'ts ami In-on almost froztii, wliilc a siii>_'!o nU'TnIcr
skill kt'pt lii'ii alxiiiilantly warm. Diiriiii; tlic Niimmct' tlii> dt'cr liirnislirH a
u'liat part of tlu; food of llie pcujiU'. Tlio <;rass ami mossis tipon wliicli \\h<
ilccilivi' ar»' viTV alMiiidaiit. NdwIutc, rxccpt mi llir prairirs of tin- West, had
II.ill tvir scon Mii'h liixiiriaiit pa>(urai,'«', and tlu' dotr in AiiLjiist win' su pliiili-
fill iliat tin V were kilU'ij nicrrly fi>r tlii' Haki- of tlii-ir liidcs aiul tallnw, wliidi ii
:i i.rrcat luxury, fully opial, in Hall's n|iinii)n, to tlic iincst hiittiT. If llii- InniiitH
«.Mil(| only store up their provisions in the si-asoii of plenty, they need neser
-utlir from famine; imt tlu'y neM-r do this, ami the eonMi|iiem'e is that, from
Nciveniher till May they are almost always on the veru'f of starvation, while
diiriii',' the rest of the year they revel in plenty.

,\s a pendant to Mr. Mall's account of a seal-feast, weyiveliis discription of
;i iciiiileer-feast. The date is Decemlter, the season of scarcity. ' Koiir months
lic|.irc. iliey had more deer meat than they could eat — and the (jiianlily that an
Iiiniiil and iiis dnir can consume is something; almost nxTt dilih'. liiit one ilay a
mill came in from a himtinij excursion heariiii^ with him a portion o| ihc ear-
i;i>.«es of two deer, Iro/.en :is hard as a rock. A Ljeiieral invitation for a feast
w;is of course >riven out ; and tlie entile population, al>oiil thirty in all, rusheil
in. Simpson, the tjivir of the l^ast, acted as master of ceremonies. He lirst
iii.iilr ihi- ladies on the l)ed irive away, so as to cle.ir a sjiace wiiereon he fiiLilit
i|.) llie carviii','. Then he plai e I a hu'_'e seal-skin on this spot, hy way of tahU'-
iliih, upon which the frozen carcass was laid. This he lieir.in to carve with a
IkiIi lift Slalts of its side were chopped and peeled off; chips of ice Hew here
;cii4 lh(i'i; into the faces of the 'guests at each stroke of the axe. As fast as thu
fi:i'_'iiii'iits of venison rolli'd off, other men took the pieces, and hy means of a
s:i\v and seal-knives reduced them ti» a size adapted for handliiiL,'. Then Sanip-
•^111 di>lriliiited these hits, one to each, till every mill had its -,'iist to '_'rind.
Thus lor half an hour Sampson carved ; then his halchei-handle hroke off close
up to til • head. Another axe was sent for, ami meanwhile, with the half of a
>:i\v, the two saddU'S weit disidcd iiito the proper niimlier of pieces, rc.idy for
c|i>lriliiiiioii, The carcass was tlier: once inori' attacked, and the shell was

U'mImII, S

■lit, and sawed t

o pieces.

Ill it

was

the ' kernel.' to wli

dl looked

u nil an\ioiis eves ; this w;

il last di\ ided into :is iii.iiiv

lece-i a> I Mere \N ere

Urce^ (

if sadille, ami then one of each was Lri\en t

o e\civ L'lles

t. I

lecii\ei|

iiy r^liare with L(raliliide, and, with .a piece in each hand, Inyan ealiiitx. I I'il

iiiouthliil of the s.addU'-piece ; il was i,'ood. I took :i nioi-el of the oil

le

■ ilf

it wi^ ileli'ilitful : its flavor was a kind of sorrel acid ; it h.id an aiiiliio>ial taste ;
il fairly melted in my month. When nearly throiiu'h, I had the ciiiiosiiy to
ciDwd my way to ;i liLrlif to see what this delicious frozen food was, for where I
sat 1 was shaded hy l.ar'je forms hetween me .ami the lireiiLrht. 1 lookeil .at i»,
lollrd it over, .and looked ai^ain. IJehold, il w.as the cnnlents of a reindeer'.^
puuiK !i I On this discovery I stopped fe.istiiiLr for that niirht.''

Mr. Hall p.asses jnd'„'ment upon \ arioiis olhei .articles of Iiinnit food. S« al'*
lil"iid, smoking; hot, is exca'lleiit. The skin of the wliali', three-(jiiarters of an
iiirli thick, looking like India-riihlier, even when raw, is i;ood eatin;,' ; hut when
hoiled and soused in viiiet'ar, is most excellent. The " t^um ' of the whale, that

It

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I,

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4(10

TIIK I'OLAU WOHI.n.

is, tlio Kiiltstarirc in wliich wlialthoiic in set, is ii Hpccial Iiinnit dt'licarv ; ii Inck.x
like (■(((■iia-iiiit meat, and tastes like unripo clifstniits. Hall cniilil not fiilK ,.,.,.
incciatc this ; Init lie ailils savin^'ly, " If tin- strii'_'L;!i' was for life, ami iis ini ■..
civatioii ili'|i('ni|('i| ii|ion tin- act, I vvotiM iiniloiilitcilly cal wliali-'s fiini until !
pit sonictliinv; l»«'tliT to my likiiii;." Once a snlistance wliicli looknl li|»,. ,1
rlioi<-i' Iiit from a tiirkt-y's hrt-asl was lianil< <! t<» liim. He iliou^lii hr |,.i,|
stiimlilcil n|ion a <U'lica<'y, liiit. afltT vainly tiyini^ to masticati' it for Imif :,i,
lioiir. In- found it as sttliil as wlicii iii' lii'!j;an. Tliis sulotanif was tli,' li'.'.nm tit
lyin'4 hctwciii tin- vcrtcluin of tlic '.vlialf. llv liad made a mistake in ilic w;iv

of disposini; of it. The Innuit mode is to take a lini;(' iiioc into iIh i nii,

hilnicatc it tliorouylily, and tluii Itolt it wliolc, as tlic lioa (•on>tiictor swallows
a ilciT. Hall liiinks will of tlic Innuit practice of catiii.: tinir meat raw. in a
sanitaiy jioint of view ; Init lie never i|uite liked it. lie never fully eaini' ii|, to
llie opinion of .Maiislield I'aikyiis, tlir Al>yssinian traveller, who assures us tli:it
no man knows what a good U'ef-sloak is until ho lias eaten it raw, lu lor- ii li:is
h'ld 'iii\(' to yet cold.

The eostiimo of the Inmiits is admiraldy ailapted to the <Iiiiiate. Tlic win-
ter dross, coiMiiiemini; with the f»'ef, is thus composed : Lont: stockiuL's of r, in-
door skin, with the liairy siile next to the persoTi ; socks «)f eider-duck skin, w iili
the feathers on lioth sides, tiiid of seal-skin with the hair outside; lioot^, ijic
leys of reindeer skin with the hair outside, the sohs of se;il-skin. The jiuket
is of rein<leer skin, titliiii; rather loosely; those of the women have liHi..' t.iils
roaehinii almost to (he ground. The ornamentation of the fcmali' dic-s de-
pends on the means :ind taste of the wearer. One " very pretty st\ Ic, ' tin ii-
tinned liy .Mr. Hall, had a frin!_'e of coloreil lie.ads across the neck. howU of
rii'itaniiic-iiietal tc.a-spoons down the front, flap, and a <loiilile row of copiitr
cents, sill iiioiinted liy a small hell, down the tail, \vhicli was hoiilcrtd Ky a
headiiiiX of ieadt'ii sliot. The jacket has no opening hefore or liehiiid, Imt is
slipped on over the head. The woiiieii's jacket has a hood which scrvts a
variety of purposes, anuuij; others, that of carryiiii,' the children. The hrccdics
re.'ich below the knee, and are fastened liy a striiiL,' drawn ahoiit the waist.
Fini^er-rinys and a head-band of brij.;lit bras.s, compU'te the fashionable cos-
(nine.

The rdi'^'ioiis ideas of the Inmiits are very vrnrne. Thev belii've that tin fc
is one Supreme UeitiLt who created tlu' ('.artli, sea, and st.ars; and also .a sccoiul-
Jiry divinity, his dan-^hter, who created all thini^s haviiej; life, whether .inini.il
or voiretable. She is the tutel.-iry deity of the Inmiits. They bilieve in a heav-
en and :i hell, but li.avo no very well dellned idi as .about tlnni. Accoiiliii!,' to
Tookoolito, li"aven was upward ; it is li^lit t' i- .all the time, and there arc tin
ice or storms. Hell is downwanl ; no sun then, but storms :ind Miows all ilic
while ; it is cold, .•iiid lliere is a t,'reat deal of i<'e there. Any one who has in ,11
killed by acciileiit l'ocs straight (o he.aveii. They have a kind of priests, or
lather conjurers, called Ain,'ekos, whose business is to charm .away sicklies-,
ami Keciire j^ood hunting-seasons, with an abundance of seals, walrus, and deer,
and an early disappearanee of the ice. When his services arc called for, Ik is
always, like a wise man, careful to get Lis pay in advance, and it is generally

CllAULES FUANCia HALL AM) TIIK INN UnU

401

Hi

)• »

'Hit.'

riNuiNu 'r;iK dead.

iiimIci stood tliat tlio success of his iiuaiilatioiis depondH greatly tipon tlic
aiaiMiiit of liis ft'O.

t'|i"" 'lit' wliolo, tlic Tniuiits must lu' n'lranlcMl as an aiuiaMc ami kindly
]Mii|,li'. Tlicy ari' I'XCfi'din^iy tender parents, and not nnaffectionate Inishands
and wives. 'I'lio main exception to tiieir tient'ial kindni'ss is ilieir treatment of
tlie au'ed and infinu. Wlieii one, ospeeialiy a woman, is hopelessly sick or in-
tinn, slie is not unfrcqnenlly ahaiidoneil. Mr Hall relates several incidents of
this kind wiiieli came within his own knowledu't". In one ease the Iiusl)anil,
wlieii lie foimd that his wife was hopelessly sick of consumption, ahandoiied
111 r, and took another while the j)oor creature was still alive. The deserted
w niian liiiLTered several weeks, supplied with fooil hy theneiyhliors. In anoth-
er case a sick woman, in the depth of winter, was left behind in an it;l<)<), witli
a small (piantity of provisions. Hall, learninif of this, made an attempt to ijo
to her rescue, IJut in the moan time a heavy snowstorm had come on, and
the igloo was ontindy l)urieil,so that no traces of it coidd he found. A few
<la\s after. Hall, accompanied hy Kliierhintr, made another attemi)t. The spot
uas linally found, though the snow lay level above the icediut, the po.silion of

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IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-S)

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■£ U£ III

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1.25

1.4

1.6

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Hiotographic

Sciences

Corporation

23 WEST MAIN STREET

WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580

(716) 872-4503

4> M^. .

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THE POLAR WORLD.

■•i^Uhi i 111'! ■ I

■W'^

i-' J I'll ;■ • ' - "

,1 ■!!

wliich could be asccrtfilncd only by exploring with their spears. Tluy bnikt-
lliioiigh the roof, and, looking ilown, saw the woman frozen as solid as a iimr.
ble statue. Slie had heea dead for days, and the indications sliowed tliat slie
had perishe(l from cold very soon after being abandoned. There were snipiiiii'^
of whale-skin for food, and blubber to keep up tlie lire, but she was too Ik l/K.
to rise from the bed and replenish the lamp.

Tlie Fmiuits of the present day are a purely nomadic race, ro.imiiiLj fnun
place to place, following the seal, walrus, and deer. Jliit llieir wanderinLis nii-
jK'ar to be coniined to the region of the co:'st, never extending far into tin in
terior. Their, dwellings are therefore constructed for mere teniporarv ocriiiia-
lion, being snow-lmts {igloos) for winter, and tents {tijjivs) for summer. IJut

INNUIT SUMMEU Vn,I,AGE.

there are indications in the form of trenches .and excavations wliich siiow t lint
they formerly led .1 more settled life, and constructed more ])ermaneiil liaMta-
tions. Tiieir numbei's have been gradually diminishing ever since thej' lia\e
come into contact with the whites. How this comes to pass is a luysteiy.
There is nothing to show that the climate has become more rigorous, or that
the .animals which constitute their food have grown scarcer or less easy of cap-
ture. The Indians of America have been destroyed by the occupation of their
hunting-grounds, by whisky, and the small-pox, introduced by the whites. Tiie
natives of the South Sea Islands liave been eaten up by nameless diseases, con-
tmcted from their licentious white visitors. Tliere is scarcely .1 trace of either
drunkenness or licentiousness among the Innuits. Consumption is the great

ri-!-i

CHARLES FRANCIS HALL AND THE INNUITS.

•u;:3

mMMmm .

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ilostvoyer nmonp; Ihein ; but we oan soe no re.ison why tliis should be moi'e
prev.'ilent now tliaii it was o;eiu'ratioiis ago.

It sooms that in former times tlicre were chiefs among the Tnnuits, but at
tlie present time there is no trace of any tiling like government among them.
In each community there is usually some one who, fren age, personal prowess

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464

THE POLAR WORLD.

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OVEU THE ICE.

as a hmitor, or native slircwclness, is looked up to with respect, and liis opinions
arc regarded with deferenee; but he lias no sort of authority except that which
eaeh person voluntarily concedes to him.

We left ]Mr. Ilall near the close of January, IB'^l, when ho was just ri'liini.
ing to the ship after his tirst overland expedition. We do not pripose to fol-
low hiiu through the course of his personal narrative, although it ahomids with
striking incidents and details of hardship and peril. Thus, one day in Marcli,
Julin ]jrown, one of the ship's crew, in company with two Imuiits, starti.'d off
from an igloo a few miles distant to rtjoin tlie ship. Somehow he got sepa-
rated from his com lanions, but the next morning he had not arrived. Tiic ni^hl
had been intensely cold, the thermometer marking 57 degrees below free/.iii!;-
l)oint. A party of a dozen set off in the attempt to fmd him. Ii. two lidurs
they ciime upon the tracks of the wanderer, but only Hall and four otlievs
could hold out ; the others, one by one, fell back. They kept on, following the
tracks, which now began to grow faint, being partly filled up with snow. For
a time the tracks went straight for the ship ; then they began to waver, now in
one directio'i, and then in another, showing that the man had lost his way.
Tliey followed the tracks, in the intense cold, GO degrees below freezing-point.
They were tormented by thirst, which they attempted to allay by the use of
ice. The first fragment which Hall put into his mouth froze it fast. He
managed to reduce the temperature of the ice by holding the fragments in his
mittened hand, so that he could place them hi his mouth. After six hours, IIiilPs
companions said they could go no farther and must return ; for they had
broutrht along no snow-knife, with which they could build an igloo for the night;
and if a. storm should spring up, they must all bo inevitably lost. Hall went on
alone. One of the crew named Johnston soon overtook him, saying, "Jliown
was my shipmate, and I loved him. I will go on with you. If I were to go
back now, I shall always regret it." They followed the tracks, which now be-
gan to run in circles, interlocking one another. There were twelve of these

CHARLES FRANCIS HALL AND THE INNUITS.

405

TIIIO I-H()ZI;N SAll.OH.

within loss tlian two iiiilos. P'vory little while tliey c:\uw. ii|)i)ii ])liioes where
tlic WMiidcrer hiid l.'iiii down to rest. At five oVloek, nine lionrs after settini;
iiiit, tliey were overtaken hy Captuin ISiiddinyton, with two sailoi's and two In-
iiiiits, aeconiiianied by a doi^-teain. They all pressed on with renewed vigor,
;inil in a few minutes eamo upon poor IJrown, frozen dead. They eonld not eon-
vcy t';e corpse to the ship, fully ten miles away, ami so buried him in tiie snow
upon the spot wliere lie was found.

It was the inidtUe < f July before the ship was released from lier icy jirison.
TIic whalers went to work, and Hall made several imjiortant expeditions by
ImihI and water, Uving nearly all the while with the Immits. Towards the
TiiiiMIe of October the captain began to prepare for returning home. But he
M;is a few days too late. The ship was best't in the ice-pack, with no hope of
(■■^( i|)e. There was nothing left but to make up their minds to spend another
"liter in the ice.

Wi' must pass wliolly over the incidents and adventures of this second win-
tci'. It is the old tale of suffering and ])rivation. On the 12th of January the
tlieniionieter fell to 7'2 degrees below the freezing point. One of the men who
linil left to visit an Immit encampment came back, saying that he thought he
li:iil frozen his toe. Upon pulling off liis l)oots both feet were found to be
froz'M stiff, and as hard as ice. The usual attempts to save the members were
in;i(k' ir. vain; mortification began, and, to save the man's life, the eajjtain was
obliged to amputate portions of both his feet.

This year, 18G2, the ice held on unusually late ; but on the 8th of August it

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THE POLAU WORLD.

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was found that, the pack had brokuii up. Tlu; way homo was apparently opon-
and all hands wuro suninionod on board. The vesst-l spread her canvas and
sailed off, the Innuits surrounding her in their canoes, and shoutinj; furewill.

Tookoolit(j and Ehierhinijf resolved to accompany Hall to the States, takiiu'
with them Tukeliketu (" JJutterHy "), their infant, a year old. The child ,li,.,l a
few months after their arrival in the States, and lies buried in the griiveymd at
(troton, Connecticut. " I never saw," says Hall, " a more animated, sweet-tem-
pered, and engaging child." For days the mother was delirious; then she
bnged t(; die, that she miglit bo with lier lost UutterHy. Upon his grave were
hiid, according to tlio custom of his peoi)le, all his childish i)iaythings. Tlicy
were r-acred to the dead. The mother went to tiie grave one day, and fuiiiid
that one article, a gayly-painted little tin pail, had been taken away. She was
inconsolable. " Poor little ButterHy," she said, " how he will miss his beauti-
ful pail !"

The Iiomeward voyage was speedy and prosperous. On t)ie inth of Septem-
ber the "George Henry" droi)ped anchor at New London, whence flie iiad
sailed two years and three and a half months before.

The net results of Hall's expedition were these : Many now discoveries were
made in Arctic geography; much information was gathered in relation to the
inhabitants ; and experience accpiired of immense value to all future Arctic ex-
plorers. jNIr. Hall also made a very interesting discovery in regard to the fate
of the expeilition of ^lartin Frobishcr, undertaken almost three centuries ago.
He found a tradition among the natives tluxt many years ago white men in ships
had visited a place still called " White ?^m's Island." Hall compared these tra-
ditions with the accounts extant in books respecting this voyage, and was struck
with their remarkable coincidence. lie visited the place designated as tliu
white man's erjampment, and found many things whicli had evidently been left
by Europeans. Among these was a heap of coal amounting to several tons, a
large fragment of iron, and some bricks. Every thing was covere(l over with
moss whose thick growth showed that they must liave remained there undis-
turbed for ages.

The bearing of this upon the possibility of rcvoaling the wliole mystery of
the fate of Franklin is evident. If the Innuits li'ive preserved tolerably accu-
rate traditions of what took place three centuries ago, it is not to J)e (loul)ted
that they still have information of what took place within a single generation.
It is now past hoping that any members of Franklin's expedition are yet living;
but there must be Innuits who can tell how and where they died.

To further this investigation Hall resolved upon a second expedition. He
spent nearly two years in preparing his book for publication, and in making projj-
arations for this enterprise. Abundant fcilities were now placed at his dis-
posal; and on the 30th of July, 18G4, he again set sail. In the preface to his
book, written on board the vessel, he says :

"I am persuaded that among the Innuits maybe soHght,by one competent,
with every chance of complete success, the sad liistory of Sir John Franklin's
men. To make myself competent for this more interesting and important re-
search, I patiently acquired the language and familiarized myself with the habits

(IIAHLES FH.VNTIS HALL AND TIIK INNIITS.

4(17

IK

of tlic Esquimaux. I now return to their country .'ililc to speak witli tlieni, to
live Miiioutx tlu'ui, to support my lite in tlie siinie maniier llrit tliey do tlieirs;
to luiiiriite wit'i tiieni IVtmi place to place, ami to traverse and patiently explore
all tlie retjion i i which it is reasonahle to suppose Franklin's crew travelled and
|icnslic(l. I shall l)e acconi|ianied l»y the two intelligent Ks(piiniau.\, Kltierhini;
jind Tookoolito, wiio, havin^c accompanied me on my return from my lirst
t'X|pcilition, JUKI after remaining; with me for two y ars, now <fo hack with me
(111 this second voyajie. I enter upon this undertakinix with the liveliest hope
(if success. I sliall not, like previous explorers, set my foot on shore for a few
(l;ivs or wi'cks, or, like othi'rs, jouriu'V anmui; men whose lani^uaLi^e to me is
lUiiutclliLrihle. I shall live for two or th.ee years annnu; the Ks(|uim!;ux, imd
(Tiiin their confidi'uce; .and I have the advantage of understanding their lan-
ifuinrc, and (tf making all my wishes known to them."

This second expedition of Hall, instead of the two or three years which he
liail anticipated, occupied more than live years, diM'ing a great part of which
lie was shut (tut from all communication with the world. Up to L'^*')7, he
wrote as opportunity afforded t(j his fast friend and warm supjiorter, Henry
(Jriancll; but his letters gave only tiiint indications of Avhat he lu)ped to
accdinplish. lie had ex]iected to riMurn in iSdS, hut in that year no whaling
vessels came hack from the Arctic si'as, .and he was doonu'd to aiutther y»'ar
in that region. Late ii\ ISdi* he returned, and was received with jilaudits not
less warm than those which h.ad welcomed Kane, tiftet'ii years hefore. (*on-
<jfrcss in a ihw nntnths ])as>ed a hill making a(h'(iuate .appro])riations for a
national ex])eihtion to the Arctic regions, to he placed under the direction of
Ilall. On tiio day following Christmas, 1870, I met Hall in New York. He
was little changed in .appearance from the aspect which he had borne live years
hefore, as shown upon page 484 of this volume. He was bisily engaged in
preparations for his new voyage, and was ii» liigh spirits. "I liave demonstra-
ted in my own ])erson," he said, "that white nuMi can live, with no extraor-
dinary sutlerings, for years in the deptlis of the Arctic regions. I liave lived
there for years, and can teach my assocuites how to do so. Upon this new
expcdhion I shall be amply provided with all means for u thorough explora-
tion. I shall have with me a scientific observer, a naturalist fully qualitied
to report upon every thing in his department, and an artist and photographer,
who will be able to dejtict every thing relating to the Arctic regions. Thus
ahundantly supplied, and aided by my own ox])erienee of more than ten years,
I think that I shall bo able to accomplish something worthy of the means
placed at my dispo.sal."

About the time when these pages meet the eye of the reader, Hall will
have set out on his third expedition. AVe bid him, by anticipation, " Hail
and farewell."

Livingstone says that he found it easier to jierform his African journeys
than write the account of them. Sometliing like tliis may bo the case with
Hall; .at all events, so fully has lie been occupied in fitting out his third expe-
ilition that he has not found time to prepare the narrative of the one which

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TIIK I'OLAK WOKLI).

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lie lias just r()ini>1('t(Ml. Hut Iiis j<tiini!ils and drawiiiirs aro jirosorvofl, mikI
will iii!(l()ulit('<ily sec the li.ulit. Of tlicir valiio, as they staml, I liavc iiiciins
of kiiowiiii^ soiiu'tliiiiif ; and trust that he may rctuiri sali-ly, and he aide to re-
vise tlit'tn for ]>ul)li('ati(>Ti. In a few weeks lie will have set (lut on his iliird
V(iya<fe. From the eapacity which he lias manifested in two expe(liti(Mis, (mcu-
liyiuL; toi^etlier more than ten years, ami from the ahundant resom-ccs now ;it
his disposal, there ' * every reason to hope that he will he ahle to solve tlic
remaininij prolilems relatini; to the Arctic re<rions. If there he, as llicrc is
i^ood I'eason to suppose, an open sea siirroundinLr tin,' \orth I'ole; and if tlmi
sea is accessilile to man, l»y land or hy water, we can hardly douht that Hull,
certainly the lirst of white men, and most likely iirst of all men, will make
his way to it.

Until sucli time as he shall have returned from his present voyaire, we Kid
liim hail and tiirt .ell. And also, copyintx his own last drawinij; mai'e dminu-
iiis first expedition, wc hid tiu'ewell to tlie Innuits — that intcrestiiij,f jicoplc
whom he is the tirst fairly to introduce to the world; since he was the lirst
white man who ever lived with them, faring; summer and winter as ihey fired.
and experiencing^ with them the pleasures ami the sorrows of their hypcrhd-
rean life.

Ill

FAUEWEIX OF TUB INNUITS.
[Maruly two. vc;iis after tli(! fori'^'oliig was written, ti<lin(,'.s came of the death of Hall, ami llie pinl,.
iililo faihiicf of Ills cxpudilloii. In an ailditional chapter at the dose of this vohunc will be fomid an »'■■
eoimt, so far iis is now known, of this expedition.]

l.j!-' 4- •''"'!

THE TEOPICAL WORLD.

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THE TROPICAL WORLD.

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WATEH8POUT.

CTIAITHIl I.

TII : OPKAX AND AT.MOSIMIKHK OF TIIK TROPICAL WORLD.

Cliiirat'tL'iisiics of tlii' Toliir iiiul Tr()]ii"iil Worlds — (ioojirnpliical nnd riiiiiatic; Limits of tlip
Zones — Distriliiitioii of Liiiid and Water — Cliiiiatie Iiiiportaiice of the Ocean — Currents of
tlie Oli'MIi — The Gulf Stream — Influenco of tlie (iiilf Stream upon tlie Climate of T'lirope —
The Sar;;asso Sea — Coliwnhiis nnd the tiiilt Stream — The Pacific anil Indian Currents —
lU'at and Force — Relative Positions of Hot and Cold Currents — Currents ot' tlie Air — The
Trade Winds — Atmospheric Currents and Climate — The Calm Hell near the I'(iuator-
Rainfall of Dilli'rent Itetrioiis — Rainy and Dry Sisisons within the Tropics — The Monsoons
— Winds as Rejiulators of Rains — .\nnual Raintall — Whirlwinds — Their Rotary Motion —
Tropical Islands— Volcanic Islands — Coralline Islands— Atolls and Reefs— Influence of the
Ocean ui)on Life in the Tropical Islands.

FlOM a wide .survey of the Polar WorM, wc now turn to the tro[)ieal roj^Ions,
wliere nature 'issuines aspects of an entirely ditlerent c-liaracter. In the Polar
^N nrld there is a constant stnifji^le between all .sorts of life and cold. As wo approach
the poles, cold trains more and more the mastery ; life nearly ceases upon the land,

imm"^

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472

THE TUOI'ICAI, WOULD.

nml cxUtH iiiniiily in tlio wutrrs wliic^li swic|i arimiul tliu ico l)oun(l HlinrcH. In i|,o
Tin|»icul W(»rlil, (if wliifli wo aro imw Id npi-ak, tlio intoiiHo rays of the vi'rrical sum
call intii l)(<ii)g an uxul)fi'aiii'i> of animal iiml vugutiihlu lifo uiikiiuwti in diIici ri'irimii

Ilorc, ill till- (lUtM't, it is well tn ilcliiH', as iiciiily as nmy lie (lone, tin- ncii;r|-,.||,||||.,,i
limits of the zoiii's or lu-lts of tin- t'lirlli, ami csiH'cially of lliat witii wliifli wi- arc now
most iiiiim''liat('ly coiu'tTiicd, wliidi wo dosi^^iialt* as Tiopioal, a. (listiii^^iiislioil from tlii>
Tom|)cnito /oni's wliicli lio ii|ioii oaeii siilu of it, ami tiiu INdar, wliitli jio on uaoli sidf
8till fartlior iioyond, to tlio nortli ami the soiitii.

\-* ii-icd liy j;o();;ra|ilii'rs. tlio Tio|ii(Ml Zuno iiioliitlos that ludt of tlio oartli's sm-
faco oxtoinliiijj -''i^ <"i oaoli sido of tlio tHjuator, lioundol on tlio north hv nw
iinaifinaiy lino callod tlio Tio|iio of Canoor, on tlio Houth hy the Tr(i|ii(' of (';i|iiiiurn
Those mark tho |ioinfs from whioli tlio sun a|i|ioars to make a turn ((lioi'k r,..,-,;.
trttpv, whouco the iiaiiu') toward tlio o(|uator, from its utmost do(dination toward tho
north iiiid south. It is only liotwoon tlioso points that tho sun over appoars diroi'tly
overhoad ; north of tlieso it is alway soon to tho south, and south of thorn to thi
north. This forms tho Torrid Zoiio. or liolt of oxtronio lioat. Hut as tho picviiilin^
forms of vo;;otaldo and I'liiimil lifo whioli oharaotori/.o this /.oik! oxiond oon^idi'inlily
fiirthor in iiotli diroctioiis, wo shall uso tho word Tropical in a somowiiat wider souse,
and hy tho Tropieal World .shall dosi;;nato all that part of tho oarth's surfaoo hetwoeii
tho ('([iiator and the thirtieth paralhd of latitiido ■ n oacdi side, formin;^ a siiij^lo lielt of
(ill" ill width I'erhaps the host siii;;lo eliara(vi "i>tii' of this /.ono is, that wiiiiin it
nlono tho various spuoios of tho palm tree liavc their homo.

The Polar World, us we have used the phni.so, desij^iiatos tho zones at tho north and
south where the cold is so excessive is to prevent the j^rowth of grains and esoiilent
plants suited to tiie use of imiii. The parallels of (JHO^ north and south, aic ilie
approximate boundaries of those zones, ulthou;^h tho actual limit is sometimes ahove
and .sometimes below this. Thus in Kuropo ami on the western coast of Amoriea, tiie
polar limit is as hi^li as ()'»°; while on the eastern coast of America, as in Labrador,
it sinks as low as .')(ic.

The Temperate Zones comprise tho surface of the globe between the parallels of .'id'^
and (1(1° north and south latitude.

Those great climatic divisions shade into each other; but it may be said in general
terms that each occupies a s|);K'e of (Kto of Latitude, as follows:

The Polar Zones, '.»(to to (»0o north and south. .

The TemjR'rate Zones, ()0° to 3('° north and south.

Tho Tropical Zones from tho erjuator to .'!0° north and south.

Tho whole of Europe, more than nino-tcnths of Asia, a narrow strip of Africa, and
all of North America except Mexico, and a small portion of Texas and Florida, lie
north of tho tropical limit. Patagonia, tho bare southern extremity of Africa, luilt ot
Australia, and tho almost unknown land around the .southern j)ole, with a few inlands,
are all tho land south of the tropics. The Tropieal World comprises ]Mexico, Ceiitial
America, nearly the whide of South America and Africa, and nearly all tl great
islands of the gl(d)e, in(duding the West India Islands, Polynesia, the islands 'if the
Indian Ocean, and half of Australia.

Tho ocean covers three-fourths of tlio surface of the globe. Of the land, three-
quarters is in the northern hemisphero, and ono-(|uarter in the southern. Tho Arctic

( i

rUOI'OHTIONS OK LAND AM) WAIKU.

47a

nnd North Ti'iiiptTiito Zones iin- not vnry nn('i|iially dividi'il lictwrcn land nnd wntur.
Till' (H'(>iin cdVurH i'our-filtlis of tint Tropii-ul Zono, ami rolls in an almost unlmikm inniw
over lilt) soiitlicrn toni|it'rat(! uml Antarctin ri'^ions. This jrrcat |in'|Hinil»'ranco of
waliT over iiiinl lictwccn tin; tn)|>ii's is one of the most impiirtiint. t'ai'ts in pliysioul
g('();;riipliy. Were thr propurtiotis reversed. >ierility would he the ri;le all over tim
glolie, for witliout wator thero ean he no voj^etahlu or unimal lifu. All the water that
iKv.W* lip ill fountains, or (lows in hrooks and rivers, comes from the ocean, wheneu it
i.M nii^i'd hy evaporation and liorne aloiij^ the viewless clnniiels of the air to he pre-
oiiiitali'd ill the 'orm of rain ami snow, somei. ., thousands of miles fnim tli(! s|Kit
wlicri' it. commenced its aerial journey. It is coin|uited that nearly 2<HM)0() ciihic
mill's (if water urn annually raised from thu o.;i;an in the foiiii of vapor Three-
(|ii!irt('rs of this is raised witliin the tropics, and a preat part falls licyoiid them. If
till' "'xtent of tho tropical ocean were dimiiii>hcil hy half, there is hardly a part of the
Teiiipcratft Zone which wmihl not ho parched hy perpetual driiu;;lit, and hardly u river
whose hed would not heconie a dry ravine, The hidden spriiij^s of ihts Amazon,
Mis>i>sippi, and tho Danulie lie in the I'acilic. The water which (ills the f^reiit
lakes of North Aiiieii(;a, and thundcrini; duvvii th<! cataract of Niai;ara finds its way
through the St. liawrenco Uiver into the ocean almost on the vcif^c of thu polar
world, only a few weeks hefore, perhaps, laved the coral reefs of the tropical seas.

Moreover, if any coi <iilerahle part of the tropical ocean were converted into land,
the heat of the Torrid Zone would liecome sn j^ii-atly enhanced that no animal life, such
as now exists, could endure it ; and as the ve<i;ctation of a (diinatu is adapted to the
j)revailin;r Icniperiiture, the trees and plants which now flouri,»h would liccomo extinct.
Water in heinii; conv(U'ted into a i^aseous form hy the process of evajioration ahsorhs
heat from suiToundinj!; olijccts, or, as we say, produces cold. Thus the hurning rays
of a vertical sun iKiiirin;^ down upon the ocean in u measure quench themselves. The
same rays which falling upon the ocean never rai.se the water lieyond a grateful
toMijierature. falling upon the land jiroduec an intolerahle heat. To .'^tep on a sum-
mer's (lay fioiii the cool water upon the sandy beach is like treading upon a plate of
heated metal.

Tiic conformation of tho land within the tropics likewise gncs far to counterhalance
or mitigate the excessive heat of a vertical sun. The most casual glance over a map
sliiiffs that tho land here is mostly insular, laved on all sides by the surrounding
waters, or stretches in a narrow length hetween two oceans, thus multiplying tho
surface over which the sea is enabled to exert its cooling influence.

The great extant of the tropical seas is also the primary cause of those mighty ocean
currents which sweep from the equatorial to the polar regions. Cool as is the water of
the tropics when compared with the land, it is yet warm when compared with the other
parts of tho ocean. The water thus heated becomes specifically lighter than that
of oolder regions, is lifted up, and, in obedience to the law of gravitation, runs off in
both directions toward the poles. There having become cooled, the salt wa'crs are
heavier than the comparatively fresh ones of the polar regions, and, sinking beneath
them, return in an under current to their starting-place.

This great equatorial current, or rather series of current.s, is the marvel of physical
geography. Let us follow that of the Atlantic in its long career. Starting on the
line of the equator, it flows north-westward along the coast of South America, enters tho

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474

Tin: TllOPICAL WORLD.

l!'i;^L

Caribbean Sea ami the Gulf of Mexico, from wliieli it dcrivps tbo name of tlie Gulf
Stream. It |)a.s.ses out tlirouij;li tlie Straits of IJemini, between Florida and Ciilni, a
great river ."2 miles w'.do, 2,"J(tO feet deep, tlowiiij^ at the rate of four miles an lidur.
Its volume is a thousand times greater than that of the Ania/on or the Mississippi, and
it-T banks of eidd water are more clearly defuKMl than are those of eitiicr of tlicsc livcis
at flood. So clear is tlu^ line of demarkatioii between the warm water (if tln' river
and its cool li(;nid lianks, that a ship sailing along may be half in one and lialf iii liu'
other; and a bucket of v.ater dipped from one side will be twenty degrees cuoler than
one from llu^ otlier. Skirting the coast at a distance of about liM) nnles, its widih i-
increased ami its velocity diminished. Striking tlie proji'i-ting banks of NuwIniiMil
land, its course is dellec^ted abniist duo east, until it arrives at mid-ocean. Mere it
spreads out like a fan, skirting the shores of Spain, France and Great IJritaiii. It
then diviiles, one branch sw(U'ping around the west coast of Icehnnl, the itiicr
approaching the shores of Norway, and its temporary intluenee is perce[)tible in the
ameliorated climate of Spiizbergen.

It is owing to this great ocean river that the temperature of the western sImucs nf
Europe is so much higher than tliat of the eastern shore of America in the smuic lati-
tudes, .M.iury estiuuites tiiat the amount of iu-at which the (iidf Stream ditbises nvci-
the northern Atlantic in a winter's day is sullicient to raise the whole alnm^iih'ic
which covers France and (jireat Uritain from the freezing point to suimiier iieat. Tin'
olives of Spain, the vines of France, the wheat-fields of England, and the green
expanse of the Emerald Isle, are the gifts of the tropical seas, dispensed tindiigli the
Gulf Stream.

J^ear the Azores another branch of the Gulf Stream encounters the return tiow
from the Arctic Ocean, bends around, and skirting the coast of .\IVica, retunis to its
starting-place in the Gidf of Guinea, leaving in its great benil neai the A/nns an
expanse of almost motionless waters largcu" than tiie whole of France. This is kimwii
as the Sarjjrasso Sea, from the surface beiny; covered with a seaweed called the Sir-
gassuin nafiins. So thick is the covering of weeds that at a little distance it seems
solid enough to walk upon. Another curious species of seaweed, tiie Mdrnicri/slin
pyrifcra, is found in this grassy sea. The stem, not thicker than a mim's linger, is
from 1,000 to l,r)()0 feet long, branciiing \ipward in lilaments like pack-thread. .Most
of these weeds probably grow on the spot; but many are borne along by tlie Gnlt"
Stream, for everything that floats from other parts of the Atlantic teml to its eastern
side. Tiie discovery of the bodies of strange animals tind uiiknowii trees an. I plants
flung a.shoro at the Azores suggested to Colnmlius the idea that tlieie was land l\ing
beyond the western ocean; so that to the Gulf Stream we iire indebted for tiie dis-
covery of the New World. IJottles have been thrown ovcrbotird at various points in
the Gulf Stream, containing the date and position of the ship. !Many of tiiese iiave
been picked u|). From these it appears that the stream takes eight months to flow
from the Gulf of Mexico to the shores of Europe, and the broader and slower cmiciit
takes a year to travel from tlie IJay of Hi.scay back to the Gulf of ]Mexico.

The (lulf Stream, tbougli the best known, and in many respects the most rcniiirk-
able of the great equatorial current.*, is by no moans the largest. The great cmrciit
of the Pacific and Indian Oceans may bo regarded as one mighty stream flowing from
east to west. It crosses the Pacific in a sheet nearly 3,500 miles broad, spreading

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OCEANIC AND ATMOSPIIKKIC CUIIRKNTS.

475

over .tlninst liiilf of tlio distance from polo to |)olo. Another great current originates
in till' Iiiiliaii Ooean, flows into tlie Cliiiia Sea tlirougli tlie Straits of Malacca, tliencc
into till! North Pacific lictwccii the coast of Asia anil tlie l'liili|>|iine Ishiiiils; thei'co
cnisscs the occiin to the iiorth-wcstwarii, nioilifjiiig tlie climate of Oregon titul Alaska.

All the heateil water thus poureil from the tropical ocean, anil all raised from it liy
uv:i|ii>i-atioii tiiul traiisiiorfed through aerial ehaiinels to feed the livers of the temperate
Miiil jiiihir regions, must find its way hack hy counter currents. Heat, iiccordiiig to the
liiitiiiii of niodcrii .science, may lie reduced to fmce. The force of the sun's ray.s
iiiiincil upon llie tropical oceans is sniVicicnt to nii.se thousiuids of yards into the air
live Inmilred culiie miles of water ever} day, and to put iiml keep in motion the
mighty currents which ^wcep liack tind forth from tlie enuator to the poles. The
study of the course, direction, and elevation of these currei:ts has as yet only liegun.
We know that .soinelimes, tis on the eastern coast of America, the currents of Wiirm
iiiid cold water run side hy side in o|iposite directions; smiietinies a warm current is
ml the surface, and sometimes lieiow it. In the (iulf Stream the warm current is
aliiive, the cold liidow ; while on the coast of .lapan a coid current from the Sea of
Okliiitsk runs on the surface, giving rise to a fi.-hery not inferior in magnitutle to that
I'jmsed on the lianksof Newfoundland hy the cold current from HafVin's Hay. Knough,
lidwevcr, is now known of oceanic currents to warrant the assuinption that they iire
iiiimily governed hy the great law of gravitation. The lighter water flows ujion the
surface, the heavier flows underneath. I?ut the specific gravity of ocean water depends
upnii two things, the temperature and the amount of salts contained. The iieafcil
water from the tropics is rcndcr"d lighter than that which surrounds it of the same
.salliiess, and so floats on the surface ; hut the cold currents from the pohvs iin- less
Haliiic, anil conseipiently lighter than the tropical waters of the same temperature.
\\ iii'ii these two op|iosiiig eiinents meet there is ii struggle ; lint sit length the one
wliii-h is really specifically heavier sinks, wliile tiie lighter rises. So facile is the
iiinveiiieiit of fluids among each other, that a diflerence in gravity which we c;ni hardly
ili'teet with our nicest instruments may lie ahnndantly sullicient to decide which of two
"ppiising currents shall run ahove and ivhich helow.

The air has curicnts as well as the ocean, and these have much to do in modifying
the eliiiiate of the Trojiical World, llarificd hy the intense heat of a vertical sun, the
air within the tio|Mcs rises in perpendicular columns high tihove the siiif'aco of the
earth, and thence flows off (oward the poles; while, to fill up the void, cold air cur-
rents come rushing in from the .\rctic ami Antarctic regimis ; hut the rotation of tlK>
earth gradually diverts the direction of these cold euirents, and changes them into the
trade winds which regiilaily Mow over the greater part of the tropical ocean from ea.st
to west, iind materially contriliute to the health and comfort of the Uiivigator whom
tlii'V waft over the ei|uatorial waters.

These ittinospheri>' cnrreiits in iinoiher wtiy still more powerfully inflneneo the
climate and productions of the Tropical World ; for upon them, in conjunction with
tlie character and direction of the great mountain ranges, de|)ends the supply of water
upim the surface of the glohe, and thus determine the fertility or harrcimess of flie
wil. It may he laid down as a rule that wherever within t'le tropics there is an
iilmndant supply of moisture, vegetation grows in rank luxuriance ; and wherever this
is wanting, the land is a desert ; aiul wm ever, as in the llanos of Southern America,

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THE TROPICAL WOULD.

there is a regular alternation of long periods of rain and drought, there is at diffurent
seasons a wonderful interchange between apparent desolation and a profusion of voce-
table and animal life. The aspects of these regions will be more fully deHcribtMl
hereaffer.

The great mountain ranges run mainly north and south. The great atniosnlitric
currents at the surface of the earth in tropical regions blow mainly from east to west.
The moisture in these winds is condensed when they strike the cold mountains, jiml
descends in the form of rain or snow. Hence, in general, the eastern sides of tronicu!
mountains are better watered than the western slopes.

We have spoken of the trade winds as extending over Hic whole liroadili of tlio
Tropical World. IJut to thi;, there is a notal)le exception. N(!ar tlie equator, but a
little to the north of it, the two currents from the Arctic and Aiifar'.-ti(! regions meet
and neutralize cao). other, producing a belt of calms, which sailors call the " Dol-
drums," of about six degrees in breadth. Here it rains almost every day duriii"' tlio
year, for the ascending currents of heated air loaded with moisture become siuldciily
cooled in the higher regions, .ind are forced to give up the water wliicli tlicy luivu
lifted from the ocean. Towards noon den.se clouds form in the sky, and dissolve in
torrents of rain. Towards evening the vapors disperse, and the sun sets in a clor.dless
horizon. The quantity of rain wliich here falls during tlie year is enormous. In the
United States the annual rainfall is from 2."> to 70 inches; in Europe from 1.') to 101 ;
in the Atlantic doldrums it reaches 22<>. So copious is the rainfall at times that fresh
water has been dipped up from tlie surface of tlie tropical seas.

Proceeding north or soutli from the belt of calms, we come to a region charactoriz'nl
by two rainy and two dry seasons. The rainy seasons take place while tlio suii is
passing the zenitli, and more or less neutralizing the influence of the trade winds. In
Jamaica, for example, the lirst rainy season begins in April, tiie .':ccond in October;
the first dry season in June, the .second in Decendiev. Towards tlie verge of the
tropics follow tli: zones characterized by a single rainy and a single dry season ; the
rains lasting from the vernal to the autumnal equinox.

The two raiiiy seasons which cl nracterize the middle zone between each tropic and
the equator have a tendency to merge into one rainy season of six months' duration on
advancing toward the tropics, and into a j)erpetual rainy season on ajjproacliing tlin
equator. As the sun goes north or south he opens the floodgates of the heavens, and
closes hem behind him as ho passes to the other hemisphere ; while he keeps them
continually open where he is always vertical. But this general state of th ngs, wliicli
would be the normal condition of the tropical regions if their surface was an unbroken
sheet of water, and no disturbing forces existed, is liable to great niodilioations.
Thus in the mon.soon region, extending from the easteri» coast of Africa to the noitlioin
part of Australia, and from the tropic of Capricorn to the Himalayas and China, it is
not the .sun directly, but the winds that regulate the periodical rains. Thus in India
and the Malayan peninsula the western coasts are watered during the south west mon-
soon, which prevails from April to October ; and the eastern coasts during the nnrtli
east inon,soon, from October to April. For example, the south-west wind condenses
its vapor on the western side of the Ghauts, the north cast on the eastern, so that
violent rains fall daily on the coast of Coromandel, while it is the reverse on that of
Malabar, and vice versa. In the southern homisphere the rainy season corresponds with

RAINS AND IILURICANKS.

477

iri

the nortli-wt'stern monsoon, the dry season witli the south-eastern. In South Africa
and Australia winter is tlie rainy season. In South America, in the same latitudes,
Bummer is the rainy ^^eason on the eastern side of the Cordilleras, and winter on the
western side.

At sea, it rains almost daily within the calm Le'i, rarely within that of the trade
winds On the land within the tropics the rainfall is in many regions enormous.
Till' average annual fall in the most favored parts of the temperate zone is about 40
int'hi's ; in the tropics it exceeds 100. In son.e portions it is vastly greater. On the
western Ghauts the mean annual ouantity is '300 inches. On the Ulnialayas, Mr.
Yule measured 21)4 inches in tiie single month of August, of which loO inches fell in
five successive day.<. Hooker and Tlioiuson measured here aOO inches in seven
months; and during a terrific shower .'50 inclies fell in four hours, and Castlenau
measured the same quantity during a single storm on tlie Amazon.

Tornados and hurricanes ra^e in tlic Tropical World witii a frequency, extent and
vinlence unknown in other climates. Tliey sometimes move with a direct velocity of
4."i miles an hour; but the violence and uestructivcness of a whirlwind depend less
upon the velocity with which the whole storm moves than upon the speed with which
the wind whirls around and in upon the center. The great Bahama hurricane of 18(56
moved forward at tlie rate of ;J0 miles an hour; but the velocity of its whirling mo'.lon
was f'loiii 80 to 100, and for short intervals from 100 to 120 miles an hour. The
diameter of the great storms of the tropical Atlantic is often from GOO to 1,000 miles;
those of the Indian Ocean 1,(100 to l,r)00. These, however, move but slowly. The
smaller storms are usually more rapid than the larger ones.

The revolving motion accounts for the sudden and violent changes observed during
hurricanes. In coii.«equenco of this rotation, the wind blows in opposite directions on
ouch side of the axis of the storm ; i*!ie violence increases from the circumference
inward ; but at the center the air is in repose. Hence, when the body of the storm
passes over a place, the wind begins to blow moderately, and increases to a hurricane
as the center of the whirlwind approaches ; then in a moment a dead calm succeeds,
suildenly followed by a renewal of the storm in all its violence, but now blowing in a
direction opposite to that which it luul iicforc. From this rotary motion it follows that
the direction of the wind at any moment is no indication of the direction which the
body of the storm is pursuing. Tlio progressive motion may continue for days in one
direction, while the wind accomplishes many gyrations from every point of the compass.
'*uiiiig a part of the course of a storm the wind blows in just tlie opposite direction
from tii.ic wliich the hurricane is taking, just as when a carriage-wheel, and (,'very
point of its circumference, is really moving forward, during a part of each revolution
anv iioint in the circumference is at die same time moving back with a still greater
velocity.

We have already referred to the insular cliaracter of a considerable portion of the
Tropical World. Nine-tenths of the islands which dot the ocean lie within the tropics.
These inlands are divided into two great classes. The one ela.ss is of volcanic origin,
upl'.'^aved from the depths of the ocean ; or, rather, they are peaks of lofty mountains
whoso sides and base lie deep in the water. There arc two opposite theories to
account for the existence and present appearance of these islands. According to one
theory, a continent once occupied a large part of the Pacific Ocean within the tropics,

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478

THE TllOl'lCAL WOIll.I).

a <!;rt'at portion of wliicli lias sunk beneutli tlio waters, and tlicso islands mc \n\i tlic
peaks anil talile-lands of tliat lost eontinont. Tlio other theory is that tln-se islands
have been for unknown aj^es, and now are, slowly liein^ lifted up fnini tiie dcpilis
below. Botl. lli'Mirifs rest upon so wide an induction of facts that boih niu>t lie
accepted as 'rue ; or rather as parts of thi one f^reat truth, that the erust of 'lie v:iv[\t
wliicii we r.re wont to consiiler so linn and stablt! is now, as it always has ticcn, ii>iiiir
and fallini^, as truly as tlic surface of th'! water rises and falls by the attraction of the
sun and moon ; only that these periodic changes arc; nieasuriMl by a^^es instead of iiy
hours. Who .-hall .siy that in the hij^lier knowlednjc which we shall ^ain dnriu" th,'
ages of the future we may not attain to the unilerstanding that the rise and .siiikiioMif cdu-
tinents is like that of the tides j^oveiiieil by law, and that we may not be able to exprcs.s
in figures, wliicli will then be ipiite linile to us, though new .seeming inlinitc, the
years that have ela[i.sed since when '' in the beginning heaven and earth rose out of
chaos V"

Voh'anic islaiuls are found in all oceans. Iceland has its Ileckla, Sicily its Ktna,
Hawaii its Mauna Kea and .Mauiia Loa, Niplion its Fiisiyama. From Suiiiatia, .lava,
and Sumbawa, 'J'ernate and Tidore, Hoiiieo, ('elebes, and (Jilolo, close by the einialor,
thence northward and north-westward to the Kurile Islands, hard by the frozen const
of Kamchatka, is one great belt of volcanic islands, spreading out like a fan tliidiwli
Polynesia. Hut in the tropical ^cms, and there ali "le, are coralline islands, built up,
grain by grain, by minute li\iiig licings.

Tlio sim|)lcst form of these coral islands is a ring enclosing a portion of the ocean.
Sometimes this ring is barely two miles in diameter; sometimes it reaches a htiinlic'il
miles, rising only a halfsccwe of feet above the level of the water, and owing to the
convexity of the surface of the ocean invisible from the deck of a ship at a distance of
a milo or two, unless they happen to be coven-d with tall palms or paiidanus. The
roar of the surf dashing upon tlu'ir wiudwanl side is often heard long befon? the i-laiid
it.self comes into view. On the outer side this ring, or ato//, slopes gradually for a
buiulred yards or more, to a depth of twenty-tive fathoms, and then ]ilunges sheer
down into the waters with a descent more rapid than the cone of any volcano. At a
distance of five hundred yards no bottom has been reached with a sounding line of a
mile and a half in length. All below the surface of the water to the depth of lOi)
feet is alive, all above and below this section dead, for the coral insect can live only
within this range.

These atolls asi^umo every form and condition. Sometimes they arc solitary specks
in the waste of waters. Oftener they occur in groups. The Caroline Archipelago
has sixty groups extending over a space of a tliou.sand square miles. Sometiiiies a
grouj) of atolls becomes partially joined into one, the irregular ring encircling an
island-studded lagomi, with openings through which a ship may enter. Soini'tinies
these coral formations take the form of long reefs bordering an extensive coast. Such
a reef runs parallel to the coast of Malabar for nearly five hundred miles. It consists
of a scries of atolls arranged in a double row, separated by a sea whose depths no line
has sounded ; yet from outer to inner edge of the double row is a space of but llfty
miles. Such a broken coral reef often girdles a volcanic island, Tahiti, the largest
of the So\ '.e.'y group, is a fine example of this kin 1. The island rises in nioniitains
7.000 feet high, with only a narrow plain along the shor i. The lagoon which enci nv

UJI,

TROPICAL ISLANDS.

47!»

passis it like a great moat is tliirty fiitlioniH dwjt, and is shut out from tlio ocean by a
(■iir.il liiiiid at a distance of from lialf a mile to three miles.

Hut, tlicH! are coral reefs of far greater magnitude. Tiio grandest is that extending
aidi:;,' the north-east coast of Australia. Rising frotn an unfathomed ocean, it extends
fur a thousiind miles along the coast, with a hn^adlh of from two hundri'd yards to a
mile, and at an average distance of twenty or thirty mile?', though sometimes douhle
lliat s|i!icc. This long, narrow lagoon is never less tlian te.' fathoms deep, and often
MX liiiiis as much, so that the '• Ureat Kastern," the hugest vessel that over floated, if
it (iii('(! passed tlirough one of the ojieoings in the reef, niiglit :ail as tliough in a tran-
(luil liarlior for a thousand niiles in sight of land on either side, without its keel for an
instant reaching halfway to the bottom.

Tiie direct influence of the ocetin tipon the islands of the Tropical World is great in
every respect. It giv»!S an almost tempi^rate climate to low lands lying under the
i'i|iiat(ir, and thus modifies tiieir faima iuid flortt, in accordance with known laws of
nature. Hut tlie occiin and air in their currents also determini! the vegefahle, animal,
and human life of tlie islands of the Tropical World in an accidental manner.

Time was wlien the volcanic islands of the tropics were niass(;s of naked rock, the
coraliiiie islands patches of barren .sand. The elements disintegrated the surface of
tlio ruck and ground the coral into soil. Home <lay a fruit, [terhaps a cocoa or bread-
fruit, drifted along Ity currents, touched the island, or a bird .swept far out to sea
having in its crop an undigested seed, rested its wc-ary wing upon solid land. The
t'liancc-planted fruit or seed took root, and grew, and j)roduced its kind, and in time
the waste island was clothed with verdure. Other birds foiuid a home in the new
forests, built tlu^ir nests, and raised tlieir young, .so that the islands became populous
with tiie winged tribes. Animals, of ciunse, (iould oidy rarely cross the waste of
waters Hence the com[)arative j)aucit;' of this form of life in islands remote from the
'naiii land Swino were almost the only (juadrupeds which the early European navi-
gators found in Polynesia; and they were doulttless brought there by human means.
Mankind reached the islands in a like accidental manner. Perhaps a canoe from the
Malayan shores drifted upon the Fiji Islands, and its rowers became the progenitors of
tlic black cannibals ; or a junk from China or Japan was cast away upon Taliiti or
Hawaii. These wanderers, cut off from intercourse with the rest of the world,
developed their barbarism or semi-civilization in their own way, under the influence
of altered conditions, climate and productions. The story of the " IJounty," and the
first settlement of Pitcairn's Island, too well known to require more than a passing
allusion, shows that such a canoe or junk voyage is altogether j)ossible, and how widely
in the course of a single generation a group of isolated individuals deviate from their
original stock.

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480

TUE TllOriCAL WORLD.

CHAPTER II.

TABLE LANDS AM) I'LATKAl'S OF THE TROPICAL WORLD.

Influence of Elevation upon Climate — Tin- Puna or Pern: S(|uier's Description of tlie Puna—
The Soroche or Vetu— View ♦'rom L:i Portacia — Effects of tiie Sorociu' — Tiic Saruinpe
— The N'erutJii Water — Eflccts of tlic \'eta on Animals— Vegetation of the Puna— The
Llarnii — The lluanacu — The Alpaca — The N'icuna — Hunting' the Vicuna — The Hunts of
tiie Ancient Incas — Enemies of the Vicuna — Otiier Native Animals — The Ox, Horse, Mule
and Slieep — Waterfowl — Warm Valli'vs — Rapid Change of Climate According' to Kleva-

fion. — /.((/.(' Titii'iva : The Sacred Island of Titicaca — Manco Cajiac, the Eirst Inca Ills

Journey from Lake "Titicaca to Cuzco — Eai't and Myth respectiuf; Manco Capac — Kxtcnt
of tlie Inca Empire — Inca Civilization orijiimited in the Puna, near Lake Titiciica— Tlic
Sacred Rock on the Island — linins anil Relics on the Island — The Hacienda on the Inland
— The Eve of St. ,Iolin — The Rath of the Incas — Other Sacrt'il Islands — Ruins at Tihu-
anico — Some more ancient than the Incas — Imiueiise Monolithic Gateways ami Hewn
Stones — Inca Civilization — The (Ireat Military Roads — System of Posts and Post-Stations.—
The Vale;/ of Quito: Approach to the Valley from the Pacific Coast — A Trojiical Rci,'ii]ii—
Cliinbinj; the Ccjrdillera — Sec iicshy the Way — Quito — Climate of the Valley — Astrononiical
Site — Trees, Emits, Vef^ctahles, and Flowers — Animals — Rinls — Insects, Reptiles, and
Fish — The Poi)ulalion of the Valley — Inilians — IlalfHreeds — Whites — Courtesy of the
People — A Polite Messaife — Scenery of the Valley — Volcanoes — Imliabura — Destruction
of Otovalo — Cayamba — (iuamani — Antisana — Sinchola^iia — Cotopaxi — The luca's llr.ul—
Tungurajiua — Altar— Sangai — Its Periietual Eruption — Chiniborazo — Carajiuarizo— Illiiiza
— Corazon — Pichincha — Its immense Crater — Descent into the Crater — Kruptions of
Pieliincha. — The Tulile-fjuid of /Im/ati: Voyage uj) the Maijdalenii — Ascent to the Plateau
— Boijoti'i and the Roirotanos — Traveling; at Ronota. — Tdlilr-hiiid of Mixico : Its Kxtcnt —
The Tierra Calienta — The Tierra Tcmi)lada — The Tierra Fria — The Valley of Anahuac—
The Volcanoes of Orizal)a, Poivieatapdl, IztacihuatI, and Toluca. — The Sil.l.-iin Slopi ;
Approach and Ascent — Dorjiliug — The Sikkim Peaks — Altitude of Kinchin-junga — Flight
of the Condor.

'TXT'ITIITV the p;onn;rapliieal limit.s of tlic Tropical World is found over}- variety
V V of elimate upon the j^lobo. There arc great mountain ranges wliicli even at
the equator rise above the limits of perpetual snow. Their suniiuits, untrodden hy
jiian and unviisited liy any otlier form of animal life, must be nuu-e desolate tliaii (lie
extrcmost polar r(>gions to which explorers have been able to penetrate. Of iiviii"
creatures tlie strong-w'nged condor only lias reached so hijth. Then, Itelow these,
yet rising far into the air, arc broad plateaus whose desolate character reminds one of
the tundras of Siberia and the wastes stretching across the American continent from
Hudson's 15ay to Behring's Straits.

One of the most notable of these lofty tropical plateaus is that extending between
the parallel mountain chains of the Cordilleras in South America. 1 is known as the
Puna or Altos of Peru. In the popular language of the region a part of it is called

THE rUN'A OF I'EKU.

481

tlin Despohlado, or " Uiiinliabitcd." It extends tlirough a great part of the length
(i( Poiu and Bolivia, at a liigiit of from ten to fourteen tliousund feet aliove the level
of the sea. "It is," says feijuier, "that cold and rugged region wiiifli forms the
bread summit of the Cordillera. It has the aspect of an irregular p!;.;n, and is diver-

I'i^ ^

TUF. rUNA OF PEKU.

sifieil with mountain ridges and snowy volcanic peaks, imposing in thoir proportions,
nntwitlistanding that they rise from a lovel of 14,000 feet above the sea." Sqiiier. in
a few grapliie sentences, doscrihos the varying aspects of nature as one cliiid)s up the
ascent of the Puna: " Pada is a poor hut picturesque little villngo, witli a small, white
church gleaming out against the dull hrown of the hare mountain side. It is 9,700
feet ahovc tlie sea. Tlierc were some scant fields of maize and lucern around it, and
the lower slopes of tlie mountains were thinly sprinkled with stems of the columnar
cuctus." Still ascending, "our mules l)egan to pant under the influence of the
soroche or rarification of tlie air. Imt wliich the drivers insisted was from the re/n, or
influence duo to the velas or veins of metal in the earth. At \m Portaila, 12 OOD feet
aliove the level of the sea, and 1.000 feet higher than the IIos])ice of the Grand St.
Ik>rnard. I witncsi-ed a scene more wild and desolate than I liave heheld in crossing
the Alps by the routes of the Simplon, the Grand St. Bernard, or the St. Gothard.
There is neither tree nor shrub ; the frosty soil cherishes no grass, and the very Ii(;hena
find scant hold on the bare rocks. The aguardiente, or native rum, which I had pur-
chased for making a fire for preparing my coffee, refused to burn, and extinguished
the lighted match thrust into it, as if it were water. I was obliged to abstract some
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489

THE TUOPICAL WOULD.

refined alcohol from my photographic stores to supply its plucc." At the pass of
Oimylillos, 1 tJi'iO feet above the level of the sea, "one of our compniiions full t'njin
his satkllo under the effects of the soroche. On lifting iiini from the ground wo fduiid
him nearly senseless, with blood trickling from his mouth, curs, nostrils, and tlio
corners of his eyes. Copious vomitings followed, and we administereil the us\iid
restoratives with good effect. In doing this I drew off my gloves, and was surprised
to find my hands swollen and covered with blood, which appeared as if it Imd (jozlhI
from a thousand minute punctures."

Other travelers give similar accounts of the climate of tlie Puna. Cold winds
from the icy Cordilleras, whoso sumndts often rise 8,(JU0 feet above the ])lateau, sweep
over their surface, and during eight months of the year they arc daily visited by fear-
ful storms. In a few hours tiio change of the temperature often amounts to forty or
fifty degrees, and the sudden fall is rendered still mon? disagreeable to the traveler by
tho biting winds which irritate the hands and face. The lips suffer especially, break-
ing out into deep rents which heal with difficulty. The eyes also suflTer intensely.
Tl>u rapid changes from a cloudy sky to the brilliancy of a snow-field, glistening in
tlie sun, produces an affection which tho natives call the snrumpe. So intoleiable is
tho burning and stinging that even tho stoical Indian, when attacked, will fling him-
self on tho ground uttering cries of anguish and despair. Chronic ophthahnia, sup-
puration of the eyelids, and total blindness, aro frequent consecjuences of the sarunipe,
against which tho traveler over the highlands endeavors to guard himself by wearing
j^reen spectacles or a dark veil.

Tho first symptoms of the vela or soroche usually appear at an elevation of some
12,000 feet above the level of the sea. They frerjuently manifest themselves in tlio.'io
who ride, but are greatly aggravated when tho traveler a.seends on foot. The giddiness
and nausea aro necompanied with an insupportable sense of lassitude, difficulty of
breathing, and vicdent pal[)itation of tho heart, followed by spitting of blood and a
bloody diarrlura. This last atHiction is, however, to a consideraldo extent occasioned
by tho no.xious character of the water. " All tho water of the Desptddado,'' snys
Squier, " even that which does not display any evidence of foreign or mineral smIj-
stances in solution, is nioro or less purgative, and often productive of very bad effects.
In many parts tlie thirsty traveler discovers springs as bright and limpid as those of
our New England hills; yet when ho dismounts to drink, his muleteer will rush for-
ward in affright, with tho warning cry, ' Hewaro, es agiia de Veruga!^ The Veruga
water is said to produce a terrible disease called by the same name, which manifests
itself outwardly in both men and animals in great bleeding boils and carbuncles,
which occasion much distress, and often result in death."

The veta shows itself plso in animals unaccustomed to mountain traveling. Tliey
proceed more and more slowly, frequently stop, trembling all over, and fall to tlie
ground. If not allowed to rest they inevitably die. Tiio natives are accustomed to
slit the nostrils of their mules and horses in order to allow a greater influx of air.
Mules and asses aro less affected by the veta than horses ; but it is fatal to cats, who
are unable to live at the hight of more than 13,000 feet.

Another consequence of the diminished pressure of the air is that water boils at so
low a temperature that meat, vegetables and eggs can not be boiled sufficiently to be
edible, and whoever wishes a warm meal in the Puna must have it baked or roasted.

THE LLAMA, ALPACA, AND VICUNA.

183

Ai,'iii'ultiiro i.s of course confincil within the narrowest limits. I oomo parts barley
will ff-i)Vi ; but it never ripen.s, and is cut green for forage. The only cultivated vege-
(al)lu is the mata, the tuberous roots of wiiieh resemble the potato, and form a great
part of the food of the inhaiutants. It grows best at an elevation of more than 12,000
foet. Vl [fetation is scanty. Here and there is a solitar_ dwarfed quinua, or wild
olive, or patch covered with reddish brown ratania shrulis, which, with the droppings
of the llamas and vicunas, constitute the sole fuel of the region. The whole land-
scape pret'ents a scene of bare rock, or of steppe like expufnses covered with dun
iiu'agre herbage. The profusion of flowers which appear in many Alpine regions is
here utterly wanting.

The animal kingdom is more amply rej)rcsented on this bleak table-land. But its
native iiiembers are almost wholly confined to tlie camcUda family, of which there arc
fuiir well-marked species, — the llama, the alpaca, the vicuna, and the huanacu, — who
find iiourishnient in the grassy j- ♦dies. IJeforo the advent of the Europeans these
llamas constituted the only beasts of burden, and even now they are largely employed
for tliat purpose. To the ancient Peruvians they were what the camel is to the Araos.
Their flesh and milk .served as food, their skins for a mantle, and from their wool a
wiar.se cloth was mannfactured ; and tliey formed the otdy means e.vcept human labor
of transpoiUng burd>ms from one place to another. Even now, when to a great extent
superseded by the stronger horse and mule, there are regions where they arc indis-
pensable. The silver mines are often approachud only by precipices so abrupt that
even the hoof of the sure-footed mule would find no foot-hold. The ordinary load of a
llama is a hundred pounds ; bi't as they never feed after sun.set, they must be allowed
to graze on the way, so that tiioy can travel only ten or fifteen miles a day. The
llama is the only animal ever domesticated by tlie aborigines of America.

The llama is about the size of the deer, but bears a strong resemblance to the camel,
having the same formation of toes and stomach, and the same callosities upon the
brea.st and knees, but the unsightly hump is wanting. The microscope reveals that
the resemblance extends even to the globules of the blood, which are elliptical in the
camcTides and some species of deer, but circular in all other quadrupeds.

The huanacu was long supposed to bo only the wild variety of the llama ; but
naturalists now point out speci6o diflTerenccs. The huanacu is larger ; its wool is
shorter and coarser ; it presents no variety of color. They arc very shy, and live in
small troops of from five to seven. When caught young they may be tamed, but
still show traces of their wild nature, and can hardly ever bo trained to carry burdens.

The alpaca is smaller than the llama, and bears some resemblance to the sheep ; but
its nock is longer, and it has a more elegantly formed head. Its wool is long, fine,
of a silky lustre, varying in color from almost white to black. The wool is especially
valuable since it can bo woven with common wool, silk, or cotton, and within a few
years has become an article of considerable commercial value. Attempts, none of
which have as yet proved successful, have been made to introduce the alpaca into
other countries. They are kept in largo herds grazing all the year round upon the
bleak table-lands, and are only driven to the pens to be shorn.

The vicufia is of a more graceful .shape than the llama ; its wool is shorter and
more curly, and of such extreme fineness as to bo very valuable. It inhabits the
most secluded valleys, and during the rainy season climbs far up the sides of the Cor-

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dillcros, but never ventures upon tlio bare sumiiiitH, 'or its iioofs arc ti'iuler. Tlio cry
of the viuuftu is a Klirill wliistlu, ho loud that it niuy )u liuuxl ut a lon^^ iliMtaiicn. I.ilui
the camel and llaum, it liaH tlio habit of ppitcfully u_,'uc't'<ig a uiunm of saliva ami lialf-
digested food in tlio face of those who eomo within re.ich. In the case of ♦ho vicuna
this is peculiarly offensive, has a disgusting sinull, and stains the skin of a dark urtuii
color, which can be effuccd only with difliculty.

The annual hunt of the vicuna, which takes place in April or May, is the gnat
event in life of the Indians of the I'una. They collect in Imnds from all the villii'-cs
bearing bundles of poles and ropes, and set out for the lofty summits wiiitlier liio
onimals have retired. With the poles and ropes a circular enclosure, called a cfiuni,
is formed, often several hundred paces wide. The hunters form a ring, sometimes
miles in circumference, and gradually drive the animals into the ehaeu. The viciifiiis
are shy and do not venture to leap over the cords, and are easily dispateiied by the
hunters. If, however, a huanacu happens to be driven into the enclosure, he bounds
over the cord, and is followed by the herd of vicunas in a mass, just as a flock of
fihecp will follow a leader. The flesh of the vicuna is rank and unsavory. S(|uiur
says that it is just preferable as an alternative to starvation. But when it has iji'cii
dried and pounded, and disguised by an abundance of the hot red pepper, its taste is
not altogether unpleasant to one who lias learned to like that fiery condiment.

The number caught in one of these hunts is often considerable. At one in wliii;li
Von T.schudi took part there were 122 killed, and the produce of their skins was
appropriated to building a new altar in the village church. In the times of the Iiicas
the vicuiia chase in the Puna was conducted upon a far more magnificent ,«cale.
Every year a great hunt was held. Twenty-five or thirty thousand of the Indians
were assembled, who drove all the animals within a circuit of many leagues into ii.i
enormous enclosure. As the circle narrowed, the lines of the hunters were doubloil
and trebled. All the pernicious animals were killed, but only a limited number of
the deer, huanacas, and vicunas, for those wise rulers were too provident to take ilic
lives of these creatures merely for sport. The battue, apart from the destruction
of nosious animals, was rather a royal spectacle than a hunt.

Excepting man, the vicuiia has few enemies capable of penetrating its lofty strong-
holds. A sneaking puma now and then creeps up from the regions below ; or a eomlor
swoops down from above and pounces upon the young. IJut the numbers of tlie
vicunas has undergone no diminution from ago to age. >iow, however, th:it their wool
has become an article of commerce, wo may anticipate their gradual extermination ;
for, unlike the alpacas, they are incapable of domestication, and man the arcli-destioyor
wages fatal war upon all animals which ho can not domesticate. Their only alternative
is death or subjection.

Several animals of the deer tribe are aldo indigenous to the Puna. Among these is
the stag like tarush, whose horns consist of but two branches. The half wild Puna
dogs are especially annoying to the traveler, for they have a peculiar antipathy to the
white race; and it is often dangerous for a European to approach an Indian hut
guarded by these spiteful creatures, who, like the bull-dog, do not hesitate to attack
enemies far stronger than themselves. The bisacha, allied to the chinchilla, which it
resembles in the quality of its fur, is often seen perched in front of its burrow, to
which it retreats on the approach of danger.

1 51

TIIK SACIIKD LAKK TITICACA.

lb.')

In the abnrijrinnl animals of tho Puna liave been a(l<lcil, Hinco the Spaniwli conquest,
tli(( ox, tlio horse, tho mule, and tho tiliirp. Tlieso do not inhaliit tho Ideak Despo-
liliido, though thu liorso and tho mule, under the guidanee of man, traverse m lieaHts
of l)ur(U>n it8 bleakest wastes and most rujji^ed passes. The herds of oxen and shcop
nre, dining tho wet season, driven far up into tlio Altos, often to tho higlit of l.'),000
foet ; liut when the cold frosty nights of the dry seai-on arrive, they are diiven down
tu the valleys which furrow tho taldedand. Here there are baeiendas, or estates, tho
owners of whieh possess (JO.OOO sheep and TjOO cows. These herds seldom see tho
fiici' of man, and hiivo relapsed into a half savago state, rendering traveling dangerous
in iiiiiny parts of the I'una. Von Tscliudi, whose journeyings in this region aro more
extensive than those of any other Kiuopean, was more than once compelled to save his
lil'i' from tho attacks of a wild bull by a well-aimed shot from his riflo.

The frequent showers and snowfalls of the Puna give rise to numerous swamps nnd
la^^Mims which afford nourishment to an abundance of birds. There is tho huaeha
gdose, with a snow-white body and dark green wings shining villi metallic lustre ; tho
iiivi, a speeies of plover ; tho long-legged ibis nnd flamingo ; and the gigantic coot,
which, unable to fly in tho air, dives in tho cold waters, and builds its nest on the
liiirc stones which rise above the surface.

The frosts of winter and a perpetuid spring arc nowhere found in clo.sor proximity
than in those Peruvian highlands ; for deep valleys furrow tho windy Puna, and when
tlio traveler, benund)ed by the cold blasts of the mountain plains, descends into these
slicltcreil gorges, ho finds himself transported almost at once from tho rigors of a polar
climate to a terrestrial paradise. They arc so high that the rays of tho tropical sun
iiro not felt ; and protected by their abrupt rocky walls from the keen blasts of the
inountiiins, these pleasant valleys enjoy all tho advantages of a mild and genial sky.
liji'li corn-fields and green luceriio meadows would almost persuade tho European
traveler that ho had been by magic transported to his own home, were it not that tho
higlit of agaves and cactuses upon tho rocky sides by day, nnd now constellations by
iiii^Iit, remind him that ho is in another hemisphere. There aro regions hero where
the traveler may in tho morning leave tho snow-covered Puna hut in which ho has
shivered over night, and before sunset pluck pine-apples and bananas on the cultivated
miirgin of a tropical forest, and repose under the feathery leaves of gigantic palms.

But in this vast highland region there is nothing which possesses so deep a human
interest as Lake Titicaea, for in it is embosomed the sacred island, tr which the Incas
traced their origin, and whii'h to this day is to iheir descendants all that Jerusalem
and Mecca are to Hebrews, Christians, and Mohammedans. Tl;o lake lies at an
elevation of 12,804 feet above the sea, less than 3,000 feet lower than the summit of
Mont Blanc, and higher than any point in Europe except the ten loftiest peaks of the
Alps It is 120 miles long and 50 or (10 wide. It never freezes over, though ice
forms near its shores. It exercises a very important influence on the climate of the
cold and desolate region in which it is situated, for during tho winter months the tem-
perature of the waters is ten or twelve degrees above that of the atmosphere. Wherever
the shores are low they afford pastrrage for herds of cattle ; and multitudes of water-
fowl find shelter among the reeds an \ rushes. On the little islands barley, peas and
maize ripen, although they are not prolific.

The largest of the islands is the sacred Island of Titicaea, bold, bare, and rocky,

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»ix niilt's lonp; nml tliroo or fmir wiilii. lloro, nccdnlliif; to trmlitinn, Mimco f'lnmc,
and Mania Odla, at n cu his mhU'Y ami wito, liotli cliililruii of tlio sun ami ('(iniinis>iiiii('i|
by that luminary, startt'd on tiiuir errand to (•ivili/.o tho lmrlmrou)4 trilx'H tiiat (H'cuiiinl
thu country. Munco (lapao was diructod to travtd northward until ho ruaclifd u spot
wlit'ri! Iii.s f^oldi-n stall' sliiuild sink into tho {^rouiul of its own aicord ; and tlicn- Iid
was to fix till! M'lit of his oin|)iro. IIu travolod sluwly aloni; tin; wi'>t('rn .sIioik of tin-
laki', throui^li tin- hroad lileuk I'lina lands, crossinfj; thu wator-sliod whii'li 8('|iiiratos tin-
Btroains whieli tirid their outlet tlirouj;li thu \m I'latii from those whiili fnrm the mi;^lity
Amazon, wliosts mouths lie 2, ")•>() niilcs apart in a straight line. Strikinif the rivir
Vilnmota, an alllueut of the U<;ayali, one of the main liranehes of tlie .\iiiaziin, ||i>
descended its valley, until, after a journey of three hundred miles, his golden slalf
Hank into tho ground ujion the spot where the city of Cu/eo now stands. Ilcni ||i>
fixed his seat, and hero arose tho (!ity of tlio Sun, tin? capital of the Inca empire, whi''li
in time spread over a length of 'M^ of latitude, and in lircadlh from the eastern liase
of tho Ande.s westward to where tho Pueilio beats against the deeply planted feet of
tho Cordillera.

So runs the legend ; but there is much mythical matter inonrporafed into llie da-
ditiiins respecting Manco Cajiac. We find this counter|iart in tlie l''ohi of the Chiiioe,
the Buddha of the Hindus, the Osiris of Kgypt, tlio Udiii of Scandinavia, tho Jal/.a
coal of Mexico, the Votan of Central America. Still there can lie no doubt that lie
is a real bisfocical cliiiractc^r, to whom, however, have been attributed many of tlie
achievements of thixe who preceded him, and porliap" of sdiiu' who (iiIIowlmI liini,
Tho titno when he lived is altoguthor uncertain. Some, studying the i/iii/)/ni!i nr
knotted cords, whidi are the oidy records of ancient Peruvian history, jilaee his .nlvi nt
bacik to within five centuries afti'r the deluge. Hut thi; b'st autlioritics lhvc tlic dale
nppro.ximately at abmit four centuries liefore the arrival of the Spaniards mider I'iz.in-o,
or about lODO A, I)., the period when all Christendom was hurling itself in the
crusades upon the Holy Land.

Tho rule of Manco Capae was at first limited to the region dose by Cu/eo ; Imt
under his successors the Inca dominion, by alliances and coiKpiests, spread far ainl
wide. The greatest of tho Inca inonarclis was Iluayna Capm-, who in 1 17.') led his
forces as far northward as Quito, a distance of 1,"J((() miles from Cuzco. lie maiii'
Quito his residence. At his death the empire was divided lietween bis two sens,
Huascar, who reigned at Cuzco, and Ataliuall|»a at (^uito. Civil war ensued, Iluascar
was defeated and slain, and Atahuallpa rcmainiHl sole Inca. During tho war Pizarro,
coasting down from the Isthmus of Darien, landed ut Tumbez, conquered Ataliuallpi;,
and overthrew the Inca civilization.

This civilization, in some respects one of tho most remarkable which tlio world has
ever seen, had its origin in the lofty taldo-land of tho Puna, which we are now cnii-
sideriiig ; and far and wide as tho reign of the Incas subseijueiitly extended, tliey ami
their subjects always retained their reverence for tho little rocky islet in liake Titicaca,
where it had its origin. At the northern end of tho island is a frayed and water-woiii
mass of red sandstone, about 22.") foot long and 2.5 feet high. This is the sacred rock
of Manco Capac, the most holy spot in all Peru. Upon it, as was believed, no bird
would alight, no aniiiinl venture, and upon which no human being not of the royal
blood dared set his foot. From this rock the sun first rose to dispel the primal va|xn-s

TMK HACUKI) ISI,AN'I) OF TITICACA.

487

nnil illiiiniimto tlio wmld. It was*, ho wiys tlu) Ii'j?t>iiil, jiliitdd till over witli jjold and
cilvfr, and, fXct'|)t upon tlio most Holeinn (iccuHions, covcrod with a vail of clotii of
costly mutoriulu and goigcouM color. Tim guld nml hilvor |)lntinj^ and tlw jjorj^nous
covi'iiii;; liavi' loti;^ «jj;o diMa|i|M'an'd, and wliat in now xt'cn in a l>arn rocI<, on tho crest
of llu> island, wliicli ri.scs :,',(lOi) fcut uIkivo tlio waters of tins lal<i!. Vet ovon now,
wlicii (ill! Indian guides coino witliiii Hi;;iit of it, tiiey raise their hats, linw reverently,
imilteriiig words of inystiti iin|)ort, wiiie!i tli.-y themselves, most likely, only partly
C()in|iri^lieiid. In front of tlie rock is a level artilli'ial terrace •'!72 feet luhfj and 1"_'.')
feet iiroad, sn|)ported liy ii low wtoiiu wall. Aeeonlina; to tradition, tlio wiil wliich
oiiL'o eovered tiiis terra<'u was conveyed uptn tho hacks of men from tiie distant valleys
of the Amazon, m that it might nourish a vugutatioti denied liy the lianl ungrateful
soil of the island,

Kvcrywiiere on tlie hidy island arc tho ruins of Tnca structures, am] the sites of tho
must sacred spots are still shown. Hero i.s tho .>-heltered hay wliero tho Inca.s landuJ
wlicn tiiey cumo to visit tho ppot oonsocrated to tho sun. Half way up tho ascent arc
the "foot-prints" of tlio great Tnca Tiipannui, marking the spot where ho stood
wiien, oatchirig his first view of tho hallowed rock, ho removed tho imperial covering
fniin his lie.ad in token of adoration of tho divinity who-n! slirino roso hoforo him.
Tlie.se so-calloil foot-prints look not unlike tliu impressions of a gigantic foot, thirty-six
inches long and of corresp(mdiiig hreadth. Tiicy aro formed in outline liy hard
ferruginous veins around wliicii tho softer rock has boon worn away, leaving them in
relief.

The sacred island of tho Incas is now tho property of a resident of Puna, a city on
the shore of tin; lake cuiitaiiiiiig 7,<>Mi) inhaliitatits. It is the loftiest s|»ot on tho gloho
which is the site of any coiisiderublo town. It stands 1"J,S7() feet aliovo the level of
the sea. The mining town of I'otosi is indeed ")U0 feet higher, and there aro among
the Ando.H post .stations and farms iinvh higher. The station of Kumiimasi, in the
Puna, tlio loftiest permanently inhahited spit in the New World, is l.'i,."il2 feet high —
only 212 feet helow tho suminitof Mont IJlane ; and tlio gold iiiino of Tliok Jalung in
Tliiliet is IH.oMO feet above the .«oa. Tho proprietor of the sacred {."-land lia.i a
hacienda close by the " IJath of the Incas." "It con.sists," says Sijuier, "of three
small buildings, occupying as many sides of a court. One is a kitclicn and dormitory,
another a kind of granary or storcliou.se, and in the third is an a|iartiiicnt reserved for
tlio proprietor when he visits the i.daiid. The room is neatly whitewashed, tho floor
matted, and there are two real cliairs fro'ii Connecticut, and a table that may bo
touched without falling in pieces. Tlie night was bitterly cold," continues Sfpiier,
"and wo had no covering except our saihllucloths, having declined some slicepsldns
which the alcalde would have taken from the poor people of the establishment. A
sheep skin, or tho skin of a vicufia, spreail on the mud floor of his hut, is the only bed
of the Indian from one year's end to the other. It is always liltliy, and frcipiently
full of vermin. Before going to bed we went out into tho frosty, starry night, and
were surprised to see fires blazing on the topmost peaks of tho island, on the crest of
Coati, anil on the headland of Copobanca. Others, many of them hardly discernible
in the distance, were also burning on tho peninsula of Tiquina, and on tho bluff
Bolivian shores of the lake, their rod light shimmering liko golden lances over tho
water. Our first impression was that some mysterious signalling was going on, con-

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488

TIIK TROlMCAr. AVOULI).

noctcd porlinps with our visif. Wc asccrtaiticil, liowovor, that tliis was the Evo of St.
Jolin, wliieh is cclobrated in this way tlii'ouj^hout tlie Sierra. On tliat iii<'lit (ires
blaze on tiie iiill-tops in all tiie inhabited flistriuts of IVrn and IJolivia, from the desurt
of Ataeaina to the K(iuator." Thus have the rites of Christianity superseded the old
worsliip of the Ini'as.

FOl'NTAiy OP TUK IXCAS.

The Fountain of tlie Tncas is ,«ituated in a sheltered nook, surrounded with terraces
upon which grow patches of mai/.o witli ears not Ioniser than one's finder. The bath
itself is a pocd forty feet long, ton wide, and five deep, built of worked stones. Into
this poi'.r four jets of water, as largo as a man's arm, from openings cut in the stones
behind. " TIio water conies through subterranean passages from sources now un-
known, and never diminishes in volume. It flows to day as freely as when the Tncas
resorted hero and cut the steep hill-sides into terraces, bringing tl\e earth all the way
from the Valley of Yucay, or ' Vale of Imperial Delights,' four biuidred miles
distant. Over the walls droop the tendrils of vines ; and what with the odors and
the tinkle and patter of the water, one might imagine himself in the court of tlie
Alhambra."

Hesides the sacred i.'iland of Titicaca, there are eight smaller ones in the lake. Soto
was the Isle of Penitence, wlicro the ^ncas wore wont to resort for fasting ami humilia-
tion. Coati was sacred to the moon, the wife and sister of the sun, and on it is tlie
palace of the Virgins of the Sun, one of the most r<:niarkablc and best preserved
remains of aboriginal arcliitecture on the continent of America.

At Tihuanico, on the border of the lake, are immense rains which clearly antedate
the time of the Incas. They were ruins wl;en the Spaniards made their appearance,
and the natives could give no account of them. They supposed that they were built

(*

TIIK VALLEY OF QUITO.

48!)

by divine arcliitccts in n sinj^Io nii^lit. Cicza do Leon, one of the companions of
I'i/.arro, writes of tliuin ; " \V'iiat most Kiirprisoil me was that the enormous gateways
wore formed on other great masses of stone, some of wliich were thirty feet long, fifteen
ffiili", and six thick. I ean not conceive witli what tools or instruments these stones
were liewn out, for they must liave heen vastly larger than wo now see them. It is
supjtiised tli.it some of tlioso structures were built long before the dominion of the
Ineas ; audi have lieard the Indians allirm that these sovereigns constructed tiieir
creat building at Cu/.co after the plans of tiie w;dls of Tihuanico." The most remark-
able thing In these ruins are the great doorways of a single block of stone. The
largest of tiiese is ten feet high and tliirtcen b'-oad, tlu; opening cut through it behig
six feet foar inelies high, and three feet two inches wi le. Th'i whole neighborhood is
strewn witli iunnense liloeks of stone elaborately wrouglit, equalling if not surpa.ssing
ill size any known to exist in Kgvpt, India, or any other part of the world. Some of
these are tliirty feet long, eighteen liroad, and six thick.

All tliese iiigantie remains of a past civilization are found in the lofty table land of
the Puna. When these come to be fully described and illustrated, it will bo seen
that here, in a climati; so (-old that hardly a vegetable will grow whi(!h man can use for
fooii, were jilanted the seeds of a civilizaticm as remarkable as any which ever existed.
More wonderful, perhiips, than tliese great architectural works were the great military
roads coiistructeil by the Incas. One reached from Cuzco down to the ocean. The
other stretched from the capital, along the very crest of the Cordilleras, and down
their ravines, to Quito, 1 .'JDi* miles distant. The length of these great roads, including
branches, was not less than .'i.OOO miles. iMoilern travelers compare them with tlio
best ill the world. They were from 1)^ to iM feci broad, paved with iiiimensc lilocks
of stone, sometimes covered with asphaltum. In ascending steep mountains, broad
stops were cut in the roidc ; ravines were tilled with heavy embankments flanked with
parapets, and, wherever the (diinate permitted, lined with shade trees and shrubs, with
houses at rc" liar distances for tlie accommodation of travelers, and especially serving
as post statiiais. I'or there w.is a regular postal service by which the lucas could send
nie<sa'j;es froui (me extremity of their dominions to the other. This service was per-
foriiu'd by runners ; for, as has been said, the T'cruvians had no beasts of burden
stronger or swifter than the llama. These messengers were trained to great speed.
On appnxudiing a station they gave a loud shout to warn the next courier of their
a|)pro;ich, so that he might be ready to take the messagi^ or parcel without delay. In
tuis iiiaiiner it is said that (iisp.itchcs were sent at the rat(! of L")() miles a day, a speeil
unorpialed until within our own .'iines, when the railway and the telegraph liavo
broudit the ends of the world almost together.

Lying lower than the desolavO Puna, but more t!ian twice as high as the loftiest
siiMi:iuts of (neat IJritain, anil higlier by half than the topmost peaks in North
.Viiieriea cast of tiic Hocky Mountains, is a series of valleys and table lands which
form a marked feature in the Tropical World. The principal of thi;se, going northward
from the cipiator, are those of Quito in Equador, Hogota in Columbia, and Mexico.

The valley of Quito, with a brcadtli of thirty miles, is two hundred miles in length
from north to south, the equator running upon its northern border. It is in reality a
great table land occupying the summit of tho Cordilleras, only overtopped and sur-

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THE TROPICAL WOULD.

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rounded by a scries of peaks the most picturesque, and, after the liigliost peaks of the
Himalayas, among the loftiest on the globe. The valley is 10,000 feet above tlic luvol

Ns^ of the .soa, wliicii, by the nilo of

allowing 300 feet in ekvation to
be oquivaient to a degree of lati-
tude, would give a climate ap-
proximating to that of Florida
and Georgia; but this is mucli
niodificd by otiier circumstances,
cspeci«i;_y uy the snowchxl pcuks
which surround it, and by the
more abundant rainfall.

This loft" valley is apprcach-
able by the great Inca ro;id nf
which we have spoken, loailiii"
acioss the crest of the Cordilleras.
But for generations probably no
man has ever thus reached it.
Some day it will be visited frfnii
the cast by steaming up thu
Amazon to the foot of the Andes,
and ascending the mountains. At
present it is approaclied from
Guayaquil on the Pacific. We
will accompany Mr. Ortnn,* an
American traveler, who in 1807-
8, at the head of a scientific expe-
dition, made the journey thither;
and thence, descending the Amu-
zon, crossed the entire contiieiit
almost on the line of the cquiitdr.
Landing at Guayaquil, the sciijiiirt
of Ecuador, we embark on a
little steamer which carries us
seventy miles up the turbid river
Guayas. The Kucadorian govern-
ment, however, does not patronize
the steamer, but sends the niiiils
up the river in a canoe. The river runs fir.st through an almost impenetrable jungle;
then come vast plantations of cocoa and cofTee ; then follow groves of oranges, lemons,
plantains and mango. Leaving the boat, we hire mules with which to make the ascent
of the Andean Cordilleras.f ^\'c plunge at once by a narrow path into a dense forest,

*Tlie Andes and the Amazon, by James Orton, Professor in Vnssar Collego, Poiigli-
kcepsic, N. Y.

t C')rilillera, literally a lone ridije, is usually applied to n longitudinal .subdivision of the
Andes, as the cast and west Cordilleras, enclosing tlie valley of Quito. A Sierra is a jagged
spur of the mountains.

ASCENDING THE ANDES.

■V

ASCENDING THE ANDES.

491

Superb bananas, with glossy leaves eight feet long, slender bamboos, and lofty jwluis
overarch the way. Soon we begin to climb the mountain sides. Tlie path — tlio
present royal road to Quito— grows steeper, running .sometimes tlirough a gully so
narrow that the traveler must tlirow up his legs to save tliem from being crushed.
Ikfore night we have reached an altitude where the air is sensil)ly cold. We .stop
near a rude hut; but there is room for only a part of us within ; tlie others sleep out-
side on the ground, upon beds which we have brought with us. But we have reached
a comparatively jias.saljle road.

As the sun goes down wo have a view whicli amply repays us for our weary travel.
We are on the summit of a sierra 8,000 feet high. Still aliovc us is a wild chaos of
mountains, their .sides broken into ravines. Looking westward, the mountains tumble
(li;\vn to verdurous hills, wliieli in the distance molt into plains, dipping into the great
I'acilic. Upward rise the lofty peaks, over all of which towers Ciiimborazo, its pure
wliito dome piercing the unclnudeil azure. Tlio road now slopes gently down the side
of tlio Sierra, giimbs again still higher, and brings us at evening to the sleepy little
town of Guaranda. The people ?cem to have nothing to do but to cat potato soup,
ami keep themselves warm by wrapping themselves in tlicir ponclios and basking in
the sun. The phice is of note in one respect, for it is tlie capital of the region which
produces the chiiicliona, whence comes quinine. The trees grow at elevations of from
2,0(10 to 9,000 feet, the richest species occu])ying moist situations in the highest alti-
tudes. Close by wo are shown tiie spot where Church painted one of the view.s for
his magnificent composition, " Tlie Heart of the Andes."

Still ascending, we (iiul ourselves in a wilderness of crags and treeless mountains,
clothed with long, coarse grass. The sunimit of the jiass, known as the arena!, is a
sandy plain of a league in length, at an elevation of more than 1 1,000 feet. In the
afternoon it is swept by cold winds, and often by violent snow-storms. It is said that
some of the Sjianish soldiers were frozen to death here. Then again we begin to
descend along a gray, barren wa-ste. Not a tree or a human habitation is in sight.
Icy rivulets and mule-trains are the only moving objects. We pass the night in a
dirty, mud hovel, the halting-place for all the caravans between the capital and its sea-
port. For food we have the invariable potato sou]), to wiiich have been added cheese
and eggs. It is well that the potatoes are small, for water boils at this altitude before
it is fairly hot. Descending in all (1,000 feet from tlie summit of the pa.ss, we come
to Anibato, a town of ir),()()0 inluibitants, beautifully .situated in a deep ravine. It
has also an inn — the first since leaving Guayaijuil. Once more upward, through vast
deposits of rocks and pumice dust, tlirown out by the volcano of Cotopaxi, and wo
gain the last summit wliicli we are to suriiiouiit. Fifteen hundred feet below us, and
seemingly at our very feet, lies Quito, ner-tled in its lovely valley, s^entinelled on each
side by the lofty peaks of Picliiiicha and Antisana, while behind us tower Chimborazo
and Tunguragua. Picliiiicha, the lowest of these four peaks, is 7,000 feet above the
plain; Chimborazo, the highest, is 12.000; and it is almost 10,000 feet more before
the level of the >sca is reached.

Tlie climate of the valley of Quito is the most absolutely perfect of any on earth.
The thermometer never rises above 70° or sinks below 45°; its mean is CO'^, the
temperature of a nnld spving day in New York. There is no cold winter and no hot
Bummcr ; it is always spring and autumn ; but each day furnishes a change just

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402

THE TROPICAL WORLD.

sufficient to give a pleasing variety. The coldest hour is at sunrise ; the warmest two
or three hours after noon. Nobody talks about the weather, for it is always pleasant ;
conversation begins with a blessing, and ends with a benediction. In healthfulnoss it
is unequaled. Con.suniption is unknown. One will hear more coughing durin" a
Sunday .service in a New England church than in all Quito for a six-month. 'J'liu
intermittent fevers so prevalent on the coast are rare. Astlmia, induced measurablv
by the rarity of the atmosphere, and typhoid fevers, are the prevalent diseases. In
Quito, with 40,000 inhabitants, there are but throe drug-stores. Still, owing to
indolence, filth, and bad diet, comparatively few natives attain old age. With jiroper
habits of living, there is probably no spot on earth where the death rate would be so
low. The atmosphere is of unsurpas.sed transparency. Humboldt, with the naked
eye, saw the poncho of a horseman at a distance of e-glit miles. Tiic .sky is of a (k'op
blue, and the stars shine with great brilliancy; the dark openings between them li.ivo
been compared by Humboldt to " tubes through which we look into the remotest
depths of space." An adequate observatory at Quito would, perhaps, make mnro
additions to astronomical sciancc than anywhere else on tiie globe ; for, in addition to
the constant purity of the atmosphere, it is situated on the very line of tlie ei(ii;iti)r,
eo that the constellations of both hemispheres are visible. Low in the north the
"pointers" of the (Jireat IJear are visible, while low in the south the Southern Cross
can be discernedi

Contrary to wiiat one would expect, the valley of Quito is almost destitute of trees.
There is not such a thing as a forest from one end to the other ; the trees stand sin;^iy
or in small clumps. Tiic aliso, a species of birch, is the most common tree ; tlie
walnut is the best timber ; oaks and pines are not found. The variety of fruits is
good. There are alligator-pears, guavas, granadillas, oranges, lemons, plums and
quinces. Peaches and pears are found, but of poor flavor. The favorite fruit is tlio
chirimoya, which grows on a tree fifteen feet high ; the ripe fruit sometimes weigliing
sixteen pounds. Markham calls it " a spiritualized .strawi)erry." Our common garden
vegetables, such as onion.*, beets, carrots, turnips, cabbages, and tomatoes, flourish.
The potato is indigenous here, but is inferior to ours, which have improved by trans-
planting. The Spaniards carried the potato to Spain from Quito, three-quarters of a
century before Raleigh introduced it into England from Virginia. Flowers are
numerous and in great vari(!ty.

Animal life presents few species and few individuals in each. Tiicrc is strictly no
beast of prey, no largo native quadruped, and few of the smaller tribes. Tlie orni-
thology of the valley is limited ; it is only when we descend into the valley of tlie
Amazon that we find the feathered tribes in their glory. The condor and tlie liutn-
mingbird, the extremes in size of the feathered tribes, are the most noticeable among
the mountains. IJutterfiies abound of all colors from emerald green to snowy w'.ite
Mosquitoes and flies hardly exist ; but fleas and other " small deer " find congeni;d
pasturage in the filthy garments and unkempt hair of the Indians. Serpents are so
unfrequent, that in three months the members of the American expedition saw only a
single snake ; and there arc not frogs enough in the valley to furnish a respectablo
chorus of brehkekex-koax. There is in all the valley only a single species of 6>h,
small and of a black color. Multitudes of these have been thrown up during volcanic
eruptions from the bowels of the earth.

THE VOLCANOES OF ECUADOR.

403

Of the population of the entire valley Indians constitute a great majority. Though
reduced to absolute serfdom, and sunk deep in degradation, they still retain n memory
of tiie days of Incarial greatness. This is particularly the case with the iniiahitants of
the mountains. Mr. Orton noticed that some of those who descended to the plain wore
a black poncho underneath their bright-colored one, and was told that they were in
numniiiig for the last Inca. In Quito itself there are about 8,000 of Spanish descent:
peiha|KS 10,000 of pure Indian blood; the remaining 22,000 being Cholog, t\vi ofT-
spiiiig of wiiites and Indians, the Indian blood largely predominating. These almost
exelii.-'ivoly carry on what of industry exists. They are the artisans, tradesmen, and
soldiers. The wliites constitute the governing class. They have fair natural ca])acity,
but lack education, industry, and energy. They are, however, courteous and refined
in niiiniicrs and deportment. Tlieir courtesy, even in tlie most common intercourse, is
carried to a point which wo can hardly appreciate. jMr. Ilassaurck, the late American
minister to Ecuador, gives the following as a specimen of a message sent by one fair
Qiiitonian to another : " Go," she says to her servant, " to the Senorita Soand-So,
ami tell her that she is my iieart and tlie dear little friend of my soul ; tell lier that
I am dying for not having seen her, and ask her wiiy slie does not come to see me ;
tell her that I have been waiting for her more tlian a week, and that I send her my
l)e.«t respects and considerations ; and ask iier iiow slie is, and liow her husband is, and
bow her cliildren are, and wlietlier they are all well in the family. And tell her that
she is my little love, and ask her whether she will bo kind enough to send me tliat
pattern whicli .slie ])roinised me tlie other day."

Before bidding iidieu to the lofty tropical valley, let us take one glance at the grand
scenery which environs it. There are fifty-one volcanic peaks in tiie Andean chain,
twenty of which girdle the valley of Quito, tliree being active, five dormant, and
twelve extinct. Looking tmvaid tlie eastern Cordillera, the tirst mountain to the north
is Imbabura, 18,000 feet high. At its foot stood tlie city of Otovalo, destroyed in the
great earthquake of August, 18G8; here alone out of 10,000 inhabitants 0,000 per-
isiied. The first shock, wliicli came without hardly a premonitory sign, lasted but one
minute ; at tlie end of that minute not a house or a wall a yard liigh remained stand-
ing. Next, exactly on the equator, comes square-toppod Cayamba, lO.oOO feet high,
and in full view from the plaza of Quito. Ten miles south is the bare Guamani
range, over which, at a bight of lij,000 feet, the traveler must pass before he begins
to descend into the valley of the Amazon. Its culminating peak, Sara-Urcu, threw
out ashes as late as iHoCi. Then comes Antisana, 19.000 fce^ high, clothed in snow
for 3,000 feet. It is now dormant ; but tlie lava streams down its side .show how
tremendous was its former activity. One of tliese streams is ten miles long and five
hundred feet deep. Its last eruption occurred in 1590 ; but smoke issued from it in
1S02. Next comes ragged Sinchoiagua, 10,500 feet high; and then Cotopaxi, " the
shining," more than 2,000 feet higher, the loftiest of active volcanoes, though its great
eruptions occur only at intervals of a century ; but deep rumblings, and a constant
cloud of smok'o issuing from its crater, down which no man has looked, show that it is
only sleeping. Its last great eruption occurred in 1803. Far down its soutli side
lies a huge porphyritic rock, called the Inca's Head, which tradition avers to have
once been the summit of the volcano, torn oflf and hurled down on the very day when
Atahuallpa was murdered by Pizarro. Sixty miles further south rises the perfect

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401

THE TROPICAL WORLD.

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cono of Tunguragua, IC)J)00 feet high. A cataract on it springs from the very ediro
of the i»er|)L'tual snow, coming down l.oOO feot in three leaps. Its last eruption,
wliich lasted seven years, hegan in 1773. Close by, 17,500 feet high, rises Altar
called by tiie Indians Capnc- Urcu, " The Chief." They say that it once overtopped
Chiiuborazo ; but that, after an eruption which lasted eight years, the lofty walls of its
crater fell in. Twenty miles further is Sangai, 17,000 feet high, the most active
volcano on the globe. Without a moment's intermission it has for three luindrod
years poured forth a stream of fire, water, mud, and ashes. Its ashes are almost
always falling at Guayacjuil, a hundred miles distant ; and its explosions, generally
occurring every hour or two, are often heard in that city. It sometimes rouses itself
to unwonted activity. In 1810 Wisso counted 20/ explosions in an hour, — more
than two in every three seconds.

Wc have thus far followed the eastern Cordillera southward. We now turn to the
western range, which r"ns parallel to it, at a distance of from thirty to sixty miles,
and go northward back to Quito. First and foremost, but not "sole monareli of the
vale," comes Chind)orazo, "the Snowy Mountain," 21,470 feet high. Ages ai'o its
now silent summit glowed with volcanic fires. Its sides are seamed with huge rents
and dark chasms, in some of wliicli Vesuvius could be hidden away out of sight.
Next, and separated from it only by a narrow valley, is Caraguarizo, 19,000 feet high,
called by the Indians " the wife of Chimborazo." A century and three-quarters ago
the top of this mountain fell in, and torrents of mud containing multitudes of the little
fishes of which we have spoken poured out. Journeying onward, passing peaks
scarcely lower than these, some of them extinct volcanoes such as Illinza, 17,000 feet
high, and heart-shaped Corazon, wo reach Pichincha, "the Boiling Mountain," 10,000
feet high, whose smoking crater lies only five miles distant from Quito. It is the only
Eucadorean volcano which has not a co.ie shaped crater. Such an one it doubtless
once had ; but some convulsion of natv.re far beyond the reach of history or tradition,
has hollowed out from its now flatte led summit an enormous funnel-shaped basin
2,500 feet deep, three-quarters of a niile in diameter at the top, and 1,500 feet at tlie
bottom. It is the deepest crater on the globe. That of Kilcaua is but GOO feet deep,
Orizaba 500, Etna 300, Ilecla 100.

The brink of the crater of Pichincha was first reached by the French Academicians
in 1742. Sixty years later Humboldt readied the edge, but pronounced its bottom
" inaccessible on account of its great depth and precipitous descent." The crater was
first entered in 1«44 by Morena, now President of Ecuador, and Wisse, a French
engineer. Mr. Orton and his associates, after one unsuccessful attempt, succeeded in
accomplishing the perilous descent in October, 1807. Scrambling down the steep
sides, sometimes of rocks covered with snow, sometimes a mass of loose, treacherous
sand ; now leaping a chasm, now letting themselves down from cliff to clift', threatened
by huge rocks which perpetually loosed themselves and went bounding past them, in
two and a half hours they reached the bottom of the crater. It was found to consist
of a deeply furrowed plain, strewn with ragged rocks, with here and there a patch of
vegetation, and half a dozen species of flowers. In the center was an irregular heap
of stones 200 feet high, and 800 in diameter. In its top and sides were seventy
vents, sending forth steam, smoke, and sulphurous gas. The central vent, or chiin-
uey, gives forth a noise like that of a bubbling cauldron.

PI.''.',

u,;

THE TABLE LAND OF BOGOTA.

493

Tlioro hnvo boon fivo eruptions of Picliinclm since the Spanish conquest, the lust
bc'ini; in UiCO. Tiuit of l">(i(5 covered Quito three feet deep with ashes and stones,
niiilf boiling water and bitumen poured forth in torrents. In 18»)7 the column of
smoke did not rise above the crest of the crater; but on Uio 19th of March, 1808,
Tioleiit rumblings were heard in (^uito, followed three days afterward by great columns
of vapor. Since the great earthquake of August, 1808, the mountain has continued
to send forth coUinms of smoke, and so much fine sand that it was not possible to reach
tlie crater. It may bo that the volcano is preparing to rouse itself from its slumber
of two centuries. ,Tlic Quitonians, however, congratulate themselves that the edge of
ihe crater is considerably lower on the side facing the city • so that should an erup-
tion occur, the volcano will pour its fiery contents away ifoni them into the wilds
of tlic Esmeralda.

Wc leave the valley of Quito, whose mighty surrounding volcanoes present one of
tiie most striking aspects of nature within the Tropical World.

The next great table-land is that of Bogotii. Its elevation is 8,700 foot above tho
fca, — 1,.'!00 feet less than that of Quito; but although barely five degrees from tho
eijuator, the climate is much colder. To reach the table land, wo ascend tho great
river .Magdaleiia for three hundred and fifty miles, through a low country covered with
troiiifal vegetation; then, leaving the stn^ain, we .set our faces toward the mountain
range upon whose summit lies the table land, fifty miles away, between us and it inter-
vening several sharp ridges, which might easily be skirted. IJut the road, with a
thorough contempt for all engineering devices, runs straight over them. In the course
of a single day wo twice a.scend a mountain .'i,(»00 feet high, only to descend as far on
tlie o])posite side, giving us in the space of twenty miles an unnecessary ascent of a
mile, and an equal descent. At length wo come to the outer rim of the great plain
of 15ogotii, rising sheer up like a wall before us ; up this tho path winds by sharp
turns and zigzags like a circular staircase. Pile the Catskills upon the sununit of
Mount Washington, and then level off upon the summit a marshy plateau half as largo
as the State of Connecticut, and heap around it mountains some thousands of feet
higlier, and we have the grei;t plain of Bogota, which '.he inhabitants believe to be tho
most delightful spot on earth.

Tlio tcnqjcrature of the plain is so low that it produces only a little wheat. gra.s8,
barley, and a few esculent roots. The greater part of it is owned in vast estates by a
few rich land-holders, who have the rcj)utation of being excessively stupid. The
people of the city call them Orp/'oiirs, " IJig-Kars." The markets of Bogotii are sup-
plied mainly from the warm cnuntry below. An Indian and his wife will toil up tho
steep path bearing enormous loads of fish or plantains, trudge across the weary breadth
of the marshy plain, occupying three days in the journey, and think themselves luek3'
if they find a purchaser for their load. Sonietinies these patient joarers will be seen
descending the mountains which tower above the city, loaded with plantains, oranges,
and other tropical productions. These could not have grown upon the mountains, but
have been brought over their summits from the warmer regions lying far down on tho
opposite slopes. Bogotanos sometimes descend to tho plains to thaw out. Tho
favorite place for pleasurable resort is the village of Fusagasuga, which lies far down
on the slope. To reach it one must first climb up a thousand feet higher than tho

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400

THE TllOnCAL WORLD.

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plain, nnd tlicn descend tliroo times as fur. Tliero are two niodea of traveling: mule-
back and man back. It rerji.iies Konio |)re|)aration for such a |)Ieasure-tii{). As it is
always cold and usually rainy, the traveler lias his face well bundled up to prntcct it.
His liat has a covering of oiled silk ; his poncho, or cloak, which must serve al.-o as a
blanket by night, is fastened to his saddle-bow, when not upon his shoulders • ami a
pair of leather overalls is drawn over his lower garments, liehind him ectmes a mule
driven by a peon, bearing a huge bundle resembling an enormous feather bed. This
is called a vaca, "cow," but no cow's hide would bo sufficient to hold it. IJesidus
the usual baggage of u travele' , it contains a mattress, whit'h the phfasureseeker mu.st
carry with him or do without. Women u.sually, and men not nnfre((U('ntly, Iriivd liy

silla. A rude bamboo chair is fastened to the back of a man by two Ijults onu

crossing over the che.st and another passing over the forehead. The rider, seated with
his back to his bearer, is completely helpless. A story is told, and the .'icene of it
pointed out near Hogota, where a Spaniard wearing huge spurs moiin.ed his siili'io,
whom ho goaded as though he were a mule. The sillero, by a suddei. jerk, pituliuJ
his rider sheer down a i»reeipice, then took to the woods and was never caught.

The plateau of BogotA is, upon the whole, a most uninteresting region. It is most
noteworthy on account ol its showing how elevation and local eireumstanees affect tlie
climate of the tropical regions. Ikying just north of the eipiator, in a latiiuue indeed
in which, rather than under the equator, the hottest regions of the earth arc found, it
reminds one not a little of the interior of Kamchatka and Alaska, which almost touch
the Arctic Circle.

If the table-land of Quito is the most lovely, that of Mexico is by extent and variety
the most remarkable of tiie lofty tropiciil plateaus. Connneneing at the Istluniis of
Tehuantepec, in latitude 10°. it .stretches with varie<l breadth to the limits of tlic
Tropical Zone. With the exception of a narrow strip along the shores of the oceans, it
occupies in Mexico the whole breadth of the continent. It rises almost by steps into
broad, well-defined terraces sloping upwards, each presenting the cl.mate and produetions
of different portions of the Temperate Zone. Its highest level is traversed by nmun-
tain ranges, sometimes ri.^ng into lofty peaks ; but its general surface is almost as level
as the ocean. A road from the city of Mexico northward for more than a thousand
miles would run over a dead level, hardly varying from an altitude of 7,500 feet.

Tiicre is not upon the globe a great region which nature has more assiduously
striven to render a fit habitation for civilized man than the greater j)art of Jlexico.
There is no one in which man has so persistently set himself at work to counteract the
designs of nature.

Let us, starting from Ver.a Cruz, make the journey to and across these tal)le-lands.
The Gulf bordered by a broad zone of lowlands, called the tierra ca/ientn, or " iiot
lands," w!iich has the normal hot climate of the tropics. Parched and .«andy plains
dotted with mimosas and priekly ])lanfs alternate with savannas overshaflowed by
groves of [talms, and glowing with the exuberant splendor of equinoctial vegetation.
The branches of the stately forest trees are festooned with vines and creepers, whose
flowers present the most brilliant hues ; while the thick undergrowth of prickly aloes,
mattod with the wild rose and honeysuckle, often forms an impenetrable thicket. In
this wilderness of sweet-scented buds and flowers flutter clouds of butterflies of

SIKKIM PLAIN AN'D PEAKS.

497

fcsplcndcnt hues, and birds of gorgeous pluningo. Many of these birds have notes
of exquisite melody. But the mahiria engendered by the decomposition of the ranic
vej^i'tation and the danit soil renders the region one of the most insalubrious upon tlio
glul)C, and almost uninhabitable by man from the venial to the autuumol equinox.
''ere is the birthplace of the dreaded vomito, or yellow fever.

Passing this fatal belt, after twenty leagues the traveler finds himself ascending
into a purer atmosphere. The vegetation ciianges at every league. One by one tho
vanilhi, tho indigo plant, the sugar cane, and the plantain disappear ; until at the
hight of 4,000 feet tho unchanging green of the rich foliage of the liquidamber indi-
cates that the traveler has reached the elevation where tho clouds and mists settle in
their passage from tho Gulf, and maintain a perpetual moisture.

Here are the confines of the tierra templada, or temperate region, where the ever-
green oaks remind him of the forests of Central Hlurope. Tho features of tho scenery
become imposing. Tho p.scending road sweeps along the base of mighty mountains,
now snow-clad, but bearing traces of former volcanic fires. The flanks of tho moun-
tains are rent with huge barancas or ravines, down whoso steep sides ho can look for
more than a thousand feet. Cactuses, eupliorbia, draoncna, and a multitude of other
plants cling to tho rocky walls ; wiiile at the bottom of tho gorge, to wliich ho might
apparently almost leap, stand huge laurels and fig-trees. Upward still, he passes
fields waving with yellow wheat and broaii-leaved maize, with plantations of the agave,
from which tho Mexicans |)repare, as they did in the days of the Montezumas, their
national beverage of pulque.

At an elevation of 8,000 feet, the forests of sombre pine announce tliat tho tierra
fria, or " cold region," tho last of tlie three great terraces, has been reached. Here
in tlie valley of Anahuac, yet at an elevation of 7,500 feet, rests tho city of Mexico,
the famous capital of the Montezumas, with its shallow lakes, and surrounded by
elliptical plains, enclosed by frowning ridges of basaltic and porphyrito rocks. On
the south -eastern side rises the snow-crowned cone of Orizaba, whoso ever blazing
summit, shining like a star through the darkness of night, gained for it its Aztec name
of Citlaltepetl, "tho 3Iountain of the Star;" farther west rise Popocatepetl, Iztaci-
huatl, and Toluca, altogether forming a magnificent volcanic circuit, only eijualed by
that which girdles the valley of Quito. If the traveler chooses to climb the sides of
these volcanoes, in a few days' journey he will have passed through every variety
of climate and every zone of production, from the fiercest tropical heat to the confines
of perpetual winter ; from the towering palm to the lichen which hardly lifts its head
above the sterile rock.

i ;: I

Sikkim, on the southern side of the Himalayas, may be considered a vast sloping
plain, rising in a gradual ascent from the foot of the chain to the base of the peaks, tho
highest on the gh)be. From the shores of the Bay of Bengal is a level plain of a
hundred miles in breadth to the foot of the Himelayas. Thence the land rises gently
7,000 feet in eighty miles. Here is the British sanitarium of Dorjiling, where the
European debilitated by the burning climate of the lowlands may breathe air as cool
and refreshing as those of his native land. Eighty miles further brings him 9,000
ftet higher to the limits of perpetual snow. Then arise more steeply, 12,000 feet
higher, the lofty summits, rather than peaks, of the Himalayas, looking down upon
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TFIK TROPICAL WORFJ).

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the innj»niBconfly wooded region below. Tlio liij^lu^xt of diuso Sikkim pouks i.s Kin-
chin jiinji;!! — tlio third, but until recently believed to bo the firnt, in hi>;lit u|H)ii the
globe. It falls but a hundred feet below the Dipsiinj^ or Kurkiikoruiu peak, and
about eight hundred below Oaurisnnker, which the Uritish have renamed Mount
Everest. Kineliin-juiiga rises to the altitude of ■2.S,17'J feet. Not ordy is its siniiiiiit
untrodden l)y man or beast, but nothing that breathes has ever niounteil so high intu
the air. The condor, who in his tliglit looks down upon the dome of Chimhorazo,
never mounts to within thousands of feet of the hight of Kinehin-junga.*

• Hiiinl)olill's Htnternpnt tliat tlio eonilor flies liinlier tlinn Cliiniliornzo (21,120 feet) 1ms ticon
questioiieil. Hut Orion lias seun niiiiil)c'rs of ti jni hovurini,' at Irast a tliousainl ifct aliove
Picliinelia (lt>,00() feet), and does not doiil)t tliat tiiey lly mi<eli liiKlitT. Mnller, in his u«(m niof
Orizalm, saw faleoiiR flying fully 18,()0t) feet lii^li ; and it is atilrnied that wild fjcese lly over the
peak of Kimehnn-ghow (22,0(H) feel). There can lie little donht that the eondov attains an eleva-
tion greater than any other bird, and that no uliicr ureuture ever voluntarily ascend* su high.

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i>AVAKNA& AND DLbKUTS.

490

CHAPTER ITT.

fiAVANNAS AND DESERTS OF THE TROPICAL WORLD.

IToter nnd Life — CImrnctcristics of tlie Savannnn. — The Llanos: Tlie Dry Season — Effects
upon Vi'tjotable Lite — Ellucts upon Aiiiiiml Life — Approneh o» .lie Rainy Season — Revival
of Vegetable ami Animal Life — Vast Mi)j;ration8 of Anitna — T/ik Pam/His: Horses and
Cattle in the New World — Effects of their Introduction up the Character of the Popu-
lation— The Mauritia Palm — Living in the Tree-tops — le Grand Cliaco — Its Indiau
Inliabitants — The Guachos — The Lasso and Holas. — Th<' I ' lins nf ISnulhern Africa: Thorny
Bushes — E.xcessive Drou({lit,s — A Great Hunting Ground — Species of Game — Vegetation-
Watery Tubers — Esculent Gourds— Possibility of Wells — Water-Pits in the Kalahari —
Mode of Pumping Up the Water — Livinjjstone's Theory of Wnter-MakinR Ants — More
Probable Explanation — Inhabitants of Southern Africa. — Tint Ixike. Region of Equatorial
A/lira: Little Known — Explorations of Livinjistono and Burton — Speke's Journey — His
Notices of the Country — Moderate and Equable Temperature — The Inhabitants — Cliarac-
tcristics of a Heal Desert. — Tlir Alaramn of Pern; It.? Arid Character — The Mule tlie Ship
of tills Desert. — The Australian Dfscii : Its Utter Desolation. — Sturt's Exploration —
Lcichardt — Lost Rivers. — The Sahara : Extent and General Characteristics — The Capital
of Fezzan — Perilous Adventure of Bartli — Plains and Hills — Oases — Luxuriant Vegetation
of the Oases — Contrasts of Light and Sliade — The Khamsin or Simoom — Animals and
lleptilcs — The Ostrich and its Chase — Fluctuations of Animal and Vegetable Life accord-
ing to the Seasons.

ri"^HE presence or absence of water in the Tropical World exerts an influence upon
JL all forms of animal and vegetable life not less important than the temperature.
Wherever water is ab.solutely wanting the country is given over to barrenness.
Wherever water is perpetual and abundant, the soil is clothed with lofty forests and a
profusion of lush vegetation. Midway between the.se extremes are vast tracts dry at
nne .season and wet at another. These regions, which we may call savannas, embrace
tlie pampas of the Argentine Republic and the llanos of Venezuela and New Granada,
and a considerable portion of Southern Africa. They are in general to be character-
ized as vast plains, never of more than moderate elevation, covered with grass and
chrubs ; but, except on the banks of the rivers, destitute of extensive forests, the trees
standing singly or in small clumps.

There can be no more striking contrast than that presented at different seasons of
the year by the great llanos of Venezuela. When the rainy sea.son is over and the
sun for weeks blazes in an unclouded sky, pouring his vertical rays upon the thirsty
plains, the calcined grass-plains present the aspect of an interminable, monotonous
waste. Like the ocean they stretch out till in the distance hazy and quivering with
heat, their boundary blends upon the horizon with the sky in an indistinct line. The
water pools which nourished the scattered clumps of the Mauritia palm disappear one
by one. The tall, dry reeds which indicate the spot which had been a swamp, bear

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high up thoir stalks ihn oncnistod iniid which mnrks thn hight of oozo nnd idimc of
tho rniny wnson. Tho griiss htis long ninco withered, und nU\ni\n n iiiiish of dry stcni",
roiidy at tho to\i<'h nf tiit! U) hrmk out into u coiiHugriition which outstrips thu fpcccj
of llio swifti'.Ht iiorsn.

Animal life wcnis to hnvo hcconio extinct. Tho deer, tho nguti, and tho peerary,
taught hy instinct, liuvo migrated to less arid regl.)ns, followed by their natural eno-
mies tho Indian, the puma, and the jaguar. Tho vast lierds of wild horses and cattle
which roamed over tho savanna jiurisli in countless nuudiers, or rush almut liellowiiiT,
nnd neighing, and snutling tho thirsty air, seeking to scent r)ut the neiglihorlidnd df
Bomo pool where a littlo moisture has survived tli(; general drought. Hurieil f:ir down
in the stiH' clay of tho dricd-up pools, the alligator and huge water snake lie tcu'pid in
n Icmg sunnner sleep, as the hear slumliers through the dreary .Arctic winter.

At length, when all nature .seems to have e.\|tired or to lie expiring for want of
water, welconio signs unnounco tho approach of tho rainy season. The hlue, cloudless
fiky begins to a.ssuino a leaden hue ; the atmosphi'n? heconies ol)scured hy condensing
vapors; the stars which shone with a mild plaiu'tary lustre now twinkle faintly even
in tho zenith, while the 1 "ight Southern ('ross, lnw down in tiio Imrizon, is hardly dis-
cornihlo, and tho phosphoric gleam of the Magellaiiio clouds expires. Hanks of vapor
rise in mountainous forms on the horizon, increasing in density, and mounting higher
and higher, until at length they hurst into rains which pour down in torrents. Scarcely
have tho showers had time to moisten tho thirsty land, when a change comes over tiiu
face of nature. The dull, tawny surface of the .savanna is transformed as if hy magic into
an expanse of vivid green, enameled with flowers of every hue. The minio.sas ex-
pand their delicate foliage, and the Mauritia palm, "the tree of life," puts forth its
feathery fronds.

Animal life awakens from its long torpor. On the borders of the swamps tho
moistened clay heaves, and slowly liursts asunder, and from the tomit in which he lay
embedded, ri.ses the form of some hugo alligator or water-snake. Tho newly formed
pools swarm with water-fowl. The herds of horses and oxen rejoice in the thick
grasses, under whose covert not uufrequently crouches the jaguar waiting for his prey.
On the very same spot where a few weeks before the h irse anxiously snuffed the air,
half-mad with thirst, ho is now obliged to lead '■n almost amphibious life. The marcs
retreat with their foals to the higher bank.s, which rise like islands from a lagoon, and
swim about in quest of the gra.sses which lift their heads above the waters. Not un-
frcquently they become the prey of alligators that strike them down with their ."icaly
tails, and seize them with their enormous jaws. "This siglit," .says Humboldt,
" involuntarily reminds the reHe(!ting observer of the great pliability with which na-
ture has endowed several species of plants and animals. Along with the fruits of
Ceres, the horse and the ox have followed man over the whole earth from the Ganges
to the Plata, awl from the coast of Africa to the mountain plain of Antisana, over-
looking the Valley of Quito. Here, tho northern birch-tree, and there tlie tropicul
date-palm, protects the tired ox from the heat of the sun. Tho same species of animal
which in eastern Kurope contends with bears and wolves, is attacked in another zone
by the tiger and the crocodile."

It is scarcely three centuries since the hor.se and tho ox were Srst introduced into
America by the Spaniards. The latter has flourished to such a degree that it is not

/Mil

ANIMAF. MFi: ON TIIK PAMPAS.

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improhnbl»! •Imt in tin' |mni|ias mid lliitiiis (if Soutli Aiiicrii'.'i there arc iiinro cittlo that)
Id iitl (ho TCfl of thu rIdIio. Strain, who nxlc across the paniiias, yiiin tulil tliat in a
single year ten tnillions of hides wiTo exported from Hncnos Ayros. Knowing that
the ccn.snsof 1840 gave l)ut fifteen niillions in the United States, this Htateinont seemed
incri'ilihle. lint when day after day lie saw from every slij^^iit swell herd after herd,
blackuoiog tbu whole expanse, until they heeaini! mere spcekit in the distaneu, and re-

rATTI.KllINTlMI I'N Tltl". I'AAII'A'^.

fleeted that the millions upon million? •ahich ho saw were hut fractions of those spread
t'<ir hundreds of thousands of scjiiare miles, he eould give credit to the statement.
The annual slaughter of millions seems to have no sensihie effeet in diminishing tho
numbers of the survivors. These herds belong mainly to wealthy estaneieros. Tho
extent of some of these estaneias and the number of the herds is almost incredible. The
fcstate of San Josd, belonging to Urquiza, late President of the Argentine Confedera-
tion, covered an area of several hundred square miles, and upon it he had 2,000 horses,
40,000 head of cattle, and 70,000 sheep, and this is but one out of his many estates.*

• Paul's 1.11 Pliifii, 52, 59.

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The introduction of the horse and the ox has wrought an entire change in the char-
acter of the Indians of the great plains of North and South America. When the
Spaniards first visited the llanos and pampas they found them almost destitute of
inhabitants, for the Indians were wholly unacquainted with agriculture. They could
exist only in the spots where grew the Mauritia palm. This tree grows to the hi "lit
of a hundred feet, its slender trunk surmounted by a magnificent tuft of great fan-
shaped fronds, under which grow in largo clusters scaly fruit, resembling pine cones.
Like the banana they differ in taste according to the stage of ripeness ; and the trunk
affords a nutritious pith like .sago, which when dried forms a large part of the food of
the natives. From its sap they prepared an intoxicating drink; its leaves covered
their huts; from the fibres of the petiole they manufactured threads and cordage,
and the sheaths at their base served for sandals. The Mauritia grew abundantly near
the mouth of the Orinoco ; and among its branche. ^he Guaranas dwelt like monkeys,
high above the reach of the great inundations. They built platforms, floored with its
leaves, from trunk to trunk, a patch of moist clay "serving for a fire-place. The early
voyagers were by night astonished at the light of their fires, gleaming like beacons
up among the dark foliage.

The Grand Chaco, lyirg along the Paraguay and Parana rivers, is one of the most
remarkable of the pampa regions. It covers an area of 200,000 .square miles, nearly
equal to France, and is nominally partitioned among the neighboring governments ;
but is really in the possession of hordes of Indians, who acknowledge no allegiance
except to their own caciques. Neither time nor intercourse with the whites has miti-
gated their deep feeling of hostility against the whites for the wrongs inflicted upon
their race. The horse, the gift of the Spaniards, has put them upoa an ccjuality with
their enemies, and given them the means of making continual predatory inroads.
When pursued by a military force they scatter and are lost in the depths of the forest.
They are admirable horsemen, using neither saddle or bridle, but contml their animals
by a rude rein of raw-hide passing around the lower jaw, and secured by a thong of
the samu material.

The guachos, or herdsmen, inhabiting the pampas are of Spanish descent, but have
relapsed into an almost savage state. The wild life of a guacho begins from infancy.
As soon as he can walk ho has a little lasso made of twine, with which he ainu.<e3
himself in catching the chickens and dogs. By the time he is four years old he is put
upon horseback, which he soon learns to consider the only place for a man, tliinking
it degrading to walk for any considerable distance. He early acquires skill in the use
of the lasso and bf)las. With the former he will capti're the wildest bull or stallion,
throwing from horseback the noose with unerring aim over the horns, or around a leg
of the animal. He is equally dextrous in the u.se of the bolas. This consists of three
balls, about three inches in diameter, joined together in a common center by thonjrs a
yard long. Holding one ball in his hand, the guacho whirls the other around his
head, and then flings the whole at his victim. The instant one thong strikes the leg
of an animal, all wind themselves around, each by its own independent motion, and
the more the victim struggles the more inextricably does he become entangled.

The so-called deserts of Southern Africa, including the great Kalahari, are savannas
rather than deserts. This region has of late years been thoroughly described by

■■•4

THE GREAT KALAHAHI.

50.1

travelers, most of them allured thither in pursuit ot game. It may bo consiilered as
bounded by the parallels of 20° and 30° south of the equator, and from 17° to 30°

of longitude, coverin;]; an area of 1,000 miles hy 700. The great Kalahari occupies
its center. Tlio phy.sii-iil aspects of so vast a region of ooiirsc vary. Taking its outside

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THE TKOPICAL WORLD.

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rim, it may in general be described as a series of broad plains intercepted by rmnred
mountains of no great bight. These plains during the wet season abound with juicy
herbage, which disappears, fairly burned off, in the dry season, leaving the ground
parched and dusty. Sometimes there are immense tracts overgrown with low, thorny
bushes, standing so closely together that the traveler must chop his way throuch them
step by step. The most common of these bushes is called by the colonists the " wait-
a-bit," for its short hook-like thorns present a standing invitation to the passer to wait
a bit at every foot of his advance. Andersson mentions once coming upon a consider-
able forest of thornless trees. " I do not think." he says, " that I was ever so sur-
prised in my life. I hesitated to trust my senses. Even the dull faces of my native
attendants seemed for a few seconds to relax from their usual hea^y, unintelligent
cast, and to express joy at the novel scene." The brief wet season, when the rain
falls in torrents, is succeeded by months of absolute drought, when water is found only
at long intervals in solitary fountains and stagnant pools. The books of travelers in
this region present a continual record of sufferings endured by man and beast from
lack of water.

But uninviti ;; as this region otherwise is, it is the paradise of the sportsman. In
other regions of the globe he is limited to a few species of the larger game. On our
western prairies he is confined to bison ; in India he must satisfy himself with tigers
and wild hogs; in Ceylon he may bag tuskless elephants and buffalos; in Siberia ho
has only bears and wolves. But Southern Africa is a vast zoological garden. Giraffes
raise their long necks above the stunted acacia trees, stooping to crop their topmost
twigs. Gigantic boars, and their still bigger cousins the unwieldy hippopotami and
rhinoceroses, abound. Leopards and hyenas tiuA abundant prey in numerous species
of antelopes, and in turn afford rich sport to the hunter. Lions are everywhere, from
(he sneaking brute who crawls stealthily upon his ignoble prey, to the ferocious " man-
eater," in whom the taste of human flesh has awakened a new faculty which induces
him to despise all meaner food, and to leap boldly into the camp of the hunter ir
search of a human victim. Elephants wander about singly, or in pairs and groups, or
troop in vast herds to the lonely pools where they can quench their thirst. " They
walk about as thick as cattle," said a native to Andersson, who had occasion to verify
the statement; and Barth once counted two hundred elephants in a single herd on the
banks of Lake Tschad. Besides these, there are ostriches, zebras, quaggas, and an
almost innumerable variety of the deer tribe, such as oryxes, koodoos, inyalas, gnus,
elands, springbocks, gemsbocks, hartebeests, leches, pallahs, and others whose very
names have as yet found no place in books of natural history.

Such a superfluity of animal life presupposes no inconsiderable amount of vegetation
even in these arid regions; for all animals directly or indirectly subsist upon vegetable
food. The lion devours the deer; but he could find no deer to devour unless the
deer could find grass and leaves to cat. Nature has also gifted these animals witli an
inst'nct which leads them to wander far and wide for food, and to divine where it is
likely to be found. In so wide a pasture-ground all parts will not be parched at
once; and beasts of prey follow in the tracks of their victims. Moreover, there are
species of plants peculiar to these regions which go far to modify the apparent sterility,
and store up food and evfin water beneath what appears to be dry sand. Such a plant
is the leroshda, whose low stalk is hardly larger than a crow'a quill ; but it sends its

WATER-PLANTS AND WATEK.

603

the rain

itnan. In
On our

rocJs deep down into the soil, which, at the depth of a foot or two, expand into a tuber
of tbe size of a small melon, which is a mass of watery cellular tissue, like a young
turnip. The niokuii, a low creeper, expands under ground into a cluster of tubers,
8ome of them as large as a man's head. The clusters spread out in a circle of a yard
in diameter. When a native suspects the existence of such a cluster, he pounds with
Btones around until a hollow sound tells him that ho has found the spot. Many of the
animals have sharp hoofs, and instinct points out to them the sites of these watery
tubers, to reach which they dig away the sand, as the reindeer digs the snow which
conceals the moss which is his food. The kcngwe, a kind of gourd, a favorite with
man and beast, sometimes covers immense tracts. Macabo once crossed the desert, in
a favorable ,'season, and found them so numerous that his cattle lived on them for three
weeks, during which they had no water, and when this was reached they seemed quite
indifferent to it. Another gourd, the naras, covers many of the low sand-liilU. Its
fruit, the size of a turnip, is on the outside of a greenish yellow, within of a deep
orange, and for three months in the year constitutes the chief food of man and beast in
the neighborhood of Walfisch Bay. Its seeds, something like an almond in looks and
taste, are carefully gathered, dried, and preserved for food when the fruits have
disappeared.

Judging from the geological character of this African semi-desert, there can be little
doubt that water might be found by deep boring almost everywhere ; for as the rain-
fall is j,reat during the wet season, and as hardly any of it finds an outlet through
rivers, much of it must sink into the sandy soil until it is arrested by beds of clay or
underlying rock, and by digging down to these the water would be reached. Wherever
and whenever water here exists, there is fertility ; and it may bo that the time will
come ^hen these now arid plains will bo honey-combed with artesian wells, and thereby
transformed into a garden. When that time comes, farewell to elephants and lions, to
deer and antelopes. Wells, or rather pits, of slight depth, but which contain water
throughout the year, except when two years of drought happen together, are not un-
frequently found in the Kalahari. These pits are hidden with the utmost care. Some-
times the natives fill them up with loose sand, and build a fire over the spot; the
ashes would naturally be taken as an indication that here at least no water was to be
found beneath the surface. They are careful to establish their huts at a considerable
distance from their hidden mine of liquid treasure. When they wish for water, the
women set out from the village, carrying their wi rr vessels, which consist of ostrich-
shells, with a little hole in the end. A reed of nearly a yard in length, with a bunch
of grass fastened to the end, is sunk down through the sand, which is then rammed
closely around. By sucking through the reed a vacuum is made in the sponge-like
bunch of grass ; into this the water flows and passes through the reed into the mouth,
wlience it is squirted into the shells. This natural pump is really very cflScacious for
the shallow depth at which it is used.

Livingstone relates another circumstance which seems conclusive as to the fact that
water exists in the Kalahari, at no very great distance below the surface of the ground.
During two successive seasons of extreme drought, in neither of which the rainfall
exceeded five inches, and every thing was parched, and the ground so hot that beetles
placed upon the surface died in a few seconds, as ^hough they had been placed on fi
heated plate of iron, a certain species of ants, who form long and deep galleries, Wdre

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THE TROPICAL AVORLD.

always as active and merry as ever ; and upon opening their chambers the walls were
invariably moist. In reply to the question, whence these insects derived their water
Livingstone suggests that they have the power by vital force of combining tlie oxygen
of the air with the hydrogen of their food, and so making water. He instances in
support of this theory, other insects which ho found in Angola, wliere a colony of in-
sects on the branch of a tree would distill several pints of water in a single niHit •
and ho satisfied himself, by cutting off the branch, and so stopping the flow of sap, that
this water was not derived from the juices of the tree. But in this case tiie atmosphuro
was surcharged with moisture ; while in the Kalahari it was bo dry tiiat the best
hygrometric tests at his disposal failed to detect moisture in the air. A needle expoKnl
for months in the open air did not rust ; there was no dow on the ground, ami a mix-
ture of sulphuric acid and water parted with all its water to the air. instead of imbib-
ing more from it, as it usually does. We know of no facts to confirm Livingstone's
theory of this insect manufacture of water. Our theory is that the ants went down
far enough to find water in the soil. Paradoxical as it may seem, the extraordinary
heat — 1;32° to 13 1° at a depth of three inches — and the absolute dryness of the air,
would diminish the distance before moisture was reached ; for the surface would soon
bo baked so as io bo as hard as sandstone, thus precluding evaporation from any con-
siderable depth, by forming a solid crust through which no water could escape. Ho
dug wells deep into the bed of the dried-up river near by, but found no water. Wo
imagine that if he had followed Solomon's injunction to " go to the ant and be wise,"
and dug down close by one of their habitations, he would have come to moist sand
at no great depth; and this moisture would, by natural laws, have flowed into his
well.

The human inhabitants of this wide African semi-desert are of very varied character.
A large portion of them, Caffres, Bechuanas, and the like, belong to the lowest grade
of humanity, perhaps a little above the aborigines of Australia, and some tribes in
Borneo, which, could we admit of any connecting link between men and monkeys, we
would designate as semi-human. There are other tribes, such as the Balakahari, which
rise far higher in the scale of being ; and are, we judge, quite susceptible of civiliza-
tion. They have garden patches which they cultivate with great care, and rear snuill
herds of goats, although they are often in the dry season obliged to dip up for tiiem
water absolutely in spoonfuls. They are also keen traders in their small way, barter-
ing the skins of animals for spears, knives, tobacco, and Jogs. These tribes merge
almost imperceptibly into the 3Iakalaka and Makiilolo, whom Livingstone found in
the more favorable region to the North, around Lake N<.ami.

There is also in Africa another vast region which belongs apparently to the savannas
rather than to what we consider the proper tropical regions. For want of a bettor
term we may designate it as the " Lake Region," for in itlio great lakes, inferior only
to those of North America, whose very existence was until within a few years unknown
to the civilized world. Geographically it is purely equatorial, for it lies within fivo
degrees of the equator on either side ; and its elevation is not such as oi itself suffi-
cient to greatly modify its climate ; but other c.rcumstances give it an aspect wholly
unexpected. In general it may be described as a plateau of 3,000 to 4.00U feet
above the ocean, with little outcropping hills of granite, and many fertilizing springs

IW i|

THE LAKE REGION OF AFRICA.

507

In the valleys. This region has been, if wo may use the term, only pricked into by
travelers. Burton just touched upon its borders, Livingstone, in his second expe-
dition, did the same, and it is here that ho has been for five years lost to the civilized
world, save for vague and sometimes contradictory accounts that have reached us. If
the most recent reports are to be trusted, there is good reason to hope that he will yej
return, ind then wo shall learn something of this as yet almost unknown region. A%
ypt Speke and Hanning are the only ones who have brought back any thing like an
account of this vast region, and their journey of 1,;')00 miles, although it occupied
nearly thirty months, from Zanzibar on the Indian Ocean to Khartoum, where the two
main branches of the Nile unite, at a distance of 1,500 miles from the great river of
Kgypt, was almost on a single line. Speke died in the belief that ho had solved the
mystery of the Nile, by the discovery of the origin of its main branch in Lake Victoria
N'yanza, hardly a mile from the etjuator ; but the subsequent explorations of Baker
render it almost certain that Speke discovered only one, and that by no means the
largest of the sources of the river, which, as far as we know, is the solo outlet of the
waters of a region larger than that drained by St. Lawrence.

From all that we now know, this great region is one admirably adapted for the abode
of civilized man. Here and there in Speke's Journal occur passages like the following :
" The hill-sides and tops are well covered with bush and small trees, among which the
bamboo is most conspicuous, while the bottoms, having a soii still richer and deeper,
produce fine large fig-trees of exceeding beauty, tlie huge calabash, and a variety of
other trees." Again : '' Our day's march has been novel uml very amusing. The
hilly country surroutiding us brought back to recollection many happy days which I
had once spent with the Tartars in the Thibetan Valley of the Indus ; only this was
more picturesque ; for though both countries are wild and thinly inhabited, this was
greened over with grass, and dotted here and there on the higher slopes with thick
bushes of acacias, the haunts of the rhinoceros, both white and black ; while in the
flat of the valleys herds of hartebeest and fine cattle roamed about like the kiyang
and tame yak of Thibet." Again : " We descended into the close valley of the
Uthenga, bound in by steep hills hanging over us more than • thousand feet high,
as prettily clothed as the mountains of Scotland ; while in the valley there were
not only magnificent trees of extraordinary hight, but also a surprising amount of
the richest cultivation, among which the banana may be said to prevail." At Kara-
gu^, on Lake N'yanza, 5,100 feet above the level of the ocean, Speke kept a
record of the thermometer for six months, from November to April. The lowest
point was 65°, in April, the highest 70°, in November, for the mean temperature
of a day. The highest absolute point at any hour of the day was 85°. As, strictly
speaking, there is no summer and winter at the e(juator, one six months of the year
will lie the same as the other; the mean temperature of the whole year is put down
at GS*o.

Here and there Speke came upon an isolated tribe living in almost pastoral quiet-
ness ; but they were under perpetual apprehensions of attacks from their fierce neigh-
bors ; for, as a general rule, the life of these tribes is one of perpetual war. The
main object of predatory inroads is to procure slaves. These slaves are bartered from
tribe to tribe, the survivors ultimately falling into the hands of the Portuguese slave-
traders on the coast.

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608

THE TROPICAL WOKLD.

lii'

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From tho savannns and seiiii-desertH of tho Tropical World, wo now turn to tho
groat doscrta tl)cm.sclvos, which constitute a striking feature in that portion of tho
globe wliich is now under review. A desert, in the strict sni. ) in which wo use tho
term, is an extensive region wlierein there is no regular rainfall, and in which, more-
over, there exists no other means of irrigation. It is a land doomed to irremcdiablo
sterility ; for, as wo have again and again pointed out, water is tho great requisite to
life. Wo have taken Southern Africa, and oven tho Kalahari, out of the category of
deserts, because during a part of the year rain falls there, and therefore vegct.il)lc life,
and by consequence, animal life, may exist, and often does exist in great profusion.
The Valley of the Nile, including all Egypt, is rainless, and would bo a desert, wen; it
not that the lower course of the river, supplied from rainy regions, overflows its banks,
and for the rest of the year it is irrigated by waters raised by human labor from tho
abounding river. Kgypt is the "gift of the Nile," and is redeemed from barrcnnco
by being, as described by tho great Hebrew lawgiver, a land "watered by tlio foot."

In America tlio only great tropical desert is that of Atacama, tho '* sand coast of
Peru." It is a long, narrow strip of land lying between the parallels of 3° and 21°
south latitude, bounded on the west by tho Pacific Ocean, and on the east by the Cor-
dilleras. Its length is 1,600 miles, its breadth from 1;") to CO miles. It is traversed
by spurs from the mighty mountain range, which sometimes sink into the level of tho
plain, and sometimes jut out in steep promontories into tho ocean. Hero and there,
at wide intervals, a brook fed from the snowy Andes, makes a brief course across tlio
narrow plain, forming a narrow strip of verdure only sufficient to break the general
monotony. Tho few inhabitants carefully husband the last drop of water from these
scanty streams to irrigate their arid fields. Here tho mule takes the place of tho Afri-
can camel as tho " ship of tho desert." Tho horse can not support thirst for more
than forty-eight hours without becoming so weak as to be scarcely able to carry its
rider ; yet if urged by his master ho will stagger on until ho falls dead in his tracks.
Tho mule, more ob.stinato, as wo say, but in fact more wise, when ho feels himself
verging upon tho limits cf endurance, stops short, and no urgency of whip or spur
will force him to move, until ho has rested. Yet notwithstanding the great power of
endurance of the mules, many of them succumb to the fatigue of the journey, and tho
roads across tho Atacama are marked by their skulls and bones, as tho caravan routes
across Sahara are whitened by the skeletons of camels.

fi'i

y'ii

Perhaps the most absolute desert tract on the face of the globe is that which occu-
pies the interior of the great island, or, as it may not improperly be styled, continent.
of Australia. The island has an area of something more than three millions of square
miles, nearly equal in extent to liluropo. For a great part of its circumference it is
bounded by a continuous range of mountains or highlands, nowhere rising to a great
bight, unc for long distances consisting of plateaus or table-lands. There is, however,
a continuous range of watershed, which is never broken through, and which never
recedes to any great distance from the coast. The habitable portions of Australia are
limited to the slopes of the mountains and the narrow space between them and tho
coast, in all not exceeding a width of three hundred miles. The interior, as far as is
known, or as can be infsrrod from physical geography, is an immense depressed plain,
more hopelessly barren and uninhabitable than the great desert of Sahara.

;?'■'

THE GREAT AUSTRALIAN DESERT.

609

*urn to tliH
onion of tho
li wo use tho
wliioli, more-
irremedialilo
requisite to

CJltc/rnry of

JSt'talilo life,
It j)rofnsion.
isort, wuro it
vs its banks,
bor from tho
1 l)iirrciincs3
y tho foot."
^nd coast of
3° and 21°
by tlie Cor-
is traversed
level of tho
and there,
! aero.ss tho
tlio general
from those
)f tho Afri-
rst for more
to carry its
his tracks,
sis himself
lip or spur
t power of
3y, and the
van routes

'hich occu-
continent.
i of square
rence it is
to a greiit
however,
lieh never
itralia are
1 and tho
! far as is
sed plain,

Tho interior of this desert has probably never been traversed by the foot of man or
beast; and only three or four exploring expeditions have penetrated far into its do,iths,
In 18 U Sturt made his way .some four hundred miles beyond tho habitable regions,
which brought him near the geographical center of tiie island. Tliis space ho found
to bo occupied by an immense plain covcre<l with ridges of drifting sand, often ri.xing
to a hight of eighty or a hundred feet, and stretching away in either direction beyond
the range of vision. Here and thoro grew a few solitary tufts of grass, nourished by
infrequent showers. Permanent water there was none, and tho sand was heated to
such a degree that a match dropped upon it became ignited at once. Tho thermometer
on one occa.sion rose to l/)3° in the coolest place to bo found. In the midst of this
fitcrilo tract was a desert of still deeper gloom, which was traced for a distance of
eighty miles in one direction, and thirty-five in another. Its surface wfis paved by a
solid bed of dark iron-stone, upon which tho horses' hoofs rung as upon a metallic
floor, without making tho slightest indentation. There was not a trace of water or
vegetation. Leichardt, a German naturalist, succeeded in penetrating from the settle-
ments on the eastern coast, through the unexplored interior of the island, to its northern
side. But his course led him only along the skirts of tho great desert ; yet oven bore
he was more than once saved from perishing by following the flight of a bird winging
its way to some solitary sink or water-hole. In 1840 he Fct out on a new journey,
intending to pass from tho cast through tho desert to tho colony on tho western shore.
This journey was expected to occupy two and a half years. Eighteen months after ho
set out, a letter was received from him written on the extreme verge of habitation.
After that he disappeared, and it was not until years after that it was discovered that
he had been murdered by his native guides.

When it was ascertained that no rivers from tho interior reached tho sea-coast, while
oonsiderable streams poured from tho hills towards the jnterior, it was supposed that
there must be a great central lake. Sturt followed tho Victoria, the mo.st consider-
able of those rivers, which poured a considerable current into the interior ; but the
farther ho followed it tho less became the stream, which at length dwindled into a
succession of water-holes, and was finally lost among tho barren .sands. It is probable
that the same is the case with all tho streams running into tho interior ; and that all
their water is exhausted by evaporation long before the center of the island is reached.

But the great desert of the Tropical World is tho African Sahara, occupying tho
central portion of the northern half of tho continent from the latitude 17° to that of
29°, although in many parts fruitful districts penetrate its bounds like peninsulas
jutting into tho sea. No European traveler has followed its southern limits from east
to west; and of its interior little is known, except along tho caravan routes traced
across it for centuries. One scarcely strikes the northern border of the Sahara before
he finds himself in a region beset with perils.

Tho first portion, after leaving Tripoli, following the caravan route, known as the
Hamada, is an elevated plateau, six days' journey wide, barren and stony, except
here and there where there is a patch of verdure upon which the patient camel browses
with delight. Here is found a little bird called the asfir, which lives wholly upon the
vermin which it picks from the feet of the camels. Then comes a broad, sandy, tree-
less plain, crossed by shifting sand-ridges so steep that the traveler is often obliged to

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510

THE TUOPICAL WORLD.

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flatten them down in order to enable his camels to proceed. Upon the verge of this
stands Murzuk, the capital of Fezzan, a clay-built town in a sand-pit, shut in on all
sides by barren ridges. Near by, in an occasional favored spot, grow a few pome-
granates, figs, and peaches. Onions are the principal vegetables, and the only milk
to be obtained is a little furnished by goats. Yet the traveler into the desert will look
back to it almost as to a paradi.se.

Uarth came near losing iiis life almo.st on the edge of the desert. Taking with him
only a few dry biscuits and dates, he left his caravan one day alone to ascend a sti-cn
hill, the summit of which the natives supposed to be inhabited by deninns. The
mountain seemed to recede before him as ho advanced ; but before noon ho gained tlie
summit. Tho fierce desert sun glared dow; , and the broad, sandy waste lay sprciid
out before him. Looking around, ho could discern no trace of the caravan. lie darod
only sip a few drops of his small stock of water, and could only swallow a morstil of
his dry biscuit. Ho then plunged wildly down the mountain side in tho supposed
direction of tho caravan. I'archcd with intolerable thirst, he swallowed all his water
at a draught; but tho relief was only momentary. lie grew bewildered, and lost his
course. Again and again ho fired his pi.otols, li.'stcning eagerly for an answering shot;
but tho stillness of the desert was unbroken. Day began to decline, and he throw
himself in despair upon the hot sand. Once he thought bo caught a glimpse of the
long lino of the caravan, but it was only an illasion of the imagination. Tliere wore a
few trees around, but he had not strength to light a fire, which might have served as
a signal to his friends. He was utterly broken down and exhausted. Darkness foil
around, and then he saw far across the plain the light of a fire. It must mark the
encampment of his comrades. He fired his pistols, but received no reply. Tlie dis-
tance was too great for the sound to traverse. Still the steady fire gleamed, marking
the position of the friends whom ho might never again behold. The long, sleepless
night wore away, and tho sun rose hotter and hotter in the cast. lie had barely
strength to move so as to keep his head within the scanty shade of the leafless tree
under which he lay. The torments of thirst became unendurable. He bit his arm,
and sucked the blood which flowed from the wound. Then he fell into a delirious
trance, from which he did not awako till the sun had sunk behind the hills. As ho
cast a despairing look through the gathering gloom over the pitiless waste, he heard
the cry of a camel. No music ever sounded so sweetly. Raising himself a little, ho
saw, not far oflP, a man mounted on a camel, looking eagerly around. It was one of
his escort, who had come upon his tracks in the sand, and was following upon his
trace. Bar;h cried out feebly for water. The man heard him, and, after bathing his
head, gave him a draught. So swollen was his throat that he could hardly swallow.
He was then put upon the camel and borne to the caravan. The natives scarcely
believed that be could be alive ; for they say that no man can live in the desert witii-
out water for more than twelve houns. Save with his own blood, IJarth had not
moistened his parched lips for eight-and-twenty hours.

Until within the last years, the Sahara was supposed to be a low plain, partly situ-
ated even below the level of the ocean ; but the journeys of Barth, Overweg, and
Vogel, have proved it, on the contrary, to be a high table-land, rising 1,000 or 2,000
feet above the sea. Nor is it the uniform sand-plain which former descriptions led
000 to imagine ; fur it is frequently traversed by chains of bills, as desolate and wild

it?;

ii

TflK DKSKHT OF SAMARA.

611

as the expanao from which thoy cmorf»o. Hut tlio plains also have a difforont char-
acter in various parts : somctiuics over a vast extent of country the ground is strewed
with hlocks of stone or small boulders, no less fatiguing to the traveler than the loose
drift sand, whicsh, particularly in its western part (most likely in consequence of the
prevailing east winds), covers the dreary waste of the Sahara. Often also the plain
is rent by deep chasm.;, or hollowed into vast basin.s. In the former, particularly on
the northern limits of the desert, the rain descending from the gulleys of the Atla.s,
winetimes forms streams, which are soon swallowed up by the thirsty sands, or dried
by tiie burning sunbeams.

The deeper basins of the Sahara are frequently of great extent, and sometimes con-
tain valuable deposits of salt. Wherever perennial springs rise from the earth, or
wiierever it has been possii)Io to collect water in artificial wells, green oases, often
many days' journey apart from each other, break the monotony of the desert. They
niiglit 1)0 compared with the charming islands tliat stud the vast solitudes of the South
Sea ; but thoy do not appear, like them, as elevations over surrounding plains of sea,
but as depressions, where animals and plants find a sufficient supply of water, and a
protection, not less necessary, against ttie terrific bla.sts of the desert.

A wonderful luxuriance of vegetation characterizes these oases of the wilderness.
Under and between the date-palms, that are planted about six paces apart, grow apricot
and peach trees, pomegranates and oranges, the honneh, so indispen.sable to oriental
beauty ; and even the apple-tree, the pride of European orchards. The vino twines
from one date-palm to another, and every spot susceptible of culture boars grain, par-
ticularly dourrah or barley, and also clover and tobacco. With prudent economy the
villages are built on the borders of the oases on the unfruitful soil, so that not a foot
of ground susceptible of culture may be lost.

The vast tracts of sterile sand, where not even the smallest plants ta'ic root, and
which might be called the "desert of the desert," present the groates conceivable
contrast to its green oases. With the vegetable world the animal kingdom likewise
disappears, and for days the traveler pursues his journey without meeting with a single
quadruped, bird, or insect. Nowhere are the transitions of light and sliado more ab-
rupt than in the desert, for nowhere is the atmosphere more thoroughly free of all
vapors. The sun pours a dazzling light on the ground, so that every object stands
forth with wonderful clearness, while all that remains in the shade is sharply defined,
and appears like a dark spot in the surrounding glare.

The stillness of these wa.stes is .sometimes awfully interrupted by the loud voice of
the khamsin or simoom. The crystal transparenf^y of the ,sky is veiled with a hazy dim-
ness. The wind rises and blows in interm'.tent gu.st,s, like the laborious breathing of
a feverish patient. Gradually the convulsions of the storm grow more violent and
tVequent ; and although the sun is unable to pierce the thick du.stclouds, and the
shadow of the traveler is scarcely visible on the ground, yet so .suffocating is the heat,
that it seems to him as if the hcicest rays of the sun were scorching his brain. The dun
atmosphere gradually changes to a leaden blacknes.s ; the wind becomes con.stant ; and
even the camels stretch themselves upon the ground and turn their backs to the whirl-
ing sand-storm. At night the darkness is complete ; no light or fire burns in the tents,
which are hardly able to resist the gusts of thvi simoom. Sdence reigns throughout
the whole caravan, yet no one sleeps ; the bark of the jackal or the howl of the hyena

tiiU-

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613

TllK TIlOl'ICAL WORLD.

nlono sounds dismally from t'mo to time through tho loud roaring of tho storm. Tho
sultry breath of tho desert is felt fur beyond its bountls. It blows over Italy, wliero
it is known as tho sirocco, and crosses ovon tho Alps, where, under tho name of tliu
Fonwind, it rapidly molts tho snow of tho higher valleys, and causes dangerous inun-
dations. Tho dust of the desert, whirled high into the air, frequently falls upon tlm
decks of vessels crossing tho Atlantic, fur from the coast of Africa, um! flies in clouds
over tho Red Sea — a greeting from Nubia to Arabia.

When we consider the scanty vegetation of tho Sahara, we can not wonder tlmt
animal life is but sparingly scattered over it. Tho lion, whom our poets so frerniently
name the " king of the desert," only shows himself on its borders ; and on asking f la;
nomades of the interior whether it is over scon in their parts, they gravely answer tlmt
in Europe lions may perhaps feed on shrubs or drink the air, but that in Africa tlicy
cannot exist without flosh and water, and therefore avoid the sandy desert. In fact,
they never leave the wooded mountains of tho Atlas, or the fruitful plains of tho Sou-
dan, to wander far away into tho Sahara, where snakes and scorpions aro tho only
dangerous animals to be met with. The snakes, which belong to tho genus Ceruslcs,
which is distinguished by two small horns upon the head, have a deadly bite, and aro
remarkable for their almost total abstinence from water. When a caravan, on first
entering the desert, meets with one of these venomous reptiles, it is not killed, "for
it is of good omen to leave evil behind ; " but farther on the snakes are mercilessly
destroyed wherever they are seen. Among the animals which inhabit those parts of
the desert which are covered with prickly shrubs, we find hares and rabbits, hyenas
and jackals, the hedgehog and the porcupine. Several lizards inhabit tho desert ;
among others, a large gray monitor, and a small white skink, with very short legs,
called zelgague by the Arabs. Its movements are so rapid that it seems to swim on
tho sand like a fish in the water, and when one fancies he has caught it, it suddenly
dives under the surface. Its traces, however, betray its retreat, and it is easily ex-
tracted from its hole, — a trouble which, in spite of the meagre booty, is not consid-
ered too great when provisions are scarce.

The ostrich, which is proverbially said to drink only every five days when there is
water, and to bo able to endure thirst for a much longer period when there is none, and
tho gazelle, which even the greyhound finds it difficult to catch, venture deeper into tho
desert. The chase of tlic gazelle is a favorite amusement of the Saharians. On see-
ing a herd at a distance they approach as cautiously as possible ; and when alwut a niilo
distant, they unleash their greyhounds, who dart ofT with the rapidity of arrows, and
are excited, by loud cries, to their utmost speed. Yet they only reach the flying herd
after a long chase ; and now the scene acquires the interest of a drama. The best
greyhound selects tho finest gazelle for his prey, which uses all its cunning to avoid its
pursuer, springing to the right, to the left, now forwards, then backwards, sometimes
even right over tho greyhound's head ; but all these zigzag evolutions fail to save it
from its indefatigable enemy. When seized it utters a piteous scream, the signal of
the greyhound's triumph, who kills it with one bite in the neck.

According to the seasons animal life fluctuates in the Sahara from north to south.
In winter and spring, when heavy rains, falling on its northern borders, provide wide
districts, thoroughly parched by the summer heat, with the water and pasturage needed
for the herds, the nomadic tribes wander farther into the desert with their camels, horses,

L,(,

THE DKSKHT OF SAHAIIA.

f)V\

ithcop, and goats, and retreat again to tlio coast lands as tlio sun gains powor. At this
time of the year the wild animals — tlio lion, tho gazoUu, and tho antolnpo — also wan-
dor farther to tho south, whicii at that tinio provides tiicin, each according to its tasto,
with tlie nouii.siniHint wliich tlio dry suuiuier is uiialdo to bestow ; while tho ostrich,
who (luring tho summer ranged farther to tho north, then retreats to tho Houtii ; for hot
aud xatidy plains uro tho paradiso in wiiieli this singular bird delights to roam.

In tlio southern part of the Sahara the tropical rains, whoso limits extend to 19°
niirth latitude, and in some parts still farther to the north, pmdueo similar periodical
(jliangi's in the character of tho desert. Under their influeiico tho sandy plains aro
soon covered with grasses and sliVul)s, In the dry season, on tho contrary, tli.i proen
earpcf disappears, and the country then changes into an arid waste, covered with stubbles
and tufts of mimosas. This beneficial cliangi', however, does not take place every
year ; for the tropiml rains frequently fail to appear on their uorthoru boundaries, and
thus disappoint tlio hopes of tho thirsty desert.

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Tin: TuoricAF. woiimj.

KJAUlrK, oil CAN()i;PATIl ON THE AMAZON.

CHAPTER IV.
TROPICAL FOUKSTS.— VALLEY OF THE A^IAZON.

Clmracforistics of tlie Tropical Forests — Variety of Trees ami I'laiits — Aspect niiriiv^ t!:e
Hainy Season — Iteaiity After tiie Haiiiy Season — A Moniiiii,' Concert — Kepo.-e at Noon—
Awalienin^ at Kveninj; — Nocturnal Voices of (lie I'oiest. — T/ic Aiiiir.nn : Coinsc of tlie
Hiver — Size of its Hasin — Tiio Tide at its Montli — Hisini,' of llie Uiver — Ijiaripes, or Caiiiii.'-
Paths — Inunilations of the Amazon — Vast Variety of its Vejietaiion — Kislies — Aj;assiz'.s
Specimens — Allii,'ators and Turtles — Turtle- Hunting — Insects — Ants — Rutterllies — Spiders
— Lizards — l'ro;,'s and Toads — Snakes — Paucity of Mammalia — Tiie .Iai,Miar — Scantiness
of Ilmnan Population — Indian Trilies — Mundnrcu Tattooin;,' — Travelers' Accounts ol' ti.e
Trihes— Men with Tails — Orton's Summary of their Character— His Own Experience
Favorahle— lie finds them Honest and Peaceable— Afjassiz's Notices of the Indians— 'I'lieir
Familiarity with Animals and Plants — Whites— Nej^roes — Mixed Breeds- Agassiz and
Orton on the Capacity of Amazonia.

HAVING passed in review the lofty plateaus, the broad savannas, and tlie
burning deserts, which form striking though exceptional features of the
Tropical World, wo proceed to the forests, wliich constitute the most distinctive
feature of the regions which lie bordering the equator. Reserving for a separate cliai>
ter some of the most notable trees specially characteristic of the tropics, we propose to

ASIMX TS OF TUOI'ICAF. rOKI'.STS.

B!S

take a survey of tlic (^t'ticnil a^|ii'rts of the urciit fdri'."!.", iinil especially of that wliirli
cdvi'i's, with scarcely an iiitcn'U|iliiiii, the valley of the \ina/'iii, in \vhi»e alimot uiiiii*
Imhited (leptliH the wlioiu hahitahle part uf Kurnpe iiii;>ht lie hiildeii uway.

The peculiar chaniis of the tropical primitive forest ure enhanced hy the mystery (tf
it-i iiMpeiietralile thickets; for however lovely its lofty vaults and ever chan^in;^ forin.i
(if leaf or lilossoni may lui, fancy paints teenes still imiro lieautiful Iteyoml, wiii'rc tho
cyo cnnnot punutrate, and where, us yet, no wanderer liaM over strayed. In the liound-
jess forests of tropical America, the jaguar sometimes loses himself in such impciietralilw
tliickets that, unalilu to hunt upon the gi'miu I, hu lives for a long tim i on tiie tre(!s, a
ti'rnir to the moiilceys. Ilei'e tho p>i'ln:t oi' t!i.> inis-iiou-sta'inn-i, wliii'li are not many
mill- apart in a diroet line, often reipiiru more than a diy's navigation to visit each
iitlicr, following th.' windings of small rivulets in their courses, as the forest renders
(Miiinnuidcalion liy land impossible. The niaited liushropes, clindiing along the trunks
ami liranclii's, extend like the rigging of a ship from one tree to another, and lilossoni
at such a giddy hight that it is freipicntly as impossiMo to reach these' liowcrs as it is
til 'ii-tinguish to which of the many inlcrlacing stems they may liehmg. Nor is it
|iiis>ilile to drag down one of these inaccessilile en'epers; for, owing to tlifir strength
uiid toughness, it would lie visier to pull down the tree to which it attaches itself than
to fiiice the liana I'lom its hold. No liotanist ever onterod a primitive forest without
envying the liinl to whom no lilossoni is inaccessilile ; who, high ahove the loftiest
trees, looks dowit upon the sea of verdure, and enjoys prospects whose lie.iuty ean
hardly he imagineil liy man.

A niajestii; uniformity is the cliaraetor of our wooils, which often consist hut of one
species of tree, while in the liopical forests an immense variety of families strive for
i'.\isten<'e, and even in u small s[)aec one neighbor scarcely ever re.-emldcs the other.
Within tho space of half a mile sipiarc, Agassiz counted one hiindreil and seventeen
dillerent kinds of wood, many of them fitted for the (incst caliinet work. Kven at a
ili.-lance this diirerenee Iie'comes apparent in the irregular outlines of th" forest, as hero
an airy dome shaped crown, there u pointed pyramid, rises above the broad tiat masses
of green, in ever varying sueeession. On api)roaehing, the diU'erences of color uro
milled to the irregularities of form; for v.liile our forests arc deprived of the ornament
(if llowers, many tropical trees have large blossoms, mixing in thick bunches with tho
leaves, and often entirely overpowering the verdure of the foliage' by their gaudy
tints. Thu.3 splendid wliite, yellow, or red colored crowns are nnngled with tho«<> "f
darker or more hundile hue. At length when, on entering the forest, tho single It.'aves
beciinie distinguishable, even the last traces of harmony disappear. Here they are
delicately feathered, there lobed ; here narrow, there broad; here pointed, there
obtuse ; here lustrous and fleshy, as if in the full luxuriance of youth, then! dark and
arid, as if decayed with age. In many the inferior surface is covered with hair; atid
as the wind plays with the foliage, it appears now silvery, now dark green, now of a
lively, now of a melancholy, hue. Tims the foliage exhibits an endless variety of
form and color; and where plants of the .same species unite in a small group, they aro
mnstly shoots from tho roots of an old stem. Where so many thousand forms of equal
pretensions vie for tho possession of the soil, none is able to expand its crown or extend
its branches at full liberty. Ilcnco there is a universal tendency upw; rds ; for it la
only by overtopping its neighbors that each tree can hope to attain the region of free-

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51G

THE TROPICAL >VORLD.

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(lorn and of liglit; and hcnco also tho crowns borne aloft on those high columnar
trunks are comparatively small.

In the deep lowlands the forest assumes a severe and gloomy character: deneo
crowns o^ foliage form lofty vaults almost impenetrable to the light of day ; no undur-
wood thrives on the swampy ground ; no parasite puts forth its delicate blossoms
where the mighty trees stand in interminable confusion; and only muslirooms spnmt
abundantly from the humid soil. Nothing can equal the gloom of those forests durin"
the rainy season. Tiiick fogs obscure the damp and sultry air, and clouds of mns-
quitocs whirl about in tlie mist. Tho trees drip with moisture; the flowers expand
their petals only during tlic few dry hours of the day. and every animal seeks shuhcr
in the thicket. No bird, no butterfly comes forth; the snorting of the capybaras, and
tlic monotonous croaking of frogs and toads, are tlie only sounds that break tlie dull
silence ; except when the roar of the jaguar, or the bowlings of the stentor-monkev
issue like notes of distress from the depth of the melanclioly woods.

After the wet season the woods appear in their full beauty. Before the first
sliowers, the long continued drought had w''iorcd their leaves, and dried up ni;iny
of tlie more tendor parasites ; during its continuance the torrents of rain despoilod
them of all on: .nicnt; but wlnn the clouds disperse and the animals come fditli
from their retreats to stretch their stiffenod limbs in the warm sunshine, tli(!ii also
the vegetable world awakens to new life ; and where, a few days before, the eye
met only with green in every variety of shade, it now revels in the luxuriance of
beautiful flowers, wliicli embalm the air with exquisite fragrance. Those fairy
bowers are enlivened by birds of splendid plumage, particularly in tho early
morning, when ihe luscious green of tho high j)alm-fronds or tho burning yellow
of the lofty leoi)oldinia'=, touched by the first rays of the sun, suddenly shines furtli.
Then hundreds of gaudy jtarrots tly across the river ; numberless colibris dart like
winged gems through the air ; whole herds of cotingas flutter among the blossoms ;
ducka of brilliant plumage cackle on the branches of submerged trees; on the highest
tree-tops the toucan yelps his loud piapo-ko I while, peeping from his nest, tho orinle
endeavors to imitate the sound ; and the scarlet it)is flies in troops to the coast, while
the white egrette flutters along before the boat, rests, and then again rises for a new
career.

In general the morning hours are louilest in the primitive forest ; for the animals
that delight in daylight, though not more numerous than the nocturnal species, have
genernlly a louder voice. Their full concert, iiowever, do(>s not begin innuediately
after sunrise ; for they are mo.stly so chilled by the colder night, that they need to bo
warmed for some time before awakening to tho complete use of their faculties. First,
single toni's ring from the high tree-crown, and gradually thousands of voices join in
various moilulation, — now approaching, now melting into distance. Preeniinont in
loudness is the roar of tho howling monkeys, thougli without being able fully to stille
tho discordant cries and chattering of the noisy parrots. IJut the sun rapidly ascends
towards the zenith, and one musician after the other grows mute and seeks the cool
forest shade, until finally the wliolc morning concct ceases to be heard.

As the beat grows more intense, the stillness of the forest is only interrupted at in-
tervals by single animal voices. The deepest silence reigns at noon, when the sun
becomes tec powerful even for the children of the torrid zone ; and many creatures,

LM.' ¥X\\

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TIIK VALLEY OF THE AMAZON.

617

particularly birds, sink into a profound sleep. Then all the warmblooded animals
(■eelc the shade, and only the cold reptiles, — alligators, lizards, salamanders, — stretch
tlionisclves upon the glowing rocks in the bed of the forest-streams, or on sunny slopes,
iiiui, with raised head and distended jaws, seem to inhale with delight the sultry air.

As evening a[)proaches, the noise of the morning begins to reawaken. With loud
cries the parrots return from their distant feeding grounds to the trees on which they
are accustomed to rest at night ; and, as the monkeys saluted the rising sun, so chat-
tniing or howling, the^ watch him sinking in the west. With twilight a new world
of animals, — which, as long as the day lasted, remained concealed in the recesses of
the forest, — awakens from its mid-day torpor, and prepares to enjoy its nightly revels.
Then bats of hideous size wing their noiseless flight through the wood, cliasing tlio
giant hawk-moths and beetles, wiiich have also waited for the evening hour, while the
felidic quit their luirs. ready to spring on the red stag near some solitary pool, or on
tlic unwieldy tapir, who, having sle|)t during the heat of the day, seeks, as soon as
evening approaches, tlie low-banked river, where ho loves to wallow in the mud. Tiien
also the shy opossum (juits bis nest in hollow trees, or under some arch-like vaulted
root, to search for insects or fruits, and the cautious agouti sallies from the bush.

In our forests scarcely a single tone is heard after sunset ; but in the tropical zone
many loud voices celebrate the night, where, for hours after the sun has disappeared,
the cicadas, toads, frogs, owls, and goatsuckers chirrup, cry, croak, howl, and wail.
The ([uietest hours are from midnight until about three in the morning. Complete
silence, however, occurs only during very short intervals ; for there is always some
cause or other that prompts some animal to break tlie stillness. Sometimes the din
grows so loud, tliat one might fancy a legion of evil spirits were celebrating their
orgies in the darkness of the forest. Humboldt supposes the first cause of these tu-
mults to be a conflict among animals, which, arising by chance, gradually swells to
larger dimensions. The j:igunr pursues a horde of pecaris or tapirs which break
wildly through the ])uslics. Terrified by the noise, the monkeys howl, awakening par-
rots and toucans from their slumlier; and thus the din spreads through the wood.
A long time passes before the forest returns to its stillness. Towards the approach
of (lay the owls, the goatsuckers, the toads, the frogs, howl, groan, and croak for tlio
last time ; and as soon as the first beams of morning purple the sky, the shrill notes
of the cicadas mix with tlieir expiring cries.

Tlie valley of the Amazon is the groat forest of the globe. This mighty river,
rising in the small mountain lake of Lauricocha, only sixty miles from the Pacific,
runs dear across the breadth of tlio Cdntiiient, almost on the lino of the Enwator, and
empties into the Atlantic. Its wliole length is*:2,740 miles, following its windings, or
ii.K'jO in a straight lino. From north to .south its tributaries stretch 1,7'")0 miles. At
a distance of 2,000 miles above its mouth it has a breadth of a mile and a half, after-
wards it spreads t3 ten miles, then expands until it pnjsents to the Atlantic a front of
one hundred and eighty miles. Tlie lake which is the source of the main stream lies
just below the limits of perpetual snow For the first five Inmdred miles the stream
flows through a deep valley, before reaching the level of the great plain.

The region drained by the Amazon dwarfs that of any other river. The Mississippi
drains an area of a million and a quarter square miles, the Amazon almost twice as

•Sue note on jia^o C21.

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THE TROPICAL WOULD.

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mucli, a space equal (o two-thirds of all Europe, Into tbis basin tlie United States
iniglit be packed witliout toueliing its boundaries. It would hold the ba.sins of the
Missi.ssippi, tlic Nile, the Danube, and the lioang-Ho.

Dangerous sand-bankri guard the giant's threshold ; and no less perilous to the nav-
igator is the famous Pororocca, or the rapid rising of the spring-tide at the shallow
mouths of the chief stream and some of its embranchments, — a phenomenon which,
though taking j)hice at the mouth of many other rivers, such as the Hooghly, the
Indus, the Dordogne, and the Seine, nowhere assumes sucli dimensions as hero, whore
the colossal wave frequently rises suddenly along the whole width of the stream to
a hight of twelve or iifteen feet, and then collapses with a roar so dreadful that it is
heard at the distance of more than six miles. Tiu^n the advancing flood-wave <'lid('s
almost impereeptilijy over the deeper parts of the river bed, but again rises angrily
as soon as a more shallow bottom arrests its triumphant career.

The territory drained by the Amazon is so vast that, at the sources of its northern
and southern tributaries, the rainy season takes place at opposite times of the year.
So wonderful is the length of the stream that, while at the foot of the Andes it begins
to rise early in January, the Solimoens fswells only in February ; and below tiie Kio
Negro the Amazon does not attain its full bight before the end of March. The
swelling of the river is colossal as itself In the Solimoens and farther westward tiie
water rises above forty feet ; and Von Martins even saw trees wliose trunks bore
marks of the previous inundation fifty feet above the hight of the stream during the
dry season. Tlicn for miles and miles the swelling giant inundates his low banks, and.
majestic at all times, becomes terril)lo in his grandeur when rolling his angry torrents
through the wilderness. The largest forest-trees trendde under the pressure of the
waters, and trunks, uprooted and carried away by the stream, bear witness to its
power. Fishes and alligators now swim where a short while ago the jaguar l;iy in
wait for the tapir, and only a few birds, perching on the highest tree-tops, remain to
witness tlio funuilt which distnrl)s the silence of the woods.

^leanwhile the waters stimulate vegetation ; numberless blossoms break forth from
the luxuriant foliage ; and while the turbid waters still play round the trunks of the
submerged trees, tlio gayest flowers enamel their green crowns, and convert the inun-
dated forest into an enchanted garden. Wiien at length the river retires within its
usual limits, new islands have been formed in its bed, while others have been swept
away ; and in many jilaccs the banks, undermined by the floods, threaten to crush the
pa.ssing boat by their fall, — a misfortune which not seldom happens, particularly when
hiiih trees come fallins; headlons; down with the banks into the river.

Countless lagunes stretch along the course of the Amazon and its tributaries. Those
laguncs, called by the natives igaripCs, or canoepatlis, are a characteristic feature of
the river. One may paddle from Santarem a thousand miles up the Amazon, and
»?cver, unless he chooses, enter the river itself. Most of these lagunes communicate
with the larger currents by channels, which, however, are generally dried up hcfnro
the rainy season sets in. Tlie magical beauty of tropical vegetation reveals itself in
all its glory to the traveler who steers his boat througli the solitudes of those aquatic
mazes. Here the forest forms a canopy over his head; there it opens, allowing the
sunshine to disclose flie secrets of the wilderness; while on cither side the eye yione-
trates through beautiful vistas into the depths of tha woods. Sometimes, on a higher

THE FORESTS OF AMAZONIA.

519

Ui»

fspnt of ground, a clump of trees forms an Island worthy of Kden. A chaos of bush-
riinos and creepers flings its garlands of gay flowers over the forct, and fills the air
with tlie sweetest odor. Numerous birds, partly rivaling in beauty of color the passi-
floras and bignonias of these hanging gardens, animate the banks of the lagune, while
jriiudy macaws perch on the lottiest trees ; and, as if to remind one that death is not
lianislicd from this scene of Paradise, a dark-robed vulture screeches through the
wdods, or an alligator rests, like a black log of wood or a sombre rock, on the tranquil
waters. Well ho knows that food will not be wanting; for river tortoises and largo
ii-li arc foud of retiring to these laguncs.

Tiie inundations of the Amazon, which often extend many miles inland, essentially
modify the character or the bordering forest ; for it it only beyond their verge that the
enormous fig and laurel trees appear in all their grandeur. As here the underwood is
Il'ss dense and more dwarfisli, it is easy to measure tlie colossal trunks, and to adn)iro
tiieir proportions, often towering to a higlit of 120 foot, and measuring fifteen feet in
diameter nbovo the projecting roots. iMiormous mushrooms spring from the decayed
loaves, and numberless jjarasites rest upon the trunks and branelios. Tlic littoral for-
est, on the contrary, is of more humble growth. Tiie trunks, branchless in their lower
part, clothed with a thinner and a smoother bark, and covered with a coat of mud
according to the hight of the previous inumlation, stand close together, and form above
a mass of interlacing branches. These are the sites of the cacao-tree and of tlie prickly
sarsaparilla, which is here gathered in large quantities for the druggists of Europe.
Leafless bush-ropes wind in grotesque festoons among the trees, between whose trunks
a dense underwood shoots up, to perish by the ne.\t overflowing of the stream. In-
stead of the larger parasites, mosses and jungermannias weave their carpets over the
drooping branches. But few animals besides the numerous water-binls inliabit this
damp forest zone, in which, as it is almost superfluous to add, no plantation has been
formed by man.

The many windings of the water channels which traverse the littoral woods are so
overgrown with b jhes, that the boat can only with ditFiculty be pushed onwards
through these retreats, whose silence is only broken by the splashing of a fish or the
snorting of a crocodile. The many islands of the delta of the Amazon are every-
where encircled by mangroves; but sailing stream upwards, the monotonous green of
these monarchs of the shore is gradually replaced by flowers and foliage, which, in
every variety of form and color, for hundreds and hundreds of miles characterize the
banks of the river.

During the dry season prickly astricarias, largo musaceoe, enormous bamboo-like
grasses, white plumed ingas, and scarlet poivreas, arc most frequently seen among the
numberless plants growing along the bank of the stream, or projecting over its margin ;
while above the shrubbery of the littoral forest nundjcrless palms tower, like .stately
columns, to the hight of a hundred feet ; others of a lower .=tature are remarkable for
the size of their trunks, on wiiich the foot stalks of the fallen leaves serve as support.s
for ferns and other parasites. On the trees which often lie floating on the river,
though still attached by their roots to the bank on which they had flourished, petrels
ci scarlet ibises frequently perch ; and as a boat approaches, hideous bats, disturbed
in their holes, fly out of the mouldering trunks.

It stands to reason that in a length of more than 3,000 miles the species of plants

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680

THE TROPICAL WORLD.

f'

't\A

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must frequently change; yet the low banks of the Amazon, and of its vassals, as soon
as they have emerged from tlio mountains whoro they rise, have everywhere a similar
character. " No spot on the globe," says Orton, " contains so much vegetable matter
a,s the valley of the Amazon. From the grassy steppes of Venezuela to the treeless
pampas of Buenos Ayres expands a sea of verdure, in which we may draw a circle of
eleven iiundred miles in diameter, which shall include an ever green unbroken forest.
There is a most bewildering diversity of grand and beautiful trees; a wild, uncon-
quercd race of vegetable giants, draped, festooned, corded, matted, and rilil)oncd with
climbing and creeping plants, woody and succulent in endless variety. The c^uher-
ance of nature displayed in these million square acres of tangled, impenetrable forest,
offers a bar to civilization nearly as groat as its sterility in tiie African deserts. The
moment you land, (and it is often dilFicult to get a footing on the bank,) you arc con-
fronted by a wall of vegetation. A maeheta is a necessary predecessor, for you must
literally cut your way at every step." The mass of the forests on the banks consists
of palms, of wliieh there are about thirty species, leguminous or pod-bearing trees,
broad-leaved bananas, and giant grasses. Among the trees which might be useful are
the palo do sangre and the moria-pinima, or "tortoise-shell tree," the most bea\itiful
ornamental wood in the world. Enough of this is annually wasted to veneer all the
palaces of the civilized world.

The great river is a crowded aquarium. Agassiz brought back more than 80,000
specimens of fishes, which are yet to bo classified and arranged. Alligators abound
beyond all example elsewhere. "It is scarcely exaggerating," remarks Bates, "to
say that the waters of the Amazon are as well stocked with largo alligators in the dry
season as a ditch in England is in summer with tadpoles." Turtles are the most
important product at present of the Amazon. The hunting of its eggs is the great
business of the inhabitants. They are u.sed chiefly for the purpose of extracting their
oil, which is used for illumination. It is calculated that fifty millions of eggs are
annually destroyed.

The Amazonian forests are apparently almost bare of animal life. But this barren-
ness is more apparent than real ; for so wide is the field that myriads exist, but they
are widely scattered and very shy. Insects are rare in the dense forests, being mostly
confined to the open country along the banks of the rivers and lagoons. The most
numerous family is that of ants. Termites abound. Their special duty is to hasten
the decomposition of decaying vegetation ; but they work their way into houses and
trunks. Tiiey have a special fondness for paper; so that, according to Humboldt, "it
is rare to find papers in tropical America older than fifty years." Butterflies swarm
in numbers and gorgeousness of coloring elsewhere unknown. Within half an hour's
walk from Para 700 species have been collected, while all Europe furnishes but 390
species, and the British islands only GG. Of spiders there are 8,000 species, more than
three times as many as exist in England. The largest of these, the Mygale Blondu,
is five inches long. Lizards are met everywhere, in houses, roads, and forests. Thoy
run with such speed that it is almost impossible to catch them. Frogs and toads are
the chief musicians of the Amazonian forest. They are of all sizes, from an inch to a
foot in diameter. This latter size is attained by a toad of a dull gray color, studded
all over with enormous warts, who has a good right to his name, Bufo gigas. Of
snakes there is no lack. There are in South America 150 species, half as many as are

THE ANIMALS OF AMAZONIA.

621

found in the East Indies. The serpentine family is led by the enormous boa, while
the ■ ir is brought up by the Air.phisbtcnas, or " double-huaderf," who crawl one end
foremost as well as ttic other, so that it is no easy matter to make head or tail of them.
The greater part of the South American species arc not venomous.

Amazonia is remarkably poor in terrestrial mammals, and the species are of small
size. The elephants and rhinoceroses of the Old World are represented by a single
gpeeios of the tapir, and this is rare and shy. Tlie lion tribe finds its only representa-
tive in the puma. The jaguar, representing the tiger and leopard, is the fiercest and
most powerful beast of prey of the Now World. lie is marked something like the
leopard ; but his spots are angular instead of rounded, and have a central dot. In
size it exceeds the leopard. Humboldt, indeed, saw a jaguar whose length surpassed
that of any of the tigers of India whoso skins he had seen in the collections of Europe.
There arc but three species of deer, all small. A peccari, a wild dog, opossums, ant-
eaters, armadilloes, capybaras, pacas, agoutis, and monkeys, conclude the list of Ama-
zonia. Monkeys are the most numerous, about forty species inhabiting the valley.

Man makes an insignificant figure in the vast solitudes of the Amazon. There is
but one human being to every four square miles. Put them down at etjual distances
apart, and each one would be two miles from his nearest neighbor. From what wo
know and can infer, tliere is no part of the globe in Itself capable of supporting a more
dense population. It is safe to say that a third of the present population of the globe
could find food in these now almost unpeopled wastes. The most zealous disciple of
Maltluis may distniss his fears that the world will, within any reasdnable number
of centuries, become so over-peopled that papulation will outrun means of sustenance.

There are said to be several hundred Indian tribes in Amazonia, each having a dif-
ferent language unintelligible to all otliers. The most numerous are the Muiularaucus,
who number about l(»,<ll)0. They are far from being savages, are friendly to the
wliites, and are industrious, making considerable journeys to sell sarsaparillii, India
rubber, and ton(iua beans. They are noted for the elaborate maimer in which they arc
tattooed. Agassiz figures two of these Indians who came from a long distance. The
woman had the upper part of the face clear, — except that a black line was drawn
across the no.se and from the outer corner of the eyes to the cars, presenting precisely
the appearance of a pair of spectacles. The chin was tattooed in a pattern of net-
work. The upper part of the breast was wrought in open work, headed by two straight
lines around the shoulders, as if to represent a lace finish. The man was far more
fully ornamented. The whole face was tattooed in bluLsh black, looking like a fine
wire mask, tlie jaws and chin having a broad pattern. The neck, breast, ami arms
were wrought all over in a broad pattern with belts, lozenges, and scjuares, looking
very like the netted shirts sometimes worn by laborers with us. To make a full suit
of tattoo costs more time than to produce any other article of dress worn by human
beings — a Cashmere shawl or the fe.ithcred cloak of a Polynesian noble not excepted.
Ten full years are required, for so painful is the operation that only a bit can be made
at a time ; but when once made the garment lasts a life-time.

Of th*" character of the numerous tribes little is positively known. The few notices
of travelers arc vague, often contradictory, and not seldom wholly incredible. Thus
Castlcnnau gravely assures us that on the banks of the Teffb " dwell the Canamas and
Uginas j the former dwarfs, tho latter having tails a palm and a half long — a hybrid

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THE TROPICA!. WORLD.

inns r
! I .'■■Si''

from an Indian and a monkey." Orton suina up tlieir general cliaractoriHtiu.s as fol-
lows : " Skin of a brown color, witli a ycllowisli tinge, often nearly of the tint of
mahogany ; tliick, straight, black hair ; black, horizontal eyes ; low forehead, sonic-
what compensated by its breadth ; beardless ; of middle liight, but thick -set ; broad
muscular chest ; small hands and feet ; incurious, unambitious, impassive, undeninn-
strativo ; with a dull imagination and little superstition ; with no definite idea of a
Supremo IJeing. few tribes having a n une for God, though one for the Demon ; with
no belief in a future state ; and, excepting civility, with virtues all negative. Yet a
little while," he .says, " and the race will become as extinct as the Dodo. He has nm
the supple organization of the Kuropean, enabling him to accommodate iiiinself tn
divcnso conditions," And yet in the very fame paragraph he says : " The South
American Imlian seems to have a natural aptitude for the arts of civili/o;! ]ife not
found in the red man of our continent." Ho makes brief mention of thirty or more
of the tribes. Some arc described as cannilials. Others arc mentioned in quite dif-
ferent terms. Tlius tlie Mauhes are " an agricultural triiie, well-formed, and of a
mild di!*position." The Uaupes " have permanent abodes in the shape of a parallel-
ogram, with a semicircle at each end of a size to contain several families. One of
them was 11 •> feet long by"."> broad, and about 30 feet higli. The walls are bullet-
proof." Tho Passes and Juris arc " [)eaceable and industrious, and have ahviiys been
friendly to tho whites." The Tucunas are " an extensive tribe, leading a settled agri-
cultural life, each horde having a chief and a ' medicineman,' or priest of their super-
stitions." Tho Cuciimas are " shrewtl hardworking canoe men, notorious for the
singular desire for acquiring property." And so on.

Mr. Orton's personal acquaintance with the Indians was rather limited ; yet his brief
notices of them give a favorable idea of their character. For a month and a half par-
ties of them served him as peons and boatmen. The fir.«t party, consisting of twenty,
undertook to carry his luggage a distance of thirteen days' journey through the dense
forest. " Not a transportation company in the United States," ho says, " ever kept its
engagement more faithfully than did these twenty peons, and this too though we paid
them in advance, according to the custom of the country." Iiis canoeiiicn " were
always in good humor, and during the wliole voyage of a month we did not .«ce tho
slightest approach to a quarrel. At no time did we have the least fear of treachery or
violence. When it rained they invariably took off their ponchos ; but in all om in-
tercourse with these wild men we never noticed tlie sliglitest breach of modesty. They
strictly maintained a decent arrangement of such apparel as they possessed."

The almost incidental notices given by Agassiz in his "Journey in Brazil " certainly
place the Indians of the Amazon in a light far more favorable both for character and
intelligence than that in which they are usually represented. That the men are disin-
clined to labor is true ; but this they share with men all over the globe. " The women
arc said, on the contrary, to be very industrious ; and those whom we have had an
opportunity of seeing justify this reputation. The wife of Laudigiri is always busy
at some household work or other, — grating mandioca, drying farinha, packing tobacco,
cooking, or sweeping. Her children are active and obedient, the older ones making
themselves useful in bringing water, washing mandioca, or in taking care of the
younger ones. She can hardly be called pretty, but she has a pleasant smile and a
remarkably sweet voice, with a kind of childlike intonation which is very winning."

THE INHABITANTS OF AMAZONIA.

523

Of another pair lio says : " Our host and hostess do what they can to make us com-
fortable, and the children as well as the parents show that natural courtesy which has
struck us so much among these Indians. My books and writing seem to interest them
much, and while I was reading the father and mother came up, and after watching mo
fur a few minutes in silence the father asked me if I had any leaves from an old book,
or even a part of a newspaper to leave with him when I went away. lie said ho had
once known how to read a little, and he seemed to think if he had sometiiing to practico
upon he might recover the lost art. Then ho added that one of his boys was very bright,
and he was sure that he could learn if he had the means of sending him to school."
Again of a .still different group : " The familiarity of these children of the forest with
the natural ol)jects about them — i)lants, birds, insects, fishes, etc. — is remarkable.
Tlicy frequently ask to sec the drawings, and on turning over a pile containing several
hundred colored sketches of fi.shes, they scarcely make a mistake, even the children
giving the name instantly." And again : " A large nund)er of the trees forming
these forests are still unknown to science ; and yet the Indians, those practical botan-
ists and zoologists, are well acquainted not only with their external appearance, but
also with their various properties. So intimate is their practical knowledge of the
natural objects about them, that I believe it would greatly contribuiO to the progress
of science if a sy.stematic record were made of all the information thus .scattered
through the land ; and an encyclopajdia of the woods, as it were, taken down from
the tribes which inhabit them. I think it would be no bad way of collecting to go
from :;jttlement to settlement, sending the Indians out to gather all the plants they
know, to dry and label them with the names applied to them in the locality, and
writing out under the heads of these names all tliat may thus bo ascertained of their
medicinal and otherwise useful properties, as well as their botanical character." These
notices certainly go far to throw discredit upon the sweeping descriptions given by
other travelers of the savage character of the natives of Amazonia.

The other inhabitants of the Amazon are Whites, Negroes, and Mixed Breeds.
Excepting a few English, French, German, and Portuguese emigrants, who come to
the country temporarily and with a purpose to return home when they have acquired
a fortune, few of the so-called Whites are of pure Caucasian descent, the emigration
having for many years been almost wholly of the male sex. Indeed il is considered
in rather bad taste to boast of purity of descent. All travelers speak in warm terms
of the courtesy of the Brazilians ; and although they arc generally inclined to indo-
lence, yet of late years especially not a few of them have shown no inconsiderable
enc'iry and enterprise. Certainly the Empire of Brazil is by far the most promising
of all the South American nations. It is the only one which is not in an almost
chronic revolutionary condition.

In the valley of the Amazon negroes are confined to the lower portion ; yet they
liave imparted a decided tinge to the character of the population. The mixed races
comprise a very considerable part of the inhabitants. Fully fiveand-twenty diflferent
clas.ses of these are enumerated, each with its own distinctive name. IMamelueos, or
Wliitc and Indian, are the most common ; Mulattoes, are White and Negro ; Cafuzos
or Zanibos arc Indian and Negro; Curibocos arc Cafuzo and Indian; Xibaros are
Cafuzo ;.nd Negro ; and soon through different degrees of intermixture. Von Tschudi
gives the following summation of the character of the mixed races : " As a general rule

■irini

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B24

THE TROPICAL WORLD.

it may be siiitl that they unitu in tlicinsolves all the faults without any of the virtues o<
their pro^^cnitors. As inon they aro generally inferior to the pure races, and as nicin-
bers of society they are the worst class of citizens." Ortoii (jiiotes this, but nmkfs
decided qualifications to the generalization. " They display," lie says, " con^iiieralpje
talent and enterprise ; a proof that mental degeneracy does not necessarily result fmni
tbo mixture of white with Indian blood. Our observations do not support the opinion
that the result of amalgamation is 'a vague compound lacking character and expres-
sion,' The moral part is perhaps deteriorated ; but in tact and enterprise thuy often
exceed their progenitors." We have alreaily, in Chapter II., quoted his stuteineiit
that in Quito, where he had tho best opportunity of becoming acquainted with tliuni,
" They aro tbo soldiers, artisans, and tradesmen who keep up the only signs of life in
Quito."

Agassiz thus sums up some of tho leading capacities of the basin of tho Amazon :
" Its woods alone have an almost priceless value. Nowhere in the world is there iiniT
tindjcr either for solid construction or for works of ornament. The rivers wiiicli flow-
past these magnificent forests seem meant to servo first us a water-power for tho saw-
mills which ought to bo established on their borders, and then as a means of transpor-
tation for matoiial so provided. Yet all tbo lumber used is brought from Maine. Set-
ting aside tho woe Is as timber, what shall I say of tlie mass of fruits, resins, oils, color-
ing matter, testiio fabrics which they yield '! What surprised me most was to fnul
that a great part of this region was favorable to the raising of cattle. An empire
might esteem itself rich in any one of tho sources of industry which abound in this
valley; and yet tho greater part of its vast growth rots on tho ground, imd goes to
form a little more river-mud, or to stain the waters on the shores of which its nianifolii
products die and decompose. Althougli the rivers abound in delicious fish, large use
is made of salt cod imported from other countries ; and bread and butter are brought
from tho United States and ilngland."

Orton says of tho Valley of the Amazon : " It possesses the most agreeable and
enjoyable climato in tho world, with a brilliant atmosphere only equaleil by that of
Quito, and with no changes of seasons. Life may bo maintained with as little labor
as in tho Garden of Eilen. Perhaps no country in the world is ca])able of yielding so
largo a return for agriculture. Nature, ovidentlv designing this land as the home of a
great nation, has heaped up her bounties of every description : fruits of richest flavois,
woods of tho finest grain, dyes of gayest colors, drugs of rarest virtues, and left no
Birocco or earthquake to disturb its people."

*NoTK. — The length of tho Am.iznn is \cry v.'vriously given by ilifferoiit .authors, nccorilins .is tin y cnn-
giiler one or anotlier of the groat rivers whieli iinile to form it, to l>u llie main stream; for it liai'iiLiis lliat
the longer ones are not the larger. Thus Ironi l.ako I.anricdcha to rani, the<listanie imhuling «inilii:;;s
is estimateil at 2,740 miles; but if \\c cntisider the I'eiiynli as ilio main allluent, the ilistanco is alpi>iit
3,000 miles, Lieutenant riern(lon,eon!-i(lerin'» the still longer but smaller Iliiallagatolietlio true Amazon,
estimates the total length at ,1,!l4l miles, wliiili others re<ln(e to about 3,735 miles. The statement in the
text is the one which, on the whole, sccuis to he the mobt accurate. A. U. G.

A fill L, 1874.

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TllOl'ICAL VLGKTATION.

526

CTIAPTKll V.

;.1'

CIIARACTKRISTIC FORMS OF TUOriCAL VFGKTATION.

General Features of Tro](ic'iil Fores' * — Xunil)er of Sijccies of riiints — Tlio naobal) — Its GiRnn-

tic Size — Afje of the Gre< ^ ''' s — Dnif^on-Trees — The Great Dra^'on-Tree of Orotava —

The Sycamore — The Jianyan — The Sacred Ho-Trec — The Oldest Historical Tree — The
Teak — The Satin-wood — The Sandal Tree — The Ceiba — The Malio^;any Tree — The Mom
— The GuaJiin — IJaiid)oos — The Aloe — Tlio Agave— The Caeiiis — Tiie Screw I'ine —
Mimosas — Lianas — f'linihin;; Trees — Kpiphytes — Water Plants — Bnt tressed Trees — Trees
with Fantastic Uoots — Maiifjroves — Marsh Forests — I'ahns — The Cocoa Palm — Tiie Sajfo
I'alm — The Siij^uer Palm — Tlie Areea Palm — The Palmyra I'ulm — The Talipot I'alm —
Kiitans — The Date Palm — Oil Palms — Variety of Size, Form, Foliage and Fruit — Future
Commercial Value of tlie Palm.

"TTTTIEKEVEU in the tropical regions periodical rains saturate tlio eartli, vego-
V V table life expands in a wonderful variety of forms. In the higher latitudes
of tlio frozen north, a rapidly evanescent summer j)roduces hut few and rare flowers in
slicltered situations, soon again to disappear under the winter's snow ; in the temperate
zones, the number, beauty and variety of plants increase with the warmth of a genial
sky ; hut it is only where the vertical rays of an equatorial sun awaken and foster life
on immid grounds that over-youthful Flora appears in the full exuberance of her
creative power. It is only there we find the majestic palms, the elegant mimosas, the
largo-leafed bananas, and so many other beautiful forms of vegetation alien to more cold
and variable climes. While our trees are but sparingly clad with scanty lichens and
nios.ies, they are there covered with stately bromclias and won<lrou3 orcliids. Swcet-
sniciling vanillas and passifloras wiiul round the giants of the forest, and large flowers
break forth from their rough bark, or oven from their very roots.

"The tropical trees," says llumlmldt, "are endoweil with richer juices, ornamontod
with a fresher green, and decked with larger and more lustrous leaves tiian tliose of
tlio more northerly regions. Social ))lants, which render European )'egotation so
iiiiinotonous, are but rarely found witliin the trojjics. Trees, nearly twice as high
as our oaks, there glow with blossoms large and niaKiiificent as those of our lilies.
On the shady banks of the Magdalena river, in South America, grows a climbing
Aristolocliia, whose flower, of a circumference of four feet, the children, while play-
ing, sometimes wear as a helmet ; and in the Indian Archipelago the blossom
of the Rartlesia measures three feet in diameter, and weighs more than fourteen
pound,s."

Tile number of known plants is estimated at about 200,000, and the greater part of
this vast multitude of species belongs to the torrid zone. But if wc consider how very
imperfectly these sunny regions have as yet been explored, — that in South America

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THE TROPICAL WOULD.

enormous forost lands nnd river basins Iiavo never yet been viMted by a natnriili>t,

that tlio vegetation of tho greater part of Central Africa is still completely liidilcn in

w ■•■•

FOIIKST O.V THE PANAMA RAILROAD.

mystery, — that no botanist has over yet penetrated into tho interior of Mailiipi.-car,
IJorneo, New Guinea, South-western China, and IJltra-Gangetic India, — and that.

THE BAOBAB.

52"

moreover, many of tlio countries visitoil liy trnvclors liavo been but very superficiiilly
ami liu>tily exiiiiiined, — wo niny well doubt whetlier even oiio-fourlh part of llio tn)|)i('al
plants is ii<-tn:illy luiowii to sciciice. What a viist liclil for future naturalists! Wliat
prosiH'ctM fur till! triiilo and industry of future generations!

After tliese general remarks on tlio variety and exuberaneo of tropieul vegetation, I
sliall now lirietly review those jilants whieii, by their enormous size, their singularity
(if fiinn, or their freijuency in the; limilsc,i|M!, eliieliy eharaeterize the various regions
of the torrid zone in dili'erent paits of tin; globe,

Tlio African Haobab, or "monkey-bread tree," (Adinisoni'ii iii(/ifitln,) may justly
lie eailed the elephiint of the vegetable world. Near the villag(! Gumer, in Fassokl,
Ru^scgger saw a baobab thirty feet in diaiiH'ter and ninety live in eireutnferenee; the
liiirizdntally outstretehed branches were .-o large that the negroes eould (.'oirifortably
sleep u|ioii llieni. The Venetian traveler Cadamosto ( 1 I") I ) fnund, near the mouths
(if the Senegal, baobabs measuring nion; than a hundred feet in cireumferem^e. Ah
tiioso vegetable giants an; generally hollow, they an; frei|iii'iitly made us(; (if as dwell-
ings or staliles. Livingstdue nientinns one in which twenty (ir thirty men could lie
down and sleep, as in a hut. As the baobab Iiegins to (b.'cay in tlio part where the
trunk divides into the larg'r branches, and the process of destruetiim thenee continues
downwards, the liolluw s[iace fills, diu'lng tin? rainy seasdti, with water, which keeps a
l(ing time, from its being jirotected against the rays of the sun. 'J'he baobab thus
firms a vc</d(tb!e cistern.

The bight of the baobab does not cdrrespond tn its bulk, as it seldom exeiieds sixty
feet. As it is (if very rapid growth, it aei(uires a diaineler (if threi; (ir fuur fe(.'t and its
full al'itude in abdut tliirty years, and then enntinnes to gmw In circumfercnee. The
larger beam like branehos, alnidst as thick at their extremity as at their origin, are
uliruptly rounded, and then send fortii smaller branches, with large, light green, pal-
mated leaves. The bark is smooth and greyi>!i. The oval fruits, which are of the
size of large cuciunbers, and browui.-h yellow when rii)e, hang from long twisted spongy
stalks, and contain a wliite farinaceous substance, of an agreeable acidulated tasie,
enveloping the dark brown seeds. They arc a favorite food of the monkeys, whence
the tree lias derived one of its names. From tlie d(!pth of i\w. incrustations fdrnied du
the marks whieli the I'ortuguese navigaturs df the fifteenth century used to cut in the
large lianliabs which they fdund gn-wing im the African coast, and by comparing the
relative dimensions of .>-everal trunks df a kudwn age, Adanson Cdn(duded that a baobab
of thirty feet in dianu'ter must have lived at least "i.OOtI years; but a nidre careful
investigatidu (if the rapid gnnvth df the spdngy wood has reduced the age (if the giant
tree to more moderate limits, .and [iroved that, even in comparative youth, it attains
the lidary aspect of extreme senility.

Tlie baiiiiab belongs to the same family as t!io mallow or the lidllyboek. It range;?
over a wiilo extent df Africa, jiarticnlarly in parts where th(^ summer rains fall in
:;hiiiii|ance, as in Senegandiia, in Sdudan, and in Nidiia. Livingstone admired it;'
ciiliissal pnipdrtidiis un the banks df the Zduga and the Zandiesi ; under a great
baobab near this river lie the remains of his wife, whd bdre him eomjiany duiing hi.-i
journeyiiigs; ami William IVters found it on th(; ea.-tern coast, near 'H'P south
latitude. It fdrms a Cdnspicuous featiuM! in the landscape at .^buiaar in t^eylon.
icnnent found one of the largest, measuring upwards of thirty feet in cireumferenee,

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and anotlior at Piitton, sinco dt'stroyod l)y tlio iligijing of n woll iiiidtT
roots, wliieb, though but Hovunty f'uct hij^li, was forty-six fuel in girth.

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Dracaenas, or "dragon-trees," aro found growing on the west coast of Afrii-ii and
in tlio Capo Colony, in Bourlmn and in Cliina ; hut it is only in tlie (binary Islaniis,
in ]Madeiri, and Porto Santo, that thoy attain sueli gigantic diinoiK«ions as to entitle
them to rank among the vogetahic wonders of the world. Near Orotava, in Tem'-

DRACON-TRKK-SYCAMOUK-nANYAN.

^29

rilTL', Rlill flourishes llio vt'tirralilo tlrn^jon-troo, wliiili wns nlroaily rovnrcnpnd fur iti
n;:L' liy tlin cxtirimtod nation i>f tiiu (jiiaiiclifs, tliu alioriji;inal iiilialiitiints of tlio isltnd,
aii'l wliidi tlio nd venturous Hutht-ni'tiurts, tlie cinKjuornrs of tlio CanariuH, fnund iiardly
less c'oloMHal and cavurnoua in 1402 tlian lluiiilioldt. wiio visited it in IT'.l'J. Abuvo
thi' TDUtH, tiu! illustruus traveler measured a uireuuiterencu of forty-livu feet ; and no
cnnling to Sir Ueorgo Staunton, tlio trunk lius (-till u diainttfr of four yards, at an
I'lovatioii of ten feet above the (.nouiid. Tliu wiiolo hijjlit of the tree is not uiueli
al)ovc sixty Ave feet. The trunk divides into numerous upri^lit brunelies, terminating
ill tufts of ev(.'r!j;r(M!ii loaves, resemiilin;^ tlioso (if tlie |piii(.>-a|i|il('.

Nuxt to the liuoliai) and the draeiuna, the Sjatiimre ( l<'iciis si/romoriis) holds a eon-
fpioiious rank among the giant trees of Africa. It attains n liiglit of only forty or
fifty feet, but in tho course of many centuries its trunk swells to a colossal size, and
its vast crown covers a large space of ground with an impenetrable shade. Ita leaves
nro about four inches long and as many broad, and its ligs have aii excellent flavor.
In K;,'ypt it is almost the only grove-forming tree ; and most of the mummy collina
arc iiiado of its incorruptildo wooil.

No baoljab rears its monstrous trunk on the lianks of the Ganges ; no dragon-treo
of iiatiiarchal ago hero remiinls tiio waiulerer of centuries long past ; but tlio iieautiful
and btately Buni/nn [Ficits indica) gives him but little reason to regret their absence.
Each tree is in itself a grove, and soino of tliem arc of an astonishing 8izo, as they aro
continually increasing, ami, contrary to most otiier animal and vcgetaldo productions,
pcoiu to be exempted from decay ; for every branch from tho main body throws out it«
own roots, at lirst in small tender fibers, several yards from the ground, which contin-
ually grow thicker, until, by a gradual descent, they reach it.s surface, where, striking
in, they increase to a large trunk ami become a parent-tree, throwing out now branches
frnin tiic top. Tiiese in time suspend their roots, and, receiving nourisliment from
the earth, .swell into trunks and send forth other branches, thus continuing in a stato
(if progression so long as tho first |)arent of them all supplies her sustenance. Tho
Hindoos aro pe(!uliarly fond of this tree ; tlioy consider its long duration, its outstretch-
ing arms and overshadowing benelicpnce, as omldems of tho Deity ; they plant it near
tliiir temples; and in tho.so villages where there is no structure for puiilic worship
they place an imago under a banyan, and there perform a morning and evening sacrifife.
Many of these beautiful trees have accpiired an historic celebrity ; and tho famous
"Cubl)cer-burr," on tho banks of the Nerbuddali, thus called by the Hindoos in mem-
ory of a favorite saint, is supposed to bo tliesamo as that descrili(Ml by Nearclius, tho
admiral of Alexander tho Great, as being abl(> to .shelter an army under its far-spread-
ing sliaile. High floods have at various lliiics swept away a considerable part of this
extraordinary tree, but what still remains is near •2,(ii>0 f(.ot in circumfi-rcnce, m(;as-
urod round the principal stems; the overhanging bninciies not yet stru('k down cover
a much larger space ; and under it grow a number of custard-apple and other fruit
trees. Tho large trunks of this single colossus amount to a greater number than the
days of the year, and the smaller ones exceed .".OdO, puch constiintly sending forth
branches and hanging roots, to form other trunks and become the jiareiits of a future
progeny. In the march of an army it has been known to shelter 7,0U(i men. Such
is the banyan — i.nore wonderful, and inlinitcly more lii>«iutiful and m.'iiestic, than all
tliu temples and palaces which tho priile of the Moguls has ever -eared I
34

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THE TROPICAL WOULD.

The nearly related Pippul of India, or Bo-tree (Fi'cus religlosa), which differs
from the banyan by sending down no roots from its branches, is reverenced by the Bud-
dbiste as the sacred plant, under whose fliade Gotama, the foundor of their reliifion,
reclined when he underwent his divine transfiguration. Its heart-shuped loaves, which
like those of the aspen, appear in the profoundest calm to be ever in mntioo, are
eupposed to tremble in recollection of the mysterious scene of which they were the
witnesses. The sacred Pippul at Anarajapoora, the fallen capital of the ancient kiru's
of Ceylon, is probably the oldest historical tree in the world ; as it was planted 2H8
years before Christ, and hence is now 2,1.')0 years old. The enormous at^e of the bao-
babs of Senegal, and of the wondrous sequoias of California, can only be conjectured •
but the antiquity of the Bo-tree is matter of record, as its preservation has been an oliject
of solicitude to successive dynasties ; and the story of its fortunes has been preserved
in a series of continuous chronicles amongst the most authentic that have been liarHJed
down by mankind. The olives in the garden of Gethsemanc were full-grown when
the Saracens were expelled from Jerusalem, and the cypress of Somma in Lonibiirdy
is said to have been a tree in the time of Julius Cicsar. Yet the Ho-tree is older tliaii
the oldest of these by a century, and would almost seem to verify the proplieey pro-
nounced when it was planted, that it would "flourish and Ikj green forever." Tim
degree of sanctity with which this extraordinary tree has been invested in the iiiiiin;!-
nation of the Buddhists, may bo compared to the feeling of veneration with wliieh
Christians would regard the attested wood of the cross. At the present day the aspect
of the tree sugj^ests the idea of extreme antiquity : the branches which have ranihled
at their will far beyond the outline of its iuclosure, the rude pillars of masonry that
have been carried out to support them, the retaining walls which shore up the paront
stem, the time-worn steps by which the place is approached, and the grotcsriiu' earvii);i;s
that decorate the stonework and friezes, all impart the conviction that the tree which
they encompass has been watched over with abiding solicitude, and rugiinied witli an
excess of veneration that could never attach to an object of dubious authenticity.

Although far inferior to these wonders of the vegetable world in amplitude of growth,
yet the Teak tree, or Indian oak ( Tectona grandis), far surpasses them in value, aM thy
ship-worm in the water, and the termite un land, equally refrain from attacking its close-
grained str^nj^ly-sccnted wood ; and no timber equals it for ship-bu'lding purposes.
It grows wild over a great part of British India ; in the mountainous districts along
the Malabar coast, in Guzerat, the valley of the Nerbuddah, in Tenasserim and I'ogu.
In Java also the teak forest-- , both those of natural growth and those that have been
planted by the Dutch, are carofuUy administered. This tree, which requires a century
to attain its full diameter of iour feet, loses i»s leaves in the dry season, when the
grass and undergrowth of shrubbery is burnt, as the heat which is developed does tiic
trees no injury. The ashes afford an excellent manure, and the fire makes crevices and
rents in the soil, ♦lirough which the fertilizing rain can afterwards more easily |ionctrato
to the roots. In Ja\a the teak tree attains only a hight of eighty feet, inferior to its
loftier Hindostanic stature.

Among the numerous timber-trees of Ceylon, the Sai':uoood {Chloroxylon Svie-
tenia) is by far the firtit, in point of size and durability. All the forests aiouml Hat-
tiealoa and Trincomalce, and as far north as Jaffna, are thickly set with this vaiuahle
tree, under whose ample shade the traveler rides for days together. It grows to the

SANUAL—CEIBA— MAHOGANY— MORA.

531

hiffht of a hundred feet, with a rugged, gray bark, small, white flowers, and polished
leaves, with a somewhat unpleasant odor. Owing to the difficulty of carrying its heavy
beams, the natives cut it only near the banks of the rivers, down which it is floated to
tlio coast, whence largo quantities arc exported to every part of the colony. The
richly colored and feathery pieces are used for cabinet- work, and the more ordinary
loirs for building purposes, every house in the eastern province being floored and tim-
bered with satin-wood.

Tiic Sandal-tree, which furnishes the sweet-scented, 6ne-grnined wood, so highly
\)rized by the Chinese, and so much used in sniuU cubincts, escritoires, and siniihir
articles, because no insect can exist within its influence, also deserves to be noticed as
one of the most valuable productions of the Malabar coast. It chiefly grows on rocky
hills, and, if permitted, would attain a tolerable size, but, from its great value, is gen-
erally cut down at an early stage. On low land and a richer soil it degenerates, and i.s
in all respects less esteemed. A variety of the same tree, but furnishing a wood of
inferior quality, grows on many of the South Sea Islands ; but in many parts the
excessive avidity of the traders has almost caused its total extirpation. The sandal is
a beautiful tree; the branches regular and tapering; the leaf like that of the willow,
but shorter and delicately soft. The blossoms hang in bunches of small flowers, either
red or white, according to the color of the wood.

On turning our attention to Ameriia we find that Nature, delighting in infinite vari-
eties of development, and disdaining a servile copy of what she had elsewhere formed,
covers the earth with new anil no loss remarkable forms of vegetation. Thus, while in
Africa the baobab attracts the traveler's attention by its colossal size and peculiarity of
prowth, the gigantic CeilMt {Bmnbax coiha), belonging to the same family of plants,
riiises his astonishment in the forests of Yucatan. Like the baobab, this noble tree rises
imly to a moderate hight of sixty feet, but its trunk swells to suih dimensions that fif-
teen men are hardly able to span it, while a thousand may easily screen themselves
under its canopy from the scttrdiing sun. The leaves full oflf in January ; and then at
the end of every braneii bunches of large, glossy, purple-red flowers make their ap|)ear-
aiiec, afli)rding, as one may well imagine, a magnificent sight. In (iuiana the savages
take refuge upon the ceiba trees during the inundations. The seeds have an agree-
ublo taste, and are frequently eaten, as well as the young and mucihiginous leaves.

In Hriti.sh Honduras, in the neigliboriioiMl of IJaiize, and along the Motagua river,
the Mahogany tree {Swletenia maliaifoni) is found scattered in the forcst.s, attracting
the woodman's attention from a distance by its light-colored foliage. Such are its
dimensions, and such is the value of peculiarly fine specimens, that in Octol)er, 1S23, a
tree was felled which weighed more than sev(!n tons, and cost, when landed at Liver-
pool, above £'^'0 ; here it was sold for iCiV25, and the expense of sjjwing amounted
to X7J0 more ; so that the wood of this single tree, before passing into the hands of
the cabinet-maker, was worth as much as a moderately sized farm. The African
nialiogany wood is furnished by the near related K/iiii/d senci/aleusis, which likewise
towers to the higlit of a hundred feet, and has been transplanted to the Antilles,

"Heedless and banl;rupt in all curiosity must he be," says Waterton, "who can
journey through the forests of Guiana without stopping to take a view of the towering
Mora. Its topniost brancli, when naked with age, or dried by accident, is the favorite
resort of the toucan. Many a time has this singular bird felt the shot faintly strike

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532

THE TROPICAL WORLD.

bim from tho gun of tho fowler beneath, and owed his life to the distance betwixt
them. Tho wild fig tree, as large as a common English apple tree, often rears itself
from one of the thick branches at tho 'op of tho mora; and when its fruit is ripe, to it
the birds resort for nourishment. It was to an indigested seed passing through the
body of this bird, which had perched on tho mora, that tho tig tree first owed its
elevated station there. The sap of tho mora raised it into full bearing ; but now, in
its turn, it is doomed to contribute a portion of its own sap and juices towards tlio
growth of differoiii species of vines, the seeds of which also the birds deposited on its
branches. These soon vegetate and bear fruit in great quantities; ko what witii their
usurpation of the resources of the fig tree, and tlie fig tree of the mora, tiio morn,
unublo to support a charge wliich Nature never intended it should, languishes nv.<}
dies under its burden ; and then the fig tree and its usurping progeny of vines,
receiving no more succor from their late foster-parent, droop and perish in their turn."
Our stateliest oaks would look like pigmies near this "chieftain of the forests," who
raises his dark green cupola over all tlic ncigliboring trees, and dccei/cs tho traveler,
who fancies that a verdant hill ia rising before him. Its wood is much firmer than
that of the fir.

The graceful tapering form of the Graminece, or grasses, belongs to every zone;
but it is only in the warmer regions of the globe that we find the colossal Damhiisncece,
rivaling in grandeur tho loftiest trees of the primeval forest. Such is tho rapidity
of their growth, that in the Royal Botanical Garden of Edinburgh, a bamboo was
observed to increase six inches a day in a temperature of from Gijo to 70°. The
Bamhvsa gigantea of Rurmah has been known to grow eighteen inches in twenty four
hours ; and as the Jiambusa Tulda in Rengal attains its full bight of seventy feet in
a single month, its average increase can not be less than an inch per hour. In New
Grenada and Ecuador the Guadua, one of these giant grasses, ranks next to tiio
sugar-cane and maize as the plant most indispensable to nian. It forms detiso jungles,
not only in the lower regions of tho country, but in the valleys of the Andes, 5,000
feet above the level of the sea. The culms attain a thickness of six inches, tlie single
joints arc twenty inches long, and the leaves arc of indescribable beauty. A wluilo
hut can be built and thatched with the guadua, wliile the single joints are extensively
used as water vessels and drinking cups.

India, South Ciiina, and tlie Eastern Archipelago are the scats of the real bamboos,
which grow in a variety of genera and species, as well on tlie banks of lakes and rivers
in low marshy grounds, as in tho more elevated mountainous regions. They chiefly
form tho impenetrable jungles, the seat of the tiger and the python. Sometimes a
hundred culms spring from a single root, not seldom as thick as a man, and towering
to a bight of eighty or a hundred feet. Fancy the grace of our nieadow grasses,
united with the lordly growth of tho Italian poplar, aud you will have a faint iilea of
tho lieauty of a clump of bamboos.

The variety of purposes to which these colossal reeds can be applied almost rivnis
the multifarious uses of tho cocDa nut palm itself. Splitting the e(;Iin in its wlmlt'
length into very thin pieces, the industrious Chinese then twist them together into
strong ropes, for tracking their vessels on their numerous rivers and canals. 1 li«
sails of their junks, as well as their cables and rigging, .vrc made of bamboo ; and in
the southern province of Sechuen, not only nearly every house is built solely of tliis

ALOES— AGAVES— SCREW-PINE— CACTUSES.

633

strong cano, but almost every article of furniture which it contains — mats, screens,
chairs, tables, bedsteads, bedding — is of the same material. From the young shoots
they also fabricate their fine writing paper. In Mysore and Orizza the seeds of several
species are eaten with honey ; and in Sikkim the grain of the Praong, a small barn*
boo, is boiled, or made into cakes, or into beer. la Java, the prickly bamboo, whoso
wood is of such flinty hardness that sparks are emitted on its being struck with an
axe, and whoso formidable thorns project from every node, is used to form impenetrable
hedges.

The Aloes form the strongest contrast to the airy lightness of the grasses, by the
stately repose and strength of their thick, flosliy, and inflexible leaves. They gener-
ally stand solitary in the p.-xrclied plains, and impart a peculiarly austere or melancholy
clvaracter to the landscape. The real aloes are chiefly African, but the American
yuccas and agaves have a similar pliysiognomical character. The Agave Americana,
the usual ornament of our hotliouses, bears on a short and massive stem a tuft of
flesliy leaves, sometimes no less than ten feet long, fifteen inches wide, and eight inches
tiiick. After many years a flower .stalk twenty feet hig!i shoots forth in a few weeks
from the heart of the plant, expanding like a rich candelabrum, and clustered with
several thousands of greenish yellow aromatic flowers. But a rapid decline succeeds
this brilliant efflorescence, for it is soon followed by the death of the exhausted plant.

In Mexico, where the agave is indigenous, and whence it has found its way to
Spain and Italy, it is reckoned one of the most valuable productions of Nature. At
the time when the flower-stalk is beginning to sprout, the heart of the plant is cut out,
and the juice, which otherwise would have nourislied the blossom, collects in the hol-
low. About three pounds exude daily, duiing a period of two or three months.
Thus a single agave, or maguey, gives about a hundred and fifty bottles. But the
use of the agave is not confined to the production of a vinous liquor, as the tough
fibres of its leaves furnish an excellent niaterial for the strongest ropes, or the forma-
tion of coarse cloth. Long before the conquest of the country by Oortcz, the abo-
rigines applied the agave to a great variety of purposes. From it they made their
paper (pieces of which of various thicknesH are still found covered with curious hiero-
glyphic writing), their threads, their noodles (from its sharp points), and many arti-
cles of cliithinn; and cordajre.

The Pandantts odoratissimm, or Sweet smelling Screw-pine, whose fruits, when
perfectly mature, resemble largo richly-colored pine-apples, plays an important part in
the household economy of the coral-islanders of the South Sea. The inhabitants of
the Mulgravc Archipelago, where the cocoa-nut is rare, live almost exclusively on the
juicy pulp, and the pleasant kernels of the fruit. The dried leaves serve to thatch
their cottages, or are made use of as a material for mats and raiment. The wood is
hard and durable. They string together the beautiful red and yellow colored nuts for
ornaments, and wear the flowers as garlands. When the tree is in full blossom, the
air around is impregnated with delicious aromas.

The grotesque forms of the Cactuses possess the stiff rigidity of the aloes. Their
fleshy stems, covered with a gray-green coriaceous rind, generally exhibit bunches of
hair and thorns instead of leaves. The angular columns of the Ccrei, or torch cac-
tuses, rise to the hight of sixty feet, — generally branchless, sometimes strangely rami-
fied, oa candelubros, while others creep like ropoa upon the ground, or hang, saake-

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THE TROPICAL WORLD.

like, from the trees, on wbich tlioy arc parasitically rooted. The Opuntias are unsytti-
metrically constructed of thick, Hat joints springing one from tlie other, while tlio
melon shaped Echinocacti and Mammiliarias, longitudinally ribbed or covered with
warts, remain attached to the soil. The dimensions of these monstrous plants are ex-
ceedingly variable. One of the Mexican echinocacti {JH. Visnngn) measures four
feet in hight, three in diameter, and weighs about two hundred pounds ; while the
dwarf cactus {E. nana) is sq small that, loosely rooted in the sand, it frequently re-
mains sticking between the toes of the dogs that pass over it. The splendid purple
flowers of the cactuses form a strange contrast to the deformity of their stems, and the
spectator stands a.stonishcd at tlie glowing life that springs forth from so unpromisirinr
a stock. These strange compounds of ugliness and beauty are in many respects useful
to man. Tiic pulp of the melocacti, which remains juicy during the driest .season of
the year, is one of the vegetable .sources of the wilderness, and refreshes the traveler
after he has carefully removed the thorns. Almost all of them bear an agreeable acid
fruit, which, under the name of the Indian fig, is consumed in large quantities in tlic
West Indies and Mexico. The light and incorruptible wood is admirably adapted for
the construction of oars and many other implements. The farmer fences his garden
with the prickly opuntias ; but the services which they render, as the plants on which
the valuable cochineal insect feeds and multiplies, are far more important.

The cactu-ses prefer the most arid situation, naked plains, or slopes, where they are
fully exposed to the burning rays of the sun, and impart a peculiar physiognomy to a
great part of tropical America. None of the plants belonging to this family existed
in the Old World previously to the discovery of America ; but some species have
since then rapidly spread over the warmer regions of our hemisphere. The Nopal
( Cactus opnnlia) skirts the Mediterranean along with the American agave, and
from the coasts has even penetrated far into the interior of Africa, everywhere main-
taining its ground, and conspicuously figuring among the primitive vegetation of tlie
land. Although chiefly tropical, the cactuses have a perpendicular range, wliicii l)iit
few other families enjoy. From the low sand-coasts of Peru and Bolivia they ascend
through vales and ravines to the highest ridges of the Andes.

What a contrast between these deformities and the delicately feathered Mimosas,
unrivaled among the loveliest children of Flora in the matchless elegance of their
foliage ! Our acacias give but a faint idea of the beauty which these plants attain
under the fostering rays of a tropical sun. In most species the branches extend liori-
zontally, or umbrella-shaped, somewhat like those of the Italian pine, and the deep-
blue sky shining through the light green foliage, whose delicacy rivals the finest em-
broidery, has an extremely picturesque eflfect. Endowed with a wonderful sensibility,
many of the mimosas seem, as it were, to have outstepped the bounds of vegetable
life, and to rival in acutcness of feeling the coral polyps and the sea-anemones of the
submarine gardens. The Porliera hygrometrica foretells serene or rainy weather by
the opening or closing of its leaves. Large tracts of country in Brazil arc almost
entirely covered with sensitive plants. The tramp of a hor.se sets the nearest ones in
motion, and, as if by magic, the contraction of the small gray-green leaflets .spreads in
quivering circles over the field, making one almost believe, with Darwin and Dutro-
ohet, thui' plants have feeling

Among the most remarkable forms of tropical vegotatioD, the creeping plants, bush-

B ' ■' Tl

LIAN'AS— CLIMBING-TREES— EPIPHYTES— ORCHIDS.

835

ropes, or Lianas, that contribute so largely to the impenetrability of the forests, hold
a cor.spicuous rank. Ofton three or four bushropcs, like strands in a cable, join tree
to tree, and branch to branch ; others, descending from on high, take root as soon as
their extremity touches the ground, and appear like slirouds and stays supporting the
mainmast of a line-of-battlo ship ; while others send out parallel, oblique, horizontal,
and perpendicular shoots in all directions. Frequently trees above a hundred feet
hij;ii, uprooted by tlie storm, are stopped in their fall by these amazing cables of Na-
ture, and are thus enabled to send forth vigorous shoots, though far from their perpen-
dicular, with their trunks incliricd to every degree from the meridian to the horizon.
Thtiir heads remain (irmly supported by the bushropes ; many of their roots soon retix
themselves in tiie earth, and frequently a strong shoot will sprout out perpendicularly
from near the root of the reclined trunk, and in time become a stately tree. No less
pliiihlo than tough, the lianas of the western hemisphere are used by the Brazilians as
cordage to fasten the rafters of their houses, in the same manner as the equally flexible
ratatis are employed throughout the East Indian world.

The enormous Climbing Trees, that stifle the life of the mightiest giants of the forest,
offbr a still more wonderful spectacle. At first, these emblems of ingratitude grow
straight upwards like any feeble shrub, but as soon as they have found a support in
otlicr trees, they begin to extend over their surface ; for, wliilo the stems of other
plants generally assume a cylindrical form, these climbers have the peculiarity of di-
vesting themselves of their rind when brought into contact with an extraneous body,
and of spreading over it, until they at length enclose it in a tubular mass. When,
during this process, the powers of the original root are weakened, the trunk sends
forth new props to restore the equilibrium ; and thus this tough and hardy race con-
tinually acquires fresh strength for the ruin of its neighbors.

Several sp. 'ies of the fig-trees arc peculiarly remarkable for tWs distinctive prop-
erty, and from the facility with which tiieir seeds take root where there is a sufficiency
of moisture to permit of germination, arc formidable assailants of ai cicnt monuments.
Sir Emerson Tennent mentions one which had fixed itself on the wdls of a i-uined
edifice at Polanarrua, and formed one of the most remarkable objects of the place, its
roots streaming downwards over the walls as if their wood had once been fluid, and
fullowing every sinuosity of the building and terraces till they reached the earth.

On the borders of the Rio Guama, the celebrated botanist, Von Martins, saw whole
groups of Macauba palms encased by fig-trees that formed thick tubes round the shafts
of tlie palms, whose noble crowns rose high above tiicm ; and a similar spectacle o'c trs
in India and Ceylon, wlien the Tamils look with increa.sed veneration on their sacred
pippul thus united in marriage with the palmyra. After the incarcerated trunk has
been stifled and destroyeil, the grotesque form of the parasite, tubular, cork-screw like,
or otherwise fantastically contorted, and frequently admitting the light through inter-
stices like loopholes in a turret, continues to maintain an independent existence among
the straight-stemmed trees of the forest, — the image of an eccentric genius in the
midst of a group of steady citizens.

Like the mosses and lichens of our woods, E/uphytes of end!' ;-> variety and almost
inconceivable size and luxuriance (ferns, bromelias, tillandsias, orchids, and pothos)
cover ill the tropical zone the trunks and branches of the forest trees, forming hanging
gardens, far more splendid than those of ancient Babylon. While the Orchids are

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THE TROPICAL WORLD.

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distinguished by tho eccentric forms and splendid coloring of their flowers, somotimos
resembling winged insects or birds, tho Pot/103 family attracts attention by the beauty
of their large, tliiek-veined, generally arrow-shaped, digitated, or elongated leaves, aivl
form a beautiful contrast to tho stiff bromelias or the hairy tillandsias that conjointly
adorn the knotty stems and branches of the ancient trees.

In size of leaf, the Pothos family is surpassed by tho largo tropical water plants,
tho Nymphneas and Nelumbias, among which tho Victoria reijia, discovered in 1837
by Robert Schomburgk in tlie river IJerbice, enjoys the greatest celebrity. The rouiiil,
light green leaves of tliis queen of water-plants measure no less than six foot in diam-
eter, and are surrounded by an elevated rim several inches high, and exhibiting tlio
pale carmine-red of the under surface. Tho odorous white blossoms, deepening into
roseate hues, arc composed of several hundred petals ; and, measuring no less tlian
fourteen inches in diameter, rival the colossal proportions of tho leaves.

The trunk of several tropical trees olTors tlic remarkable peculiarity of bulging out
in the middle like a barrel. In the Brazilian forests, tho Pao Burrigudo arrests the
attention of every traveler by its odd vcntricoso shape, nearly half as broad in tho
centre as long, and gradually tapering towards the bottom and tho top, whence .spring
a few thin and scanty branches.

In other trees which, struggling upwards to air and light, attain a prodigious alti-
tude, or from their cp'^rmous girth and the colossal expansion of their branches require
steadying from beneath, wc find buttresses prr 'ecting like rays from all sides of tho
trunk. Tiicy arc frequently from six to twelve inches thick, and project from five tn
fifteen feet, and, as they ascend, gradually sink into tho bolo and disappear at tlio
hight of from ten to twenty feet from the ground. By the firm resistance which tlioy
offer below, the trees are effectually protected from tho leverage of the crown, ly
which they would otherwise be uprooted. Some of these buttresses are so .smooth
and flat as almost to resemble sawn planks ; as, for instance, in the Dumbar ceilm,
ono of the most remarkable examples of this wonderful device of Nature.

In other cases we find tho roots fantastically Spreading and reveling in a variety of
grotesque shape.", such as we nowhere find in tho less exuberant vegetation of Europe.
Thus, in the india rubber tree (Ficits clastica), masses of the roots appear above
ground, extending on all sides from the base, and writhing over tho surface in serpen-
tine undulations, so that the Indian villagers give it tho name of tho snake-tree. Sir
Emerson 'Tcnnent mentions an avenue of these trees leading to the botanical garden
of Peradenia, in Ceylon, the roots of which meet from either .side of the road, and
have .eo covered the surface, as to form a wooden frame work, the interstices of wliich
retain the materials that form the roadway. These tangled roots sometimes trail to
such an extent, that they have been found upwards of 140 feet in length, whilst the
tree itself was not thirty feet high.

The thorns and spines with which many European plants arc armed, give but a
faint idea of tho size which these defensive weapons attain in tho tropical zone. Tiie
cactuses, tho acacias, and many of tho palm trees, bristle with sharp-pointed shafts,
affording ample protection against tho attacks of hungry animals, and might apprnpri-
atcly be called vegetable hedge-hogs, or porcupines. The Toddalia aculeatn, a climb-
ing plant, very common in the hill jungles of Ceylon, is thickly studded with knobs,
about half ao inch high, and from the extremity of eaob a thorn protrudes, as large

I II'

THORNY PLANTS— MANGROVES.

887

and sharp as the bill of a sparrow-hawk. Tho black twigs of tho bufTulo-thorn (Acacia
latronum), a low shrub, abounding in northern Ceylon, arc beset at every joint by a
pair of tiiorns set opposite eacli otlier, like tho horns of an ox, as sharp as a nccdio,
from two to three inches in length, and thicker at tho base than tho stem they grow
on ; and the Acacia tomentosn, another nieniber of tho saino numerous genus, has
thorns so largo as to \i(\ called tii'^ jungle-nail by Europeans, and the clephaut-thora
by tho natives. In some of the.«j tlinrny plants, the spines grow, not singly, but ia
liianching clusters, each point presenting a spiko as sharp as a lancet ; and where
tlu'sc shrubs abound, they render the forest absolutely inipussablc, even to animals of
tiie greatest size and strength. The formidable thorny plants of tho torrid zone, which
are often made use of by man to protect his fields and plantations against wild beasts
and robbers, havo sometimes even been made to servo as a bulwark against hostile
invasions. Thus Sir Emerson Tcnnont informs us, that during the existence of tho
Kandyan kingdom, before its conrincst by tho British, tho frontier forests wore so
thickened and defended by dense plantations of thorny plants, as to form a natural
fortification impregnable to the feeble tribes on the other side ; and at each pass which
led to tho level country, movable gates, formed of the same thorny beams, were sus-
pended as an ample security against the incursions of t!io naked and timid lowlanders.

In tho tropical zone, wherever tho reflux of the tide exposes a broad belt of alluvial
soil, the shores of tlio sea, particularly along tho estuaries of rivers or in tho siiallow
lagnons, are generally found fringed with a dense vegetation of Mangroves. For no
plants arc more a(lmiral)ly adapted for securing a footing on the unstable brink of tho
ocean, — none arc better formed to lead an am[)hibious life. Tiie growth of these salt-
water loving trees is equally peculiar and ])icfuresquo. The seeds germinate on the
branches, and, increasing to a considerable length, finally fall down into tho mud,
where they stick, with their sharp point buried, and soon take root. The fruits of
many plants arc furnished with wings, that the winds may carry them far away and
propagate them from land to land ; others, enveloped in hard, waterproof shells, float
on tho surface of tho sea, and aro wafted by tho currents to distant coasts; but hero
we have a plant, tho seeds of which were destined to remain fi.\cd on an uncertain
soil, close to tho parent-plant, and surely this end could not have been attained in a
more beautiful manner ! As tho young mangrove grows upwards, pendulous roots
issue from tho trunk and low branches, and ultimately strike into the muddy ground,
where thoy increase to the thickness of a man's leg; so that the whole has tho appear-
ance of a complicated series of loops and arches, from five to ten feet high, supporting
the body of tho tree like so many artificial stakes. Their influence in promoting the
growth of land is very great, and in course of time they advance over tho .shallow bor-
ders of the ocean. Their matted roots stem tho flow of tho waters, and, retaining the
earthy particles that sink to the bottom between them, gradually raise tho level of the
soil. As the new formation progresses, thousands of seeds begin to germinate upon
its muddy foundation, thousands of cables descend, still farther to consolidate it ; and
thus foot by foot, year after year, the mangroves extend their empire and encroach
upon the maritime domains.

A whole world of interesting discoveries would hero, no doubt, reward the natural-
ist's attention ; but tho mangroves know well how to guard their secrets, and to repel
the ouriositjr of man. Should he attempt to invade t'neir domains, clouds of blood-

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THE TROPICAL WORLD.

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thirsty insects would instantly mako him rcpont of his temerity ; for the plactue of the
mosquitoes is nowhere more (Iremlful than in these thickets. Ami .sii|i|i(ising his
Bciontific zeal intense enough to hid d(>tiunco to the torture of their stings, and to t^corn

the attacks of every other vi>ihle foe — insect or serpent, crocodile or heast of prey

that may be lurking among the mangroves, yet the relloction may well hid him pause,
that j)oisonous vapours, pregnant with cholera or yellow fever, are constantly rising
from that muddy soil, lOven in the temperate regions of Europe the emanations from
marshy grounds are pregiiiint with disease, hut the malaria ascending from the sultry
morasses of the torrid zone is ahsolutely deadly. Thus there cannot possiiily he a
better natural bulwark for a land than to bo belted with mangroves; and if Horiico,
Madagascar, Celebes, and many other tropical islands and coasts, have to tlie prcscDt
flay remained free from the Kuropean yoke, they are j)rincipally indebted for their
independence to the miasms and tangles of a mangrove girdle, bidding delianeo alike
to the sharp edge of the axe or the destructive agency of fire.

Next to the mangroves, the Uruguicras, the Avicennias, the Sonncratias, and various
species of palms, such as the Nipafriitlcuns ami the Pltnnir ptihnlosn, a dwarf date-
tree, which literally covers the islands of the Sunderbund.>i, at the delta of the (janges,
form conspicuous features in the marsh-forests of the torrid zone. The magnificent
Avicenmu tomentosa, which, with a more majestic growth than the rhizopliora, raises
its crown to the hight of seventy feet, and is sjiid to flourish throughout the whole
range of the tropics as far as the flood extends, mixes with the mangroves, standing
like them on overarching nxits. The Sonnerntias (aciJa, ulhit) grows along the
marshy banks of the large rivers of India, the ^loluecas, and New Guinea; their roots
spread far and wide through the soft mud, and at various distances send up, like the
avicennias, extraordinarily long spindle-shaped excrescences four or live feet above tiio
surface. These curious formations spring very narrow from the root, expand as tlicy
rise, and then become gradually attenuated, occasionally forking, but ni'ver throwing
out shoots or leaves, or in any way resembling the parent root. For lining insect-
boxes and making setting boards they arc iuu"|uailed, as the finest pin passes in easily
and smoothly, and is held so firmly and tightly that there is no risk of tlie insects
becoming disengaged. In fact Nature, while forming thorn, .'<cems to have had tbo
entomologi.st in view, and to have studied how to gratify his wishes.

IJut of all trees none arc so distinctively characteristic of the Tropical World as the
dilTerent spin-ics of the I'alm. Tliey assume every viiriety of form, but all are beauti-
ful. We shall undertake to mention oidy a few of those which are of special utility
to n)an. The graceful Acant'.ms gave the imaginative Orceks the first iilca of tlio
Corinthian capital; but the shady canopy of the Coron-niit tree would form a still
more beautiful architectural ornament of architecture, were it po.«sible for art to iinitatc
its feathery fronds and carve their delicate tracery in stone. No cathedral has a pil-
lared aisle .so magnificent as the famous Avenue of Palms in the Botanical Garden of
llio de Janeiro. The ti-.ii stems rise to the higiit of eighty foet, and their overarching
branches interlace, fori'iing a roof whose beauty human hands can never imitate.

Es.sentially littfu-al, this noble palm re(|uires an atmosphere damp with the spray
and moisture of the sc i to acquire its full stateliness of growth ; and while along the
bleak shores of the Northorn Ocean the trees arc generally bent landward by the
rough sea breeze, and send forth no brs nches to face its violence, t"ie cocoa, on the

Tin: COCOA- PALM AND ITS USKS.

689

contrary, loves to bend over tlio rolling surf, and to drop its fruits into the tidal wave.
Wafted by tlio winds and currents over the sea, the nuts float along without losing
their germinating power, like other seeds which migrate tiirougli the air; and thus,
durini' the lapse of centuries, the cocoa-palm has spread its wide domain from coast to
coast throughout tlio whole extent of the tropical zone. It waves its graceful fronds
over the cmeralil islands of the Pacific, fringes tlio West Indian shores, and from tho
Philippines to Madagascar crowns the atolls, or girds the sea-board of the Indian
Ocean. But nowhere is it met with in
su'ii abundance as on tho coasts of Cey-
l(jn, where for miles and miles one con-
tinuous grove of palms, preeminent for
beauty, encircles the " Eden of the east-
ern wiivj." Multiplied by plantations
and fostered with assiduous care, tho total
number in tlie island cannot i)e less than
twenty millions of full-grown trees; and
Bucii is its luxuriance in those favored dis-
tricts, where it meets with a rare combina-
tion of every advantage essential to its
growth, a sandy and pervious soil, a free
and genial air, unobstructed solar heat,
and abundance of water, that, when in full
bearing, it will annually yield as much as
a ton's weight of nuts — an examjile of
fruitfulness almost unrivalled even in the
torrid zone.

No other tree in the world, no other
plant cultivated by man, contributes in so
many ways to his wants and comforts as
this inestimable palm. Besides furnish-
ing their cliief food to many tribes on tho
coast within the torrid zone, tho nut con-
tains a valuable oil, which burns without
smoke or smell, and .serves, when fresh,
fur culinary purposes.

The fibrous rind or husk of the nut fur-
nislies the coir of commerce, a scarce less
important article of trade than the oil it.self.

AVKNTK OF PALMS — BIO DE .TANEIRO.

It is prepared by being .soaked for some

months in water, for the purpose of decomposing the interstitial pith, after wliich it is
lieaten to pieces until the fibres have completely separated, and ultimately dried in tho
sun. Ropes made of coir, though not so neat in appearance as hempen cords, aro
snperior in liglitncss, and exceed them in durability, particularly if wotted frequently
'7 salt water. From their elasticity and strength they are exceedingly valuable for
cables. Besides cordage of every calibre, beds, cushions, carpets, brushes, and nets
are manufactured from the filaments of the cocoa-nut hu.sk, while the hard shell is
fashioned into drinking-cups, spoons, beads, bottles, and knife'handles. From the

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THE TROPICAL WORLD.

*patho« of tho unoponcd flowers a delicious " toddy " ia drawn, which, drunk at sun-
rise licforc feriiientiition has taken place, acts as a cooling, gontlo aperient, but in a few
hours clianges into an intoxicating wine, and may bo distilled into arrack. Tho stron'^
tough foot-stalks of tho fronds, which attain a length of from eighteen to twenty fi-ot
are used for fences, for yokes, for cavrjing burdens on tho shouhlerH, for fishing rods •
tho leaflets servo for roolling, for mats, for baskets, for cattle-fodder ; and their mill-
ribs form good brooms for tho decks of ships. Cooked or stewed, tlic cabbuirn or
cluster of uncxpanded lea 'cs is an excellent vegetable, though rarely used, as it nccps-
sarily involves tho destruction of the tree ; and even tlie tough web or network, wliidi
sustains the foot-stalks of the leaves, may bo stripped off in largo pieces and used for
straining. After tho cocoa-nut tree has ceased to bear, its wood serves for many val-
uable purposes — for tho building of ships, bungalows, and huts, for furniture and
farming implements of every description ; and, as it admits of a fine poii-h, and its
reddish ground color ia beautifully veined with dark lines, it is frcrjuently iniimrtcd
into England under tho name of porcupine-wood. When wo consider tiic many Iwno-
fits conferred upon mankind by this inestimable tree, wo cannot wonder at tho ani-na-
tion with which tho islander of the Indian Ocean recounts its " hundred uses," nr at
the superstition which makes him belicvo that by some mysterious sympathy it pines
when beyond tho reach of tho human voice.

In every zone wo find nations in a low degree of civilization living almost oxclu-
Bively upon a single animal or plant. The Laplander has his reindeer, the Fjiininiau
bis seal, tho Sandwich Islander his taro-root ; and thus also wo find the natives of a
great part of tho Indian Archipelago living almost exclusively upon the pith of the
Sago palm. Of this tree, which is of such great importance to tho indolent Malay,
ns it almost entirely relieves him of tho necessity of labor, wo shall speak hcreaftor, in
connection with its use as furnishing nutrition to man.

The Saguer or Gomuti, the ugliest of palms, but almost rivaling tho 'ocoa-nut trco
by the multiplicity of its uses, is likewise a native of tho Indian Arcliipelago. On
seeing its rough and swarthy rind, and tho dull dark-green color of its fronds, tho
stranger wonders how it is allowed to stand, but when ho has tasted its delicious wino
ho is astonished not to see it cultivated in greater numbers. Although tho outer cov-
ering of the fruit has venomous qualities, and is used by tho Malays to poison sprinn;s,
the nuts have a delicate flavor, and the wounded spathe yields an excellent to(My,
which, like that of tho cocoa nut and the palmyra palm, changes by fermentation into
an intoxicating wine, and on being thickened by boiling furnishes a kiml of black sugar,
much used by tho natives of Java and the adjacent isles. The reticulum or (ilnous in't
nt tho base of tho petioles of the leaves constitutes tho gumatty, a substance adinirahly
•dapted to the manufacture of cables, and extensively used for cordage of every di'-
Bcription. Tho gumatty is black as jet, tho hairs extremely strong, and reseinlilin;;
coir, except that they are longer and finer. Tho small, hard twigs found mixed up
with this material arc employed as pens, besides forming the shafts of the suinpits, or
little poisoned arrows of the Malays, and underneath the reticulum is a soft silky ma-
terial, used aa tinder by tho Chinese, and applied as oakum in caulking tho seams of
chips, while from the interior of the trunk a kind of sago is prepared.

Tho Areca palm (Areca Catechu) bears a groat resemblance to the cocoa-nut tree,
but is of a still more graceful form, rising to the hight of forty or fifty feet, without

THE AUECA, PALMYRA, AND TALU'OT TALMS-UA lAXS. .VU

»ny incr|uality on its tliin polislicd stein, wliit-h is ilark-grccn toward-" tlio top, ami bus-
tuiiis a crown uf fuutliery t'uliagc, iu tliu midst of wiiIl-Ii aro clusiturcd tliu astrin^^ont
nutx, for whoso sake it is earufully tendod. In llio gardens of Ceylon tbo areca |ialm
in invariably planted near the wells and water-oonrse.", and the betel plant, wliieli iniuio-
moiial custom has associated to its use, [■* freijncntly seen twining round its trunk.

Tlie I'dliiiyrn palm, the sacred Tal^^aliu 'if the IJrahminieal Tamils of Ceyi'iii, ex-
tends from the ('oMfnies of Araliia to the Mohu'cas, and is found in every region of
llindostan from the Indus to Siani, the cocoa and the date tree being [irobalily the only
|i:iliiis thatenjiiy a slill wider geographical range. In northern Ceylon, anil particularly
ill tlie peninsula of diitfiia, it forms extensive forests; and such is its importance in
tbc Southern Dekkan and along the Coroinandel coast, that its fruits allord a compen-
sating resource to seven millions of Hindoos on every oeeasiou of famine or failure of
tlio rice crop. Unlike the cocoa-nut palm, which gracefully bends under its ponderous
crown, the |ialmyra rises vertically to its full higlit of .seventy or eighty feet, and pre-
sents a truly mtijestic .sight when laden with its huge clusters of fruits, each the sizo
of an ostrich's egg, and of a rich brown tint, fading into briglit golden at its base.
Tlie I'almyra rivals tlie eoeoa-niit ami the gomuti by its many u-ses, and Hindoo poota
eelelnate the numerous blessings it confers upon inankiiul.

The Talipot of the Singalcsc ri.ses to the hight of one hundrod feet, and expands
into a crown of enormous fandiko leaves, each of which when laid upon tho ground
will form a .semicircle of sixteen feet in diameter, and cover an area of nearly two
litimlred superficial feet. These gigantic filiaci'ous expansions aro employed by the
Cingalese for many purpo.ses. They form excellent fans, uiidirellas, or portable tents,
one leaf being suflieient to shelter seven or eight persons; but their most interesting
use is for tho manufacture of a kind of paper, so durable as to resist for many ages tho
ravages of time. Tho leaves .ire taken whil>t ftill tender, cut into strips, boiled iu
jpriiig water, dried, and finally smoothed and polished, so as to enable them to bo
written on with a style, tho furrow made by tho pressure of tho .sharp point being ren-
dered visible by the application of charcoal ground with a fragrant oil. Tho leaves of
the palmyra similarly prepared aro used for ordinary purposes; but the n)ost valuablo
books and documents aro written to-day, as they have been for ages past, on ola$ or
strips of the talipot.

The Rutans, a most singular genus of creeping palms, luxuriate in tho forests of
tropical Asia. Sometimes their slender stems, armed with dreadful spines at every
joint, climl) to tho summit of tho liigliest tree; .sometimes they run along tho ground;
and while it is impossiltio to find out their roots among tho intricate tangles of tho
matted underwood, their palmdiko topes expand in tho sunshine, tho emblems of
successful parasitism. They fre(|uently remler the forest .so impervious, that tho dis-
lingui.shcd naturalist Junghuhn, while exploring the woods of Java, was obliged to bo
•ii'coinpanied by a vanguard of eight men, one half of whom were busy cutting tho
rataiis ,vith their h.itchets, while tho others removed tho stems. These rope-like plants
frequently grow to the incredible length of four or even six hundred feet, often con-
sisting of a couple of hundred joints two or three feet long, and bearing at ev»-ry knot
a feathery loaf, armed with thorns on its lower surface. Tennent mentions having
seen a specimen two hundred and fifty feet long and an inch in diameter, without a
"ingle irregularity, and no appearance of foliage other than the bunch of feathery leuvoa

' It

i t

■h;

-!*

,!-(!?:*■.!

\

m 1

m

m

\m^ ■

Ma

Tin: TUOriCAL WORM).

nt tlio oxtrpniity. Tlion;»li often ((xtrumcly ilif<nKret!altlo to the trftvclcr, yet tho ratnns
aru far tVoiii Mujt unu\i>>s. Tlit> niktivoH nf Jiivii ami the otliur iMlumlM of tlw Kastirii
Arr|ii|ii'l!i;rii cut llui caiitj into line slijis, wliicli tlit>y pliut iiitii Ix-autiful inat", nmiiii.
t'ai'turu into strung ami iioat liahki'ts, or twist into conla^c ; ami tix'y art' alixi cxtin-
uivi'iy fxportotl to Kurojii', wliuro tlioy are cliit-Hy cniployt'il for the iiiakiiig ot chair
bdllolllH.

On turnin}; from Asm to tlie a(ljoiniii;r continent of Africa, we fiml a new world i<f
palms, several of whieli are no less valuali!" than tlie (•oe<iaiiiit or the palmyra, citln r
BH attiirilini; food, or enriching; liy tlu^ir produce tin; eomnieree of the world.

The Dtitetree, «ung from lime immemorial l)y tho |M»etH of the I'last, is as indi«|Hiii.
nliie as the camel to tlut inhahitants of the wastes of Nortii Africa and Arali, i, aii<l,
next to the "ship of the desert," the devout Mussulman esteems it the chiif ;;ift (if
Allah. Few |ialms have a wider ran^e, for it extends from the Persian (iuit tn tin-
borders of the Atlantic, and llourishes from tho twelfth to tiie thirty-seventh dci^'no
of northern latitude, (jinves .if dates adorn the coasts of Valencia in Spain; nciir
(ieiioa its plantations afl'ord leaves for the eeleliration of I'alm Sunday ; and in tliu
gardens of southern Kraiu^e a date tree sometimes mixes amonjir the oran^^es and olives.
Uut it never hears fruit on these northern limits of its empire, and thrives hot in the
oases on the borders of the satiily de.-ert. Here it is cultivated with the greatest care,
and irrigated every morning; for, tiiough it will grow on an arid soil, it alisolutrly
reipiires water to bo fruitful. It is not to iio wondered at that the tribes of tlie desert
HO highly value a free which, by enabling a family to live on the prodtioe of a small
spot of ground, extends as it were the bounds of tla; green islands of the desert, and
randy disappoints the industry lliat has been bestowed on its<'ulture. It is eoiisidiTiMl
criminal to fell it while still in its vigor, and both the Hible and the Koran forliiil llic
warriors of tho true (iod to apply tho axe to the date trees of nn enemy.

Thus various forms of palms tlourish along the banks of (he Nile, but in general
Africa has a less number of these trees to boast (»f than eith;'r Asia or America. On
the other hand, neither India nor lirazil have pain of su(di vast eonunercial iinpur-
tniiee as thi! Coros bulyracea, and tho EUtis (jiiuicriisis, the oil-teeming fruit trees nt
tropical West Afiica. The productiveiu'ss of the Kheis may be inferred from its bear-
ing clu.sters of from ()'»() to H(M> n\its, larger than a jngcon's egg, and so full of oil that
it may bo j)res.sed out with tho fingers.

Hesides tho bight of the shaft, the position of the leaves servos eliiefly to impart a
more or less majestic character to the palms: those with droojiing leaves being far less
ritafely than those who.sc fronds .shoot more or less upwards to the skies. Nothing can
exceed the elegance of the Jagua palm, which along with the splendid Cucinito a lorns
the granite rocks in the cataracts of the Orinoco at Atures anil Maypures. The frmid-^,
which are but few in nundier, ri.so alnn)st perpendicularly sixteen feet high, from tin;
fop of the lofty columnar shaft, and their feathery leaflets of a thin and grassdike texture
play lightly round the tall leaf-.stalks, slowly bending in the breeze. The physiogiminy
of the palms depends also upon the various character of their etlloiesccnco. The s|tatlie
is s(ddo!ii vertical, with erect fruits; generally it hangs downwards, sometii.ies smooth,
freiiuently armed with large thorns.

In the palms with a feathery foliage, the leaf-.stalks rise either immediately from the
brown rugged ligneous trunk (cocoa-nut, date), or, as in tho l)eivatiful Palma Uual of

•■*>

ii»._

DIlFKKKN'r Sl'KflKS OF TALMS.

M3

tlip Ilavnna, fnini a miUMith, ulcnder, and groHsgroon Hliuft, |ilucorl liko an •dilitinnal
eoliiiiiti ii|Miii tlio ilarkcKlcpiutl trunk. In tlio f;(n-|iilin«, tliu crown fnniucntly resU
upon a lu)ur of driud h'livt'x, wli'uli iui|mrt n m'vi'M' cliarartt'r to tlio truo.

Tlio form of tlie trunk also varies grt-atly, soinotimes almost entirely disappearing. U
in V/iamarops liumilis ; somutimos, as in the Calami, assuminj,' a bush rope appear-
ance, smajtli or rugged, unarmed or bristling with spines. In the American Yriarteaa,

'<l

•• llll

■■/ r

^•If^

-H ,3l

844

THE TROPICAL WORLD.

tbe trunk, ns in tho mangroves, ond many of tho Rcrcw-pincs, rests upon a number nf
roots rising above tlio grouiiil. Thus tbo V. exorrhiza, whi>;li grows on tbo bunks
of tho Amazon to tho biglit of a hucdrcd feet, frequently stands upon a dozen or moro
supports, embracing a circumference of twenty feet, and the trunk begins only six or
eiji^ht feet from tiie ground. Tiio Yriartea teniiicosa is still moro curious, as tho
spindle-^hupi'd trunk, which at the top and at tho bottom is searco a foot thick, swells
in tho michllo to a threefold diameter, and, from its convcnicDt form, is freuuently
used by the Indians for tiio construction of their canoes.

Tho form and color of tbo fruits is also extremely various. What a difTerciici'
between tho largo coco do mcr and the date — between tho egg shaped fruits of tin;
Mauritia, whose scaly dark rind gives them the appearance of fir-cones, and the gold
and purple peaches of tho Pirijao, hanging in colossal clusters of sixty or eighty from
the summit of the majestic tru-ik. Notwithstanding tho fecundity of the palms, gen-
erally but few individuals of each species are fouud growing wild, partly in conso-
quencc of tho frequent abortive development of tho fruits, but chiefly on account of
tho largo number of animals — from tho grub to tho monkey — that are constantly feed-
ing upon them.

When wo consider tho enormous range of territory over which tho palm-trees
extend, and how very few of their many hundred species have hitherio been multiplied
and imo'-oved by cultivation, wc can not doubt that many benefits aro yet to bo
expected from them, and that they will at somo day rank high in tho commercial
unnals of tbo world.

H 1

KK.E AND ITS CTI/nVATlON.

615

CHAPTER Vr.
THE CIIIICF NUTRITIVK PLANTS OF THK TROPICAL WORLD.

Kice— Aspt'i'ts of Hicc-Kii'lils at Difleront Scnsmis — The Rico-Ficlils of Ceylon — LadniiR and
Sinv:i Kill — Kice in South ('aruHiia — Tlie HiceHIni — I'luldy — .Miiize — When tirst hroii^ht
to Kiirojii' — A|p|n'iiriiiRi' of the 'I'liiiit — Il.s Knonnoii.s I'roiliietiveiiess — Freedom from l)i»-
Msc — Wiih' Kxient of itii Ciiitivatioii — Heiiiaiiiin Fraiiknn's Aeeoiint of Maize — Millet —
The Hread-Friiii — Its 'I'aste — Modes of Cookint; — The Hnnnna and Plantain — Their fireat
rrodiirtiveness — The >'u;.ro Palm — Maniifacliire of Sat;o — Sa(,'o Bread — Cheap liivi-n; — A
Sifia and Starvation — The (.'assava — Yatns — The Sweet Potat — Arrow Koot — The Taro
Knot — Tropical Fruits — The Chirimoya — The Litehi — The Mangontccn — Tlie MRngo—
Tlie Durion — Its Taste ami Smell — Larue Fruit on Tail Trees.

OF all till! eereiils tlierc is none tliat afi'ords food to wi many liiiman beings ns tho
liice-Pldiit, { <)ri/:(i sativti,) u|)<iii wlmse j;rains frotii time iiiinicinoria' tlio
cimiitl(!.>^s millions of Soiitli-eastem Asia Imve eliii.'fly sultsist(Ml. It forms the staple,
niie mii^lit almost say the only fooil, of a tlijnl of the inhabitants of the globe. Tho
fiiiliiru of tho riee crop for a single season iti Imlia or Ohina causes a famine compared
witli which the potato famine of Ireland was nothing. From its primitivi! seat iti
Imlia, the rice-plant has grailually spread n;)t only over the whole Tropical V'orld,
liiit far beyond its Itounds ; for it thrives alike in the swamps of South Carolina and
upmi the plains bonlering tho Danube and the Po. Along the low river banks, in
till! ileltalands which the rains of the trojiics annually change into a boundles^ lake, or
whern, by artificial (!inlianknicnts, the waters of the nuiuutiiin streams !iave been eol-
ledfd into tanks for irrigati-.m, the rice-plaiit attains its utmost luxuriance of growth,
iiml imt rarely deceives the hopes of the htisbatidman.

Till! aspect of tiic lowland i ice-fields of India and its isles is very diflfcrent at various
scisoiis of the year. Where, in Java, for instance, y">i >*''*' today long-legged herons
f;r;iv('ly stalking over tlic inundated |iiaiii partitioned by small <lykes, or a yoke of
inijiili'iit Imft'aliM's slowly wading throiigti the mud, you will three or four months later
Im I'll iiied by the view of a gracefully undulating wheat-field. Cords, to wliiidj scare-
I'liiws are attached, traverse t!ie field in every direction, and converge to a small
witililiouse, erected on high poles. Here tlie attentive villager sits, like a spider in
till! center of its web, and, liy pulling the cords, puts them from time to time into
nintioii. whenever the wind is uiuviHing to undertake the oflico. Then the grotesijue
:mi'1 imisy figures begin to rustle and to caper, and whole lli.eks of the neat little rice-
liiid or ilava sparrow rise on the wing, and hurry off with all tho haste of guilt v fright.
.\fii'r niiotlicr month has elapsed, and the waters have long since evajmnited or been
"i'li'lrawn, the harvest takes phuc, and the rice-fields are enlivened by a motley
'I'f'W'l. for all the villagiTS, old und y"ung, ore bii!«y leaping the goMcn onrs.
86

m

m

■m

» I ■

'iti

m

i ' fli

W .]^^^-

51! iff ^ a

■l!

I

51(1

THE TUOPTCAL WOKLO.

Tlio ricc-fiL-Ms offer a peeulifirly (iliarminj^ |iif!tur« wlicii, as in tlm inountiiiii viilLys
of Ceylon, tliey ri.xc in tcrraci.-s aloii;^ tin; slopus. •' Soluctinn," says Sir Kmiuixhi
TotMK.'ut, " an aiii^nlar recess wliero two liills eonveri^e, tlit! Kanilyaris eiiii>tniet a
."cries of terraces, raised staj^o aliovu staji^o, ami rotirinj^ as tliey asi/eiid aloiiir tin, sloiio
of tlio acclivity, up wliicli they are carriutl as liij^li as tlio soil extends. Kail, ti'iiiice
is furnished with a low ledjije in front, heliind which tho rei|ui>il,! depth of water is
retained dnrinj^ the f^erniination of tho seed, and what is supertl'iou.s is perinittcij to
trickle down to the one lielow it. In order to carry on this peculiar cultivaiidii tin;
streams uru led aIon<; tlie level of the iiill.s, often from a distance of many inilis, wlili
a skill and perseverance for which the natives of tliese mountains have attained a {jrcat
renown. Mai^ of tho tanks, thou^^h partially in ruin.s, cover an area from ten to
fifteen miles in circumference. They are now fi;enerally broken an<l decayed ; tliu
waters, which would fertilize a province, are alloweil to waste tliem.selves in the .-^amls;
a!id hundreils of .s(|uare miles, capalile of furnishinj; food for all the inhaliitaiits «\
('eylon, are .aliandoned to solitiidt! and malaria; whilst rice f<ir the support of thu non-
a(^ricullural po|)ulation is annually imported from the opposite coast of India.''

Kice docs not invarlahly rc'inire the marsh or the irrij^ated terrace for its uniwtli, ,i,s
there is a variety which tlirives on tho .slopes of hills, wiicre it is not eontinunii«lv
watered. In the mountain re;i;ions of f?umatra, rains fall at almost every sca^ni of
the year, thouj^h dry weather is more frei|uent from April to July. In A'^fjii-t, tlio
rainy days are as throe to one, and this is the time generally ehos(.'n for the sowin;; u(
th(! LdildiKj, or mountain rice. After the harvest, the field is sown a seconil liniu
with maize; it then lies fallow for a few years, and is soon covered with a thick vcj^e-
talion of wild shruliliery, generally with i/i I'/u/i, a species of grass which attains a
hight of twelve feet. When the field is agai».< to lo cultivated, fin, is rcMntcd m. lu
destroy the dense jungle, in which tlie tiger has made his lair, or where ihi; rliiiincenH
grazes. At night, the>e fires, ascending the slopes of the mo\witain<, present a fine
hight; during the day timt;, they cover the land with a dun mist. The r.'i|(iility witli
which the dry culms of the glag,.h take fire is not .seldom dangerous to the truvilcr
when his path leads him acro.>-s the slope (»f a hill at whose foot tlu; grass-lidd hcgiiis
to hum, for the rustling firecoUunns ascend with the swiftne.-'S of the wind, and simii
wra|) ihe side of the m(nintain in a sheet of flame. Tho ash<'s of the glagah aHunl tlio
richest manure, so that these fields are only surpa.ssed in fertility hy the virgin si'il ct'
the cleared forest, a laborious work, which is .seldom undertaken in this thiuly-popuiatnl
country.

^(iicti is the general Malay name for artificially-irrigated rice-fields. In the rMiiinn
Archipelago, tho wiwa, or marsh rice, is at first thickly sown in small beds, and iran-
planted after a fortniglit into the fields, the .^lil of which has been softened by water.
As th(! plant grows, copious irrigations supply it with the necessary moisture ; but ;is
maturity approaches, the fichl is laid dry, and ;ibout two monttis later the ears assuiiio
the rich gidden color so ploa.sing to the husbandman. Kach field could easily 1"'
made to produce two atunial harvests; but, when not comprdled to iaiior, ti\.^ tn'piiid
peasant never thinks of taxing his indust-y beyond tho .supply of !iis innncdiate wants.

Tho swamps of South (.'andina, both those which are occasioned by the periiMlical
visits of the tiiles, and those which arc caused by the overflowing of the rivers, are
admirably adapted to tho production of rice ; yet the culture of the valuable cereal on

! ;nr5

KICK— MAIZK.

f.47

tiiiii v:ill,_vs
ir KiiiuiM.ii
Cdii.stnn'i ;i

yS, tlio slniiu
Vicli tl'lTiirt!

lit' water is
|M!riiiittt'(l to
Itivminii till'
' iiiilt's, with
iiiL'il a j;ri lit
from tfii to
rciiyi'(| ; till'
II llic .'iilnU;
li;iliit:ilit.s lit'
t lit' tin; lioii-
liu."

ts ijrowlli, IIS
(•iiiitiiiiiiiii>ly
■ry si'ii.-ipii lit'

A'i;;ii^t, till'
he sowing uf

st'Ciiiul tiiiiu
it tliii'k VI ire-
icli iiiiiiiii- It
I'snrtt'il III, III
111! rliiiiiii'i-"i>s
irt'st'iit a liiii'

rii|iiiliiy Willi
I till' tnivrlrr
s-lii'lil lii'ir'nis
1, ami i-iii'ii

ill iiH'oni till!

nri;iii H'il nt'
y-jiii[piiiaiiil

lliii [iiiiiaii
«, iimi traii>-

il liy wiiliT.

tiirc ; liiit as

cars as-uiiii;

111 easily III!

the trniiieal
iliate wants,
ic peril iilii'iil
ii' rivers, are

le eeival mi

tills conj»oniitl soil Is of comparatively modern ilatc. Ahout tho beginning of the last
I'liitury, a lirigantine from the island of Madagascar lia|)|H'ned to jiut in at Carolina,
having a little seed-rico le<'t, which tho captain gave to a gentleman of tho name of
Wool 1 ward. From part of thi.s, the latter had a very good crop, but was ignorant for
some years how to dean it. It was soon dispersed over tho colony, and, by freiiuent
oxiieriiiients and observations, the planters ult'.nately raised tho culture to its present
|iert'i;('tion. By tho introduction of this water-loving cereal, various swamps which
jircviously had only afforded food to frogs and water-birds, have l>een changed inti»
tliu mo.'t fruitful fields, so that South Carolina not merely supplied tho whole of tho
United States with all the rice they require, but also annually exported more than a
humlred thousand large casks to tho various markets of Europe.

Ik'sides the devastations which tho atmosphere of tho rice-fields causes among his
laliorers, the planter freipiently sutl'urs heavy losses in consetiueiice of the depredations
lit the rice-liunting (Dolicfiont/x ori/zirorus), a species of ortfdan, known familiarly by
till' name of bobolink. This iiird is about six or seven inches long; its head and tho
uniler part of its body aro black, the upper part is a mi.^turo of black, white, and
vi'llow, and the lejrs are red. Ii mijirates over the continent of America "rom Labra-
lior to Mexico, and over the (ireat Antilh^s, appearing in the southern extremity
(if the States about the end of March. During tho three weeks to which its un-
wileoiiie yisit to tho rice-fields is usually limited, it grows so fat upon the milky
L'raiiis of its favorite cereal, that its flesh beeomes equal in flavor to ttiat of the Euro-
[leaii ortolan. As long as the female is sitting, tho song of the male continues with
little interruption: it is singular and pleasant, consisting of a jingling medley of short,
variable notes, 0<juf'used, rapid and continuous.

bap^e i(uaiitities of rice are supplied to Europe from IJrazil, Java, Bengal, and
of late years from Arracan and I'egii. Most of the Arrairan rice is exported in tho
uiisliL'Iled state, or as jxiddi/, and cleaned in Europe, where the operation can bo moro
I'tfi'itiKilly and cheaply pi-rformed than in tho country of [irodiiction. Tho loss by
waste is also found to be less on the transport of juiddy than of shelled rice.

Maize is no less important to the rajiidly growing nations of America than tho rice-
|iliint to tho followers of Huddh or of lirama; and when hereafter tho banks of tho
Mississippi, of tho Amazon, and of tho Orinoco, shall be covered by as dense a popu-
latimi as the plains of Bengal, the number of maize eaters will proiuibly be greater
'liiiii tliat of tho con.«uiiiers of any other species of grain. Even now it is second in
tills respect only to rico.

Tile time when the cereals of tho old world — wheat, rye, barley — were first trans-
plantiil from their unknown Asiatii- homes to oilier parts of the world is hidden in
lej.'iiiilary obscurity; but the epoeli when maize was for the first time seen and tasted
liy Kiiropeans lies before us in tho broad daylight of autheiitie history. For, when
f'liluiiibus discovered Cuba, in the year 1 f'J2, ho found maize cultivated by tho
Imiians, and was ei|ually pl';ased with the taste of the roasted grains and astonished at
tlii'ir size. In the following year, wiien ho made his triumphant entry into Barcelona,
•iii'l presented his royal patrons — Ferdinand and I.sabella — with specimens of tho
various proiluetions of the New World, the maize spikes ho laid down before their
ihrmie, though but little noticed, were in reality of far greater impoitance than tho
li'.ip-i uf ^ri,ld which were so falsely deemed to be tho richest prizes of his grand

ii

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n\H.

518

THE TKoriCAL W )ULD.

discovery. In this n.anncr niaizo, which '.a found growing wild from the Ui,(l;v
Mountains to Paraguay, and liad la-en eidtivated from time immemorial, as well ii ilic
Antilles as in the dominions of the Mexican Aztecs and of ihe I'cruvian Iiicas, w.is
iir.st conveyed from the New World to Spain, whence its cultivation gradually extended
over the tropical and temperate z(.ne of the eastern hemisphere, lioufid the wlmlo
lia.sin of the Mediterranean, maize lias fouiid a new home, and its grain now numislics
the Lomlmrd and the Hungarian, a* it does the Egyptian fellah or t!ie Syrian pfMsimi.

While other cereals only produce a pleasing effect when covering exten.>*ive tielil>,
but are individually too insigniticant to claim attention, the maize plant almost rcmiiiils
the spectntor of the lofty Hainhu.saee.-c of the tro|>ieal world. Dark green, lustrmis
leaves spring sdternattdy tVom every joint of thi-< cereid, .streaming like pennants in tlie
wind. The top prod ices a hunt^h of male llowers of various coh)rs, which is callcil
the tttssel. Each plant likewise bears one or more spikes or ears, the usual nuniluT
being three, though as njaiiy as seven have been seen 'X'casionally on one si.ilk.
These ears prixseed from the stem, at various distances fntm the gnniml, ami me
closely envelopeil by several thin leaves, forming a sheath, or /iiisk. They cnn«i>t nf
a cylindrical substance of the nature of pith, which is called tlm roh, and over the
entire surface of which the seeds are ranged and lixin', in eight or more .-traiglit mws.
Each of lliese has generally as many as thirty or more se(Mls, and each seed wcii^lis ;it
lea.st as much ;is (iv(( or six grains of wheat or barley. Surely a cereal like this
deserves beyond all others to .syndiidize abundance, and, had it been known to tlio
Greeks, it would beyond all doubt have figured conspicuously in the teeming hum !■!'
Amalthea.

While the Hritish farmer is .satisHcMl with an increase of twenty for one, the pro-
ductiveness of maize, under the circumstances must favorable to its growth, is sucli as
almost to surpass belief Tn the low and sultry d .;icts of Mexico, it is ipiite a com-
mon thing, in situations wliere artificial irrigation is practised, to gatlicr bom .'I'i'i in
4< (' measures of grain for every one measure that has been sown; and .some piuiiiu-
larly favored spots have even l)een known to yiehl the incredible increa.so of MKI. In
other situations, where reliance is phu'cil oidy on the natural supply of moistui.' fo the
soil from the periodical rains, such an abundant .-^upjily is ixtt exjiected ; but even
then, and in the least fertile spots, it is ran- for thi^ cultivator to realize le>s than frniii
forty ttt sixty bushels for each one sown. The productiveness of maize diminislies in
the more temperate climate of the United Slates ; but even there it yields double tlie in-
crea.se of wheat ; and sai'h is the (|iiaiitity aninialiy grown that, in spite of its low piii'c,
the value of the maize harvot mor(( liian twice surpasses that of dl the otiicr ccnuls.

Another great advantage attending the cultivation of maiz(( is, that of all the cereals
it is the least subject to disease, liliglit, inihiew, or rust are unknown tn it. It is
never liable to be iiciileii down by rain, or by the most violent storms nf wiml, ami in
climates and .reasons which are favorable to its growth, the only enemies whidi lli'-'
maize farmer has to dread are inscjcts in the early stages, iuul birds in the later pcrimls,
of its cultivation. Tn mountainous countries, and the farther it iidv.mci'S bcvniiil ilic
tropics, maize — a child of the sun — naturidly stdVers from the imgeiiial intiiicmf ut a
cold and wet summer, which not oidy jirevi'ms the ripening of the grain, hut ;i1mi
develops a poisonous ergot in its ears, similar to that which an iuch'ment hky is apt to
engender in ryo.

untH III till'

FPANKLIN'S DESCIUl'TION OF MAIZK.

MO

iii<

ii

ipii

Wlion wo consider tliiit tlio znno of cultivation of tlio niai/.o jilnnt pxtonds without
intorruptioii from VJ° v rtii latitude to -10° soutli latiliidr, it is not to lie wondered at
that there are numerous varieties, from the j^if^aiitie TlaoiiUl of the Mexicans, whieh
(ili-iiliitely re(|uir"s u hot sun, and hears cars ten iiKilies in lonj»th and live or six inches
in circumfereiii'e, and the small variety with ears fmir or live inches loiij;, whii-h in
ordinary seasons will ripen its grain, even under the variahle ami wecjii;;~ sky of
Kiipland, and which, with oars not larper than one's finger, was found liy Sijuier
frrnwing on the sacred island of Titicaca, at an altitude of 12,HO0 feet above the level
III the sea.

'I'lie various uses to which the mai/.o plant and grain may he applied cannot Lo
hitter eiiumcrateil than in the words of the celebrated Dr. Franklin.

" It is remarked in North America that the English farmers, when they first nrrivod
tlicre, finding a soil and eliiiiate proper for the hiislianlrv they have been accustomed
fn, !ind ])artieularly suitalile for rai.-ing wheat, tliey despise and neglect tiie culture
(if maize nr Indian corn ; but, oliserving the advantage it affords their neighbors, the
ler inhabitants, they by degrees get more and more into the practice of raising it,
lid the face of tiie ciiuntrv sliows fnim ti'iic to time that the cultun- of that irraiii ijoes
visibly augmenting. The induceiiienta are the many diti'erent ways in which it may
he prepared so as to afford a wh(de,som(> and pleasing nourishment to men and other
iiiiiiiials. First, the family can begin to make use nf it liefore the time of full harvest;
for till' tender green ears, stripped of their leaves and masted by a ipiiek fire till the
L'raiii is lirovvn, and eaten with a little salt or butter, are a delicacy. Secondly, when
tlic grain is riper and harder, the ears boiled in their leaves and eaten with butter are
jilsi, good and agreealde fuod. 'I'lie tender green grain dried may be kept all tiie
year, and, mixed with green kidney beans, also dried, make at any time a ple.asing
ili>li, being first .soaked .some hours in water and then boiled. \Viu.'ii tlie griiin is ri|)e
mill hard there are nl.so several ways of using it. On- is to .soak it all night in a
Ass/Vc ( lye, and then pound it in a 1 iige wmtden mortar with a wooden pestle ; the
^kiii of each grain is by that means .slsinind off, and the farinaceous part left wiiole,
whirl,, being boiled, swells into a white, soft pulp, and, eaten with milk or with butter
iiiid sugar, is delicious. The dry grain is also sometimes gnmnd hmsely .'-o as to lie
briikcii ii<*) picee" of the size (if rii'c, and, lieing winnowed to separate flu? bian. It is
liii'ii liiiiled and eaten witli turkeys or otlier fowls as rice, riroiiiid into a liner meal,
lliiy make of it by boiling a hasty-pudding or boniUi, to be eaten with milk or with
butter and sugar, that re.>^enibles what the Italians call iiolenta. They make of the
s.'inie meal with water and salt a hasty-cake, which, being stuck against a Iioe or other
ti:it iron, is placed cri'ct before the fire, and so baked, to be used as bread. They
aJMi parch it in this manner: An iron pot is filled with sand, and set on the fir(! till
tlic sand is very hot. 'I'wo or three pounds of the grain are then thrown in, and well
nii.\(il with the sand by stirring. Fach grain buists and throws out a white siibstanco
of twice its bigness. The sand .s M'paiiited liy a wire sieve, and returned into the pot
tube again heated, and repeat the operation with fiesli grain That which is parched
is poiuidod to a powder in a mortar. 'I'liis being sifted will keep long for u.^e. An
iiiHaii will travel far Mini siilisist long on a small liag of it, taking only si.x or (.'ight
oiiiiecs of it per day mixed with water. Tlie flour of maize mixed with that of wheat
makes excellent liread, sweeter and more agreeable than that of wheat alone. To

\\

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Il

II 11

Ci.')!*

TllK JUOPICAL WOKI.I*.

feed horses it is good to Hoiik tlic gmin twelve hours ; fliey mnsh it easier with their
teeth, and it yields them more iiourisiiment. The leuves stri|i|ied oil" tlie stnll<s iilicr
the f!;riiin is ripe, tied up in bundles when dry, are excellent f'oriij;e for horses, cdws,
etc. The stalks, pressed like sugur-eane, yield a sweet juiee, which. Iicin;; fenncnicil
and distilled, yields an excellent spirit ; lioiled without fermentation it atlords iiii
excellent syrup. In Mexico fields are sown with it thickly, ti at multitudes of mii.iII
stalks may ari.se, which, lieinj^ cut from time to time, like !ispani;;u>, are served in
des.serts, their thin sweet juice hei.ig extracted in tin? mouti; hy chewin;^ them. The
meal wetted is excellent food for younjj; chickens and the eld grain for grown fowls."

In ICuiopc, a.s well as in the United States, the ((uantity or maize grown farexeenN
that of wheat or any other grain ; liut ,>io little is the val ie of this nohlest of ecreiiis
known in (»reat Hritain, that even during the famine in Ireland it was with ihi' utiimst
diflieulty that the .starving peasants could lie induced to use the meal .'^ent over lolliein
from America. This was douhtless in ii great measure owing to their unaei(uainl!iiiie
with the proper manner of eookiiig it. A delegation of culnred " mannnii's " from
Virginia, skilled in the mysteries of " pone " and " hoeeake," would have hecii nt
ine.stimablo service.

In light sandy soils, umler the scorching rays of the sun, and in situations wImic
suflicient nnislure cannot he nlitaineil fur the produc'.ion of rice, numerous varieiie* ni'
Millet. {Sdnjliinu riili/itrc) are successfully cultivated in many tinoicid euuntiie^ — m
India, Araliia, (he West Indies, in Central Africa, and in N'ulii.i, where it is i.'rn\vii
almost to the exclusion of every othi-r esculent pl;m?. Tlmugh the simmIs are hy miikIi
the smallest of .any of the cereal )ilants, the nuudier hnrne upim each stalk is sn gosii
as to eounterhalance this disadvanlage, and to render the cultivation of millet as [irn-
ductivu as that of any ulher grain.

The Jirctiil /'riiit tree* (Arlvritrpiis indsn) is th(> great gilt of Providence to tlie
fairest isles of I'olyiu'sia. No fruit or forest tree in the luirlli of lOurnjie, with tiie
exception of the oak or linden, is its «'(|ual in rcgnl.irily of growth and conieliness ni'
shape ; it far .surpa.sses the wild chestnut, which sonmwhat rescndples it in appe;ir;oi.'e.
Its large ohlong leaves, frecjucntly a foot and a half long, are deeply lohcd like tl;e-e
of th(i fig tree, which they reseiidile Jiot only in color and r-oiisistencc, hut also in
exuding a ni'lky juice when hrol;en. Aliout the time wiien the sim, ailviiiieiiii.'
towards the Tropie of Capricorn, announces to the Tahitians that sinniner is .'ipiin'.-ii h
ing, it liegins to produce new leaves and .>oung fruits, which commence! ripenioL' in
Octoher, and may lie plucked aliout eight months long in luxnri;nit succession. The
fruit is aliout the si/.i! and shap ' of a new liorn infant's hcid ; and llie suil'iicc is rclini
latcd, not much eojikt! a truflle ; it is (tovered with a thin skin, and has a core almMt
as hig as the handle of a small knife. The ea.alile part lies hetweeu the skin and llie
core; il is as white as snow, and soini'what of llie consisletice of ni-w hread ; it imist
be roasted before it is eaten. Iieing first diviiiecl into three or four parts; its ta~te,
according to some.', is insipid, with a slight sweetness, .xomewhiit resendiiiiig that ot llio
crund) of wheaten bread mixed with boded mid metily potjitoi-s. IJut Widiaee, wlm
met with it in the island of .\inlioyna, speaks of it in very ditlerent terms, lie sa\>;
" Here I enjoyed a luxury I have never met with either beforu or since — the tnio
bretid-frnit. It is litikod entire in the iiot einbers, atid the inside .scooped out wiili a
>'poon. I I'ompared it to Vorkshire piiddiiijj ; others thought it was like mu.-lieii

P*

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nUKAl) FKll T -HAXAXA-PLANTA1N-.

fiSl

potntnps and milk. It U ponnrally nlioiit flic xizn «if n molon, n little fibrous townnl
the center, l)Ut t'veryvvliert! el^e i|iiite (iiinMiili ami |inil(liti};y, soiiietliiii;; lietwuuii yunst-
(iiiiii|trm;?^ mill liatter-|iuil(iiti^. We Niinetiines inaile eiiiry ur stew nf it, or fried it in
filitrs ; but it is in no way so jintA as .Hini|ily liaked. Willi meat and j^ravy it is a
vene»,Viilu Kuperior to any I know either in tem|ierato or trojueal eountries. With
MiL'iir, ndlk, butter, or treaele. it is a delicious |iudilin<:. liavin;; a very nlif^lit and
ili'licate but eharaeleristic tlavor, wliicii, like that uf good bread and jiotatoes, one
never >;ets tired of "

^\'hen the season draws to an cud, the last fruits aro Ratliorod just before they are
jierl'eetly ripe, and, beinj; laid in heaps, are cliisely covi'red with leaves. In this state
tliey under^io a fermentation ami liecimie disa;rrecalily sweet ; the core is then taken
nut entire, which is done liy ireiilly puliinn; out the stalk, and tiie rest of the fruit is
thrown into a hole, whieli is i\nir (or that purpose, gem-rally in the house, and neatly
liiieil in the liiitiiim and sid(!s with grass; the whole is then eovereij witli leaves, and
heavy stones laid upon them ; in this state it tmdergoes a seeonii fermentation, and
iifcoMies sour, afier wliieli it will siiller mi ehiinge for many monilis.

It is t:ikeii out of tlie hole as it is wanted for tise, and, being made into balls, it
i-i wrappeil up in leaves and baked : after if is dres>ed it will keep five or six weeks.
It is eat(!n both cold and hi>t, ami the natives seldom m.ake a meal williout if, though
to Kiiropeans t!ie taste is as disa;:reealile as that of a pickled olive generally is, the lirst
time it is eaten. The tVuit itself is in season eight months in the year, and the
Miilii I or sour |i-iste formed in thi' mamn'r above de.serilied fills tip the reinuiiiin<^
cycle of the year.

I'o jirocurt^ tliis principle article of their food costs the foi'timato South Sea islanders
no more troulih; than plucking and preparing it in the injumcr above deserilied ; for,
thougli the tree which produces it does not grow sponiam.'ously, yet, if a man plants
Imi ten of them in his lifetime, which hi! may do in idmut an hour, iie will, as Cook
remarks, " as completely fullil liis duty to his own and fiuure generations, as the native
et'imr less genial climate by phnving in the cold of winter and reaping in the sununer's
licat as often as the sea>-ons return " Thougli if has a far exfeiideil range over the
islamls and coasts of tlu! Indian and Pacitic Ocean, yet its importance as an article of
fmnl is ctiielly eonlin(;d to tlie Tahiliaii, l''riendly. Samoan, Fiji, and Mari|ue«aii
groups, while in most parts of tlie Indian Archipelago it is either neglected or only
U«ei| tor fuel.

Tlie wcpiiderfiil luxuriance of tropical vegetation is perhaps nowhere more eoii-pien-
'iu>; and surprising tiian in the inagnificeiit Miistn'vu', the JitiiKitifi (Mnsu fni/iinihiiii),
uihI the J'ldHtiiiii i Afusd pmittlisiiini). whose fruits most jirobalily nourished mankind
lull'.' bet'ore the git'ls of Ceres bec.aine known. .\ succulent shaft or sttMii, rising lo
the liight of fifteen <ir twenty feet, iiml fre(|uently two t'cel in diameter, is formeil of
the sheath-like ieaf-'t.alks rolled (uie over the other, and ti'rminating in enormous
lii'lit green and glossv Idadcs, fen feet long and two t'eet broaij, of .mi delicate a tissiuf
iiiiii flic slightest wind sutliccs to iciir tlieiii tr;insversely as far as the miildh! riii. A
M.iut footstalk, arising from the center of the leaves, and reclining over <ine side of
flic trunk, , upports numerous clusters of flowers, and sulisei|uently a great weight
of several hundred fruits about the si/e afid shape of full grown ciicuiiibers. On
seeiiiL' the stately plant, one might siippo-^c that many years had iieeii re(juired for its

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pniwtli; nnd yot only (Mf>;lit or ti-n months were nt'oessiiry for its full (Icvcloiirncnt.
Kiicli «liiit't jiriiiliKTN its fruit luit oiirc, when it withers ami (lies ; liut new sIkk.Is
spring forth from liit' root, ami lieforu the year has flaiifi'il unfoiil tln'm>>flvfH wjih tlie
sumo luxuriance. Thus, witliout any other lalior than now ami then weeilin^r ||,o
field, fruit follows u|Min fruit uml harvest U|i(in harvest. A ."lUf^le huneh of haiiaiias
often wcMglis from si.xty to seventy pounds, and Ilumlioldt has caleulaled that ihiily-
three pounds of wheat and nineiy-nino pounds of potatoes reijuiro the same .>-pa(c i.f
ground to grow upon as will produce -1,00(1 pounds of haiianas.

This proiligalily of nature, seemingly so favoruhlo to the human race, is, however,
attended with great disadvantages; for when! the life of man is rendered too easy, hi.s
lie.st powers remain dormant, and he almost sinks to the level of the plant wiiich
affords him suhsLsteuee without lalior. K.\erlion awakens our I'aeulties as it iiierc;ivis
our enjoyments, and well may we rejoice that wlieat and niuizu, and not the l>aiiaii:i,
ripen in our fields.

As tho seeds of the cultivated plantain and liaiiana never, or very rarely, ripen,
they can only ho jiropagatod hy .suckers. " In Imtli hemispheres," says liuniljiiMi,
" i\H fur as tradition or history reaches, we find plantains cultivated in the tnipicjl
zone. It is as certain that .\fricaii slaves have introduced, in the course of cctiiiiiii»,
ViU'ieties of the hanaiia into America, as that heioru the discovery of Colunduis ihe
pi.sang wtw cultivated hy tho aliorigiiial Indians."

.MANI.l-ArrrHK OP SAIH).

Tho Sa(/o-PaliH may fairly dispute with the plantain tho honor of producing upon a
gi\on s])acc tin' greatest amount of liuuian food. It grows all over the islimls n| ilic
Mi.uyan Archipelago, the most productive district licing in ('cram, whence iiirgc
(juiuilities are exported. The tree, says .Mr. Wallace,* is a palm thicker and linger
that tho e<icoanut tree, idthough rarely so tall, and having immense piimate spiny
leiivfs, which completely cover the trunk until it is several years old. When it is

• .Miilayin .Anliipi'lau'o. :l3'.J-.18r).

[flH

MANLFACTUKK OF SACO.

&&»

ahniit ten or fifteen yuars old it sends up an inimcn!<o terniinul spike of flowers, uftir
wliich it diuH.

Fur nialiing saj»ii the tree must l)e used just iH-fnro it is Roinj; to flower. It is cut
down close to tiie ground, wliicli, liir<;e as the tree is, costs no great laiior, for tho
vi»i»\\i sliell is ordy half an inch thick ; the rest is nil pith. Tiie leaves and leaf-
(italks are cleared away, and a broad .strip of hark taken off the upper side of tho
trinik, laying hare the pithy matter, which is of a rusty color near tlie bottom, but
higher u[i of n pure wliite, :d»out as hard .-is a mealy ap|dc, with woody (ihres running
through it, about u ((uartcr of an inch apart. This pith is broken up into n coar.xo
powder by a heavy wooden club or pounder, having a piece of ban! quartz imbedded
into the end. By mciiiis of this, strips of tlic pith are cut away, which fall tlown into
the (ylinder formed by the tough bark, tuitii the whole trunk is cleared out, braving ii
skin of not more than half an inch in thickness. This material is carried to tho
washing mai-hine, which answers tho purpose of a grist-mill for preparing the flour.
Tliis wasliing machine is composed wholly from the tree itself. TIk? great sheathing
liases of the leaves niak(! excellent troughs ; and their rilis, as thick as a man's arm,
.•iiid ligliter !md tougher tluui a bamboo, furnish the "iupiiorting props ; while the (ibrous
covering of the biaf-stalks forms the stn'.iiier. '»«'ater is poureil on the nias.s of pith,
wliich is kiu'aded and |»rcsscd against the strainer until the starch is nil wjished out,
when tho fibrous refuse? is thrown away. The water, cli.arged with the starch, passes
into another deep trough, where the seiliment is (juii'kly deposited, tho water riiiining
miF. This mass of starch in mado uji into packages of thirty pounds, covered with .xago
leaves. This con.stitutcs the " raw sago," and will keep for years. Hoiled with water,
it forms a thii'k glutinous mass, which is eaten with salt, limes, or Chili peppers.

More fre(juently it is used for making bread. Tho raw sago is broken up, dried in
the sun, and powdered into a coarse meal. The oven is a square clay pan, divided
into compartments six or eight inches S(|uare, and t'-reequarters of an inch thick.
This in heated over a dear fire of embers, filled with tho flour, and covered with a
jiicce of sago bark. In five minutes the bread, or rather batch of cakes, in baked.
When hot they nro very |)alatablo with butter; and the addition of a little sugar and

grait.'d cocoa nut forms (piite a (Iciicacy. iliey are soft, a

Icli^

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maize flour

but 1

lave a sliirht charaetens

id not
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luiiiUe our

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ivor wliicli IS wantini' in

till- prepared sago. When not wanted for immediate use, the cakes are dried in the
Mill tor several days ; they will then keep for years. They arc bard, rough, and dry;

common siu

ht t

O SCO

•llil.l

ren (rnawiii'T

hut the natives do not mind that, and it is ;i
iiw'iy at them, as our children <lo at a crust of bread. Dipped in water and toasted,
they beeoine almost as good as when fresh ; soaked and boiloil, they make a good
|iiiii(liiig. We see no rca.Mni why these sago biscuit should not form a weh-ome
aiiilitioii to ship-stores in tropical regions.

A good-sized tree will afford '.ti'ii |)oiiu(ls of raw sago. This will make noii pounds
of bread. Two cakes, weighing three to the pound, aro as much as a man can well
eai at a ni'.'al ; five are considered a full day's allow;ince. (_bie tree will therefore
supply a man with food for a whole year. Two men will easily finish a tree in five
(lays; M) that a man may in ten days raise and make bis flour for a year. If he
chooses to bake his year's supply of bread at once, another ten ilays is (juite enough;
lio that the labor of twenty days will give him food for a year. This is on the sup-

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TlIK rUoriCAI, WOULD.

jiOMtion tlinf lie hnpiH-ns to own nng»» trocx. IT lie 'lues not, lio onn Imy ono Htniiditi"

fur twii iliillurs. As tlit> pri f a iiKirr.H hilmr in ilii'< iririmi i'* i>.ttiiniil)-i| at ten irntN

u iliiy, llic iMiHt of ('mnl mill)- cookt'il fur ii iimii i.-' I'mir (liilliii!* ii jcar. Yd, uiKHTniiiit.
ttlilt' ns it M'fins to us, tlif natives, with tin"*!' j^rrat natural ll'iur-liaiifls, (dulv tlmt
cncli coiilaiiiH tlircu of our liarn'ls, ) sfnniliiii; iiihuikI tlicni, huIIit fnmi liiiiii»..r.
Agassiz iiotit.'t'H tliu Hnnic tliiiiji; on tlie Ania/.on. If llii- imv|>Io of any ciiuiilry hmIIv
jireftT to no liunjrry rallhT than s|ii'ii(l thn-c works of tni- year in wccilin;; a |il;iiitaiii-
ficM, or |iri'pariii;; fhiji', thcri! si'imiis no jjooil r('a>oii why any oni- shouhl ititcrttic
will) thi'ir way of onjoying thuuiM^lvuH. liy all inuuus lul tliuni tuku tiit'ir Mi'Ma ainl
fctarvu a >t'rwarilH.

M-;

A SIKST* OS TUK AMAXOS.

Tiifo iind (lonUi nro strnnccly lilcnilcMl in the Pitsmrn or Mfi>ii/ii>rii root ( fiiln'/ilm
mniii/idf). The juico n riijiiilly ih'strMi'tivo poison, the meal a nnlriliou" and aL'ri'i.iMi'
food, wliich, in tropical Anx-rioa, and chictly in llra/.il. forms a ^ri'at part of iln'
p(M)ph;'s s<ist('nan('o. The lii^iht to whii-h th(< cassava attains varic-i from four to >i^c
foot. It ri'^cs hy a slender, woody, knotted stalk, furnislied with alternate paliiialnl
Iravos, and sprinjjs from a touirh Iiranclied woody root, the sleiiiler eollafrr."! (iItcs
of wliieh swell into tho-e farinaceous, parsnip-like masses, for which alone the pl.iiil i>i
pultivated. It reijnires a dry soil, .'iml is not found at a irreater eleviilion than •J.niiil
feet al)ove the imcd > ('■;,• sea. It is pro|)ai;a(ed hy ciittimr", wliieli very (|nii'kly tnke
root, nn<! in ahnut ei^fln niontli^ from the time of their 1iein'.r planted the tu!"'i- will
generally he in a fit state to he collected ; they may. howevi'r, I'e loft in the '.rroiiiid
for many months without sustainin;; any injury- The usual mode of prepariiii: the
rassnva is to i;rin<l thi' root,* after pealiu',; off the dark colored rind, to dri'W out the
poisonous juice, and (iiialiy to hake the meal into thirt caki'i* on u hot iron ln'.irth.

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Kiirtunntcly tlic ilili iirinno |iritii'i|il<- i-< mt voluiilo an to lii> ciiliri'ly ill^Nijiitti'il \,y
i-x|Hi.Hiir(! to lifiil ; tor wlitti tlio riint liat lict'it cut iiilo itiiiiill |iii'<-i>ii, ;itii| cximioiI
Hiitiiig wiinu liiiurM to tin- ilin'it niys of tlic miii, cntilf iiiny lit' futl on it with ih-rfcct
H.itViy If lilt' rt'fciitly cxfriirtiil jdicc lie dnink liy rnlllc "r poulfry. tint niiiiiiiiln
MMiii iliu ill ('i)iiviilsii)iis; lull if tills Miiii<< lii|uiii is ImijIi'iI with iim'mI iiinl ••I'listnii'il, it
rniiii)* II wlioli'W'ino mill iiiilriliiiiiH (miii|). Tho /<itri>/i/iii )tinif>fi(t. or iSwcct Cii.t-'iivii,
t)iiiu|<;li very Nimiltit to the ManiliDt or liitlcr vnricly, ami wliojly iiiiinciinu^, \i* fur IfM
(■\liii>ivrly fiiliiviitcil. A |iiil:il.ilil>' iiinl wlnilcsiiiiic liruail is iiiadi' of ImiiIi kiml-*; unii
iililioiij^li ils lasli' may liu ilioiinlii .11 iiiii'wiiat liarsli liy |ll>^^ons n<'cii'<t(iiii<>i| to -^oft frr-
iiK'Mit'ii liroail Miatk' from win alcii tloiir, yt't tlios« who liavo liwn ai'iriistomcil to iiH
u«c Jirc wi foinl of it, that ('n'oio fiiinilii's wiio liavf jroiio to Jivi' in Kiiro|M' fri'(HU'iitly
liiivc it Ht'iil lo ihcm tVoiii tlic \\'c>t Iiiijirs, The kiinl of hlarrli mo well known iimlcr
llif naiim of taiiiora is ]irr|)ari'i| rrom the farina of (•as*ava roots. A larj;!' i|iiiinlity is
t'X|iort('il from Kra/.il to Kiiro|ic, nii'l may well Im,' consiilercil an a moru iist-fui |iro(liii;-
lioii tliati all the iliamoiiils i.( Miiias licrai's.

Tiu' Yiiin roots, wliiih arc so frci|ii(MitIy mcnfioncil in narratives of travel thronph

the lro|)ii'al regions, arc the prodiK c of two 1 limliin;: |ilaiil^ lln- Ih'tKn nrfu mitini ami

Alula — with tcmlcr sIciuh of from cinlilccn to twenty (ect in lcn;j;th, ami smooth, hharp-
|)ointc(l IcnvcH on lon^ fooi-stalks, from the iiasu of wliieli nristf H|iik«M of Hiiiali tlowerM.
Tlic roots of the Diiisrurrii siilirK are flat ami palmaleil, ahoiit a foot in lircailih,
wliiti! within ami externally of a dark hrown color, almost a|i|iroachin;:; to Mack ; those
of tlin i). iihtta aro still lar^;er, lieiiifi; fre(|iicntly ahoiil three feel Ion;;, ainl wcinhin;^
iihoiil thirty |)ounds. |{</ih kinds are cultivated liku the coinmoii |)olato, which they
ri'sonililc in taste, thonj^h of ji rlo-er ti-xliirc \\'hcn diii; out of the earth, the root'*
are |ilaced in the mih to dry, ami arc then put into sand or casks, where, if finardcd
fmiii moislnro, they may he preserved for a lon;r time without lieinj; in any way
injured in their (piality. The DinMnrcii" iire natives of South \>-ia, and arc supposed
lo have lieen iheiice transplanted to the West Indies, as fley have never heen foiincl

prottiiii; wild in any part of Amcrii-a; whiie in the i>laiid of Ceylon, and on ih i«t

(if Malaliar, they tlonrish in the woods with spontaneous ami luxuriant jrrowlh. They
are now very extensively cultivated in Africa, A-ia. and Ameiiea, an their lar;;i! and
initriiiiius roots amply reward the lalmr of the husliandinan.

'J'lie Spiiiiisli or Siri'fl I'liliilii, { ( iiiird/riil'S fnitudis, ) eoinm- idy i-ultivated in the
tropical (dimates Imih of the l']a«tern and the Wi'stern hemispheres, is an hcrliaceouM
piremiial, which fiends out many trailing stalks, exteiidini; six or ii;.'ht feet every way,
:iiid piiltiiifT forth at each j'linl, roots which in ;i irciiial climate u'row It he \erv larjjn
liilii'is, so that from .a sini^h' plant forty or lil'iy lai;;e roots ;ire proiliieeii. The lea\cs
are aiij>iilar, anil wtaiid oti joni^ petioles, the llowers ire purple. The hatata i- pmpa'
piileil hy layiiif; down the yoiinj; ulioots in the sprini; ; indeed in its native elimate it
iii'illiplies almost spontaneously, for if the liranehes of roots ttiat h.ive heen pnih'il up
lire siillcred to remain on the ground, and a shower of rain falls soon after, their ve^'c-
t;itiiiii will rccommcnee. I'roiu its ahundant ;;rowlh, i" is -iirprisiii'^ tliat in Hra/.il iho
inandioo Klioiild lie cultivated in prefereneu un fund i'.ir ihu nepro, the lalttlu I'cing
raist'd more as a luxury for the planter's talde.

Arn>wii,„t is phiellv ohi.ainecl iVoni two ditrerent plunl*— the }tirinilhn nruni/ina'
eta and ihu Tacca jiiitimii/iJa. Ttiu funuur, a iiutivu uf AiiuM iinvriua, iit uii liurl/ir

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conus pnrennial and is prnpagntod liy partinir tlio roots. It rises to the height of two
or three feet, has broad, pointed leaves, and is erowned by a spii^e of small, whito flow-
crfi II is much niltivated, both for domestic use and for exportation in the West In-
dies, and in some parts of Ilindostan. The arrowroot is obtained by first pounding the
long, stalky roots in a large, wooden mortar, and pouring a quantity of water over tliem.
After the whole has been agitated for some time, tlio starch, separated from the fil)rps,
collects at the bottom of the vessel, and having been cleansed by repeated washings is
dried in the sun.

The Taaa pinnatijida. likewise an herbaceous plant with pinnated leaves, an i-.m-
belliform blossom, and large potato like roots, is scattered over most of the iSouth Sea
Islands. It is not cultivated in the Hawaiian group, but found growing wild in
abundance in the more elevated districts, where it is satisfied with the most meagre
soil, and sprouts forth among the lava blocks of those volcanic islands. Arrowroot is
prepared from it in the same manner as from tiie West Indian Marantha, but, as the
improvident Polynesians only tliink of digging it out of tlie earth, and never give them-
selves the trouble of replanting the small and useless tubers, its quantity has very nmch
diminished.

The Cdlndium cseulentmn. an aquatic plant, furnishes the large Taro roots which
form the chief food of the Sandwich Islanders, and arc extensi'.'y cultivated in many
other groups of tlie South Seas. It grows like rice on a mr.rsiiy ground, the large,
arrowsliapeil leaves rise on high foot-stalks, immediately springing from the root, and
are likewise very agreeable to the taste, but are more seldom eaten, as they are used
for propagation. Severed from the root, they merely require to be planted in the mud
to j)roduce after six months a new iiarvest of roots. The growth is so abundant tliiit
1,500 persons can live upon tlie produce of a single s(juarc mile. The South Spii
Islanders make a thick paste out of the root, which, under the nanie of poe, forms their
staple diet.

It may easily be imagined tliat the tropical sun, wliich distills .so many costly juices
and fiery spices in indescribable nniltiplieity and abundance, nuist also produce a variety
ot fruits. IJut man has as yet done but little to improve by care and art these gifts
of nature, and, with rare exceptions, the delicious flavor for which our native fruits
are indebted to centuries of cultivation, is found wanting in those of tiie torrid zone.

Yet there are exceptions to the rule, and among otliers the Peruvian Chirimnya
(Annan tn'pelafn) is vaunted by travelers in such terms of admiration that it can
hardly be inferior to, and probably surpa.sses, the mo.st t^iquisite fruits of European
growth. Ilimke calls it in one of his letters a masterpiece of nature, and T.schudi says
that its taste is quite incomparable. It grows to perfection at Iluanuco, where it at-
tains a weight of from fourteen to sixteen jiounds. Tlie fruit is generally heart-shaped,
with the liroad base attached to the branch. The rind is green, covered with small tu-
bercles and scales, and encloses a snow-white, juicy pulp, with many black kernels.
Both tl'.e fruit and tlie bi(jssoins exhale a delightful odor. The tree is about twenty
feet high, and has a broad, dull-green crown.

Tlie Lltcld ( 2Ii'phi'lium lifc/ii,) a small in.«ignificant tree, with lanceolate leaves,
and small greeriish-white flowers, is a native of China and CochinChina, but its culti-
vation has spread over the East and the West Indies. The plum-like, scarlet fruit is
generally eaten by the Chinese with their tea, but it is also dried in ovens and exported.

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Ill order to obtain tlie fruit in porfection, for the use of the Imporiul Court, the trees,
as soon as tliey blossom, are conveyed from Canton to Pekin on rafts, at a very ;2;reat
trouble and expense, so that the plum may just be ripe on thc-r arrival in the northern
c'.ipital.

The beautiful Mangosteen ( Garcinia 77>anf/nstu)ut,) a native of the Moluccas, and
thence transplanted to Java, Siam, the l'hilip|)ines, and Ceylon, resembles at a dis-
tance the citron tree, and bears large flowers like roses. The dark-brown capsular
fruit, about the size of a small apple, is described as of unequalled flavor — ^juicy and
aromatic, like a mixture of strawberries, raspberries, grapes, and oranges. It is said
that the patient who has lost an appetite for every thing else still relishes tiio mango-
steeu, and that the case is perfectly hopeless when he refuses even this.

The stately Mango, ( Mcngifera indica,) is frequently represented on the silk
tissues of the Hindoos, who venerate, under the ugly form of the apo Huniman, the
transformed hero who first robbed the gardens of a t^eylonese giant of its sweet fruit,
and presented their forefathers with this inestimable gift. Tiio mango bears beautiful
girandoles of flowers, followed by large plum-like fruits, of which, however, but four
or live :' len on each branch.

In Borneo and tiie other islands of tiie Malayan Arcliipolngo grows the Ditn'on, a
fruit utterly unknown in Europe and America, which alone of all vegetable productions
possesses the opposite qualities of extreme oflensivetiess to one sense, and of the highest
gratefulness to the otlier sense most closely allied to it. Its smell is like that of
rotten onions, while its tvste is such that those wlio have once partaken of it prefer it
to all other fruit. ^Vallace* thus describes the fruit-

" The durioii grows on a large and lofty forest tree, somewhat resembling an elm in
its general cliaracter, but with a more smooth and scaly bark. The fruit is round, oi
slightly oval, about tlie size of a large cocoa-nut, of a green color, and covered all over
with short, stout spines, the bases of which touch each otlier, and are consequently
somewhat hexagonal, while the points are very strong and sharp. It is so completely
armed that, if the .stalk is broken oft', it is a diflicult matter to lift one from the
ground. The outer rind is so thick and tough tliat from wtiatever bight it may fall it
is never broken. From the base to the ap"x five very faint lines may be traced, over
which the spines arch a little ; tiiese are tiie sutures of the carpels, and show where
the fruit may be divided wltli a heavy knife and a strong hand. The five cells are
wiiite within, and are eacli filled with an oval mass of cream-colored pulp, imbedded in
which are two or three seeds about the size of chestnuts. The pulp is the eatable
part, and its consi.stence and flavor are indescribable. A ri(!h, butter-like custard,
highly flavored with o nionds, gives the liest general idea of it; but intermingled with
it come wafts of flavor that call to mind cream-cheese, onion-sauce, brown sherry, and
ot'.ier incongruities. Then there is a \\c\i glutinous smoothness in the pulp which
nothing else possesses, but which adds to its delicacy. It is neither acid, nor sweet,
nor juicy ; yet one feels the want of none of these f(ualities, for it is perfect as it is.
It produces no nausea, or other bad efl'ect, ami the more yoe e:it of it the less you feel
inclined to stop. In fact, to cat durions is a new sensation worth a voyage to the
East to experience.

" When the fruit is ripe it faPs of itself, and th(> only way to eat durions in perfec-

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tion is to get tliem as fliny fall, and tho smell is then loss overpowering. In a gndd
fruit i-eason large ((uantities are preserved .waited, and kept the year mund, wlifn it
ac([uires a nio.st di.^igufcting odor to Kuropeans, but the natives appreeiate it highly as a
relLsh with their rice. It would not, perhaps, be correct to say that the durion is th(!
best of all fruits, because it can not supply tho place of tho sub-acid juicy kinds, such
as the orange, grape, mango, and mangosteen, whose refreshing and cooling rpialitics
are so wliolcsoine and grateful; but a", producing a food of tho most c.xi(nisite flavor
it is unsurpas.sed. If I had to fix on two oniy as representing tlie perfection of the
two elas.ses, I should certainly choose tho durion and the orange as tho kinc and
queen of fruits.

" The durion is, however, sometimes dangerous. When the fruit begins to rijirn it
falls daily and almost hourly, and accidents not unfrequently happen to persons walk-
ing or working under the trees. When it strikes a man in tho fall, it produces a
dreadful wound, the strong spines tearitig open the flesh, while the blow its(df is very
heavy. J'oets and moralists, judging from .he European trees and fruits, have said
that small fruits alone grow on lofty trees, so that their fall should bo harmless to
man, while tiie larger ones trail on tho ground. But this generalization would I)o
nmch modified by an ac([uaintanee with tropical trees and fruits. Three of the lar<'i'st,
most solid and heavy fruits tiiat exist — the cocoa-nut, the Urazil-nut, and the durion —
grow on lofty forest trees, from which they fall as soon as they are ripe, and often
wound or kill tho inhabitants. From this we may learn, mortifying as it is to our
vanity, tliat trees and fruits, as well as many s-pccies of tho animal kingdom, do not
apjjcar to be organi7,ed with exclusive reference to the use and convenience of man."

When the durion is brought into a house, its odor is so oftensivo that many persons
can not bring themselves to taste it. This was the case with Mr. Wallace for a Iom"
tune. Try his best to eat it, and the nose put in its absolute veto, But one day he
happened when out of doors to find a ripe fruit, and eating it there, he thenceforward
became a coaHrmed durion-eater.

ii

CO^i;mEMTb riiODUCED LN THE TUUriCAL WOULD

CHAPTER VII.

SUGAU—COFFKK-CHOCOii-ATK— COCA— SPICES.

Sugar: Its Importance — Tlie Homo of tliu Sugar-Cane — Ancient Tlieories iihout Suj;;ar — The
Iiitrmluction of tlie Cane into Kiirojie and America — t'liaracteristics of tiiu I'lan^ — iMode of
Cultivation. — CuffK-: lis Iloni" — Introduction into I'"(;yiit and KMrofic, and i'i!;cwliere — ■
I'resent Coffee Countries — Coffee Culture in Hriizil — Afjassiz's Description of a Cofrcu
Estate — Tlic West Indies and Ceylon — The Cortee-riant — Methods of I'n'parinf^ the Hcrries
— The Enemies of the Plant — The Golunda — The Coffee Bufj — The Cottee Moth. — Cm-no,
or C/iocninte: Its Culture and l'rci)aration. — Coca: Descriiition of the Plant — Moile of its Use
— Its Effects — Indian .■^upcr.stitioMS connecteil with it. — Cinnamon: Known to the Ancients —
Cinnamon in Ceylon — Mode of Culture and Preparation — Ceneral Account of this Spice —
Nutmegs and Cloves — Enormities of tiie Dutch Monopoly — I'ejjper — Pimento — (jinger.

THERE is a class of products of which, althonjrh not strictly articles of foot!,
euter largely into human consumption either as fumi.shing bevoragc), or as con-
diments to give flavor to food, or as luxuries. With the exception of tea, which
belongs to tlie temperate zone, these belong almost exclusively to the Tropical Worlt ,
and tliey rank , niong the most important articles of commerce. We siiall enumerate
the principal of these, viz. : Sugar, Coffee, Cacao, Coca, Vanilla, Cinnamon, Nut-
megs, Cloves, Pepper, and Pimento.

Next after the gr^at cereals, which have been described, sugar will rank as the
nio.st valuable product of the vegetable kingdom. It is produced in greater or loss
quantities from the juices of most fruits and vegetables, and the sap of many kinds of
trees. We shall, however, speak only of that derived from the sugar-cane, a plant so
exclu,sively tropical that its cultivation increases greatly in co.st the moment wo enter
the conKnes of the temperate zones. P]ven in the great sugar region of Louisiana,
with all the advantages of capital aided by science, the production of sugar is only
rendered profitable by the imposition of protective duties upon that of foreign countries.

The original home of this plant — for w'.iich, doubtless, the lively fancy of the
ancient Greeks, had they been better acquainted with it, would have invented a
peculiar god, as for the vino or the cereals — is most likely to be sought for in South-
eastern Asia, where t!>e Chinese seem to have been the first people that learnt the art
to multiply it by culture, and to extract the sugar from its juice. From China its
cultivation spread westwards to India and Arabia, at a time unknown to history; and
the conquests of Alexander the Great first made Europe ac((uaintcd with the sweet-
juiced cane, while sugar itself had long before been imported by tlic Phcenicians as a
rare production of the Eastern world. At a later period, both the plant and its
produce are mentioned by several classical autliors. They were, however, ignorant

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of tlio manner of its production, and sot forth many fanciful tlipories upon the sulijeot.
According to sonio it was a l-.ind of lionuy, which formed itself without the assistance
of bees. Others thou,',iit it, like the manna in the wilderness, a shower from heaven
which fell upon the leaves of blessed seed. Others, more nearly correct, believed it
to be a concretion of the juices, formed by the plant itself in the manner of a njum,

During the dark ages which followed the fall of the Roman Empire, all previous
knowledge of the Oriental sugar-plant became lost, until the Crusades, and, stlil more,
the revival of commerce in Venice and Genoa reopened the ancient intercourse between
the Eastern and the Western world. From Egypt, where the cultivation of the sugar-
caiio had, meanwhile, been introduced, it now extended to the Morea, to Rhodes, and
Malta; and at the begiiniing of the twelfth century we tind it growing in Italy, on tlie
sultry plains at the foot of Blount Etna. After the discovery of Madeira by tiie Portu-
guese, in the year 1419, the first colonists added tiie vine of Cyprus and the iSicilian
KUgar-canc to the indigenous productions of that lovely island ; and l)oth succeeded so
well, as to become after a few years the objects of a lively trade with the niotiicr country.

Yet, in spite of this cxten.sion of its culture, the importance of sugar as an article of
international trade continued to be very limited, until the discovery of tropical America
by Colundius o|)cnod u new world to commerce. As early as the; year l.")()f) the sugar-
cane was trans[)lanted fn)m the Canary Islands to llispaniola, where its culture,
favored by the fertility of a virgin soil and the heat of a tropical sun, was soon found
to be so profitable, that it became the chief occupation of the European settlers, and
the principal source of their wealth. The Portuguese, in their '.urn, conveyed the
caue to Brazil; from Hispaniolu it spread over the other West Indian Islands ; thence
wandered to the Spanish main, and followed Pedrarias and Pizarro to the shores of
the Pacilic.

Towards the middle of the last century, the Chinese or Oriental Sugar-cane had
thus multiplied to an amazing extent over both hemispheres, when the introduction of
the Tahitian variety, which was found to attain a statelier growth, to contain mniu
sugar, and to ripen in a shorter time, began to dispossess it of its old domains. This
new and superior plant is now universally cultivated in all the sugar-growing iMiropcan
colonic;;; and if Cook's voyages had produced no other benefit tlian making the world
acquainted with the Tahitian Sugar-cane, they would for this alone deserve to be reck-
oned by the political economist among the mosi successful and important ever per-
formed by man.

The sugar-cane bears a great resemblance to the common reed, but the blossom is
different. It has a knotty stalk, like most gras.se.s, frequently rising to the height of
fourteen feet, and produces at each joint a long, pointed, and sharply serrated leaf or
blade. The joints in one stalk are from forty to sixty in number, and the stalks rising
from one root are sometimes very numerous. As the plant grows up, the lower leaves
fall off. A field of canes, when agitated by a light breeze, affords one of the most
pleasing sights, particularly when, towards the period of their maturity, the golden
plants appear crowned with plumes of sdvery feathers, delicately fringed with a lilac
dye. The cane has this peculiarity, that each joint while contributing its share to the
general growth and nutriment, is at the same time, by a separate system of vessels and
chambers, providing for its own development. Thus every joint is in a manner a
distin(!t j)l:!nt ; and if ]iliiced in the gnMiiid will .send up a perfect a

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THE SUGAR CANE. AND SUGAR.

601

inilccd tlio only manner in wliidi it is now propagated. There is not and probably has
ntit been for ages, a .single plant raised from the socil. In liouisiana, a tliird of the
cron 18 required for seed. In Cuba, niueli less is required, as the cane requires
j)lai ting only every ten or twelve years ; wiiile in Louisiana it must be renewed every
two or three years. To this is mainly due the advantage as a sugar country of Oubi
over Louisiana.

As the cane is a rank, succulent plant, it 'oquircs a strong, deep soil to bring it to
pM-fection, and generally grows best in a low, moist situation. On the eastern, well-
wutered slopes of the Andes, however, it still thrives at a height of 0,000 feet abovo
the level of the sea. In jirejjaring a field for planting with the cuttings of cane — for
tho cultivator nowhere resorts to the sowing of seed, which in America at least, has
never been known to vegetate — the ground is marked out in rows, tlireo or four feet
apart, and in these lines holes are dug, from eiglit to twelve inches deep, and with an
iuterv.\l of two feet between the holes. In these the cuttings are inserted, which
invaiiiiMy c()n^ist of the top joints of the ])lant, because they are less rich in saccharine
juice tbin the lower parts of the cane, while their power of vegetatitm is equally strong.
AVhile the shoots are growing and j)rogressiiig to ripeness, great care must bo taken to
irrigate and weed tiie Held. Tiie canes annually yield fresh shoots, or rattoons, but as
they have a tendency to deteiinrate — at least in size — it is customary in all well-man-
aged estates to renew every year one sixth part of the jilantation.

The manufacture of sugar has been greatly improved by the introduction of steam-
power, which thoroughly presses out all tho juice of the canes on their being passed
but once between the throe iron rollers which the crushing-machine sets in motion.
The sap is collected in a cistern, and must be innnediately heated, to prevent its
becoming acid — an ciTect which frequently commences in less than an hour from tho
time of its being expressed. A certain quantity of lime is added to promote tho srpa-
ration of the feculent matters contained in tlie juice, and these being removed, the cane
liquor is then subjected to a very rapid boiling, to evaporate tho watery particles and
bring the syrup to such a consistency that it will granulate on cooling.

In order to separate the granulated or crystallized sugar fiom the molasses, which
are incapable of crystallization and even attract the moisture of the air, it is placed in
a largo square iron and air-tight case, divided into two compartments by a sieve-)'.<o
bottom of wire with narrow meshes. The sugar is placed in the upper compartment,
and the lower one communicates with two air-pumps, which are set in motion by the
same engine which crushes the canes. On the air being exhausted in this lower com-
partment, the liquid molasses come pouring in to (ill up the void, while the crystallized
mass remains almost thoroughly purified at the lop. This used formerly to bo a very
tedious operation : the sugar was placed in large casks whose bottoms were ])ierced
with holes, and though left to drain for at least ei?ht days, it i-till retained a quantity
of molasses, while by the new process the cleansing is mc it effectually performed in a
couple of hours, and the sugar, which has of course a much better appearance, can
innnediately be packed in hogsheads and case') ready for shipment.

Our space will not permit us to give a full description of the entire process of culti-
vating the cane and manufacturing sugar. In Harper s Magazine for November,
18j3, and February, 18().l, will be found fully illustrated articles describing these
processes as carried on in Louisiana and Cuba.
S6

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Tilt' iiKniMtJiIii n\ninns 111 iMiiirca aii^l Cali'a, .situated to the simtli of .\livssini;i, am
rn(»t [.'.'oliaiily till) fdiiiitrii's wlicn; tin; ('(i(l'ceTr('i- wa.s I'nst planted liy nature, as it
lias liere not. diily lieeu eiiliivati'd I'roiu tiiiio iiiuneMiorial, Imt is fvciywliuri! found
growinjj; wild in the forests.

Ileri! also the ait of |nv|iai'int^ a liever:i!:;o from its lierries seems to have been lirst
diseovered. Aiahie ;iiilhois inl'orm us that ahoiit four liundred years a<'o (iemalcdie
;v learned miil'li of .\den, havinji; lieeomo ae((u,(iiited with its virtues on a journey to
tho opiiosilo shore (.f .\lViea, reeonimended it on liis return to tli<> dervises of his
convent as an exeelh'iit- means for lu'epiiiji; awake duriiii'j their devoiion.'il exeicises.
The example of thesi; holy men liroin;lit eotfco into vo;j;ue. ami its use siireadini; tVom
triiie to trilie, and from town to town, finally reached Mecca aiiout the end of tli(!
lifteeiilli century. Thero faiiatii'ism endeavored to oppose its proo-ess, and in l.'ill a
council of theolejiians condemneil it as lieinij; contrary to the l;iw of .^Iahom('t, oii
account of i; ' intoxicatinjj; like wine. The Sultan of K,iryitt, howevei', who happened
to ho a ure.'it colfce-drinker himself, eonvokeil a new assemhly of the h 'irned, who dc
elared its use to he not only iiinoeent, hut healthy ; and thus collee advanced rapidly
from till! Ui'd Sea and ihe Nile to Syri;i, and from Asia Minor to CoiisiantiiKJplc,
where the tirst colfeo-house was opened in ir).')4, and soon called forth a numher of
rival estalili.shments. Hut here also the zealots lieii;an to murmur at tin; mosipies lieinir
nei^lected for the attractions of the ungodly eolfee divans, and deidaimed ai^'ainst it froiii
tho Koran, which positively says that voaJ is not of the numher of things created hy
God for good. Accordingly the mufti ordered the cofli'ediouses to he closed ; hut his
succo.ssor declaring eoH'eo not to ho cotil. uiiles.s when over-roasted, they were allowed
to re-opoii, and over .since the most jiious mussulman drinks his eollbo without any
scruples of conscience. Tho eommoreial intercourse with the Levant could not fail to
•nako Kuropo aci[u;iiiited with this new source of enjoyment. In lli.VJ, I'asipia, a
lireek, o|)eiied tho lirst colfeo house in Ijondon, and twenty years later the lirst l''reii(h
cafes were estahlished in I'aris and Marseilles.

As tho demand for eoU'ee continually increased, the small province <>£ V'emen, the
only country which at that time supplied the market, could no longer produce a sulli-
cieiit (luaiility, and the high jiriee of the article naturally prompted the Kuropeau
governments to introduce the cultivation of .so valuable a plant into their colonies.
The islands of Mauritius and ]}ourl)oii took the lead in 171.S, and Uatavia followed in
IT-'). Some years heforo, a few plants had lieen sent to Amsterdam, one of which
found its way to Marly, where it was multiplied liy seeds. Caiitaiu Descleux, a
French naval oflicer, took some of these J'oung coffee-plants with him to ]Martiiii(pie,
desirous of adding a new source of wealth to tho resources of the colony. The passage
was very tedious and stormy ; water began to fail, and all the gods seemed to conspire
against the introduction of tho cotTee-tree into the new world. IJut Descleu.ic patiently
endured the extremity of thirst that his tender shoots might not droop for want of
water, and succei'ded in safely bringing over one single plant, the parent stock whcinc
ail tho vast cotfee-plantations of the West Indies and Brazil arc said to have derived
their origin.

On examining the present state of coffee-production throughout the world, we find
that it has undergone great revolutions within the last thirty years, as some of the
countries that were formerly prominent iu this respect now occupy but an inferior

1, till!

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rnnl<, wliilo in (iliicrs llii' ciiltivatinii (ifcuircc liiis riipiiUy altuiin'il !];i;;aiitii" |)r(i]M)rti(ins.
'riius lini/.il, wliicii at tliu lit';^iiiiiiii!i; of tlio I'L'iitiiry was lianlly kimwu in tins cotri.'O
niarkot, nsiw furiii>lii's nearly i.s iniicli as all i\w rest nt' tins wurM lic.-iiirs. Its cxpor-
tatidii, wliicli in lM-_'i> ,iiiiniiiitc(l to '.tT,"ii'" sacks, ruse to a niilliuii in is |(i, imil attaincil
in IS.'),! the enorimnis ijiiantity of 2,;)'Jll,ll)i' hacks, or niitio than o-V) inilliDu.s of
|i luiuls!

Java ranks next to Ura/il aiiioni:; tlic ('iiirt'o-|)ro(lurin<^ countries, fur llioiiij;li slavery
does not exist in this s|ileiiiliil colony, yet the Dutch have introduced .1 system which
answers tile |Mir[iose fully as well Kvery Javanese |iensaiii is olilii^ed to work' sixty-
six days out of the year for f^overnnient ; and tht; residents or administrators of the
various distriitts distriliute this compulsory laimr ainonif ihi^ several |il;iulations, whi<'h
are all in the hiinds of private! individuals. 'J'liiis tlu! latter are provided with tlio
necess.lry hands al a v(!ry eliea|t rate ; hut, on the other hand tlii'y an: eonip(dled to
sell their whole produei! to tlu- Haiidi'h Mini/scfidp/n/, or Dutch Kast India Company,
at a price lixed Ky the government, wiiicli of course takes care to secure the lion's
share of the piolit.

Within the last fiu'ty years the jirot^ress of colVee cultivation in Ceylon has heen no
less reinarkalile than its rapid extension in Java or lirazil. Though the plant wa.s
found {^rowing in the island liy the J'ortuguese, and is even supposed hy some to lie
indi;;eiious, yet it was on'" after the suiijunalioii of the ancient kint^duin of Kandy liy
the Hii^lisli ill l.Sl.'j, and the o|)i!niiii^ of I'oads in the hill country, that it hegaii to ho
cultivated on 11 more extensive scale ; so that in an itieredilily .short time the mountaitt
ranges in the centre of the island l>ee:ime covered with jtlantations, and rows of cofTeo-
trees began to Iilooni upon the solilaiy hills around the v(!ry lia.se of Adam's Peak.

]}razil is, however, the great coll'ee (country of the world. According to Aga.ssiz*
" more than half the coffee eonsuined in the world is of IJrazilian growth. And yet
the coffee of IJrazll has little reputation, and is even greatly underratcil, simply lieeauso
a great deal of the liest produce of the IJraziliau ]ilaiitalioiis is .sold under the name of
Java or 31oeha, or as the coffee of Martinique or liinirlion. ^Martinique produces only
(100 sacks of coffee annually; Gnadaloupe, whose cofl'ec is sold under the name of the
m^ighhoring island, yields (j,oi>0 sacks, nut enough lo provide the market of Piio du
Janeiro for tW(!iity-four hours; and the Isle of IJourhon hardly morn. A great part
of the coffee which is Imuglit under these names, ur under that of Java coffee is Bra-
zilian ; while the .so-called Mocha eoflee is often nothing hut the small round leans of
the IJrazilian plant, found at the summit of the liranclies, and very carefully fxdeeted.'*
"If," continues Agassiz, " the jirovinccs adjacent to Uio de Janeiro offer naturally the
most favorable soil for the jiroduction of eolfee, it must not he forgotten that coffee is
planted with advantage in the sliade of the Amazonian forest, and even yields two
annual crops wherever pains are taken to plant it. In the |)rovi;ioe of Ceani, where
the coffee is of superior quality, it is not planted on the jilains or in the low grounds,
or in the shadow of the forest, as in the valley of the Amazon, hut on the slopes of
the hills and (>n the mountain bights, at an elevation of from l,.jn() to 2,000 feet and
more above the sea, in the Serras of Aratanha and Baturite and in the Scrra Grande."

"A thriving coffee plantation," says Agassiz elsewhere. f "is a very pretty sight;
the rounded regular outline of the shrubs gives a tufted look to the hill-sides on which

•Journey in Brazil, 506, C07.

t Journey in Brazil, 71, 113, 11-4.

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tlicy gn.iv, Mild tlioir Rlitterinj» f(iIiii;;o ciuitra.slH stiikiii;;ly with tlioir liri^lif hnrrii's
Uiio often |ms«i\M, liowovcr, coHih! plitntatiuiis wliiuli look ni^n;i'(l ami tliin ; mihI in this
casL' tliu trees are eitiier Miirerini; fnim tlie |ii'euliar insect s^o iniiiriiiiiM Ik tlieni, fa luml
of tinea,) or iiave run out ami Ikm'imiio exliau>teil. 'J'lie < nlinary mails on l\w. cuHi'o
plantations) urn carrioil strai.i^lit up the .xiile of the hills, between the lines of the shruliH,
};nHii!(l liy every rain, ami olU'rin;;; l)CJ<i(les hd .steep an ascent that even with cij^lit or
ten oxen it is often ini|ios:-il)lo to ilrivi; the clumsy, old-fashioiicil cart up the sldpe, ;iiiil
the iiej^roes are oLliijjeil to hrin;^ a i^reat part of the harvest iluwn i>u tlieir iii'ads. 'I'liey
are often seen lMin!;in;^ onornious l)\indloH on their heads down alnio.st vertical slopes."

A;,;assiz, however, ilescrilies one plantation wliieli Ik; visited wiiii'h appears to lie a
inodid : " On Senlmr Lake's estate all these old roads arc; aliamldiied, except where
they are planted here ami there wllh alleys of orange-frees fur tlie lienelit of tlio
negroes; and he has sid)stituted for them winding roads in the sides of the hill, willi a
very gradual ascent, ,<(> that light carts dragged hy u singk mule can transport all iln-
harve'-tfroni the sunnnit of tin; plantation to tlie drying-ground. It was tlu,' harvesting
season, and the sight was a vi'ry ]iretty one. 'J'lie negroes, men and wom"n, were
scattered ahout tho plantations, with liro.ad .shallow trays, made of plaited grass or
bandjoo, over their shoulders, and supported at tlieir waists. Int>i these they were
gathoiing the (Mill'ce, some of the herries heing liriliiantly red, S(nne already lieginning
to dry and turn hrown ; while here and there was a green one not yet ([uitc ripe imt
soon to ripon in the scorching sun. Jiittlo blaci children were sitting on the ground,
and gatherinjj wiiat fell under the hu.shes, singing at their work a nionotoiious hut
rather pretty snatch of song, in which .some took the; first and others the i-econd,
making a not inliarnioniims music. As their baskets were lillcil they came to the
udniinistrator to receive a little metal ticket on which tho amount of their work was
marked. A task is allotted to each one — so much to a full-grown man, so nnieh to a
woman with young ehildnni, so much to a child — and each one is paid for whatever
ho may do over ami ahoV(! it. The requisition is a very moderate one, so tiiat the
industrious have an opportunity of making a little money independently. At night
they all present their tickets, and arc paid on the spot for any extra work. From the
harvesting-ground we followc(l tho carts down to tho place where their bunlen is
deposited. On their return from tho plantation the negroes divide the day's harvest,
and dispose it in little mounds on the drying-ground, which is paved in a dazzling
white cement, from the glare of which tho eye tin-ns wearily away, longing for a green
spot on which to rest. When pretty crpially dried, the coffee is spread out in thin
even layers over tho whole enclosure, where it is baked in tho sun for the last time.
It is then hulled by a very simple niaohine, in use on almost all the fazeudas, and tho
proen.ss is complete. ,

" Tho coffee plantations cover all the hill-sides for miles around. The seed is
planted in nurseries especially prepared, where it undergoes its first year's growth. It
is then transplanted to its permanent home, and begins to boar in about three years.
tho first crop being a very light one. From that time forward, under good care and
with favorable soil, it will continue to bear, and even to yield two crops or moro
annually for thiity years in succession. \t that time the shrubs and the soil are alike
exhausted, and according to the custom of the country the fazendeiro cuts down a new
forest and begins a new plantation, completely abandoning his old one, without a

I

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co.o •

(linnj!;lit iif 1 It'ciiiiii;^ or fi'rtili/iii<!; tlin oxlianstuil Iiiinl, ()iii> <if tlio Imi;; si^^liti'd
n't'oriiis undnrtiikt'ii liy mir host, liowovcr, is (Iio miiimrinp; of iill tlio nM (IcsciIimI |i1mii-
tiitimiH on liis (!stato. He Iims iilrc.'uiy a nimilicr of vi^ormih younii; |ilMiitation-( wliidi
jiioiuisf to lie; as f;ooil as if a virj^iii foiot liad ln'cii .-acriliccd to proiluco tlicin. Ilo
wishes not only to presorvf tiit! wood on iiis own estato, and to sliow tliat aprricultuio
Mi'i'il not lie |iursu(.'(l at tlic cxpcnsu of tasto ami lioauty, lint aNo to ri'iniiid Iiis conn-
tivMicn that, L'xtiuisivo as tiicir fore ts arc, tlioy will not last forcviT ; and that it will
liu iKtci'ssary to cniiiiiatc liL't'oiu long t(t lind ni'W v.ulWx giountls, if thu old onus ant to
bo consiiloiL'd woithhiss."

In tho Wost Indii.'S the cnltiiro of colTcc lias fjroatly diminisliod. Ilayti, which
hi'fore till! revolution of IT'.H I'Xiiortcd to I'Vain'c 7(t,(in(),(joo jxmnds, now iiroduccs
less than half that iiuantity, Thi! British Wcist Indies, wliieh in ISl'7 exporled nearly
;iO,0<)n,(MI() pounds, now produco hut 4,(I(IO.()()0. C'uha, the jirodiiet of wliieli in is;;;}
was 40,0(>l»,0()() |Miunils, now jiroduces less than half as niueh. This is, however,
(iwinc^ to the fact, that it is fonml that under their system of slave lahor the culiivaliun
of su;^ar, for which the climate is so favoraiile, has ln'cn found more profilalilc than
that of eoU'ee. In Oeylon (In; iiroduction of eotrni has incruasi'(l enormously within
tho present f^eiuiratioij. It rose from less than 2, "0(1,(1(10 ponnds in ]s.'i)5 to nioro
than ()7,0()0,(i()o ]i()uiids in LS'i"; since which time it has still fiiither increased.

When left to thi! free growth of nature, the (;olleetreo attains a hij^lit of from tifteen
to twenty feet; in the plantations, however, the tops are {generally cut oil' in order to
promote the growth of the lower branches, and to facilitate tho gathering of the crop.
Its leav(!S are opposite, evergreen, and not unlike those of the liay tree ; its liloss(Uiis
are white, sitting uu slnut footstalks, and re-emliling tin; flower of th:' ja-mino. Tho
fruit which suceeods is a green herry, ripening into red, of the si/.e iind form of a largo
cherry, and having a pale, iiisijiid, and somewhat glutinous pulp, enclosing two hard
and oval seeds or heans, which iire too well known to require any further deseriiition.
The tree is in full hearing from its fourth or fifth year, and (ontinues during a long
series of seasons to furnish an annual produce of aliout a pound and a half of heans.
The seeds are known to he ripe wIkju tho herries assume a dark red color, and if not
then gathered, will drop from the trees.

The planters in Arahia do not jiluek the fruit, hut place cloths or its reception
beneath the trees, which they shako, and tho ripened herries drop readily. Tlie.<e are
afterwards spread upon mats, and exposed '.o tho sun until jierfecfly dry, when tho
husk is broken with largo i.eavy rollers made either of wood or of stone. Tho colToe,
tlius cleared of its husk, is again dried thoroughly in the sun, that it may not be liable
to heat when packed for shipment. This method may, in some measure, account for
the superior quality of the Arabian coffee; hut in the large plantations of Brazil, Java,
Ceylon, and other European colonies, it is necessary to follow ii more expeditious
plan, to pluck tho berries from the trees as soon as they ripen, and iminediately to
pass them through a pulping mill, consisting of a horizontal fluted roller turned by a
crank, and acting against a movable breast-hoard, so placed as to prevent the passage
of wli(de berries between itself and the roller. The ])ulp is then separated from tho
seeds by washing them, and the latter arc spread out in the sun to dry ; after which
the membranous .skin, or parchment, which immediately covers tho beans, is removed
by means of heavy rollers or stamping.

13

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To 1)0 nilfivnfofl to nilvimtitc;!'. flic ('(iflT'o-trt'i' ri'i(Mli<'^ n cHinnto wlicn; tlio rnrnri
tfiii|M'ratiiri! of tlit; yi-ar aimniiitH to at li'a.-*t <iM", ami wliiTt; llii' tlicirnoiiicfcr never
falls liclow "<.")0. It is liy iiatiiro a forest tree riMiuiiiiin sliadc ami iiiiii-.tiirc, nml iImh
it is iicix'HWiry to scici'ii it (rorn liu' ^corcliiii^ lavs of tliu win liy plaiitiiii; row nt um.
Iiraj^cous ti'i'cs at ••(■rtaiii intervals tlii(piii;liont llic licld. Tlii-sc also serve to |iriil('ii
it from tlu; .sliarp vvimls wiiieli would iiijurt! tlie lilossoins. It eamiot liear eillier
cxtrcssive licat or a Ioii;.;-('oiiliimed drouv;lit ; and when: rain does not fidl in siilliiiiiit
quantity, artilicial n'ri;,'ation irni^t su|i|ily it willi the nece»aiy moi-ime. Vmw, nil
tln.'so eireunistances it is e\iileiit that tiio hest situations for the ;;nnvtii of eoHi'e nre
not tlio .sidtry alluvial plains of the tropieal ami i^uh-tropleal lands, hut the mount.iia
slopes to an elevation of •l.-'i'lO feet.

Like ovury othur plant eidtivated hy man, the oolFee-tren is exposed to iln' ravaire.s
of many enemies. "Wild cats, nmnkcys, ami Mpiirrels prey upon the ripenini; lierrie-i,
ami hosts of eaferpillar.s feed u|)nn tlio leaves. Sinco I.'SIT the Ceylon planlalions
have bwMi several times invadt.'d hy swarms of the if(dunda, a speeie.s of rat whieji
InliahltH the forests, makini^ i.^ nest anionic tlu? roots of tlie trees, and. like the jem-
minj;s of Xorway and Lapland, nni^raiiiii^ in vast inimhers when the seeds of tlie
nilloo-.shruh, its ordinary food, aro exhausted. " In order to reach the huds ainl
blossoms of th(! codeo, the f^olundii eats such .slender branches as would not sustiiin its
weight, and feeds as they fail to the ground ; and so didieato and sharp ,are its inei-Kis,
th.'it. the twigs thus destroyed .are detae ed by as (dean a cut as if severed with a
knife. The Malabar eoolii's are so fond of its llesh that thuy evince; a picference fur
those (li.sfriets in which the colleo plantations are subject to itii incursions, frying tiiu
rats in oil or converting them into curry."

Another great plagin; is the Liniiilinii cuffi'CP, known to planters as the eoflce bug.
but in reidity a species of rurcKS, wliich (;stablishes itself on young shoots and buds,
covering them with a noisomi? incrustation of scales, from the influeiico of which tin;
fruit shrivels and dro|)s off. A great part of the crop is sometinms lost, ami on many
trees not a single berry forms from the invasion of this jiest, wlii(di was first oh>ervi'd
in lHt;{ on an estate at Tiapalla (Jalla, and thence spreading eastward through other
plantations, finally rcaedied all the otlusr estates in the island. No cheap and elVectnal
remedy has as yet been found to stay its ravages, and tlio only ho[ie is that, as otiicr
blights have been known to do, it may wear itself out, and vanish as mysteriously as
it eame.

Mrs. Agassiz* giv(!S an interesting description of the Itirva of tin; Tlrazilian eoflfee moth:
*' For some time Mr Agassiz ha.s been trying to get living .<ipecimens of the insect so
injurious to th's coffec-trec, the larva of a little moth akin to those which destroy the
vineyards of Murope. At last he succeeded in obtaining sfime, and among them was
one just spimdng his cocoon on the loaf. We watduid him for .a long time with the
lens as ho wove his fihny tent. lie had arched the threads upwards in the center, so
as to leave a little Iwdlow sjiace into which ho could withdraw. This tiny vaidt
seemed to be completed at the moment we saw him, and ho was dranl'ig threads for-
ward and fastening them at a short distance beyond, thus lashing his h< use to the leaf,
as it were. The exquis'to accuracy of the work was amazing. He was spitming the
thread with his mouth, and with every new stitch he turned his body backward,

•.roiirncv in 'Rrazil, 118.

TFli; COrFIlK MOTH CACAO VANILLA.

r.ti7

nttnt'lifil h'lH llirciid to tlin faiiin upof, tlii'ii dicw it furwiinl nml fiistcni'il it rxuctly on n
line with till! iiiNt, witli a |iii'ci>i(iti iiiui i;i|iiility tliaf iiiinliiiiciy crniM lianily iinitiito.
It is a curiiMm ((Motion liow fur tliis |iciii'cii(in of woil<iii,in'-lii|i in niatiy of ilic lower
aiiiiiiuU is simply iili'Mtica! with their or^ani/.ation, iiiiil tin rcforc to lio ('oii>iii('i'i'i| as ii
fiiiictioii aH inuvitaiih' in its action an di^jcstion or rospiration, ratlic'r than as an instinct.
In tliis casi! the lioily of the little uniinal was his inctisiirr. It was aina/.iiiu; to m'i- him
I.iy ilown his thri-ails with such ticcnriicy, till ont- rt'iiicnilpcicil that Ik! could imt inaku
(licin lonj^cr or >'hortcr; for, starliiiL; from the center of his house, and stretehinn; his
IhiIv to its full |eii;itli, they iMiist ii -i reaili the same |Miint, The same is tnie of
the s(»called • mathematics ' of the hee. 'I'lie liecs .stand as clo^e ns they can toiretlicr
in their hive, for the ccononiy of >|iace ; and each oi:e deposiis his wax arontid him,
his own form and si/.(! heiiiM; the mould for the cells, tiie re^uhiriiy of wjiieli when
ciimiileted excites so much wondei- aii(! admiration. 'I'he ' niatlieiiiatii'al ' scent of the
hee is «) lie foutid ill his htriictni'c, not in his instinct. ISul in the industrial woik of
some of the lower iitiimals — the luit, for instance, — ilicre is a power of .adaptation
which is not siisceptilile of the sauK! explanation. Their social ori^aiiization, too intidli-
j;t at, it sct'iiis, to Ik^ the work of luiy reasoning; powers of their own, yet does not
appear to Ixs directly connected with their structure. While we wen' waiehinj; our
liiilc insect, a lireatli stirred the leaf, and he itist.antly contracted himscll" and drew
hack under his nmf ; hut presently cunie out aj^aiii and returned to his work."

" Theohromn," — food for n;ods, — the Greek name given liy Linnirus to tlio Caron
or Cliocdhtio trei', sutlicii'iiliy proves how hi'^hly he valued tlie flavor of its seeds.
Indigenous in ]NIexico, it had lonj.; Iieeii iii extensive I'ultivation hcfori; the arrival of
the Spaniards, who found the hoverage whiih the Indians prep.areil tVoiti its heans so
a;rrceal)le, that they reckoned it amone; the nio.st plcasinj; fruits of their (;oui[uest.
l''rom Mexii'o tiiey transplanted it itito th<'ir other dependencies, so that in .America its
present ran^^e of cultivation extends from 20° North latitude! to (ruay.-njuil and Uahia.
It has even lieen introduced into Africa tiiid Asia, in return for the many useful trees
that have been importinl fmni the old into the new world.

The cacao tree .seldom rises ahove the heiu;ht of twenty fei't, its leaves are large,
ohiong, and pointed. The tlowers, which are of a pale re(l color, spring from the large
hranches, and even from the truii'v and roots. The fruits are large, oval, pointed pods,
ahout five or six inches long, and containing in five comparfmeiits from twenty to forty
Feeds — the well known cacao of coumicnc — enveloped in a white, pithy suhstauce.

The trees ant raised fnun seed, gciicr.ally in places screened fn>m tin,' witid. As
they are ineapalile of hearing the scorching rays of the siiii, particularly when young,
hananas, maizo. manioc, and other hroad-leaved phants are .sown hetweeii their mws,
under whoso shade they enjoy the damp and sultry heat which is indispcnsahle to their
gnnvfli, for the T/iPohroiiin Carao is essentially trojiical, .and re(|uin's a wvirmc^r
ciiaiate than the cnffec-tree or the sugar-cane. Two years after havimj; heen sown, the
plant attains ii height of three feet, and sends forth many branclips, of which, however,
iiut four or five are allowed to remain. The first fruits appear in th(> third year, but
the tree doe.s not come into full hearing before it is six or .seven years old. and from
that time forward it continues to yield abundant crops of l)eans during nion' than
twenty years. At first the tender plant.s niu.st be carefully protected from weiils and

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insects, but in after years they (leinaiid Imt little attention and labor, so that one ncfjru
Bufliees for kcepiiii^ a tlioucaml trees in order ami collectini; tiieir jirodnce. Acconliii"
to llerndun,* the annual ])roduce of a thousand full g.own trees, in the iilantatinn:;
along the lower banks of tiie monarch of streams, amounts to lifty arrohes, tiiat sell in
Peru from two and a half to three milrees the arrobc ; and Wagner informs us tliat in
Costa lliea a thousand trees yield about l,lioO pounds, worth twenty dollars the
hundred weight.

The beans when first collectod from the tree are possessed of an acrimony, which
requires a slight fermentation to change into the aromatic jirin-'iple, to which they are
indebted for their agreeable flavor. For liiis purpose tliey are thrown into pits, where
they remain three or four days covered with a ligiit layer of sand, care being taken to
stir them from time to time. Tliey are then taken out, cleaned, and laid out uiion
mats to dry in the sun. The management of the beans re((iiires some caution, for if
the fermentation is allowed tr eontinne too long, they acquire a nioiiMy taste and smell,
which they only lose on being roasted. When thoroughly dried (which is known liy
their hollow sound when sliakcn, and by the husk easily separating fiom th(i soed when
pressed), tlu'y are packed in sacks or cases, and sent as soon as po.ssible to the market,
a rapid sale being extremely desirable, as it is very difficult to preserve them from
insects, more particularly from the cockroaches. Cacao is chiefly used under the form
of chocolate. The beans are roasted, finely ground, so as to convert them into a ]wy-
fectly smooth paste, and improved in flavor by tlie addition of spices, such as the sweet-
scented vanilla, a short notice of wiiieh will not I)e out of place.

Like our parasitical ivy, the i aniUa aromattca, a native of torrid America, climlis
the summits of the highest forest-trees, or creeps along the moist rock crevices on the
banks of rivulets. Tlic stalk, which is about as thick as a finger, bears at each joint
a lanceola'e and ribbed leaf, twelve inches long and three inches broad. Tiie largo
flo»Ters, which fill the forest with tlieir delicious odors, arc white intermixed with stripes
of red and yellow, and are succeeded by long and slender pods containing many S(M'(1s
imbedded in a thick oily and balsamic pulp. These pods seldom ripen in the wiM
state, for the dainty moidicy knows no greater delicacy, and his agility in climbing
almost always enables him to anticipate man. At present the vanilla is cultivated not
only in Mexico, where the villages I'apantla and Misantla annually jirodu.^c about
19,000 pounds or two millions of pods (worth at Vera Cruz a shilling the pod), but
in Java, where the industrious Dutch have acclimatized it since 1810. It is planted
under shady trees on a damp ground, and grows luxuriantly ; but as a thousand blos-
soms on an average produce but one pod, it must always remain a rare and costly s])ice.
Had the ancients known vanilla they .vould, no doubt, have deemed it more worthy to
be the food of the Olympic gods than their fabled ambrosia.

Although but little known beyond the confines of its native country. Coca (to be
carefully distinguished from Cocoa and Cacao), is beyond all doubt one of the most
remarkable productions of the tropical zone, and de.«ervcs the more to be noticed as ilie
time is, perhaps, not far distant, when it will assume a conspicuous rank in the markets
of the world.

• Valley of the Amazons.

COCA— ITS USES AND ABUSES.

609

The sultry valloj's on the eastern slopes of the Peruvian and IJolivian Andes are
the seat of the Erj/tliroxijloH Corn, whicli like tlie coH'ee-treo bears ii lustrous n;reen
foliai^e, and wliite lilos.'-oms ripeuinn; into small, scarlet berries. Tiiese, however, are
not used, but the leaves, which wiien brittle enou;j;h to break on buinj^ bent, are
stripped from the plant, dried in the sun, and closely packed in sacks. The naked
shrub soon gets covered with new foliage, and after three or four months its leaves are
ready for a second {ducking, though in some of the higher mountain-valleys it can
(inly be stripped once a year. Every eight or ten years tlie plantations require to bo
renewed, as the leaves of the old shrubs are less juicy, and consequently of interior
ipiality. Like the cofl'cetree, tiie coca shrub thrives only in a damp situation, under
shelter from the sun ; and for this reason maize, which rapidly slioots up, is generally
sown between tlie rows of the young plants. At a later period, when they no longer
need this jirotection. care must be taken to weed the plantation, and to loosen the soil
every two or tliree months.

The local consumption of coca is immen.'se, as the Peruvian Indian reckons its habitual
use among the prime necessaries of life, and is never seen without his leathern pouch
or ehuspa, filled with a provision of the leaves, and containing besides a small box of
powdered unslaked lime. At least three times a day he rests from his work to chew
his indispiMisaide coca. Carefully taking a few leaves out of tlie bag, and removing
tlieir midriiis, he first masticates them into the shape of a small ball, whicli is called an
acnUtco ; then repeatedly inserting a thin piece of moistcMied wood like a tootlipick
into the box of unslaked lime, he introduces tlie powder wliieh remains attached to it
into tlic acullico until the latter has ae(|uired tlie requisite ilavor. Tiie saliva, which
is abundantly secreted wliile cliewing the pungent mixture, is mostly swallowed along
witli tlie green juice of the plant. When the acullico is exhausted, another is imme-
diately prepared, for one .seldom suffices. The corrosive sharpness of the unslaked
liiiie rc([uires some caution, and an unskilled coca cticwer runs the risk of burning
his lips, as, for instance, the celebrated traveler T.sehudi, who, by the advice of his
nnileteer, wliile crossing the high mountain passes of the Andes, attempted to make an
aenllico, and instead of strengthening himself as he expected, merely added excru-
ciating pain to the fatigues of the journey. The taste of coca is slightly bitter and
a'-oinatic, like that of bad green tea, but the addition of lime or of the sharp ashes of
the quinoa, renders it less disagreeable to the Euro])ean jiahitc.

It is a remarkable fact that the Indians who regularly use coca require but little
food, and when the dose is augmented are able to undergo the greatest fatigues, witiiout
tasting almost anything else. Poppig ascribes this astonishing increase of enduranco
to a momentary excitement, which must ncces.farily bo succeeded b}- a corresponding
collapse, and therefore considers the use of coca absolutely hurtful. Tschudi, howev(,'r,
is of o])ini()n that its moderate consumption far from being injurious, is, on the con-
trary, extremely wholesome, and cites the oxamiilcs of .several Indians wiio, never
allowing a day to pass without chewing their coca, attained the truly patriarchal ago
of one hundred and thirty year."?. The ordinary fc/od of these people consists almost
exclusively of roasted maize or barley, which is eaten dry without any other addition :
and the obstinate obstructions caused by these mealy aliments are obviated by the tonic
effects of the coca, which tiius removes the cause of many maladies. It may bo
remarked, that a similar reason is assigned for the custom of areka and betel chewing

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in Southern As'a. As an instance of tlio wonderful strengthening properties of \\\o
coca, Tschudi i.umtions tiie case of an Inilian called Ilatuii Iluauiang or llic " (rrcaf
Vulture," whoi 1 he employed during live consecutive days and nigiits in niakiu'^' tlic
most laliorious excavations, and who nes-er ate anytiiing all the rime, or slept more tliim
two hours a night. Hut every three hours he chewed about half an ounce of the leaves.
and constantly kept his acullico in his mouth. When the work wag finished, this liiili.n.
accompanied 'l.schudi during a ride of twenty-three leagues, over the liigli nxiuntiiin-
plains, constantly running alongside of the nimbly-|)acing mule, and never restim; Imf
for the i)urpose of preparing an acullico. When they .separated, the " (jlreat \^lhluv '
told Tsciiudi that he wouUl willingly do the same wori< over again, provided only he
had a plentiful allowance of coca. lie was si.vtytw< years old, according to the testi-
mony of the village priest, and had never been ill all his life.

Tschudi often found tliat coca is the best preservative against the asthmatic symp-
toms wiiicli are produced by the rapid ascension of iiigh mountains. Wliile hunting
in the I'lnia, at an cicjvation of 14,000 feet above tlio level of the sisa, Ik; aiwnvs
draidc a strong infusion of coca before .starting, and was then able to cliud) among the
rocks, and to pursue iiis game, witliout any greater ditliculty in breatliiiig thiiti wuiiM
have been the case upim the coast. Even after drinking a very strong int'nsi(]ii. lie
never experienciHl any .sym|)toms of cerebral excitement, but a feeling of satiety, anil
though he took nothing else at the time, his appetite returned (ndy after a lunger
interval tiian usual.

If the moderate use of coca is thus beneficial in many respects, Its abuse is attendcil
witli the same deplorable eonseipiences as those which are oljserved in the oriental
opiunieaters and smokers, or in our own incorrigible drunkards. Tli.; conlirmed co.'a-
chewer, or coquero, is known at once liy his uncertain step, his sallow complexion, liis
hollow, lack-lustre black-rimmed eyes, deeply suidi in tlie head, his trembling lips, l:is
incoherent siieech, and his stolid apathy. His character is irresolute, siispiridus, inul
false ; in the ])rime of life he has all the app"arances of senility, and in later yi'Mi~
sinks into complete idiocy. Avoiding the socuety of man, he seeks the dark forest, or
some solitary ruin, and there, for days together, indulges in his pernicious huhit.
While under the inlluenee of coers, !iis excited fancy riots in the strangest visions, now
revelling in pictures of ideal beauty, and then haunted by dreadful apparitions.
Secure from intrusion, he crouches in an obscure corner, his eyes immovably fixed upon
one spot; and the almost automatic motion of the hand raising the coca to the moutii,
and its mechanical cliewing, are the; only signs of conscinusness which he cxhiliils.
Sometimes a deep groan escapes from his l)reast, mo.st likely when the dismal solitude
around him inspires his imagination witli some terrific, vision, which he is as little able
to banish as voluntarily to dismiss his dreams of ideal felicity. Ilow the coipuio
finally awakens from liis trance, Tschudi was never alile to ascertain, though most
likely the complete exhaustion of liis supply at length forces him to return to his
miserable hut.

No historical record informs us when the use of the coca was introduced, or who
first discovered the hidden virtues of its leaves. When Pizarro destroyed tiie eni|tire
of Ataiiualpa he found that it played on important part in the religious rites of the
Incas, and that it was used in all public ceremonies, either for fumigation or as an
offering to the gods. The priests ciiewed coca while performing their rites, aid the

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rSKS AND ABl'SKS OF COCA-CINNA^ION.

:.7i

favor of the invisililc powers was only to be ohtaiiKul by .1 prosont of tliesc liij^lily
vilnod leaves. No work Iil'^^uii witliout coca could come to a Iiappy toriniiiution, and
divine liontSrs were paid to the slirul) itself.

After a pi'iod of more than tiiree centuries, Christianity has not yet been able to
ei'udicate these deeply rooted .superstitious feelings, and everywhere the traveler still
iiii'i'ts witli traces of the ancient belief in its mysterious powers. To the present day,
the miners of Cerro de Pasco throw chewed coca against tiie hard veins of the ore, and
atlirm that tliey can tlien lie more easily worked, — a custom transmitted to them from
their forefathers, who were fully ]>ersuailed that the Coyas, or subt(!rranean divinities,
ii'iidered the mountains impoiietialilc iIdIcss pr( viously propitiated by an offering of
coca. J]ven now tin. Indians put com into tl." moutlis of tiieir dead, to insure tluMu a
ffolcoiiie on their jiassage to auotiier world; and whenever they liml one of their
ancestral mummies, tlicy never fail to offer it sonic of the leaves.

During the first period after the eonipicst of Peru, tlie Spaniards endeavored to
extirpate by all possible moans the use of coca, from its lieing so closely interwoven
with the Indian superstitions; but lie proprietors of tlie mines soon became aware
iiow necessary it was for tiie successful prosecution of tlieir undertakings; the planters
also found after a time that tlie Indians would not work witliout it. Private interest
prevailed, as it always docs in the long run, over religious zeal and despotie interdic-
tions, and in the last century we even find a Jesuit, Don Antonio .iull.in, regretting
that the use of coca had not lieen introduced into Europe instead ot tea or coffee.
When we consider its remarkable properties, it is indeed astonisiiing that it has so
long remained unnoticed. Were it concealed in the interior of Afiica, ov extremely
tlillicult to proi.'ure, this neglect could be mo'-e easily accounted for; but hundrcMls of
vessels annually fre((U(!nt the harburs of Peru and Dolivia, wlu;re it may be obtained
ill large (quantities, and yet it has only liecii rarely and in small quantities imported
into Europe, and, as far as I can learn, never into the United States.

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Although the Cinnamon tree, that beautiful laurel, whose bark furnishes the most
exi(uisite of all the spices of ihe East, is indig(Mious in the forests of Ceylon ; yet as no
anth.or previous to the fourteenth century mentions its aromatic rind among the pro-
iliictions ot the island, there is every reason t<i lielicve that the cinnamon, which in
the earlier ages was imported into Europe through Arabia, was obtained first from
.Vfiiea, and afterwards from India. Cinnamon figures largely among the ingredients
used by the Ileln-ews for the holy anointing oil and sacrei! perfumes. Some, indeed,
Imt .vitli no good reason, have supposed that the substance .so designated was the
gum of a species of the aloe, and aver that cinnamon it.«elf was unknown to th(>
lielircw I, Greeks and Romans. That the Portuguese, who had been mainly attracted
to the East by tlie faim; of its spices, were nearly twenty years in India before they
took steps to obtain a footing at ('olomli(i, proves that there can have been nothing
very remarkable in the quality of the s|)ice at the beginning of the sixteenth century,
ami that the high reputation of the Ceylon cinnamon is comparatively modern, and
attributable to the attention bestowed upon its preparation for market by the Portu-
guese, and afterwards on its cultivation by the Dutch. I^ong after the ajipearance of
Europeans in Ceylon, cinnamon was only found in the forests of the interior, where it
was cut and brought away by the Chtilius. an emigrant tribe, which, in consideration

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THE TllOl'ICAL WOULD.

of its location in villages, was hound to jrn into tlio woods to cut and deliver, at certain
prices, a given qiuintity of cinnamon pro|)eriy peeled and ready for exportation. Tliis
pystoin remained unciianged so long as Portugal was ma.sterof the country; but tlie
forests in wlii(!li the spice was fi und being e.\[)i)sed to constant incursions from the
Kmdyans, who souglit every opportunity to obstruct and harass the Chalia.s and
Tjcelers, the Dutch were conip( lied to form enclosed plantations of their own witliiu
range of their fortresses. The native chieftains, fearful of losing the jirotits derived
from the labor of the Chalias, who were attached as serfs to their domains, and whnse
work they let out to the Dutch, were at first extremely opposed to this iimovation, and
endeavored to persuade the Hollanders that the cinnamon would degenerate as soon as
it was artificially planted. The withering of many of the young trees .seemed to justify
the assertion ; but on a closer examination it was found that boiling water had been
poured upon the roots. A law was now passed declaring the wilful injury of a cinna-
mon plant a crime punishable with death, and by this severity the project was saved.

The extent of the trade during the time of the Dutcli may be inferred from the
fact, that the five principal ciinianion-gardcns around Nejombo, C(jlonibo, Hiirberyii,
Galle. and 3Iaduro were each from fifteen to twenty miles in circumference. Altliough
they were only first planted in tiu year 1770, yet before 17'JG, when Colombo was
taken i)y the I'jiiglisli, tlieir annual produce amounted to more tlian inu.ODi) lbs. of
cinnamon, as much as the deinand« of the mirket required. The profits nuist iiavo
been enormous, for cinnamon was then at least ten times dearer tlian at present, tlie
trade being exclusively in tlio hands of the Uuteli Ivist Ii lian Company, wliich, in
order to keep up the price, restricted the production to a certain quantity, and watclicd
over its monopoly with tlie most jealous tyranny. No one was allowed to plant cinna-
mon or to peel it, and the selling or importing of a single stick was punished as a
capital offence.

When the English took possession of the island, the monopoly was ceded to the
East India Company for an annual sum of £00, 000 until 182."!, when the colonial
government undertook the administration of the cinnamon-gardens for its own account.
In 1831 the produce sank to £10,000 sterling, and in the following year the ancient
monopoly was abandoned ; the government ceased to bo the sole exporters of cinnamon,
and thenceforward the merchants of Colombo and Galle wore permitted to take a
share in the trade, on paying to the crown an export duty of three shillings a pound.
This was afterwards reduced to one shilling, and ultimately totally abolished ; as not
alone India and Java, but also Martinique, Guiana, and IMauritius, where the cinnanion
tree had been introduced, were found capable of producing the spice; and the cliciip
substitute of Cassia, a still more formidable competitor, was arriving in Europe in large
quantities from South China and the Trans-Gangetic peninsula. In Java alone the
export of cinnamon, which in the year 183.J amounted only to 2,200 lbs., increased su
rapidly that in 184.') it had already risen to 134,000 lbs., and as it can there be nmie
cheaply produced, and the Dutch government was wise enough to limit the exprnt
duty to one halfpenny a pound, an unrestricted free trade was evidently the only
means for iireventing Ceylon from being entirely supplanted in the markets of the
world. Under these circumstances, the Singhalese cinnamon has lost its ancient
excellence, less care has been given of late years to the production of the linc-t
qualities for the European market, and the coarser and less valuable shoots have been

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CINNAMON (JAKDKNS OF CEYLON.

573

cut and pooled in larger proportions than formerly. Ileiico tlio j»r'iss quantity exported
from Ceylon in lfsr>7 (S87,'Ji)9 Uis.) was nearly double that of 1841.

Tlio cinnamon j^ardens, whose beauty and luxuriance lias boon so often vaunted by
travelers, have partly been sold, partly leased to private individuals; and though less
than a century has ela[)sed since tiiey were fori.,>,u by the Dutch, they are already
becoiniiin; a wilderness. Those whicli surround Colombo on the land side exhibit the
efficts of a quarter of a century of neglect, and pri'duce a feeling of disappointnient
anil iiielancholy. Tlie beautiful shrubs which furn'sh this spice have been left to
the wild growth of nature, and in some places are eitirely .supplanted by an under-
giowih of jungle, while in otiiers a thick cover of climbing plants conceals them
unilcr heaps of verdure and blossom. It would, however, be erroneous to sup-
pose that the cinnamon-gardens have been universally doomed to (iie same neglect,
ami many beautiful gardens still exist. The aspect of a well-conditioned ciiniamon-
gardcn is ratlifr monotonous ; for, though the trees when left to their full growth
attain a hight of forty or fifty feet, and a thickness of from oigliteen to twenty
inches, yet, as the best spice is furnished by the .shoots that spring from the roots after
the chief stem has been removed, they are kept as a kind of copj)ice, and not allowed
to rise higlier than ten feet. The shrubs ])lauted in regular rows, four or five feet
apart, consist of four or five shoots whose slender stems, very much resembling those
of the hazel tree, are leafed from top to bottom. The leaf when first developed is
partly of a bright red, and partly of a pale yellow ; it soon, however, assumes a grecti
hue, and when at its full growth is on the upper surface of a dark olive color, and oa
the under side of a lighter green ; it somewiiat resembles that of the bay, but is longer
and narrower. Tlie flowers bloom in January, and grow on foot-stalks rising from tho
axilhv; of tho leaves and tho extremities of the l)ranehes, clustering in bunches, which
reseiiilile in size and shape those of tho lilac, but they are white with a brownish tinge
in tiic center. Tliough their smell has been frequently extolled as very fragrant, yet
it is weak, and by no means agreeable, resembling that of animal albuminous liquids.
The flowers are followed by one-seeded berries, of the shape of an acorn, but not so
large as a common pea.

The plants are propagated by seeds or saplings. In two years the shoots are fit for
cutting, being then about half an inch thick ; but as the shoots are continually cut as
soon as they have obtained the proper size, a full-grown trunk never forms, so tliat tho
more or less voluminous root-stalk is the only criterion of age. The peeling of tho
rind takes place twice a year, from May to Juno, and in November, as at that time, la
consequence of the heavier rains, and the increase of sap, it can be more easily
detached from the wood. The epidermis having been scraped off, the bark is placed
nn mats to .ry in tho sun, when it curls up, and acquires a darker tint. The smaller
piiiccs are then put inside the larger, and the whole closes together into tho tubular
f'jrm, in which it is sold in the shops. The finer sort is as thin as parchment, light
hrown, and extremely aromatic.

From the Aujerican " Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature " wo abridge an admirable
account of this plant: "Cinnamon was probably an article of commerce in ancient
liubylou. The Hebrews received it through the Midianites and Nabathicans, who
lirought it from the Arabian Gulf. It seems that the Arabians at an early period had
comuicrcial intercourse with Ceylon and Continental India. The term itself occurs in

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iiiiiiiy Grock authors. HcriMlotus, writii);^ 4(M) yoar.s bcriro tlio Clinstian era, dosciilips
Aialiia as the last iiihaliitcd country toward the south, and the only rc'rimi which
j)rodu(!L's frankineonso, myrrh, cinnainou, cassia, and ludanuni He states that thr
Arabians, however, were ijriiorant of the particular s])ot wliere cinnamon j^rew. It was
not till the time of Dioscorides, (lalen, anil the circumnavigation (■! the Kiytliriwin
Sea (H. C. 200,) that we get any definite information. Galen says that cinnaiiion and
cassia ore so niucdi alike that it is not an easy matter to distinguish one from tin; othiT.
(cinnamon of the best (juality is imported at the present day from Ceyhm and the
iMalaliar coast. It comes in hales and chests, the liundles weigliing ahout a inpiuid
each. The pieces consist of slender compound quills ahout three feet ]on<r, each
enclosing several smaller quills. These are thin, smooth, and of a brownish color; of
a warm, sweetish, and agreeable taste, and fragrant odor; but several kimls are known
in modern markets, as they were in ancient times. Tiie best kinds of cinnamon arc
oiitained from twigs and slioots; those of less than half an inch, or more than threi.'
inches in diametc^r, are not peeled. AVhen the bark is partially dry the smaller (juilU
arc introducc.'d into the larger ones, and in this way congeries of quills are foriiicil,
often measuring forty inclies in length. Tiie ((uills are then thoroughly dried in the
sun, and made into bundles with ])ieees of split bamboo twigs.

" An oil of cinnamon is prepared by macerating the (;oarser pieces of the bark, after
])eing reduced to a coarse powder, in sea-water for two days, and then distilling it. \
fatty substance is also obtained l)y bruising and boiling the ripened fruit, wlu'ii an
oily sui)stanco floats on the surface, which on cooling concretes into a whitish, rather
hard, fatty matter. As the oil burns with a delightful fragrance, the kings of Kainly
used to burn it in their audience chambers when receiving foreign ambassadors. The
wood also is pervaded with the same grateful perfume, and walking-sticks and small
articles of furniture made from it are highly prized.

" Cassia bark is with dilliculty distinguished from Cinnamon, exce])t by ex|)i'rts.
During tlie palmy Dutch days there were professional tasters who were able to dis-
criminate between half a score of dill'erent qualities of cinnamon; and they were
required when on duty to live wliolly on rice, bread, and fruits, ,«o ,i.i not to impair
the keenness of their gustau.ry sensibilities. They, of course, were quite alile to dis-
tinguish between cinnamon and cassia; the more readily because the latter left a bitter
ta.ste in the mouth. Chemistry distinguishes them still more readily; for a decoction
of caisia. when treated with a tincture of iodine, gives a blue c(dor, which ciimiuiion
does not. At tlie present day, cinnamon has to a great extent lost its favor as a con-
diment. The principal consumers of it are the chocolate-makers of France, Spain,
Italy and Mexico. The Germans, Turk.- and Russians prefer cassia, on account of its
stronger flavor. Not very long since a large quantity of cinnamon, worth a doiliir a
pound, was sent by mistake to Constantinople, where it could not lie sold even at the
price of cassia, worth only a seventh as much, whii-b was in great demand."

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Nutmegs and Cloves, the costly productions of the remotest isles of the Indian
Ocean, were known in Europe for centuries before the countries where they grow had
ever been heard of. Arabian navigators brought thei-i to Egypt, where they were
purchased by the Venetians and sold at an enormous proat to the nations of the west.
But, as is well known, the commercial grandeur of the city of the Lagunes was

.>

CINNAMON NTT-MKCiS (LOVKS.

673

gnddonly eclipsed nftcr Vnpen do Ontna diseovored tlio new maritime rond to the East
Iriilics, Kiuiid tlio Cape of (Judd IIopo (141*^); and wlicn, a few yi^ars later, tlio
ciiiiiitrymeii of the rjreat navigator cotujuered tliu Moluccas n'>ll ), they for a short
time moiio|iolized the whole spiee trad(> imieh more than their preih-eessors had ever
(lone before, i^it here also as in (,'eylon the I'ortuj^iiese were soon obliged to yield to
a stronger rival ; for the Duteli now appeared upon the scene, and by dint of cnter-
piise and courage soon made themselves masters of the Indian Ocean. In KiO.") th'-y
(iiiive the I'cjrtuguese from Andmyna, and before \i'>2l had elapsed, the whole of the
Miiluocas were in their possession, rive-and-tvventy years later, Ceylon also fell into
tlii'ir hands, and tlius they became the sole purveyors of Kurope with cinnamon, cloven
mill nutmegs. Unfortunately, the scandalous manner in wiiich they misused tiieir
power throws a dark shade over their exploits. For the lietter to secure the monopnjy
of the spice trade, they <leelared war against nature itself, allowed the trees to grow
only in particular places, and extirpated them everywhere else. Thus the planting of
the nutmeg tree was contined to the small 'slaiids of Handa, Lonthoir, and Pulo Aij,
■■iiul that of the clove to Andioyna. Wherever the trees were seen to grow ii> a wild
state, they were unsparingly rooted out, and the remainder of the Moluccas were occu-
pied and subjugated for no other reason.

The natives were treated with umnerciful cruelty, and blood flowed in torrents to
keep up the prices of 'oves and nutmegs at an usiirious hight. When these spices
ai'cmiiulated in too large a fjuantity for the market, tiiey were thrown into the sea or
ilestroyed by fire. Thus jM. Heaumare, a French traveler, relates that on June 10,
1701), ho beheld near the Admiralty at .Vmsterdam a blazing jiile of these aromatics,
valued at four millions of florins, ami an ecpial (juantity was to be l)urnt the next day.
The air was iierfumed with their delicious fragrance, the essential oils freed from thi^ir
confinement distilled over, mixing in one spicy stream, which flowed at the feet of the
spectators; but no one was suffered to collect any of this, or, on (lain of heavy punish-
ment, to rescue tlie smallest (juantity of the spice from the flames. But the reign
of monopoly has ceased even in the remote Moluccas, and their ports are now, at
length, thrown open to the connnerce of all nations ; for the spice trees having been
transplanted into countries beyond the control of the Dutch, the ancient system could
nut possibly be maintained any longer.

Tliu clove tree belongs to the far-spread f^imily of the myrtles ; the small lanceolate
evergreen leaves resemble those of the laurel, the flowers growing in bunches at the
extremity of the branches. When they first appear, which is at the beginning of the
rainy season, they are in the form of elongated greenish buds, from the extremity
of which the corolla is expanded, which is of a delicate peach-blossom color. When
iliR corolla begins to fade, the calyx turns yellow, and then red ; the calyces with
ilioir embryo-seed are in this stage of their growth beaten from the tree, and, after
heing dried in the sun, are known as the cloves of commerce. If the fruit be allowed
to remain on the tree after arriving at this period, the calyx gradually swells, the se(id
enlarges, and the pungent properties of the clove are in great part dissipated. Tlio
whole tree is highly aromatic, and the foot-stalks of the leaves have nearly th- .same
piingent quality as the calyx of the flowers. Clove trees as an avenue to u residence
aio perhaps unrivalled; their noble hight, the beauty of their form, the luxuriance
of their foliage, and, above all, the spicy fragrance with which they perfume the air,

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prodiico, on diivinj^ thrnugli a I(inf» line of thorn a dogroo of exquisite pleasure only
to 111! enjoyed in the ciejir, li;^ht atinof<|»here of these hititudes.

(Cloves contain a very large proportion of essential oil, which rnnihinod with a nrpii-
liar resin gives tlietn tiicir pungent aroma. It seems, however, to require a coinliina-
tion of favoralile circumstances of climate and soil for the full development of tlicir
virtues; for, though (he tree is found in the larger islands of Eastern Asia, and m
Cochin China, it has there little or no flavor, and the Moluccas seem to In; the unlv
place where the clove comes to perfection without being cultivated. Though it is at
present planted in Zanzibar, Cayenne, Hourhon, Trinidad, and other plarcs, vct
Andioyna still furnishes the best quality and the largest quantity, exporting annually
about a million of puund.s.

In spito of the endeavors of tho Dutch to confine the Nnlmpg tree to the nr^riow
precincts of lianda, it lia.s likewise extended its range not only over Sumatra, Mau-
ritiu.';, Hourbon, and Ceylon, but even over the western liemisphere. It is of a ninro
majestic growth than the clove, as it attains a bight of fifty feet, and the leaves, of a
fine green on the upper surface, and gray beneath, are more handsome in the outline,
and broader in proportion to the length. 'When tho trees arc abo>it nine years old,
they begin to liear. They are diipcioiis, having male or barren flowers ujion one tree,
and fenuile or fertile upon another. The flowers of both are small, white, bell-sliaiicil,
without any calyx ; the embryo-fruit appearing at the bottom of the female flowers in
the form of a little reddi.sh knob. AVlien rip;, it resembles in ajjpcjaranee and size
a small peach, and then tho outr>r rind, which is about half an in(;li thick, bursts at
the side, and discloses a shining black nut, which seem.s the darker from the contrast
of tho leafy network of a fine red color with which it is enveloped. The latter forms
tho ^lace of connnerce, and having been laid to dry in the shade for a short liino, is
packed in bags and pressed together very tightly. The shell of the nut is larger and
harder than that of the filbert, and could not, in the state in which it is gathered, be
broken without injuring the nut. On that account the nuts are successively dried in
the sun and then by fire heat, till tho kernel shrinks so much as to rattle in the shell,
which is then easily broken. After this the nuts arc three times soaked in seawater
and lime ; they arc then laid in a heap, where they heat and get riil of their super-
fluous moisture by evaporation. This process is |)ursued to preserve the substance
and flavor of the nut, as well as to destroy its vegetative power. The kernel cnn
tains both a fixed oil, which is obtained by pressure, a pound generally yielding three
ounces, and a transparent volatile oil, which may be obtained by distillation in the
proportion of one thirty-second part of the weight of nutmeg used. Tho outer rinds
arc likewise not without use to tho natives. They arc laid in large heaps, and al-
lowed to putrefy, when they get covered with a blackish mushroom, which is esteemed
as u great delicacy.

Pepper, although not so costly as cloves or cinnamon, is of a much greater com-
mercial \alue, as its consumption is at least a hundred times greater. It grow.s on
a beautiful vine, which, incapable of supporting itself, twines round poles prejiarcd
for it ; or, as is more common in the Travancoro plantations, the pepper vines are
planted near mango and other trees of straight high stems. As these are stripped of

PKPrKU -PIMKNTO-GIN(ii:U.

577

tliu lower binni'lios, tlio vino ciiibniccs the trunk, covcrin;^ it witli ol(<<»;int fostoons and
riuti buiU'liL'S of fruit in tiio stylo of tlio Italian vinoyarils. Tlio loaf of tlio j)i'|)|)or
pliitit is largo, rescnililiug tliat of the ivy, and of u Lriglit green ; tliu Idossouis apjioar
in Juno, s>oon after tlio coniinonconient of tlio rains ; they aro small, of a grooui.sh
wliito, and aro followod by the pungent Iiorrios, ■ liicli liaii']; in largo liuuolio.i, ro>ioni-
Ming in f^liapo tlioso of grapes, but tlie fruit grows distinot on little .-^talks like our-
laiits. Tliis valuable spico grows cliiolly on the Malabar coast, in Sumatra, IJornoo,
.J;iva, Singa])ore ; its cultivation lias also been introduced in Cayenne und tlio West
Indies. The l'i;iok and wliite >orts of popper are botli tlie produce of the same plant.
Tlio best wliice poppers are supposed to bo the lincst borrios wliicli have dropped from
the tree, ami, lying under it, become soinewliat bloaclied by e.\posuro to weatlior ; tlio
greater part of tlio white popper used as a condiniont is, however, tho black merely
Bteepod in water, and ilecorticati;d, by which means the pungency and real value of
the !-pieo are diminish " ; but having a fairer and more uniform appearance when
tljus prepared, it fetches a higher price.

Jamaica is tlio chief scat of tho magnificent myrtle {Mi/rtns punent/t), which fur-
nishes tho Pimento — cominouly called, by way of eminence, "Spico," or "Allspice"
— of comuKM'cc. This beautiful tree grows to the height of about thirty feet, with a
smooth, brown trunk, and shining green leaves resembling those of tho bay. In July
and August a profusion of white flowers, filling the air with their delicious odors,
fiirms a very pleasing contrast to the dark foliage of its wide-spreading branches. It
grows spontaneously in many parts of the island, particularly on the northern side,
in high Gpots near the coast. When a now plantation is to bo formed, no regular
planting or sowing takes place, for, as Edwards observes, " flio pimento tree is purely
a child of nature, and sooms to mock all the labors of man in his endeavors to extend
or improve its growth ; not one attempt in fifty to propagate the young plants, or to
raise them from tho .seeds in parts of tho country whore it is not found growing spon-
taneously, having succeeded. For this reason, a piece of land is chosen, either in tho
neighborhood of a plantatation already formed, or in a part of the woodland wlioro
the pimento-myrtles aro scattered in a native state. The land is then cleared of all
wood but these trees, which are left standing, and tho foiled timber is allowed to ro-
niain, where it falls to decay, and porishe.s. In the course of a year, young puiionto
|)lants aro found springing up on all parts of tho land, produced, it is supposed, in
ci)nsc([uence of the ripe berries having boon scattered there by the birds, while tho
prostrate trees protect and shade tho tender seedlings. At tho end of two years tho
laml is thoroughly cleared, and none but tho most vigorous plants, which come to
maturity in about .seven years, are left star.ding." The berries are carefully picked
while yet green, since, when sufFered to ripen, they lose their pungency. One person
on tho tree gathers the small branches, and three others, usually women and children,
find full employment in picking the berries from them. The produce is then exposed
to tho sun for about a week, when the berries lose their green hue and become of a
reddish brown. When perfectly dry, they are in a fit state for exportation. In favor-
able seasons, which, however, seldom occur above once in fivo years, tho pimento
crop is enormous, a single tree having been known to yield one hundred weight of tho
dried spico. From its combining the flavor and properties of many of the oriental
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nroniatlca, iiiiiipnto lias derived its popular nnino of allspice, and, from its bfing
clieaper than Itlattk pepiior, its consuiiiption it very /jruat.

Tlioui^h but a lowly root, Ginger almost v'cs in commercial importance with the
aromatic riinl of tiic ciiinanion hiurci, or the punj^ent fruit of thj nutniei^-iriyrtle.
The plant which prodflces this valualile eoiKliiiient belongs to llie tropical family of
the Scitamincju, or spiee-liiich, wliidi also rt'ckons amon}^ its members the Canioininn
and tlio Curcuma. Its jointed tubers creep and increase under proutid, and from
each of tliein springs up an annual stem al)()Ut two feet and u half liigli, willi narrow
and lancoolute leaves. The flowering stalk rises directly from the root, ending in an
olilong, scaly spike ; from each of these scales a single wliite and blue (lower is pro-
duced. Ginger is imported into this country, umler tlie form of dried roots and as
a preserve We receive it both from the East and \Voat ludioa, but that from tba
latter is much superior iu (quality to the former.

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TUor'ICAL INSKCT8.

681

ANIMALS OF TIIK TROPICAL WORLD.

CIIAITKU VIII.

INSICCTS.

MiillitiKlo of Troiiiful Iriffcto— Hectics— Drntjon Flics— T-oiif MotliK— The Lcnf Riittorfly—
I'"irc FlicH — hiMi't I'ldiims: Mosciuitocs — Cliinocs, or .lifjucrs — 'I'lic Kiliiriii MiMliiit'iini* —
The Ui'tc Koii^c — Ticks — Liitidl-ccclicH — The Tsetse Fly — The THiilt-Salyil Locusts —
Coukrunelies — Fiieniies of the Cockroncli. — I'mful liisirta: The isiik-W'onn — The Cocliiiiciil
InJcct — The (Jmn-Lnc Insect — Kiliblo and Oniiinientiil Hcctles.

HAVING tliiiH passed in rajiul survey over the cbarnctoristio forms of the Vcgo-
tiiblo World of tlio Tmiiios, wo now proceed to tlio Animal Kin^jdom, com-
mcncinfi; with TnsectH, and proccedinj^ to Keptiles, IJirds and lleastH.

On advant'inf; from the temperate regions to the pole, wo find that insect life
gradually diminihlios in the bamo ratio aa vcgotalilo life declines. The reverse takes
place on advancinj^ towards the equator ; for, as the sun rises more and more to the
zenith, wo find the insects gradually incroasing with the multiplicity of plants, and nt
length attaining the greatest variety of form, and tiie highest ilevelopment of numl)er,
in those tmpical lands where moisture condiines with heat in covering the ground with
a dense and everlasting vegetation. Tims while not a single species of beetle is found
on Melville Island, Greenland boasts of 1 1 ; Lapland of 81." ; Sweden of 2,08.'3. In
the milder climate of England their number increases to 2,20."] ; in Franco it rises to
4,200; and the hothouse temperature of Brazil, from llio Janeiro to Uahia, fosters no
less than 7,5<IO specific forms of beetle life. In Uorneo 3Ir. Wallace collected 2,000
distinct species of beetles within the s[iacc of a single square mile; some of them of
forms to the oddity of which no pi.nilli'l can be found elsewhere. Thus, also, while
the whole of Euroj)o and Siberia hardly possess more than 2.")0 butterflies, the ex-
plored parts of Urazil, which are very inferior in extent, have already furnished the
naturalist with no less than 000 species, and no doubt contain many more.

In the countries which, from the never failing abundance of food, and constant
warmth, are most favorable to the multiplication of ihsects, these creatures may
naturally be expected to attain the greatest size. Thus the European rhinoceros
beetle, though an inch and a quarter long, is far surpassed by the Megasominao
of torrid America. The colossal Hercules beetle attains a length of five or even six
inches, and is distingui.^hed, like the other species of the genus, by the singular horn-
shaped processes rising from the head and thorax, which give it a very grotesque and
even formidable appearance. Though but little is yet known of its economy, it most
likely subsists upon putrescent wood, and evidently leads a tree life, like the other

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THE TROPICAL WORLD.

members of the family — the Elepliant, tlio Neptune, the Typlion, the Ilnctor, tin;
Mars — wliosc very names indicate that tliey are giants in the insect world. Tlicsu
beetles e.vcavate burrows in the earth, where they conceal themselves during the d;iy,
or live in the dccoinpo.scd trunk.s of trees, and are generally of a dark, rich brown, or
chestnut color. On the approach of night they run about the footpaths in ..moJs, or
fly around the trees to a great hight with a loud humming noise. Resembling the
largo herbivorous quadrupeds by their comparative size and horn-liko processes, they
are still further like them in their harmless nature, and thus deserve in more than one
res|)Oct to be called the elephants among the insect tribes.

The Goliaths of the coast of Guinea are nearly as large as the American giant
beetles, and surpass them in brilliancy of coloring. Some years ago tlieso hu<TO
beetles, which live exclusively on the juice of trees, were very rare, and brousht
extravagant prices. Tims, Mr. Swainson mentions X30 having been oU'eriHl and
refused for a single specimen, the proprietor demanding £^,0. 'llie South American
Inca beetles greatly resemble the African Goliaths, equalling them in size and beauty.

Many of the tropical dragon-flics, grasshoppers, butterflies, and moths, arc of no los
colossal dimensions in their several orders than the giants among the beetles. The
LibeUuIa htcretia, a South American dragon-fly, mea.«urcs five inches and a half in
length; the giant Phasma is a span long; and the cinnamon eating Atlas-niotli i)f
Ceylon often reaches the d..nensions of nearly a foot in the stretch of its superior
wings.

In the tropical zone, where the prodigality of life multiplies the enemies which every
creature has to encounter, we may naturally expect to find the insects extremely well
provided with both passive and active means of defence. Many so closely resenible
in color the soil or object on which they are generally found, as to escape even the eye
of a hungry enemy. The wings of several Brazilian moths appear like withered
leaves that have been gnawed round their margins by insects; and when these niotIi3
are disturbed, instead of flying away, they fall upon the ground like the leaf which
tiiey resemble, so that it is diflicult, if not impossible, on such occasions to know what
they really are.

The illusion is still more complete when the likeness of form is joined to that of
color, as in tln^ walking leaf and walking-stick insects. Some, of an enormous length,
look so exactly like slender dead twigs covered with bark, that their insect nature can
only be discovered by mere accident. U])on being handled they feign dcatli. and tlieir
legs are often knobbed, like the withered buds of trees. Some resemble living twigs,
and are green ; others such as are decayed, and are therefore colored brown. The
wings of many put on the resemblance of dry and crumpled leaves, while those of
others arc vivid green, in exact accordance with the plants they respectively inhahif.
Mr. Wallace describes the KaUiina paralekta, a large beautifully colored butterfly
when flying, but which, when alighted, can not be distinguished from a dead leaf,
except upon the closest scrutiny. lie had often seen it flying, but had never been
able to capture one. At last actually .«aw one alight close by where he was standing;
but it disappeared as if by magic. At last he dt^ected it ; and having secured it, was
able to perceive how it was able to hide itself, when in plain view. The upper end
of the wings terminates in a fine point, while the lower wings are lengthened out into
a .short thick tail; between these points runs a dark line like the midrib of a leaf,

THE LEAF BUTTERFLY— THE SOOTHSAYER.

58;i

with marks on each side resenibling leaf-veins. When the wings arc elosely pressed
togetlier, tlio wliolu outline is exactly like that of a halfslirivellcil leaf, which it then
resembles in color, Tlie tail of the hind wings forms a perfect stalk, and rests uj)on
the twig, while the insect is supported by the middle pair of legs, wliich arc hardly to
be distinguished from the twigs around. The head is drawn back between the wings,
at whose base is a notch to let it in. Knowing all this, one must look closely at tho
picture which ho gives in order to distinguish tho alighted butterfly from a leaf.

THB LEAF liUTTEUrLY.

Another singular insect is the ?.Iantis, or "Soothsayer," notable for its apparently
feeble structure and voracious appetite. It is of slow movement, yet flies constitute a
jrreat part of its food. It steals cautiously upon its prey, and, when near enough,
flings out its long fore-legs and grasps its prey. These legs arc curiously constructed ;
tlio tibia can bo shut upon the sharp edg^ of the thigh, like a pair of shears, with
which it can cut any slender substance, and even give a decidedly unpleasant nip upon
the finger of the naturalist who incautiously seizes it.

The Mantis, by the attitude it assumes when lurking for its prey or advancing upon
if — which is done by the support of the four posterior legs only, whilst the head and

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THE TROPICAL WORLD.

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prothorax are raised perpendicularly from the body, and the exterior legs are folded in
front — greatly resembles a person praying. Hence, in France it is called Le Pre-
cheur, or Le Prie Dieu ; the Turk says it points to Mecca; and several African triUs
pay it religious observances. In reality, however, its ferocity is great; and the
stronger, preying on the weaker of their own species, unmercifully cut them to piecus.
Thus, two Mantes which Sir E. Tennent enclosed in a box were both found dead a
few hours after, severed limb from Mmb in their deadly fight. Within the space of a
week, Burmeister saw a Mantis devour daily some dozens of flies, and occai^ionally
large grasshoppers and young frogs, consuming, now and then, lizards three times it.s
own length, as well as many largo fat caterpillars Hence it may be judged wliat
ravages these strangely formed creatures must cause among all weaker beings which
incautiously approach them, and that, far from being the saints, they are, in reality,
the tigers of the insect world.

Though the great majority of luminous animals are marine, frequently lighting up
the breaking wave with millions of moving atoms, or spreading over the beach like a
sheet of fire, yet several insects are also endowed with the same wonderful property.
Our own fire flies afford a charming spectacle. But this brilliancy is far surpassed by
that of the phosphorescent beetles of the torrid zone. Thus the Cocujas of South
America glows with such intensity, that if eight or ten of them arc put into a vial the
light will be sufficiently good to admit of writing by it. In Cuba is a magnificent
fire fly, which ladies often enclose in gauze nets, and wear as ornaments in the ball-
room. When the Spaniards first visited Mexico, the wandering sparks of fireflies
were once mistaken for an army approaching with matchlocks; and in the AVost Indies
the English, under Cavendish and Dudley, seeing an innumerable body of these insects,
fancied that the Spaniards were advancing upon them in force, and fled to the vessels
from which they had just landed.

The insect tribes hold a kind of universal empire over the earth and its inhabit-
ants, for nothing that possesses, or has possessed, life is secure from their attacks.
To secure himself from their attacks, man must wage a perpetual warfare, and main-
tain an ever-wakeful vigilance, for, though destroyed by thousands, new legions ever
make their appearance, and to repose after a victory is eijulvalent to a defeat. In our
temperate zone, where a higher cultivation of the ground tends to keep down the
number of the lower animals, their persecutions, though frequently annoying, may
still be borne with patience ; but in the tropical regions, where man is generally cither
too indolent or not sufficiently numerous to set bounds to their increase, the insects
constitute one of the great plagues of life. We will first speak of some of these
insect plagues :

Along the low river-banks, and every Tv'iero on hot and swampy grounds, the blood-
tliirsty mosquitoes appear periodically in countless multitudes, the dread of all wlio
live in warm climates. Scarcely has the sun descended below the horizon, when these
insects arise from the morass to disturb the rest of man and to render existence a tor-
ment. Not satisfied with piercing the flesh with their sharp proboscis, which at the
same time forms a kind of syphon through which the blood flows, these malignant
gnats, of which there are many species, inject a poison into the wound, which causes
inflammation, and prolongs the pain.

MOSQUITOES— JIGGERS.

585

In Angola, Livingstone found the banks of the river Scuza infested by legions of
the most ferocious mosquitoes he ever met with during the course of his hmg travels.
'Hic torment wliich they inflicted was, he says, " at least ecjual to a nail through the
heel of one's boot, or the toothache." Edwards, on his voyage up the Amazon, was
no less tormented by these troublesome pests. " Nets were of no avail, even if the
oppressive heat would have allowed them ; for those which could not creep through
the meslies would in some other way find entrance in spite of every precaution.
Thick breeches they laughed at, and the interior of the cabin seemed a beehive.
This would not do, so wo tried the deck, but fresh swarms continually poured over us,

THE MOSQCITO — NATORAL SIZE, AND MAGNIFIED.

and all night long we were foaming with vexation and rage." During his sojourn in
the Peruvian forests, Tschudi lay for several days almost motionless, with a swollen
head and limbs, in consequence of the bite of these intolerable flies ; and although by
degrees the skin became more accustomed to the nuisance, and swelling no longer fol-
lowed, yet their sting never failed to cause great pain. During three montlis of the
year they infest the province of Maynas to such a degree, that even the stoical Indians
utter loud complaints, and the dogs endeavor to escape them by burying themselves in
the sand.

The Chegoc, Pique, or Jigger of the West Indies (Pufex penetrans), is another
great torment of the hot countries of America. It looks exactly like a small flea; and

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a Btrangor would t.ako it for one. However, in about four and twenty hours ho would
have several broad hints that he had made a mistake in his ideas of tlie animal. It
attacks different parts of the body, but chiefly tlie feet, betwixt the toe-nails and the
flesh. There it buries itself and causes an itching, which at first is not unpleasant,
but after a few days gradually increases to a violent pain. At the same time a small
white tumor, about the size of a pea, and with a dark spot in the centre, rises under
the skin. The tumor is the rapidly growing nest of the chegoe, the spot the little
plague itself. And now it is high time to think of its extirpation, an operation in
which the negro women are very expert. Gently removing with a pin the skin from
the little nmnd white ball or nest, precisely as we should peel an orange, and pressini'
the flesh all round, they generally succeed in squeezing it out without breaking, and
then fill the cavity with snuff or tobacco, to guard against the possibility of a fresh
colony being formed by some of the eggs remaining in the wound. New comers are
particularly subject to these creatures. '' Every evening," says Waterton, " before
sundown, it was part of my toilet to examine my feet and .=!eo that they were clusr
of chegoes. Nov and then a nest would escape the .scrutiny, and tiien 1 had to smart
for it a day or two after." If the prompt extraction of the chcgoe's nests is neglocfel,
the worm like larvic creep out, continue the mining operations of their parent, and
produce a violent inflanuiiation, which may end in the mortification of a limb. It not
unfiequently happens that ' jgroes from sheer iilleness or negligence in the first in-
stance have boon lamed for life and become loathsome to the siglit. In such a state,
tiiese miserable objects arc incurable, and death only puts an end to their sufferings.

A still more dangerous plague, peculiar to the coast of Guinea and the interior of
tropical Africa, to Arabia, and the adjacent countries, is the Filaria mcdinensis of
Linnanis. This dreadful worm comes to the herbage in trie morning dew, fiom wliemo
it pierces the skin, and enters the feet of such as walk without shoes, causing the most
painful irritations, succeeded by violent inflammation and fever. The natives extract
it with the greatest caution by twisting a piece of silk round one extremity of the
body and withdrawing it very gently. When wo consider that this insidious worm is
frequently twelve feet long, although not thicker than a horsehair, wo can readily
imagine the difficulty of the operation. If, unfortunately, the animal .«hould break,
the part remaining under the skin grows with redoubled vigor, and frequently occa-
sions a fatal inflannnation.

Among the plagues of Guiana and the West Indies is a little insect in the grass
and on the shrubs, which the French call likeroupe. It is of a beautiful scarlet
color, and so minute that you must bi'ing your eye close to it before you can perceive
it. It abounds most in the rainy season. Its bite causes an intolerable itching, which,
aecording to Schomburgk, who writes from personal experience, drives by day the
perspiration of anguish from every pore, and P.t night makes one's hamr.iDck resemble
the gridiron on wliich Saiiit Lawrence was roasted. The best way to get rid of the
plague is to rub the part affected with lemonjuico or rum. " You must be careful not
to .scratch it," says Waterton. " If you do so and break the skin, you expose your-
self to a sore. The first year I was in Guiana the bfite-rougc and my own want of
knowledge, and, I may aild, the little attention I paid to it, created an ulcer above
the ankle which annoyed me for six months."

The lIood-suckinK Ticks are also to be classed amons the intolerable nuisances of

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LAND-LEECIIES— THE TSETSE.

587

many tropical regions. A large American species cnlled Garapata {Ixodes snnguisiign)
fixes on tlio logs of travelers, and gradually buries its wliolc head in tiio skin, which
liio body, disgustingly distended with blood, is unable to follow. On being violently
removed, the former remains in tiio wound, and often produces painful sores. The
Fiidians returning in the evening from the forest or from their field labor generally
iriiig some of these creatures along with them, swollen to the size of iiazel-nuts.
riu'so ticks seem to have no predilection for any particular animal, but indiscrimi-
nately fasten on all, not even sparing the toad or the lizard.

Though countless hosts of ticks infest the Ceylonoso jungle, though musquitoos
without number swarm over the lower country, yet tlie Land-Leeches which besot tht;
traveler in the rising grounds are a still more detested plague. In size they are al)out
!in inch in length, and as fine as a common knitting-needle, but capable of distention
till they equal a quill in thickness and attain a length of nearly two inches. Their
structure is so flexible that thoy can insinuate themselves through the meshes of the
finest stocking, not only seizing on the feet and ankles, but ascending to the back and
throat, and fastening on the teiidcrest parts of the body. The coffee planters who
live among these pests arc obliged, in order to exclude them, to envelop their legs in
"leech gaiters," made of closely woven cloth. "In moving, tliey have the power of
jilanting one extremity on the earth and raising the other perpendicularly to watch for
their victim. Such is their vigilance and instinct that, on the approach of a pas.ser-by
to a spot which thoy infest, they may be seen amongst the grass and fallen loaves, on
tlu) edge of a native path, poised erect., and preparing for their attack on man and
horse. On descrying their prey, they advance rapidly by semicircular strides, fi.xing
one end firmly and arching the other forwards, till by successive advances they can lay
hold of the traveler's foot, when they disengage themselves from the ground and
ascend his dress in search of an aperture to enter. In those encounters the individuals
in the rear of a party of travelers in the jungle invariably fare worst, as the leeches,
once warned of their approach, congregate with singular celerity. Their size is so
insignificant, and the wound they make .=0 skilfully punctured, that both arc certainly
imperceptible, and the first intimation of their onslaught is the trickling of the blood,
or a chill feeling of the leech when it begins to hang heavily on the skin from being
distended by its repast. Horses are driven wild by them, and stamp the ground in
fury to shake them from their fetlocks, to which they hang in bloody tassels. The
hare lee's of the iialankin-bearcrs and coolies are a favorite resort, and their bands beinnr
tno much engaged to be spared to pull them off, tiio leeches hang like bunches of
grapes round their ankles ; and I have seen the blood literally flowing over the edge
of a Europoan's shoe from their innumerable bites. In healthy constitutions tiio
wounds, if not irritated, generally heal, occasioning no other inconvenience than a
slight inflammation and itching; but in those with a bad state of body, the punctures,
if rubbed, are liable to degenerate into ulcers, which may lead to the loss of limb or
of life. During the march of the troops in the mountains, when the Kandyans wore
in rebellion, in 1818, the soldier.«, and especially the Madras Sopoy.s, with the pioneers
and coolies, suffered so severely from this cause that numbers of them perished."

Among the many noxious insects destructive to the pniperty of man, there is,
perhaps, none more remarkable than the South African Tsetsd-fly ( Gloss'ma morsi-
fans), whose peculiar buzz, when once heard, can never be forgotten by the traveler

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tup: TllOPICAL WORLD.

whose means of locomotion arc domestic animals ; for it is well known that the bite
of this jjoii^onous insect is certain death to the ox, horse, and dog. Fortunately it i-i
limited to particular districts, frequently infesting one bank of a river while tliu oiIht
contains not a single specimen, or else traveling in South Africa would bo utterly
impossd)le, and we should now know no more of Lake Ngami or the Zund)esi than we
did thirty years since. In one journey Liviiigsione lost no less than forty-three lino
oxen by the bite of the tsetse. A party of Englishmen once attempted to remli
Libebe, but tliey had only proceeded seven or eiglit days' journey to the nortli of the
Nganii, when botli horses and cattle were bitten by the fly, and the party were in
consequence compc'Icd to make a ha.sty retreat. One of the number was thus deprived
of as many as thirty-six horses, excellent tiunters, and all sustained heavy losses in
cattle.

A most remarkable feature in the bite of the tsetse is its perfect harndessnoss in
man and wild animals, and even calves, so long as they continue to suck the cow.
The nnde, ass, and goat enjoy likewise the same immunity, and many large tribes on
the Zambesi can keep no domestic animals except the latter, in consuqueiiee of tlio
scourge existing in their country. Dr. Livingstone's ohildren were frequently bitten,
yet suffered no harm ; and he saw around him nundiers of zebras, buHaliies, pigs,
pallahs and other antelopes, feeding quietly in the very habitat of the tsetse, yet as
undisturbed by its bite as oxen i.rc when they fir.st receive the fatal poison, whii;h acts
in the following manner: After a few days the eyes and nose begin to run, tlie coat
stares as if the animal were cold, a swelling appears under the jaw, and, tliough tli3
animal continues to graze, emaciation commences, accompanied with a peculiar flac-
cidity of the muscles; and this proceeds unchecked until, perhaps months afterwards,
purging comes on, and the animal, no longer able to graze, peri.shes in a state of
extreme exhaustion. Those winch are in good condition often perish, soon after tiio
wound is inflicted, with staggering and blindness, as if the brain were alfectod by it.
Sudden changes of temperati.rc, produced by falls of rain, .seem to hasten the progress
of the complaint, but in f^cueral the emaciation goes on uninterruptedly for months ;
and, do what one mr.y, the poor animals perish miserably, as there is no cure jet
known for the disease.

The Abyssinian Tsaltsalya, or Zimb, described by Bruce, seems identical with the
tsetsd, or produces at least similar symptoms. At the season when this plague makes
its appearance, all the inhabitants along the sea-coast, from Melinde to Cape Ganlafui,
and to the south of the Red Sea. are obliged to retire with their cattle to the sandy
plains to preserve tlieni from destruction.

The French traveler, D'Escayrac, tf lis us of a fly in Soudan which leaves the ox
uninjured, but destroys the dromedary. On account of this plague the camel is con-
tini'd to the northern boundary of the Soudan, while the oxen graze in safety througli-
out the whole country. This ily has caused more migrations among the Araljs of tlic
Souilan than idl their wars; and in the dry season it even drives the elephant from
Lake Tsail by flying into its ears.

Though Locusts not seldom extend their ravages to the steppes of southern Russia,
though they have been known to burst like a cloud of desolation over Transylvania
and Hungary, and stray stragglers now and then even find their way to England, yet
their chief habitat and birthplace is the torrid zone. They wander forth in countless

^^m

LOCUSTS- COCKllO ACHES.

C8!)

niuUitudcp, and at very irregular periods; but how it comes that tlioy arc multiplied
to such an excess in particular years, and not in others, has never yet been ascertained,
und perhaps never will lie. They arc armed with two pairs of strong iiianilililes; their
stoinaeii is of extraordinary capacity and power; they make [irodigious leaps by means
of tiicir muscular and long hind legs; and their wings even carry them far across the
sea. On viewing a single locust, one can hardly conceive how they can cause such
devastations, but we cease to wonder on hearing of their numbers.

Kroin 1778 to 1780 the whole empire of Morocco was so laid waste by swarms
of these in.'^ccts, that a dreadful famine ensued. IMr. IJarrow, in his travels, states
that in the southern parts of Africa the whole surface of the ground niigiit literally be
said to be covered with them for an area of nearly -,000 .Hjuare miles. When driven
into the sea by a nortli west wind, tiicy formed upon the shore, for fifty miles, a bank
three or fotu' feet high ; and when the wind was southeast, the stencil was such as to
be smelt at the distance of l."»() miles. Major Moore observed at Poonah an army of
locusts, which devastated the whole country of the Mahratta*, and most likely came
from Arabia. Tlieir columns extended in a width of aOO miles, and were so dense as
to darken the liglit of the sun. It was a red species (not the common Gri/llits migra-
tortus), whose bloody color added to the terror of their appearance.

In Central Africa, Andci'son met with vast numbers of the larv;c of the locust
connnonly called by the Hoers " \'oet-gangcrs," or pedestrians. In some places they
might be seen packed in layers several inches in thickness, and myriads were crushed
and maimed by the wagon and cattle. Towards nightfall they crawled on the/iiu.>-hes
and shrubs, many of which, owing to their weight and numbers, were ciliier bowed
down or broken short off. They were of a reddish color, with dark markings; and
as tiiey hung thus suspended, they looked like clusters of rich fruit. These larviB
arc justly dreaded by the colonists, as nothing seems capable of staying their progress.
Even rivers form no barrier to their march, as the drowning multitudes afi()rd tho
survivors a temporary bridge; endeavors to diminish their numbers would appear like
attempting to drain the ocean by a pump. On traveling on, next morning, the locust
it!«elf was encountered, and in such masses as literally to darken tho air. The wagon,
or any other etpially conspicuous object, could not be distinguished at the distance of
one hundred paces. Tlie noise of their wings was not unlike that causeil by a gale
of wind whistling through the shrouds of a ship at anchor. During their flight num-
bers were constantly alighting — an action which has not inaptly been compared to the
falling of large snow-flakes. It is, however, not until the approach of night tliat the
locusts encamp. Woe to the spot they select as a resting-place ! The sun sets on a
landscape green with all the luxuriance of tropical vegetation ; it rises in the morning
over a region naked as the waste of the Sahara.

We are not wholly unacquainted with Coukroachcs. The tropical plague of the
cockroaches has been introduced into the temperate zone; but, fortunately, the giant
of the family, the Blutta f/iffmitea, a native of many of the warmer parts of Asia,
Africa, and South America, is a stranger to our land; and the following truthful
description of this disgusting insect at home gives us every reason to be thankful for
its aksence : — " They plunder and erode all kinds of victuals, drcs.scd and undressed,
and damage all sorts of clothes, especially such as are touched with powder, pomatum,
and similar substances; everything made of leather; books, paper, and various other

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nrticloH. wliich if they do not destroy, at least tlioy soil, as they frequently dupost a
drop of their cxeremont where they settle, and, some way or other, by tliat niuiiti.s
damage wliat they c-innot devour. They fly into the flame of eandles, and soinelinicM
into the dishes; are very fond of ink and of oil, into wliieli they are apt to fall atnl
perish, in whieh case they soon turn most ofl'ensively putrid — so that u man iiii;f|it an
well sit over the cadaverous body of a larj^o animal as write with the ink in wliicli
they have died. They often fly into persons' faces or bosoms, and their legs biin"
armed with sharp spines, the pricking excites a sudden horror not easily (leserilicd.
In old houses they sv/arni by myriads, making every part filthy beyond des(ri|)tion
wherever they harbor, which in the daytime is in dark corners, behind clothes, in
trunks, boxes, and, in .short, every place where they can lie concealed. In old tiiiilicr
and deal houses, when the family is retired nt night to sleep, this insect, among other
disagreeable properties, has the power of making a noi.sc wiiich very much rcscmliies
n pretty smart knocking with the knuckle upon the wainscroting, Tiio Jilattn (jiganh'a
in the West Indies is, therefore. fre(|uently known by the name of tlie ' Druniincr,'
Three or four of these noisy creatures will somefinies be impelled to answer one
another, and cause such a drumming noi.sc that none but those who arc very g(M)d
sleepers can rest for them. What is most disagreeable, those .vho have not gauze
curtains are sometimes attacked by them in their sleep ; the sick and dying have their
extremities attacked; and the ends of the toes and lingers of the dead are frequently
stripped both of the skin and flesh."

According to Tschudi, the Cucaracha and Chilicabra — two largo species tf tlie
cockroach — infest Peru in such numbers as almost to reduce the inhabitants to despair.
Greedy, bold, cunning, they force their way into every hut, devour the stores, destroy
the clothes, intrude into the beds and dishes, and defy every means that is resorted to
for their destruction. Fortunately, they arc held in check by many formidable
enemies, particularly by a small ant, and a pretty little bird ( Troglodytes audax)
belonging to the wagtail family, whieh has some difliculty in mastering the larger
cockroaches. It first of all bites off their head, and then devours their body, with the
exception of their membranaceous wings. After having; finislied his repast, the birJ
hops upon the nearest bush, and there begins his song of triumph.

Many other insect plagues might be added to the li.st, but those t have already
enumerated suffice to reconcile us to our misty climate, and to diminish our longing
for the palm groves of the torrid zone.

After having described the miseries which the tropical insects inflict upon man —
how they suck his blood, destroy his rest, exterminate his cattle, devour the fruits of
his fields and orchards, ransack his chests and wardrobes, feast pn his provisions, and
plague and worry him wherever they can — I turn to the more agreeable task of re-
counting their services, and relating the benefits for which he is indebted to tliem.

Among the insects which are of direct use to us, the silkworm (Botnbi/x mori) is
by far the most important. Originally a native of tropical or sub-tropical China,
where the art of making use of its filaments seems to have been discovered at a very
early period, it is now reared in countless numbcTs far and wide over the western
world, so as to form a most important feature in the industrial resources of Europe.
Thousands of skilful workmen are employed in spinning and weaving its lustrous

TIIK SILK-WOUM— TUK COCIIIXKAL INSKCT.

691

ihrpads, and tliousamlH upon thousands. cnjo}inj» the fruit.s of their lahors, now clothe
thi'iiiselves, at a moderate price, in Hiliien ti.ssues wliieh but a few centuries hack were
the exehisivc hixury of the ricliest and noblest of the hind.

Besides the silk-worm, we find many other moths in tiie tropical zone whoso cocoons
might advantageously he spun, and only re(|uire to Ito better known to become con-
(liilerable articles of comoierce. The tusseh worm {/iomhi/j- uiijUttn) of Hindosfan,
vvliich lives upon the leaves of the llhanmus jujulia, furnislu's a dark-colored, coarse,
liut durable silk ; while tho Arandi {li. cynthia), which feeds upon the foliage of the
castor oil plant (/^'c/hms co?«ni»«/.s), spins remarkably soft threads, which serve the
Hindoos to weave tissues (.f u!'connnon strength. In America there are also many
iiuligcnous moths wlux^ie filaments might bo rendered serviccaiile to man, and whicli
K'cm destined to great future importance, when trade, miitting her usual routine, shall
have learnt to pry more closely into the resources of Nature. While the Coc(ti, or
]ilant-bug.s, are in our country deservedly detested as a nuisance, destroying the
beauty of many of our garden plants by their blighting presence; while, in IHl.'J, tho
Coccus of tho orange trees proved so destructive in the Azores that the island of
I'ayal, which annually exported 12.000 chests of fruit, lost its entire jmiduce from
this cause alone, two tropical members of the family, as if to make up for tlie mis-
deeds of their relations, furnish us — the one with the most splendid of all scarlet
dyes, and the other with gum-lac, a subt^tance of hardly inferior value.

Our gardeners sf)are no trouble to protect their hot and grcenliouse plants from tho
invasion of the Coccus hcspcridum ; but the Mexican haciendero purposely lays out
iiis No[)al plantations that they may be jireyed upon by the Coccus ctirtl, and rejoices
ttiicn he tees the leaves of iiis opuntias thickly strewn with this valuable parasite.
Tiie female, who from her form and habits might not unaptly be called the tortoise of
the insect world, is much larger than the winged male, and of a dark -brown color,
with two light spots on the back, covered with white powder. She uses her little legs
only during her first youth, but soon she sucks herself fast, and henceforward remains
immovably attached to the spot she has chosen, while her mate continues to lead a wan-
dering life. While thus fixed like an oyster, she swells or grows to such a size that
she looks more like a seed or berry than an in.sect ; and her legs, antennixj, and pro-
boscis, concealed by the expanding body, can hardly be distinguished by the naked
eye. Great care is taken to kill the insects before the young escape from the eggs, as
they have then tho greatest weight, and are most impregnated with coloring matter.
They are detached by a blunt knife dipped in boiling water to kill them, and then
dried in the sun, when they have the appearance of small, dry. shriveled berries, of a
deep brown pur|)lo or mulberry color, with a white matter between the wrinkles. The
collecting takes place three times a year in the plantations, where the insect, improved
by human care, is nearly twice as largo as the wild coccus, which in ^fexico is gath-
ered six times in the same period. Although the collecting of the cochineal is exceed-
ingly tedious — about 70,000 insects going to a single [lound — yet, considering the
high price of the article, its rearing would be very lucrative, if bcjth i\w insect and the
plant it feeds upon were not liable to the ravages of many diseases, and tho attacks of
numerous enemies. The conquest of Mexico by Cortoz first made the Spaniards ac-
quainted with cochineal. Tiiey soon learnt to value it as one of the most importatit
products of their new empire ; and in order to secure its monopoly, prohibited, under

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puiii of doatl), tlio oxpnrtiitinn of tlio insoot, and of tho equally imligoiiou^ Nopal, or
Cactus cor/ii'iiellifer. (Jocliinoul \n now proilucod in tho Cuiiaiy Islands, Java, nml
IJra/.il ; but Mexico still fuini.slieii tlio groatur part produced.

Tho Coccus which produces lac, or gum-lac, is a native of India, and thrives mid
multiplies hest on several species of tho fig tree. A cheap method having been dis-
covered within the last years of separating tho coloring matter wiiicli it contains from
tho resinous part, it has greatly increased in eoininercial iniportaneo.

In the tropical zone we find lliat not only many birds and several four-footed ani-
mals live chielly, or even exclusively, on insects, but that they are even consumed in
large ((iiaiitilies, or eaten as delicacies, by man himself. The locust swarms aio wel-
comed with didiglit by the Arab of the Sahara and the South African Hushman. After
being partially roasted, they are either oaten fresh, or dried in hot ashes and stored
away. The natives reduce them also to powder or moal, which, eaten with a little
gait, is palatalile even to Europeans ; so that Livingstone, who, during his res'deiico
among the Hakwains, was often obliged to put up with a dish of locusts, says he
should much prefer them to shrimps, tiiough he would avoid both if possii/le. They
evidently contain a great deal of nourishment, fis tho Hushmon thrive wonderfii'ly on
them, and hail their appearance as a season of plenty and good living. The food of
John the Haptist was locusts and wild honey.

Several of the largo African caterpillars are edible, and considered as a great deli
cacy by tho natives. On the leaves of the Mopane tree, in the IJushman country, tlie
small larv.'c of a winged insect, a species of P.sylla, appear covered over with a sweet
gummy substance, which is collected by tho people in great ipiantities, ami u.<ed as
food. Anotlier species in New Holland, found on the loaves of the Kucalyptus, emits
a similar secretion, which, along with its insect originator, is .scraped otf the leaves and
eaten by tho aborigines as a saccharine dainty.

Tho chirping CicadcE, or frog-hoppers, which Aristotle mentions as delicious food,
though macearoni has long supplanted them in tho estimation both of tho modern
Greeks and of tho Italians, aro still in high repute among tho American Indians.
With the exception of one species {Cicada Anffliia), these in.socts, equally remark-
able for the rapidity of their flight and their faculty of emitting a loud noise, are un
known in temperate zones. Several of tho exotic species, when their wings are ex-
panded, measure .six inches in extreme length — a size superior to that of many of tlio
humming birds. The Goliath beetles of the coast of Guinea aro roasted and eaten by
tho natives, who doubtless, like many other .savages, not knowing tho value of tliat
which they aro eating, often make a bo7ine bouche of what an entomologist would
most eagiM'ly desire to preserve.

The Chine.se, who allow nothing edible to go to waste, after unraveling the cocoon
of the silk worm, make a dish of the pupsv, which tho Europeans reject with scorn;
and the grubs of several insects which thrive and increase in the Sago-tree, the Areca,
and tho Cocoa, aro considered as groat delicacies ; and many similar examples might
bo cited.

Several of the more brilliant tropical beetles aro made use of as ornaments, not only
by the savage tribes, but among nations which arc able to command tho costliest gems
of the East. The golden elytra of tho S'crnocera chrysls anil Slemocera sternicomis
servo to enrich tho embroidery of tho Indian zenana, while tho joints of the legs arc

•ww^m

OUN.\Mi:XTAL INSECTS.

CU3

stntng on nilkcti tlireads, and form brocu'li-tH of lingular brilliancy. Tlio Indies in
Unizil wear necklaces coniposed of tli. azure green and golden wings of histrous
(,'inysonielidn) and Cureulionidiu, particularly of the Diamond beetle {/'Jntiinits nobilis) ;
niid in Jamaica, tlio elytra of the Jiiijnrslis 'jlgiis arc set in ear-rings, whose gold grcca
brilliancy rivals the rare and costly Chryso|)ras in beauty. ^

The Ilouso-building Insects, Ants, Termites, Spiders, etc., form so notable a feature
of the Insect World of the Tropics, that they deserve a chapter by themselves.

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TIIK TIIOIMCAI. WUKLl).

CHAPTER rx.

ANTS--TERMITES-ANT-EATEHS— Sl'IDEUS— SCORPIOXS.

AniS! Vnst Nunibcrn of Ants In'tlii' Tropical World — Pain cniiscd hy tlicir Rites — Tli(> I'ntiPM
Clavnta — Tlif Mlack Firo-Ant — Tiic Diniiya of Ci'vlon — 'I'lii' Rcil Aiit of Annolu— i'ln'
Vivatfiiii of tilt' Wost IndiL's — Tlif L'niliri'lla Ant — lloiisi'iiold l'la),Mii'H — Troiihlcs of Niiti:-
wfiliutu 'Piwi lj.iti.r..t< A iiiti^'lMiii iLiult'il/.tiitic .it' WiiMtitm Af'i'iiiii It.ui^.. ii..;i,i;.t,. 1..1..

THE family of Ants is undoubtedly the most numerous of any in the wlinlo oirclo
of winged insects, as its colonies arc not confined to one particMilar rogion, but
arc thickly planted over the greatest part of the habitable world. There is willi us
scarcely a field that does not contain millions; wo cannot rest upon a l)ani< without
reclining upon the walls of their cities ; their chief (juarters, however, are estabHslicd
in the torrid zone, where they may truly be .said to hold a de.>potic sway over thit
forest and the savanna, over the thicket and the field. It is hardly possible to |)ei)e-
trate into a tropical wood without being reniiniKMi, by their stings anil lutes, that they
consider the vi.sit as an intrusion, wlr'e they themselves unceremoniously invade ilie
dwellings of man, and lay ruinous coi..ributions on his stores. The inconeeivalih.
number of their species defies the memory of the naturalist, to whom many are even
still entirely Uiiknown. From almost microscopical size to an inch in lengtli, of all
colors and .shades between yellow, red, brown, and black, of the most various liabits
and stations, the ants of a single tropical land would furnish study for years to a
zealous entomologist. Every family of plants has its peculiar species, and many trees
are even the exclusive dwelling-place of some ant nowhere else to be found. lu ttie
scathes of leaves, in the corollas of flowers, in buds and blossoms, over and under tlio
earth, in and out of doers, one meets these ubiquitous little creatures, which are un-
doubtedly one of the great plagues of the torrid zone.

While the ants of the temperate zones cause a disagreeable burning on the skin, by
the secretion of a corrosive acid peculiar to the race, the sting or bite of many tropical
species causes the most excruciating tortures. "I have no words," says Schnniburgk,
" to do.-icribc the pain inflicted upon me by the mandibles of the Ponera chtcatn, a

ANTS AND ITIKIU HI IKS.

.lit.-)

liirc^, nml, fortunntcly, not very pointnnn (int., wlmsc hnrr Mnck liody ix licsot witli
Mii;;li( liairs, Likr an clciilric hliork the |i.'iiii in^iniiily ■-liiit tlinmjjli my wliolc liody,
mill soon uttiT iHMjiiircMl tlio grcatnst intensity in tint Im-aMt, ami over and iimlcr tlio
ariiipitH. AftiT u low minutis I iVIt ulinoMt (;(im|ili't('iy iiaralyzcil, so tliat I ooultl only
witli tlio prcaft'st (iitllcnlty, and under tlif mci^t cxcnmiatinj' torttircs, totter towards
tilt; pliiiitatinn, wliiili, iiowever, it was im|i(is.sili!(' for me to reacli. I was I'mnid senstv
less "n tl»! uroiiml, and the followin;? day ti violent wound fever ensued." The '/'rip-
tun's Americana, u South American tree, aliout sixty m ei;^hty feet liij;h, the lirani'lu s
of whieh are eomphitidy hollow and transversely |)artitioned at rei^ular intervals, like
till' stems of the hanilioo, is the retreat of one of the most terocious ants, Woe to the
naturalist who, Ijrnorunt of tho faet, endeiivors to break olF n shoot of the Tiiplaris, or
only knoeks against tho tree, for tiuuisunds will instantly issue from small nniml
lateral openinj^s in the plant, and fall ujion him with ineoneeivalile fury. Tho touel-
(if a hot iron is not more painful than their bite, unU the inllummution and pain lust
for several days after.

1 he lilaek fire-ant of Uuianr., thou<i;h very small, is capable of inflicting oxccssivo
p:iin. " TIk^so insects," says Studman, "live in such ama/infi; multitudes together,
th;it their hillock-s have sometimes obstructed our passage by their size, over whidi,
if one ehunees to pass, the feet and legs arc instantly covered with innumerable hosts
of these creatures, which seize tho ,skin with such violence in their pincers, that they
will sooner suffer tho head to bo (larted from the body than let go their hold. Tho
hinning jmin wliich they occasion cannot, in my opinion, proceed from tho sharpness
of the pineor.s only, but mu.st bo owing to some venomous fluid, whicli they infuse, or
whitih the wound imbibes from them. I can aver that I have seen them mako a whole
company hop about as if they had been .scalded with boiling water."

Of the more than seventy species of ants which occur in Ceylon alone. Sir M Ten
ncnt describes tho Dimiya, or groat red ant, as tho most formidable. " Like all their
race, these ants aro in perpetual motion, forming lines on the ground, along which
tlicy pass in continual procession to and from tlie trees on which they reside. They
!tie the most irritaiile of the wiiole ovd(.'r in Ceylon, biting with such intense ferocity
as to render it dillicnlt for tlie unclad native to collect the fruit from tho mango <rees,
wtii('h tho red ants especially fnMfUcnt. They dro|) from tho branches upon travelers
in the jungle, attacking them with vonrmi and fury, and infbcting intolerable p.iin
both upon animals and man. On examining the structure of the head through a micro-
senpc, I found that the mandibles, instead of meeting in contact, are so hooked as to
cross each other at tho points, whilst the inner line is .sharply .serrated tlirougliout its
entire length, thus occasioning the inten.«o pain of thoir bite, as compared with that of
the ordinary ant."

" Having, while in Angola, accidentally .stepped upon a nest of red ants," .«ays
Livingstone, " not an instant seemed to elap:<e before a simultaneous attack was made
on various unprotected ])arts, up tlu! trousers fn.iu below, and on my noctk and breast
above. Tho bites of these furies were like sparks of fire, and there was no retreat.
It is really astonishing how su(!h small bodies can contain so large an amount of ill-
nature. They not only bite, but twist themselves round after the mandibles are in-
siTted, to produce laceration and pain more than would be effected by the single wound."

IJut however formidable the weapons of the ants may be, yet the injuries they in-

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flict upon the property of man, pouring over his plantations like a flnoil, and Kweoninf
away the fruits of his labors, are of a much more lasting and serious nature than their
painful bite or venomous sting.

In the West Indies, the brown-black Viviagna, about one-third of an inch Iod", and
with a prickly thorax, is the greatest enemy of the coffee plantations. Tn one day it
will rob a full grown tree of all its leaves. It digs deep subterranean passages of con-
siderable dimensions and irregular forms, with a great number of hand-high galleries
branching out from the sides, and does even more harm to the coffee-plants by its niinin'^
operations, than by robbing them of their foliage. Attacked in tlicir roots, they fall
into what may bo called a consumptive state, bear no fruit, and die after a few months'
lingering. The complete extirpation of the nest, and keeping up for some time a strong
fire in the excavation, is the only moans to subdue the evil, which leads to incalculalilc
losses, when, through negligence, the Vi»-'agua has once been allowed to niultij)]y it.s
numbers.

Other species are no loss destructive to the sugar plantations, cither by settling in
the interior of the stalks (like the Formica nuulis), or by undermining the roots
(like the Formica saccharivora), so that the plant l)ecomes sickly and dies. About
eighty years ago the island of Grenada was overrun by hosts of tlicse devastating in-
sects. Many tiousehold animals died from their attacks, and they effectually cleared
the land of rats, nii<!e, an<l rc|)tiles. Streams of running water failed to interrupt
their progress, and fire was vainly used to stop tliem, for millions rushed into tlie
flames, and served as a bridge for the myriads tiiat followed. All the means employed
to save the sugar plantations from their fury jiroved ineffectual, until in the year 17M)
the plague was swept away at once by a dreadful tornado, accompanied by a deluge of
rain.

The Atta cephalotes, a species of ant distinguished by its large head, is the most
formidable enemy of th(5 banana and cassava fields. It lies in the ground and nnilli-
))lies amazingly; in a very short time it will strip oiF the lea.es of an entire field, and
carry them to its subterranean abodes. Even wliere their nest is a mile distant from
a plantation, these arch depredators know how to find it, and soon form a highway, about
half a foot broad, on which they keep up the most active communications with the
object of their attack. In masterly order, side by side, one army is seen to move onwards
towards the field, while the other is returning to tlie nest. In the last column each indi-
vidual carries a rcund piece of leaf, about the size of a sixpence, horizontally over its
"lead — a circumstance from which the insect has also been named the Umbrella Ant.
If the distance is too great, a party mei!ts the weary carriers half way, r.nd relieves
them of their load. Although innumerable ants may thus bo moving along, yet none
of them will ever be seen to be in the other's way ; and all goes on with the regularity
of clock work. A third pany is no less actively employed on the scene of destruction,
cutting out circular pieces of the leaves, which, as soon as they drop upon the ground,
are innnediately seized by the attentive and indefatigable carriers. Neither lire nor
water can prevent them from proceeding with their work. Though thousands may lie
killed, yet in less than an hour all the bodies will have been removed. Should the
highway be closed by an insurmountable obstacle, another is soon lairl out, and after a
few hours the operations, momentarily disturbed, resume tlieir former activity. Tlie
nuta themselves, particularly the winged females, are considered a great delicacj by

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^

HOUSE ANTS— TRIALS OF NATURALISTS.

597

tho fndians, who cat the abdomen, either raw or roasted. The taste is said to bo
agreeably saecharine.

Not satisfied with devouring his harvests, the tropical ants, as I have already men-
tioned, leave man no rest even within doors, and trespass upon his household comforts
in a thousand various ways. In 3Iainas, a province on the Upper Amazon, Professor
Poppig counted no less than seven ditferent species of ants among the tormenting
itnnates of his hut. The diminutive red Amacho was particularly fond of sweets.
F«vorod by its smallness, it penetrates through the impereeptil)le openings of a cork,
and the traveler was often obliged to throw away the syrup which in that humid and
8ultry country replaces the use of crystallized sugar, from its having been changed
into an ant-eomtit. This troublesome lover of sweets lives under the corner-posts of
the hut, so thirt it is ([uito imjwssiblo to dislodge him. The number of the Paca ticse,
u rod ant, of the ordinary size, was .still greater ; the trunks and papers were swarming
wi'li it, in s|)ito of every precaution, so that it was quite incoinprehensiblo how it found
iueans to overcome all the obstacles that had been devised against it.

'• Tiio only possible way," says Stedman, "of keeping the ants from the refined
pugar is by hanging the loaf to tiie ceiling by a nail, and making a ring of dry chalk
around it, very thick, which crumbles down the moment the ants attempt to pass it.
I imagined that placing my sugar-boxes in the middle of a tub, and on stone surrounded
liy deep water, would have kept back this formidable enemy ; but to no purpose :
whole armies of the lighter sort, to my astonishment, marched over the surface, and
hut very few of them were drowned. The main body constantly scaled the rock, and,
in spite of all my elTurts, made their entry through tho keyholes, after which, the only
way to clear the garrison is, to expose it to a hot sun, which tho invaders can not bear,
and all march off in a few minutes."

Tho devastations of the hoasc-ants are peculiarly hateful to the naturalist, whoso
collections, often gathered with so much danger and trouble, they pitilessly destroy.
Sehoml)urgk suspended boxes with insects from the ceiling by threads strongly rubbed
over with arsenic soap; but when, on tho following morninc^. he wished to examine his
treasures, instead of his rare and beautiful specimens he found nothing but a set of
infamous red ants, who, crawling down the threads, had found means to invade tho
boxes and utterly to destroy their valuable contents.

Wallace gives a feeling description of tho ants of Dorey, one of the islands of the
Indian Ocean: "One small black kind was excessively abundant. Almo.st every
shrub and tree was more or loss infested with it, and its large papery nests were
everywhere to be seen. They immed' _.y took possession of my house, building a
large nest in the roof, and forming papery tunnels down almost every post. They
swarmed on my table as I was at work setting out my insects, carrying them off from
under my very nose, and even tearing them off from the cards on which they wero
gummed, if I left them for an instant. They crawled continually over my hands and
face, got into my hair, and roamed at will over my -vhole body, not producing much
inconvenience till they began to bite, which they would do on meeting with any
clistructiou to their passage, and with a sharpness which made me jump ag.:'n, ana
rush to undress and turn cut the offender. They visited my bed also, so that night
brought no relief from their persecutions ; and I verily believe that during my three
and a half mouths' residence at Dorey I was never for a single hour free from them.

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They were not nearly so voracious as many other kinds, but their numbers and
ubi(iuity rendered it necessary to bo constantly on guard against them."

In countless multitudes the Ranger ants break forth from the primeval forest
marching through tlie country in compact order, like a well-drilled arniy. Every
creature they meet in their way fulls a victim to their dreadful onslaught. On the
west coast of Africa is found a formidable species of the Ranger ant, there named the
Bashikouny, of which Paul du Chaillu* furnishes a description, wiiich we give, soniu-
wluit abridged :

" Rut more potent than snakes, lions, leopards, or gorillas, is a species of ant called
the Bashikouay. It is the dread not only of man, but of every living thing fmiii the
elephant down to the smallest insect. A half inch is about the average length of
one of these ants, though some are found of twice that length. Individually thuy are
bold ; the bull-dog has not more pluck and tenacity of grip. But their groat power lies
in the immense armies into wiiich they organize themselves, and the military order
wliich they preserve." When on the march, they often go in a column two inclios
bro.id and miles in length. Du Cliaillu once saw sueli a column formed in closo
order, which occupied twelve hours, from sunrise to sunset, in passing the spot from
which '0 watched them ; and as they marched by night as well as by day, he did not
know how long the column had been passing before he saw it. A'l along the lino
were larger ants, evidently officers, stantiing outside the column until their sijuads luid
passed, when they moved on and joined them. How many millions upon millions
there were iu this army he did not venture to estimate. When on the march siu'h a
column comes to a small stream, they ding across it a living bridge. Choosing a pi;ifo
where the branch of a tree reaches nearly from one bank to the other, only soinewliat
lower down, the second of the pontoneers, as we may fairly call them, with his fore-
claws grasps the hind-claws of the one in front, and lowers him over. A third does
the same by the second ; and so on until the line is long enough to reach the desired
point. Line after line is thus formed until a suspension bridge is constructed wide
enough for the whole army to pass over. Imagine the strength of muscle which tbeso
creatures must possess to enable them to maintain their hold for hours.

The marching column throws itself into line of battle with wonderful precision.
When it sweeps over a country nothing can stay its progress. Du Cliaillu was once
plodding through the forest in search of game. Suddenly he was startled by a strange
sound. It was caused by a rush of wild beasts. He thought he cuuglit a glinip.ie
of a gorilla; he was sure that he heard the heavy tread of elophants ; and tliis was
followed by a heavy crash as though a herd of these great creatures were ru.^^hiiig
through the forest. Soon the air grew thick with insects. Wiiile wondering what
this might mean, ho felt the torments of innumerable bites, and in an instant he was
almost covered by ants. lie had encountered the skirmishers of a Bashikouay
army. He set off at his utmost speed in the direction which the other fugitives
had taken. Luckily his speed was greater than that of the ants, and as soon as be
thought himself safe he stripped off his clothing. It fairly swarmed with ants who had
buried themselves in the garments, striking their pincers clear through into the flesh
beneath. They never let go their grip until thoy have taken out the flesh. Pull at
oue till his body is Ecparated from the head, and the jaws still keep their hold, He

• Wild Life under tlic Equator.

THE BASIIIKOUAY-HOUSE-BUILDING ANTS.

509

had jufit resumed his garments when the main army came up, and ho again look to
flight, never stopping until he had crossed a stream and taken refuge in a swamp
beyond.

Tlie Basliikouay can not bear the beat of the sun, and hence they are only found
in regions covered by forests. If while on a march they come to an open place, they
dig a tunnel three or four feet under ground, through which they pass to the jungles
on the opposite side. When they enter a village the inhabitants run for their lives.
In an incredibly short space of time every hut is cleared of vermin, and the only trace
left of the invaders is the bones of rats and mice, and the horny wing-cases of insects.
Nothing that breathes comes amiss to them. An antelope whiih had been shot by
Du Ciiaillu was picked to the bones in a few hours. The carcass of an elephant
would be cleared away as quickly as by a kraal of natives. They sometimes come
ujion a huge snake, lying torpid and gorged with food. In this case all is soon over
with his serpentine majesty, liut rats, mice, roaches, centipedes, scorpions, spiders,
and .such small pests, are the special prey of the Bashikouay. A swarm of them will
kill a rat in two minutes, and devour him in about the same space of time. Upon the
wliolo, they are a blessing to the human race in Western Africa, by keeping down the
vermin, which would otherwise render the whole country uninhabitable. They will
not touch vegetable matter. One might almost suppose that the author of the Book
of Revelations had the Bashikouay in his mind when he speaks of the swarms of " lo-
custs " which rose from the bottomless pit at the sounding of the fifth trumpet, to
wliom " it was commanded that they should not hurt the grass of the earth, neither
any green thing, neither any tree ; " but whose " torment was as the torment of a
scorpion wlien he striketh a man." Certain it is that the description fits the Bashi-
kouay, whik it is altogether inapplicable to the creature which wo call the " locust,"
whose only food is green things, and who have no tormenting bite.

The wonderful societies of the ants, their strength and perseverance, their unwearied
industry, their astonishing intelligence, are so well known, and have been so often and
so admirably described, that it would bo trespassing on the patience of my readers
were I to enter into any lengthened details on the subject. And yet, the observations
of naturalists have chiefly been confined to the European species, while the economy
of the infinitely more numerous tropical ants, confined to countries or places hardly
ever visited, or even unknown to civilized man, remains an inexhaustible field for
future inquiry.

The study of their various buildings alone, from the little we know of them, would
occupy a zealous entomologist for years. Here we have an American species that
forms its globular nest of the size of a large Dutch cheese, of small twigs artistically
interlaced ; here another, which constructs its dwelling of dried excrements, attaching
it to a thick branch ; while a third ( Formica bispinosa) uses the cotton of the Bom-
baceoe for its building material, and through the chemical agency of its pungent secre-
tion converts it into a spongy substance.

On the west coast of Borneo, Mr. Adams noticed two kinds of ants' nests — one
species of the size of a man's hand, adhering to the trunk of trees, resembling, when
cut through, a section of tiie lungs ; the other was composed of small withered bits of
sticks and leaves, heaped up in the axils of branches, somewhat in the form of flat-

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600

THE TROPICAL WORIJV

I i

tened cylinders and compressed cones. A third species, still more ingenious, con-
structs its domicile out of a largo leaf, bending the two I'tlves by the weight of united
millions till the opposite margins meet at the under surface of the mid-rib, where tlioy
are secured by a gummy matter. The stores and larvae arc conveyed into the nest so
made by regular beaten tracks along the trunk and branches of the tree.

On the largo plains near Lake Dilolo, where water stands so long annually as to
allow the lotus and other aqueous plants to come to maturity, Livingstone had occia-
sion to admire the wonderful sagacity of the ants, whom he declares to be wiser than
some men, as they learn by experience. When all the ant horizon is submerged a toot
deep, they manage to exist by ascending to little houses, built of black tenacious loam,
on stalks of grat:«, and placed higiier than the line of inundation. This must have
been the result of experience, for if they had waited till the water actually invaded
their habitations on the ground, they would not have been able to procure materials
for their higher quarters, unless they dived down to the bottom for every moutliful of
clay. Some of these upper chambers are about the size of a bean, and others as large
as a man's thumb.

Two species of continental Europe, the Formica ruhescens and snvguincu, are
remarkabia or infamous for their slave-making expeditions. Unable or uinvilliiig to
work ihemselves, they make war upon f>thers for the sole purpose of procuring bonds.
men, who literally aud truly labor for them, and perform all the daily domestic duties
of the community.

Tiie Aphides, or plant-lice, eject a sweet, honey-like fluid, which may be correctly
termed their milk, and which is .«o grateful to the ants, that they attend on tlie honey-
flies for the sole purppf^o of gatnering it, and literally milk them as we do our cows,
forcing them to yield the Huiil. by alternately patting them with their antenn.T. Hut
the most extraordinary part of these- proceedings is, that the ants not only consider the
Apliidcs as their property, but actually appropriate to themselves a certain number,
which they enclose in a tube of earth or other materials near their nest, so tiiat tlicy
may be always at hand to supply the nourisliment wliich they may desire. The yellow
ant, the most remarkable " cowkeepor " among our indig(^nous species, pays great
attention to its herds, plentifully supplying; them with proper food, and tending their
young with the same tenderness which it cxliibits towards its own. With the same
provident care a large black ant of India constructs its nest at the root of the plant
upon which its favorite species of aphis resides. Tlie ants of tropical America, wliero
no Aphides are found, derive their honey from another family of insects, the numerous
and grotesquely-formed Mendjracida), which are most abundant in the regions of Uia-
zil. According to jMr Swainson, many of these little Meinbracidto live in families nf
twenty or tiiirty, all clustered together on the panicdes of grasses, and on the tops of
other plants, like the European plant-lice. These are regularly visited by parties of
a little black ant, which may bo seen going and coming to their heads, and attending
them witii the same care which the European ants bestow on the Aphides. To render
the similarity with cattle still more complete, tlio Mend)racidt« possess horns growing
out of their heads, or are otherwise armed, while their large abrupt heads remind tin
entomologist of the bull or cow. The Mexican honey ants {Myrmecocystus Mexica-
nils) are, if possible, still more remarkable, for here wo sec an animal rearing otliers
of the same species for the purpose of food. Some of these ants are mainly distiu-

rfj;'!i" ij.,- .

SLAVE-HOLDING ANTS-TEILMITES.

OOI

guished by an ennrmons swelling of tho ahflomon, which is converted into a mass like
honey, and being uiialik", in their unwiehly condition, to seek food themselves, arc fed
by the laborers, until tliey are doomed to die for tho benefit of the community. Whutiicr
this vast distension is tlie result of an intestinal rupture, caused by an excessive in-
dulgence of tho appetite, or whether they are purposely selected, coudned, and over-
fed, or wounded for the purpose, has not yet been ascertaiued.

Tho Termites, or white ants, as tliey aro commonly called, though they in reality
belong to a totally ditferent order of insects, aro spread in countless numbers over all
tiio warmer regions of the earth, emulating on tho dry land tho bore-worui in the sea;
for when they have once ]icnetrateil into a building, no timber except ebony and iron-
wood, which arc too hard, or such as is strongly impregnated with camphor and
aromatic (jils, which they dislike, is ca[)able of resisting their attacks. Their favorite
food is wood, and so great are tlieir multitudes, so admirable their tools, that in a few
(lays they devour the timber work of a spacious a[iartmeiit. Outwardly, the beams
and rafters may seem untouched, while tiieir core is completely consumed, for these
destructive miners work in tho dark, and seldom attack tho outside until they have
previously concealed themselves and their operations by a coat of clay. Scarcely any
organic substance remains free from their attacks ; and forcing their resistless way into
trunks, chests, and wardrobes, tliey will often devour in one night all tiie shues, boots,
clothes, and papers they may contain. It is principally owing to their destructions,
pays Humboldt, t'.iat it is .so rare to lind papers in tropical America of an older date
tlian fifty or sixty years. Smeathinan relates that a party of them once took a fancy
to a pipe of fine old Madeira, not for the sake of the wine, almost tho whole of whicii
they let out, but of the staves, which, however, may not have pnjved less tasteful
from having imbibed .some of tlio costly liquor. On surveying a room wliich had been
locked up during an absence of a few weeks, Forbes observed a number of advanced
works in various directions towards some prints and drawings in English frames ; the
glasses appeared to be uucommoidy dull, and tho frani'^s covered with dust. On
attempting to wipe it off, he was astoni.shed to find the _;lasses fixed to tho wall, not
suspended in frames as ho left them, but completely surrounded by an incrustation
ceineuted by tho white ants, who had actually eaten up tho deal frames and back-
boards and the greater part of the paper, and left tho glasses upheld by the incrusta-
tion or covered way which they had formed during their depredations.

On tho small island of Goreo, near Cape Verde, the famous naturalist, Adanson,
lived in a straw hut, which, though quite new at the time he took up his residence in
it, became transparent in many |)laces before the montli was out. Tiiis might have
been endured, but the villainous termites ravaged his trunk, destroyed his books,
penetrated into his bed, and at last attacked the naturalist himself. Neither sweet
nor salt water, neither vinegar nor corrosive li([uids. were able to drive them away,
and so Adanson thought it best to abandon the premises, and to look out for another
ludgiiig.

One night, in Brazil, Von ^lartins was awakened by a disagrceablo feeling of cold
across his body. Groping in tiie (birk, ho found a cool greasy mass crawling right
over the bed, and on a light being brougiit, saw to his astonishment that his rest had
been disturbed by aa inauoierable host of white auts. Tho room having been unin-

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habited for some time, they had formed a clay nest in one of the corners, communi-
eating with similar constructions under the roof, and the whole colony was now busy
migrating. They formed a column about a foot and a '• df broad, and tlioir multi-
tudes poured along in one contiuuoas stream, regardless of the fate of thousands of
their comj)unions, whom the naturalist scalded to death with boiling water. Tlieir
niurch ceased only with the dawn of day, nnd several baskets were filled with tlie
bodies of the slain.

But if the greedy termite destroys like the bore-worm many a useful work of man,
its ravages arc perhaps more than compensated by its services in removing durayc'd
vegetable substances from the face of the earth, and thus contributing to the purify of
the air and the beauty of the landscape. If the forests of the trojiieal world, whore
thousands of gigantic trees succumb to the slow ravages of time, or are suddenly prr)s-
tratod by lightning or the hnrricane, still appear in all the verdure of perpetual ynutli,
it is chiefly to the unremitting labors of the termites that they are indebted for their
freshness.

Though belonging to a different order of the insect world, tlie economy of tlie
termites is very similar to that of the real ants. They also form communities, divided
into distinct orders — laborers (htrvce), soldiers {7ie}iters), perfect insects; and they
also erect buildings, but of a far more astonishing structure. Several of their species
erect high, dome-like eilifices, rising from the plain, so that at first sight they might ho
mistaken for the hamlets of the negroes ; otliers build on trees, often at a cfinsidenilile
hight above the ground. These sylvan abodes are frequently the .size of a ling'^licad,
and are more generally found in the now world.

The day-built citadels or domes of the Termes hellicosus, a common species on tlio
west coa.st of Africa, attain a hight of twelve feet, and are constructed with such
strength that the traveler often ascends them to have an uninterrupted view of th(i
grassy plain around. Only tlie under part of the mound is inhabited by the torniitos,
the upper portion serving principally as a defence from the weather, and to keep up
in the lower part tlie warmth and moLsture necessary to the hatching of the eggs and
cheri.shing of the young ones. In the center, and almost on a level with the ground,
is placed the sanctuary of the whole community — the largo cell, where tiie rjuoen
resides with her consort, and which she is doomed never to quit again, after liaviiig
been once enclosed in it, sini^e the portals soon prove too narrow for her ra[iid!y
increasing bulk. Encircling the regal apartment extends a labyrinth of countless
chambers, in which a numerous army of attendants and .soldiers is constantly in w.iit-
ing. The sjiace between these chambers and the external wall of the citadel is filled
with other cells, partly destined for the eggs and young larv;c, partly for store rooms.
The subterranean passages which load from the mound are hardly less remarkable tlian
ibe building itself Perfectly cylindrical, and lined with a cement of clay, similar to
thiit of which the hill is formed, they sometimes measure a foot in diameter. They
run in a sloping direction, under the bottom of the hill, to a depth of three or four
feet, and then ramifying horizontally into numerous branches, ultimately rise near to
the surface at a considerable distance. At their entrance into the interior of the liiil,
they are connected with a groat number of smaller galleries, which ascend the inside
of the outer shell in a spiral manner, and winding round the whole building to the
top, intersect each other at difTuient bights, opening either immediately into the dome

TIIH rKKMITKS AT IIOMK,

oua

in various places, and into the lower half of the building, or communicating with every
part of it by other smaller circular passages. The necessity for the vast size of the
mala galleries underground, evidently arises from the circumstance of their being tho
great thoroughfare for tiie inhabitants, by wliicth they fetch their clay, wood, water, or
provisions, and tlioir gradual ascent is requisite, as tho termites caa only with great
difficulty climb perpendicularly.

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It may be imagined that such works require an enormous population for their con-
struction ; and, indeed, the manner in wliich an infant colony of terndtes is formed
and grows, until becoming, in its turn, the parent of new migrations, is not the least
wonderful part of this wonderful insect's history. At the end of the dry season, us

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THE TUOPICAL WOKLD.

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soon as the first rains Imvo fullun, tlio male and fi.'Minlo perfect termites, oneh about the
8i/e of two K)l(ii(M-s, or thirty laliorer.s, and furnished with four \<'n<^, niirrow wiii"!'
folded on eaeli otlier, enier'^o from tlieir retreats in myriads. After a few liours their
fra;;ilo wings fall otf, and on tlio followinj; rnorninj; they are difcnvcred coverin;^ the
surfaeo of tho earth and waters, where their enemies — birds, reptiles, ants — eause ho
sweeping a liavoo that .searce one pair out of many thousands cseapes destniciiun.
If by ehaneo the laborers, wlio are always busy prolonj^inj^ their f^alieries, hap|icii to
meet with one of these fortunate couples, they immediately, impelled by tlieir iiistimr,
elect them sovereigns of a new eonimunity. and, conveying them to a place of .sit'civ,
begin to build them a small chamiier of clay, their palace and their prison — for bryoml
its walls they never again emerge. iSooii after tho niaio dies, but, far from pining
and wasting over the loss of her consort, tho female increases so wonderfully in '. "Ik
that she ultimately weighs as much as ;](>,()(>() laborers, and attains a lengtli of tlnuu
inches, with a proportional width. This increase of size naturally re(|uircs a cor-
responding enlargement of the cell, which is constantly widened by the in(lefatig:il)lo
workers. Having reached her full size, tho queen now begins to lay her eggs, and as
their extrusion goes on uninterruptedly, night and day, at the rate of tifty or sixty in
u minute, for about two years, their total number may probably amount to more th;iii
fifty millions. This ince^sant extrusion of eggs necessarily calls for the attention of a
large number of the workers in tho royal chamber, to take them as they come forth,
and carry them to tho nurseries, in which, when hatched, they are provided with food,
and carefully attended till they aro able to shift for themselves, and become in their
turn useful to the community.

In widening their buildings according to the necessities of their growing population,
from the size of small sugar-loaves to that of domes which mijiht be mistaken for the
hovels of Indians or negroes, as well as in repairing their damages, the termite workers
display an unceasing and wonderful activity; while tho soldiers, or neuters, wliicli are
in the proportion of about one to every hundred laborers, and aro at once distinguished
by tlie enormous size of their heads, armed with long and sharp jaws, are no less re-
markable for their courage and energy. When any ono is bold enougli to attack
their nest and make a breach in its walls, tho laborers, who are incapable of light-
ing, immediately retire, upon which a soldier makes his appearance, obviously for
the purpose of reconnoitering, and then also withdraws to give the alarm. Two or
three others next appear, scrambling as fast as they can ono after the other ; to tiiese
succeed a largo body, who rusli forth with as much speed as tho breach will permit,
theii numbers continually increasing during tho attack. These little heroes present
an astonishing, and at the same time a most amusing spectacle. In their haste they
frequently miss their hold, and tumble down the sides of their hill ; they soon, how-
ever, recover themselves, and being blind, bite everything they run against. If the
attack proceeds, the bu.stlo increases to a tenfold degree, and their fury is raised to its
highest pitch. Woe to him whose hands or legs come within their roach, for they will
make their fanged jaws meet at tho very first stroke, drawing their own weight in
Hood, and never quitting their hold, even though they aro pulled limb from limb. The
courage of the bull-dog is as nothing compared to the fierce obstinacy of the termite-
soldier. So soon as the injury has ceased, and no further interruption is given, the
soldiers retire, and then you will sec the laborers hastening in various directions towards

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WAIIS OF TIIK TKIIMITES— TIIKIR ENKMIES.

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the breach, each carrying in liis mouth a loud of tempered mnrtiir half as ViiQ; as hini-
polf, which ho lays on tiic edge of the orilico. and immediately hastens back for more.
Not the space of the tenth part of an inch is left without lahnrers workinj^ upon it at
the t<anie moment ; crowds are constantly iuirrying to and fro ; yet, amid all this activ-
ity, the p;rcatcst order rcii^ns — uo one impedes the other, hut cacih seems to thread iho
mazes of the multitude without trouble or inconvenience. My flie united labors of
such an infinite lioj(t the ruined wall soon ri^es again ; and Mr. Smcathman has ascer
taincd that in a single night they will restore a gallery of throe or four yards in lengtli.

In numbers and architectural industry the American Termites are not inferim' to
tlio^e of iho old world. In the savannas of Guiana their sugar-loaf or mushroom-
.•^liapcd, pyramidal or columnar hills arc everywhere to bo .seen, iinpenetraiilo to tho
rain, and .strong enough to re.«ist even a tropical tornado. lu many parts of the Bra-
zilian campos or savannas tho termito-hills, which nro there generally of a more flat-
tened form, are so numerous that one is almost sure to meet with one of them at tho
distance of every ten or twenty paces. The great ant bear digs deep holes into their
sides, where afterwards small owls build their nests. Similar termite structures, of a
dark-brown color, and a round form, are attaelioil to tho thick branches of tho trees,
and you will scarcely meet with a single specimen of the tall candelabra-formed cac-
tuses {Cerci), so common on those high grass-plains, that is not loaded with their
weight.

In spite of their working in the dark, in spite of their subterranean tunnels, their
strongholds, and tli'. fecundity of their queens, the termites, even when their swarms
do not expose themselves to tlu) dangers already mentioned, are suliji'ct U) tho attacks
of innumerable foes. One of tiieir most feroeious enemies is a s| eeies of black ant,
which, on the ])rineiple of .setting (me thief to catch another, is u ed by the ncgroivs
of Mauritius for their destruction. AVIien they jierccivo lliiit the covered ways of tho
termites arc api)roaching a building, tiiey drop a train of syrup as far as tlu n 'arest
encampment of tho hostile army. Some of tho black ants, attracted by tho smell and
taste of their favorite food, follow its traces and soon find out tho termite habitations.
Iimircdiately part of them return '.o annouiiee the wulcume intelligenee, and after a few
hours a black army, in endless columns, is seen to advance against the while-ant strong-
hold. With irresi-;tible fury (for tlie poor termites are no match for their poisonous
sting and mighty mandibles), they rusli into tho galleries, and only retreat after tho
extirpation of tho colony. Mr. ]>axter once stiw an army of black ants returning
from one of these expeditions. Kaeh little warrior bore a slaughtered teriiiite in big
mandibles, rejoicing no doubt in the prospect of a comfortably meal, or a (juiet dinner-
party at home. Even man is a givat consumer of termites, and they arc esteemed a
delicacy by negroes and Indians, Imtli in the old and in the new world.

In some parts of tho I'^ast Indies the natives have an ing(Miious way of eini)tying
a tcrmito hill, by making two holes in it, one to the windward and the other to the
leeward, jdacing at tho latter opening a pot rulibed witli an aromatic herb to receive
the insects, when driven out of their nest by a firo of stinking materials made at tlio
former breach. Thus they catch great (jiiantities, of which tliey make, with flour, a
variety of pastry. In South Africa tho general way of catching them is to dig into
tlio ant-hill, and when tho buihh'rs come forth to repair the damage, to brush them ofl'
quickly into the ves.scl, as the ant enter does into his mouth. They are then parched

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in iron pots ovor a j,.'»ntlo firo, stirring tlicm aliDiif un is dnno in ronsting coffoe, and
entoii by liandf'uls, without simco or uuy otlicr iKlditiou, sis wo do comfits. According
to Smoiitlimuii, tlicy resc'id)lo in tnstc sugared cruani, or hwcot aliuotid paste, and arc,
at tlio f-anio time, ho nutritious, that tbu Hindoos usu tbein as a restorative for debil-
itated patients.

Wliiie most termites live and work entirely under covered ,T;alleries, tlic ]\Iarcliln:»
Termite {T. vlarum) e.\]ioses itsidt' to tlic day. Mr. SiiH:at!iiiiaN on one occasion,
while passing tlirough a dense forest, suddenly heard a. loud hiss like that of a scr-
p(!nt ; another followed, and struck him with alarm ; hut a moment's reileclion led
bim to conclude that those sounds proceeded from whit(.' ants, although ho could not
SCO any of their huts nround. On following this iidis*;, hmvever, he was struck with
8ur|)rii-o and pleasure at perceiving an army of these creatures emerging from a lidiu
in the ground, and marching witli the utmost .swiftness. Having proceeded aliout a
yard, this immense liost divided into two columns, chiefly composed of laborers, aliont
fifteen abreast, following eacdi other in close order, and going straight forward. Hero
and there was .seen a soldier, at a distance of a foot or two from the columns ; many
other soldiers were to bo seen, standing still or passing about, as if upon the look-i>nt
lest some enemy should suddenly surprise their unwarlike comrades. Hut tlie ni(i,4
extraordinary and amusing part of tlie scene was exliiliitcd by some other soldiers, who
having mounted some plants, ten or fifteen inches fnini the ground, hung over tliu
army marching lielow, and by striking their jaws upon the leaves at certain intervals,
produced the noise above mentioned ; to this signal the whole army immediately re-
turned a hiss, and increaso<l tlieir pace. The soldiers at these signal-stations sat ([uit('
still during these intervals of silence, except now and tlien making a slight turn of
the head, and ficcmed as solicjtoiis to keep their ])osts as regular sentinels. AftiT
marching se[)arately for twelve or fifteen jiaces, the two columns of this army again
united, and then descended into tlie earth by two or three holes, Mr. Snieathinan
watched them for more than an hour, without perceiving any increase or diminution of
their numbers.

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Hero, although quite out of place in a scientific point of vi(^w, we may introdttpo a
few paragraphs respecting a cla-s of animals known as Ant-eaters, and the modes in
which they manage to secure their j)rey.

The great Ant-bear is undoul)tedly one of the most extraordinary denizens of tlie
wilds of South America ; for that a powcrfid animal, measuring aliovc six feet finni
the snout to the end of tlio tail, should live exclusively on .'iiits. seems scarcely Icsm
remarkable than that the whale nourishes his enormous body with minute pferopuils
and medusae.

The vast mouth of the leviathan of tlie seas has been most admirably adapted to his
peculiar food, and it was not in vain tliat Nature gave siu'h colossal dimensions to his
head, as it was necessary to find room for a gigantic .^training apparatus, in whicli, on
rejecting the engulplied water, tliousands upon thousands of liis tiny jircy nii'jlit
remain entangled ; but the ant-bear has been no less wonderfully armed for the cnp-
ture of the minute animals on which he ft^eds; tnid if, on considering the use for
which it was ordained, wo become reconciled to the seeming dis[)roportion of the
whale's jaws, the small and elongated snout-like head of the ant-bear will also appear

TIIK ANT-nKAR.

(11)7

less unpouthly fornuul when wp loHopt that it is in oxa<'t npcordnnpo with the wauU of
tho aniiiml. For hero im dt'iip cavity was requirud for tho reception of two rows
of pow "rful toctli, UH in most otlicr (luailriiporis, but a convenient furrow for a Ion;»
nnd cxtcnfilo tonj^ue — tho use of whicli will imineiiiatuly i)econio apparent on follow-
in<^ tho animal into tho IJrnzilian campos, where tho womleiful cities of the white ant
nro (lisporscd over tlio plains in Huch incalculaldo numl)i'r.s. Appr()achini» one of these
structures, tho nnt-hear strikes a liolo throuj^h its wall of clay with his powerful
(•looked cluws, and as tho ants issue forth liy thousands to resent tho insidt, stretches
out his touf^ue for their reception. Their furious lej^ions, eagor for revenge, iinino-
diately rush upon it, and, vainly endeavoring to piereo its thick skin witli their
niandililes, remain sticking in the glutinous lifjuid with which it is lubricated from two
very largo glands situated below its root. When sutliciently charged with prey, the
ant-bear suddenly withdraws his tongue and swallows all the insects.

Without swiftness to eni(ble him to escape from his enemies, for man is superior to
him in speed; without teeth, tlie possession of which would assist him in self defence;
without the power of burrowing in the ground, by which ho might conceal himself
from his pursuers ; without a cavo to retire to, tho ant-bear still ranges thiougli the
wilderness in perfect safety, and fears neither tho boa nor tho jaguar, for ho has full
reliance on his powerful fore-legs and tluur tremendous claws. Sehomburgk had an
opportunity of witnessing a young ant-bear make use of these formidable weaiions.
On the enemy's ap|)roaeh it assumed tho defensive, but in such a manner as to make
the boldest aggressor pause ; for, resting on its left fore-foot, it struck out so desper-
ately with its right paw as wo(dd und(iul)t(Mlly have torn otf the ilesh of any one that
came in contact with its claws. Attacked from behind, it turned round with tlio
rapidity of liglitning, and on being assailed from .several (juarters at once, threw itself
on its back, and, desperately fighting with both its fore-legs, uttered at tho same time
an angry growl of defiance. In fact, tho ant-bear is .so formidable an opjionent that
he is said not unfreijuently to vanquish even the jaguar, the lord of tiie American
forests, for tho latter is often found swiiinning in his blood, witli ripped up bowels, a
Wound whicii, of all tho beasts of tho wilderness, tho claws of tho ant bear are alone
atile to inflict. On seizing an animal with these powerful wcnjions, he hugs it dose
to iiis body, and keeps it tiicre till it dies through pressure or hunger. Nor does the
ant-bear, in tho meantime, suffer much from want of aliment, as it is a well-known
fact that ho can remain longer without food than perhajjs any other qundrujied, so
that there is very little chance indeed of a weaker aiMinal's escaping from his chitches.

Peaceable and hannless, the ant-bear when unprovoked never thinks of attacking
any other creature ; and as his interests and pursuits do not interfere with those of the
more formidable denizens of ttio wildernes.s, he would, without doubt, attain a good
old age, and bo allowed to die in peaee, if, unfortunately for him, his delicate tlesh
did not provoke tho attacks of the largo carnivora and man. To be sure, tlie Imlian
fears his claws, and never ventures to approach the wounded ant-bear until he has
breathed his last; nor can he be hunted with dogs, as his skin is of a texture that
perfectly resists a bite, and his liinder parts are efl'ectually protected by thick and
shaggy iiair; yet, armed with tho dreadful wourali poison, tlie Indian knows how to
paralyze in a few minutes his muscular powers, and to stretch him dead upon tlio
earth. A perfect forest vagabond, the ant-bear has no den to retire to, nor any fixed

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ftlxxlo ; Ills inimcnso tnil is liirgo onoiiji;!! to cover \m wliolc Imdy, nnd st'rvos him an n
ti'nt (luring i\w iii;^lit, or ns n waterproof iimntli) njiiainst flio rain« of tlio wet sea-son, Ha
timt lie iiii^^lit liiKisf, like Diogenes, of CMrryiiij; all he ref(uire(l iihoiit him.

The iM'ciiliiir jiositioti of his paws, when ho walks or Htamls, is worthy of notice.
lie f^oes entirely on the outer side of his fore-feet, which are (|uite hent inwards, the
claws collected into a point and ffnnn under the foot. In this position he is (piitc at
ease, while his hm;^ claws are disposed of in a uinniicr to ri^nder them harmless to him,
nnd are prevented from liecominjj; dull and worn, which would inevitalily lie the case
(lid til' ir points come in actual contact with the ground, for they have not that retrnc
tile power which is given to animals of the feline race, enabling them to preserve tiio
nharpness of their claws on the most flinty path. Tn conse((uence of its n.'sting perpet-
ually on the ground, the whole outer side of the foot is not only disprived <if hair, hut
liard and callous, while, on the contrary, the inner side of the bottom of the foot is
fioft nnd hairy.

IJesides the great ant-bear, there are two other species of Ameriean ant-eaters, one
nearly the size of a fox, and the smallest not much larger than a rat. IJciiig jirDvidcd
with prehensile tails, they are essentially arboreal, while the great ant-bear, iiicapahh;
of climbing, always remains on the ground, where, thanks to the abundance of his
prey, ho is always sure of obtaining a suflicient supply of food with very little trouiile.

The Manides, Pangolins, or scaly Ant-eaters of South Africa and Asia, rcseiniiiu
their kindred of America in having a very long extensile tongue, furnished with a
glutinous mucus for securing their insect food, nnd in being destitute of teeth, hut
diflcr wholly from them in having the boily, limbs, and tail covered with a ])anoply nf
large imbricated scales, overlapping each other like those of the lizard tribes, and also
in being able to roll themselves up when in danger, by which their trenchant scales
become erect, and present a formidable defensive armor, so that even the tiger would
vainly attempt to overcome the Indian pangolin. Tiie manides are inoffensive aniniais,
living wholly on ants nnd termites, and chiefly inhabit the most obscure parts of the
forest, burrowing in the ground to a great depth, for which jmrpose, as also for ex-
. tracting their food from ant hills nnd decaying wood, their feet are armed with power-
ful claws, which they double up in walking, like the ant-bear of Urazil.

Besides several species of manides, Africa possesses a peculiar class of nnt-catcrs in
the Orycteropi, which ore found from the Cape to Senegamliia and Abyssinia, all over
the .sultry plains where their food abounds. Their legs are short, and provided wilii
claws fit for burrowing in the earth, whicli they can do witli great rapidity ; and wiicn
once the head and fore-feet have penetrated into the ground, their hold is so tenacious
that oven the strongest man is incapable of dragging them from their ludo.

The Orycteropi, or carfh-hogs (Aardrarh) as they nre called by the boors, from
their habit of Imrrowing and their fancied resemblance to small short-legged pigs, have
an elongated head, though less tapering than that of the American myrmeeopliagi,
nnd are provided with peculiarly formed teeth, with a flat crown and undivided root,
which is pierced with a multitude of little holes, like those of a ratan-cane when cut
transversely, while the ant-bears have no teeth at all. Their way of feeding is the
same, and to enable tliem to retain their nimble-footed prey, their tongue is likewise
lubricated with a glutinous liquid. Their flesh is considered very wholesome and pal-
atable, and at the Cape they are frequently huuted both by the colonists and the Hot-

TlIK AAUD-VAUlv-rill-: AK.MADIIJ-D.

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tciitntfl. Th(>ro nro several speeieM, nil vi-ry iiiucli resetiiMiii;^ eiieh otlier : tlieir Hlouf.
liiiily tiieuHures uliout live I'ei't fiotii the tip of tlic stnuit. tit tlio end ui' llie tiiil, tlio
luttur boiii}^ neurly half tho length of the body.

TlIK AAKU-VAIIK.

Tho American Armadillos have many points in common with tho myrmecopliagi,
manides, and oryeteropi. They hi.vo neitlier fore nor canino teeth, but a number of
conical grinders, and are distinguished by having the upper j)art of tlieir bodies de-
fended by a conmlcte suit of armor, divided into joints or bauds, fitlding (me over the
otlier like the parts of a lobster's tail, so as to aecommodate themselves to mi the mo-
tions of tho animal. In life this shell is very limber, so that the armadillo is able to
go at full stretch, or to roll himself up into a ball as occasion may re(iuire. These
animals are very common both in the forests and in the open [ihiins of South America,
where they burrow in the sand-holes like rabbits. The armadillo is seldom seen
abroad during the day, and when surprised ho is sure to lie near tho mouth of his hole;
hut after sunset he sallies forth in search of roots, grain, worms, insects, and other
small animals, and when disturbed, coils himself up in his invulnerable armor like the
hodge-hog, or squats close to tho ground, or, if he has time enough, escapes by digging
into the earth, a work which he performs with masterly dexterity. " As it often takes
a considerable time to dig him out of his hole," says Mr. VVatc-ton, " it would bo a

loug and laborious business to attack each bole indiscriminately, without knowing
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THE IROPICAL WORLD.

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whether the animal weic there or not. To prevent disappointment, the Indiana care-
fully examine the mouth of the hole, and put a short stick down k. Now if on intro-
ducing the stick, a number of mosiiuitoa come out, the Indians know to a certainty
that the armadillo is in it ; whenever there are no mosquitos in tlie hole, tlierc is no
armadillo. The Indian having satisfied liimself that the armadillo is there by the mos-
quitos which come out, he immediately cuts a long and slender stick, and intrfMlupos
it into the hole ; he carefully observes the lino the stick takes, and then sinks a pit in
the sand to catcli the end of ii ; this done, ho puts it further into the hole, and dies
another pit, and so on, till at last ho comes up with the armadillo, which had been
making itself a passage in the sand till it had exhausted all its strength through pure
exertion. I have been sometimes three quarters of a day in digging out one arma-
dillo, and obliged to sink half a dozen pits, seven feet deep, before I got up to it.
The Indians and negroes are very fond of the flesh, but I considered it stron" and
rank. On laying hold of the armadillo, you must be cautious not to come in contact
with his feet ; they are armed with sharp claws, and with them he will inflict a severe
wound in self-defence ; when not molested, he is very harmless and innocent."

But even the giant armadillo i? , pigmy when compared to the extinct mail-clad
animals, which at times of unknown antiquity peopled the plains of South America.
Mr. D rwin saw, in tin possession of a clergyman near Montevideo, the fragment of
a tail of one of these monsters of the past, from which he conjectured that it must
have been from six to ten feet long; and the glyptodon, of which the British College
of Surgeons possesses an admirable specimen, and which, like the armadillos of the
present day, was covered with a tesselated bony armor, was equal in size to the rlii-
noceros ! How formidable must have been the enemies which made it necessary for
an anin.al like tliis to move about with harness on its back !

The curious Echidna, or Porcupine Ant-eater (Echidna hystrix) of Australia is a
striking instance of those beautiful gradations so frequently observed in the animal
kingdom, by which creatures of various tribes or genera are blended, as it were, or
linked together, and of the wonderful diversity which Nature has introduced into the
forms of creatures destined to a similar mode of life. It has the general appearr<nce
and external coating of the porcupine, with the mouth and peculiar generic characters
of the ant-eaters. It is about a foot in length, and burrows with wonderful facility by
means of its short muscular fore-feet and its sharp- pointed claws. When attacked, it
rolls itself into a ball like the hedgehog, erecting the short, strong, and very sharp
spines with which the upper parts of the body and tail are thickly coated. Australia
is likewise the native country of another ant-eating animal, the marsupial Mi/rmecobins
fasciutus. It is formed like a squirrel, and is of the size of the rat ; its brown-rod fur,
with six or seven light yellow transverse bands over the back, gives it an elegant ap-
pearance. It was discovered about thirty years ago in the neighborhood of Swan Hiver.

Here, as connected vith the Ant family by their house-building character, and by
their irritating bite, we mjiy introduce the Spiders.

An insect, half of whose body is generally fixed to the other by a mere thread,
whose soft skin is unable to resist the least pressure, and whose limbs are so loosely
attached to the Iwdy as to bo torn off by the 'slightest degree of force, would seem
utterly incapable of protecting its own life and securing that of its progeny. Such,

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SPIDERS AND THEIR WEBS.

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however, is the physical condition of spidera, who would long since have been extir-
pated, if nature bad not provided them with the power of secreting two liquids, the
one a venom ejected by their mandibles, the other of a glutinous nature, transuded by
papillae at the end of their abdomen. These two liquids amply supply the want of
all other weapons cf attack or defence, and enable them to hold their own against a
host of enemies. With the former they instantly paralyze insects much stronger and
much more formidable in appearance than themselves ; while with the latter they spin
those threads which serve them in so many ways, to weave their wonderful webs, to
traverse the air, to mount vertically, to drop uninjured, to construct the bard cocoons
intended to protect their eggs against their numberless enemies, or to produce the soft
down which is to preserve them from the cold.

Preying on other insect tribes, which they attack with the ferocity of the tiger, or
await in their snares with the patient artifice of the lynx, the spiders may naturally be
expected to be most numerous in the torrid zone, where nature has provided them
with the greatest abundance of food. There also, where so many beetles, flies, and
moths attain a size unknown in tempevate regions, we find the spiders growing to sim-
ilar gigantic dimension!?, and forming webs proportioned to the bulk of the victims
which they are intended to ensnare.

By means of their monstrous webs many giant-spiders of the tropical zone are en-
abled to entangle not only the largest butterflies and moths, but even small birds.
Tremeyer tells us that there are spiders in Mexico which extend such strong nets
across the pathways, that they strike off the hat of the passer by ; and at Goree and
in Senegal several spiders spin threads so strong as to be able to bear a weight of sev-
eral ounces, and which no doubt would be made use of for twine, if the negroes did
not already possess vegetable fibres in abundance fit for the purpose. In the for-
ests of Java, Sir George Staunton saw spider webs of so strong a texture that it re-
quired a sharp knife to cut one's way through them ; and many other similar examples
might be mentioned. These large spiders so temptingly suspended in mid-air in the
forest-glades, seem very much exposed to the attacks of birds, but in many cases it
bus pleased nature to invest them with large angular spines sticking out of tiieir bodies
in every kind of fashion. Some are so protected by these long prickles that their
bodies resemble a miniature " chevaux-de-frise," and could not by any po.s.sibility bo
swallowed by a bird without producing a very unpleasant sensation in his throat. One
very remarkable species ( Gasteracantha arcuata) has two enormous recurved conical
spines, proceeding upwards from the posterior part of the body, and several times
longer than the entire spider.

Other aranea), to whom these means of defence have been denied, are enabled by
tliuir color to escape the attacks of many enemies, or to deceive the vigilance of many
of their victims. Thus, those that spend their lives among the flowers and foliage of
tlie trees are, in general, delicately and beautifully marked with green, orange, black,
and yellow while those which frequent gloomy places are clothed with a dark-colored
and dingy garb, in accordance with their habits. In the forests about Calderas, in the
Pliilippine Archipelago, Mr. Adams saw handsomely colored species of theridia crouch-
ing among the foliage of the trees: wiiile numbers of the same genus of a black color
were running actively about among the dry dead leaves that strewed the ground,
looking, at a little distance, like odd-shaped ants, and no doubt deceiving many an

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612

THE TROPICAL WORLD.

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antagonist by this appearance. One species, which knew it was being watched, placed
itself upon a diseased leaf, where it remained quite stationary until after the departure
of the naturalist, who, had he not seen the sidelong movement of the cunnin'» little
creature in the first instance, would not have been able to distinguish its body from
the surface of the leaf. While, in this case, dulness of color served as a defence, the
vividly-colored spiders that live among the foliage and flowers no doubt attract many
flies and insects by reason of their gaudily-tinted bodies. An exception to the "oncral
rule is, however, found in those very large and powerful species, which, if not rendered
somewhat conspicuous to the sight of other insects, might do too much damaf^e to the
tribes which they keep in check. Most of these, therefore, have the thorax and abdo-
men margined with a light color that contrasts strongly with that of their bodies, and,
in many cases, gives timely warning of their approach.

The spiders of temperate zones have generally a very repulsive appearance, while
many of the tropical species are most splendidly ornamented. Or rather illuminated, many
of them by the vividness of their colors resembling the gaudy missals painted by monks
in the Middle Ages. Thus, among the epeiras of the Philippian isles, are found white
figures on a red ground ; red, yellow, and black, in alternate streaks ; orange marbled
with brown, light green with white ocelli, yellow with light brown festoons, or ashcolored
and chestnut bodies with crescents, horse-shoes, Chinese characters, and grotesque hiero-
glyphics of every descrij.tion. Unfortunately, these colors, lustrous and nietuUic as the
feathers of the humming bird, are, unlike the bright colors of the beetle, totally dependent
on the life of the insect which they beautify, so that it is impossible to preserve them.

While most spiders obtain their food either by patiently waiting in ambush or liy
catching it with a bound, the enormous mygales, or trap-door spiders, run about with
great speed, in and out, behind and around every object, searching for what tiiey may
devour, and from their size and rapid motions exciting the horror of every stranger.
Their body, which sometimes attains a length of three inches, whilr their legs embrace
a circle of half a foot in diameter, is covered all over with brown, reddish brown, or
black hair, which gives them a funereal appearance, while their long feelers armed
with sharp hooks proclaim at once what formidable antagonists they must be to every
insect that comes within their reach. Though some species aro found in Southern
Europe, in Chili, or at the Cape, yet they are chiefly inhabitants of the torrid zone,
both in the Old and the New World. Some of them weave cells between the leaves, in
the hollows of trees or rocks, while others dig deep tubular holes in the earth, wliieii
they cover over with a lid, or rather with a door formed of particles of earth cemented
by silken fibres, and closely resembling the surrounding ground. Tiiis door or valve
is united by a silken hinge to the entrance at its upper side, and is so balanced that,
wlien pushed up, it shuts again by its own weight; nay, what is still more admirable,
on the interior side oppo.site to the hinge a series of little holes may be perceived, info
which the mygale introduces its claws to keep it shut, should any enemy endeavor to
open it by force. The interior of the nest, which is sometimes nine inches deep, is
lined witli a double coat of tapestry, the one nearest the wall, which is of a coarser
tissue, being covered with a pure white silken substance like paper.

All species of spiders are gifted with the same maternal instinct, and resort to
various methods for the purpose of securing their cocoons. The Theridion, when a
seizure of the precious burden is threatened, tumbles together with it to the ground.

W-

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ENEMIES OF THE SPIDER— USES OF THE SPIDER.

613

and remains motionless, while the Thorinsa covers it with its body, and when robbed
of it, wanders about disconsolate. In a forest of the Sooloo Islands, Mr. Adams
found the ground literally overrun with a small black ag'le species of Lycosa, many
of which had a white flattened globose cocoon affixed to iiio ends of their abdomen.
It was most amusing to watch the care with which these jealous mothers protected the
cradles of their little ones, allowing thtmselves to fall into the hands of the enemy
rather than be robbed of the silken nests that contained them.

If the spiders are at war with all other insects, and contribute to keep them within
bounds by the destruction they cause among their ranks, they in their turn have to
suffer from the attacks of many enemies. Several species of monkeys, squirrels, liz-
ards, tortoises, frogs, and toads catch and devour them wherever they can. In Java
and Sumatra, we even find several birds bclongiug to the order of sparrows that have
been named Arachnotherce, from their living almost exclusively on spiders. Armed
with a prodigiously long recurved and slender beak, they know how to pursue them
and drag them forth from the most obscure recesses.

It is amongst the insects themselves, however, that the spiders have to fear their most
numerous and formidable enemies. Independently of those which they find in their
own class, the centipedes seize them beyond the possibility of escape ; wliile several
species of philanthus, pompilius, and sphex, more savage and poisonous than themselves,
will rush upon spiders eight times their size and weight, and benumbing them with a
sting, bear them off to their nests, to serve as food for their larva). But the insects
which in appearance are the tiniest and most delicate, are perhaps those which most
cruelly wound the spiders, by attacking them in their eggs, which they watch over
with such affection, as to be ever ready for them to make the sacrifice of their own
lives. The Pimpla Arachnitor pierces with its invisible gimlet the tender skin of the
spider's egg, and, without tearing it, introduces its own eggs into the liquid. The
piinpla's egg soon comes to maturity, and the larva devours the substance of that of
the spider, from whence a winged insect bursts forth — a phenomenon which made
some naturalists, too hasty to judge from appearances, believe that spiders were able
to procrcf : four-winged flies.

Notwithstanding the disgust or horror which they generally inspire, the spiders are,
with very rare exceptions, by no means injurious to man. However promptly their
venom may act upon insects, even that of the largest species of Northern Europe pro-
duces, on coming into contact with our skin, no pain or inflammation equalling in
virulence that of the wasp, the bee, the gnat, or other insects of a still smaller size.
The giant spiders of a sunnier sky, armed with more formidable weapons, naturally
produce a more painful sting; but even here the effects have been much exaggerated,
and the wonderful stories about the Sicilian tarantula's bite, which we read of in Brydone
and other authors, are nothing but fables raised upon a very slender foundation of truth.
Azara mentions that several of liis negroes having been bitten by the large Avicular
mygale (Jl/. avicalaria) of South America, a slight ephemeral fever was the only result.

If thus, among the many species of spiders, hardly a single one may be said to be
formidable to man, the indirect services which they render him — by diminishing the
number of noxious insects, or keeping in check the legions of gnats which irritate and
annoy him by their attacks — are far from inconsiderable. Nor are they entirely with-
out direct use. Several savage aatious eat spiders, and the inhabitants of New Cale-

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(Ionia reckon a largo species of Epeira amongst the clioisest delicacies of the land.
Even in Europe some people enjoy a spider, and the famous astronomer Lalunde was
far from being singular in this respect. They are said to tasto like filberts, and the
proper way to oat them is to take off the legs, and to swallow tho abdomen, after
having washed and rubbed it with butter. The property of spiders' webs to stop an
hemorrhage or the bleeding of a wound is a well-known fact, and they have also been
recommended as an anti-febrifuge. In several countries where tho insects cause great
ravages, tho services of the spiders are duly appreciated. Thus in tho West Indies, a
largo and formidable trap-door spider, which would make a European start back with
horror, is looked upon with pleasure by the islanders of tho torrid zone, who respect it
as a sacred animal, by no means to bo disturbed or harmed, as it delivers them from
tho cockroaches, which otherwise would overrun their dwellings. Those who do not
possess those spiders take good care to purchase and transport them into their houses,
expecting from them similar services to those wo derive from a good domestic cat.

When we consider the largo size of many of tho tropical spiders, and the strength
of their threads, it seems probable that their cocoons might Lo put to some use. We
are told by Azara, in his " Travels to Paraguay," that a spider exists in that country
tho silk of whoso spherical cocoons, measuring an inch in diameter, is spun on account
of its permanent orange color. The eyes and noses of tho women employed in
unravelling the cocoons are said to water considerably, though without their perceiving
any pungent smell, or feeling any other inconvenience. This spider is, perhaps, tlio
same as that which, according to M. do Bomaro, is known in the interior of South
America under the name of the silk-spider. Its cocoon is of tho size of a pigeon's
egg, tho silk is soft, and can be easily carded. Attempts have also been made in
Europe to utilize tho threads of the largo indigenous spiders. About the beginning
of the last century, M. Bon, a Frenchman, who seems to have been the first tluit ever
put the idea into practice, collected a sufficient quantity to make some stockings and
gloves, which ho presented to tho king, Louis XIV., and to the Academy of Sciences
in Paris. His discovery caused some sensation at tho time, and his dissertation on
the subject was translated into all European languages, and at a later period even into
tho Chinese, by order of the Emperor Kien-Long. Tho celebrated Reaumur, however,
who was commissioned by tho Academy to report on M. Bon's discovery, pointed out
how difficult it would be to put it to any extensive use, as it would require no less
than 55,296 of tho Epeira diadema to produce a single pound of silk ; and how were
all those to bo provided with flies ?

If the extreme fineness of the spider's threads is an obstacle to their being spun
and woven, this property, united with their metallic brilliancy, renders them an excci-
lent material for the construction of the micrometers used for astronomical purposes :
the finest silver thread which it is possible to spin having a diameter of j^^ of an indi,
while spiders' threads measure only To'oir or ovetr ^u^ir- Tioughton, an eminent
J)nglish instrument maker, first thought of substituting them for tho silver-threads
then in use, and they were found to answer so well that fiinco that time they have
been constantly employed.

The Scorpions, which even in Europe are reckoned among tho most malignant in-
sects, are truly terrific in the torrid zone, where they frequently attain a length of

SCORPIONS.

015

six or seven inches. Closely allied to the spiders, their aspect is still more repul-
sive. Were one of the largest scorpions menacingly to creep up against you, with
extended claws and its long articulated sharply-pointed tail projecting over its head, I
think, despite the strengfth of your nerves, you would start back, justly concluding
that a creature of such an aspect must necessarily come with the worst intentions.
The poison of the scorpion is discharged like that of the snake. Near the tip of the
crooked sting, namely, which terminates the tail, we find two or three very small fora-
mina, through which, on pressure, the venom of the gland with which they are con-
nected immediately issues forth. By means of this weapon, even the small European
scorpions are able to kill a dog, while tiie tropical giants of the race inflict wounds
that become fatal to man himself. The sting of several South American scorpions
produces fever, numbness of the limbs, tumors on the tongue, weakness of the sight,
and other nervous symptoms, lasting twenty-four or forty-eight hours ; but the African
scorpions seem to be still more formidable. Mr. Swainson informs us that the only
means of saving the lives of English soldiers who were stung by those of Egypt, was
the amputation of the wounded limb ; and Professor Ehrenberg, who, while making
his researches on the Natural History of the Red Sea, was stung five times by the
Androctonus quinquestriatus, axi^funesttis, says he can well believe, from the dreadful
pains he suffered, that the poison of these scorpions may become fatal to women and
children. A servant of Mr. Russegger, while emptying a trunk, was stung in the
breast by a large scorpion, which had concealed itself among the linen. For hours
the pain was dreadful, shooting from time to time through the whole nervous system,
and almost depriving the patient of consciousness. A cold perspiration covered hia
brow, and it was only after the internal and external application of ammonia, one of
the chief remedies for sustaining tliu sinking flame of life, that he at length felt some
relief, though he had still to suffer several days from a strong fever.

Tlie scorpions live mostly on the ground, in gloomy recesses, and even in the nooka
and corners of dwelling-houses, so that, in countries where they are known to abound,
it is necessary to be very cautious in removing stones, pieces of wood, &c. Of a
ferocious, cruel disposition, they are not only the foes of all other animals, but carry
on a war of extermination among themselves, and are even said to kill and devour
their own progeny, without pity, as soon as tlioy are born ; thus rendering good service
to the community at large. Maupertuis once inclosed a hundred scorpions — a select
and delightful party — in a box. Immediately a furious battle ensued — one against
all, all against one — and in an hour's time scarcely one of the combatants survived
the conflict.

The poison of the scorpion is lodged in its tail, but that of the centipede is in its
jaws. These are likewise aniong the pests of tropical climates ; for, although several
are found in Europe, yet, from their small size, they are harmless to man. Tlio.se of
Iiuli;>, and South America, on the other hand, are enormous, frequently six or seven
inches long, and their sting is no less painful and virulent than that of the dreaded
scorpion itself.

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616

THE TliOPlCAL WORLD.

CHAPTER X.

SERPENTS— LIZARDS— FROGS AND TOADS.

Serpents; Rarity of Venomous Serpents — Habits and External Characteristics of Serpents—
Tlie Labarri — Tiie Trigonocephaliis — Antidotes to tlie Poison of Serpents— Sucltini; out
the Venom — The Poison-Fan(;s — Tiie Bush-Master — Tlio Ecliidna Ocellata— Rattlciiiiaki's
— Tiieir Enemy tiic Ilog — The Cobra de Capello — Tlie Ilnje — Tiie Cerastes— Hnas iiiid
Pythons — Tiie Boa-constrictor — Tlie Water Boa — Fascination by Snalces — Henderson's
Argument against It — Tliorpc's Reasons in its Favor — Du Chaiilii on the Sidyect — Enemies
of Serpents — Tlie Secretary Bird — The Adjutant Bird — The Mongoos — Serpents Ealing
Serpents — The Locomotion of Serpents — Anatomy of their Jaws — A Serjientine Meal —
Pet Serpents — Tree Snakes — Water Snakes — Stories of Enormous Snakes — Du Cluiillu's
Big Snake — Wallace's Bigger One. — Lizards: The Gockoe — Anatomy of its Feet — Their
Wide Distribution — The Anolis — Its Combativeness — The Chameleon — Its Habits, Change
of Color, and Characteristics — The Iguana — The Tejii — Water Lizards — Flying Dragons —
The Basilisk. — Frof]s and Toads: The Pipa Frog — Tree Frogs — Wallace's Flying Frog —
The Bahia Toad— The Giant Toad— The Musical Toad.

ON penetrating for tlie first time into a tropical forest, the traveler is moved by
many conflicting emotions. This luxuriance of vegetation, this abundance of
blossoms, unite in raising the soul to tbc fullest enjoyment of the moment; and yet
the heart is, at the same time, chilled with vague fears, that mix like a discordant
sound with the harmonies of this sylvan world. For in the hollows of the tangled
roots and in the doii.se underwood of the forest a brood of noxious reptiles loves to
conceal itself, and who knows whether a snake, armed w"th poisonous fangs, may not
dart forth from the rustling foliage. Gradually, however, these reflections wear
away, and time and experience convince one that the snakes in the tropical woods arc
hardly more to be feared than in our own forests. These reptiles are, indeed, far
from being of so frequent occurrence as is generally believed ; and on meeting with a
snake, there is every probability of its belonging to some harmless species, which .show
themselves much more frequently by day, and are by far more numerous. Even in
India and Ceylon, whore serpejits are said to fi>.ound, they make their appearance so
cautiously that the surprise of long residents is invariably expressed at the rarity witli
which they are to be seen. Dr. Russell, who particularly studied the serpents of
India, found that, out of forty-three species which he himself Examined, not more
than seven were found to possess poisonous fangs; and Davy, whose attention was
carefully directed to the snakes of Ceylon, came to the conclusion that but four out
of the twenty species he could collect were venomous, and that of these only two
were capable of inflicting a wound likely to be fatal to man.

Sir E. Tennent, who frequently performed journeys of two to five hundred miles
through the jungle without seeing a single snake, never heard, during bis long resi-

VENOMOUS 3NAKES— THEIR RARITY.

rtl7

dcnco in Ceylon, of the death of a European which was caused by the bite of one
of these reptiles ; and in almost every instance accidents to the natives happened a»
night, when the animal, having boon surprised or trodden on, had inflicted the wound
in self-defence. Thus, to avoid danger, the Singhalese, when obliged to leave their
houses in the dark, carry a stick witii a loose ring, tlie noise of which, as they strike it
on the ground, is sufficient to warn the snakes to leave their path. During his five
years' travels through the whole breadth of tropical America, from the Atlantic to the
Pacific, M. de Castelnau, although ever on the search, collected no more than ninety-
one serpents, of which only twenty-one were poisonous.

The habits of the venomous snakes, and the external characters by which they are
distinguished from the harmless species, likewise tend to diminish the danger to be
apprehended from them. Thus, their head is generally flat, broad, lanceolate ; they
have an aperture or slit on each cheek, behind the nostrils, and an elongated vertical
pupil like many other nocturnal animals. They are also generally slower and more
indolent in their motions, and thus are more easily avoided. No venomous snake will
ever be found on a tree ; and on quietly approaching one in the forest or in the
savanna, it will most likely creep away without disputing the path, as it is not very
anxious uselessly to squander the venom which nature gave it as the only means for
procuring itself food.

" There is not much danger in roving amongst snakes," says Watcrton, who, from
spending many a month in tropical wilds, may justly be called an excellent authority,
" provided only that you have self command. You must never approach them
abruptly; if so, you are sure to pay for your rashness; because the idea of self-
defence is predominant in every animal, and thus the snake, to defend himself from
what he considers an attack upon him, makes the intruder feel the deadly eflTect of his
envenomed fangs. The labarri snake is very poisonous, yet I have often approached
within two yards of him witiiout fear. I took care to advance very softly and gently,
without moving my arms, and he always allowed mo to have a fine view of hira,
without showing the least inclination to make a spring at me. Ho would appear to
keep his eye fixed on me, as though suspicious, but that was all. Sometimes I have
taken a stick ten feet long and placed it on the labarri's back ; he would then glide
away, without offering resistance. However, when I put the end of the stick abruptly
to his head, he immediately opened his mouth, flew at it, and bit it." But although
accidents from venomous snakes are comparatively rare, yet the consequences are
dreadful when they do take place, and the sight of a cobra or a trigonocephalus pre-
paring for its fatal spring may well appall the stoutest heart.

Prince Maximilian of Neu Wied, having wounded a tapir, was following the traces
of his game along with his Indian hunter, when suddenly bis companion uttered a loud
scream. He had come too near a labarri snake, and the dense thicket prevented his
escape. Fortunately the first glance of the distinguished naturalist fell upon the rep-
tile, which with extended jaws and projecting fangs was ready to dart upon the Indian,
but at the same moment, struck by a ball from the prince's rifle, lay writhing on the
ground. The Indian, though otherwise a strong-nerved man, was so paralyzed by fear
that it was some time before he could recover his self-possession — a proof, among others,
that it is superfluous to attribute a fascinating power to the venomous snakes, as the
effects of terror are quite sufficien. to explain why smaller animals, unable to flee the

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imponding danger, become tlieir unresisting victims, and oven seem, as it were, wan-
tonly to rusli upon destruction, liut upon this subject wo sliuU imvo nioro to say.

A poor Indian girl that accom[)anied Schomburgk on his travels through the fores^ts
of Guiana was less ftirtunato than the Princo of Ncu Wied's companion. Shu was
bitten by a trigonocephalus, and it was dreadful to see how soon the powers of liio
began to ebb under the fatal effects of the poison. The wound was immediately
sucked, and spirits of ammonia, the usual remedy, profusely applied both externally
and inwardly, but all in vain. In less than three minutes, a convulsive treinhliiig
shook the whole body, the face assumed a cadaverous aspect, dreadful pains raged in
the heart, in the back, less in the wound itself ; the dissolved blood flowed from the
ears and nose, or was spasmodically ejected by the stomach ; the pulse rose to 120-i;j()
in the minute ; the paralysis which first benumbed the bitten foot spread farther and
farther, and in less than eight minutes the unfortunate girl was no longer to be rceng.
nized. The same day the foot swelled to shapeless dimensions, and she lay senseless
until, after an agony of sixty-throe hours, death relieved her from her sufferings.

A great many antidotes have been recommended against serpentine poison, but their
very number proves their ineflBcacy. It is a well known fact that serpentine ])oison
may bo swallowed with impunity ; it shows its effects only on mixing directly with the
blood. A tight ligature above the wound, along with sucking, burning, or cutting it
out, aro thv J very rational remedies for preventing the rapid propagation of the venom.
Suction is, however, not always unattended with danger to the person who undertakes
tho friendly oflice. Thus Schomburgk relates the misfortunes of a poor Indian, whoso
son had been bitten in tho cheek. The father instantly sucked tho wound, but a hollow
tooth conveyed the poison into his own body. His cheek swelled under excruciating
pains, and without being able to save his son, his own health and vigor wore forever lost ;
for such aro the dreadful consequences of this poison, that they incurably trouble the
fountains of life. The wound generally breaks open every year, emitting a very offen-
sive odor, and causes dreadful pains at every change of tho weather. Although all
the venomous snakes produce morbid symptoms nearly similar, yet the strength of the
poison varies according to the species of the serpent, and to tho circumstances under
which it is emitted. It is said to bo most virulent during very hot weather, or when
tho animal is about to cast its skin. Tho effects aro naturally more powerful ami
rapid when a larger quantity of poison flows into the wound, and a snake with exhausted
supplies from repeated bitings will evidently strike less fatally than another whose
glands aro inflated with poison after a long repose.

Before describing some of the most conspicuous of tho venomous serpents, a few
words on the simple but admirable mechanism of their delicate but needle like fangs
will not be out of place. Towards tho point of the fang, which is invariably situated
in the upper jaw, there is a little oblong aperture on the convex side of it, and through
this there is a communication down tho fang to tho root, at which lies a little bag con-
taining the poison. Thus, when tho point of the fang is pressed, the root of the fang
also presses against tho bag and sends up a portion of tho poison it contained. The
fangs being extremely movable, can be voluntarily depressed or elevatod ; and as from
their brittleness they aro very liable to break, nature, to provide for a loss that would
bo fatal, has added behind each of them smaller or subsidiary fangs ready to take
their place in case of acuidout.

THE BUSTIMASTKR-UATTr.ESNAKK-COnilA.

filO

Unrivalled in the dixplay of ovnry lovely color of tlio rainliow, nml uninahflicd in
the efl'eet.s of his fleadly poison, the Huslimastor or Coiinaeutclii {hwhesis rlionihcdta)
glidc'H on, Holo monarch of the forests of Guiana or IJra/il, as both man and btjast Hy
heforo him. In size ho 8urpass<3s most other venomous s|iocios, as he sometiinos p;rnws
to tho length of fourteen feet. Generally concealed among the fallen leaves of the
forest, he lives on small birds, reptiles, and mammalians, whom ho is able to pursue
with surprising activity. Fortunately, tho bushmaster is a rare serpent,, fre(iuouting
oidy tiie deepest shades of tho thicket, whore in tho day-time ho generally lies coiled
upon the ground. Still rarer, thougli if possible yet moro formidable, is a small brown
viper {Echidna ocellntn), which infests tho Peruvian forests. Its bito is said to bo
able to kill a strong man within two or thrco minutes. Tho Indian, when bitten by it,
docs not even attempt an antidote against the poiaon, but stoically bids adieu to hiii
comrades, and lays himst'r down to die.

Tiic ill fumed, vr'!- ;utetided race of tho rattlesnakes, which ranges from South
IJrazil to Canada, belongs exclusively to tho now world. They prefer tlio moro ele-
vated, dry, and stony regions, where they lio coiled up in tho thorny bushes, and only
attack such animals as como too near their lair. Thoir bito is said to bo able to kill a
horse or an ox in ten or twelve minutes ; but, fortunately, they are afraid of man, and
will not venture to attack him i..dess provoked. When roused to anger they are, how-
ever, very fornudablo, as their fangs penetrate through tho strongest boot. Ouo of tho
most remarkable features of their organization is a kind of rattle terminating tho tail,
and consisting of a number of pieces inserted into each other, all alike in shape and
size, hollow, and of a thin, clastic, brittle substance, like that of which tho scales are
externally formed. When provoked, the strong and rapid vibratory motions imparted
to the rattle produce a sound which has been compared to that of knife-grinding, but
it is never loud enough to bo heard at any distance, and becomes almost inaudible in
rainy weather.

Naturalists distinguish at least a dozen different species of rattlesnakes, tho com-
mor^st of which are the Boaquira (Crotalus /lorridus), which frequents the warmest
regions of South America, and the Durissus ( C. durissus), which has chosen the United
States for its principal home. The chief enemy of this serpent is tho bog, whom it
dreads so much that on seeing one it immediately loses all its courage, and instantly
takes to flight. But the hog, who smells it from afar, draws nearer and nearer, his
bristles erected with excitement, seizes it by the neck, and devours it with great com-
placency, though without touching the head. As the liog is the invariable companion
of the settler in the backwoods, the rattlesnake everywhere disappears before tho ad-
vance of man, and it is to bo hoped that a century or two hence it will bo ranked among
the extinct animals. The American Indians often regale on the rattlesnake. When
they find it asleep, they put a small forked stick over its neck, whicii they keep im-
movably fixed to the ground, giving the snake a piece of leather to bite, and this
they pull back several times with great force, until they perceive that the poison-fangs
are torn out. They then cut off the head, skin the body, and cook it as wo do eels.
The flesh is said to be white and excellent.

None of the American snakes inhabit the Old World, but in the East Indies and
Ceylon other no less dangerous species appear upon the scene, among which tho
celebrated Cobra de Capello is one of tho most deadly. A few years since, a cobra

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THE TROPICAL WORLD.

in tlio British Zitolo;»i('(»l Gnrdons dostroycfl its koopor. In a fit of drunkonnoM, the
innn, agiiiiist ex press onlors, took tho roptilo out of its cnfjo, and pliiciiig its houd
inside his waistcoat, allowed it to glide round his body. When it hud eniorgud friiin
under his clothes on tho other side, apparently in good humor, tho keupur s-juoL-zcd its
tail, when it «truclc hini between his eyes. In twenty minutcH his consciousness was
gone, and in less than throe hours he was dead. As long as t^o cobra is in a quiet
mood, its neck is nowhere thicker than its head or other parts ; but as soon as it is
excited, it raises vertically the anterior part of its trunk, dilates tho hood on ca(;li siilo
of tho neck, which is curiously inarktd in tho center in black and white, like a pair
of spectacles, and then swells out to double its former proportions, and advances
against tho aggressor by tho undulating motion of tho tail. It is not only met with
in the cultivated grounds and plantat';ons, but will creep into tho houses and insinuate
itself among the furniture. This is the snake so frequently exhibited by the Indian
jugglers, who contrive by some unknown method to tame them so far that they will
perform certain movements in cadinco, and danco to the sound of music, with
which the cobra seems much delii;htcd, keeping time by a graceful motion of the head,
erecting about half its length from the ground and following the few simple notes of
tho conjuror's fluto with gentle curves like tho undulating lines of a swan's neck.

The Egyptian Hajo {Nuja JIaje), a near relation of the Indian cobra, is most likely
tho asp of ancient authors, which tlio celebrated Cleopatra chose as the instrument of
her death, to avoid figuring in tho triumph of Augustus. Liko the cobra, it intlutos
its neck when in a state of excitement, and as it raises its head on being approached,
as if watchful fir its safety, it was venerated by the ancient Egyptians as a syinliol of
divinity, and as the faithful guardian of their fields. Divine honois have, however,
much more frequently been paid to tho venomous snakes from the terror they inspire,
than from far-fetched notions of beneficence. The Cerastes, or horned-viper, one of
the most deadly serpents of tho African deserts, is frequently exhibited by K^jyptiau
jugglers, who handle and irritate it with impunity : they are supposed to n nder tiicni-
Bclves invulnerable by tho chewing of a certain root, but most likely, as in the case
of the cobra-charmers, their secret consists in their courage and perfect knowledge of
tho animal's nature.

Although tho Boas and Pythons are unprovided with venomous fangs, yet, from
their enormous size, they may well be ranked among ilio deadly snakes; for, as
Waterton justly remarks, "it comes to nearly the same thing in the end whether tlie
victim dies by poison from the fangs, which corrupts his blood and makes it stink
horribly, or whether his body be crushed to mummy and swallowed by a Pytlioii."
The kingly Jiboya {Boa-constrictor) inhabits tho dry and sultry localities of the Bra-
zilian forests, where he generally conceals himself in crevices and hollows in parts Imt
little frequented by man, and sometimes attains a length of thirty feet. To catch liis
prey he ascends the trees, and lurks, hidden in tho foliage, for the unfortunate agutis,
pacas, and capybaras, whom their unlucky star may lead within bis reach. When
full-grown he seizes the passing deer ; but in spite of his large size he is but little feared
by the natives, as a single blow of a cudgel suffices to kill him. Prince Maximilian
of Neu Wied tells us that the experienced hunter laughs when asked whether the
Jiboya attacks and devours man.

The Sucuriaba, Anaconda, or Water Boa {Eunectes murinus), as it is variously

SERPENT FASCINATION.

021

named, attains still larger dimonHion» than the constrictor, as somo arc said to have
been found of a length of forty fttet. It inhabits tho liirgo rivers, lakes, and marshy
grounds of tropieal America, and passes most of its time in tho water, now reposing
on a sand-hank, with only its head above tho surface of the stream, now rapidly swim-
ming like an eel, or abandoning itself to tho current of tiio river. Often, also, it suns
itself on tho sandy margin of tho stream, or patiently awaits its prey, stretdjed out
upon some rock or fallen tree. With sharp eye it observes all that swims in tho
waters as well os all that flies over them, or all that comes to tho banks to quench its
thirst ; neither fish nor aquatic bird is secure from tho swiftness of its attack, an(' woo
to tho cupybara that comes within the grasp of its folds. Such is its voracity, tliat
Firmin found in the stomach of an Anaconda a largo sloth, an Iguana nearly four
foot long, and a tolerubly-sized Ant-hear, all three nearly in the same state as when
they were swallowed — a proof that their capture had taken place within a short time.
As is commonly tho case with reptiles, tho water-boa is very tenacious of life, and
though the head may be nearly severed from the trunk, the entrails taken out of the
body, and tho hkin detached, it will still move about for a considerable time. Tho
bons principally inhabit America, although somo species aro likewise met with in Asia.
But tho more formidable pythons aro confined to tho hot regions of tho Old World.
They are said to enlace even tho tiger or tho lion in their fatal embrace ; and to judge
by their size and strength, this assertion seems by no means improbable.

Tho alleged power of fascination in snakes is now abandoned by most naturalists;
and all the authenticated facts in relation to it seem to bo capable of being otherwise
explained. Dr. Henderson, a very close American observer, relates* somo incidents
bearing on this question. " Somo field hands, " ho .says, " while at work in the field,
killed a rattlesnake of such unusual size that they were induced to bring it to the
house that the family might seo it. Its head was chopped oflf and left in tho field.
The snake was laid under somo shade troes, upon tho branches of which a pair of
mockingbirds had built their nest. Tho birds .soon discovered the snake, and at
once sounded their notes of alarm and distress. They commenced approaching, and
finally came in immediate contact witii tho snake. In short, they e.\hibitcd all tlie
phenomena of the fa.scinated in perfection, except that they did not jump into the
fiiake's mouth, which, fortunately for them, was a mile distant. I have freciucntly
heard it asserted that tho snake, after fascinating tho bird, opens its mouth and tho
bird jumps into it. To test tho truth of this, I caught a black adder, and tying one
end of a piece of twine around his neck, I made tho other end fiist to some shrubbery
in which a pair of mockingbirds had made their nests. The snake was soon dis-
covered by tho birds, and in a short time they were as much fascinated as birds ever
bocomo. They approached the reptile with featliers reversed, uttering their notes of
ahirm, and were a dozen times in contact with him. On tho other hand, the snake
seemed only bent on escaping, and had neither time nor inclination to exert his famed
power of fascination. It was exerted, however, to its fullest extent, as far as the birds
were concerned. At length the snake, in his eflforts to escape, brouglit his body so far
through the loop of twine around his neck that he was suflRjcated. This made no
difference, and the birds continued to be as much fascinated after as before his death.
They were several times driven away, but would as often return. In these instances

* Harper's Magazine, April, 1856.

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TIIK TllOPICAf- WOKI.U.

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wlmt boconicH of tlio nlloged wonderful power of the s(!r|»('iit'8 eyo? Two lirtls were
)i|i|iar(Mitly eliariiiud ut onu uud tlu! huiiiu tiiiiu liy u miiglu siiiikc!, mid tliat a dead oni'.
Tbu real faet is, that tliu MO-eulled fa»«eiiiutioii Ih Hueii in |ierfeetion only during tliii
period of incubation, uud while the hirdu arc rearing their young. There is a marked
ditlercncu between the uctiouM of the birdH during thin period and ut other tinier*.
Now, uniinalH of every speeieH either eut or uro euten by other 8peeie.s; und emli race
has lis own |)e(Miliar niodeH of uttuek, defeneo, und e.s(mpe. The miuke kmnv.s that
otlier uniniais hold him in greut terror ; but tliat birds will upproaeh him if he riMiiains
perfectly still. When he perceives that tlie birds have seen him, he remains peifeetly
still. The birds know that their young will approai;h the snake and full a prey to him.
If it be ill the breeding .seu.son, purentul instinct or utl'ection impels them to attiii;k the
enemy, and so it often sucritices its own life to suve thut of its oll'spriiig. i'areiitui
solicitude overcomes its natural timidity. Indeed the birds on tiiese occasions H'em to
lose their senses altogether, precL-icly as u huinun purent might do under .sjinilur
cireumstunces."

PATTr.KSNAKE ClIAKMINO A RAIIIIIT.

Still, however, wo must admit that the .subject of snake fa.scination is in a moasnro
an open question. TMr. T. B. Thorpe, another close ob.scrvcr of the habits of the
an'iiial world, is fully convinced of the existence of this power, and cites many inii-

m

SKHl'KNT VA SCIN ATION.

«lL>3

dontH in jirnof of liis tlicfiry, nrponiimnyiiij? tlicin with <Irawinj;H of tlio . ptilo in Jla/jranlu
ilt'llctu* llu hIiows otiu simlfe in tlio itttitudo, as lio Ix^IIi-vch. of cliiirriiiti^ a wild rut;
and atiotlicr wliitri cliurinin^ a ral)i)it In this latter illustration tliu rabliit certainly
liiokH nH though lio was faxcinatt'd. IIu huliovos also that they liuvo this |M)Wt!r
ovLT man, and ndducuH sovural instanouN in corroboration. And ovun furtlior, he
licli(<vt's that this jiowcr exists in the dead reptih;. II(! unins \\\\ his coneliisions thus:
" The food of the rattlesnake is in a great measure ('oniposed of small animals or birds
miporior to it in fleotness, and it has no power to seize its prey exec^pt when it is eoihMl
lip, and eonsei{uently incapable of givinj); chase. Tn addition, the rejitilc, whilo
attempting to sei/.o its pr(>y, emits u strong odor, which no doubt lias a stupefying
cll'ect upon its victim. Now, as the rattlesnake never steals ui»on any object, and is
])erfcctly incapable of soixing its food except when it is coiled up and stationary, how
would it ever obtain subsistence if nature had not given it the power to attract its
])rey within its deadly reach ? Although it is disputed by most naturalists that snakes
have the power of fascination, yet to mo it seems as if nothing relating to their natural
history is more fully substantiated, reople living in crowded iMties who receive from
nl)road 'specimens' preserved in alcolud and bottled, or write dissertations from
cxaminatiim of the ' gtufled skin,' must be assured, from what they see liefore them,
tiiat the jtower of fascination is a fable; and as doubting is a safe form of unbelief, it
is freely expres.sed. The rattlcsn»hc, ncvertlieles.s, has certainly an eye of command
ns had Napoleon ; and the jiowcr of the reptile's gaze is not only acknowledged by
the humbler class of animals, but man, with all his superior (lowers, has felt u thrill
of helplessness pass through his soul as ho beheld that mysterious eye glaring full
upon him. Approach a rattlesnake, and with the first convenient thing dash out his
brains; but dare not to make a close examination of the death-dealing objcctt liefoie
you. If its spiral motions once find a response in the music tune-markings of yf)U'
own miml ; if you look into tlio.so strange orbs that seem to be the openings into
another world ; if that forked tongue plays into your presence until you find it as
vivid as the lightning's Hash; and, meanwhile, the hum of those rattles begins to con-
fuse your absorbed senses, you will be conscious of some terrible danger ; that you
stand upon some dread precipice; that your blood is starting back from your heart;
and you can only break through the charm with an elTurt that requires the whole of
your resolution."

Paul du Chaillu also — no mean authority on the subject — firmly believes in this
power of fascination ; and gives an instance in point :t " I shall never forget that one
ilay, as I lay ill under that big tree, I spied an enormous snake foldeil among the
branches of another tree not far from me. 3Iy attention had been drawn to that tree
liy the cries of a Fciuirrel. The snake was charming the poor little s:(uirrel. How
nice the squirrel was; how beautiful his little tail; how black and liriglit seemed his
little eyes. His little feet were moving onward toward the snake; his little tail was
up, and he chippcred as he advanced toward certain death. The snake was still as
death ; not one of his folds could have hwn .seen moving. How black ami shiny the
ugly creature was, and what a contrast with the green leaves of the trees. Part of
his body was coiled on the limb of the tree. How fixedly he looked on the wjuirrcl.
His head was triangular, and he belonged to that family of snakes that spend the

•Harper's Magazine, Marcli, 1855. t Wild Life Under t)ie Kqautor, IGl.

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THE TROPICAL WOULD.

greatest portion of their lives on trees. Nearer and nearer the squirrel camr • louder
and louder were his cliipperiugs; he tried to run away, but could not. At last lie
came within a foot of the snake. There was a pause ; then suddenly, like a flash of
lij^htning, the snake sprang. T1.0 poor little squirrel was in the folds of the ukIv
reptile, and I soon saw his body gradually disappearing into its inflated mouth, and
the broken silence of the forest resumed its sway." Here I leave the vexed (lucstiuii
of serpentine fascination, with the expression of my own opinion that, while much can
bo said on both sides, yet, upon the whole, the nays have it.

CIIAUMINO Tin: SQL'IunEL.

iif

The various serpent tribes are exposed to the attacks of many enemies, who fortu-
nately keep their numbers within salutary bounds, and avenge the death of the cimiit
less insoots, worms, tomls. frogs, and lizards, that fall a ))rey to their strength or tliiir
vcnotn. Several sj ecies of rapacious and aquatic binls live upon snakes, the Aim-iiiMii
ostrich thins their ranks wherever ho can. and the African " Secretary" is renowncil I'ni-
his prowess in serpentine warfare. " The battle was obstinate," says Le Vaill:iiit,
describing one of these conflicts, " and conducted with equal address on botli .^iihs.
The serpent, feeling the inferiority of his strength, in his attempt to flee, and rcirain
his hole, employed that cunning which is ascribed to him, while the bird, guessing liis
design, suddenly stopped him, and cut off his retreat by placing herself before liiiii at
a single leap. On whatever side the reptile endeavored to make its escape, his enemy
was still i'lund before him. Tlien. uniting at once bnivery and cunning, he enrted
himself boldly to intimidate the bird, and hissing dreadfully, displayed his menacini.'
throat, inrt'imed eyes, and a heail sw(dlen with rage and venom. Sometimes tlii^
threatening appearance produced a ::iomentary smspension of hostilities, but the liinl
»oou returned to the charge, and covering her body with one of her wings as a biuk-

sor.:i: snitl'ENT-DESTUOYEUS.

(I'.'S

ler, fitruck her enemy with the horny protuberances upon the other, wliieh, like little
clubs, served the more effectually to knock him down as ho raised himself to the
Mow ; at last he staggered and fell, tiie conqueror then despatched him, and with one
fitrnke of her bil.' laid open his skull." The secretary-eagle has now been successfully
iiccliinatized in the West Indies, where he renders himself useful by the destruction
of tlie venomous snakes with which the plantations arc infeste<l.

Gravely, " with measured step and slow," like a German j)hilosopher cogitating
over the nature of the absolute, but, as wo shall presently see, nmch more profitably
engaged, the " Adjutant " wanders among the reeds on the banks of the muddy
Ganges. The aspect of this colossal bird, measuring six feet in hight and nearly
fifteen from tip to tip of tlic wings, is far from being comely, as his enormous bill, his
naked head and neck, except a few straggling curled hairs, his large craw hanging
down the forepart of the neck like a pouch, and his long, naked legs, are certainly no
features of lieanty. Suddenly he stops, dips his bill among the a( uatic plants, and
iiniiiediately raises it again triumphantly into the air, for a long snake, despairingly
t\)isting and wriggling, strives vainly to escape from the formidable pincers wliich
liiild it fast. The bird throws back his head, and the reptile appears notably diniiii-
islied in size ; a few more gulps, and it has entirely disappeared. And now the sedate
liinl continues his stately promenade with the selfsatisfied mien of a niercliant who
lias just made a successful speculation, and is engaged in the agreeable calculation of
Ills gains. IJut lo ! again tlie monstrous bill descends, and tiie same scene is again
repeated. Tlie good services of the Giant Heron in clearing the land of no.xious rep-
tiles, and the havoc he is able to make amcmg their ranks, may be judged of liy the
.^iiiiplo fact, that on opening the body of one of them, a land-tortoise ten inches long
and a large black cat were found entire witliin it, the former in the pouch, as a kind
of stock in trade, the latter in tlie stomach, all ready for immediate consumption.

Trusting to iiis agility and the certainty of his eye, the Indian Ichneumon or Mon-
gnos attacks without hesitation the most venomous serpents. The cobra, wliich drives
even the leopard to fliglit, rises before the little creature with swelling head and fury
in its eye ; but swift as thought, the ichneumon, avoiding the death-stroke of tlio |)ro-
jeeting fangs, leaps u|)on its back, and fastening his sharp teeth in the head, soon
despatches the helpless reptile.

The serpents sometimes even feed upon their own brethren. Thus a rat-snake in

the Zoological Gardens was once seen to devour a common Coluber natrix, but not

having taken the measure of his victim, he could not dispose of tlie hist four inches

of Ills tail, which stuck out rather jauntily from the side of his mouth, with very much

the h)ok of a cigar. After a (juarter of an hour the tail began to e.\hii)it a retrograde

niDtinii, and the swallowed snake was disgorgeil, nothing the worse for his living sep-

uklne with the exception of the wound made by his partner when he first .seized him.

A [python in the same collection, who had lived for years on friendly terms with a

lirotlier nearly as largo as himself, was found one morning solo tenant of his den. As

tlio cage was secure, the keeper was puzzled to know how the serpent had escaped.

At last it was observed that the remaining inmate had swollen remarkably biiing the

iiij,'lit, when the truth came out. It was, however, the last meal of the fratricide, for

ill siinie mouths he died.

When we consider that the snakes have neither legs, wings, nor fins, and are indeed
4U

I

ill ■>»

t*-

liji

} m

626

THE TROPICAL WOULD.

deprived of all the usual moans of locomotion, the rapidit} of tlieir progress is not
a little surprising. On examining tlie anatomical structure of their body, liowover, it
will bo remarked that while wo have only twelve pair of ribs united in front liy tin'
breast-bone and cartilage, the siiako has often more than throe hundred, uncunncctiil
in front, and c(mso.^''Ci:Hy much more free in their motions, a faculty wliicli is still In-
creased by the great mobility of the spondyli of the backbone. IJotween tlie ril)s and
the broad transverse scales or plates which exist on the belly of all such serpents as
move rapidly, we find numerous muscles connecting them one with anotlier, and tlni,-,
amply jiro^ided with a whole system of strong p\dleys and points of attaciinicnt, tlio
reptile, bringing up the tail towards the head, by bending the body into one or nmn;
curves, and then again resting upon the tail and extending the body, glides swifilv
along, not only upon even ground, but oven sometimes fiom branch to br:; ill, as the
smallest hold suHices for its stretching out its body a foot's length into tho air, and
thus reaching another sallying point for further progress.

The anatomy of the serpent's jaws is no less remarkable than tho mechanism of its
movements. In spite of their proverbial wisdom, snakes would not be aide to exist
uidess they were able to swallow large animal nuisses at a time. For, however riipid
their motions may be, those of their prey are in general still more active, and thus
they are obliged to wait in ambush till a fortunalj ciianco provides them witli a(?(ipiiius
meal. The victim is often much more bulky tlian the serpent itself; but still, witlmut
tearing it to pieces, it is able to cngulph it in his swelling maw. For the two iiidvcs
of its lower jaw do not coalesce like ours into one .solid ma.ss, but are merely eomit'ctLMl
in front by a loose ligament, so that c.ich part can bo moved separately. The lionis
of the upper jaw and palate are also loosely attached or articulated one with (h(!
other, and thus tlie whole mouth is capaide of great distension. ]}y this mecliiiv'sm,
aided by tho numerous sharp teeth, which are so many little hooks with tliu point
curved backwards, each side of the jaws and mouth being able to act as it were indc-
])ondeiitly of tlie other, alternately hooks it.self fa.it to the morsel, or advances to fasten
itself farther on in a similar manner, and thu3 tho reptile draws itself over its |iicy,
somewhat in tho samo way as wo draw a stocking over our leg, after having (list, iiy
breaking the bono.s fasliioncd it into a convenient mass, and rendered its passage nioiu
easy by lubricating it with its .saliva. Slowly tho huge lump disappears l)uirnRl tlic
jaws, descends lower and lower beneath the scales, which seem reatly to burst asundi'i-
with distension, and then the satisfie<l monster coils him.self up once more to digest iiis
meal in (piiet. Tho time rcfiuired for this purpose varies of course according to tli(!
size of the morsel; but often woek.s, or even months, will pass before a Inia awakens
from tlie lethargic repo.so in which — thu image of disgusting gluttony — he lies plunged
after a superabundant meal.

A huge python in tho Zoological Gardens fasted the almost incredible tini nf
twenty-two niontlis, having probably prepared himself for his al)stinence by a splendid
gorge; and Dunieril mentions a rattlesnake in the Jardin des IMantcs which likewise
took no nourishment during twenty-one nio'iths, but then, as if to make up fer lii>t
time. .'Swallowed tliree hares within live days. Tiic reptiles in the British ZiMiliii.'i(';ii
Gardens are (lilercd food once a week, but even tlien tiieir appetites arc frc(|uciitiy nut
yet .-iwakcned, tiiougli great care is taken never t<i spoil their st(niiachs by excess.

Though generally the objects of abhorrence and fear, yet .serpents somctiiiies render

ore inilc-
t(i fiistiii
r its jiii'y,
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/(i('ili>i;ii':il
uciitlv Ili't

P

MAGNITUDE OF SNAKES.

0-J7

tliemsolves useful or nri;rooablo to man. Thus tho rat-snake of Ceylon ( Cori/pfiodon
Jiliniienbac/iu), in consideration of its scrviecs in destroying vermin, is often ki'pt as a
houseliold pet, and so domesticated by tlio natives as to feed at their table. Tho beau-
tit'ul eoralsnake {Ehtps coraliinus) is fondled by tlie Brazilian ladies, but tiie domes-
tication of tlie drea<led C(jbra.s as protectors in the place of dojrs, is still more remark-
alile. They glide about the house, going in and out at pleasure, a terror to thieves,
but never attempting to harm the inmates.

Tho Trec-.snakes ofl'er many beautiful examples of the adaptation of color to tho
animal's pursuits, which wc have already had occasion to admire in our brief review
of the tropi('al insect world. They are freijuently of an agreeable green or bluisli
hue, so as hardly to be distinguishable from tho foliage among whicli they seek their
piey, or where they themselves are liable to bo seized upon by their enemies. They
arc often able vertically to ascend tho smoothest trunks and branches, in searcii of
si(uirrels and lizards, or to riflo the nests of birds.

The Water snakes which infest some parts of tho tropical seas, though far from
e(|ualling in size the vast proportions of tlie fabulous sea-serpent, are very formidable
from their venomous bite. They have tlic back part of the body and tail very much
coin pressed and raised vertically, so as to serve them as a paddle with which they
rapidly cleave tho waters.

Of enormous snakes, whoso dimensions exceed all credibility, tho old writers are
full. One can there find them of any length he pleases, a few yards more or less being
of no consequence. Thus the famous serpent which in Africa stopped the march of
tlie Roman army of Atilius Regulus, is said to have been one hundred and twenty feet
in length. A recent traveler in Ceylon, while acknowledging that thirty feet was tlus
utmost for which he was prepared to vouch personally, was, as he says, credibly assured
that one had been lately killed which measured forty-five feet in length, with .-i circum-
fereneo of .six feet ; and he was told of another, killed in India not long ago, whiiili
attained the respectable length of sixty feet. But passing over these quite suspicious
iiiuratives, we find accounts of .•erpeuts (^uite long enough to satisfy any reasonable
licsire.

E(|uatorial Africa appears to be a favorite abode for tho serpentine family ; .-snil if
any of monstrous size exist there, they could hardly oscapo the keen eyes of Paul du
Chaillu. Ho thus describes the death of tho largest one of which we notice any
mention in his books:* "After resting a little while we continued our course till
wl' rcache<l the top of a very high mountain, whence I could .seo all tho country round.
1 was sitting under a very largo tree, when suddenly looking up, I saw an iuniionse
serpent coiled upon the branch of a tree just altove me. I rusIuMl out, and takiii'j;
;,'ni)d aim with my gun, I shot my black friend in the head. lie let go his hold, tiiin-
bled down with great force, ami after writhing convulsively for a time, hi; lay before
ino dead. lie measured thirteen feet in length, and his ugly fangs proved tliat ho
was venomous. My men cut otf the head of the snake, anil divided the body into as
many parts as there were people. Then they liglited a fire, and roasted and ate it (,ti
thi' spot. They offered me a pieces but thougli I was very hungry, I declined. When
the snake was eaten, I was the oidy individual in the company that had an enijity
stomach."

\\W

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fjfe

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* Stories of the Gorilla Country, 69.

028

THE TKOl'ICAL WOULD.

But Wallace goes beyond Du Chaillu in liis accounts of the actual size of pcrpcnts
existing in the almost unexplored Malayan islands. lie says:* "One day my l)oy Ali
came home with a story of a hig snake. He was walking through some high grass,
and stepped on something whitii lie took for a small fallen tree ; but it felt cold iuid
yielding to his feet, and far to the right and left there was a waving and rustiincr of
the herbage. He jumped back iu atl'right, and prepared to shoot ; but could not I'ot

& good view of the creature, and it passed away, he said, like a tree Ix'ing draggni
through the grass. As he had .several times already shot large snakes, whieli in' de-
clared were all as nothing compared with this, I am inclincMl to believe it must liiivc
really been a monster. Such creatiires are rather pleiitifid here, for a man close I'V
showed me on his thigh the marks where he had been seized by one close to his house.

• Malay Arcliijiolago, l!'J2.

Is

LIZARDS- GITKOKS-ANOMS.

U2D

ft was big enongli to take the man's tliigli in liis mouth, and iio would probably have
buun killed aiul devoured by it, liad not his cries brought out his neighbors who
destroyed it with their choppers. As far as I could make out, it was about twenty
feet long; but All's was probably much larger."

The Tropical World may well be called the head-tjuarters of the lizard race, as
nowhere else do these reptiles appear in sueli multitudes or in such diversified foriiis
of genera and species. Tiie stranger is astonished by their numbers as soon as he sets
foot on a tropical shore ; for on all sides, on the sands and in the forests, on soft bank<
and hard rocks, on trees and on the ground, lizards of every variety of size, form, and
color, are seen dartinjr, climbing, crawling, and rustHnjj.

The Geckoes, one of the family, may bo fairly claimed as belonging to domestic
animals, since they take up tiieir abode in the dwellings of man, where they make
themselves useful by the destruction of spiders. Hies, and other noxious or disagreeable
insects, wliich they almost always swallow whole, their throat being as broad as the
opening of their jaws. During the daytime they generally remain concealed in some
dark crevice or chink, but towards evening they may be seen running along the steepest
walls with marvelous rapidity, in keen pursuit of their prey, freciuently standing still,
nodding with their head, and uttering shrill tones, most likely by smacking their tongue
against the palate. Their flattened flexible body seems to mould itself into the hol-
lows, in which they often remain motionless for hours, and their generally dull color
hirmonizes so well with their resting-places, as to render them hardly distinguishable;
a circumstance which an.swers the double purpose of masking their presence from the
prey for which they lie in waif, and from the enemies that might be inclined to feast
upon them. Among these, some of the smaller birds of prey — hawks and owls — arc
the most conspicuous, not to mention man, the arch-persecutor of almost every animal
large <>nough to attract his notice.

How comes it that these nocturnal lizards, seemingly in defiance of the laws of
gravitation, are thus able to adhere to our ceilings or any o'her overhanging surfaces?
An inspection of the soles of tlieir broad feet will soon solve the enigma, for all their
toes are considerably dilated on their margins, and divided beneath into a number of
transverse lamelhu, parallel to each other, and generally witliout any longitudinal fur-
row. From these a fluid exudes which serves to attach the animal to the surface. Tlicy
are also generally provided with shiirp and crooked claws, retractile and movable, like
those of a cat, and which render them good service in climbing the trees.

In spite of their harmless nature, the Geckoes — their real utility be'n^ forgotten
over imaginary grievances — nowhere enjoy a good reputation, probably in consequence
of their ugliness and the wild expression of their large eyes. They are accused of
tainting with a virulent secretion every object they toutsh, and of provoking an crup-
tittii on the skin merely by running over it — a j)opular prejudice which naturally causes
many a poor inoffensive Gecko's death. Tiiey abound all over the torrid zone, even in
the remote islands of the Pacific, such as Tahiti and Vanikoro. Dunu'ril enumer-
ates fifty five different species, only two of whicli are iniligenous iu Southern Europe,
while India monopolizes no less than thirteen for her si.-,'. .

Tlie graceful AnoUs arc peculiar to America. IJy the structure of their feet, pro-
vided with long unequal toes, they are related to the Geckoes, but are uistiugui8hc<l

m

.U[

%

PI

\m

■t .i

030

THE TllOrjCAL WORLD.

I!

from thorn l)y a moro slender form of Imdy, liy tlioir oxtroincly lon<» tliin tail, lunl »
large nock-poueli, wiiieli dilate.s under the influenee (if oxeitenient. Tlie.«io small and
nimble creatures, the largest species seldom oxceeding eight inches in length, are as
touchy as lighting cocks. On approaching them, they instantly lilow up their poucli,
open widely their diminutive jaws, and spring upon the aggressor, striving to hite liim
with their teeth, which, however, arc too small to do much harm. A:!!'ing each otiicr
they live in a perpetual state of warfare. A3 soon as one Anolis sees anotiier, ho
makes a rapid advance, while his adversary awaits him with all the courage of a gd-
lant knight. IJefore hcginning the conflict, they make all sorts of menacing gpslurcs,
convulsively nodding their heads, putting up their pouches, until finally they close in
desperate struggle. If they are of e((ual strength, the battle remains for some time
undecided. At length the vanijuishcd AnolLs turns and runs away, but ho may think
hiuLself fortunate if he escapes with the loss of his tail. Many of them aro thus
deprived of this ornamental appendage, which they voluntarily loavo liehind to avoid
a still greater disaster, and then they become timid, melancholy, and fond of retire-
nient, as if ashamed of being seen, only regaining their spirits when, by a wonderful
power of reproduction, the amputated tail has been replaced by another.

Like many other lizards, the Anolis pos.ses.ses the fiiculty of changing color when
under the influence of excitement; but of all animals, whether terrestrial or marine,
none is more famous or remarkable in this respect than the Chameleon. It fre([iiently
happens that mi>n, not satisfied with the wonders which nilure everywhere exjioscs to
his view, adds to their marvels others of his own invention, and thus many a falile has
Leon told about the Chameleon. It has been said, for instance, that it could emulate
all the colors of the rainbow; but the moro accurate observations of modern natuial-
ists have shown that the whole change, which takes place most froiiuently wlicn tlie
Chameleon is expo.sed to full sunshine or under the influence of emotion, consists in its
ordinary blui.sh-ash color turning to a green or yellowish hue, with irregular spots of a
dull red. Like many other reptiles, the Chameleon has the power of intlating its
lungs and retaining the air for a long time, so as one moment to appear as fat and
well fed as au alderman, and the next as lean and bony as a hungry disciple of the
muses. These alternating expansions and collapses seem to have a great influence on
the change of color ; which, however, according to 3Iilno Edwards, is princi|tai!j
owing to the skin of the animal consisting of two difterently colored lajeis, placed
one above the other, and changing their relative positions under the influence of
excitement.

In our northern regions the captive Chameleon cuts but a sorry figure ; hut in hii
own sunny regions, which extends from southern Spain and Sicily to the Cape, ami
eastwards from Arabiiv and Hindostan to Australia, it is said to bo by no nieatis
deficient in beauty, in spite of its strangely-formed keel-like head, its enormously pm
jectiiig eyes, and its granulated skin. Its manner of hunting for the little wiiigid
in.sects that form its principal food is very peculiar. Although the movements of its
head are very limited, on account of the shortness of its neck, this deficiency is amply
supplied by the wide range of its vision, each eye being able to move about in all
directions independently of the other. Thus, while one of them attentively ga/cs
upon the heavens, the other minutely examines the ground, or while one of them rolls
iu its orbit, the other remains fixed ; nay, their mobility is so great, that without even

TlIK CIIAMEMOON-KIUANAS— Till-: TKJIJ.

(i:Jl

moving its stiff head, tliis wonderful lizard, like Janus, the doublo-facod god of ancient
Rome, can see at the same time all that goes on before and behind it. When an in-
sect conies Hying along, the chameleon, jierched on a branch, and half concealed between
tiie foliage, follows it in all its movements by means of his powerful telescopes, until
the proper moment for action appears. Then, quick as thought, ho darts forth, oven
to a distance of five or six inches, his long fleshy glutinous tongue, which is moreover
furnished with a dilated and somewhat tubular tip, and driving it back with the same
lightning-liko velocity, engulfs his prey. This independence of the eyes is owing lo
the iniperfect sympathy which subsi.sts between the two lobes of the brain and the two
sets of nerves which ramify throughout the opposite sides of its frame. Hence also
one side of the body may bo asleep while the other is vigilant, ono may bo green
while the other is ash-blue, and it is even said that the Chameleon is utterly unable to
swim, because the muscles of both sides are incapable of acting in concert. Destined
for a life upon trees, ho is provided with organs beautifully adapted for supporting
himself on the flexible branches ; for besides the cylindrical tail nearly na long as his
body which ho coils round the boughs, his five toes are united two and three by a
common skin, so as to form, as it were, a pair of pincers or a kiad of haud, admirably
suited for a hohlfast.

Among the lyiumas, a huge lizard tribe, characterized by a keel-Iiko back and
tail, and a largo full-toothed throat-pouch, the common or great American Guana
(Itjuana tuberculata) deserves particular notice, as its white flesh is considered a
great delicacy in Brazil and the West Indies. Notwithstanding its largo size, for it
not seldom attains a length of four or five feet, and the formidable appearance of its
serrated back, it is in reality by no means of a warlike disposition, and so stupid that,
instead of endeavoring to save itself by a timely flight, it merely .stares with its largo
eyes, and inflates its poucli, while the noose is passing round its neck to drag it forth
from its hole. The Bahama islands abound with Guanas, which form a great part of
the subsistence of the inhabitants. They are caught by dogs, trained for the purpo e,
in the hollow rocks and trees where they nestle, and are either carried alivo for sale to
Carolina, or kept for homo consumption. They feed wholly on vegetables and fruit,
particularly on a kind of fungus, growing at the roots of trees, and on the fruits of tho
different kinds of ananas, whence their flesh most likely acquires its delicate flavor.

Tho famous South American monitory lizard or Teju, {Tcjus monitor,) is one of tho
largest and most beautiful of the whole race, as ho measures no less than five feet from
the snout to tho tip of the tail, which is nearly twice as long as tho body, while his
black color, variegated with bright yellow bands and spots, produces an agreeable and
pleasing eflbct. The head is small, the snout gradually tapers, tho limbs are slender,
and the tail, which is laterally compres.sed, gradually decreases towjirds the extremity.
The Teju lives in cavities and hollows, frequently under tho roots of trees. When
pursued, he runs rapidly straight forward to his burrow; but when his retreat is inter-
cepted, ho defends himself valiantly, and proves a by no means contcinptihle an-
tagonist, as he is able to bite through a thick boot, and a stroke with his strong and
muscular tail will completely disable a dog. Though tho Jlonitor generally lives on
land, he is an excellent swimmer, and catches many a fish in its native element. His
chief food, however, consists in various fruits, rats, mice, birds, and bo also devours a
large number of the eggs and young of the alligator.

2. f .?■•«

<; m

m-

632

THE TnOPICAL woiir.D.

I)

Tho Inrgo Watcr-lizardn {Ifyirnsaiiri) froqiiont the low rivor banks or tlio iiinr^lns
of springs, and altliougli tliey irmy lie seen basking on rocks or on the dead trunk nf
sonic prostrate tree in tho heat of tho sun, yet they appear more partial to the damp
weeds and undergrowth in the neighborhood of water. Their gait has somewhat niorc
of tho awkward lateral motion of the croeodile, than of the lively action of the smaller
saurians. When attacked, they lash violently with their tail, swaying it sideways witli
great forco like the cayman. These modern types of the Mososaurus and Iguaiioildii
have a graceful habit of extending tho neck, and raising the head to look about tlieni,
and as you follow them leisurely over the rocks, or through the jungle, tliey fre(|uently
stop, turn their heads round, and take a deliberate survey of the intruder. Tiiey an;
by no means vicious, though they bito severely when provoked, acting, however, al-
ways on the defensive. On examining their stomachs, crabs, locu.sts, beetles, tlie
remains of jumping fish, tho scales of snakes, and bones of frogs and other small
animals are discovered. Like that of the Iguanas, their fle.sb is delicate eating, re-
sembling that of a very young sucking-pig.

The formidable name of Flying Dragons has been given to a genus of small lizards,
remarkable for tho expansible cutaneous processes with which the sides are furiiislied,
and by whose means they are enabled to spring with more facility from braiieli to
branch, and oven to support themselves for some time in the air, like tho ])at or flyiii;;-
squirrel. Tho tiny painted Dragon of the East, tho Flying Lizard of the woods, is
fond of clinging with its wings to the smooth trunks of trees, and there reniainiii!;
immovable, basking in the sun. When disturbed, it leaps and .sliullles away in an
awkward manner. One Mr. Adams had in his possession, reminded him of a bat when
placed on the ground. Sometimes the strange creature would feign death, and re-
main perfectly motionless, drooping its head, and doubling its limbs, until it fancied
tho danger over, then cautiously raising its crouching form, it would look stealthily
around, and be off in a moment. The dragon consumes flies in a slow and ileliberate
manner, swallowing them gradually; its various species belong exclusively to India
and tho islands of the P^astern Archipelago.

Who has not heard of the fatal glance of the Basilisk, which, according to pootieal
fancy obliged all other poisonous animals to keep at a respectful distance. The truth
is, that tho lizards that bear this dreaded name, which has been given them from the
fanciful resemblance of their pointed occipital crest to a regal crown, are (jnito as
harmless and inoffensive as the flying dragon. They are chiefly iidiabitauts of South
America, where they generally lead a sylvan life, feeding on insects.

A few words on Frogs and Toads shall close this rather miscellaneous chapter. Of
the former there is none more famous than the hideous Pipa Surtnnmensis, whieli
considerably exceeds in size the common toad, and who,«e deformity is often agura-
vated by a phenomenon unexampled in the rest of the animal world, namely, tlie
young in various litages of exclusion, proceeding from cells dispersed over the back
of the parent. It was for a long time supposed that the ova of this extraordinary
reptile were produced in the dorsal cells without having been first excluded in tlio
form of spawn ; but it is now thoroughly ascertained that the female Pipa dejiosits
her eggs or spawn at the brink of some .stagnant water, and that the male coUcets or
amasses the heap of ova, and deposits them with great care on the back of the female.

FUOCS AND rOADS.

ai;»

wliorc, nftcr iinprognntion, tlioy nro prnsHcd into tlic cellules, wliieli nrc nt tliiit jteriod
(ipeii for tlieir re('e|iti(iii, uml iifterwanls elose over them ; thus retainiiij^ tliem till the
peiiiKl of their seeoiul Itirth, which hii|t|)ens in somewhat less than three mnnhs, wlie?i
they emerge from the baek of the parent in their complete state. This s|)eeies inluiltits
the oliseuro nooks of houses in Cayenne untl Surinam, avoitling the light of day as it"
conscious of its unrivaled hideousnesa.

A Brn/ilian tree-frog {Hylit crepitans), which adheres to the largo loaves, not merely
with its widened toes, l)ut with its constantly viscid body, has a voice whitili sounds
like the cracking of a largo piece of wood, and generally proceeds front many throats
at a time. On wamlering through the forest,s of Hrazil, Prince Maximilian of Neu
Wied was often surprised by this singular comiort issuing from the dark shades o' the
forest. A Surinam tree-frog ( tlyla micans) has the singular property of secreting a
luminous slime, so as to look in the dark like a yellowish will-o'-tho-wisp. Its voice
is most disagreeable, and is said at times completely to overpower the orchestra of tho
theatre in Paramaribo, thus emulating the stentorian achievements of the Virginian
bullfrog.

Wallace describes a Flying Frog, of which he discovered a single specimen in tho
I.sliind of liorneo. It was brought to him by a Chinese workman, who declared that
he liad seen it coming down in a slanting directi(m from tho top of a higli tree as it
flew. Its toes were long, and fully webbed to tho very extremities, so that when
expanded they offered a surface much larger than tho body. As the toes had dilated
discs for adhesion, showing the creature to be a true tree-frog, it is difficult to imagine
tliat this immense mend)rane of the toes, occupying in all twelve si|uarc inches, could
he for tho purpose of swimming only, which rendered tho Chinaman's account cred-
ible. Wallace believes this to be tho first instance known of a flying frog. The pic-
ture which he gives of this creature is very remarkable. One can get u fair idea of
it by imagining an ordinary frog, with a largo expanded fan attached to each of tho
four limbs.

Mr. Darwin thus describes a remarkable species of toad ho noticed at linhin.
" Amonpst tho Uatracliian reptiles, I found only one little toad, which was most sin-
gular from its color. If we imagine, first, that it had been steeped in tho blackest
ink, auJ then, when dry, allowed to crawl over a board freshly painted with the bright-
est vermilion, so as to color the sides of its feet and parts of its stomach, a good idea
of its appearance will bo gained. If it is an unnamed species, surely it ought to bo
called diuhoUcus, for it is a fit toad to preacli in tho ear of Eve. Instead of being
nocturnal in its habits as other toads are, and living in damp and obscure recesses, it
crawls during tho heat of the day about the dry sand hillocks and arid plains, where
not a single drop of water can be found. It must necessarily depend on the dew for
its moisture, and this probably is absorbed by the skin, for it is known that these rep-
tiles possess great powers of cutaneous absorption. At Maldonado I found one in a
situation nearly as dry as at Bahia IJlanca, and, thinking to give it a great treat, car-
ried it to a pool of water ; not only was the little animal unable to swim, but I think
without help would soon have boon drowned."

The giant-toad {Bii/o giyas, (u/ua), fre((uents the Brazilian camjios in such numbers
that in tho evening or after a shower of rain, when they come forth from their hiding-
places to regale on tho damp and murky atmosphere, the earth seems literally to .swarm

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with tli(!ni. Tlicy iiro iloublo tlie sizo of our comtnon toatl, nnd iiro ovon wiid to attain,
with tlii'ir outstrt'lchud hind Iv^n, a foot'H length, with a i)r(i|iurtioiiut(! girtli. ('ovcnd
with iinsi;flit!y warts, and of a dull gray tiolor, tlnnr asjiuct is ri!|iul»ivi', and wlicii
(!.\cil('d, they eject a liijuid whieh i.s very uiueii f(;arud by tho natives. Their voire is
loud nnd disagreeahlo, while (Juinea posseasos, in the Jirerieejis (/ibbusui, a small tuad
whieh is said to hIii;; delightfully, "charming the swamps with their melodious notes."

There is a very renuirkaldo burrowing erustaeean called tho l{ol)l)er ('rah, ( I'lero
">H0, ) IJirgus latri. The liobber Crab inhabits tho islands of the Indian Oeeiin, and
is fine of those cru.'tneea whieh arc able to exist for a long time without vi>iting the
water, the gills being kept moist by means of a reservoir on each side of the ceplialn.
thora.\, in whieh the organs of respiration lie. Only <meo in twenty-four hours dues
this remarkable crab visit the ocean, and in all probability enters the water for the
jiurpo.sc of receiving tho supply whieh preserves the gills in working order. While
walking, it presents a curious aspect, being lifted nearly a foot above tho ground on
its two central pairs of legs; and if it bo intercepted in its retreat, it brandishes its
fornudablo weapons, clattering them loudly, and always keeping its face towards the
enemy. The food of tho Robber Crab is of a very peculiar nature, consisting chielly,
if not entirely, of tho cocoa-nut. According to Mr. Darwin, tho crab seizes upon the
fallen cocoa-nuts, and with its enormous pincers tears away tho outer covering, reducing
it to a mass of raveled threads. When tho crab has freed the nut from the husk, it
introduces the small end of a claw into one of tho little holes which arc found at one
end of tho cocoa nut, and by turning the claw backward and forward, as if it were a
brad-awl, the crab contrives to scoop out tho soft substance of tho nut.

According to the observations of Messrs. Tyerman and Bennett, the well-known
missionaries to the South Seas, the Rubber Crab has another method of getting at the
cocoa-nut, and displays an in.stinctive knowledge of political economy whieh is very
remarkable. " These animals live under tho cocoa-nut trees, and subsist upon t!io
fruit which they find upon the ground. With their powerful fret claws they tear ofl'
(he fibrous husk ; afterward, in.serting one of the sharp points of the .same into a lidle
tit the end of tho nut, they boat it with violence against a stone until it cracks ; the
fhell is then easily pulled to pieces, and the precious fruit within devoured at leisure."
Wo aro informed that if the long and delicate antennae of these robust creatures he
tou(!hed with oil, they instantly dio.

They are not found on any of those islands except tho small coral ones, of whiili
they arc tho principal occupants. The people here account them " delicious food."' Mr.
Darwin mentions that, in the Siiychelles and elsewhere, there is a species whieh is in
the habit of hu-sking the nuts on the ground and then tapping one of the eyes with its
great claw, in order to reach the kernel. Its congener hero ascends the cuina-
nut trees, end having thrown down the nuts, husks them on the ground ; this opeia-
tion performed, again ascends with the nuts, which he throws down, generally break ■
ing them at the first attempt, but if not succes.sful, repeating it till the object isattaineii.

"The female differs from tho male in having three flippers, well furni.shed with strong'
borers, on the right side of the sac." When full grown, this crab is more than twn
feet in length, and as may be seen by the illustration, is stoutly made in proportmn to
its length. The color of the creature is very palo brown, with a decided tinge of
yellow.

ALLKiATOUS AND CROCODILES.

uao

CHAPTER XI.

ALT.IGATORS— CIIOCODILKS— TOUTOISES AND TI'RTLES.

Alli:iiilnn and CrtmMis: TliiMr Habits — raynien, (laviiils ami Crofodilcs — Mo.!" of Si>izir,){
tln'ir I'roy — Size ot' AlligatorM — AiliKalorH on tlii; Aniu/on — Allipitor iinil Craiie— Man-
Katiii),' Alliciitors — T'lcir t'oiitosts — Tciiairity of I<ifo — Laving; tliclr Kut,'!' — 'IVnilcrncHM for
tiiL'ir Yoiinn — Tlii'ir KiU'iiiit's — Torpidity in the Dry Season — "I'layintf 'I'omsiiiii." — Tor-
toisemmd Turlivs : Tlie (jalapaKo Islaiuin — Tlie Klepliantiiic Tortoise — Hate of Traveling —
Marsli Tortoises — MaDiifaetiiru of Tortoise Oil — 'I'arlle.s on tlie Amazon — Si'a-Turtles —
Tiieir Knetnies — Modes of f'aptnriiif; 'I'lirties — Tiie Clreen Turtle — The llawksliill Turtle
— Uarbarou!) Modes uf Ucnioving the Shell, and Selling the Meat — The Coriaeeons Turtle.

THERE was a titnc, long licforo man appeared upon tlio socno, when Inigo crnco-
(liles swarinod in tlio rivers of the temperate zone. But tlie day when tho
furoeiouH, bonc-harnesseJ Saurians lorded it iii tiiesc streams has passed, never to
return ; tho diminished warmth of what arc now tho tomperato regions of the glolw
having long since confined them to tho largo rivers and lagunes of tho torrid zone.
Tlie scourge and terror of all that lives in tho waters which they fre(|uent, they may
with full justice be called tho very images of depravity, as jierhaps no animals in
existence bear in their countenance more decided marks of cruelty and malice. Tho
depressed head, so significant of a low cerebral ilevelopmcnt; the vast maw, garnished
with formidable rows of conical teeth, entirely made for snatch and swallow ; tiio
elongated mud-tolorcd body, with its long lizard-like tail, resting on short legs, stamp
tliein with a peculiar frightfulne.ss, and proclaim the baseness of their instincts. Tho
short-snouted, broad-headed Alligators, or Caymen, belong to tho New World ; the
Gavials, distinguished by their straight, long, and narrow jaw, are exclusively Indian ;
while the oblong-headed Crocodiles are not fudy found in Africa and Asia, but likt?-
wiso infest the swamps and rivers of America. All these animals, however, thougli
(litl'erent, in form and name, have everywhere similar habits and manners ; so that, in
general, what is remarked of the one may be applied to tho others.

Awkward and slow in their movements on tho land, they are very active in tho
water, darting along with great rapidity by means of their strong muscular tail and
their webbed hind feet. They sometimes bask in the sunlieams on tho banks of the
rivers, but oftener float on tho surface, where, concealing their head and feet, they
np])ear like tho rough trunk of a tree, both in shape and color, and thus are enabled
the more easily to deceive and catch their prey. In America, many a slow-paced
('iipybara, or Water pig. coming in tho dusk of evening to slake its thirst in the
lii,!;;une, has boon suddenly seized by this insidious foe ; and the Gangetic Gavial is
said to make even the tiger his prey. When the latter (juits the thick cover of tho
jungle to driuk at tho stream, the Gavial, concealed under water, steals along tho

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liiiiik, nnd, omldciily fiiiiTj^inp;, furiously iiffiickM tlin tijjcr, wIki iiovcr lifelines the
I'liniliiit ; nml tlmu^li in tliu Htru^^li! tlu; (iaviiil freijiiently Kmes liin eyes iiml I'ii'i'Im'^
•IreailCul Wdumls <iu the hciul, ho at Icnfjth drugs his advcrsury iiitu the water, .iihI
th(>rt' ileMiiii's him.

Oh the American streams, llio HtillncsH of tlio nij»ht l« often interrujited hy the
clacking of tliu alligat<ir's teeth, and the lasiiing of his tail upon tliu waters. 'I'lu'
singular and awful sound of his voice can al.^i readily Ih; distinguished friiiu th.u
of all till! other lieasts of the wildt!rm!ss. It is like a su|t|ire,s,sed sigh, hurstiiii' tintli
all of a sudden, and so loud as lo lio heard uliove a mile off. First, one emits this
Imrrilih! tioise ; then another atiswors liiui ; and far and wide the re|ietiiiiin of tlie
Kound |iroclaiuis that the alligators are awake.

As in the ease of snakes, the size to which alligators and crocodiles attain is gri.:.>ly
exaggerated. Thorpe was gravely a.ssured l»y a gentleman, " not given to liig storic,"
that he once saw an alligator whose jaw.s opened at least live feet ; and another jzinili-
nian, and a roiigressman to lifmt, persisted that ho once shot in the Hay of Pascniriiiiin
an alligator twenty one feet long. But a planter of a scientific turn of mind, residing in
the noted alligator region of the Red River in Arkan.«as for years, made a standing ntlir
of a iiundred dollars for an alligator dead or alive, of more than twtdvc feet in length.
It is proliahic that since the introduction of .steamers upon tho Mississippi, niul lis
lower tributaries, that tho alligator finds so many enemioH that ho is cut oil' lu'tiui'
reaching his full stature ; for Audubon expressly aftirms that he .saw one w
judged to be .some centuries ohl, who measured seventeen feet in length. In his tin
these monsters must liavo had a jolly time of it in tho Red River, where he often siw
liundreds of them at once, the smaller ones riding on tho Icicks of the larger, nml till
of them groaning and bellowing like so many mad bulls loady for a light, and sn ut-
terly indifferent to the presence of nuin that, unless shot at, they would take no nulire
of a boat at a few yards' distance.

South America is yet a secure lionio of tho alligator, where undisturbed by inim
lie attains his full size. Orton in a.scending tho viver Guayas on the western cnnst,
says that* " tho chief repro.-iontativc of ani.iial life is the lazy, ugly alligator, li.u'i,'!;
numbers of the.^o monsters may bo seen on the mud-bank ba.xking in the hut sun, or
asleep with their mouths wide open. Hut upon tho Amazon they bear the pnini t'ur
ugliness, size, and strength. In the sunnner the main river swarms with thuni ; in
the wet season they retreat to the interior lakes and forests. About Obidos wliiro
many of the pools dry up in the fine month.*, the alligator buries itself in the ininl,
and sleeps till the rainy .season returns. It is scarcely exaggerating to say that tin;
waters of tho Solinioons arc as well stocked with large alligators in the dry seasmi as
n ditch with us is with tadpcdes in the summer. There are three or four species in
the Amazon. The largest, the Jncari iimsu of the natives, attains a length <if twenty
feet. Sluggish on land, the alligator is very agile in its native element. It nevir
attacks man when on his guard, but is cunning enough to know when it may do this
with safety. It lays its eggs, abnut twenty, at some distance from the river Imnl;,
covering them with sticks. They are about four inches long, of an elliptical >li:i|ii'.
with a rough calcareous shell. Negro venders sell tlioni cooked in the streets ot
Parii."

•Tlie AnJes and tlie Amazon, 35, 29C

ALLKJATOIl'S MODK OF Si;iZIN(; ITS I'UKV.

():I7

Thnrpo givos nn nccniint of tlio alli;];ttt(ir'H nu'tluiil of Hfcuring his proy :* '* Tlin
tnil of lliu ulli;^ator is JiiH moxt ctlicictit woiipon of dcfuiiiiu and uttiirk. If <iii<< mii
kfi |) out of its way, coiiiparativfly little liarm may lie t-xpt'ctcii. If any animal that
lie Hi'i'ks for liis prey is standinj; upon llif cil;;!! of tins wattT. tliii reptile will laku itH
licaring and swim noisolessly toward tlie slioro, ocicasiuiially brinjiiii!^ an eyo to tlio
Mirfaco for rcconnoissanco, then sudduidy rising williin striking; distance will whirl
nmnd liis tail with li;;htnin;; rapidity, anil j;enerally lirini^ the vietim into his Jaws,
I was tishiti^ on <me occasion upon the Hayou Sara, a wild, desolati* stream, and uii
die oppiisitu hank I noticed u tall crano which for half an hour had hecn standin;^
perfectly still and half-leg (loop in tho water, either reflecting upon thu nuilahility of
uniilliological atiairs, or watching for ndnnows. My attention was also arrested liy the
apparent phenomenon of a lind* of a tree taking ii|M)n itstlf motion, and cauliously
moving down the hunk of the hayou toward the crane. The alligator — for such it
•las — liy a strange siihdong motion, gradually reached his jircy, hut seemed in no
liaste to seize it. For a long while he appeared to he sleeping on the hank ; when
suddenly he contracted hims(df into ii halfcinde around the bird, opened his jaws,
and drove the liird into them with u torrihiu certainty, and then with u ninddu spring
disappeared beneath thu muddy eurrent."

AI.I.tilATOU AVn CRANE.

Tho statement of Orton, that alligators rarely attack man. is hanlly liorno out by
oiiier authorities. Indeed it is said that as in tho case of tho lion, when they have
onrc tasted human flesh they prefer it to that of any other animal. T)uring Ilum-
holdt's stay at Ango.stura, a monstrous Cayman .'iei/.ed an Indian by tho leg while he
was busy pushing his boat ashore in a shallow lagnne, and immediately dnigged him
dcwn into the deeper water. The cries of tho unfortunate victim soon attracted a
large number of spectators, who witnessed tho astonishing courage with which ho

• Hurler's Magazine, l)ecenil)er, 1854.

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TIIF, TIloriCAL WOULD.

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8oarfliod in liis pockot fur a. knifo. Not finding tlio woapnn, lio tlicn seized the rrntile
liy the hcail, ami presseil his tinj^jers into its eyes — a metliod wliieii saved Mine.'o
Park's nej»r(t IVuin a siinihir fate. In this ease, however, the monster did not h-t nn
hit* Imhl, hilt disapjiearinir under the snrfaee with the Indian, eainu up a;rnin with him
an wion as lie was drowned, and dra;r,!:"'d the liodv to a neij>;hl)orinf; ishind. " Oiui
Sunday I'vciiinfr," says Waterton, " as I was walkini^ with Don Felipe dc Yriartc, (iov-
ciiior of Angostura, on the hank of the Orinoco — ' Stop here a minute or two,' s.iiil
he to me, 'while I recount a sad at'cident. One (ine eveninj];, last year, as flu; pcniil,.
of Anjjostura were sjiunti'ring up and down in the Alameda, I was within twciitv
yards of this place, when I saw a larj^e (!ayinan rush out of the river, seize a inan,
and carry jiim down, hefon; anybody had it in his power to assist him. The scicaiiis
of the p(K)r felloiv were terrihle, as the Cayman was running off with iiim. He plunged
into the river with his prey ; we instantly lost sight of him, and never saw or IkmhI
Iiim more." " Ilumlioldt also relates teat, during the inundations of the OiiniMn, alli-
gat'Ts will sometimes make their appearance in tiio very streets of Angostura, whero
they have lieen known to attack and drag away a human J)rey.

Kven among each other, these ferocious animals fre(|uently engage in deadly coii-
llict. Thus Schomliiirgk once saw a prodigiously larg(; Cayman seize oiie i>i a
smaller specii.'s liy the middle of the hody, so tligt the htatl and tail projected mi Imili
sides of its muzzle. Now l>oth of them disappeared under the surface, so that only
the agitated waters of the otherwise calm river announced the death-struggle goiiiir on
liciieatli ; and then again the monsters reappeared, wildly beating the snrfaee ; sn tliat
ii was hardly possible to distinguish hero a tail, or there a monstrous iicad. in tlie
sc( thing whirlpool. At length, however, the tumult subsided, and the large (!aynian
was seen leisundy swimming to a sand-bank, where he immediately began to feeil
upon his prey.

The same traveler relates an interesting example of the Cayman's tenacity of life.
One of them having been wounded with a strong harpoon, was dragged upon a sand-
bank, llcn^ the rays of the sun sei'ined to infuse new life into the monster, for,
awaking from his death like torpidity, he siiddt iily snapped about him with such rag(!
that Sehomburgk and his assistants thought it prudent to retreat to a safer ilistaiue.
Scizi'ig a long pole, the bravest of the Indians now went towards the Cayman, who
awaited the attack with wide-extended jaws, and plunged the stake deep into his maw
— a morsel whicli the brute did not seem to relish. Meanwhile two other Indians
approached him from behind, and kept .striking him with thick clubs upon the extrem-
ity of the fail. At every blow n|M)n this sensitive part, the monster bounded in ilie
air and extended his frightful jaws, which were iiacli time immciliately regaled with a
fresh thrust of the pole. After a long and furious battle, the Cayman, wiio ineasiireil
twelve feet in length, was at last slain. Another remarkable instance of tlic vi'MJiiy
of the eomnion croeodile is mentioned l)y Sir K. TcMinent. A gentleman at <i:ilie
having caught on a baited hook an unusually large one, it was disenibowellcd by his
coolies, file aperture in tli stoinach being h-f' expanded by ii stick placed across it.
On retiiniing, in the af.rnoon, witti a view to ,«ccure the head, they found tliil the
creature hail crawled for some distance, ami made its escape into the water.

]..ike the sea turtles, the crocodih's generally deposit their eggs, wliieli ore aliout ilie
size of thoec of a goo.xc, nud covered wiiii a calcareous tshell, in holes made Id the

ENKMIKS OF TIIK ALMOATOll.

U:i0

sand, leaving them to ho Imtchod by tho warm rays of tlio tropical sun. In some parts
of America, however, they have hticii ohsiTved to resort to a more iii;;;enious metlmil,
denoting a degree of provident instinct which could hardly have Ikm-u expected in a
eoldbloo<led reptile, liaising a small liiliock on the hanks of the river, an I hollowing
it out in the middle, they collect a (|uantity of leaves ami otlicr vegetable matters, i;i
whicli they deposit their eggs. These are covered with the le.iv(!s, and are hatclieil
liy the heat extricated during their putrefactidu, along witii that of the atmosphere.

The female (dayman continues for .some time after their birth to watch over her
young with great care. One day, as Sehomburgk, accompanied l)y an Indian, was
llU^y fishing on the banks of the Ks.sei(uilMi, he suddenly heard in the water a strange
noise, resendiling the mewing of young cats. Witii eager curiosity he climbed along
tlu! trunk of a tree overhanging the river, alH)Ut three feet al»ove the water, and saw
beneath him a brood of young alligators, al)out a foot and a half long. On his .seizing
and lifting oiu! of thcni out of tlie wat(T, the mother, a creature of prodigious size, sud-
(lenly emerged with an appallitig roar, making desperate efforts to reach her wriggling
and screeciiiiig ofrs|)ring, and increasing in rage every time Schond)urgk tantalized her
by holding ii out to her. Having Itccu wounded with an arrow, she : .tired for a few
moments, and then again returned with redoul)led fury, lashing the waters into foam b^
the repeated strokes other tail. Sehomburgk now cautiously retreated, as in case of .
fall into the water below, he would have had but little rea.sm to expect a friendly rcr
ceplion, the monster pertinaciously following him to the bank, but not deeming it ad-
visable to land, as hero it seemed to feel its helplessnes.s. The wales of the captured
young one were (piite soft and [ liable, as it was oidy a few days (dd, Itut it already had
tiie peculiar mu.sk-like smell whi'jli characterizes the full-grown reptile'.

The young of the crocodiles have no less numerous enemies than those f)f the
.>.nakes. Many an egg is destroyed in the hot .sand by small carnivora, or birds, before
it can be hatched; and as soon as the young creep out of the Itroki.-n shell, amt
instinctively move to the waters, the Ichneumon — a kind of weasel, to whom, on this
accimiit, the ancient Egyptians paid divin<! homage — or the !ong-h<j;ged Heron goiii^U,
up many of them, so that their span of life is .short indeed. In th^ water they are not
only the prey of varittus shar]i-toothed fishes, but even of the males of their o,\n spt;-
cies, while the females do all they can to jirotcct them. Even the full-grown crocodile,
ill spite of its bony harness, is i\ui exempt from attack. Thus, in tie. river of Tabasco,
a tort(>ise of the genus ^Vm/./ws, after having been swallowed by the alligator, luid,
thanks to its shelly ease, arriving unharmed in its stomach, is .said to have eaten its
way out again with its sharp lieak, thus putting the monster to a most e.veruciaiiii'j;
tiealli. Even man not only kills the hideous rejitiles in self-defence, or for tiie sake of
sport, but for the purpose of regaling upon their He«li. In the Siamese markets and
liiizaars, crocodiles, l.irge and small, may be seen hanging in the butehcrs' stalls instead
of mutton or lamb; and Captain Stokes, who more than once supped oil' ,allig:itors
steaks, informs us that the meat is by no means liad, ami has a white appearance like
veal.

1 have already mentioned, in the tihnpter on the Llanos, that in niiiny tropical coun-
tries the aridity of the dry .sca.son pmihiees a sin.ilar torpidity in n'ptile life to that
which is caused by the cold of winter ill tlie higlier latitudes. In ("eyloii. wlien the
water«<50ursoB begin to fail and the tankx become exhausted, the inarsli crocoililes are

H

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'.>!i's*'l

V ,<ii

640

TIIK TROPICAL WORLD.

Homotinios cnontintorod wanderiiij^ in search of water in tlio jiinj^lc ; liut ficncnillv,
(liiriiii!; till' cxtruinii droiij^lit, tlicy liury tlicinsi'lves in tlio wind wliuie tlii-y riMnaiii in u
Htato <it' t<iriu)r, till reKjased liy iIk- rc'ctirnjru'e t)f tlie rains. Sir EincrMin Tcniniii,
wliilst ridin|r acros.s the parclicd lied of a tank, was shown tho recess, .still lieuriiijr tlu!
form and iinprcss of the eruuodih', ont of which the animal liad liecn .seen to cnicri^c
the day licfore. A story was also related to him of an otli(;cr who, liaviu;; |iitclictl lijs
tent in a sii.iilar jiosition, had licen distnrlied during; tho iii^ht hy feclinjr a niovciiicni
of tho earth below his Ixul. from which, on the following day, a crocodile eiiui';;i'.|,
making its a|i|iearance from beneath the mattint;.

Jiike many other of the Iowct animals, the cro<!odilo, when surprised, endeavors td
;-ave itself by feigning ileath. Sir Knicrson Tcnnent relates an aniusin;;; anicilnic
of one that was found sWjiiiiir several hundred yards from the water. "The tctrnr
of the poor wretch was extreme when ho awoke and found himself discovered ainl
completely surroundeil. lie was a hideous creature, upwards of ten feet l<#iij, ami
evidently of prodigious .strength, had he been in a condition to exert it ; but cousicrn;!-
ti(m completely paralyzed him. lie started to liis foot, and tunied ntund in a < inlc,
hissing and clacking his bony jaws, with his ugly green eye intently lixcd upon us.
On being struck, he lay perfectly (|uiet and apparently dead. I're.senily he Inukcij
round cunningly, nod made a rush towards tho water; but on a second bluw lie lny
again motionless, and feigning death. We tried to rouse him, but without dice t ;
pulled his tail, slapped his hack, strucrk his hard wales, and teased l.im in every \v,iy,
but all in vuiii. Nothinir vould induce him to move, till, acciilentally, my .son, a Imy
of twelve years old, tickled him gently under the arm, and in an instaiif he drew ii
close to his side, and turned to avoid a repetition of the experiment. Auaiii lie was
touched under the other arm. and the same cmotioti was exhibited, the gicai iiionstir
twisting about like an infant to avoid being tickled."

In till! South Sea, exposed to the vertical beanis of tho crpiatori.al siui, lies , ImMrc
group of uninhabited islands, on whose sterih? shores you would look in vain t'nr i!ii'
palms, bananas, or bread-fruit trees of nicire favored lands, as rain falls mily c.|inii
th(! bights, and never de.s-ends to call forth plenty on the ari<l coasts. Ami yd tlii-
desolate group ofl'ers many points of interest to the mituralist, for the (Jalapagcis m-
Tortdise Islands represent, as it wen;, a little world in themselves, a peculiar cn'.iliin
of animals and plants, rcmiinling us, more strongly than the productions of any otiii i-
land, of an carlii'r epoch of planetary life. Hero are no less than twenty-six diircrciii
species of land-birds, wiii'ih, n-ith one single exceptiim, are found iinwiicre rise.
'I'heir plumage is homely, like the llora of their native country ; their taiiniicss vi
great that they may be killed with a stick. A sea-mew, likewise jiccuiiar tn llii-
group, mixes its .shriek with the hoarse-resounding surge ; li/ards, existing in nn "tin i-
country, swarm about the shore ; and tho gigantii- land-tortoise ( Tvslinfo iinilcn,
tifphaiilinu), iilthough now spread over many other countries, is supposed by Mr
I>arwin to have had its original seat in the (.ialapagos, where it was formerly (oiiihl
in such vast numbers as to have given the group its Spanish name. If the seiit'imr
visits these treeless shores, which as yet jtrodnre nothing else worth gathering, ii i-
cliiclly for the |iurpose of catching a few of these huge animals, wiiich. in spite of
frciiuent persecutions, still amply reward a short sojourn with a rieii supply ot licsli

TUUTLES ON THK AMAZON.

U41

meat. Their cupturo costs nothing but the trouble, for man has not yet drawn the
boundary marks of property over the tenuntle.ss land. Tiio elephantine tortoise
inhabit.s as well the low and sterile countr',', where it feeds on the tlesliy leaves of iho
cactus, as the niountainous regions where the moist trade-wind calls forth a richer
vegetation of ferns, grasses, and various trees. On this ninagre food, which seems
hardly suflicient for a goat, it thrives so well that three men arc often scarcely able to
lift it, and it not seldom furnishes more than 21)0 jmund.i of excellent moat.

The tortoises, when moving towarus any definite point, travel by night and iliy,
and arrive at their journey's end niucli .sooner tiian would be expected. The inliabi;-
ants, from observations on marked individuals, consider that they can move a disl nice
of about eight miles in two or three day.'s. One large tortoise, which I watohed,
I found walked at the rate of sixty yards, in ten minutes, tliat is, tliree liundre ! and
sixty in the hour, or four miles a day, allowing also a little time for it to eat on the
road. The flesh of thi.s animal is largely employed, both fre.sli and salted, and a beau-
tifully clear oil is prepared from the fat. When a tortoise is caught, the man makes a
slit in the skin near its tail, so ns to see inside its body, whether the fat under the dor-
sal |)late is thick. If it is not, the animal is liberated, and it is said to recover soon
f om this strange operatiop.

The marsh tortoi.ses, or J^niydnK, hn\o their chief scat in trop cal America and the
Indian Archipelago, where an al)undanco of swamps, lagoons, lakes, puols, an I gently-
flowing rivers favors the incrca.se of their numbers. They play an important jiart in
the domestic economy of the Indians along the great streams of the New World, the
deep rolling Orinoco or the thou.sand-armed Amazon. During the dry season, all
the neighboring trilws are busy collecting the countless eggs which the cold-blooiled
creatures confide to the life-awakening j)owers of the heated sands: partly for their,
own consumption, and partly for the manufacture of oil. According to Ilerndon* from
five to six thousand jars of mantega, or tortoise-oil are annually gathered on tiie banks
of the Maninon. Each animal furnishes on an average eighty eggs, and forty tortoiics
are reckoned for each jar, whii^h contains forty -five pounds, and is worth about six siiil-
lings on the spot. The manufacturing process, which is carried on in a most primitive
manner, exhales an insupportable stench. The eggs, namely, are thrown into a boat,
and trodden to pieces with the feet. The shells having been removed, the rest is left
for sevenil days to putrefy in the sun. The oil which collects on the surface of the de-
composing mass is then skimmc<l olF, and boilcil in largo kettles. Tire neighboring
strand swarms with carrion vultures, and the smell of the oftal attracts a number of
alligators, all hoping to come in for their share of the fea.>^t.

■'Turtles," says Orton.f "are perhaps the nio.st important product of the Amazon.
The largest and most abundant species is the Tortaruga grande. It measures, when
full grown, nearly three feet in length and two in breadth. Every house has a little
|iond in tiie back yard to hold a stock of turtles in the wet season. It furnishes tho
licst meat on the Upper Amazon. We found it very tender, palatable, and wholesome :
tlios«' who are obliged to live on it for yeans, however, say that it is very cloying. Every
part of the creature is turned to account. The entrails are made into soup ; sausages
;iro made of the stomach ; t.teaks arc cut from the breast, and the rest is roasted in tho
•shell. The turtle lays its eggs, generally between midnight and dawn, on tho central

*Kxplorution of tlie Vullev of the Amazon. tTlie Andes ami the Amazon, 2U7.

41 "

».'

H\

•^t>

■•|nt

i I
: I

642

TFir, TijoricAF. wour.i).

I oil

If

and highest jmrtof the islets in flx! river, (ir alioiit a hiindnMl foot from fho shdn;. 'J'lir
Indiana Kay it will lay only where itscL' was hateliiMl out. Witli its hind fli|i|)crs it ilii's
a hole two or three feet deep, and de|)')sils in it from ei<;hty to one Inimlre! and sixty
egjTs. These are covered witli sanii, and the next comer niaiu'S another deiKisJ
the top, and so on until tiie pit is full. The Indians are ver^ e.\|M'rt in (indiuL,' t
nests, (luiiled ap[iroxinia'ei'y iiy tlie tracks of tiie turtle, tiiey thrust a stick inio tin-
Knnd, and whenever it gocf* down easily t^iey commence digging with their hands, and
invarialily strike eggs, Tiie turtles are cauglit for the table ha they return to tli(; rivi-r
after laying their eggs. To .secure them it suiriees to turn tluMn over on tiieir lnu-ks.
Tin.' turtles certainly have a hard time of it. Alligators and large fishes swallow the
young ones by hundreds ; jaguars jH)unco ui>on tlie full grown ones as they crawl over
the pir.ins, and vultures and ibises attend the I'ms t. IJut man is their most fi.riniilalilc
foe. The de.st.Miction of turtle life on the Amazon is ineredibh?. It is calculated tli;it
fifty millions of iggs are annually destroyed. Thousands of those that (iscape captin-e
in flic egg are collii^ted as soon as hatched, ami devoured ; tiie remains of the yolk in
their entrails being coi:si lercid a gn.-at delicacy. An unknown tiuniber of fuUgrnwn
furtl«!S arc (.'ateti by flu? naiives on the banks, while every stoaHicr, sfriiooner and canoe
that de.sc(Mids the .\mazon is ladv::: wilJi turtles for the tabbis of Manuos, Haiifunin,
and Pun'i. ^Vhen w • consider also that all the mature turtles that arc taken an-
females, we wondc r that the race is not well-nigh extinct. Tliey an; in fact rapidly
decreasing in numliers. \ large turtle which tw<!nty years ago eouM be bought fur
fifty cents, n;)W commands tliree dollirs. One would supjxise that the males beiii;^
unmolested, would far outnuml)cr the other sex ; but they are in fact iininer;sely less
numerous than tlu; females."

The iiiarsh-tortoiscs ni;iy be said ff) form the connecting link between tho eniiiieiiily
aquatic marine, and river cheloiiians and t'le land-tortoises, as tho formation of their
feet, armed with sharp claws or er(M)kcd ii.!!;, ami furnished with a kind of tiexible
web, connecting their distinct ami movable toes, allows them lioth to ailvanee muih
quii'kcr on the dry land than tlu? Iatt(T, and to swim ra|»idly either on flu; surface ur in
tlu; dejith of the waters. Ac(Mirding to the mon; or less terrestrial habits of tlie vari-
ous speeies, the feet are more or less webbed, for in those that habitually remain on tlic
banks of the lajjcions, the connectinj' membrane is contined to the basis of the toes, wliilc
in others, that but rarely couk! on :ih<iro, it sometimes roaches t() the extremity of liic
<daws, jinothcr beautil'iil example of the foresight of the Almighty in adapting orgniiic
structure to tlie wants of His creatures. The marsh-tortoi.ses, being endowed wiiii

more rapiil power of 1 motion, are not vegetarians lik(! the; land-tortoises, but chietiy

live on mollusks, fislu's, frogs, toads, ami ani;clidcs. Alth iiigh the eggs are palatable,
file flesh is generally too coarse even for tho craving apjx'titc! of an Indian.

Sea turtles difftT in many respects from those of the rivers. During the Bra/iliau
summer (December, January, Keliruary), colossal turtles an; .soon everywhere swim-
ming about along the coast, raising tlieir thick rouml hcails .above the water, ami wait-
ing for the approach of night to land. Tho iicighlioring Indians are their biltere-t
en niies, killing them wlicncver they can. Thus these dreary sand coasts, bnuiidcd "U
one .side by the ocean and on the other by glotimy primeval forests, offer on all sides
pictures of destruction, for the bones and shells of slaughtered turtles everywhere be-
Hirew the ground. Two parallel groovoB indicate the path of tho turtle td'ter landing;

MOnivS OF CATCIlIXr, TrUTLES.

G43

tlii'y arc tlic iiiiirk.s (if tlic four larijjc find ioiij^; fin sliMpcil feet or i)ii<lill('s, and botwoon
llicm may Iks wjcn a liroad hirniw wlu^ro tin; li<'avy Imdy trailed alniij^ tiio ^^miind. On
t'liiliiwini; lliL'se traces alKtiit thirty or lorty yards HJiorc-upwards, t!i(! iiiigi! animal may \m
found sittini; in a tiat excavation formed iiy lis circular niovemeiits, and in wliicli one-
li;df of its liody is imlx'diled. Tt allows it>elf to lie liandleil on all sidtis without
niakinj^ tlio least attempt to move away, lieinj; prolialily tau<;lit liy instinct how useless
all endeavors to escape woulil be, A blowing or siiortinn; like that of a goose wlieii
any one approaches its nest, at the same time inflating its neck a little, arc the sole
signs of defence which it exhibits. Similar sct^nes taki' ]ihic(' during the dry season,
tluoughout the whole of the tropical zone, on every sandy, unfVetiuented coast : for the
same instinct which prcinipts the salmon to swim stream-upwards, the cod to seek eleva-
ted submarine banks, or tlie penguin to leave the high S(!as and settle for the sum-
mer on some dreary rock, attracts also llu* turtles from distances of fifty or nixty
leagues to the shores of desert islands or solitary bays.

The eiu-mies of the marine chelonians arc no less nu'uernu.s than those of thv. terres-
trial or Huviatile S[)ecieH. While the full-grown turtles, .-is soon ;h they leav<' the
wiitcr, arc ex|Miscd to the ;ittacks of many ravenous beasts, from the wild dog to the
tiger or jj'guar, storks, herons, and other strand or .sea-birds devour tlious;inds \ipoi!
ihousiuuls <if the young before they reach the ocean, where sharks and other greedy
(ishes still further thin their ranks, , so that liut very few cs(!ape from the general massa-
cie, and thii whole nice i-an only maint:iin itself by its great feinindily.

Of all the foes of the turtle trilie there is, however, none more formidable than
man, as even on the most lonely islands the seafarer lies in wait, eager to relievt; tlie
mmiotony of his coar.st; faro by an abundant supply of their lu.scious flesh. On the
Isle of Ascension, the bead-t|uarters of the finest turtle in the world, all the move-
ments of the poor creatures are <'iirefully watched, and when, afttT having dcposilt.-d
their eggs in tlie sand, they waddle again towards the sea, their retreat is often inter-
<cplc<l, for tw<» stout men rnuiiing \ip to the unfort\inate turtle after the completion
of her task, one seizes a fore flipper and ilexterously .shoves it under her belly, to .■« rve
,.s a purcha.M! ; whilst the other, avoiding ii stroke which nught lame him, cants her
over on her back, where xlie lies helpless. From fifteen to thirty are thus turned in a
night. In the bays, wluui the surf or heavy njllers prevent the boats being b 'ached
to i;tk(^ on Iniard the turtles when caught, they are liauled out to them by ropes.

The way by which the turtles are nio.-^t commonly taken at the JJahatna Islands is
liy striking them with a small iron peg of two inches lo'ig, put in a sotikct at the end
of a staff' of twelve feet long. Two men usually sc out for this work in a canoe, one
lo row and gently steer the boat, wliili; thi; otlu^r stands at th.' end of it with his
we.'ipon. The turtles are .sometimes di.-^covered by their swimming with their head
'4iid back out of the wafer, but they are more often seen lying at the bottom, a fathom
'ir more deep. If a turtht perceives he is discovere<l, Ik- st.nrts np to make his c^cipe ;
the men in the boat, jmrsuing him, endeavor to keep sight of him, which they often
lose and recover again by the turtle puttir.g his nose out of the water to bre;ithe.

On Keeling Island, Mr. Darwin v.itnes.sed another highly interesting nu'thod of
iMtching turtle: "The channel was cxcccilingly intricate, winding through fields of
delieately-brnnehed corals. We ^r.rt several turtles, and two boats were then en.
ployed in caiL'ui::g liiem. The method is rather curious ; the water is so (dear ami

Hi

1 ¥:ii

044

TIIK TKoriCAI. WOULD.

sliiiUow tliat, iililiough at first ii turtle ijuickly dived out of sight, yot in a canoo, or
boat under sail, tlie j)ursuers, after no very long chase, eonio up to it. A man, .stand-
ing ready in the hows, at this moment dashes Ihiough the water upon the turtle's
hack ; then clinging with lioth hands hy tho sh(dl of the neck, lie Is carried away till
the animal hecome.s exhausted and is .-ecurcd. It was ((uitn an interesting chase to
SCO tho two hoats thu.s doubling about, and tlio men du.shing into the water trying (o
seize their prey."

The Green turtle (C/ielonid nii'das), which ha.s been known to attain a length of
seven feet, and a weiglit of '.•<•<) l!is , is nio.st prized for its flesh ; but tho Ilawksliill
( ('hvhiniu imhrivdld), wliich h;irdly reaches one tiiird of tlie si/e, is of far greater coin-
mer(;ial value, tlio plates of its sliell being stronger tliii.'ker, and clearer tliMU tliosi; df
any other species. It is cauglit all over the tro.iical seas, but |trinci|)idiy near the
Moluccas, tho West Imlian and tho Fiji Islands, wlioro it is preserved in pens by the
chi(;fs, wiio have a barbarous way of removing tho valuable part of i\w shell from the
living animal. A l)urning brand is iicdd dose to tho outer siiell, until it curls up and
separates a little from tiiut beneath. Into the gap thus formi^d a small wooden weiltri;
is then in.serted, by which tho wliole is easily removed from tho back. When strippi d.
the animal is again put into th(! \w\\, where it has full time for the growth of a new
shell — fur lliough the uprratinn a]i|)ears to give great pain, it is not fatal.

A similar cruel method of remctving the tortoi>e's shell by heat is resorted to in
Ceylon ; but the mode in which tho flesh of the edible turtle is scdd piecemeal, wiiile
it is still alive, by t"ie iisiiermen of that island, is still more ■.epid>ive, and a disgrace
to the CVdonial (ioverinntsnt, wiiieli allows it to be openly practised. " The creatures,"
says Sir Emerson Tennent, "are to be seen in tho niarUet-plaeo undergoing tliis fright-
ful mutilation, tho plastron and its integuments having been previously removed, ami
the animal tlu'own on its buck, m) as to display all the motions of the; heart, viseer;i,
and lungs. A broad knife, from twelve to eighteiMi inches in longtli, is first inserteil
at tho loft side, and the women, wlio are generally tiie operators, introduce one hand
to scoop out tho blood, which oozes slowly. Tiio bhido h next passoil round till tlie
lower shell is dijtaeheil and plaetd to onu side, and tho internal organs e.\pi)sed in full
action. Ivicli (nistoiner, a-? he applies, is siirve I with any p;irt selected, wliieli is cut
off as ordered, and sidd by weight. Kaeh of the fins is thus successively removed,
with portions of the fat and flesh, tho turtle showing by its contortions that each ad
of severance is prodiii-tive of ag<iny. In this state it lies for hours writhing in the
sun, the heart and head being lu lally tho last jiieces selected ; an<l till the latter is
cut off, the .snapjiiiig of tho mouth, and the opening and closing of the eyes, .show that
life is still inherent, even when the .shell has been nearly divested of its contents."

The v!oriaceous turtl(> (Sp/mn/is rori'areii), of a more elongated form than the other
species, and whose outer covering, marked along its whole length by seven distinct,
prominent, and tubereiihited ridges, is not of a homy substance, but resembles strong
leather, grows to the greatest size of all tho marine chelonians, some having been taken
above eight feet in length, aid weighing no less than 1,<')(I() lbs., so that evc'i the
crocodile can hardly be compai-ed to it in bulk. While the land-t(-rtoises can .scarcely
bo .said to have a voii e. merely hissing or blowing when irritated or seized, the coiw-
ceous turtle, when taken in a net or seriously wounded, utters loud shriek-' or cries
which may be heanl at a copsidorable distance.

BIRDS OF THE TllOl'ICAL >v'ORLI>.

(Ufi

CHAPTER XII.

BIRD-LIFE IN THE TROPICAL WORLD.

Piffi'Millics of tlic Siilijoct— Wide Rnnpo of Birds — Tlie Toiicnn — Iliimtninfj-nirds — Cotiii^'n!

tti'Millics nt tlic Miiijoct— >> Kle Knnpo ot Hinis — llie loiicnn — Iliimtninfj-Iiinls — (;otiii(.'n!i

— Tlie Cainpiinero, or lii-ll-itird — Tlii' RcaK'Jo, or Orj»im-Hird — The Maimkiiis — The Cock

of tlie RoL'k — Tlic Troopials — The lialtiniorc Orioio — Tlie {'assi(|iie.s — The M<iekiiii,'-nird

— The; 'I'oropislm — The 'I'lmqui — (iont-Suekeis — The Cil(,'oro — Flaiiiiii^'os — The Ihis —

Spoon Hills— ISirds of the New and the Olil World— Sun-Hirds — IIoney-Katers — The Ocel-
1......1 'i'..«i Ti.,^ T ..«,. ii:...i i»:-.i . ..i- II i:. .. i.v.i.i : i 'im...:- /h

u

SKI'TTi ill many resiipcts to niim. no class of niiiinals are morn nc;rfo!iliIo to
liiiii tliaii tliat of liirils, wlictlicr tliey iiro considered for tlio lieaiity of tlioir
|iluiiia<;e, tlio f^raen of their moviMiioiits, tlio inolody of their voice, or the inpenuity
wiili which they unnstruet their nests, Tlieir study forms one of the most nttraetive
de|iartiiients in ihi; ranj^e of natural liistoiy. Hut it is also one of the most dillicult,
<s|i!'cially ill regions which an; covered with dense nml matted forests. Thus it is by
no means surprising that so many secrets yet veil the life of tropical liirds, and com-
|iarativoly little is known of their haliits and modes of existence. Wo can hope only
to present a few of the salient features of birddife in the tropics, reserving for another
chapter the birds of prey.

Many families of birds have a wid<' ningo over the whole earth. Fahions iiover
livor the Siberian fir-woods as over tlu; palm-forest.s of the Amazon. In every
/.one arc found woodpeckers, owls, iind m.ariins ; while thrushes enliven with their
.'•ong both the shades (if the licech-woodH and the twilight of the coci, , nut groves. In
llie north and in the .south, tly-catchers carry destruction among the numerous in.soct
tribes ; in every latitude, crows cleanse the fields of vermin ; and swallows, pigeons,
ducks, gulls, petrels, divers, and plovers frequent the fields and lakes, the banks and
siiores, in all parts of tin; world.

Thus the class of birds shows us a great similarity in the distribution of its various
forms all over the earth ; and we find tlii; same resemblance e.vtcnding also to their
iiiiide of lift!, their manners, and tlieir voice. The woodpeckers make everywhere the
forest resound with the same clear note, and the birds of jirey possess in every clime
ill same rough screech so consonant to their habits, while a soft cooing everywhere
characterizes the pigeon-tribes. But, notwithstanding thi.? general uniformity ami this

: •■■^

M

I

046

TIIK TIlOIMCAf. WORLD.

wiflc rnngt! of iimny familiuH of liirdH, I'urli zono Iiiih at tlio saiiio tiiiio i»s [M-ciiliur oriii-
tliolojjiciil features, tlmt lileiid lianuoiiiDUsly with tlio surroimiliii;^ woiM of |ilaiiis [mil
iiiiiiiials, anil, takiiis^ a |iiiiiniiieiit part in flio aspeet of nature, at once attract tlic atliii-
tion of tlie .straiif^er. In this nsspect, as in so many others, the warmer regions of tlic
globo hiivo n f^ruiit ailvanta^^o over thoso of the tumpornti! ami ;^laeial zones ; am! hiic,
whero warmth ami moisture call forth an exuberant ve^^etation, tliey |in>(luce an c<|ii;i|
ninlti|ilii'ity of animal forms, among which many birds rival the most gfir;re<Mis tii)w>'r«
by tii(! s|>l(!mlor of tlieir plumaf^o.

On turning tn oucii contimmt in particular, wn again fitnl oacli etidowcii willi ii^
peculiar gi^ncra of birds, and tlnis, tliougli tropical Ameri<'a Ikih many of its feathered
tribes in eonnnon with the torrid zone of the Old Worlil, it enjoys the exchisivc piK
session of the Toucans, Cfilibris, Crotophagi, .lacamars, Anis, Dendrocolaptcs, !\I;iii;i.
kins, and Tangaras; whilo thu Calaos, the Houimangas, th<! Birds of I'aradisc, and
many others, an? conlined to the eastern hemispher(^ A eouiplete review of ail llic»c
various forms of the feathereil creation would fill volumes. My narrow limits ncccs-
Harily confine inu to a brief account of those IHIk's which are cither the most reimirlc-
ablo, or the most widely dilferent from tho birds which wo are accustomed to .sec in ilic
((Mnperatc zones.

By their enormous bill, which migh* .«eem rather ailapted to a bird of ostricii-llkc
dimensions than to one not mm^h larger than a crow, the toucans are distingui^lhd
from all tlu; other feathered races of America. The \ise of this enormous beak \iU7./.\>-*
naturalists. " ibiw astonishing are the freaks of nature," writes Sydney Smith. "Ti'
what purpose, we .say, is a bird placi^d in the woods of Cayenne, witii a bill a yard ion.;.
making a noise like a puppy-dog, and laying eggs in hollow trees V The toni'an, to Ik.
Huro, might retort, 'To what purpose arc curtain foolish, prating members of I'.nlianii nt
created, pestering the House with their ignorance and folly, and im|»ediiig the li'i«iniss
of the country'!" There is no end to such ipiestions ; .so wt; will not enter into the
metaphysics of tho touc.'in." The bill, though certainly much less than a y.nd Ioiil'.
is big enough to give the bird a vi^ry awkwanl appearance ; but the beauty of iis idl-
oring coon reconciles tlu; eye to its disproportionate size : for the brightest red, varie-
gated with bla(!k and yellow stripes on the upp(;r mandible, and a stri|»e of the livcliot
.sky-blue on the lower, contribute to adorn the bill of tlu^ B<iuradi, as one of the three
toucan species of Guiana is called by tho Indians. Unfortunately, these briillMiii
tints fade after death. Tlie ]ilumag(; ot this strange biril rivals the beak in bcnity ot'
eohtring, ami the feathers are fre(|uently use<l as ornaments by the Hrazilian ladle-, :i>
wtdl as by the Indian tribes that roam through the vast fon.'sts of South America. Tlic
toucans are generally seen ii; snnill tloeks or troops, and from this it might be suppnMil
they were gregarious ; " but U])on a (doser e.xamination," says Waterton, " yon will liiid
it has only been a diimer-party which breaks up and dispersi.'s towards rousting time."
Whilo thus as.sond)led, <liseor(l never cca.sos to reign, for there is hardly a more (piarnl-
somo and imperious bird than the tout^an. A binl with so strange a beak must n.itn-
rally be expeirted to fcunl .•ind drink in a strange; manner. Whi'ti the toucan has seized
a morscd, he throws it into the air and lets it fall into his throat ; when diiai'iing. he
dips the point of his mandibles into tho water, fdls thom by a powerful inspiratinn, iind
then throws back the head by starts. The tongue is al.so of a very singular f'nnn,
being narrow and elongated, and laterally barbed like a feather. The toucans arc veiy

T()U('ANs-niJMMiN(:-ium)s-ni:;,L-niui)s.

<M7

noisy bircls. In riiiny woatlior tlw-ir olnmnr is hoiinl at all hours of tlio day. r.inl in
fiiir woatluT at mortiin;^ anil ovcnin;^. The sound wliicli tlic Houraili iniikos is likt; tlio
• lii.ir yi'lpin;? of a puppy <lo;;, iiml you fiincy liu »ays " pia-po-o i-o," uinl thus thu
South AniLM'iciin Spauiiinis call hiui I'iupoco.

To paint thu HuniMiiM;^ iiiid with colorM worthy of its hoauty, would lie a task a«
dilliuult as to fix on canviw the j^lowin;? tints of tlu! rainhow, or flit! ;;lorias of thu
M'tting sun. Thu Indians of tlu; Ania/on call it '• a living; sunln'ain." Unrivalled
in the mutalliu hrilliancy of its pluina^^u, it may truly ho called the bird of paradisi-;
and had it existed in the OKI World it would no doulit have elaiinud the title instead of
the splendid liird which has now the honor to hear it. See with what li^htnini:; spi.'ed
it darts from (lower to llower ; now hovering for an instant liefore you, as if to ;i;i vo you an
opportunity of admiring its Har|)as.--iug beauty, and now again vanishing with the ra-
pidity of thought. Itut do not fancy that these wingiMl jewtds of tho air, bu/.zing
like bees round tho blossoms le.ss gorgeous than themselves, live entirely on the honey-
dew collected within tlntir p(>tals ; for on opening thu stoni.'Krh of one of them, dead
insects are almost always found there, vi\m\i its long and shuider beak, and cloven ex-
lensilo tctngue, like that of tho woodpuukcr, euablu it to catch at the very bottom of
llic tubular corollas.

The torrid zone is tho chief seat of tho humming-birds, but in summer tlioy wander
fur lK>y(Mid its liounds, and follovr thu sun in his annual declensions to the pules. Thus,
in the north, they appear as ilying visitors on tin; bordi^rs of thu (/anadian lakes, ami
on the southern coast of the peninsula of Alaska; while in thu souiIhtii hemispliere
ihcy roam as far as I'atagonia, and even as Ticrra ilel Tuego ; visiting in the northern
hi'inisplu're the conlines of the walrus, and reaching in tlu; south the regions of the
penguins and tlie lion-seal ; advancing towards the higher latitudes with the advance
of summer, and again retreating at the approach of autumn. All attempts to trans-
port them alive to Etirope have hitherto been fruitless. Latham relates that a young
man cut olf thu liranch mi whii-li ii hunnning-l)ird was breeding, and took it on board
tlie ship which conveyed him to England. Tho mother stMtn grow tame, and took the
biscuit and honey, that was offered her ; she also continucil to breed during the pas-
,sige, but died as soon as fhey(mng cre|)t out of tho shell. These camo alive to Eng-
land, an<l withstood during two months tho uncongenial climate.

Next to the hummingliirds tho Cotingas display the gayest plumage. They are,
however, not often seen, for they lead a .solitary life in tho mi/ist and shadowy forests,
where tht(y f(!ed on tin; various seeds and fruits of the woods. One species is attired
ill burning scarltst, others in purple and blue. Imt they are all .so .splendidly ■•idoiiicd
that it would bo dilli'ult to siy which of tlicm deserved the prize for beauty. Most
of the ('ofinga.s have no song; thu nearly related snow-white Campaiiero or Hcll-Hird,
linwcver, amply makes up for the dcflciciit voice of his cousins, by the .singularity and
sweetness of his note. He is about the size of a jay. On his forehead rises a singu-
lar spiral tube nearly thruu inches long. It is jet black, ilottcd all over with small
wiiite featln^r.''. It has n cnmmunieation with the palate, and wlicn tilled with air looks
like a spire, when empty it becomes pemlulous, " Ilis nolo is luud and clear, like; the
Miiind of a bell, and may be heard at the distani'e of three miles," says Waterton.
•'Three miles I" exclaims Sydney Smith, tlubinusly ; "this little binl being more pow-
erful than tho belfry of a catliedral ringing for a new Joan I It is impossible to con-

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THE TROPICAL WORM).

trndict a f^ntlcman who has boon in Cnyenno ; but wo arc dutormiiicd on noon an a
Ciiinpancrn i.s brought to Kn!];l!inii, to niako him toll in a piihlin placo, and Imvo tho
di.xtantio nioamirod." " In tiio midst of thcns oxfonsivo wildt," continuo.i WatiTtoii,
";;onoraliy on tho driod top of an aj»od mora, almost out of pun-macli, you will sec ilm
Cainpanoro. No sound or sonj^ from any of iho wingod inhabitants of tho f(irt'«t
causes such astonishment as his toll, With many of tiio feathered race ho pays tlio
common tribute of a Hong to early morn, and even when tho meridian sim has shut ia
silence tho moutlis of almost tho whole of animated nature, the Campanero still cheers
tho forest ; you hear his toll, and then a pause for a minuto ; then another toll, and
then a pause again, and then a toll and again a pause. Then ho is silent for six nr
eight minutes, and then another toll, and so on. lie is never seen to feed with tho otlier
Cotingas, nor is it known in what part of Guiana ho makes his nest." Hut the most
remarkable songster of tho Amazonian forest is tho Ron'ejo, or Organ-lJinl. Its notes
are a.^ musical as the flageolet. It is tho only songster which makes any impression
on tho natives.

In tho deep forests, which they never quit for tho open plains, reside the Manakins
(Pipra,) pretty little birds, whoso largest species scarcely attain tho dimensions of thi;
sparrow, while tho smallest are hardly erpial to tho wren. Tho plumage of the full-
grown male is always black, enlivened by brilliant colors, that of tho female and of the
young birds greenish. Their flight is rapiil but short, and they generally roost on tiie
middle branches of tho trees. In tho morning they unite in littlo troops, and seek
their food, which consists of insects, and small fruit, uttering at tho same time their
weak but melodious notes. As tho day advances they separate and seek tho deepest
forest-shades, where they live in .solitude and silence.

Tho famous orango-colorod Cock of the Ilock of Guiana {Rnpicoln aurnntia,) wliieli
owes its name to its coinb-liko crest, is nearly related to tho manakins. It is a groat
rarity, even in its own country, and as it dwells in tho most secluded forests, is but sel-
dom soon by travelers. Schomburgk relates tho following wonderful story of the bird,
which, if not proceeding from so trustworthy a source, might almost bo considered fab-
ulous. " A troop of these beautiful birds was celebrating its dances on tho siiiooth
surface of a rock ; about a score of them were .seated on the branches as spectators,
while one of tho male birds, with proud self-confidence, and spreading tail and wings,
was dancing on tho rock. lie scratched tho ground or leaped vertically into the air,
continuing these saltatory movements until he was tired, when another male took his
placo. Tho females, meanwhile, looked on attentively, and applauded the performance
of tho dancers with laudatory cries. As tho feathers arc highly prized, tho Indians lay
in wait with their blow-pipes near tho places whore tho llupicolas aro known to dance.
When onco tho ball has begun, the birds are so absorbed by thoT amusement, that the
hunter has full time to shoot down several of the spectators with his poisoned arrows,
before tho rest take tho alarm."

On penetrating into tho wilds of Guiana, tho pretty songsters called Troopials, pmir
forth a var.,^y of sweet and plaintive notes. Kesenibling the starling by their liabiis,
they unite in troops, and live on insects, berries, and seeds. The Variegated Troopial
( Oriolus varius) displays a wonderful instinct in the construction of his nest, wliicli lio
generally builds on fruit-trees ; but when circumstances force him to select a tree whose
branches have far less solidity, as, for instance, tho weeping willov,, his instinct almost

TKOOl'I.VLS -OIUOLKS- CASSHjUES-TIIK MOCKINCMMUI). (MB

rises to a liip;licr intelligcncu. First, ho hinds togctlier, hy menn.s of bits of straw, tho
5>mall and llcxildu liruiicliOM of liio willow, anil thus forniH a kind of conic:)! Iia.xkut in
wliich lio places his neat, and instead of tho usual liumiMphoricjal form, he j^ivcs it u inoro
elongated hlin|u', and makes it of a looser tissue, ho as to render it more elastic and hot-
ter oblo to conform to tho movements of tho hrunchos wlion ngitatcd hy tho wind.

Tho neat liltlo hluck and oraii;;i) Hitltimoro Oriole {Ictents lliUlmorf) cotisriiicta n
still more marvellous nest on tho tulip trots, on whoso leaves and flowers ho sooks tho
caterpillars and beetles which constitute his principal food. When tho time com s for
|)rcparing it, tho male picks up a filament of the 'filhmltin usneoides and attaches it
liy its two extremities to two neighboring branches. Sooa after, the female comes,
inspects his work, and places another fibre across that of her companion. Thus hy
their alternate labors a net is formed, which soon assumes tho !<hapo of a nest, and an
it advances towards its completion, tho affection of tho tender couple seems to increa.se.
The tissue is so loose as to allow tho air to pass through its meshes, and as tho p:irents
know that tho excessive heat of summer would incommo'lo their young, tlioy suspend
their iiost so as to catch the cooler breeze of tho north-east when breeding iti Louisi-
ona; while in more temperate regions, such as Pennsylvania and New Vmk, they
always give it a southern exfmsuro, ami take care to line it with wool or cotton. Their
movements are uncommonly graceful ; their song is sweet ; they migrate in winter
Inwards more southerly regions, 3Icxico or Brazil, and return after the eijuinox to tho
United States.

The Cassiques, which are nearly relateil to tho troopials or orioles, are no less remark-
able for their architectural skill. They suspend their lar <) pendulous nests, which are
often above four feet long, at tho extremities of l)ranchcs of palm trees, a.s fur as pos-
fiible from all enemies that might hy climbing roach the brood, often choosing, for still
further protection, trees on which tho wasps or maribondas have already built their nests,
as these are adversaries whose sharp stings no tiger-cat or reptile would desire to face.
The nest of tho Caisirus cristatm is artificially woven of lichens, bark-libres, and tho
filaments of tho tillandsias, while that of tho Tupuba ( Gisst'rus ruber), which is
always suspended over tho water, con.si.sts of dry gra.s.ses, and has a slanting opening
in the side, so that no rain can penetrate it. On pa.ssing under a tree, which often
contains hundreds of aassiquo nests, one cannot help stopping to admire th'»m, as they
wave to and fro, the sport of every storm and breeze, and yet so well constructed as
rarely to be injured by tho wind. Often numbers of one species may he seen weaving
their ncsta on one side of a tree, while numbers of another species arc busy forming
theirs on the opposite side of the same plant ; and what is, perhaps, even still moro
wonderful than their architectural skill, though such near neighborB, the females are
never observed to quarrel I

The CassicHS parsiciis, a small l)lack and yellow bird, somewhat larger than tho
starling, has been named the Mocking-liird, from his wonderful imitative powers. IIo
courts tho society of man, and generally takes his station on a tree close to his house,
whore for hours together he pours forth a succession of ever-varying notes. If a
toucan he yelping in the neighborhood, he immediately drops his own sweet song, and
answers him in c(iual strain. Then ho will amuse his audience with tho cries of tho
different species of tho woodpecker, and when the .sheep bleat ho will distinctly answer
them. Then comes his own song again, and if a puppy dog or a guinea fowl interrupt

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THE TROPICAL WOULD.

liiin, lie takes tlicm off arliniralily, and by liis difTorent gestures during the time, vnu
would conclude tiiat lie enjoys tlie ^xn-':

Wild and strange are the voices of many of the American forest-birds. Tn tic
Peruvian woods the black Toroinshn {Vrji/i(tlopteru/i ornatits) makes the thicket re-
sound with his hoarse cry, resembling tlie distant lowing of a bull ; and in the smiiic
regions the tiery-red and black winged Tunqui {P.upicola Peruviana) ^{:\»h furth a
note, which might readily be mistaken for the grunting of a hog, and strangely init-
Irasts with the brilliancy of his plumage. But of all the startling cries tii.it i.-.>ur
from the depths of th'i forest, none is more remarkable tha.; the Goatsucker's huiunt
able wail. "Suppose yourself in hopeless sorrow," says Waterton, "begin with a
high loud note, and pronounce ha, ha, ha, ha, ha ! each note lower and lower till the
last is scarcely heard, pausing a moment or two between every note, and you will Isiivc
some idea of the mourning of the largest gojitsucker in Demarara. Four other species oi"
goateucker articulate some words so distinctly, that they have received their names IVdiii
the sentences they utter, and absolutely bewilder the stranger fni his arrival in these imrts
The most common one sits down close by your door, and Hies or alights three or four
yards before you, as you walk along tlu; road, crying, " Who are you, who-who-wlio-
who are you?" Another bids you, "Work away, work-work-work away." A thinl
cries mournfully, '' Willy come go, Willy-Willy-Willy come go." And high in> in
the country, a fourth tells you to, " VVhip-poor-Will, wiiip whip-whip poor-Will."

While the goatsucker makes the forest resound with his funereal tones, other hiiiU
of the forest j)our forth the sweetest notes. Dressed in a .sober eiiuiamon lirown relie,
with blackish olive-colored head and neck, the Organist (Trai/ffx/f/fcs /eiiroji/in/s) (ii-
livens the .solitude of the Peruvian forests. The a.stonished wanderer stops to listen
to the strain, anil forgets the impending storm. The Cilgero, a no less delightful smi;;-
ster, fn.Mjuents the mountain regions of Cuba, and the beauty of his notes may be
inferred from the extravagant price of several hundred dollars, which the rich Hav-
ancse are ready to pay for a captive bird.

The same beauty of ])lumage which characterizes so many of the American forest-
birds, adorns, likewise, the feathered tribes of the swamp and the morass, of the river
and the lake. Nothing can exceed in beauty a troop of deep red Flamingos (P/iaiti-
copterus ruber) en the green margin of a stream. Kaised on enormous stilts, and
with an equally disproportionate length of neck, the flamingos would be rcckmieil
among tlie mo.st uneoiHh birds, if their splendid robe did not entitle thi;m to rani;
among the most beautiful. They always live in troops, and range themselves, wlutin-
fishing or resting, like soldiers, in long lines. One of the numi)er acts as sentinel, and
on the apjiroach of danger gives a warning scream, like the .sound of a truinpet, wlieii.
instantly, the whole troop, ex|)anding their flaming wings, rise loudly clamoring intu the
air. These strange-formed birds build in the swamps high conical nests of muil, in
the shape of a hillock with a cavity at top, in which the female generally lays two
white eggs of the size of those of a goo.se, but more elongated. The ru<le constnie-
tion is sufTieiently high to admit of her sitting on it conveniently, or rather riding, :i^
the legs are jilaccd on each .side at full length. Their mode of feeding is no les-^
remarkable. Twisting their neck in such a manner that the upper part of their bill i-
a|)|)lied to the ground, they at the same time disturb the nnid with one of their welibeil
feet, thus raising u[) from the water in.seets and .spawn, on which they chiefly subsist.

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TIlOriCAL HIIIDS OF IIOTII IIKMISpIIHIlKS.

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The Rose colfircd Flaniin^n, witli red winj^s ami bliick ((uills, adorns tite crcclcs anil
rivers (if tropical Africa and Asia, and in N.arin summers extends his niij^rations as far
northwards as Strasl)urg on tlic lUiiro. Tiie siglit of a troop of flamingos a])j)roacli-
ing on till! wing, and describing a great fiery triangle in th(; air, is singidail} majestic.
When about to descend, their fliglit becomes slower, they liover for a moment, tiien
their evolutions trace a conical spire, and, iinally aligliting, they inmiediately arrange
themselves in long array, jilace tlieir sentinels, and liegin tlieir lisliiiig operations.

Tlir scarlet American Ibis, with Idack-tipped wings, th(ingh interior in size to his
(•(d^brated cousin, the sacred bird of the Kgyptians, far surpasses him in beauty. Si.x
feet liigh, stately as a grenadier of the guards, tlie American Jabiru stalks along the
baidvs of the morasses. His ])lumage is white, liut his neck and liead are black, like
his long legs; his conical, sharj), and powerful black iiiil, is a little recurved, while
that of the stork, to whom he is closely related, is straight. He destroys an incred-
ible number of reptiles and fishes, and, being very shy, is dillicult to kill. Two sim-
ilar species, respectively itdiabit Western Africa and Australasia. The roseate American
Spoon-bill is particularly remarki'.ie for his curious large beak, dilating at the top
into a brojid spoon or spatula, which, though not jiossesscd of great ])ower, renders
hin\ excellent service mi disturbing the mud and .seizing the little reptiles and worms
he deliglits to feed on. The .lacana ])osscsses enormously long and slender toes, armed
with equally long .spine like claws. While pacing the ground they seem as inconvenient
as tlie snow-shoes of a Laplander, and yet nothing can be more suitable for a bird des-
tined to stalk over the lloating leaves of the Nelumbos and Nymphioas, and to seek
for water insects on this unstable foundation. The jacana is found all over tropii-al
vVmerica, and is also called the " Surgeon," from the nail of bis hinder toe being sharp
and pointed like a lancet.

All these strange and wondrous birds, and nundicrless others, whoso mere enumer-
ation would be fatiguing to tlie reader, justify the ornithological repiitation of the w<iods
and .swamps of tropical America. And indeed the feathered races nowhere (ind a richer
field for the'r development than here, where the vegetable world revels in luxuriant
growth ; and myriads of insects, peopling the forest, the field, and the water, furnish
each kind according to its wants with an inexhaustible suj)ply of food. The circum-
stance that man but thinly inhabits these wihls, is another rea.son which favors the nml-
tiplication of the feathered tribes ; for, in Europe also, liirds would no doubt be far
more nmnerous, if the farmer, the sportsman, and .so many other enemies were not
contimially thinning their raid<s. To these elements of destruction they are far less
exposed in tropical America, and being comparatively but little disturbed, they reign,
as it were, over the forest and the <i[)en lielil, over the mountain and the plain, over the
liver and the lake.

Although in the torrid zone we hardly ever meet witli a .single aboriginal sjiacics of
jilant or animal common to both hemispheres, yet the analogy of climate everywhere
)iroduccs analogous organic forms, and when on surveying the feathered tribes of
America, we arc struck by any bird remarkable for its singularity of sha[)C or mode of
life, we may exjiect to find its rcjireseiitative in Asia, Afrii'a, or Australia. Thus the
enormous beak of the tcmcan is emulated or surpas.sed by that of the Indian Calao, or
Rhinoceros Ilornbill, whose twelve-inch long, curved, and sharp-pointed bill is, moreover,
surmounted with an immense appendage, in the form of a reverted horn, the use of

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THE TROIMCAI. WOULD.

which beliini^s as yet to the secrets of n;ituro. While the toiK.'ans are ilistinfiiishnc] hv
a gaudy j luiiiago, the eulaos are almost entirely decked witli a robe black as tliat of
the raven, and enhancing the beautiful red and orange colors of their colossul beak.
Generally congregating in small troops like the toucans, they inhabit tlio dense forots,
where they live cliiefly on fruits, seeils, and insects, which they also swallow wiioli'.
throwing them up into the air and catching them as they fall. The clapping tocethcr of
their mandibles causes a loud and peculiar noise, which towards evening interrupts the
silence of the forest. The flight of a bird burdened with sueli a load must natunillv b •
short : they hop upon their thick clumsy feet, and generally roost upon the hii'liest trees.

The brilliant Sunbirds or Suimangas (Cinni/ris,) belonging to the order of the (Vt-
thias or creepers, are the colibris of the old world, equally ethereal, gay, and sprightly
in th"ir motions, flitting briskly from flower to flower, and assuming a thousand livi'lv
and agreeable attitudes. As the sunbeams glitter on their bodies, they sparkle like >o
many gems. As they hover about the honey-laden bIoK.soms, they vibrate ra(iiilly tlicir
tiny pinions, producing in the air a slight whirring sound, but not .so loud as the lium-
ming noise produced by the wings of the colibris. Thru.sting their slender beaks intu
the deep-cupped flowers, they probe them with their brush-like tongues for insects ami
nectar. Some are emerald green, some vivid violet, others yellow with a crimson wiii'j,
and rivalling the colibris by the metallic lustre of their plumage, they surpass them liv
their musical powers, for while the latter can only hum, the sun-birds accompany thcu-
movements with an agreeable chirp.

The nearly-related Melithreptes,or Iloncy-eaters of the South Sea Islands, distin-
guished by a very long curved beak, and a tongue split into two slender fdaments, fur-
nish the chief ornaments of the Polynesian kings and chieftains. Thus the faiiioin
royal inantlo of Tainehameha the Great is completely coyere I with the g-iMen plu;n;ig>
of the Melithrcptcs pacijicus, and as this not very common brown-colored bird has only
three or four yellow feathers in each wing, it may easily be conceived that the nm^t
costly brocades of Lyons are far from eijualling in value this splendid robe of stati',
which is no less than ten feet long and seven feet broad. Even the snail diaik'nis
made of the feathers of this bird, winch are worn by the ladies of rank in the Sandwich
Islands, arc worth several hundred dollars. Idols or mantles of the Polynesians, deco-
rated with the scarlet feathers of the Melilhreptes vestiarlus are frequently mot with
in ethnographical museums.

While the superb Ocellated Turkey of Honduras {Mekngris ocellatn) displays with
all the pride of a peacock, the cye-likc marks of his tail and upper coverts, the no li'«
beautifully spotted Argus, a bird nearly related to the gold and sil, jr pheasants wIiIl'']
have been introduced from China into the European aviaries, conceals his spleiiilor in
tlie dense forests of Java and Sumatra. The wings of this magnificent creaturr,
whose plumage is equally remarkable for variety and elegance, consist of very large
feathers, nearly three feet long, the outer webs being adorned with a row of large eyes,
arranged parallel to the shaft ; the tail is composed of twelve feathers, the two middle
ones being about four feet in length, the next Suarcely two, and gradually shortening
to the outer ones. Its voice is plaintive and not harsh, as in the Indian peacock, which
.\lexander the Great is said to have flrst introduced into Europe, though its fcatliers
li.id many centuries before been imported by the Phoenicians. The Peacock is still
f.)und wild in many parts of Asia and Africa, but mo.-c particularly in the fertile plains

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THE LVKE-lilHD— liJUDS UF PARADISE.

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,if Fiulia. Anothor species, nearly similar in size and proportions, but distinguisbod by
•I iiiucii longer crest, inbaliits the Javan-jsc forests.

Thiiugli of less dazzling splemloi tlian tliis peacock's tai'. chat of the Menura, or
Lyre-bird, is unrivalled for its elegance. Fancy two large, broad, black and brown-
>tiipcd feathers, curved in the fcjrin of a Grecian lyre, and between bofli, other feath-
ers wlioso widely-distanced silken barbs envelope and surmount them with a light and
airy gauze. No j)ainter could possil)ly liave imagined anyti "ng to oijual this master-
piece of nature, which its shy possessor conceals in the wild bushes of Australia.

The lyre-bird is constantly cngageil in traversing the brush from mountain top
til tlic bottom of the gullies, whoso steep and rugged sides present no obstacle to
i's long legs and powcsrful muscular tliighs. When running ([uickly tlirougii the
liru>h, it carries the tail horizontally, that being the only position in which it could bo
linriie at such times. Besides its loud, full cry, which may be heard at a great distance,
it lias an inward and varied song, the lower notes of which can only be heard when
you have stealthily approached to within a few yards of the bird when it is singing.
Its habits ajjpear to be solitary, seldom more than a pair being seen together. It
ciiiistructs a large nest, formed on the outside of sticks and twigs, like that of a magpie,
ami lined witli the inner bark of trees and iibrous roots.

l>iit of all the tropical liirds there are none so absolutely distinctive of the eqnator'-.il
regions as the Birds of Paradise, which are found only in some of the islands of the
Malay Archi[)elago. Until about 1808 really nothing was known to Ei'.ropeans
respecting these birds, which in gorgeousness of coloring and elegance of form and
plumage surpass all othjrs. Stuffed skins of these birds, curiously prepared, have
long been found in European museums, and from these the strangest descriptions have
been given, which still find place in books upon Natural History. When the early
navigators reached the Moluccas in search of cloves and nutmegs, they were presented
with dried skins of a kind of bird so beautiful as to excite even their wonder and
admiration. Malay traders called them "God's Birds," and the I'ortuguose re named
them " Birds of the Sun." A learned Dutchman, who wrote in Latin, gave them the
name which they now bear. Tlie.sc skins were always without feet or wings, and it
was said, and currently believed, that no one had ever seen one of them alivo ; that
tlioy lived only in the air, and, being destitute of feet, never alighted ; but as they
were equally without wings, how they managed to keep afloat in the air was a mystery
of which no solution was attempted. It was not till generations had passed that it
was discovered that the natives, in preparing the skins, cut off their very serviceable
legs and wings, and so arranged what was left as to give the greatest po.ssiblc promi-
iii'iice to their flowing tail-plumage. One fable was thus displaced; but everything
else remained unknown.

In 18G2 Mr. Alfred Russell Wallace, an English naturalist, sot him.self seriously at
work to investigate the Natiu-al History of tlio Malay Islands ; and to his work,*
imblished in 18G8, which we have already had frerjuent occasion to cite, we are
indebted for about all tiuit is really known respecting the Birds of Paradise ; and this
I'ost him five successive voyages, oach occujjying in preparation and execution nearly a
'ear. He describes and illu>trates eighteen different species. In all of these, it must
be borue iu mind il;it the brilliant colors and remarkable plumage belong to the

*'i'lie Malay Archipelai,'o.

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iiiiil(!s ; tlic females liciiig tlimuf^lioiit very pliiiu lodkinj; pcrsotiiiiiics. '■Tlie IJinls of
J'iiriulise," lie says, " are a gnmii of iiUMluiiite-sized liinls, alliuil iti structure ami
lialiits to crows and starliui^s; liut tliey are eluiraeti ri/eil liy extraordinary dcvi li.i,.
vaaatH of plumage wliieli are uu(M|ualL'd hy any otlicr family of hirdij. In .-wveial

X\TIVi:s OF Alit; SnOOTINT. TUK OHKAT HIKI) Ol' I'AUADISE.

spoeios large tufts of delieate, liriglit-eolored feathers spring from oaeli side of tlio Imily
l)eneutli the wings, forming trains, fans, or shields; and tlie middle feathers of tin.' lnii
are iften elongated into wires, twisted into the most fantastic shapes, or adorned wiili
the most liriliiant metallie tints. In another set of sjiecies these aeee-sury jiIuuks

HIIIDS OF t'AKADISK-TIIK HOWKIl-IMUD.

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iiloriu'il wiili

lllullU'S

^<p^in;5 froin tlic licad, tlic li;ick, or tlio slimiMcrs; wliili; tlie intensity i.f coldr an i
lit rnt'taHi( lustre (lisjiiaved \>y tlieir |ilurnML;o is not to lie ei|ii:iliMl liy any i.llier liirils.
ixeept |ieilia|is liy tlie lliinn 'inj;;-l)irils, and is not sur|i;isseil even liy liiesu."

Of \\w eij^liteeii s|ieeies tieseiilied liy Mr. Wallaee, perliaps the most ruiiwirkalile is
the great IJird of I'aradise {Parnillscd (ipmla) wliieli measures seveiUeen or ftif^liteeii
iiielies from tlie lieak to tlio tip of the tail. Tlio liody, win^^s, and '.lil are lirowii,
(leej)unin^ on tlie lireast to [)ui_ile. The lieail is yellow, tlu^ throat of emerald ^^ree'i;.
I'liim e.'ich side of the lioily, lieneath the winjrs, spiings a dense tuft of lon;^ deli(!atu
|ilinnes, sometimes two feet ni len;j;th, of the most intensi; i^olden-oran^o cohir, very
jrldssy, Imt ehanj^ing towards the tips into a pah; lirown. 'I'liis tuft of pluniai:;o can
lie elevated and spread out at pleas\ire, so as almost to coneeal the liody of the hird.
Tliey moult in January and ]''elirnary ; and are in full plumaij;i! in May. At this
lime the males asseinlile early in tlie morninj; to exhiliit tlieniscdves in a sinifular man-
ner which the natives call their '' Sjicelen " or daneinj^-parties. 'I'lie liall-room is a
lniu;e tree, whoso wide branches affiird iheni aliundant sjiaee for display. On one of
these trees a score of males will assemlile, raise tlieir win,L;s, and keep them in constant
vihralion ; flyin,!? now and then from lirancli to liraneh, .so that the whole tree is alive
with their wavin;^ plumes. When at the utmost point of e.vcitement, the wings an^
riiised over the head, the plumes expanded until they form two magnilieent fans, over-
shadiiwiriji; the whole liody, while the yellow head and ;i;reeti throat form a foundation
ami support for the gfilden glory which waves ahove. AVhiMi seiui in this .attitude tlu;
llinl cif Paradise really deserves its name, and must be ranked us one of the most;
lii'a\itiful of living things.

'J'his h;diit e;ialiles the natives of Aru to obtain spciMiiiens with more case. As soon
as they lind tliat the birds have li.xed upon a tree on which to assemble, they build a
little shelter of jialm-leaves in a convenient jilace among the branches, and the liun.cr
iii?conces himself in it liefore daylight, armed with his bow and a number of arrows
teriiiinating in a round knob. A boy waits at the foot of the tree, and when the birds
ciinK! at sunrise, and a sulbcieiit inunber have assembled, and have begun to dance,
the hunter shoots with his blunt arrow so strongly as to stun the bird, which drops
ildwu and is secured without its plumage being injured by a drop of blood. The rest
take no notice, and fall oik; after another till some of them take tin; alarm.

Another species, the Red ]}ird of I'aradise, found in .some parts of New Guinea, is
caught in a very ingenious manner. There is a large tree bearing a red fruit of which
these birds are es[KM'ially fond. The hunters fasten this fruit on a stout forked stick,
.■111(1 provide themselves with a fine strong cord. They then (ind out some tree ii the
iiiiist U]iiiii which these birds are aieustomed to perch ; and climbing up it, fasten the
■"•tiik to a branch, anil arrangt? the cord in a noose so ingeniously that when the bird
ciiiiics to eat, its legs are caught ; and by pidling the end of the cord, which iiangs to
till' ground, it comes down frei! from the branch, and brings down the bird. Sonie-
tiiiii's when this favorite food is abundant elsewhere, the hunter sits from morning to
night under his tree, and often for two or three whole days in suece.ssion, without get-
ting even a bite ; while at other times, if very lucky, he may get two or three birds
II (lay.

The ornithological wonders of Australia are inferior to those of no other part of the
world. Can anything, for in.stance, be moru extraordiiuiry than the constructions of

r'

). ,1

li

i' >

,;4

O.jO

THE TUOPICAL WOULD.

tho Int^i r-birds, which aro built not for thcs useful purpose of containing the joun^,
but piii'jly as a playing place or an as.seniMy room? " The structures of tlio spotted
bow;;j'-bird," says Mr. Gould, " aro in many instances three feet in len<^th. They are
outvca'-dly built of twigs, and beautifully lined witli tall grasses, so disposed tiiat their
her.ds nearly meet ; tiie decorations are very profuse, and consist of bivalve shells,
crania of small pammalia, and other birds. Evident and beautiful indications of de-
sign are manifest throughout the whole of the bower and decorations formed by this
species, particularly in the manner in which the stones are placed within the bower,
apparently to keep the grasses with which it is lined fixed firndy in their places
Tiiese stones diverge from the mouth of tiio run on each side, so as t(t form a little
path, while the immense collection of decorative materials, bones, shells, &c., are
placed in a heap before the entrance of the avenue, this arrangement being the same
at both ends. 1 frequently found these structures at a c()nsidcral)Ie distance from the
rivers, from the borders of whi, ... they alone could have procured the shells anil small
round pebbly stones ; their collection and transportation nm.st, therefore, be a task of
great labor and difficulty. As these birds feed almo.st entirely upon seeds and fniits,
the shells and bones can not have been collected for any other purpose than ornament ;
besides, it is only those that have been bleached perfectly white in the sun, or such as
have been roasted by thn natives, and by this means whitened, that attract their atten-
tion." For what purpose these curious bowers aro made is not yet, perhaps, fully
understood ; they arc certairdy not used as a nest, but as a place of resort, where the
assembled birds run through and about the bower in a playful manner, and that so
frequently that it is seldom entirely deserted. The proceedings of these birds have
not been sufticiently watched to render it certain whetiior the runs aro frecjucnted
throughout the whole year or not, but it li highly probable that they aro merely re-
sorted to as a rendezvous or playing ground at the pairing time, and during the period
of incubation.

The Talcgalla or Brush-turkey is no loss interesting. In appearance it is very like
the common black turkey, but is not quite so large : the extraordinary manner in which
its eggs arc hatched constitutes its singularity. It collects together a great heap of de-
caying vegetables as the place of deposit of its eggs, thus making a hot-bed, arising
from the decomposition of the collected matter, by the heat of which the young are
hatched. Tiiis mound varies in quantity from two to four cart loads, and is of a per-
fectly pyrainidical form : it is not, however, the work of a single pair of birds, bist is
the result of the united labor of many, and the same site appears to be resorted to fur
several years in succession. "The mode," says Mr. Gould, "in which the materials
composing tlieso mounds are accumulated is equally singular, the bird never using its
bill, but always grasping a quantity in its foot, tin-owing it backwards to one eomiiinii
center, and thus clearing the surface of the ground to a considerable distance so com-
pletely t'/iat scarcely a leaf or blade of grass is left." The heap being accumulated
nnd time allowed for a sufficient heat to be engendered, the eggs, each measuring not
less than four inches in length — an enormous size, considering the bulk of the bird —
are deposited, not side by side, as is ordinarily the ca.se, but planted at the distance of
nine or twelve inches from each other, and buried at nearly an arm's depth perfectly
upright, with the large end upwards; they are covered up as they are laid, ami
allowed to remain tintil hatc4ied. After six weeks of burial, the eggs, in successioa

in

if'f 3 1 '

THE BRUSH-TURKEY— THE ADJUTANT— BHID- CRIES.

657

'■'. M

he younj;,

llL' SjKlttC'd

Tlicy Mffi

tlmf tlicir

Ivo sliells,

DIIS of ill!-

cd liy lliis
;lie l)(t\vcr,
fir |)l;iiM's
rill 11 littlu
, &('., art!
^ tliu s:miu
ju from the
s ami small
! a task iif
ami fruits,
ornaiiient ;
, or such as
their attcn-
rhaps, fully
;, where tiie
\m\ that so
binls have
freijuented
I merely ro-
y the period

is very like

Jicr in which

heap of de-

jod, arisini;

yming are
is of a pcr-
birds, but is
sorted to fur
le materials
er usinj; its
)ne eoniniiiii
nee so coiu-
aecumulated
iasurinj; not

the bird —
3 distance of
)th ])erfectly
re laid, and
n succession

7 ,

and without any warning, give up their chicks — not feeble, but full-fledged and strong,
so that at night they scrape holes for themselves, and lying dowa therein are covered
over by the old birds and thus remain until morning. The extraordinary strength of
the newly-hatched birds is accounted for by the size of the shell, since in so large a
tipaee it is reasonable to suppose that the young ones would bo much more developed
than ia usually found in eggs of smaller dimensions.

It is not to bo wondered at that in the tropical world, where lizards, snakes, and
frogs attain such extraordinary dimensions, the cranes or stork tribes, which chiefly
live upon these reptiles, should also grow to a more colossal size than their European
representatives. Thus, while torrid America boasts of the Jabiru, Africa and India
possess the still larger Argala. or Adjutant, whose feeding exploits and ugliness have
already been mentioned in the chapter on snakes. His beak, measuring sixteen inches
in circumference at the base, corresponds with his appetite. lie is soon rendered fa-
miliar with man, and when fish or other food is thrown to him, he catches it very nim-
bly and immediately swallows it entire. A young bird of this kind, about five feet in
hight, was brought up tamo and presented to a chief on the coast of Guinea, where
Mr. Smeathman lived. It regularly attended the hall at dinner time, placing itself
behind its master's chair, frequently before any of the guests entered. The servants
were obliged to watch it carefully, and to defend the provisions by beating it off with
sticks ; still it would frequently snatch off something from the table, and one day pur-
loined a whole boiled fowl, which it swallowed in an instant. It used to fly about the
island, and roost very high among the silk-cotton trees ; from this station, at the dis-
tance of two or three miles, it could see when the dinner was carried across the court,
when, darting down, it would arrive early enough to enter with some of tliose who
carried in the dishes. Sometimes it would stand in the room for half an hour afler
dinner, turning its head alternately as if taking a deep interest in the conversation.
These birds are found in companies, and when seen at a distance near the mouths of
rivers, advancing towards an observer, it is said that they may be easily mistaken for
canoes on the surface of a smooth sea ; and when on the sand-banks, for men and
women picking up shell fish on the beach.

The tropical forests of the eastern hemisphere resound with bird-cries no less appall-
ing, wild, or strange than those of the western world. In the close jungles of Ceylon
one occasionally hears the call of the Copper-smith {Mt-galasara Indtca,) whose din
resembles the blows of a smith hammering a caldron, or the strokes of the great
orange-colored Woodpecker (Brachypterus aiirantius,) as it beats the decaying trees
in search of insects ; but of all the yells that fancy can i.nagine there is none to equal
that of the Singhalese Devil-bird, or Gualama. " Its ordinary cry." says Mr. Mit-
fiird, '■ is a magnificent clear .slmut like that of a liuinan beini;. and which can be
heard at a great distance, and has a line eff.ji!t iu the .silence of the ithwing night. Ii
has another cry like that of a hen just caught ; but the sounds which have earned for
it its bad name, and which I have heard but once to perfection, are indescribable ; the
most appalling that can be imagined, and scarcely to be heard without shuddering. I
can only compire it to a lioy in torture, whose KTcanis are being stopped by being
strangled. On hearing this dreadful note the terrified Singhalese hurries fiom the
spot, for should he chance to see the bird of ill omen he is .sure that his death is nij^h.
A servant of Mr. Baker's, who had the misfortune of seeing the dreaded gualama,
42

■'jii'ii

•fill.

in

f- ' '.'

m\

ii

mm

i-,iv ,f i." ! ,; ;, %

'[\'f:

858

TIIK THOIMCAL WORLD.

from that moment took no food, und tlius foil a victim to liis superstitious despair.
This horror of the natives explains the eircunistaiire tliat it is not yet perfectly a.^cer-
tuined whether the ievil i)ird is an owl (Si/rniiiin) or a ni^^ht-hawk.

Tho wonderful pendulous nests of the American Cassiijiics are ocjualled, if not
purpassed, hy those of the Indian llaya, These birds are found in nio,>-t parts of
Iliiidostan; in shape they resemble the sparrow, as also i:i the brown featliers of tlio
back and wings; the head and breast are of a bright yellow, and in the rays of a
tropical sun have a splendid appearance wiieii tlying by thousands in the same grove.
They make a chirping noi.se, but have no song; they as.sociato in largo eoiniimnilies,
anil cover clumps of palmyras, acacias, and date trees with their nests. Tliese are
formed in a very ingenious manner by long gra.«s woven togotlier in tho shape of a
bottle, and suspended iiy so slender a thread to the end of a ilexiblo branch that even
tho sfjuirrel dare not venture his body on so fragile a support, however his mouth may
water at the eggs and prey within. These nests contain several apartments, ..ppro-
priated to diil'erent purposes : in one tho hen performs the oflico of incubation ; another,
consisting of a little that.iied roof, and covering a porch without a bottom, is occupied
by the male, who cheers the female with his ciiirping note.

Tlio Tailor-bird of llindostan {Si/ln'a sutoria) is ccjually curious in tlic structure
of its nest, and far superior in tho elegance and variety of its jtlumage, wliidi in tho
male glows with tho varied tints of tho colibri. Tiio little artist first selects a plant
with largo leaves, ami then gathers cotton from tho shrub, spins '.'■ to a tiiread liy
means of its long bill and slender feet, and then, as with a needle, sews tlie leaves
neatly together to conceal its nest.

On turning to tho wilds of Africa, tho Grosbeak affords us a no le.«a wonderful
example of ncst-buihling; for hero wo find, not one .-■ingle pair, but hundreds living
under tlio same roof, perfectly reseinbling that of a thatched house, and witli a ])rojcct-
mg ridge, so that it is impossible for any reptile to approach the entrances concealed
below. "Their industry," says Paterson, ".seems almost equal to that of the bee.
Throughout the day they appear to bo busily employed in carrying a fine species of
grass, which is tho principal material they employ for the purpose of erecting tiiis
extraordinary work, as well as for additions and repairs. Though my .short stay in
tho country wa.« not sutficient to satisfy me, by ocular proof, that they added to their
nest as they annually increased in numbers, still from tho many tree« which I have
seen borne down by the weight, and others which I have ob.sorved with their boughs
completely covered over, it would appear that this really was tlio case. When tlio tree
which is tho support of this aerial city is obliged to give way to the increase of weight,
it is obvious they are no longer protected, and are under the necessity of rebuilding in
other trees. One of those deserted nosts I had the curiosity to break down, so as to
inform my.self of its internal structure, and I found it equally ingenious with that of
tho oxternal. There are many entrances, each of which forms a separate street with
nests on both oide.s, at about two inches distant from each other."

Though far less ingenious, yet the nest of the Korwti {Tockus cn/tfiror>/nchi(s) is
too curious to bo passed over in silence. The female having entered her biecding-
placo, in one of the natural cavities of tho mopano tree, a sneeies of iiauliinia, tho
male plasters up tho entrance, leaving only a narrow slit by which to feed his mate,
•".d which exactly suits the form of his beak. The female makes a nest of her own

lIorSK-RL'ILDINd niUD.S.

*
659

IS (lcs|)!iir.
rily aaucr-

Icd, If not
t pjirti (pf
lers of tlio
! lays of a
nine grove.
imnuiiiticH,
TliL'se aro
sliaiK) of a
I that even
inoutli may
nts, .ipiii'ii-
i; aiKitlicr,
is occupied

c structure
liicli in the
xts a jilaiit
, tlireail hy
1 the leaves

; woiK

lorfiil

Ireils livin;^

h a jimjccl-

s concealed

of the bee.

! species of

■ecting this

lort stay in

ed to their

ich I have

eir boughs

en tlio tree

of weight,

uilding in

n, so as to

itli that of

street with

ii/nchiis) is
l)reediiig-

(iliiuiu, the
his mate,

|)f her owu

feathers, lays her oggs, hatches tht.ii, nnd remains with the young till they arc fully
fleiigcd. During all tiiis time, wiiicli is stated to lie twi> or three months, the male
continues to feed her nn<l the young family. The prisoner generally heeomes quite
fat, and is ('steemed a very dainty morsel by the natives, while the poor slave of a
husband gets so lean and weak, tliat on the sudden lowering of the temperature, which
sometimes happens after a fall of rain, ho is beiiundied. falls down, and dies.

All pensile birds are remarkable for the e{!cenfrieity of shape uiul design which
marks their nests ; though tliey agree in one point, that they dangle at the end of
twigs, nnd dance about merrily at every breeze. Some aro long, others .^liort ; some
have the entranite at the side, otiiers at the bottom, others near the top. Somo aro
himg like hammocks from one twig to another ; others aro suspended to the extremity
of the twig 'tself; , hile otln'rs biiilt in palms, which have no true branches, and no
twigs at all, aro fastened to the extremities of the leaves. Some are made of fine
fiines, nnd others of the coarsest straws. Some are so loose in their texture that the
eggs can bo plainly .seen through them ; while others are so strong and thick, that one
might supfio.sc thcun to be constructed by a professional thateher.

The illnstratiim on the following page presents a group of nests of several species of
tho African Weavers. In tiie right-hand upper corner aro the curious nests of the
Mahali Weaver (Pliopiisscr mnhnli) accompanied by the birds themselves. Although
tho bird measures only six inches in length its ncsf is of considerable size, and is
formed of quite stout substances. In shape it is not unliko an ordinary Florence
flask, only tiirce times the size, with tlie neck shortened and widened. Its surface,
however, is rough, the largo straws of which it is composed pointing downwards to
the cntrcnce of the nest, which is at tho bottom. Next below aro three rows of the
nests of the Spotted-back Weaves {Ploccns spilonatus), which arc represented as at-
tacked by nioidceys, some of whom, assaileii by the birds, aro getting well-ducked for
tlieir pains. Still below, rather in tho background, aro two nests of the Plocens Ca-
])eiisis, woven into palm-leaves. Uelow this, in the left corner, is a nest of ti.e Yellow-
Weaver {Ploccus ociilari'iis), shaped somewhat like a chemist's retort, with the bulb
uppermost, or more nearly like a huge oldfasiiioned pistol, hanging butt upward. Tho
nest is made of grass about as large as a small twine, interwoven with great skill.
This is only partly shown. At the right corner is a nest of tho Taha Weaver {Enplec-
tes taha), a pretty little bird, which is no great favorite with tho African farmers, for
it is very numerous, especially in cultivated regions, and has no scruples about helping
itself to tho produce of the gardens, whose owners aro obliged to keep up a keen
watch if they expect to secure a fair share of the crops. Lastly, in tho bottom centre,
is the nest of tho Yellow capped Weaver {Ploceus iclerocephalus). This nest is re-
markable for the extreme neatness and compactness of its structure. The body of tho
nest is of seed-stems so closely interwoven that it can be handled, or even kicked like
a foot-ball, without being destroyed. Tho interior is lined with layers of flat leaves,
kept in place by t leir own elasticity, which afford a smooth, soft resting-place for tho
eggs and young b'.rds.

Parrots have so many points of resemblance to monkeys in their ta.ste8 and habits,
that notwithstanding their different appearance, one might almost bo tempted to call
them near relations. As the monkey never sots foot on the ground if he can help it,
but springs from branch to branch of trees, so tho parrot is rarely seea walking. Hifl

11 ti

r

I

I

i I

;:|:!

cnn

THE THOl'RAL WORF.Dl

I'M

■ r
^'1

1

f

ft'

i is:

0

ri

ArUIOAN WKAVKKS.

rAUUOTS— MON'K K VS.

Ml

c.iv ■•

flij^lit is rnpiil, luit of short duration ; ho that ovidontly neithiT tlio Rrouml northoair
WHS liustii!!"! lor IiIm huhitunl iihodo. In cliniliitij^, hnwcvor, lie shows un unconiinon
cx])('rtnc'SH iiikI nj^ility, unlike that of ony other (jiiadnipud or bird, us the orj,'an lio
cliiftly usL's for th(! |iur|ios(! is iiw ln'al<. He first seizes with his jMiwerful niandililua
tiio branch lio intends to ascend, and then raises his body one foot after the other ; or,
if he happens to have a sweet nut in ills bill which ho is anxious to preserve, ho presses
ills lower mandible firmly upon the branch, and raises himself by the contracition i»f the
muscles of his neck. On desc(!ndin;^. ho lirst bends his ha^ ' vs the back of his beak
upon the branch, and while tiie extended neck supports the wcijjht of the body, iiriiij,'s
down <me foot after the other. While accidentally walking; on oven ^^round, ho alst»
rre(iuently U8es his upper mandilde us ii kind of crutch, by (Ixini; its point or Its baelt
upon the f^round ; for the formation of his toes is such, that ho can walk but very
slowly, and conycijuenfly re(|uires the aid of that singular support. But if the toos of
the parrot ure but ill adapted for walking, they render him valuable services in seizing
or grasping his food. They even form a kind of hand, with which, like the monkey,
he conveys the morsel to his beak. Tiiis easily cracks the hardest nutshells, after
which the bi'oad and fleshy tongue adroitly extracts the kernel.

In his free state the parrot lives only upon nuts and seeds ; whoa captive, however,
lie becomes onmivorous, like man his master, cats bread and meat, sugar and pastry,
and is very fond of wine, which has a most exhilarating ofTeet on his spirits. Like
most monkeys, the parrots are extremely social. At break of day they generally rise
in large bands, and with loud screams fly away to .seek their breakfast. After having
feasted together, they retire to the shady parts of the forest as soon as the heat begins
to bo oppressive, and a few hours before the setting of the sun reappear in largo troops.

If the monkeys are distinguished by a strong affection for their young, the parrots
may well bo cited as models of connubial love, for when onco a pair has been united,
its attachment remains unaltered unto death. Far more than the turtle-dove, the little
passerine parrot (Psitlncus pnsserinns) of Brazil, or the Psittacns pnllarius, or love-
parrot of Guinea, deserves to be celebrated by poets as the emblem of conjugal aflfec-
tion. Never seen but in each other's company, each delights to imitate the actions of
the other, feeding, .sleeping, bathing together ; and whoa one dies, the other soon fol-
lows its partner. A gentleman who had lost ono of a pair of these inseparables, at-
tempted to preserve the other by hanging up a looking-glass in its cage. At first the
joy of the poor bird was boundless, as he fancied his mate restored to his caresses ; but
soon perceiving the deception, he pined away and died.

Another point of resemblance lictween the parrots and monkeys is their talent
for mimicry ; but while the latter, favored })y the similarity of their organization to
that of man, strive to copy his gestures and action.s, the former endeavor to imitate his
voice and to repoat bis words, an attempt facilitated by the extreme mobility of their
tongue and upper mandible, no less than by the peculiar construction of their larynx
or windpipe. The talent of speech has not been given to all the parrots alike. The
beautiful American Aras, for instance, are in this respect remarkably stupid, while the
purple Lory of the East Indies, and the gray African parrot {Psitlacus erithacus,) are
remarkable for their linguistic attainments. They are often able to retain whole songs
and sentences, and to repeat them with astonishing exactness. Thus Le Vaillant
mentions a gray parrot ho saw at the Cape, who was able to repeat the whole of the

6«2

THE TROPICAL WORLD.

mu

*!. t

L^tii'

|ffi f iKi^r.i

w

m

m

m

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Lord's Prayer in Dutch, throwing himself at tho same time on his hack, and folding
the toes of both his feet. Tho gray parrot not only imitates tho voice of man, but liiis
also a strong desire to do so, which he manifests by his attention in listening, and by
the continuous efforts he makes to repeat the jthra-ses he has heard. He seems to im-
pose upon himself a daily task, which even occupies him during sleep, as lie speaks in
his drean.s. His memory is astonishing, so that a cardinal once gave a hundred gold
crowns for one of these birds that correctly repeated a long prayer ; and M. de la
Borde told BufTon he had seen one that was fully able to perform the duties of a ship's
chaplain.

All parrots are more or less suswptible of education, and, particularly when caught
young, grow very much attached to tho master that feeds them. Tliose that are sent
to Europe arc generally taken from the nest, and thus never have experienced tho
Siveets of freedom ; but liioy are also frequently caught full grown. The South
American Indians know how to .strike them with sniall arrows, whose points are blunted
with cotton, .so as to stun without killing them ; or else, under the trees on which thuy
perch, they light a fire of strong-smelling weeds, whose vapors cause them to drcp to
the ground. These captives are frequently extremely stubborn ; but blowimr tlio
fumes of tobacco into their face until they fall asleep is an infallible remedy to cure
them of their obstinacy, this opciation being so little to their taste that it need Iiunlly
ever be repeated twice. Parrots are known to attain a very great age. One that was
brought to Florence in 1033, and belonged to the Grand Duchess of Tuscany, died in
1743, having thus lived more than a century in exile. Although preeniinently
tropical, like the colibris, several parrots range far wi^l .n the temperate zone, as tlicy
are found in the Southern hemisphere at the Straits of Magellan and on the Macquario
Islands, and in the Northern, in Ohio and Kentucky, where the Carolina parrot is
often seen in great numbers during the summer.

The Cockatoos arc dist!ngu'i:aed from the other parrots by a crest or tuft of elegant
fealhers on the head, which they can raise and depress at pleasure. They inhabit tho
East Indies and Australia, and have generally a white or roseate plumage. Tiieir
chief resorts are dense and humid forests, and they frequently cause great devasta-
tions in the rice plantations, often pouncing to the number of sis or eight hundred
upon a single field, and destroying even more than they devour, as they seem to bo
possessed of the mania to break and tear everything their beak can lay hold of. Tiiey
walk less awkwardly than most other parrots. The great white cockatoo ( Cacatua
cristata), who is able to erect his beautiful yellow crest to the hight of five inches,
as a cock does his comb, is the species most frequently seen in Europe. This bird is
half domesticated in several parts of India, as it builds its nest under the roofs of
houses, and this tamene.ss results from its intelligence, which seems superior to that
of other parrots. It listens attentively, but vainly strives to repeat what is said. As
Australia, the land of anomalies in natural history, possesses a black swan, it also
gives birth to a splendid black cockatoo ( Cacatua Banksii), the finest and the rarest
of the whole genus.

The magnificent Macaws, or A/as, of South America are distinguished by having
their cheeks destitre of feathers, and their tail feathers long. Their size and splendid
plumage render them fit ornaments of princely gardens, but their loud and piercing
Boreama would prove a great annoyance to the inmates of humbler dwellings. " Supe-

MACAWS— PAROQUETS— OSTRICHES.

868

rior in size nna beauty to cvorj parrot of South America," says Waterton, " the Ara
{Mucrocercus macao) will force you to take your eyes from the rest of animated na-
ture, and gaze at him : his commanding strength ; the flaming scarlet of his body ;
the lovely variety of red, yellow, blue, and green, iu his wings ; the extraordinary
length of his scarlet and blue tail, seem all to form and demand for hiiu the title of
Emperor of all the parrots."

The Paroquets, or Parakeets, are smaller than the common parrots, and have longer
tails. There are numerous species, some distinguished by a very long pointed tail,
and collar-like mark round the neck, which inhabit '.ho Asiatic continent and islands ;
and others, natives of Australia, which are distinguished by their color being gor-
geously variegated and peculiarly mottled on the back, by their tail featlicrs not being
pointed, and by their being furnished with elongated tarsi adapted for running on the
ground. To the former belongs the beautiful ring paroquet, whicli is supposed to
have been the first bird of the parrot kind known to the ancient Greeks, having been
brought from the island of Ceylon, after the Indian expeditions of Alexander the
Great ; to the latter, the olegant green parakeet, which in the hot seasons congregates
about the pools in almost incredible numbers. Though capable of a rapid and even
flight, and frequently at great altitudes, it is generally found running over the ground,
and treading its way among the grasses to feed on the seeds. It can easily be domes-
ticated, and a more elegant or beautiful pet can scarcely be conceived.

It is a strange fact that the parrots, that wil' cat nux vomica without danger, expire
in convulsions after having tasted parsley, another proof of the truth of the saying
that what is poison for one creature is food for another.

In the African plains and wildomesses, where the lion seeks his prey, where the
pachyderms mjike the earth tremble under their weighty strides, where the giraffe
plucks the high branches of the acacia, and the herds of the antelope bound along :
there also dwells the Ostrich, the king of birds, if size alone give right to so proud a
title ; for neither the condor nor the albatross can be compared in this respect to the
ostrich, who raises his head seven or eight feet above the ground, and attains a weight
of from two to three hundred pounds. His small and weak wings are incapable of
carrying him through tiio air, but their flapping materially assists the action of his
legs, and serves to increase his swiftness when, flying over the plain, he " scorns the
horse and its rider." His feet appear hardly to touch the ground, and the length
between each stride is not unfrequently from twelve to fourteen feet, so that for a time
he might even outstrip a locomotive rushing along at full speed.

Not only by his speed is the ostrich able to baffle many an enemy, the strength of
his legs also serves him as an excellent means of defence ; and many a panther or wild
dog coming within reach of his foot has had reason to repent of its temerity. But in
spite of the rapidity of his fliglit, during which he frequently flings large stones back-
wards with his foot, and in spite of his strength, he is frequently obliged to succumb
to man, who knows how to hunt him in various ways. Unsuspicious of evil, and
enjoying the full liberty of the desert, a troop of ostriches wanders through the plain,
the monotony of which is only relieved hero and there by a clump of palms, a patch
of candelabra-shaped tree-euphorbias, or a vast and solitary baobab. Some leisurely
feed on the sprouts of the acacias, the hard dry leav '^ of the mimosas, or the prickly
naras, whose deep orange-colored pulp forms one of their favorite repasts; others

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THE TROPICAL WORLD.

agitate their wings and yentilate the delicate plumage, the possession of which is soon
to prove so fatal to them. No other bird is seen in their company — for no other bird
leads a life like theirs; but the zebra and the antelope are fond of associating with
the ostrich, desirous perhaps of benefiting by the sharpness of his eye, which is capable
of discerning danger at the utmost verge of the horizon. But in spite of its vigilauco,
misfortunes ure already gathering round the troop, for the Bedouin has spied them
out, and encircles them with a ring of his fleetest coursers. In vain the ostrich seeks
to escape. One rider drives him along to the next, the circle gradually grows nar-
rower and narrower, and, finally, the exhausted bird sinks upon the ground, and
receives the death-blow with stoical resignation. But the exertion of a lo. •» protracted
chase is not always necessary to catch the ostrich ; for before the rainy season, when
the heat is at its hight, he is frequently found upon the sand with outstretched wings
and open beak, and allows himself to be caught after a short pursuit by a single horse-
man, or even by a swift-footed Bushman.

To surprise the cautious seal the Northern Esquimaux puts on a skin of the animal,
and imitating its motions mixes among the unsuspicious herd ; and, in South Africa,
we find the Bushman resort to a similar stratagem to outwit the ostrich. Ho forms a
kind of saddle-shaped cushion, and covers it over with feathers, so as to resemble tlie
bird. The head and neck of an ostrich are stuffed, and a small rod introduced. Pre-
paring for the chase, he whitens his black legs with any substance ho can procure,
places the saddle on his shoulders, takes the bottom part of the neck in his right hand,
and his bow and poisoned arrows in his left. Under this mask he mimics the ostrich
to perfection, picks away at the verdure, turns his head as if keeping a sharp look-out,
shakes his feathers, now walks, and then trots, till he gets within bowshot, and when
the flock runs, from one receiving an arrow, he runs too. Sometimes, however, it
happens that some wary old bird suspects the cheat, and endeavors to get near Ihe
intruder, who then tries to get out of the way, and to prevent the bir J from catching
his scent, which would at once break the spell. Should one of the birds happen to
get too near in pursuit, he has only to run to windward, or throw off his saddle, to
avoid a stroke from a wing which would lay hir- prostrate.

The Bushman frequently has recourse to a much simpler plan. Having discovered
the nest of an ostrich, he removes the eggs as the first fruits of conquest, and then,
concealing himself in the empty cavity, patiently waits for the return of the bird,
which he generally iispatches with one of those poisoned arrows ,vhich make incred-
ible havoc among the wild herds of the bush or the savannah. According to Dr. Liv-
ingstone, the venom most generally employed is the milky juice of the tree-eupborbia,
which is particularly hurtful to the equine race. When it is mixed with the water of
a pond, a whole herd of zebras will fall dead from the effects of the poison before
they have moved away two miles ; while on oxen and men it acts as a drastic purga-
tive only. This substance is used all over the country, though in some places the
venom of serpents and a certain bulb, Amaryllis toxicaria, are added, in order to
increase the virulence. A slender reed only slightly barbed with bono or iron, but
imbued with this poison, is sufficient to destroy the most powerful animal. Thus wo
find the African savage subdues the beasts of the field by similar means to those which
are used by the wild nations on the banks of the Orinoco or the Amazon.

The ostrich generally passses for a very stupid animal, yet to protect its young it

ts vigiluiice,

HABITS OF THE OSTRICH.

665

bas recturse to various cunning stratagems. Thus Andersson and Galton, while trav-
ersing a barren plain, once hit upon a male and female ostrich, with a brood of young
ones about the size of ordinary barn-door fowls. This was a sight they had long been
looking for, having been requested by Professor Owen to pronuro a few craniums of
the young ostrich, in order to settle certain anatomical questions ; so forthwith dis-
mounting from their oxen, they gave chase, which proved of no ordinary interest.
Says Andersson : " The moment the parent birds became aware of our intention, they
set off at full speed, the female leading the way, the young following in her wake,
and the male, though at some little distance, bringing up ihc rear of the family party.
It was very touching to observe the ajxiety the old birds evinced for the safety of
their progeny. Finding that we were quickly gaining upon them, the male at once
slackened his pace, and diverged somewhat from his course ; but, seeing that we were
not to bo diverted from our purpose, he again increased his speed, and with wings
drooping, so as almost to touch the ground, ho hovered round us, now in wide circles,
and then decreasing the circumference till he came aln ost within pistol-shot, when he
abruptly threw himself on the ground and struggled desperately to regain his legs, as
it appeared, like a bird that had been badly wounded. Having previously fired at
him, I really thought he was disabled, and made quickly towards him. But this was
only a ruse on his part ; for on my nearer approach he slowly rose, and began to run
in an opposite direction to that of the female, who by this time was considerably ahead
with her charge. After about an hour's severe chase, we secured nine of the brood ;
and though it consisted of about double that number, wo found it necessary to be con-
tented with what we had baggrd."

While breeding, the ostrich likewise resorts to various artifices to remove intruders
from its rude nest, which is a mere cavity scooped out a few inches deep in the sand
and about a yard in diameter. Thus Thunberg relates that riding past a place whero
a hen-ostrich sat on her nest, the bird sprang up and pursued him, in order to draw
off his attention from her young ones or her eggs. Every time the traveler turned his
horse toward her, she retreated ten or twelve pacos, but as soon as he rode on, pursued
him again. Is it not truly wonderful how parental affection at the approach of danger
seems to rouse the intelligence of an animal to higher exertions, and to raise it above
its usual sphere !

The instinct of the ostrich in providing food for its young is no less remarkable, for
it is now proved that this bird, far from leaving its eggs, like a cold blooded reptile, to
be vivified by t^<i sun, r.s was formerly supposed, not only hatches them with the
greatest care, but even reserves a certain portion of eggs to provide the young with
nourishment when they first burst into life : a wonderful provision, when we consider
how difficult it would be for the brood to find any other adequate food in its. sterile
haunts. In Senegal, where the heat is extreme, the ostrich, it is said, sits at night
only upon those eggs which are to bo rendered fertile, but in extra-tropical Africa,
where the sun has less power, the mother remains constant in her attentions to the
eggs both day and night. The number of eggs which the ostrich usually sits upon is
ten ; but the Hottontots, who are very fond of them, upon discovering a nest, seize
fitting opportunities to remove one or two at a time ; this induces the bird to depo^iit
more, and in this manner she has been known, like tbo domestic ben, to lay between
forty and fifty in a season.

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THE TROPICAL WORLD.

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But the ostrich has other enemies besides the sava;»o or the hungry traveler to fear
for its young brood. Thus the natives about the Orange River assert that, when the
birds have left their nest in the middle of the day in search of food, a white vulture
may be seen soaring ir mid air, with a stone between his talons. Having carefully
surveyed the ground below him, he suddenly lets fall the stone, and then follows it in
rapid descent. On running to the spot you will find a nest of probably a score of eggs,
some of them broken by the vulture who used this ingjnious device for procuring iuin-
self a dainty meal.

Almost as soon as the chicks of the ostrich (which are about the size of pullets)
have escaped from the shell, they are able to walk about and to follow the mother, on
whom they are dependent for a long time. And here again we find a wonderful pro-
vision of nature in providing the young of the ostrich with a color and a covoring ad-
mirably suited to the localities they frequent. The color is a kind of pcpper-andsalt,
agreeing well with the sand and gravel of the plains, which they are in the habit of
traversing, so that you have the greatest difficulty in discerning the chicks even when
crouching under your very eyes. Tlie covering is neither down nor feathers, but a
kind of prickly stubble, which no doubt is an excellent protection against injury from
the gravel and the stunted vegetation amongst which they dwell.

The ostrich resembles in many respects the quadrupeds, and particularly the camel,
so that it may almost be said to fill up the chasm which separates *ho mammalia from
the birds, and to form a connecting link between them. Wo indeed hesitated in thi;
work whether to place the ostrich among birds or animals. Both the ostric'i and the
dromedary have warty excrescences on the breast upon which they lean whilst repos-
ing, an almost similarly formed foot, the same muscular neck ; and when we consider
that they both feed upon the most stunted herbage, and are capable of supporting
thirst for an incredibly long time, being, in fact, both equallv well formed for living
on the arid plains, it is certainly not to be wondered at that the ancients gave the
ostrich a name betokening this similitude {Struthiocamelus,) and that the fancy of the
Arabs ascribes its original parentage to a bird and to a dromedary.

It is difiiujilt to ascertain what the tastes of the ostrich may be while roaming the
desert, but when in captivity no other bird or animal shows less nicety in the choice of
its food, gobbling down with avidity stones, pieces of wood and iron, spoons, knives,
and other articles of equally light digestion that may be presented to it. Thus it has
always been far-famed for the wonderful powers of its stomach, and many amusing an-
ecdotes are told of its voracity. A batch of these birds having once been brought to
a small town for the inspection of the curious, a respectable matron, anxious to obtain
a sight of the strange creatures, hastily shut up her house, and, key in hand, hurried
to the spot where they were kept. Scarcely had she arrived, when one of them gravely
stalked up, as if to thank her for her visit, and suddenly Dcnding its long neck, to hor
horror, snatched the key out of her hand, and swallowed it in a trice ; so that the in-
dignant old lady — thus shut out of her own house — vowed that if all the beasts of
Africa were to pass her door, she would not so much as open it to look at them.
"Nothing," says Methuen, speaking of a domesticated ostrich, "disturbed its diges-
tion— dyspepsia (happy thing) was undreampt of in its philosophy. One day a Mus-
covy-duck broaght a proposing race of ducklings into the world, and with maternal pride
conducted them forth into the yard. Up with solemn and measured str'de walked tho

iv-i

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and the

to obtain

THE OSTRICH— THE EMU— THE CASSOWARY.

ostrich, and, Tearing the most mild and benignant cast of face, swallowed them all,
one after the other, like so many oysters, regarding the indignant hissings and bristling
plumage of the hapless mother with stoical inditfu'ronco." Baron Aiiui\pitaine relates
that he every evening used to regale a tame ostrich with a newspaper, wiiieli the bird
completely swallowed, thus literally stuffing itself with all the knowle Igu of the day.

The costly white plumes of the ostrich, which are chierty obtained froi.\ the wings,
form a considerable article of commerce, having been prized in all ages for the ele-
gance of their long, waving, loose, and flexible barbs. The thinner the qi:ill and the
longer and more wavy the plume, the more it is prized. ITrom seventy to ninety
feathers go to the pound ; but a single bird seldom furnisaes more than a dozen, as
many of them are spoilt by trailing or some other accident.

In the I'ell, or the cultivated coast districts of Algeria, the ostrich is often domesti-
cated, particularly on account of its eggs, which weigh three pounds, and are equiva-
lent to twenty-four of the common fowl's eggs. It might bo supposed that one of
these giant eggs would be too much for the most vigorous appetite, yet Andersson saw
two natives despatch five of them in the course of an afternoon, besides a copious al-
lowance of flour and fat. According to the taste of this Swedish Nimrod, they afi()nl
an excellent repast ; while Dr. Livingstone tells us they have a strong, disagreeable
flavor, which only the keen appetite of the desert can reconcile one to. But as there
is no accounting for tastes, the Romans .seemed to have prized it ; and Firmus, one of
their pseudo-empercrs, most likely desirous of emulating the gormandizing powers of
the bird on which he fed, is said to have devoured a whole ostrich at one sitting.
Even the eggshell has its value, and is an excellent vessel for holding liquids of any
kind. The Bushmen have hardly any other household utensil. By covering it with
a light network it may be carried slung across the saddle. Grass and wood serve as
substitutes foi corks.

Though not possessing the true camel-bird, America has the largo Rheas, which
from their size and similar habits have been styled the ostriches of the New World,
though differing in many essential characters One species, the Rhea Darwinli, in-
habits Patagonia, while the Emu or Nandu {Rliea Americana) is found throughout
the whole eastern part of South America, from Buenos Ayres to the Orinoco, wherever
open plains, pampas, campos, or savannas, invite it to take up its residence. The
nandu is not near so tall as the true ostrich, scarcely rising above four feet, and is of
a uniform gray color except on the back, which has a brown tint. The back and rump
are furnished with long feathers, but not of the same rich and costly kind as those
which adorn the African ostrich. Its feeble wings merely serve to accelerate its flight,
serving it as oars or sails, particul rly when running with the wind. It is not easily
caught, as it not only runs very ''.st, but in zigzag lines, so that the horse, rendered
giddy by so many evolutions, at length drops down with its rider.

The galeated Cassowary, ( Casuarius galeatus), thus called from its head being sur-
mounted by a kind of horny helmet, is a native of Java and the adjacent isles. The
skin of the head and upper part of the neck is naked, of a deep blue and fiery red
tint, with pendant caruncles similar to those of the turkey cock. It is much inferior
in size to the ostrich, and its wings are reduced to so rudimentary a state, consisting
merely of five long br'stles, witho ;t any plumes, that they are even unable to assist it
in running. All its feathers are of the same kind, being eutiroly designed for cover-

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THE TROPICAL WORLD.

ing, and resemble at a little distance a coat of coarse or hanging h^ir. It feeds on
fruits, eggs of birds, and tender herbage, and is said to be as voracious as the ostrich.
The cassowary is a very swift runner ; striking out alternately with one of its robust
powerful legs, it projects its body violently forward with a bounding motion far sur-
passing the speed of the horse.

The Australian Emu {Dromaius Nova Hollandiee) is allied to the cassowary,
though differing in many external characters. Both the helmet, and the long pens or
quills observable in the wings of the latter, are here wanting ; its neck and legs are
longer, its feathers, for the most part gray and brown mixed, are not so filiform, niid
its beak also is differently shaped. In size it more nearly approaches the ostriili,
rising to a hight of seven feet, and from its great muscular powor is able to run so
quickly as to distance the swiftest greyhound. Incessant peisecutions have driven it
far away from the colonized parts of the country ; but it has still a vast range in the
wilds of the interior. It lives on fruits, eggs, and even small animals, which it swal<
lows entire.

THE CLIMBERS OF THE TROPICAL WORLD.

66fi

CHAPTER XIII.

I'f"

THE CLIMBERS: BATS, SLOTHS, AND SIMLE.

Dots: Their Wonderful Organization — The Fox-Bat — Eaten by the Malays — Vampire Bats
— Their Blood-sucking Propensities — The Horseshoe Bat — The Nycterihia — Tiie Flying
Squirrel — The Galcopithecus — Tlie Anomalurus. — The Sloth: Pitiful Description given
of Him — His beautiful Organization for his peculiar Mode of Life — His rapid Movements
in the Trees — His Means of Defense — His Tenacity of Life — The Unau — Tlie Ai —
Gigantic Primeval Sloths. — Monkeys: Good Climbers, but bad Walkers — Imperfectly
known to the Ancients — Similitudes and Differences between Man and Apes — Tlie Chim-
panzee— The Gorilla — Du Chaillu's First Encounter with a Gorilla — The Gorilla and her
Young — The Orang-Utan, or Mias — Wallace's Accounts of Shooting the Ornng — Their
Tenacity of Life — Size of the Orang — The Orang as a Combatant — The Orang fighting
the Crocodile and Python — Habits of the Orang — Wallace's Young Pet Ornng — The
Gibbons — Monkeys of the Old and New Worlds — The Semnopitheci— The Proboscis
Monkey — The Sacred Ape of the Hindus — The Cercopitheci — The Magots — The Cyno-
cephali, or Baboons — The Maimon — The Great Baboon of Senegal — 'I'lie Derryas — The
Loris — Monkeys of the New World — Monkeys Distinguished by their Tails and Teeth —
The Wourali Poison — The Indian Blow-Pipe — Mildness of American Monkeys — The
Howling Monkeys — The Spider-Monkeys — The Fox-tail Monkeys — The Saimaris — Noc-
turnal Monkeys — The Domesticated Nocturnals — The Squirrel-Monkey.

"TXT'E are accustomed to consider all animals as embraced in one of three great
V V divisions : Beasts, or those that walk upon the earth ; Birds, or those that
fly in the air ; Fishes, those that swim in the water. But closer investigation shows
us that this division is wholly inaccurate. There are walkers upon earth, as the
ostrich, which are not beasts ; swimmers in the water, as the whale, which are not
fishes ; and flyers in the air, lika the bat, which are not birds. Then there are others
whose home is neither upon the earth, in the air, nor in the water. Though some are
able to fly a little in the air, others to walk a little on the ground, their homo is upon
the branches of trees, their occupation is climbing. We will, regardless of other
peculiarities, designate them as climbers ; and will in this chapter group together a few
species which ar3 notably characteristic of the Tropical World ; commencing with those
which, like the bat, most nearly resemble birds, and ending with those which, like the
monkey tribe, most nearly resemble man.

When the sun has disappeared below the horizon, and night falls on the landscape,
which a little while ago was bathed in light, then from hollow trees, and creviced rocks,
and ruined buildings, a strange and dismal race comes forth. Silently hovering
through the glades of the woods, or skimming along the surface of the streams, it
catches the crepuscular or nocturnal moths, and serves like the swallow by day to
check the exuberant multiplication of the insect tribes. But while man loves the

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swallow, nnd suffers him to build bis nost under the caves of liis dwelling, lio abhors
the but, which like an evil npirit avoids the light of day, and seems to fuel hup|)y only
in darkness. The painter gives to his angels the white pinions of the swan, while Lis
denums are made to bear the bluek wings of the bat.

And yet most species of the bat are most inoffensive creatures ; while a closer
inspection of their wonderful organization proves them to be far more de-i^crving of ad-
miration than of repugnance. (Jan anything bo better adapted to its wants than tlio
delicate membrane, which, extending over the long, slim fingers, can bo spread and
folded like an umbrella, so as to form a wing when the animal wishes to fly, and in
collapse into a small space when it is at rest ? IIow .slight the bones, hew light the
body, how beautifully formed for flight ! Admire also the tiny unwobbed thumb,
which serves the bat to hook itself fast while resting, or to clip oflP the wings of tlio
flies or moths, which it never devours with the rest of the body. But the exquisite
acuteness of the senses of smell, feeling, and hearing in the bat is still more wonder-
ful than its delicate flying apparatus. Naturalists, more curious than humane, have
blinded bat,s, and seen, to their astonishment, that they continued to fly about, as if
still pos.sessed cf the power of vi.sion. They always knew how to avoid branches sus-
pended in the room in which they were flitting, and even flew betwixt threads htmg
perpendicularly from the ceiling, though these wore so near each other, that they
were obliged to contract their wings in order to pass through them. To cxfilain these
wonderful phenomena, Spallan::ani and other naturalists of the last century believed
the bats to be endowed with a sixth sense ; but Carlyle found that, on closing the ears
of the blinded creatures, they lose their wonderful power, and hit against the sides of
the room, without being at all aware of their situation. How they are able to distin-
guish night from day when shut up in a dark box, is a fact still unexplained. As
long as the sun stands above the horizon, they will remain perfectly quiet, but as soon
as twilight begins to darken the earth, a strange piping and chirping and scratching is
hoard within the lightless dungeon, and scarcely has the lid been raised, when the
prisoners rapidly escape.

Though the temperate regions possess many bats, yet they are most numerous and
various in tliC woody regions of the tropical zone, where the vast numbers of the insect
tribes and forest fruits afford them a neverfiuling supply of food. There also.tliey
attain a size unknown in our latitudes, so that both from their dimensions and their
physiognomy, many of the larger species have obtained the name of flying dogs or
flying-foxes.

On approaching a Javanese village, you will sometimes see a stately tree, from
whose branches hundreds of large black fruits seem to be suspended. A strong smell
of ammonia and a piping noise soon, however, convince you of your mistake, and a
closer inspection proves them to be a large troop of Kalongs or Fox-bats (Pleropus)
attached head downwards to the tree, where they rest or sleep during the day time,
and which they generally quit at sunset, though some of them differ so much from the
usual habits of the family as to fly about in the broad light of day.

It is said that it must have been a very hungry man who first ate an oyster ; and
we are not told that the omniverous Chinese have yet got as far as to include bats
among their edibles; but Mr. Wallace* assures us that the natives of Batchian, one

* Malay Arcliipelago, 841.

reads Ining

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FLYING - FOXES -BATS -V AMIMllKS.

071

of the Malay islands, " consider tlio groat ugly flying-foxes nn ospooiiil dolieary. At
about the beginning of the year tliey (ionio in largo flocks to eat fruit, and congrogato
during the day on «>rno sniail islands in the bay, hanging !)y tliousamls on the trees,
especially on dead ones. Tiiey can then bo easily caught or knocked down with clicks,
and are brought home by Itasketfuls. T'<ey rerjuire to bo carefully pn lareil, as tho
skin and fur has n powerful foxy odor; but they arc generally cooked witli almndanco
of spices and condiments, and are really very good eating, sometiiiii?; like hare."

The phyllostomidic, a species of bat distinguished by having the orifices of tho nos-
tril |)laced in a kind of niendjranou.s scutcheon, surmounted by a leaf-like expansion,
like tho head of a lanco, and supposed to extend in an extraordinary degree tho sense
of fiuielling, arc exclusively coidined to tho western continent. Tliese pliyllostoniidio
are remarkable for their blood-sucking propensities, and under tho name of Vampires
have brought tho whole race of tho largo tropical bats into evil repute.

Prince 3Iaxiniilian of Neu Wied often saw by moonshine, or in the twilight, the
Guandiru {Phyllosloma hasta(um), a bat five ii..nes long, and measuring twenty-threo
inches with ouiStretched wings, hover about his horses and nmles while grazing after
their day's journey. Tho animals did not sceni incommoded by its presence, but oa
the following morning, he generally found them covered with blood from tho shoulders
to tho hoofs. The muscular under-lip of tho pliyllostoma can be completely folded
together in the sliape of a sucking-tube, which, after the sharp canine teeth have j)en.
etrated the skin, continues to piimp forth tho blood. Even man him.self is liable to
the attacks of tho larger i)hyliostomid!0.

".Some years ago," says Jlr. Waterton, " I was in Dcmarara with a Scotch gentle-
man, by name Tarbet. We hung our hammocks in tho thatclied loft of a planter's
house. Next morning T heard this gentleman muttering in his hammock, and now
and then letting fall an imprecation or two, just about tho time he ought to have been
saying his morning prayers. ' What is tho matter, Sir ? ' said I, .softly : ' is anything
amiss ? ' ' What's tho matter? ' answered he surlily ; ' why, the vamp-ires have been
sucking me to death.' As soon as there was light cnougli, I went to his hammock,
and saw it much stained with blood. ' There,' said he, thrusting his foot out of the
iiammoek, ' see how these infernal imps have been drawing my life's blood.' On exam-
ining his foot, I found the vampire had tapped his great too : there was a wound
8omewhat less than that made by a leech ; tlie blood was still oozing from it. I con-
jectured he might have lost from ten to twelve ounces of blood. Whilst examining
it, I think I put him into a worse humor by remarking that an European surgeon
would not have been so generous as to have blooded him witliout making a charge.
He looked up in my face, but did not say a word ; I saw he was of opinion that I had
better have spared this piece of ill-timed levity."

Captain Stedman, while in Surinam, was attacked in a similar way, " On waking,"
lie says, "about four o'clock one morning in my hammock, I was extremely alarmed
at finding myself weltering in congealed blood, yet without feeling any pain whatever.
Having started up, I ran for the surgeon, with a fire-brand in one hand, and all over be-
smeared with gore. The mystery, however, was soon .solved, for I then found I had
been bitten by tho vampire or spectre of Guiana." Other instances of the same kind
are mentioned by Tschudi, Schomburgk, Azara (who was phlebotomized no less than
four times by the vampire,) and other naturalists of equal repute, so that there is no

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THE TROPICAL WORLD.

rooflon to doubt tbo fact. The general food of tho pliylloHtomidoo ronsls^s, bowover, in
vcsportino and nocturnal moths, and VVatorton is of opinion that 'hoy al <o partalto of
vegetable food. Tho Vampire {PhyUostoma spectrum.) in genural, Mieusures oliout
twenty-six inches from wing to wing extended, so that his diuiensirns are not equal to
those of tho oriental kalong. Liito tho flying foxes, bo may somotines bo seen in tbo
forest hanging in clusters, bead downwards, from tbo brancii of a tree. Some of tho
pbyllostomidio bavo a tongue once as long again as the bead, and armed at tbo extrciu.
ity with recurved bristles, like that of tho wood-pecker, no doubt a very servicoahlo
instrument for extracting insects from the narrow hollows and crevices of trees and
rocks.

The Rbinolopbi or ITorse-sboe Bats of the old continent, have also a moie or less
complicated nasal appendage, or foliacoous membrane at tbo end of tho nose, but dif-
fering in its conformation, from that of tbo pbyllostomidio. They are insectivorous, like
most of their order, and none of them seem to indulge in tlio blood-sucking propen-
sities of tho large American vampires. They chiefly inhabit tbo tropical regions of
Africa and Asia, and more particularly tbo Indian archipelago, but tho Rhiiiolophus
unihastatus ranges in Europe as far as flngland.

Numerous genera and species of tropical bats, distinguished from each other by the
formation of their teeth, lips, nostrils, beads, wings, and tails, have already been
classified by naturalists ; but many, no doubt, still live unknown in tlieir gloomy
retreats, for who is able to follow them into the obscure nooks of tbo forest, or in intri-
cate caverns, and accurately to observe them during their nocturnal rambles V It may
give an idea of their vast numbers throughout tbo torrid zone, when we bear that in
Ceylon alone about sixteen species bavo boen identified, and of these two varieties uro
peculiar to the island. Unlike the sombre bats of tbo northern climates, the colors of
some of them t.re as brilliant as the plumage of a bird, bright yellow, doop orange, or
of a rich ferruginous brown, thus contradicting the general belief which attires noc-
turnal animals in vestures as dark us their pursuits.

The torrid zone, which produces the largest bats, also gives birth to the tiniest repre-
sentatives of the order, such as the minute Singhalese variety, {Scotophilus Coroman-
deli'cus,) which is not much larger than the humble-bee, and of a glossy black color.
"It is so familiar and gentle," says Sir J. E. Tennent, "that ib will alight on the
cloth during dinner, and manifests so little alarm that it seldom makes any effort to
escape before a wine-glass can be inverted to secure it." The fur of this pretty little
creature, like that of many other bats, is frequently found infested with a most singul ir
insect. Unlike most parasites, which are either extremely sluggish in their movements,
or even condemned to utter immobility, the velocity of the Nycteribia is truly mar-
vellous ; and. as its joints are so flexible as to yield in every direction, It tmublis
through the fur of the bat, rotating like a wheel on the extreir. 'es of its spokes, or
like the clown in a pantomime, hurling him.self forward on bands and feet alternately.
To assist its mountebank movements, each foot is armed with two sharp hooks, with
elastic pads opposed to them, so that the hair can not only be rapidly seized and firmly
clasped, but as quickly disengaged as the creature whirls away in its headlong career.
But the strangest peculiarity of the Nycteribia is the faculty which it possesses of
throwing back or inverting its bead so completely, that the under side becoming upper-
most, the mouth, the eyes, and the antennae are completely hid between ita shoulders,

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I'LYiXfJ ANIMALS— TllK SF.OTII.

878

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partako of
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(cen in tlio
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tlio oxtrem-
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the colors of
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attires noc-

tiniest rcpre-
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black color,
[light on the
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movements,
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ll,"lt tlUlll'll'S

^8 spokes, or
alternately,
hooks, with
Id and firmly
lUong career.
[possesses of
Iming upper-
Its shoulders,

and then again projecting it forward by a sudden jerk of its long, flexible neck. By
means of this wonderful organizatior), the nindile parasite feels eompletidy at borne in
the furry coat which has been assigni.'d to it as a pasturi* ground, and whisks along an
easily through the hairy thicket as the monkey through the bush-ropcH of the forest.

Though incapable of a prolonged flight likit the bats, several other tropical ((uadrupeiU
have been provided with extensions of the skin, which give them the power of Hupportin;;
themselves for some time in the air, and of making prodigiou.s leaps. Thus, by means
of an expansile furry niendnane reaching from the fore feet to the hind, the Flying
SquirrelH {Plennnys) bound, or rather swiftly sail, to the distance of twenty fathoinn
or more, and thus pass from one tree to another, always directing their flight ob-
li({uely downwards. They very rarely descend to the groiind, and when taken or
placed on it, run or wpring somewhat awkwardly with their tail elevated, beginning to

cinn

l> with great iictivity as soon as they reach a tree.

The Galeopitheci are in like manner enabled i) take long sweeping leaps from troo
to tree, by means of an extension of their skin between the anterior and posterior
liiidis on each side, and between the jiostcrior limb,s, including also ih" tnil. These
extraordinary animals are natives of the islands of the Indian archipelago. They in-
habit lofty trees in dark woods, to which they cling with ali four extremities. During
the day time, they suspend themselves like bats from the branches, with their he.ids
downwards, but at night they rou.so themselves and make on active search for food,
which consists of fruits, insects, eggs, and birds. They are inoffensive, but on at-
tempting to seize them, they inflict a sharp scratch with their trenchant nails.

Tlio Anomaluri of the west coast of Africa, which liJ.ve only been known to tho
world since 1842, and possess a most remarkable tail, covered on the lower surface of
its base with imbricated liorny scales, resemble the galeopitheci by tho wing like ex-
pansion of their skin, and no doubt tho investigations of travelers will bring to light
other animals endowed with similar parachutes.

"The piteous aspect, tho sorrowful gestures, tho lamentable cry of tho Sloth all
condiine to excite commiseration. While other animals assemble in herds, or roam in
pairs through the boundless forest," so writes an eminent naturalist, " the sloth leads
a lonely life in those immeasurable solitudes, where tho slowness of bis movements
exposes him to every attack. Harmless and frugal, like a pious anchorite, a few
coarse leaves are all he asks for his support. On comparing him with other animals,
you would say that his deformed orgoniz.ition was a strange mixture of deficiency and
superabundance. He has no cutting teeth, and though possessed of four stomachsi
he still wants tho long intestines of rumin .ting animals. His feet are without soles*
nor can ho move his toes separately. His hair is coarse and wiry, and its dull color
reminds one of grass withered by the blasts of surly winter. His legs appear de-
formed by the manner in which they are attached to the body, and his claws seem
disproportionately long. Surely a creature so wretched and ill-formed stands Last on
the list of all the four-footed animals, and may justly accuse Nature of step-motherly
neglect !"

When seeing a captured sloth painfully creeping alon^ on even ground, sighing and
moaning, and scarcely advancing a few steps after hours of awkward toil, the observer
might well be disposed to acquiesce in the foregoing remarks, and to fancy he had
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d'lKcovorod a flaw ninonp; tlm gfricral iionuty of tlio Creator's work-s ; but let liiiii view
tliu (iniinul in tho Nituution for wliu;h it wuh itrdiiinuil, anil ho will hoou rctruct liis lla^•l)r
judgment, and iliH(M)vur it to ho no Ioah purfeut in itH kind, and no Iohh admirably fittrd
for itH Hphoro of exi«tenro, than tho most hij^lily organized of tho mammalian trihin.
For tho Hloth, in hiH wild Htato, nponds IiIh wliolo life in tho troeri, and never once
touchoH tho earth but through forco or by aeeident. Like tho monkey, ho \mn been
formed for an cxe!\iNively nylvan life, high u1h)vo tho ground, in tho green eunopy of
tho wo(m1s ; but whiio tho nimblu nimiiu constantly live upon tho branohoH, tho Hloth is
doomed to spend Iuh whole life under tlioin. Ho moves, ho rests, ho sleeps Huspemlud
from tho boughs of trees, a wonderfully strange way of lifo, for which no other
four-footed animal of tho Old or tho New World has been destined.

And now cxamino his organization with referoneo to this peculiar mode of exist-
cnce, and all his seeming deficiencies and deformities will appear most adiniriilily
adapted to his wants, for these strong, muscular, preposterously long foro-feof, whilo
tho hinder extremities aro comparatively short and weak, those slender toes armed
with enormous daws, aro evidently as well suited for clasping tho rugged branch as
tho enormous hind legs of tho kangaroo for bounding over tlio arid plain. Indeed, in
every cose, wo shall find tho fuiidamentul typo or idea of tho four extromities belong-
ing to tho vertobratod animals most admirably modified according to their wants : hero
shortened, there prolonged ; hero armed witli claws, there terminating in a hiwf ; iiero
coalescing to a tail, there assuming tho shape of a fin ; hero clothed with feathers to
cleave tho air, there raised to tho perfection of tho human hand, tho wonderful instru-
ment of a still more wonderful intelligence ; and who, seeing all this, can possibly
believe that tho world is ruled by chance, and not by an all-pervading and alniiglity
power? Thus tho sloth, .so hel{)lcss when removed from his native haunts, is far from
exhibiting tho same torpidity in his raovomonts when scon in tho place for which Na-
ture fitted him.

'' One day, as wo were crossing the Essoquibo," says Mr. Watorlon, " I saw a Inrgo
sloth on tho ground upon tho bank ; how ho had got thoro nobody could tell ; tiio
Indian said ho bad never surprised a sloth in such a situation before : ho would hardly
bavo como there to drink, for both above and below tho place tho branches of the trees
touched tho water, and aftbrdod him an easy and safe access to it. Bo this as it may,
though tho trees were not above twenty yards from him, ho could not make his way
through tho sand time enough to escape before wo landed. As soon as wo came u[)
to bim, ho threw himself upon bis back, and defended himself in gallant style with
his foro-legs. ' Como, poor fellow ! ' said I to him, ' if thou hast got into a hobble
to-day, thou shalt not suflTer for it ; I'll take no advantage of thee in misfortune ; the
iforest is largo enough both for theo and mo to rovo in. Go thy ways up above, and
enjoy thyself in these endless wilds ; it is more than probable thou wilt never have
another interview with man. So fare thee well.' On saying this I took up a long
stick which was lying there, held it for bim to hook on, and then conveyed him to a
high and stately mora. Ho ascended with wonderful rapidity, and in about a minute
ho was almost at tho top of the tree. He now went off in a side direction, and caught
hold of tho branch of a neighboring tree ; he then proceeded towards the heart of tho
forest. I stood looking on, lost in amazement at his singular mode of progress, I
followed him with my eye till the intervening branches closed in betwixt us, and then

HABITS OF TIIK SI.OTII— MEGATHKKIUMS-MYI.OUONS.

675

lout sij»1it forovpr of tho sloth. I wns Ko'inp; to arid tlijit T nover wiw a sloth take to
his \h'v\h ill Hucli earnest, but thn ux|iros.siiin will not do, for tho Hloth lius no huulx."

Tho IndiunH, to whom no oiio will dony tho crudit of ItcinK "t^n'o ohsi-rvorH of nninml
lifu, say that thu slnth wanders principally when tliu wind Idows, In calm weather ho
remains still, prolmlily not likiii)^ to cling to tho brittle extremity of the branches, lust
they should break under his weight in passing from one true to another ; but as soon
as the lireezo rises, tho branches of the iieighlioring trees becomo inftTWoven, and then
ho seizes holil of them and pursues IiIh journey in safety. There is Heldt)iii an entire
day of calm in tho forests of (iuiana. Tho trade- wind generally sets in about ten
o'clock in the morning, and since tho sloth, as wo Lavu just seen, is able to travel at a
good round puce when liu ha.s branches to cling to, there is nothing to prevent him
making a considcrablo way before the sun sinks and the wind goes down. During
night, and while reposing in tho day-time, tho sloth constantly remains suspended by
his foot, for bis anatomy is such that ho can feel comfortable in no other |)o.sition. In
this manner ho will rest for hours together, expressing his satisfaction by a kind of
purring, and from time to timo his dismal voice may bo heard resounding through the
forest, and awakening nt a distance a similar melancholy cry.

The color of tho sloth's hair so strongly resembles the huo of the mo.ss which grows
on tho trees, that the Kuropean finds it very ditlicult to make him out when ho is at
rest, and even tho falcon-eyed Indian, accustomed from his earliest infancy to note the
slightest signs of forest life, is hardly able to distinguish him from the brandies to
which ho clings. This no doubt serves him os a protection against tho attacks of many
enemies; but, far from being helpless, his powerful claws and the peculiarly enduring
strength of his long arms, make very efficient weapons of defence against the large tree-
snakes that may bo tempted to make a meal of him.

The sloth po.ssesses a remarkable tenacity of life, and withstands tho dreadful effects
of tho wourali poison of tho Macushi Indians longer than any other animal. Schom-
burgk slightly scratched a sloth in tho upper lip, and rubbed a minimum of tho venom
in the wound, which did not even emit a drop of blood ; he then carried the animal to
a tree, which it began to climb, but after having reached a hight of about twelve feet,
it suddenly stopped, and swinging its head about from side to side, as if uncertain
which way to go, tried to continue its ascent, which, however, it was unable to accom-
plish. First it lot go one of its foro-feet, then the other, and remained attached with
its bind logs to tho tree until, these also losing their powjr, it fell to the ground,
where, without any of tho convulsive motions or tho oppressive breathing which gener-
ally mark tho efTect of tho wourali, it expired in tho thirteenth minute after tho poisoa
had been administered.

The sloths attain a length of about two feet and a half, and form two genera — tho
Unaus, with two-toed fore-feet, and three-toed hinder extremities, and tho Ais, with
three toes on each foot. The former have forty-eight ribs, the latter only thirty-two.
Their way of living is tho same, and their range is limited to tho forests of Guiana
and tho Brazils. They bring forth and suckle their young like ordinary quadrupeds,
and the young sloth, from the moment of its birth, adheres to the body of its parent
till it acquires sufficient size and strength to shift for itself.

Sloth-like animals of colossal dimensions — Megatheriums, Mylodons— extinct long
before mao appeared upon the scene, inhabited the forests of South America during

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THE TllOl'lCAL WORLD.

the tertiary tif^ea of the world. From the dentition of the mylodon, it may be con-
cluded that, like the sloth of the present day, this mon.strous animal fed on the leaves
or slender terminal twigs of trees; but while the former, from the comparatively light
weight of his body, is enabled to run along the under side of the boughs till lie has
reached a commodious feeding-place, the elephantine bulk of the mylodon evidently
rendered all climbing utterly impossible. First scratching away the soil from the roots
of the tree on whose foliage he intended to feast, he next grasped it with his long fore-
legs, and rocking it to and fro, to right and left, soon brought it to the ground, for
" extraordinary must have been the strength and proportions of tliat tree," says
Professor Owen, " which in such an embrace could long withstand the efforts of its
ponderous assailant."

t

In the midst of tropical vegetation, the Siniiac, or Monkey and Ape tribes, lead a free
forest life, for which they might well be envied. The green canopy of the woods
protects them at every season of the year from the burning rays of a vertical sun,
flowers of the most delicious fragrance embalm the air they breathe, and an endless
supply of fruits and nuts never allows them to know want, for should the stores near
at hand be exhausted, an easy migration to some other district soon restores them to
abundance. With an agility far surpassing that with which the sailor ascends tlio
rigging, and climbs even to the giddy top of the highest mast, they leap from busli-
rope to bush-rope, and from bough to bough, moctiing the tiger-cat and the boa, which
aia unable to follow them in their rapid evolutions. Formed to live on trees, and not
upon the ground, they are as excellent climbers as they are bad pedestrians. Uoth
their fore and hind feet are shaped as hands, generally with four fingers and a thumb,
so that they can seize or grasp a bough with all alike.

Kuffon erroneously remarks of the chimpanzee, that ho always walks erect, even
when carrying a weight ; but this ape, as well as the other anthropomorphous siinia\
proves by the slowness and awkwardness of his movements, when by chance ho walks
upon even ground, that this position is by no means natural to him, or congenial to his
organization. Man alone, of all creatures, possesses an upright walk ; the ape, on the
contrary, always sloops, and not to lose his equilibrium when walking, is obliged to
place his hands upon the back of his head, or on his loins. Thus, in his native wilds,
ho rarely has recourse to this incouvenient mode of progression, and when forced by
some chance or other to ([uit the trees, he leans while walking upon the finger-knuckks
of his anterior extremities, a position which in fact very nmch resembles walking oa
all-fours. It is, indeed, only necessary to compare the long, robust, and muscular
arms of the chimpanzee with his weaker and shorter hind-feet, to be at once convinced
that he was never intended for walking. But see with what rapidity, with what power
and grace he moves from branch to branch, his hind-legs serving him only as iioldtasts,
while his chief strength is in hi.s arms. The tree is, without all doubt, for him what
the earth is for us, the air for the bird, or the water for the fish.

Wo cannot wonder at the ancients having known but few species of the simine, as
these animals chiefly belong to the torrid zone, with which the d reeks and Kuniaiis
were so imperfectly acquainted. It is only since a wide extent of tli'3 tropical regions
has been opened by trade or conquest to European research, thiit many of the mys-
teries of monkey-existence have been brought to light from the darkness of the pri-

II:.

BIONKKYS— DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THEM AND MEN.

(177

u:icTaI forest, and particularly within the last twenty years, naturalists and travelers
iiave devoted so much attention to this ii .cresting family, that wliilo in the year 1H4(>
only 128 species were known, their numbers had increased in 18a2 to no less than
210, a stately list, to which, since then, many more have been added, and which even
now is far from being closed.

The simiao of the Old World are all distinguished by the common character of a
narrow septum or partition of the nose like that of man, and by the same nund)cr of
teeth, each jaw being provided with ten grinders, two canine teeth, and four incisors,
as in the human race.

The large apes, or tailless monkeys, resemble us besides in many other respects, as
well in their external appearance as in their anatomical structure ; and form, as it
were, the caricature of man, both by their gestures and by glimpses of a higher intel-
ligence.

Creatures so remarkably endowed have naturally at all times attracted a great share
of attention, for if even the lowest links in the chain of animated beings lay claim to
our interest, how much more must this not be the case with beings whoso faculties
seem almost to raise them to the rank of our relations. The question how far this
similarity extends has naturally given rise to many acute investigations and been differ-
ently answered, according as naturalists were more or less inclined to depress man to
the level of the ape, or to 'iden tlie gulf between them. The former, pointing to the
brutality of the lowest savages, would willingly make us believe that we are nothing
hut an improved edition of the Uran, while the latter complacently cite in favor of
their opinion, the incommensurable distance which exists between even the most de-
graded s])ecimens of humanity and the most perfect (juadrumana. ]\Ian alone is capable
of continually progressive improvement ; in him alone each generation inherits the ac-
quirements of its fathers and transmits the growing treasure to its sons, while the ape,
like all other animals, constantly remains at the same point. Tlie lowest savage knows
luiw to make (ire ; the ape, though he may liave seen the operation performed a thou-
sand times, and have enjoyed the genial warmih of the glowing embers, will ne\er
learn the simple art. His hairy skin is a suflicient prooi" of his low intellect, an
infallible sign that, as he never would be able to provide himself with an artificial
clothing, Nature was obliged to protect him against the inclemencies of the cold nights
and the pouring rain. As man advances in age, his mind ac((uires a greater deptii
and a wider range. In the ape, on the contrary, signs of a livelier intelligence are
only exhibited during youth, and as the animal waxes in years, its j)liysiogi>oniy ac-
quires a more brutal expression ; its forehead recedes, its jaws project, and instead of
expanding to a higher perfection, its mental faculties are evidently clouded by a pre-
mature decline.

IJoth in Africa and Asia, we find large anthropomorphous apes, bat while the chim-
panzee and the gorilla exclusively belong to the African wilds, the orang and the gib-
bons arc confined to the torrid regions of South Asia.

The Chimpanzee (Simi'a troglodytes) attains a bight of about live feet, but seems
much smaller from his stooping attitude. lie inhabits the dense forests on the west
coast of Africa, particularly near the river Gaboon, and as his travels arc facilitated
by his fatherland not being too far distant from Europe, there is hardly a Zoological
(jarden of any note that does not exhibit a chimpanzee among its lions. Ouo of tho

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THE TROPICAL WORLD.

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finest specimens ever seen was kept a few years since in the Jardin des Plantes m
Paris, where the mild climate, agreeable diet (he dran'c his pint of Bordeaux daily),
and lively society of the French maintained him in wonderful health and spirits.

The body of the chimpanzee is covered with long hair on the head, shoulders, and
back, but much thinner on the breast and belly. The arras and legs are not so dis-
proportiona^ is those of the orang, the forefingers not quite touching the knees when
the animal stands upright. The upper part of the head is very flat, with a retiring
forehead, and a prominent bony ridge over the eye-brows, the mouth is wide, the ears
large, th j nose flat, and the face of a blackish-brown color.

From this short notice it will be seen at once that while the Chimpanzee has not
the least claim to beauty, he is yet fnr from equalling the hideous deformity of tlio
Gorilla, whom M. Du Chaillu, the first white man who ever saw the creature alive, has
so prominently introduced to public notice. This savage animal, which is covered
with black hair like the chimptinzee, and resembles it in the proportion of i ^ body and
limbs, though its form is much more robust, unites a most ferocious and undaunted
temper with an herculean bodily strength, and is said to hold undisputed dominion
of the hill-forests in the interior of Lower Guinea, forcing even the panther to
ignominious flight. To kill a gorilla is considered by the negroes as a most courageous
exploit ; and Dr. Savage, an American missionary on the coast of Guinea, who, in a
memoir published at Boston in the year 1847, was the first to point out the generic
diflerences between this formidable ape and the chimpanzee, tells us that a slave having
shot a male and female gorilla, whose skeletons afterwards came into his possession,
was immediately set at liberty and proclaimed the prince of hunters.

Du Chaillu's description* of his first encounter with an adult gorilla, which entirely
agrees with the accounts given to Dr. Savage by the natives of the mode of attacjj
of this monstrous creature, shows that this distinction was by no means unmerited, and
that it requires all the coolness and determination of an accomplished sportsman to
fice an animal of such appalling ferocity and power.

"The underbrush swayed rapidly just ahead, and presently before us stood an
immense male gorilla. He had gone through the jungle on his all-fours, but when he
saw our party he erected himself, and looked us boldly in the face. He stood about a
dozen yards from us, and was a sight I think I shall never forget. Nearly six feet
high (he proved four inches shorter,) with immense body, huge chest, and great
muscular arms, with fiercely glaring, large, deep-gray eyes, and a hellish expression
of face, which seemed to me like some nightmare vision • thus stood before us the
king of the African forest. He was not afraid of us. He stood there and beat iiia
breast with his huge fists, till it resounded like an immense bass-drum, which is tiitir
mode of oflering defiance, meantime giving vent to roar after roar. The roar of the
gorilla is the most singulpr and awful noise heard in these / f'rican woods. It begins
with a sharp bark like an angry dog, then glides into a deep bass roll which literally
and closely resembles the roll of distant thunder along the sky, for which I have
been sometimes tempted to take it when I did not see the animal. So deep is it tliut
it seems to proceed less from the mouth and throat than from the deep chest and vast
paunch. His eye began to flash deeper fire as we stood motionless on the defensive,
and the crest of short hair which stands on his forehead began to twitch rapidly up and

* Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa, 98.

3es Plantes in
rdeaux daily),
i spirits,
shoulders, and
are not so dis-
he knees when
?ith a retirinsr
wide, the cars

)anzee has not
eformity of tlio
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ind undaunted
puted dominion
he panther to
Qost courageous
linea, who, in a
out the generic
t a slave having
his possession,

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mode of attack
unmerited, and
sportsman to

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ish expression

before us the

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which literally

which I have

deep is it that

ihest and vast

the defensive,

rapidly up and

THE GORILLA.

679

down, while his powerful fangs were shown as he again sent forth a thunderous roar.
And now truly he reminded me of nothing but some hellish dream-creature ; a being
of that hideous order, half-man, half-beast, which wo find pictured by old artists in
some representations of the infernal regions. He advanced a few steps, then stopped
to utter that hideous roar again, advancei again, and finally stopped when at a
distance of about six yards from us. And here, just as he began another of his roars,
beating his brtast in '•age, we fired and killed him. With a groan which had something
terribly human in it, an;l yet was full of brutishness, he fell forward on his face. The
body shook convulsively for a few minutes, the limbs moved about in a struggling way,
and then all was quiets-death had done its work, and I had leisure to examine the
huge body. It proved to be five feet eight inches high, and the muscular development
of the arms and breast showed what immense strength he had possessed."

Du Chaillu's account of the gorilla was at first received with incredulity by some
prominent British naturalists; they could not believe that it was left for a young
American to bring to light a creature so fa-* exceeding in size and ferocity anything
of the kind before known. But fortunately he had brought home with him a number
of skeletons, skulls, and stuffed skins of the creatures ; and among them, as it hap-
pened, was the skin of the very one whoso death is described above. This skin
measured about five feet eight inches as it stood stufied. Had the lower limbs of the
animal been as long in proportion to its bight as those of a man, the whole bight
would have considerably exceeded six feet ; while tho muscular developments were
enormous. If one will imagine a boxing-glove furnished with huge fingers and claws,
he will get a fair idea of the paw. This collection after having been inspected by
thousands in America, was shipped to London, and the impugners of Du Chaillu
came to signal grief. Many of these specimens were purchased for the British Mu-
seum, wLere they now are. Du Chaillu, in another work,* gives some account of the
gorilla at home, and in the bosom of his family :

" Now and then I could see the foot prints of gorillas that had wandered, like
myself, through the woods, but these foot-prints were several days old. I came to a
place where pineapple plants were abundant, and where the gorillas had evidently
feasted on the leaves, for thousands of them had been plucked out, and only the white
part eaten. Here and there a young pine-apple had been partially eaten away, one or
two bites taken, and the fruit then thrown aside. I had to bo very careful in walking,
for fear of making a noise, for the forest not being dense, gorillas could have seen me
at a long distance. After awhile I came to a place where a large male gorilla had
been. The foot-prints were of enormous size, and he must have been a monstrous fol-
low. I could see by the foot prints of the monster that he had been on all-fours, and
suddenly had raised himself to an erect posture ; while the bending of a branch about
eight or nine feet high, just above the marks, showed that the animal had supported
himself by it. I lefl the place, and continued my ramble ; when in the far distance
I spied a gorilla. It was a female, and she did not see me. I hid myself behind a
tree, and watched all her movements unseen. She was seated on the ground before
a cluster of pine-apples, quietly eating one. She soon threw it away, and plucked
Borae of the leaves. She grinned now and then, probably from the pleasure the food
gave her ; when suddenly, to my utter a.stonishment, a little gorilla, about two and a

» Wild Life unuer the Equator, 78.

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080

THE TROPICAL WORLD.

half feet in bight, came running to its inothnr, who gave a kind of chuckle tlmt very
much resembled the ' click ' of the Bunhmen of Southern Africi',. I began to bo
terribly excited. I must kill the motlier, and try to capture the young one. Unfortu-
nately there Vicro many intervening trees, and she was about a hundred yards off.
How could the bullet from my ritle reach her 't I had just left my place of concealment,
when she perceived me. She uttered a piercing cry, and disappeared, with her young
one following her."

1

FEMALE GAKILLl AND YOUNG.

Du Chaillu, in his various expeditions, which occupied in all twelve years, broiij;lit
away thirty-one gorilla skins and skeletons, captured more than a dozen young ones,
and altogether saw more than three hundred of the animals. We give from his book
last cited one more picture of the domestic life of the gorilla :

" The bog was like one of the worst kind wo have in America in the overflowed
and woody land of the Western country ; only hero were creepers, thorny bushes,
hanging lianas, and grass that cuts like a razor. We entered the swamp, and came
to a dry spot, when we spied a female gorilla and her young baby. The baby was
very small, and a very dear little baby it was to its mother, for she appeared to look
at it with great fondness. I was spell-bound, and could not raise my gun to fire ; there
was something too human in that mother and her offspring. It hung by her breast ;
but unlike our babies, who have to be entirely supported, its little hands clutched its
mother's shoulder and helped to support itself. The little fellow gave a shrill and
plaintive cry, and crawled from its mother's arms to her breast to be fed ; and the
mother lowered her head and looked at her child, while with its little fingers it ])ressed
her breast so that the milk should come more freely. On a sudden the mother gave
a tremendous cry, and before T knew it she had disappeared in the forest."

As the gorilla is wholly confined to a belt in equatorial Africa, so the great Grant;-
outang {Simia satyrus) or Mias, as it is called by the natives, is only found in Borneo

III

THE ORANG-OUTANG, OR MIAS.

681

and Sumatra. To Mr. Wallace we are indebted for by far the most reliable account
of this great ape, which until Du Chaillu's discovery of the gorilla was supposed to be
the largest of the species. We give, much abridged, portions of his account :

" I was out collecting insects, not more than a quarter of a mile from the house,
when T heard a rustliug in a tree near, and looking up saw a large red-haired animal
moving slowly along, hanging from the branches by its arms. It passed on from tree
to tree till it was lost in the jungle. About a fortnight afterward I heard that one
was feeding in a tree in the swamp, and taking my gun I was fortunate enough to find
it. As soon as I approached, it tried to conceal itself among the foliage ; but T got
a shot at it, and the second barrel caused it to fall down almost dead, the two balls
having entered the body. This was a male, about half-grown, being scarcely three

V

f h

I I!

i

FKMAI.E ORANG-OCTANO.

;i:

feet high. Soon after I shot another about the same size. T gave it two shots, one
of which lodged in the body, the other broke its arm. Two Dyaks ran up to it, and
f.ch seized hold of a hand. But although one arm was broken, and it was only half-
grown, it was too strong for them, drawing them up towards its mouth notwithstanding
all their efforts so that they were obliged to let go. It now began climl)ing the tree,
and I shot it through the heart. A week after, I fired at one on a high tree. On
soeinjr me it bearan howling in a strange voice like a coush, and seonied in a great
nigo, breaking off branches with its hands, and throwing them down, ami then made
otf over the tree-tops. A week after I found another, wliich behaved in a siniilar
manner. I shot at it five times, and it remained dead on the top of the tree, sup-
ported in a fork, whence it was brought down by some Dyaks who climbed up for it.
This was the first full-grown specimen I had obtained ; but it was a female, and not
nearly so large or remarkable as the full-grown males. It was, however, three feet six
inches high, and its arms stretched out to a width of six feet six inches. I preser-ed
the skin of this animal, from which the above picture, from a photograph, was taken.
" Ten daya after, I succeeded in shooting a full grown male. My assistant told

..'

.!

9(M

THE TROPICAL WOKLD.

me that a great mias was feeding in the woods. Accompanied by two Dyaks,
we hurried to the place. I heard a slight rustling sound overhead, but could see
nothing. Then I again heard the rustling, but louder, and perceived a great red hairy
body and a huge black face gazing down from a great hight, as if wanting to know
wliut was making such a disturbance below. I fired, and ho made off, so that I could
not then tell whether I had hit him. We followed and I got four more shots at
bim, but he was always more or less protected by a huge branch on which ho was
walking. Once, while loading, I had a splendid view of him, moving along the limb
in a semi-erect posture, and showing him to be an animal of the largest size. At
length he got to one of the loftiest tr«es of the forest, and we could see one leg
hanging down useless, having been broken by a ball. He now fixed himself in a fork,
and seemed disinclined to move. I therefore fired again, when he moved off, and was
obliged to get on some lower trees, on the branches of one of which he fixed himself
in such a position that he could not fall, and lay all in a heap, as if dead or dying. I
sent for axes, and the tree was soon cut through ; but it was so held up by jungle-ropes
and climbers to the adjoining trees that it only fell in a sloping position. The mias
did not move, and I began to fear that after all we should not get him as it was near
evening, and half a dozen more trees would ha^'e to be cut down before the one he was
on would fall. As a last resource, we all began pulling at the creepers, which sliook
the tree very much, and he came down with a crash and a thud like the fall of a giant.
And a giant he was, his head and body being full as large as a man's. His hight,
measuring fairly from the top of the head to the heel, was four feet two inches. The
body just below the arms was three feet two inches round, and was quite as long as a
man's, the legs being exceedi^ly long in proportion. Oil examination we found he
had been terribly wounded. Both legs were broken, one hip-joint and the root of the
spine completely shattered, and two bullets were found flattened on his neck and jaws ;
yet he was still alive wLen he fell. Another individual of about the same size was
afterwards twice shot, causing him to loose his hold of the branch and fall flat on bis
face half buried in the swamp, where he lay for some minutes groaning and panting.
Suddenly he raised himself up nearly erect, and catching hold of a small tree, began to
ascend it. Another shot through the back caused him to fall down dead. A flattened
bullet was found in his tongue, having entered the lower part of the abdomen, and
completely traversed the body, fracturing tlie first cervical vertebra. Yet it was after
receiving this fearful wound that he had risen and began climbing with considerable
facility."

These two orangs arc the largest of which we have any reliable accounts ; although
there are doubtful stories in various books of individuals much larger — as high as five
feet two inches. How easy it is to be deceived in estimating, without actual measure-
ment, the hight of these auimals, is shown in the case of a Sumatran orang, whose
skin is now in the Calcutta museum. The captain and crew who killed him declared
that he looked taller than the tallest man, and they supposed him to be at least seven
feet high ; but when he was killed and lay upon the ground, they found that he was
only about six feet. The skin shows ihat he was really less than four feet. Mr.
Wallace admits that the largest orangs are much less than the gorilla. " I have
myself," he says, " examined seventeen freshly -killed orangs, all of which were care-
fully measured ; and also obtained skeletons of two killed by others. Of these sixteen

HABITS OF THE ORANG-OUTANG.

688

were adults, nine being males and seven females. The large adult males only varied
from four feet one inch to four feet two inches in hight, measured fairly to the heel, so
as to give the hight of the animal as if it stood perfectly erect. The extent of the
outstretched arms was from seven feet two inches to seven feet eight inches ; and the
width of the face from ten to thirteen and a half inches. The largest orang measured
by Temminck was four feet high. Of twenty-five specimens collected by Schlegel
and Muller, the largest measured four feet one inch ; and the largest skeleton iu the
Calcutta museum was four feet one and a half inch. My specimens were all from the
north-west coast of Borneo, those of the Dutch from the soutli and west coasts ; and
no specimen has yet reached Eurone exceeding these dimensions, alt^l^'lgh the total
number of skins and skeletons must i,.>^ceed a huudrcd."

The orang is a formidable opponent. " One day," says Wallace, " some Dyaks
saw a large orang feeding by the river side. On being alarmed he fled to the jungle,
and a number of men armed with spears and choppers ran out to intercept him. The
man iu front tried to run his spear through the animal's body ; but the orang seized it
in his hands, and in an instant got hold of the man's arm, which ho seized in his
mouth, making the teeth meet in the flesh above the elbow, which lie tore and lacerated
m a dreadful manner. Had not the others been close behind, the man must have
been more seriously injured, if not killed, for he was quite powerless ; but they soon
destroyed the creature with their spears and choppers. The man remained ill for a
long time, and never fully recovered the use of his arm. The Dyaks declare that the
orang is attacked by only two creatures. One old chief, of whom I inquired, said to
me, ' No animal is strong enough to hurt the mias, and the only creature he ever
fights with is the crocodile. When he goes to seek food by the river, the crocodile
sometimes tries to seize him ; but the mias gets upon him and beats him with bis hands
and feet, and tearj him and kills him. I once saw such a fight, and believe that the
mias is always the victor.' Another chief told me, ' The mias has no enemies ; no
animals dare attack it but the crocodile and the python. Ho always kills the croco-
dile by main strength, standing upon it, pulling open its jaws, and ripping up its
throat. If a python attacks a mias, he seizes it with his hands, and thon bites it, and
soon kills it. The mias is very strong ; there is no animal in tlic jungle so strong
as he.' "

The habits of the orang, as described by Wallace are somewhat peculiar: "In
making his way through the forest, he walks deliberately along some of the larger
branches, in the semi-erect attitude which the great length of his arms and the shortness
of his legs cause him naturally to assume ; and the disproportion between these limbs
is increased by his walking on his knuckles, and not on the palm of his hand, as we
.'iliould do. He seems always to choose those branches which intermingle with an
adjoining tree, on approaching which he stretches out his long arms, and seizing the
opposing boughs grasps them together with both hands, and then deliberately swings
across to the next branch, on which he walks along as before. He never jumps or
springs, or appears to hurry himself, and yet manages to get along almost as fast as
a person can run through the forest beneath. He makes a nest in which to sleep, by
breaking off boughs and laying them across each other. The natives say that he makes
a new one each night, but I think this hardly probable, or their remains would be
much more abundant. The Dyaks say that when it is very wet, he covers himself

.■ W

1 i

%

«M

THE TROPICAL WORLD.

over with large loaves or ferns, which has perhaps led to the story of his makinjr a
hut in the trees. He docs not leave his bed till the sun has well ri.scn, and lias dried
the dew upon the leaves. Ho feeds all through tlio middle of the day, but seldom
returns to the same tree two days in succession. Tiiey do not seem nincli aluriiicd at
man, as they often stared down upon nie for several minutes, and then only moved
away slowly to an adjoining tree. I never saw two full-grown animals together ; but
botli males and females are sometimes accompanied by half grown young ones, while
at other times three or four young ones were seen in company. Their food consists
almost wholly of fruit, with occasionally le ives, buds, and young shoots. They soein
to prefer unripe fruits, some of which arc .'cry sour, others intensely bitter. In other
cases they eat only the small seeds of a lar^e fruit, and they almost always waste and
destroy more than they eat. The durion" is an especial favorite, and ([uantitiL's
of this delicious fruit are destroyed whenever it grows surrounded by forest but they
will not cross clearings to g ' at them. It seems wonderful how the animal can tear
open this fruit, the outer co' ring of which is so thick and tougli, and closely covered
with strong conical spines. They probably bite off a few of these at first, and tlicti,
making a small hole, tear open the fruit with their powerful fingers. The oning
rarely descends to the ground except when, pressed by hunger, it seeks for succuluiit
shoots by the river-side, or in very dry weather, has to search for water, wliieh it
generally finds in the hollows of leaves. Onco only I saw two half-grown oran<;s on
the ground in a dry hollow. They were playing together, standing erect, and grasping
each other by the arms. It may be safely stated, however, that the orang never walks
erect, unless when using its bands to support itself by branches overhead, or wliuri
attacked. Representations of its walking with a stick aro entirely imaginary."

Mr. Wallace once caught a very young orang, not more than a foot long, which
proved a very amusing pet, quite unlike a young gorilla which Du Ciiaillu attein[)tL'il
to tame. "While carrying it home," he says, " it got his fingers in my beard, and
grasped so tightly that I had great difficulty in getting free, for the fingers are habit-
ually bent inward at the last joint, so as to form complete hooks. I had no milk to
give it, and was obliged to feed it with rice-water from a bottle with a quiil in tlio
cork, which after a few trials it learned to suck very well. When I put my linger in
its mouth, it sucked with great vigor, drawing in its cheeks with all its might, and
only after persevering a long time would it give up in disgust, and set up a scroani,
very like that of a baby in similar circumstances. When handled or nursed, it was
very quiet and contented, but when laid down by itself would invariably cry. I found
it necessary to wash it every day, and it soon began to like the operation, and when it
was dirty would begin crying, and not leave off until I carried it to the spout, when
it immediately became quiet, though it would wince a little at the first rush of thi'
cold water, and make ridiculously wry faces while the stream was running over its
head. It enjoyed the wiping and rubbing dry amazingly, and when I brushed its
hair seemed to be perfectly happy. After the first week I found I could feed it butter
with a spoon, and gave it a little more varied and more solid food. Well-soaked bis-
cuit, mixed with a little egg and sugar, and sometimes sweet potatoes were readily
eaten. It would lick its lips, draw in its cheeks, and turn up its eyes with an expres-
sion of the most supreme satisfaction when it had a mouthful particularly to its tasto ;

•Concerning this fruit see anle, 557.

A TET OUANG-OUTANG— TIIK GlIJIRhNS.

OS.-)

liiit when its food wns not PulTicienfly swoet or palatiiblo. it would turn tlio mouthful
iilH)ut with ita ton^^uc for a moiinMit, a.s if tryinj; to extract wliat flavor tiiuro wa.s, anil
tiiun push it all out betweun its lips. If tho saino food was continued, it would sot
up a Bcreani, and kick about violontly o.tac'tly like u baby in a pasVion. After I had
had tho littlr^ niias about three weeks I obtained a youn;^ monkey wliiili, thou;^li .small
was very netive, and eould feed it.self. T placed it in the same box with tho mia.s, and
they soon became excellent frii-nds, neither exhibiting the least fear of tho other. Tho
little monkey would sit upon the other's stomach, or even on it.s face, without tha
I.'ast ren;ard for its feelings. While I was feeding the niias, the monkey wfiuld sit by,
pii'king up all that was spilt, and as soon as I had finished would picik off what was
left sticking to tho mias's lips, and then pull open its mouth to see if any was left
inside ; afterwards lying down on tho poor creature's .stomach as on a comfortaiilo
cushion. Tho little helpless mias would submit to all these insults with the most exem-
plary patience, only too glad to have something warm near it, whicli it could clasp
affectionately in its arms. After five weeks it cut its two upper front teeth ; but in all
this time it had not grown the least bit, remaining both in size and weight the same as
when I first procured it. This was no doubt owing to the want of milk or other
C((ually nourishing food. At length it was taken f^^eriously ill, tho .symptoms being
exactly those of intermittent fever, accompanied by watery swellings on tho feet and
head. It lost all a[)petito for its food, and after liiigoring a week, a most pitiable
object, it died, having been in my po.s.session nearly three months. I much regretted
tho loss of my little pet, which I had at one time looked forward to bringing up to
years of maturity, and taking home to England. It had afforded me daily amu.sement
by its curious ways and the inimitably ludicrous expression of its little countenance.
Its weight was three pounds nine ounces, its hight fourteen inches, and tho spread of
its arms twenty-three inches."

We have dwelt at some length upon tho Gorilla and the Orang-outang, because they
are the largest of tho monkey tribes ; and becau.so until within a few years vcy littlo
has been positively known of them ; and it is believed that no living specimen of
cither has ever been seen away from their native homes. Wc shall pass rapidly over
a few of the most remarkable of tho monkey tribes.

The series of the large anthropomorphoiis apes closes with the Gibbons. Their
arms, which reach to the ankle joints when the animal is standing erect, are longer
than those of the uran ; their brain, and consequently their intelligence, is less devel-
oped ; and moreover, like all the following simitc of the Old World, they possess cal-
losities on each side of the tail. Their size is inferior to that of the orang, and their
body is covered with thicker hair, gray, brown, black, or white — according to the
species — but never particolored, as is the case with many of the long tailed monkeys.
To the gibbons belong the black Siaraang of Sumatra — who, assembled in large
troops, hail the first blush of early morn, and bid farewell to the setting sun with
dreadful clamors — the black, white-bearded Lar of Siam and Malacca, and the Wou-
Wou {Hyhbates leuciscvs) who, hanging suspended by his long arms, and swinging to
and fro in the air, allows one to approach within fifty yards, and then, suddenly drop-
ping upon a lower branch, climbs again leisurely to the top of the tree. He is a quiet,
solitary creature of a melancholy pciiceful nature, pursuing a harmless life, feeding
upon fruits in the vast untrodden recesses of tho forest ; and bis peculiar noise is ia

i

ii .

M '

Ofld

THE TROPICAL WORLD.

hnrmony with tho mmbro RtillneM of those dim regioriH, commencinj» like the giirj^ling
of water when a bottle is lacing filled, and ending with a long, loud wailing cry, which
rC'tounds throughout the leafy solitude to a great distance, and is Notnetinies responded
to frotn tho depths of the forest by another note as wild and meluncholy.

Wo shull see that tho American monkeys are totally ditforent from those of the Old
World ; but also in the eastern hemisphere, each part of the world has its peculiar
families and genera of siniiio. Thus, besides the orang outatig and the gibbon, Asia
exclusively possesses the somnopitheci and the niaciiques, while Africa, besides the
chimpanzee and tho gorilla, enjoys tho undivided honor of giving birth to the families
of the ccrcopithcci, mangabcys, colobi, magots, and baboons. The Semnopithcci uru
characterized by a short face, rounded oars, a slender bod^, short thumbs, and a strong
muscular tail, terminated by a close tuft of hair, and surpassing in length that of all
tho other quudrumana of the Old World. To this genus belongs the celebrated Pro-
boscis Monkey {Scmnopithecus nasicus) of Borneo, who is distinguished from uU
otner simi.t) by tho possession of a prominent nasal organ, which lends a highly ludi-
crous expression to the melancholy aspect of his physiognoiny. When excited and
angry, tho female resembles some tanned and peevish hag, snarling and shrewish.
When they sleep, they squat on their hams, and bow their heads upon the breast.
When disturbed, they utter a short impatient cry, between a sneeze and a scream, like
that of a spoilt and passionate child. When they emit their peculiar wheezing or hiss-
ing sound, they avert and wrinkle the nose, and open the mouth wide. In the male,
the nose is a curved, tubular trunk, large, pendulous, and fleshy ; but in the feuialo
it is smaller, recurved, and not flesh-like.

Under tho ugly form of tho Huniman (Semnoptthecus enlellus), the Hindoos ven-
erate the transformed hero who abstracted the sweet fruit of the mango from the garden
of a giant in Ceylon, and enriched India with the costly gift. As a punishment for
this oflcnso be was condemned to the stake, and ever since his hands and fuce have
remained black. Out of gratitude for his past services, the Hindoos allow him tho
free use of their gardens, and take great care to protect him from sacrilegious Euro-
peans. While the French naturalist Duvaucel was at Chandernagore, a guard of pious
Brahmins was busy scaring away tho sacred animals with cymbals and drums, lest tho
stranger, to whom they very justly attributed evil intentions, might be tempted to add
their skins to his collection.

The somnopitheci are scattered over Asia in so great a multiplicity of forms, that
Ceylon alone possesses four different species, each of which has appropriated to itself
a different district of tho wood; 1 country, and seldom encroaches on the domain of
its neighbors. When observed in their native wilds, a party of twenty or thirty of tho
Wanderoos of the low country, the species best known in Europe {Presbytes eephalop-
terus), is generally busily engaged in the search for berries and buds. They are sel-
dom to be seen on the ground, and then only when they have descended to recover
seeds or fruit that have fallen at the foot of their favorite trees. In their alarm, whco
disturbed, their leaps are prodigious, but generally speaking their progress is made
not so much by leaping as by swinging from branch to branch, using their powerful
arms alternately, and when baffled by distance, flinging themselves obliquely so as to
catch the lower bough of an opposite tree ; the momentum acquired by their descent
being sufficient to cause a rebound, that carries them again upwards till they can grasp

SEMNOPITIIKCI— CYNOIMTIIECI-CYNOCKIMIAF.I.

687

a higher branch, and thuH continuo thuir lioadlon;; fli^^ht. In thc^n porilnnn nchiovo*
nionts wnndor iu excited less by the surpussin/? agility of those '.ittlo crouturos, frcfjvicntly
encuniltered as they are by thuir young, which cling to them in their ciiireer, than by
the quickness of their eye and the unerring accuracy with which they seem to calcu-
late almost the angle at which a descent would enable them to cover a given distance,
and the recoil to elevate themselves again to a higher altitude. The African Colobi
greatly resemble the Asiatic Scmnopitheci, but ditlbr by the remarkable circumstance
of having no thumb on the hands of their anterior extremities. The Cercopitheoi
likewise possess a largo tail, which is, however, not more or loss pendulous, as in the
scmnopitheci, but generally carried erect over the back. They have also a longer face,
and their cheeks are furnished with pouches, in wtiich, like the pelican or the hamster,
they are capable of stowing part of their food.

The tribes of the mangabeys, macaques, magots, and cynopithoci rm the links
between tlio ecrcopitheci and the baboons. Their shape is less slender an that of the
former, their frontal bone is more developed, particularly above the ,'ye-brows, and
their face is longer. They are all of them provided with check-pnuvJ.es. Several of
the macaques have a very short tail, and the magots, or Barbary ap's, an<l the cyno-
pithecus of the Philippine Islands, have none, thus resembling tho large anthropo-
morphous apes, but wiiloly differing from them in other respects. Tho Magot is the
only European species, and seems exclusively confined in that part .^f the world to tho
rock of Gibraltar, though some authors affirm that it is found in other parts of Anda-
lusia, and even in the province of Grenada.

The Cynocephali (Baboons and jMandrills) show at once by their Greek name that
a dog-like snout gives them a more bestial expression than belongs to tho rest of tho
monkey tribes, and that of all tho simi.Te of the Old World they are most widely dis-
tant from man. In size they are only .surpassed by tho gorilla and the orang ; and if
in the latter the physiognomy becomes more brutal in its expression with advancing
age, this degradation is much greater in the baboons. Their canine teeth in particular
acquire a greater sharpness than those of almost every other carnivorous animal, so
that these malignant and cruel animals, armed with such powerful weapons, may well
be reckoned among the most formidable of the wild beasts of Africa. As if to render
them complete pictures of depravity, their manners also are so shamelessly filthy that
the curiosity they excite soon changes into horror and disgust.

Tho short-tailed mandrills inhabit the west coast of Africa. The Maimon is the
most remarkable of the whole genus for brilliancy and variety of color ; its furrowed
cheeks are magnificently striped with violet, blue, purple, and scarlet, so as more to
resemble an artificial tattooing than a natural carnation. As the creature increases in
age, the nose also becomes blood-red. On the loins the skin is almost bare, and of a
violet-blue color, gradually altering into a bright blood-red, which is more conspicuous
on the hinder parts, where it surrounds the tail, which is generally carried erect.

The real baboons are distinguished from the mandrills by a long tail, terminated by
a tuft of hair. The great baboon of Senegal ( Cynocephalus sphinx) is by no means
devoid of intelligence, and learns many tricks when taught from early youth. Hia
temper, however, is brutal and choleric, though less so than that of the Chacma ( Oyno-
cephalus porcarius), or pig-faced baboon, which is found in the vicinity of Cape Town,
among others on the celebrated Table Mountain. It frequently commits great devasta-

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TMK TIUJIMI'AI. WOKM).

tions in flin fiolds. Vounjj clmcnma nro r>ft('n kopt as ihmoHt'w nnimulH, pcrforniii)(^
tlio ortliJi's of a iimstiir, wliuin tlicy j^ruiitly HurpuM?* in Htruri)i;tli. Tims tliry iiniiit'ili^
fttnly iiniiouncu Ity tluiir growliiij; tlio npprom;)! of ii Btrnnj^cr, ami urc ovl'ii »Miiploy<"l
for II Viirit'ty of us(,>fiil purpostss wliicli no <lo;r would liu alil(> to pnrforin Hunt (iiii< is
tniincMl to lilow the ludhtws of a .siiiilli ; tlicro aiiotlu^r to miidi) a toain of oxun. When
a struuni i.s to Itc croMMtHl, tliu diacina immediately Jumps upon tlio liack of one of tlm
uxcti, and runiuinH Hitting till Iil> lias no longer to fuur tlio wut, wliiuli liu Iovoh uh littlu
a.s tliu eat.

In AliyHsinia, Nubia, and Soutli Arabia wo find tlio DorrynH ( C. hamndryns),
wliieli enjoyed divint! honors amon;^ the ancient Kj^yptiaiis. The general eojitr of tln'
hair is n niixturu of light-gray and cin»':.iiion, and in tho male that of tlio head and
noek forms a long maiio, falling haek over tho shouldurs. Tho faee is extremely long,
naked, and of a dirty flesh eolor. This ugly monkey was revered as tho symhol of
Thoth, tho divine father of literature and the judge of man after death. Formcfrly
temples were erected to his li(mor, and numerous priests ministered to his wants ; hut
now, by a sad change of baboon fortune, ho is shot without ceremony, and his skin
pulled over his ears to be stud'ed and exhibited in profane museums.

In tho forests of tro|iical Afrii:a a, d Asia wo find a ndnarkablo group of animals,
which, though (|uadrunian()us like the monkeys, essentially difters from them liy [los-
possing long curved claws on the index, or also on the middle linger of tho hinder
extremities; by a sharp, jinijectiiig niuz/lo, and by a dillercnt dentition. The Loris,
remarkable for the slowness of their gait and their large glaring eyes, arc exclusively
natives of tho East Indies ; the (ialagos, which unite the organizatitm of the nionki-ys
with tho graceful sprightliness of the S(iuirrcls, are solely confined to Africa, where
they are chiefly found in the guin-for(!sts of KtMiegul ; the Tarsii, thus named from
their elongated tarsii, giving to their hinder limbs a disproportionate length, are re-
stricted to part of the Indian archipelago ; but the large island of Madagascar, where,
strange to say, not a single monkey is fimnd, is the chief seat of the family, being tho
exclusive dwelling place of tho short-tailed Indri, (whom, from his black, thick fur and
anthropomorphous shape, one would bo inclined to reckon among tho gibbons), and of
the long-tailed Lemurs or Makis. All these gentle and harmless ani. als are arboreal
in their habits, avoid the glaring ligh' of day under tho dense covert of the forest, aiitl
awaken to a more active existence as soon as night dosccn. upon the earth. Then
tho loris, who during the day have slept clinging to a branch, prowl among the forest
boughs in quest of food. Nothing can escape the scrutiny of their large, glaring eyes;
and when they have marked their victim, they cautiously and noiselessly approach till
it is within their grasp. The Giilagos have at night all tho activity of birds, hopping
from bough to bough on their hind limbs only. They watch the insects flitting among
the leaves, listen to tho fluttering of tho moth as it darts through tho air, lie in wait for
it, and spring with tho rapidity of an arrow, seldom missing their prize, which is caught
by the hands. They make nests in tho branches of trees, and cover a bod with grass
and leaves for their little ones. Tho tarsii leap about two feet at a spring, and feed
chiefly on lizards, holding their prey in their foro hands, while they rest on their
haunches.

The monkeys of the New World differ still more widely from those of the Old than
the copper-colored Indian from tho woolly negro. One sees at once on comparing

)erfornrin(»
y iiiiiiH'ili'
('III|ilny('il
lurii Olio is
n. Whon

Olio of till!

a>H aH littlu

immlryns ) ,
iolor of till'
n \wiv\ ami
ijiiu'ly loll};.
»yinl)ol of
Formerly
wiiiits ; Imt
11(1 liin wkin

of aniiiiiils,
bom liy pos-
tlio liiiiilor
Till! Lnris,
5 exclusively
the monkeys
Africa, where
iiiamed from
igth, are re-
.scar, where,
y, being tlio
lick fur and
DHs), and of
are arboreal
forest, and
irth. Then
ig the forest
aring eyes ;

ippro

iich till

ds, hopping
tting among

in wait for
ch is caught

with grass
Ig, and feed
jst on their

le Old than
comparing

MONKKYS OF TIIK OLD AND THE NEW WOULD.

them that whole ocoann roll between thoin, that they have not migrated from ono
homisphoro to unothor. but belong to two diHeront phaws of creation. While the
nnsul partition of the Old World simifc is narrow as in man, it is broad without oxcop<
tion in all the American monkeys, ho that the nostrils are widely separuted and open
pideways. The dental apparatus is also difTerent, for while the monkeys of the eastern
homisphoro have thirty-two tooth, those of the western world generally possess thirty-
hIx. The tailless monkeys or upes, and the short-tailed baboons, with a dog-lika pro-
jecting snout and formidable fangs, aro peculiar to tlio eastern hemisphere, and it is
only there that wo find almost voiceless siiniro, while the Aineriium fiuiulruiiiana aie
nil of them tailed, short-snouted, and generally endowed with stentorian powers.
Finally, it would bo as useless to look among the western monkeys for choek pouches
and sessile callosities, as among those of the Old World for prehensile tails.

In the boundless f>»rcsts of tropical South America, the monkeys form by far the
greater part of the mammalian inhabitants, for each spocios, though often conlinod
witliin narrow limits, gi^nnially consists of a largo number of individuals. Tho various
arboreal fruits which the savago population of those immeasurable wilils is unablo to
turn to advantage, fall chiefly to their share; many of them olso live upon insects.
They aro never seen in the open compos and savannas, as they never touch tho ground
unless compelled by the greatest necessity, Tho trees of tho forest furnish them with
all tho food they require in inexhaustible obundanco. For their perpetual wanderings
from branch to branch, nature has bountifully endowed many of them not only with
robust and muscular limbs, and largo hands, wlioso moist palms facilitate tho seizure
of a bough, but in many cases olso with a prehensile tail, which may deservedly be
called a fifth hand, and is hardly less woiid(;rful in its structure than tho proboscis of
tho elephant. Covered with short hair, and comi»letely bare underneath towards tho
end, this admirable organ rolls round tho boughs as though it were a supple finger,
and is at the same time so muscular, that tho nioukey frequently swings with it from
a branch like tho pendulum of a clock.

Scarce has ho grasped a bough with his long arms, when imiiiodiatoly coiling his
fifth hand round tho branch, ho springs on to tho next, and secure from a fall, hurries
so rapidly through tho crowns of the highest trees that thp sportsman's ball has scarco
tiino to reach him in his flight. When the Miriki (Ateles hypoxanthus), tho largest
of the Brazilian monkeys, sitting or stretched out at full length, suns himself on a
high b 'anch, his tail suffices to support him in his aerial resting-place, and even when
mortally wounded, ho remains a long time suspended by it, until life being quite
extinct, his heavy body, whizzing through tho air, and breaking many a bough as it
descends, falls with a loud crash to tho ground. Tho famous wourali poison is alono
capable of instantly annihilating his muscular powers, and of sparing the wounded
animal a long and painful agony. Slow and with noiseless stop, so as scarcely to dis-
turb the fallen leaves beneath his feet, the wily Indian approaches. His weapons are
strange and peculiar, and of so slight an appearance as to form a wondrous contrast to
their terrific power. A colossal species of bamboo {Arundinaria Schomburgkii),
whose perfectly cylindrical culm often rises to the hight of fifteen feet from the root
before it forms its first knot, furnishes him with his blow-pipo, and the slender arrows
which he sends forth with unerring certainty of aim are made of the loaf-stalks of a
species of palm tree {Maximiliana regia), hard and brittle, and sharp-pointed as a
44

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f'-i

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690

THE TROPICAL WORLD.

needle. One would hardly suppose these fragile missiles capable of inflicting the
slightest wound at any distance, and yet they strike more surely and eflfectually than
the rifleman's bullet, for their point is dipped in the ueadly juice of the Strychnos
Urari, whose venomous powers are not inferior to those of the dreaded bushmaster or
the fatal cobra.

The savage tribes of the South American woods know how to poison their arrows
with the juices of various plants, but none equals this in virulence and certainty of
execution, and yearly the Indians of the Orinoco, the Rio Negro, and even of the
Amazon, wander to the Camuku Mountains to purchase by barter the renowned
Urari or Wourali poison of the Maeusis. How ihey made the discovery of its powers
is unknown ; at all events the combination of so many means for the attainment of
the end in view — the preparation of the poison, the blow-pipe, the arrows — denotes
a high degree of ingenuity, and shows at once the infinite 8uj>eriority of the savngo
over the monkey. In a less concentrated or diluted form the wourali poison merely
benumbs or stuns the faculties without killing, and is thus made use of by the Indiana
when they wish to catch an old monkey alive and tame him for sale. On his falling
to the ground tiiey immediately suck the wound, and wrapping him up in a straiglit-
jacket of palm leaves, dose him for a few days with sugar-cane juice, or a strong solu-
tion of saltpetre. This method generally answers the purpose, but should his stuhlmrn
temper not yet be subdued, they hang him up in smoke. Then after a short time iiis
rago gives way, and his wild eye, assuming a plaintive expression, humbly sues for
deliverance. His bonds are now loosened, and even the most unmanageable monkey
seems henceforward totally to forget that he ever roamed at liberty in the boundless
woods.

In general, however, the American simiaj are distinguished by a much milder dis-
position than those of the eastern hemisphere, and retain at an advanced age the pluy-
ful manners of their youth. They are commonly more easy to tame, and learn many
little tricks which are taught with much greater difficulty to their restless Asiatic or
African cousins. Tlieir weakness, their short canine teeth, their good temper, render
them harmless play-fellows, and thus they are generally preferred in Europe to tiio
Old World monkeys, though .they are not so lively, and constantly have a more or less
dejected mien, as if they siill regretted the primitive freedom of the forest.

The American monkeys may be conveniently divided into two large groups ; with
or without a prehensile tail. To the first great subdivision belong the Howling
Monkeys or Aluates ( Mycetes), the Spider Monkeys (Ateles), the Sajous, and several
other intermediate genera.

The Aluates are chiefly remarkable for their stentorian powers, which no other
animal can equal or approach. When the nocturnal howl of the large red Aluato
( Mycetes ursintis) bursts forth from the woods, you would nuppose that all the beasts
of the forest were collecting for the work of carnage. Now it is the tremen('./us roar
of the jaguar as he springs on his prey • now it changes to his terrible and deep-toned
growiings as he is pressed on all sides by superior force ; and now you hear his last
dying moan, beneath a mortal wound. Some naturalists have supposed that these
awful sounds can only proceed from a number of the red monkeys howling in concert,
but one of them alone is equal to the task. In dark and cloudy weather, and just
before a squall of rain, the aluate often howls in the day-time ; and on advancing

hJf- •■■

VARIOUS MONKEY-TRIBES.

11'

icting the
dally than
Strychnos
iinastor or

leir arrows
srtainty of
ren of the

renowned

its powers
ainmcnt of
— denotes
the savage
ison merely
the Indians
I his falling
1 a straight-
strong solu-
his stuhhnrn
bort time his
ibly sues for
able monkey
ho boundless

h milder dis-
age the play-
learn many
iss Asiatic or
iniper, render
lurope to the
more or less
1st.

groups; with

Ithe Howling

I, and several

licb no other
red AluiUo
I all the beasts
Inieni' ms roar
Id deep-toned
hear his last
led that these
Ing in concert,
Ihcr, and just
loa advancing

cautiously to the high and tufted tree where ho is sitting, one may then have a won-
derful opportunity of seeing the largo lump in his throat, the sounding-board which
gives such volume to bis voice, move up and down as ho exerts his stentorian lungs.
Poppig compares the h(Jwling of the aluate to the noise of ungrcased cart wheels, but
very uiuch stronger, and affirms that it may be heard at the distance of a league.

Like the Ai'rican Colobi, the Ateles, or Spider Monkeys, have no thumb on their
fore-hands; tl»eir voice is a soft and Huto-like whistling, resembling the piping of a
bird. It is said that when a mother burthened with her young hesitates to take too
wide a leap, pntcrfamilios seizes the branch she intends to reach, and swings himself
to and fro with it, until his companion is able to attain it by a spring. But when a
young monkey that is already sufficiently strong is fearful, the mother, to give him
courage, repeats the manoeuvre several times before him. The spider monkeys live in
more or less numerous troops, and chiefly subsist on insects, though when near the sea
they will also come down upon the beach and feed on mollusks, particularly on
oysters, whoso shells they are said to crack with a stone.

The second group of American monkeys, consisting of those with a non-prehensile
tail, comprises the sakis, the saimiris, the ouistitis, etc. The Sakis, or Fox-tailed
Jlonkeys, are distinguished by their bushy tail, which, however, in some species, ia
very short. Tbey usually live in the outskirts of forests, in small societies of ten or
twelve. Upon the slightest provocation, they display a morose and savage temper,
and, like the howling monkeys, utter loud cries before sunrise and after sunset.

The elegant ease of their movements, their sofu fur, the largo size of their brilliant
eyes, and their little round face, entitle the Saimiris to be called the most graceful of
monkeys. Humboldt, who frequently observed them in tropical America, tells us
that they are extremely nflToctionate, and that when ofTonded, their eyes immediately
swim in tears. On speaking to them for some time, they listen with great attention,
and soon lay their tiny hand upon the speak ;r's mouth, as if to catch the words as
they pass through his lips. They recognize the objects represented in an engraving
even when not colored, and endeavored to seize the pictured fruits or insects. Tho
latter, and particularly spiders, which they catch most dexterously with their lips or
hands, seem to bo their favorite food. The weak little creatures are very fond of
being carried about by larger monkeys, and cling fast to their back. At first tho
animal to which they thus attacli themselves endeavors to get rid of its l)urden ; but
finding it impossible, it soon becomes reconciled to its fate, and after a short time an
intimate afluction arises between them, so that when tho samiiri i asy chasing insects,
his friend, before leaving the spot, first gives him notice by a gentle cry. A similar
dependent and affectionate intercourse is not rare amoug other species of monkeys.

Tho habits of the Nyctopitheci, or nocturnal monkeys, bear a great resemblance to
those of the bats or flying foxes. The shy and quiet little animals sleep by day con-
cealed in tho dense thickets of tho forest. Their eye and motions arc co..ipletely
feline. Those which Von Martins observed in his collection, crept by day into a
corner of the cage, but after sunset their agility made up for their diurnal torpor.

In Guiana, Schomliurgk met with the Nt/rti'pitftecus trivirgatus as a domestic
animal. " A very neat little monkey, shy of light .is tho owl or tho bat. A small
round head, extremely large yellow eyes, shining in the dark stronger than those of
the cat, and tiny short ears, give it a peculiarly comical appearance. When disturbed

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flOS

THE TROPICAL WORLD.

i :i

in its diurnal sleep and dragged forth to the light, its helpless movements excite com-
passion ; it gropes about as if blind, and lays hold of the rirst object that comes
within its reach, often pressing its face against it to escape the intolerable glare. The
darkest corner of the hut is its seat of predilection, where it lies during day in a per-
fect asphyxia, from which it can only bo roused by blows. But soon after sunset it
leaves its retreat, and then it is impossible to see a more lively, active, and merry
creature. From hammock it springs to hammock, generally licking the faces of the
sleepers, and from the floor to the rafters of the roof, overturning all that is not
sufficiently fastened to resist its curiosity." Its voice is remarkably strong, and, ac-
cording to Humboldt, is said to resemble the jaguar's roar, for which reason it is called
the Tiger Monkey in the missions along the Orinoco. It lives chiefly on nocturnal
insects, thinning their ranks like the bat, but is also said to prey upon small birds like
the owl.

The Ouistitis, or Squirrel Monkeys, are distinguished from all the other American
quadrumana by the claws '^?ith which all their fingers except the thumbs of their hands
are provided, and which render them excellent service in climbing. They have a very
soft fur, and are cxtreinely li<;ht and graceful in their movements, as well as elegant
in their forms. The young are often not bigger than a mouse, and even a full grown
ouistiti is hardly larger than a squirrel, whom it resembles both in its mode of life,
and by its restless activity, as its little head is never quiet. They use their tail,
which in many species is handsomely marked by transverse bars, as a protection
against the cold, to which they are acutely sensitive. Their numerous species are dis-
persed over all the forests of tropical America, where they live as well upon fruits and
nuts as upon insects and eggs; and when they can catc' \ little bird, they suck its
brain with all the satisfaction of an epicure. Tb&y are easily tamed, but very sus-
picious and irritable. Audouin made some interesting observations on a pair of tamo
ouistitis, which prove their intelligence to be far superior to that of the squirrels, to
whom they are so often compared. One of them having one day, while regaling on a
bunch of grapes, squirted some of the juice into its eye, never failed from that time to
close its eyes while eating of the fruit. In a drawing they recognized not only their
own likeness, but that of other animals. Thus the sight of a cat, and what is still
more remarkable, that of a wasp, frightened them very much, while at the aspect of
any other insect, such as a cricket or a cockchafer, they at once rushed upon the
engraving, as If anxious to make a meal of the object that deluded them with the
semblance of life.

excite com-
that comes
;lare. The
jy in a per-
er sunset it
and merry
faces of the
that is not
ng, and, ac-

I it is called
n nocturnal
,11 birds like

Bf American
f their hands
have a very

II as elegant
a full grown
node of life,
ie their tail,

a protection
ecies are dis-
on fruits and
they suck its
)ut very sua-
pair of tame

squirrels, to
regaling on a

that time to
lot only their

what is still
the aspect of
led upon the
lem with the

BEASTS A2JD BIKDS OF PRET.

CHAPTER XIV.

TROPICAL BEASTS AND BIRDS OF PREY.

Variety of Carnivorous Creatures. — 3iidsof Prey: Tlie Condor — His Marveloui Flight — Hii
Cowardice — Modes of Capturing tliem — Tlie Turkey-Buzzard, or Carrion Vulture — Tlio
King of tlie Vultures — The Urubu — Capable of Domestication — The Harpy Eagle —
The Sociable Vulture — The Baclia — The Fishing Eagle — The Musical Sparrow-IIawk —
The Secretary Eagle. — Beasts of Prey: Tlie Lion — Fictitious Character ascribed to him
— Mode of Seizing his Prey — Lions and GiraflTc — Lion and Hottentot — Andersson and a
Lion — Livingstone's narrow Escape — Lion-Hunting in the Atlas — By the Bushmen — Cap-
turing their Young — Former and present Range of the Lion — Lion and Rhinoceros —
Livingstone's Estimate of the Lion — The Tiger — Their Ravages in Java — Wide Range of
the Tiger — Tiger-Hunting in India — Escape from a Tiger — Animals announcing the Ap-
pro^ich of a Tiger — Turtle-hunting Tigers — The Panther and Leopard — The Cheetah —
The Hyena — The Spotted and Brown Hyenas— The Felida; of New World — The Jaguar
— Hunting the Jaguar — The Cougar, or Puma — The Ocelot — The Jaguarandi — The
Tiger-Cat.

ALMOST all birds and a considerable proportion of animals are carnivorous, and
notwithstanding their differences in size, may bo strictly designated as Birds
and Beasts of Prey. The fox and weasel arc as strictly beasts of prey as the lion and
the tiger ; the sparrow and robin, although seeds and fruit form part of their food, aro aa
truly birds of prey as the eagle and the vulture. A sparrow will, indeed, in the course,
of a single day, probably destroy more individual living creatures than an eagle will
in his whole life-time ; a fox in a year more than a lion in the half century which he
is sup[.">sed to live. We shall here, however, confine ourselves wholly to the larger
species of birds and beasts of prey, commencing with the former.

The flight of the Condor is truly wonderful. From the mountain-plains of the
Andes, the royal bird, soaring aloft, appears only like a small black speck on the sky,
and a few hours afterwards he descends to the coast and mixes his loud screech with
the roar of the surf. No living creature rises voluntarily so high, none traverses in
so short a time all the climates of the globe. He rests at night in the crevices of the
rocks, or on some jutting ledge ; but as soon as the first rays of the sun light the
summits of the mountains, while the darkness of night still rests upon the deeper
valleys, he stretches forth his neck, shakes his head as if fully to rouse himself, stoops
over the brink of the abyss, and flapping his wings, dives into the aerial ocean. At
first his flight is by no means strong ; he sinks as if borne down by his weight, but
soon he ascends, and sweeps through the rarilied atmosphere without any perceptible
vibratory motion of the wings. " Near Lima," says Mr. Darwin, " I watched several
condors for nearly half an hour without once taking off my eye". They moved ia
large curves, sweeping in circles, descending and ascending without once flapping.

ir

f '.

^'ifcl!

o

;•

■

, ''■(

694

THE TROPICAL WOULD.

As they glided close over my head, I intently watched from an oblique position the
outlines of the separate and terminal feathers of the wing ; if there had ',uen the
least vibratory movement these would have blended together, but they wore seen dis-
tinct against the blue sky. The head and neck were moved frequently and apparently
with force, and it appeared that the extended wings formed the fulcrum on which the
movements of the neck, body, and tail acted. If the bird wished to descend, the
wings were for a moment collapsed, and then, when again expanded with an altered
inclination, the momentum gained by the rapid descent seemed to urge the bird up-
wards with the even and steady movement of a paper kite."

According to Humboldt and D'Orbigny, the condor is a contemptible coward, whom
the stick of a child is able to put to flight. Far from venturing to attack any full-
grown, larger animal — the llama, the ox, or even man, as former travelers asserted —
he feeds, like other vultures, only upon dead carcasses, or on new-born lambs and
calves, whom he tears from the side of their mothers. Ho thus does so much damage
to the herds, that the shepherds pursue and kill him whenever they can. As even a
bullet frequently glances oflf from his thick feathery coat, the natives never use fire-
arms for his destruction, but make use of various traps, of the sling, or of the bolas,
which they are able to throw with such marvelous dexterity. In the Peruvian province
of Abacay, an Indian provided with cords conceals himseli under a fresh cow's skin,
to which some pieces of flesh are left attached. The condors soon pounce upon tbo
prey, but while they are feasting he fastens their legs to the skin. This being accom-
plished, he suddenly comes forth, and the alarmed birds vainly flap their wings, for
other Indians hurry towards them, throw their man'les or their lassob over them, and
carry the condors to their village, whei\. they are reserved for the next bull-fight.
For a full week before this spectacle is to take place, the bird gets nothing to eat, and
is then bound upon the back of a bull which has previously been scarified with lauces.
The bellowing of the poor animal, lacerated by the famished vulture, and vainly
endeavoring to cast ofi" its tormentor, amuses what may well be called the " swinish
multitude." In the province of Huarochirin there is a large natural funuel-sliapcd
excavation, about sixty feet deep, with a diameter of about eighty feet at the top. A
dead mule is placed on the brink of the precipice. The tugging of the condors at the
dead carcass causes it to fall into the hole ; they follow it with greedy haste, and
having gorged themselves with food, are unable again to rise from the narrow bottom
of the funnel. Tschudi saw the Indians kill at once, with sticks, twenty-eight of the
birds which had been thus entrapped. In a somewhat similar manner condors are
caught in Peru, Bolivia, and Chili, as far as their range extends, md are frequently
brought to Valparaiso and Callao, where they are sold for a few doilars to the foreign
ships, and thence conveyed to Europe.

The condor, though a very large bird, about four feet long, and measuring at least
three yards from tip to tip of his extended wings, is far from attaining the diraensious
assigned to him by the earlier writers and naturalists, who, emulating Sindbad the Sailor,
in his account of the roc, described him as a giant whose bulk darkened the air. For-
tunately the T7orks of nature do not require the exaggerations of fiction to be renJei( d
interesting, and the marvels of organic nature which scientific inquiries reveal are far
more wonderful than any which romancers may invent.

While the condor is considered an enemy to man, the Qallinazos, Turkey-buzzards,

position tho
d '.iion the
TO soon dis-
l apparently
n which tho
lescend, tho
1 an altered
tho bird up-

I ward, whom
ick any full-
3 asserted —
I lambs and
luch damage
As even a
ver use fire-
of the bolas,
^ian province
h cow's skin,
ice upon tho
being accom-
eir wings, for
■er them, and
xt bull-fight,
^g to eat, and

with lances.

and vainly

lie " swinish
unnel-shapcd

the top. A
ondors at tho

y haste, and
arrow bottom

•eight of tho
condors are

re frequently

ring at least
e dimensions
ad the Sailor,
10 air. For-
be rendend
■eveal are far

VULTUllES— BUZZARDS.

695

or common American Carrion Vultures ( Vnltur aura, V. urnhu), are very servlceablo
to him, by consuming the animal offals which, if left to putrefaction, would produce a
pestilence. Thus they generally, in tropical America, enjoy the protection of the law,
a heavy fine, amounting in some towns to S300, being imposed upon tho offender
who wantonly kills one of these .scavengers. It is consequently not to be wondered
at that, like domestic birds, they congregate in flocks in the streets of Lima, and sleep
upon the roofs of tic houses. In 1808, Waterton saw tho vultures in Angostura as
tame as barn-fowls ; a person who had never seen one would have taken them for
turkeys. They were very useful to the citizens ; had it not been for them, tho refuse
of the slaughterhouses would have caused an intolerable nuisance. Tho Aura is dark-
brown black, with a red and naked head and neck, covered with wrinkles and warts ;
the Urubu is very similar, only the head and neck arc gray-black, but equally wrinkled
and ugly. The latter ranges over South America in countless numbers, as D'Orbigny
witnessed on a visit to a hacienda on the river Plata, where 12,000 oxen had been
killed for salting. During this wholesale massacre, which lasted several months, tho
bones md entrails were cast along the banks of the stream, where at least 10,000
urubus iiad congregated to enjoy the banquet. It is a remarkable fact that, though
hundreds of gallinazos may bo feeding upon a carcase, they immediately retire when
tho King of the Vultures {Sarcoramphiis papa) makes his appearance, who yet is not
larger than themselves. Perching on tho neighboring trees, they wait till his majesty
— a beautiful bird, with head and ne/K gaudily colored with scarlet, orange, blue,
brown and white — has sufficiently gorged himself, and then pounce down wich increased
voracity upon their disgusting meal. According to Humboldt, they are intimidated
by the greater boldness of tho sarcoramphus. The true rea.son of their homage, how-
ever, seems to be the fear they entertain for the more powerful beak of the " king,"
who, from a similar motive, gives way to the still mightier condor,

Tho Indians of Guiana sometimes amuse themselves with catching one of tho urubus
by means of a piece of meat attached to a hook, and decking him with a variety of
Ptrange feathers, which they attach to him with .soft wax. Thus travestied, th / turn
him out again among his comrades, who, to their great delight, fly in terror I'lom tho
nondescript ; and it is only after wind and weather have stripped him of his finery
that the outlaw is once more admitted into urubu society. When full of food this vul-
ture, like the other members of his tribe, certainly appears an indolent bird. lie will
stand for hours together on the branch of a tree, or on the top of a house, with his
wings drooping, or after rain, spreading them to catch the rays of tho sun. IJut wlien
in quest of prey, he may be seen soaring aloft on pinions which never flutter, and
which at the same time carry him with a rapidity equal to that of the golden caglo.
Scarcely has he espied a piece of carrion below, when, folding his broad wings, ho
descends with such speed as to produce a whistling sound, resembling that of an arrow
cleaving the air.

The gallinazos when taken young can be so easily tamed that they will follow the
person who feeds them for many miles. Relying on their inviolability, the gallinazos,
like chartered libertines, are uncommonly bold, and during the distributions of meat
to the Indians, which regularly take place every fortnight in the South American
Missions, they not seldom come in for their share by dint of impudence. In Concep-
cion de Mojos, an Indian told M, D'Orbigny, who was present on one of those occasions,

t r If I I

1111
'I

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S.; :h

".i^m

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606

THE TROPICAL WORLD.

^1

III

. .1''

that ho would soon have the opportunity of seeing a most notorious thief, well known
by his lame leg ; and the bird, making his appearance soon after, completely justified
bis reputation. The traveler was also iiiformeil that this urubu knew perfectly well
the days of distribution in the diflfercnt missions ; and c'ght days later, while witness-
ing a similar scene at Magdalena, twenty leagues distant, he heard the Indians exclaim,
and looking up saw his lame acquaintance of Ooncepcion hurrying to the spot, with
the any'^us mien of one that is afraid of missing a meal. The padres in both missions
assured him that the vulture never failed to make his appearance at the stated time ;
a remarkable instance of memory, or highly developed instinct in a bird. " If you
dissect a vulture," says Waterton, " that has just been feeding on carrion, you must
expect that your olfactory nerves will be somewhat offended with the rank effluvia
from his craw, just as they would be were you to dissect a citizen after the lord-mayor's
dinner. If, on the contrary, the vulture be empty at the time you commence the oper-
ation, there will be no offensive smell, but a strong scent of musk."

The Harpy Eagle ( Thrasa'etvs harpijia) is one of the finest of all the rapacious
birds. The enormous development of his beak and legs, and his consequent strength
and power in mastering his prey, correspond with his bold and noble bearing, and the
fierce lustre of his eye. His whole aspect is that of formidably organized power, and even
the crest adds much to his terrific appearance. '• Among many singular birds and
curiosities," says Mr. Edwards, in his " Voyage up the Amazon," " that wore brought
to us, was a young harpy eagle, a most ferocious looking character, with a harpy's
crest and a beak and talons in correspondence. He was turned loose into the garden,
and before long gave us a sample of his powers. With erected crest and flashing
eyes, uttering a frightful shriek, he pounced upon a young ibis, and quicker than
thought had torn his recking liver from his body. The whole animal world there was
wild with fear."

The harpy attains a greater size than the common eagle. He chiefly resides in the
damp lowlands of tropical America, whore Prince Maximilian of Neu Wiod met with
hivp only in the dense forests, perched en the high branches. The monkey, vaulting
by means of his tail from tree to tree, mocks the pursuit of the tiger-cat and boa, but
woe to him if the harpy spies him out, for, seizing him with lightning-like rapidity, ho
cleaves his skull with one single stroke of his beak. Fear seems to be totally unknown
to this noble bird, and he defends himself to the last moment. D'Orbigny relates
that one day, while descending a Bolivian river in a boat with some Indians, they
severely wounded a harpy with their arrows, so that it fell from the branch on which
it had been struck. Stopping out of the canoe, the savages now rushed to the spot
where the bird lay, knocked it oa the head, and tearing out the feathers of its wings,
brought it for dead to the boat. Yet the harpy awakened from his trance, and furi-
ously attacked his persecutors. Throwing himself upon D'Orbigny, he pierced his
hand through and thvough with the only talon that had been left unhurt, while the
mangled remains of the other tore his arm, which at the same time ho lacerated with
his beak. Two men were hardly able to release the naturalist from the attacks of the
ferocious bird.

On turning from the New to the Old World, we find other but not less interesting
predatory birds sweep through the higher regions of the air in quest of prey. The
gigantic oricou, or Sociable Vulture ( Vultur auricularis), inhabits the greater part of

Tirr

J}

VULTURES-FALCONS— EAGLES.

697

jvell known
ly justified
rfeotly well
lilo witness-
ins exclaim,
5 spot, with
3th missions
tated time ;
" If you
n, you must
ink oflluvia
lord-mayor's
CO the opcr-

10 rapacious
ent strength
ing, and tlio
■or, and even
vr birds and
rero brought
h a harpy's
» the garden,
and flasliing
juiclcer than
:ld there was

sides in tho
,ed met with
ey, vaulting

d boa, but
rapidity, ho
unknown

gny relates
ndians, they
ch on which

to tho spot
if its wings,
30, and furi-

pierced his

t, while tho
rated with
tacks of tho

2er

interesting
prey. The
ater part of

Africa, and builds his nest in the fissures of rocks on tho peaks of inaccessible moun-
tains. In size ho equals tho condor, measuring upwards of ten feet across tho wings
expanded, and his flight is not less bold ; leaving his lofty cavern at dawn, ho rises
higher and higher, till ho is lost to sight ; but, though beyond tho s|)hcro of human
vision, tho telescopic cyo of tho bird is at work. Tho moment any animal sinks to tho
earth in death, the unseen vulture detects it. Docs the hunter bring down somo largo
quadruped beyond his powers to remove, and leave it to obtain assistance ? — on his
return, however speedy, he finds it surrounded by a band of vultures, where not one
was to bo seen a quarter of an hour before. Lo Vaillant having onco killed three
zebras, hastened to his camp, at about a league's distance, to fetch a wagon ; but on
returning he found nothing but the bones, at which hundreds of oricous were busy
picking. Another time having killed a gazelle, ho left the carcase on tho sand, and
retired into tho bushes to observe what would happen. First came crows, who with
loud croakings wheeled round the dead animal ; then, after a few minutes, kites and
buzzards appeared, and finally ho saw tho oricous descending in spiral lines from aa
enormous bight. They alighted upon tho gazelle, and soon hundreds of birds of prey
were assembled. Thus tho small robbers had first pointed out the way to those of
middle size, who in their turn roused the attention of tho bandits of a higher order ;
and none of them came too short, for after the powerful oricous had dismembered tho
carcase, some very good morsels remained for the buzzards, and tho bones furnished
excellent pickings for the crows.

The Bacha (Falco hncha) inhabits India and Africa, whore ho sits for days on tho
peak of precipitous cliffs, on tho look out for rock-rabbits [Ilyrax capensis). These
poor animals, who have good reason to be on their guard, venture only with the great-
est caution to peep out of their caves and crevices in which they take up their abodo,
and to which they owe their Dutch name of "klipdachs." Meanwhile the bacha re-
mains immovable, as if he were part of tho rock on which he perches, his head mufllod
up in his shoulders, but watching with a sharp eye every movement of his prey, until,
finally, some unfortunate klipdachs venturing forth, ho darts upon him like a thumlor-
bolt. If this rapid attack proves unsuccessful, the bacha slinks away, ashamed, like
a lion that has missed his spring, and seeks some new observatory, for he is well awaro
that no rock-rabbit in tho neighborhood will venture to stroll out during the remaindar
of tho day. But if he succeeds in seizing tho klipdachs before it has time to leap
away, he carries it to a rocky lodge, and slowly tears it to pieces. Tho terrible cries
of the animal appear to sound like music in liis ears, as if he wcro not only satisfying
his hunger but rejoicing in the torments of an enemy. This scene of cruelty spreads
terror far and wide, and for a long time no klipdachs will be seen where the bacha baa
hold his bloody repast.

Tho Fishing Eagle of Africa (ffaHcBtiis vocifer), first noticed by Le Vaillant, maybe
seen hovering about the coasts and river-mouths of that vast continent. He is never
found in the interior of the country, as the African streams are but thinly stocked
with fish, which form his principal food. Elastic and buoyant, this agile dweller in
the air mounts to soaring heights, scanning with sharp and piercing eye the motions
of his prey below. Energetic in his movements, impetuous in his appetites, he pounces
with the velocity of a meteor on the object of his wishes, and with a wild and savage
joy tears it to pieces. His whole sense of existence is the procuring of food, and for

'I'lli

I' '

VW' (

h^ J ^

■t t.

Us I*..

r i .p ■

603

THE TROPICAL WOULD.

this ho is ever on tho alert, over ready to combat, to ravage, and destroy. He j»pn-
erally devours hia prey on tho nearest rock, and loves to return to tho same spot wliuro
the bones of guzelies and lizards may bo seen lying about, a proof that his appetite is
not solely confined to tho finny tribes. Wiien tlieso birds aro sitting, they call and
answer each other with a variously-toned shriek, which thoy uttor under curious move-
ments of tho head and neck.

While all other predatory birds croak or shriek, the musical Sparrow-Hawk of Africa
{Mdierca musicus) pours forth his morning and evening notes to entertain iiis mnto
while she is performing the duties of incubation. Every song lasts a minute, and then
tho hunter may approach, but during tho pause ho is obliged to remain perfectly quiet,
as then tho bird hears the least noise and immediately .les away.

Tho prowess of tho Secretary -eagle {Serpentarius cristatns) attacking tlio most
venomous serpents has already been mentioned in the chapter on those noxious rep-
tiles. The long legs of this useful bird, which owes its name of " Secretary " to tho crest
on tho buck of its head, reminding one of tho pen stuck behind tho oar, according to
tho custom of writing clerks, might give ono reason to reckon it, at first sight, among
the cranes or storks, but its curved beak and internal organization prove it to belong
to the falcon tribe. Its feet being incapable of grasping, it keeps constantly on tiio
ground in sandy and open places, and runs with such speed as to bo able to overtake
the most agilo reptiles. The destruction it causes in their ranks must be great indeed,
for Lc Vuillant mentions that having killed one of these birds he found in its crop
eleven rather large lizards, three serpents of an arm's length, and eleven small tor-
toises, besides a number of locusts, beetles, and other insects.

Tho majestic form, tho noble bearing, the stately stride, tho fine proportions, tho
piercing eye, and tho dreadful roar of tho Lion, striking terror into the heart of every
other animal, all combine to mark him with tho stamp of royalty. All nerve, all
muscle, his enormous strength shows itself in the tremendous bound with wliieli lie
rushes upon his prey, in tho rapid motions of his tail, ono stroke of which is able to
fell the strongest man to tho ground, and in tho expressive wrinkling of iiis brow. No
wonder that, ever inclined to judge from outward appearances, and to attribute to ex-
ternal beauty analogous qualities of mind, man has endowed tho lion witli a nol)ility
of character which ho in reality does not possess. For modern travelers, who liavo
had occasion to observe him in his native wilds, far from awarding him the praise of
chivalrous generosity and noble daring, rather describe him as a mean spirited robber,
prowling about at nig'.it-timo in order to surprise a weaker prey.

Tho lion is distinguished from all other members of the feline tribe by the uniform
color of his tawny skin, by the black tuft at tho end of his tail, and particularly by tlio
long and sometimes blackish mane, which he is able to bristle when under the influento
of passion, and which contributes so much to the beauty of tho male, while it is wanting
in the lioness, who is very inferior in size and comeliness to her stately mate. Ilia
chief food consists of the flesh of the larger herbivorous animals, very few of wbith
he is unable to master, and the swift-footed antelope has no greater enemy than he.
Concealed in the high rushes on tho river's bank, ho lies in ambush for tlie timorous
herd which at night-fiiU approaches the water to quench its thirst. Slowly and cau-
tiously the children of the livaste advance ; they listen with ears erect, they strain their

)y. Ho ppn-
no spot wliuro
lis appetite is
they call and
3urious move-

awk of Africa
•tain his ni;ito
luto, and then
crfectly quiet,

:inp; tho most
3 noxious rep-
y " to the crest
", according to
t sight, among
re it to helong
stantly on tho
jIo to overtake
J great indeed,
;nd in its crop
t'cn small tor-

roportions, tlio
heart of every
All nerve, all
with whieli lie
lich is able to
his brow. No
ittribute to ex-
with a nobility
ers, who have
the praise of
pirited robber,

ly the uniform
eularly by tho
r the influeni'o
e it is wanting
ly mate. His
few of which
leniy than he.
r tlie timorous
owly and cau-
icy strain their

1

THE LION AND HIS PREY.

699

eyes to penctrato tho thicket's gloom, but nothing suspicious appears or moves along
tho bank. Long and deeply they rpiafT tho delicious draught ; but suddenly with a
giant spring, like lightning bursting from a cloud, tho lion bounds uiM)n tho unsuspect-
ing revellers, and tho louder of the herd lies prostrate at his feet, while Lis cuiupunious
fly into the desert.

LIONS PCr.LINO DOW.V A GIRAFFE.

Andersson is one of tho very few who have ever had an opportunity of seeing the
lion seizing his prey in broad daylight. Late one evening he had badly wounded a
lion ; and on tlio following morning set out with his attendants, following the bloody
tracks of tho animal. " Presently," he writes, " we came upon tho ' spoor ' of a whole
troop of lions, as also that of a solitary giraffe. So many tracks confused us, and
while endeavoring to pick out from tho rest tlose of tlie wounded lion, 1 observed my
native attendants suddenly ru.sh forward, and the next instant the jungle re-eehood
with the shouts of triumph. Thinking they had discovered the lion we were in pur-
suit of, I also hurried forward ; but imagine my surprise when emerging into an open-
ing in the jungle I saw, not a dead lion, as I expected, but <ive living lions — two
males and three females — two of whom were in the act of pulling down a splendid
giraffe, the other three watching close at hand, and with devouring looks, the deadly

'f

'^■-1

M

M

W\

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i" '

hi

. !

700

THE TROPICAL WOULD.

l! !

!

strife. Tho scono was of ho imposing •< nature that for the moment I forrrot t carried
a gun. Tho natives, however, in anticipation of a ghjrioiis gorge, daslicd madly for-
ward, and with tho most piercing shrieks and yells compelled the lions to a hasty
retreat. When I reached the ;,iraffc, now stretched at full lengtii on tho sand, itniiido
a few ineffectuul attempts to raise its neck ; its body heaved and quivered for a mo-
ment, and tho next instant tho poor animal was dead. It had received several 'locn
gashes ahout the flanks and eliest, caused by tho claws and teeth of its fierce ussiiii-
ants. Tho strong and tough muscles of tho nook wcro also bitten through. All
thought of pursuing tho wounded lion was now out of the question. Tho natives
remained gorging on tho carcass of tiic giraflfo until it was devoured. A day or two
afterward, however, I had the good fortune to fall in with my royal antagonist, aud
finished him without dilTiculty."

During the day-time tho lion seldom attacks man, and sometimes even when moot-
ing a traveler he is said to pass him by unnoticed ; but when tho shades of evening
descend, his mood undergoes a change. After sunset it is dangerous to venture into
tho woody and wild regions of Mount Atlas, for there the lion lies in wait, and thoro
ono finds him stretched across tho narrow path. It is then that dramatic scones of
absorbing interest not unfrequently take place. When, so say tho IJedouins, a single
man thus meeting with a lion is possessed of an undaunted heart, ho advances towards
tho monster brandishing his sword or flourishing his rifle high in tho air, and, taking
good care not to strike or to shoot, contents himself with pouring forth a torrent of
abuse: "Oh, thou mean-spirited thief! thou pitiful waylayor ! thou son of o/ie th.it
never ventured to say no! think'st thou I fear thee? Knowcst thou whose son I am?
Arise, and lot me pass !" Tho lion waits till the man approaches quite near to him;
then he retires, but soon stretches himself once more across the path ; and thus by
many a repeated trial puts tho courage of the wanderer to tho test. All the time tho
movements of tho lion are attended with a dreadful noise, he breaks numberless
branches with his tail, ho roars, he growls ; like the cat with the mouse, he plays with
the object of his repeated and singular attacks, keeping him perpetually suspended
between hope and fear. If tho man engaged in this combat keeps up his courage, —
if, as the Arabs express themselves, " he holds fast his soul," then the brute at last
quits him and seeks some other prey. But if the lion perceives that he has to do
with nn opponent whoso courage falters, whose voice trembles, who does not \'enture
to utter a menace, then to terrify him still more he redoubles tho described manoDuvres.
He approaches his victim, pushes him from the path, then leaves him and approaches
again, and enjoys tho agony of tho wretch, until at last ho tears him to pieces.

The lion is said to have a particular liking for tho flesh of tho Hottentots, and it is
surprising with what obstinacy he will follow one of these unfortunate savages. Thus
Mr. Barrow relates tho adventure of a Namaqua Hottentot, who, endeavoring to drive
his master's cattle into a pool of water enclosed between two ridges of rocks, espied a
huge lion couching in the midst of the pool. Terrified at the unexpected sight of such
a beast, that seemed to have his eyes fiued upon him, he instantly took to his heels.
In doing this he had presence of mind enough to run through the herd, concluding
that if the lion should pursue he would take up with the first beast that presented
itself. In this, however, be was mistaken. Tho lion broke through the herd, making
directly after the Hottentot, who, on turning round and perceiving that the monster

EN'COUNTIJRS WITH LIONS.

701

had singled him out, breathless and hiilf ilond with foar, 8nranil)lcd up one of the troo-
alocR, ill the trunk of wliii'h a few Mteps had luckily been cut out to come at some
birds' nests that the liranclics contained. At the same moment the lion made a spring
at him, but missing hi» aim, full upon iho g.r-.'nd. In surly silence he walked round
the tree, casting at times a dreadful look towards the poor Hottentot, who screened
himself from his sight behind the branches. Having remained silent and motionless
f(ir a lengtli of time, ho at length ventured to peep, hoping that the lion had taken
ills departure, when, to his great terror and astonishment, his eyes met those of the
nnimnl, which, as the poor fellow afterwards expressed himself, flashed fire at him. In
short, the lion laid him.self down at the foot of the tree, and did not remove from the
place for twenty-four hours. At the end of this time, becoming parched with thirst,
he went to a spring at some distance in order to drink. The Hottentot now, with
trepidation, ventured to descend, and scampered off homo, which was not more than a
mile distant, as fast as his feet could carry him.

On account as well of the devastations which ho causes among the herds as of the
pleasure of the chase, the lion is pursueil and killed in North and in South Africa
wherever he appears : a state of war which, as may well be supposed, is not without
danger for the aggressive j)arty. Thus Andersson onco fired upon a black-maned
lion, one of the largest he ever encountered in Africa. Roused to fury by the slight
wound he had received, the brute rapidly wheeled, rushed upon him with a dreadful
roar, and at the distance of a few paces, couched as if about to spring, having his
head imbedded, so to say, between his fore paws. Drawing a largo hunting-knife, and
slipping it over the wrist of his right hand, Andersson dropped on one knee, and thus
prepared, awaited the onset of the lion. It was an awful moment of suspense, and
his situation was critical in the extreme. Still his presence of mind, (a most indis-
pensable quality in a South African hunter,) never for a moment forsook him ; indeed,
he felt that nothing but the most perfect coolness and absolute self-command would be
of any avail. He would now have become the assailant ; but as, owing to the inter-
vening bushes and clouds of dust raised by the lion's lashing his tail against the
ground, he was unable to see his head, while to aim at any other part would have
been madness, he refrained from firing. Whilst intently watching every motion of the
lion, the animal suddenly made a prodigious bound ; but whether it was owing to his
not perceiving his intended victim, who was partially concealed in the long gra.ss, and
instinctively threw his body on one side, or to miscalculating the distance, ho went
clear over him, and alighted on the ground three or four paces beyond. Quick as
thought Andersson now seized his advantage, and wheeling round on his knee, dis-
charged his second barrel ; and as the lion's broadside was then towards him, lodged
a ball in his shoulder, which it completely smashed. The infuriated animal now made
a second and more determined rush ; but, owing to his disabled state, was happily
avoided, though only within a hair's breadth, and giving up the contest, he retreated
into a neighboring wood, where his carcass was found a few days after.

Dr. Livingstone once bad a still more narrow escape, for he was actually nnder the
paws of a lion, whose fury he had roused by firing two bullets at him. " I was upon
a little hight ; bo caught my shoulder as be sprang, and we both came to the ground
below together. Growling horribly close to my ear, he shook me as a terrier-dog does
a rat. The shock produced a stupor, similar to that which seems to be felt by a mouse

h'l

if

-. lit'

702

THE TROnCAL WOULD.

h

i

after the first shnkn of tlio cnt. It caused a mirt of drowsiness in wliieli there was no
setiHU of puin nor feeling of ti^rror, tiiougb qiiitn conseious of all tliut was linppcning.
It was like what patients partially under the inlluenco of chloroform describe, wlio seo
nil the operation, hut feel not the knife. This singular condition was not the result
of any mental process ; the shako annihilated fear, and allowed no sense of horror in
looking round at tho beast. 'J'liis peculiar state is probably produced in all animals
killed by tho carnivora ; and if so, is a merciful provision by our Iwnovolont Creator
for lessening tho pain of death. Turning round to relievo myself of tho weight, as In;
had one paw on tho back of my head, [ saw his eyes directed to Mebalwe, who was
trying to shoot him at a distance of ten or fifteen yards. His gun, a flint one, niissi'd
firo in both barrels; tho lion inmmdiatcly left mo, and attacking Mebalw<^, bit his
thigh. Another man attempted to spear tho lion while ho was biting Mebalwo. Ho
left Mebalwo and caiight this man by tho shoulder ; but at that moment tho bullets iio
had received took efl'ect, and ho fell down dea<l. Tho whole was the work of a few
moments, and must have been his paroxysm of dying rago. A wound from this
animal's tooth resembles a gun-shot wound ; it is gimerally followed by a great deal
of sloughing and discharge, and pains are felt in tho part periodically ever afterwards.
I had on a tartan jacket on tho occasion, and I believe that it wiped off all tho virus
from the teeth that pierced tho flesh, for my two companion,s in this affray have both
Buffered from tho peculiar pains, while I have escaped with only tho inconvenience of a
false joint in my limb. Tho man whoso shoulder was wounded showed me his wound
actually burst forth afresh on the same month of tho following year."

In the Atlas, tho lion is hunted in various ways. When ho prowls about tho
neighborhood of a Bedouin encampment, his presence is announced by various sigtia.
At night his dreadful roar resounds; now an ox, now a foal is missing from tho herd;
at length even a member of the tribe disappears. Terror spreads among all the tents,
the women tremble for their children, everywhere complaints are heard. The warriors
decree tho death of the obnoxious neighbor, and congregate on horse and on foot at
the appointed hour and place. Tho thicket in which tho lion conceals himself during
tho day-time has already been discovered, and tho troop advances, the horsemen bring-
ing up the rear. About fifty paces from tho bush they halt, and draw up in three
rows, tho second ready to assist the first in case of need, tho third an invincible reserve
of excellent marksmen. Then commences a strange and animated scene. Tho first
row abusing tho lion, and at tho samo time sending a few balls into his covert to
induce him to como out, utters loud exclamations of defiance. " Where is he who
fancies himself so bravo, and ventures not to show himself before men ? Surely it is
not the lion, but a cowardly thiof, a son of Scheitan, on whom may Allah's curse restl"

At length, the roused lion breaks forth. A momentary silence ensues. The lion
roars, rolls flaming eyes, retreats a few paces, stretches him.self upon the ground, rises,
smashes the branches with his tail. Tho front row gives fire, the lion springs forward,
if untouched, and generally falls under the balls of the second row, which immediately
advances towards him. This moment, so critical for tho lion, whose fury is fully ex-
cited, does not end the combat till he is hit in the head or in the heart. Often his
hide has been pierced by a dozen balls before the mortal wound is given, so that
sometimes in case of a prolonged contest several of the hunters are either killed or
wounded. The horsemen remain as passive spectators of the fray so long as the lioa

LION-HUNTING.

708

keeps upon liilly groimtl ; but wlion driven into the pl.iin, tlioir part l»cj»inH, and n now
combat of ix no 1(;hm original nnd draiimtitr oliaractor eoniiniMici^s ; as overy ritlor, accord-
inj; to lii3 zeal or couraj^o, spurs IiIh liorsn upon tliu monster, fires upon him nt a short
(listonce, th(!n rapidly wheels as soon as tlio shot is made, and reloails aj»ain, to prepare
for a new onset. Tho lion, attackiid on all sides and covered with wounds, fronts
everywhere tho enomy, sprinj^s forward, retreats, returns, and only falls nOer a j^lorious
roi^istnnco, which must necessarily end in his defeat nnd death, as ho is no match for a
(roop of well-mounted Arabs. After ho has spent his power on a few monstrous
spriiij;s, even an ordinary horso easily overtakes him. Ono must have boon tho wit-
ness of such a fight, says Dumas, to form an idea of its liveliness. Every rider utters
loud imprecations, the white mantles tlint give so spectral an appearance to their dusky
owners, fly in tho air like " streamers long and gay," tho carbines glisten, tho shots
roso>ind, the lion roars ; pursuit and flight alternate in rapid succession Yet in sjiito
of the tumult accidents are rare, nnd tho liorsomon have generally nothing to fear but
a fall from their stood, which might bring them under tho clawa of their enemy, or,
what is oftcnor tho case, tho ball of an incautious comrade.

Tho Arabs have noticed that the day after tho lion has carried away an animal, ho
prnernlly remains in a state of drowsy inactivity, incapable of moving from his luir.
When tho neighlx)rhood, which usually resounds with his evening roar, remains quiet,
there is every reason to believe that the animal is gorged with his gluttonous repast.
Then some huntsman, more courageous than his comrades, follows his trail into tho
tliioket, levels his gun at tho lethargic monster, and sends a ball into his head. Koino-
tinies even, a hunter, relying on the dearlly eertiiinty of his aim, nnd desirous of acqiiir-
ing fame by a display of chivalrous courage, rides fortlj alono into tho thicket, on a
moonlight night, challenges the lion with repeated shouts and imprecations, and lays
bim prostrate before he can make his fatal bound.

Dr. Livingstone informs us that tho Bushmen likewise avail themselves of the tor-
pidity consequent upon a full meal, to surprise tho lion in his slumlwrs : but their
mode of attack is very diflerent from that practiced by the fiery Aral)s of Northern
Africa. Ono discharges a poisoned arrow from the distance of only a few feet, wliilo
his companion simultaneously throws his skin-cloak over the beast's head. Tlio sudden
surprise makes him lose his presence of mind, and he bounds away in tho greatest
confusicin and terror. The poison which they use is tho entrails of a caterpillar named
N'gwa, half an inch long. They squeeze out these, and place them all around tho
bottom of the barb, and allow the poison to dry in tho sun. " They are very careful
in cleaning their nails after working with it, as a small portion introduced into a scratch
acts like morbid matter in dissection wounds. Tho agony is so great that tho person
ruts himself, calls for his mother's breast, as if ho wore returned in idea to his cliild-
liood again, or flies from human habitations a raging maniac. The effects on the lion
are equally terrible. Ho is heard moaning in distress, and becomes furious, biting the
trees end ground in rage."

Tho Arabs of tho Atlas consider it much less dangerous to hunt tho lion himself
than to rob him of his young. Daily about three or four o'clock in the afternoon,
the parent lions roam about, most likely to espy some future prey. They are seen
upon a rising ground surveying the encampment, the smoke arising from the tents, the
places where the cattle are preserved, and soon after retire with a deep growl. During

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704

THE TROPICAL WORLD.

thia absence from their don, the Bedouins cautiously approach to seize the young,
taking good care to gag them, as their cries would infallibly attract the parent lion.
After a razzia like this, the whole neighborhood increases its vigilance, as for the next
seven or eight days the fury of the lion knows no bounds.

In ancient times, the lion was an inhabitant of south-eastern Europe. Herodotus
relates that troops of lions came down the Macedonian mountains, to seize upon the
baggage camels of Xerxes' army, and even under Alexande? he Great, the animal,
though rare, was not yet completely extirpated. In Asia also, where the lion is at
present confined to Mesopotamia, the northern coast of the Persian Gulf, and the
north-western part cf Ilindostan, he formerly roamed over far more extensive domains.
The Asiatic lion differs from the African, by a more compressed form of the body, a
shorter mane, which sometimes is almost entirely wanting, and a much larger tuft of
hair at the end of the tail. Africa is the chief seat of the lion, the part of the world
where he appears to perfection with all the attributes of his peculiar strength and
beauty. There ho is found in the wilds of the Atlas as in the high mountain-lands
of Abyssinia, from the Capo to Senegal, and from Mozambique to Congo ; and more
than one species of the royal animal, not yet accurately distinguish i by the natural-
ists, roams over this vast expanse. The lion is frequently brought to Europe and
America, and forms one of the chiut objects of attraction in zoological gardens.
When taken young, he easily accustoms himself to captivity, and even propagates
within his pri.'son bounds, but the cubs born in our climate generally die young.

That the lion is at times bold and ferocious enough is abundantly testified by all
the hunters who within the last few yoirs have narrated their adventures in Southern
Africa, but all of them also give equal testimony to his usual cowardice, wlien not
pressed by hunger. Livingstone, indeed, has a most republican contempt for the so-
called " royal beast," although ho boars on his person proofs that he is not to be wholly
despised. According to him the lion is nothing better than an overgrown hulking cat,
not a match in fair fight for the buffalo, and always careful to give a wide berth to
the rhinoceros, Andersson relates the only instance which has como within our obser-
vation wliero a lion assailed a rhinoceros. Ho had wounded a rhinoceros, and, he
writes, "while following up the trail of the animal, we came to a spot where one or
two lions, taking advantage of his crippled condition, had evidently attacked him, and
after a desperate struggle had been compelled to beat a precipitate retreat. Tills is
the only instance I know of lions daring to attack rhinoceroses, though I have seen it
stated in print, that not only will they assail, but can master the horned monster."
His picture of this scene is given on page 503 of this volume.

According to Livingstone, if a traveler encounters a lion by daylight, he turns tail
and sneaks out of sight like a .scared greyhouml. All the talk about his majestic roar
is sheer twaddle. It takes a keen ear to distinguish the voice of the lion from that
of the silly ostrich. When the lion grows old, he leads a miserable life. Unable to
master the larger game, he prowls about the villages in hopes to pick up a stray goat.
A woman or a child does not como amiss. When the natives hear one prowling about
the villages, they say, " His teeth are worn ; ho will soon kill men," and thereupon
turn out and put an end to him ; " and this," says Livingstone, " is the only founda-
tion for tho common belief that when the lion has once tasted human flesh he will cat

nothing else."

When an aged lion lives far from human habitations so that he can not

TIIK LION AT HOME-THE TlGEll.

705

get gnats or cliildrcn, ho is often reduced to such straits as to bo obliged to make his
meals of mice and sucli sinall prey. '• U[Ktn the whole," concludes Livingstone, "in
the dark, or at all hours when breeding, the lion is an ugly enough custoiner ; but if
a niiin will stay at home by night, atid not go out of his way to attack him, ho runs
less risk in Africa of being devoured by a lion, than he docs in our cities of being run
over by an omnibus."

The lion reigns in Africa, but the Tiger is lord and master of the Indian jungles.
A splendid animal — elegantly striped with black on a white and golden ground ;
graceful in every movement, but of a most sanguinary and cruel nature. The length-
ened Itody resting on short legs wants the proud bearing of the lion, while the naked
iiead, the wildly rolling eye, the scarlet tongue constantly lolling from the jaws, and
tiic whole expression of the tiger's physiognomy indicate an insatiable thirst of blood,
a pitiless ferocity, which he wreaks indiscriminately on every living thing that comes
within his grasp. In the bamlM)o jungle on the banks of pools and rivers, he waits
for the approaching herd ; there he seeks his prey, or rather multiplies his murders,
for he often leaves the carcase of the axis or the nylghau still writhing in tlie agony
of death to throw himself upon new victims, whose bodies he rends with his claws,
and then plunges his head into the gaping wound to absorb with deep and luxurious
draughts the blood whose fountains he has jast laid open.

Nothing can be more delightful than the aspect of a Javanese savannah, to which
clumps of noble trees, planted by Nature's hand, impart a park-like character ; yet
even during the day-time, the traveler rarely ventures to cross these beautiful wilds
without being accompanied by a numerous retinue. In Italy armed guards are neces-
sary to scare the bandit ; here the tiger calls for similar precautions. The horses fre-
quently stand still, trembling all over, when their road leads them along some denser
patch of the jungle, rising like an island tVom the grassy plain, for their acute scent
informs them that a tiger lies concealed in the thicket, but a few paces from their path.
It is a remarkable fact that the peacock and the tiger are so frequently seen together.
The voice of the bird is seldom heard during the day-time, but as soon as the shades
of evening begin to veil the landscape, his loud and disagreeable screams awaken the
echoes, announcing, as the Javanese say, that the tiger is setting forth on his mur-
derous excursions. Then the traveler carefully bolts the door of his hut, and the sol-
itary Javanese retreats to his palisaded dwelling, for the tyrant of the wilderness is
abroad. At night his dreadful roar is heard, sometimes accompanied by the peacock's
discordant voice. Even in the villages, thinly scattered among the grass or alang-
wdds of Java, there is no security against his attacks, in spite of the strong fences
with which they are enclosed, and the watch fires carefully kept burning between
these and the huts.

India, South China, Sumatra, and Java, are the chief seats of the tiger, who is un-
known both in Ceylon and Borneo, while to the nortii ho ranges as far as Manchuri.i
and the Upper Obi, and Yeiinisei, (oo'' — .6" N. lat.) A species of tiger identical
with that of Bengal is connnon in the neigiiborhood of Lake Aral, near Sussao (4;)^
N. lat.), and Tennant mentions that ho is found among the snows of Mount Ararat in
Armenia. As Hindostan is separated from tho.se northern tiger haunts by the great
mountain chains of Kuen-Lun (35° N.), and of Mouztagh (4"2" N. lat ), each cov-
ered with perpetual snows, mere summer excursions are quite out of the question, and
45

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THE TROPICAL WORLD.

it is evident that the animal is able to live in a much more rigorous climate than is
commonly imagined. Even in India the tiger is by no means conlined to tlie sultry
jungle, for wj learn from 3Ir. Hodgson's account of the mammalia of Nepaul, that in
the Himalaya l.c is sometimes found at the very edge of the perpetual snow.

Tiger-hunting is a chief pleasure of the Indian rajahs and zemindars, who, anxicms
that their favorite amusement may suffer no diminution, forbi(' nny one else to chase on
their domains, however much their poor vassals may have to suffer in conscfiuL'iicu.
But the delight they take in tiger shooting never leads the cautious Nimrods so far as
to endanger their precious persons. On some trees of the jungle a scaffolding is pre
l)ared, at a ludicrous hight for his highness, who, at the appointed hour, makes his
appearance with all the pomp of a petty Asiatic despot. The beating now begins,
and is executed by a troop of miserable peasants, who most unwillingly submit to tiiis
forced and unpaid labor, which is the more dangerous for them as they arc dispersed
in a long line, instead of forming a troop, the only way to secure them against tlie
attacks of the tiger. Thus they advance with a dreadful noise of drums, horns, and
pistol-firing, driving the wild beasts of the jungle towards the scaffolding of their lord
and master. At first the tigers, startled from their slumbers, retreat before them, l)ut
generally on approaching the scaffolding they guess the danger that awaits them, and
turn with a formidable growl upon the drivers. Sometimes, however, they suiiiinon
resolution to rush with a few tremendous bounds through the perilous pass, and their
flight is but rarely impeded by the ilUaimed .shots of the ambuscade. Nevertlieloss,
great compliments are paid to the noLie sportsman for his ability and courage, and
nobody says a word about tlie poor low-born wretches, that may have been killed and
mutilated by the infuriated brutes.

Colonel Rice, an English hunter, managed his tiger-shooting e.'ccursions on a very
different plan. Provided with excellent double-barrelled rifles, and accompanied by a
troop of well-armed, well-paid drivers, and a number of courageous dogs, he boldly
entered the jungle to rouse the tiger from his lair. In front of the party generally
marched the shikarree or chief driver, who, attentively reconnoitering the traces of tlie
animal, pointed out the direction that was to be followed. On his right and left liand
walked the English sportsmen, fully prepared for action, and behind them the most
trustworthy of their followers, with loaded rifles ready for an exchange with those that
had been discharged. Then followed the music, consisting of four or ftvc tambourines,
a great drum, cymbals, horns, a bell, and the repeated firing of pistols, and convoyed
by men armed with swords and long halberds. A fe,v slingsi,?n made up the rear,
who were constantly throwing stones into the jungle over the heads of the foremost of
the party, and even more effectually than the noise of the music drove the tiger from
his retreat. From time to time one of the men climbed upon the summit of a treo to
oli.serve the movements of the grass. The whole troop constantly formed a close body.
The tiger in cold blood never dares to attack a company that announces itself in so
turbulent a manner, if he ventures it is only with half a heart; he hesitates, stops at
a short distance, and gives a hunter time to salute him with a bullet. While strictly
following an order of marc' like the one described, the drivers run little risk, even in
the thickest jungle ; but the ditTioulty is to keep them together, as the least success
immediately tempts them to disperse.

Oa one of these hunting expeditions Ensign Elliott, a friend of the Colonel's, bad

3, hatl

PERILS OF TIGER-HUNTING.

707

an almost miraculous escape. Accompanied by about, forty drivers, they had entered
a jungle, which did not seem to promise much sport, and had mounted with their rifles
;'t)on some small trees to await tlic issue of the explorations, when suddenly their
people roused a beautiful tiger, who advanced slowlv to'^ards them. They remained
perfectly silent, but one of tlieir followers, posted upon another tree and fearing they
might be surpris^ed by the animal, called out to them to be upon their guard. Thia
was enough to make the tiger change his direction, so that they had scarcely time to
send a bullet after him. His loud roar announced that ho was wounded, but the dis-
tance was already too great to admit of his being effectually hit a second time, so that
the impatient sportsmen now pursued him with more eagerness than caution. At the
head of their troop, they marched through the jangle, following the bloody trail of the
animal, until at length they emerged into an open country, wlieti all further traces
wore lost. In vain some of their people climbed upon the highest trees ; nothing was
to be perceived either in the bushes or in the high grass. Meanwhile the Englishmen
slowly walked on, about twenty pact i in advance, attentively g:izing upon the ground,
when suddenly with a terrific roar the tiger bounded upon Colonel Rice from a hollow,
inncealed beneath the herbage. The gallant sportsman had scarcely time to fire both
liis barrels at the head of the monster, who, diverted from the attack by this warm
reception, now made an enormous spring at Ensign Elliott before he had time to aim.
All this was the work of a moment, for, on turning towards the tiger, the Colonel saw
Ills unfortunate friend prostrate under tlie paws of ihe furious brute. Immediately
the shikarree with admirable coolness handed him a freshly loaded rifle. He dis-
cliarged one of the barrels without effect, but was then obliged to pause, as the tiger
liad seized his friend by the arm, and was dragging him towards the hole from whence
he had sprung forth. Thus it was absolutely necessary that the next shot should hit
tlie animal in the brain, as any other wound not immediately fatal would only have
iniM'eased its fury. Closely following the tiger, and watching all his movements with
the most intense attention, the Colonel, after having aimed several times, at length fired
anil hit the temple of the tiger, who fell over ais victim a lifeless corpse. Fortunately,
tlie Ensign was not mortally wounded, the stroke of the tiger's paw, which Iiad been
aimed at his heai', having been parried by his rifle. The blow, however, had been so
furious as to flatten the trigger, and thus he escaped with a terrible wouml in the arm.
The tiger is particularly fond of dense willow or bamboo bushes on swampy ground,
as he there finds the cool shades he reijuires for his rest during the heat of the day,
after his nocturnal excursions. It is then very difficult to detect him, but the other
inhabitants of the jungle, particularly the peacock and the monkey, betray his pres-
ence. The scream of the former is an infallible sign that the tiger is rising from his
lair ; and the monkeys, who during the night are so frer[uently surprised by the
panther or the boa, never allow their watchfulness to bo at fault during the day.
They are never deceived in the animal, which slinks into the thi(;kct. If it is a deer
or a wild boar, they remain perfectly quiet ; but if it is a tiger or a panther, they
utter a cry, destined to warn their comrades of the approach of danger. When, on
examining a jungle, the traveler sees a monkey quietly seated on the branches, he
may be perfectly sure that no dangerous animal is lurking in the thicket. During the
night the cry of the jacka' frequently announces the tiger's presence. When one of
these vile animals is no longer able to hunt from age, or when ho has been expelled

I',

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THE TUOriCAL WOUI-U.

from lii.s troo]), ho is said to boeomo the provider of the tiger, wlio, after huvinir satiiitcil
himself on the snuil, leaves the remains to his famished scc»it.

The tiger, wlio on the declivities of tiio Himalaya tears to pieces the swi/t-footid
antelope, lacerates on the desert sand coasts of Java the tardy tortoise, wlien at ni'dit-
fall it leaves the sea to lay its eggs in the drift-sand at the foot of the dunes. Hun-
dreds of tortoise skeletons lie scattered about the strand, many of tliem five feet loni'
and three feet bro-d ; some bleached by time, others still fresh and bleeding, llii'h in
the air a number of birds of prey wlieel alwut, scared by the traveler's approucli.

Here is the place where the turtles are attacked by the wild dogs. In packs of fr

twenty to fifty, the growling rabble assails the poor sea animal at every accessible
point, gnaws and tugs at the feet and at the head, and succeeds by united elforts in
turning the huge creature upon its back. Then the abdominal scales are torn off, and
the ravenous dogs hold a bloody meal on the Hesh, intestines, and eggs of their defence-
less prey. Semotimes, however, the turtle escapes tiieir rage, and dragging its lacer-
ating tormentors along with it, succeeds in regaining the friendly sea. Nor do tlie
dogs always enjoy an undisturbed repast, often during the night, the lord of the wil-
derness, the royal tiger, bursts out of tiie forest, pauses for a moment, casts a glance
over the strand, approaches slowly, and then with one bound, accompanied by a ter-
rific roar, springs among the dogs, scattering the howling band like chaif before tlin
wind. And now is the tiger's turn to feast; but even he, though rarely, is soiiietimus
disturbed by man. Thus on this lonely, melancholy coast, wild dogs and tigers wage
an une((ual war with the inhabitants of the ocean.

After the tiger and the lion, the Panther and the Leopard are the mightiest fulidio
of the Old World. Although differently spotted — the ocelli or rounded marks on the
panther being larger and more distinctly formed — they are probably only varieties of
one and the same species, as many intermediate individuals have been observed. Both
animals are widely diffused through the tropical regions of the Old World, being na-
tives of Africa, Persia, China, India, and many of tiio Indian islands ; so that tliuy
have a much more extensive range than either *,he tiger or the lion. The manner in
which they seize their prey, lurking near the sides of woods, and darting forward witli
a sudden spring, resembles that of the tiger, and the chase of the panther is .-^aid to
be more dangerous than that of the lion, as it easily climbs the trees and pursues its
enemy upon the branches.

The Cheetah, or hunting leopard {Gueparda jiihata, guttata), which inhabits tiiu
greater part of both Asia and Africa, exhibits in its form and habits a mixture of the
feline and canine tribes. Resembling the panther by its spotted skin, it is more ele-
vated on its legs and less flattened on the foro part of its head. Its brain is more
ample, and its claws touch the ground while walking, like those of the dog, which it
resend)le9 still further by its mild and docile nature. In India and Persia, where tlic
cheetahs are employed in the chase, they are carried chained and hoodwinked to the
field in low cars. When the hunters come within view of a herd of antelopes, this
cheetah is liberated, and the game is pointed out to him : he does not, however, iiii
mediately dash forward in pursuit, but steals along cautiously till he has nearly ap-
proached the herd unseen, when with a few rapid and vigorous bounds, he darts on
the timid game and strangles it almost instantaneously. Should he, however, fail in

HY.ENAS>— THE AMKRICAN FELID.E.

709

his first efforts and miss his prey, he attempts no pursuit, but returns to the call of his
master, evidently disapjwinted, 'id generally almost breathlesB.

While the sanguinary feliJ;« may justly bo called the eagles, the carrion feeding
Hynenas are the vultures, among the four-footed animals. Averse to the light of day,
like the owl and the bat, they conceal themselves in dark caverns, ruins, or burrows,
as long as tlie sun stands above the horizon ; but at nightfall they come forth from
their gloomy retreats with a lamentable howl or a satanic laugh, to seek their disgust-
ing food on the fields, in churchyards, or on the borders of the sea. From the pro-
digious strength of their jaws and their teeth, they are not only able to masticate ten-
dons, but to crush cartilages and bimcs ; so that carcases almost entirely deprived of
flesh still provide them with a plentiful banquet. Though their nocturnal habits and
savage aspect have rendered them an object of hatred and disgust to man, they seem
destined to till up an important station in the economy of nature, by cleansing the
earth of the remains of dead animals, which might otherwiro infect the atmosphere
with pestilential etfluvia.

The striped hysvna is a native of Asiatic Turkey, Syria, and North Africa, as far as
the Senegal, while the spotted hynena ranges over South Africa, from the Cape to
Abyssinia. Koth species attain the size of the wolf, and have similar habits. As the
shark follows the ship, or the crow the caravan, they are said to hover about the march
of armies, as if taught by instinct that they have to expect the richest feast from the
insanity of man. The moonlight falling on the dark cypresses and snow-white tombs
of the Oriental churches not seldom shines upon hungry hyjenas, busily employed ia
tearing the newly buried corpses from their graves. A remarkable peculiarity of the
spotted hy.-cna is that when he first begins to run he appears lame, so that one might
almost fancy one of his legs was broken ; but after a time this halting disappears, and
he proceeds on his course very swiftly.

The brown hyicna, which is found in South Africa, from the Capo co Mozambique
and Senegambia, and has a more shaggy fur than the preceding species, has very dif-
ferent habits. He is particularly fond of the crustaceic which the ebbing flood leaves
beliind upon the beach, or which the storm casts ashore in great quantities, and exclu-
sively inhabits the coasts, where he is known under the name of the sea-shore wolf. His
traces are everywhere to be met with on the strand, and night after night he prowls
along the margin of the water, examining the refuse of the retreating ocean.

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The same radical differences which draw so wide a line of demarcation between the
siniioe of the Old and tlie New World are found also to distinguish the feline races of
both hemispheres, so that it would be as vain to search in the American forests and
savannas for the Numidian lion, or the stri|»ed tiger, as on the banks of the Ganges or
the Senegal for the tawny puma or the spotted jaguar. While in the African plains
the swift-footed springbok, or the koodoo, unrivaled among the antelopes for his bold
and widely-spreading horns, falls under the impetuous bound of the pantlier — or wliile
the tiger and the buffalo engage in mortal combat in tlie Indian jungle — the blood-
thirsty Jaguar, concealed in the hinr^ grass of the American llanos, lies in wait for the
wild horse or the passing steer. The arrival of the Spaniards in the New World, so
destructive to most of the Indian tribes with whom they came in contact, was beneficial
at least to the large felidne of tropical America, for they first introduced the hor.sc and

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THE TROPICAL WORLD.

the ox into the western hemisphere, where these useful animals, findin" a now and
congenial homo in the Imundless savannas and pampas, wliich extend almost unintur-
ruptedly from the Ajjurc to Patagonia, have multiplied to an incredible extent. Sinpo
then the jaguar no longer considers the deer of the woods, the graceful ai'outi, or the
slow capybara as his chief prey, but rejoices in the blood of the steed or ox, and i.s
much more commonly met with in the herd-teeming savannas than in the comparatively
meagre hunting-grounds of the forest.

Of all the carnivora of tlio New World, perhaps with the sole exception of the
grizzly and the ])olar bears, the tyrants of the North American solitudes, the jaf^uar is
the most formidable, resembling the panther by his spotted skin, but almost ciiualin"
the Bengal tiger in size and power. He roams about at all times of the day, swims
over broad rivers, and even in the water proves a most dangerous foe, for when driven
to extremities he frequently turns against the boat, and forces his assailants to sock
their safety by jumping overboard. Many an Indian, while wandering through thinly
populated di.stricts, where swampy thickets alternate with open grass plains, lias l)oen
torn to pieces by the jaguar, and in many a lonely plantation the inhabitants hardly
venture to leave their enclosures after sunset, for fear of his attacks. Durini' Tsclmdi's
sojourn in Northern Peru, a jaguar penetrated into the hut of an Englishman who
had settled in those parts, and dragging a boy of ten years out of his hammock, tore
him to pieces and devoured him. Far from being afraid of man, this ferocious animal
springs upon him when alone, and when pressed by hunger will even venture during
the day-time into the mountain villages to seek its prey. The distinguished travdur
whom I have just quoted mentions the case of an Indian in the province of Vito, wlio
hearing during the niglit his only pig most piteously squealing, rose to see what was
the matter, and found that a jagua"* had seized it by the head, and was about to cany
it away. Eager to rescue his firoperty, he sprang forward, and seizing the pig by tlio
hind legs, disputed its possession with the beast of prey, that with eyes gleaming
through the darkness, and a ferocious growl, kept tugging at its head. This struiii^o
struggle between the undaunted Indian and the jaguar lasted for some time, until tlie
women coming out of the hut with lighted torches put to flight the monster, whidi
slowly retreated into the forest. The same traveler relates that in some j)arts tlio
jaguars had increased to such a degree, and proved so destructive to the inhabitants,
that the latter were obliged to emigrate, and settle in less dangerous districts. Tims,
the village of Mayunmarca, near the road from Huanta to Anco, had liocn long since
abandoned, and the neighborhood was still considered so dangerous tiiat few Indians
ventured to travel through it alone.

The chase of these formidable animals requires great caution, yet keen S|,nrtsmon
will venture, single-handed, to seek the jaguar in his lair, armed with a blow-]ii])e and
poisoned arrows, or merely with a 'ong and powerful lance. The praise which is due
to the bold adventurers for their courage is, however, too often tarnished by their
cruelty. Thus, a famous jaguar hunter once showed Poppig a large cavity under tlio
tangled roots of a giant bombax-trce, where he had some time back di.seoverod a
female jaguar with her young. Dexterously rolling down a large stone, he closed tlio
entrance, and then with fiendish delight slowly smoked the animals to death, by apiily-
ing fire from time to time to their dungeon. Having lost one half of his sculp in a
previous conflict with a jaguar, he pleaded his sufferings as an excuse for his barbarity.

THE JAOUAR-TIIE COUGAR— WILD-CATS.

711

T't attack tliose creatures with a lance, a sure arm, a cool, deterinincd courage, and
great bodily strength and dexterity are re([uired ; but even these (jualities do not
always ensure success if the hunter is unacquainted with the artifices of the animal.
Tlie jaguar generally waits for the attack in a sitting posture, turning one side towards
the assailant, and, as if unconcerned, moves his long tail to and fro. The hunter,
carefully observing the eye of his adversary, repeatedly menaces him with slight thrusta
(if his lance, which a gentle stroke of the paw playfully wards off; then seizing a
favorable moment, ho suddenly steps forward and plunges his weapon into his side.
If the thrust bo well aimed, a second is not necessary, for pressing with his full weight
on the lance, the huntsman enlarges and deepens the mortal wound. But if the stroke
is parried or glances off, the jaguar, roused to fury, bounds on his aggressor, whoso
only hope now lies in the short knife which he carries in his girdle. Those who are
!( ss inclined to desperate conflicts destroy the jaguar by poisoned pieces of meat, or
else they lay j)itfalls for him, when they kill him without running any personal risk.

The Cougar, or the Puma, as ho is called by the Indians, is far inferior to the
jaguar in courage, and conse(iuently far less dangerous to man. On account of iiis
brownish-red color and great size, being the largest felis of the New World, he has
also been named the American lion, but he has neither the mane nor the noble bearing
of the "king of animals." Tn spite of his strength he is of so cowardly a disposition
tliat he invariably takes to flight at the approach of man, and consequently inspires no
fear on being met with in the wilderness ; while even the boldest hunter instinctively
starts back, when, winding through the forest, he suddenly sees the sparkling eye of
tlio jaguar intently fixed upon him. The puma has a much wider range than the
jaguar, for while the latter reaches in South America only to the forty-fiftli degree of
latitude, and does not rove northwards beyond Sonora and New Mexico, the former
roams from the Straits of Magellan to the Canadian lakes. The jaguar seldom ascends
the mountains to a greater bight than 3,000 feet, while in the warmer lateral valleys
nf the Andes the puma frequently lies in ambush for the vicunas at an elevation of
10,000 feet above the level of the sea. He can climb trees with great facility, ascend-
ing even vertical trunks, and, like the lynx, will watch the opportunity of springing
on such animals as happen to pass beneath. No less cruel than cowardly, he will
destroy without necessity forty or fifty sheep when the occasion offers, and content him-
self with licking the blood of his victims. When caught young, ho is easily tamed,
and, like the common cat, shows his fondness at being caressed by tlio same kind of
gentle purrings. Tschudi informs us that the Indians of the nortliern provinces fre-
quently bring pumas to Lime to show them for money. They either lead them by a
rope, or carry them in a sack upon their back, until the sight-seers have assembled in
sufficient number.

Besides the puma or the jaguar, tropical America possesses the beautifully varie-
gated Ocelot (Felis pardalts) ; the Oscollo (Felis dogaster); the spotless, black-gray
•]ag\\mvindi\ (F. jaguarundi), which is not much larger than the European wild-cat;
the long-tailed, striped, and spotted Margay, or Tiger-cat, and several other felidjc.
All these smaller species hardly ever become dangerous to man, but they cause the
death of many an acouchi and cavy ; and, with prodigious leaps, the affrighted monkey
flies from their approach into the deepest recesses of the forest.

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712

TllK IKOl'ICAL WOULIJ.

CHAPTER XV.

THE ELKPIIANT, IIHINOCEUOS, III1>P0P0TA:MUS, CAMEL, ZEBRA.

The Great Tropical I'acliyderniati. — The FJephant : DifTeronuo lietween tlie tame mid wild
Elcpliant — His IiiHtiiiutivu Timidity — Acuteness of His Senses — Uis Sagacity in Cliniliii'K
Hills — His wonderful Trunk — His Tusks— Elepliant Herds — The Honue, or Solitary Klu-
pliant — The Asiatic and African Species — The African Elephant tamed in Ancient Tinies—
Present I'lnj^e of the African Elephant — Native Modes of Huntin)^ the African Eli'i)liaiit—
The Elephant and the UiHe — Perils of Elephant-Hunters — Elephaiit-HuntinK in Ahyssiniii—
The Asiatic Elephant— Elephant-Hunting in Ceylon — The Panickeas, or Native Elepliant-
Hunters — Elei>liantinc Head-Work — Obstinate Brutes. — The liliiiiortroi : — Han^'cand Cliai-
ucter of the Uhinoceros — Two Species, th Black and the White — Size of the Hhinoccrds—
Aeuteness of its Senses — Its wingoil Attendant — Its jiarontal Affection — Its nodtiiriml
Ilahits — Modes of Hunting the Uhinoceros — The One-Horned or Indian Khinoceros — The
Two-IIorned Khinoceros of the Malay Archipelago — Rhinoceros-Paths in Java. — The I/i/i-
liopolamiis : — Is the Hippopotamus the Behemoth of Job? — Habits of the Hi|)po|)otannis —
Its uncouth Aspect — Rogue Hippopotami — Intelligence of the Hippopotamus — Uses of its
Skin and 'I\'eth — Mode of Killing the Hippopotamus. — 'J'he Camit : Its Adaptation to tiie
Tropical Sand-Wastes — Its Physical Organization adapted to its Mode of Life— Its Koot
and its Stomach — Its Desert Home — The Camel and the Arab — The Two-Humped and
One-Humped Camels — The Camel an immemorial Serf — Its Aspect and Temper. — /'/»'
Giraffe: Beauty of the Giraffe — Its Means of Defense — Its s]iecial Organization — The
Lion and the Girarte — The Giraffe known to the Ancients. — Zehm and (Itwjiids: Their
Abundance in Southern Africa — Distinction Between the Quagga and the Zebra — Capacity
for Domestication — Their Union for Defense — The Gnu, the Quagga, and the Zebra — The
Zebra the Tiger-Horse of the Ancients — The African Boar — The Malayan Babirusa. Einis.

A3ION6 the animals belonging to the Tropical World there are none more dis-
tinctive than tlie great Pachydermati, the Elephant, the Rhinoceros, and the
Hippopotamus, To these huge beasts, the largest that walk the earth, we jiropcse to
devote a chapter ; supplementing it with a few pages concerning the Giraffe, the Camel,
and a few other animals of large size, exclusively tropical. First and foremost we will
speak of the Elephant :

A tamed elephant, as we see him in menageries, compelled to go through his round
of tricks for the amusement of everybody who will pay the required quarter of a dol-
lor, is apparently a stupid beast. He seems a very mountain of flesh, covered with a
loose and ill-fitting skin. His great, clumsy legs look like those of a gouty alderman ;
he writhes his huge trunk about with an air of hopeless imbecility ; all his eiuMgies
seem to be concentrated upon the feat of conveying to his mouth the apples and nuts
held out to him by gaping urchins. A very different animal is the same elephant in
his native haunts. There he is the keenest wariest, and most cunning of beasts.
The little sharp eye is alight with intelligence ; the ponderous cars are alive to the

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faintest sound ; tlio lopn; swaying trunk, merely ns iin orgnn of suicU, lias an aeute.
ness uninatelieil by tlio keenest dog that ever tracked game. He has, moreover, n
eourage, and when irritated, a ferocity, surpassed hy !io otiier animal ; so that one
needs to he a hold and wary hunter who assails him in his native haunts.

Yet, when unmolested by man. who is hi/s chief, and filmost only enemy, the elephant
is the imago of strength and good-nature, loving the shady forest and the sooludod
lake. Disliking the glare of the midday sun, ho spends the day in the thickest woods,
devoting the night to excursions and to the luxury of the l).ith, his great and innocent
delight. Though the earth trembles under his strides, yet like the whale, he is timid ;
but this timidity is accounted for by his small range of vision. Anything unusual
strikes him with terror, and the most trivial objects and incidents, from being iinper-
lectly discerned, excite his suspicions. An instinctive cr::"ciousness that his superior
bulk exposes him to danger from sources that migh* '"• '< rmless in the case of lighter
animals is ))robably the reason why the elephant displays a remarkable reluctance
to face the slightest artificial obstruction on his passage. Even wlien enraged by a
wound, he will hesitate to charge his assailant across an intervening hedge, suspecting
it may conceal a snare or pitfall, but will hurry along it to seek for an opening. Un-
like the horse, he never gets accustomed to tlie report of fire-arms, and thus he never
plays an active part in battle, but serves in a campaign only as a conunon beast of
burden, or for the transjjort of heavy artillery. To make up for his restricted vision,
his neck being so formed as to render him iiicapablt! of directing the range of his eye
much above the level of his head, he is endowed with a remarkable jmwer of smell,
and a delicate sense of hearing, which serve to apprise him of the approach of danger.

Although, from their huge bulk, the ele])hants might be supposed to [)refer a level
country, yet, in Asia at least, the regions where they most abound are all hilly and
mountainous. In Ceylon, ])articularly, tliero is not a range so high as to bo ina(!c(!s-
siblo to them, and so sure-footed arc they, that jirovided there be solidity to sustain
their weight, they will climb rocks .lud traverse ledges, where even a mule dare not
venture. Hooker admired the judicious winding of the elepliant's path in the Hima-
layas, and Tennent describes the sagacity which he disjtlays in laying out roads, or
descending abrupt banks, as almost incredible. His first manncuvre is to kneel down
close to the edge of the declivity, placing his chest to the ground, one fore-leg is then
cautiously passed a short way down the .slope, and if there is no natural protection to
afford a firm footing, ho speedily forms one by stamping into the soil, if moist, or kick-
ing oui, a footing, if dry. This point gained, the other fore-log is brought down in
the sanie way, and performs the same work, a little in advance of the first, which is
thus at liberty to move lower still. Then first one and then the second of the hind-
legs is carefully drawn over the side, and the hind-feet in turn occupy the resting-
places previously used and left by the fore ones. The course, bowever, in such pre-
cipitous ground is not straight from top to bottom, but slopes along the face of the
bank, descending till the animal gains the level below. This an elephant has done at
an angle of forty-five degrees, carrying a houdah, its occupant, his attendant, and
in much less time than it takes to describe the operation.

The stomach of the elephant, like that of the camel or the llama, is provided with
a cavity, serving most probably as a reservoir for water against the emergencies of
thirst; but the most remarkable feature in the organization of the " Leviathan of the

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THE TKOl'ICAL WOULD.

Lnnd " Ih his wonderful trunk, which, unitinp; the fl»!xihility of the serpent witii a
giunt'w |>ower,'ulni().st rivals the human hand by its manifold uses and exi|iiisite deli.
caey of touch. Nearly eight foet in length and stout in proportion to the massivo
si/o of the whole animal, this miracle of nature, at the volition of the elcph.int will
uproot trees or gather grass; rifise a jtieee of artillery or pick up a comlit ; kill u niuit
or brush off a tly. It conveys the food to the mouth, and jmmps up the enorniims
draughts of water, which, by its recurvature, arc turned into and driven down tlii'
capacious throat, or showered over the body. Its length supplies the place of a luiiir
neck, which would have been incompatible with the support of the large hcaij iiml
weiglity tusks. A glance at the head of the elephant will show the thickncsH nw\
strength of the trunk at its insertion ; and the massy arched bones of the face ami
thick muscular neck are admirably adapted for supporting and working tliis iiicmn
parable instrument, which is at the same time the elephant's most vormidiililc instru-
ment of defense, for, first prostrating any minor assailant by means of his trunk, he
then crushes him by tlio pressure of his enormous weight.

The use of the elephant's tusks is less clearly defined. Though tliey are frpi(uontlv
des(!ribed as warding off the attacks of the tiger and rhinoceros, often securing tlie
victory by one blow, which transfixes the assailant to the earth, it is perfectly (ilivions,
both from their almost vertical position and the dilliculty of raising the head above
the level of the shoulder, that they were never designed for weapons of attack. No
doubt they may prove of great assistance in digging up roots, but that they are fur
from indispensable, is jiroved by their being but rarely seen in the females, and by
their almost constant absence in the Ceylon elephant, whore they arc generally found
reduced to more stunted processes.

Elephants live in herds, usually consisting of from ten to twenty individuals, and
each herd is a family, not brovight together by accident or attachment, but owning a
common lineage and relationship. In the forest several herds will browse in close
contiguity, and in their expeditions in search of water they may form a body of pos; i-
bly one or two hundred, but on the slightest disturbance, each distinct herd hastens
to re-form within its own jmrticular circle, and to take measures on its own behalf for
retreat or defense. Generally the most vigorous and courageous of the herd assumes
the leadership : his orders are observed with the most implicit obedience, and the de-
votion and loyalty evinced by his followers are very remarkable. In Ceylon this is
more readily seen in the case of a " tusker " than any other, because in a herd he is gen-
erally the object of the keenest pursuit by the hunters. On such occasions the ele-
phants do their utmost to protect him from danger ; when driven to extremity, tlioy
place their leader in the centre, and crowd so eagerly in front of him that the sports-
men have to shoot a number which they might otherwise have spared.

When individuals have been expelled from a herd, or by some accident or other have
lost their former associates, they are not permitted to attach themselves to any other
family, and ever after wander about the woods as outcasts from their kind. Rendered
morose and savage from rage and solitude, the rofjne elephants become vicious and
predatory ; and so sullen is their disposition, that although two may be in the same
vicinity, there is no known instance of their associating, or of a ro^ue being seen in
company with another elephant. These rogue elephants seem to belong, however,
wholly to the Asiatic variety ; at least, we find no special mention of them by African

I

ASIA'IIC AND AKKICAX KI.KPII ANTS.

•15

liunfprs. Mr. S. G. Uukor, now Sir Siunuel Uakor, Hinec noted for his pxplorntinn of
the soiircu of the Nih', wiis loiiu; iij^o a notutl el('|thiint-liui»tt'r iti Coyhm, iinil his liook
"The Hitle iind tlie Ilounil in Ceylon " iihounils with incidtMits of udventiiru und dur-
iiiR in shooiiii;? ihcH* roj;iies. " Deprived," ho siiys,"of the iimelionitlnj; intliieneo of
fcniido society, the old roj^ue heconies doubly vicious. He iippciirs to be in Itiid humor
witii the world j^onerally, and with himself in partieular, sjiendiu}; the j^reatost part of
his time when not feeding?, in paeing back and fiuth, with his tail cocked in the air,
icndy for a rush upon any one that approaches his haunts." Their pluek is equal to
ilicir cnnninji;, When they travel in tlie day-time, they always go with the wind, and,
nothinj^ can follow on their track without their knowledge. When the rogue is pur-
sued in the o|ien forest or on the naked plain he usually retreats ; but the chances are
ten to on(' tliat he is merely enticing the hunter to follow him into .some favorite hauut
among the dense; jungle, from which ho will charge at .some urie.\pected moment.

The elephant inhaliits both Asia and Africa, but eac^h of these two jiarts of the world
has its jiecnliar species. Tho African elephant is distinguished by the lozenge-shaped
prominences fif ivory and enamel ou the surfat^o of his grinders, which in the Indian
elephant are narrow, tranverse bars of uniform breadth ; his .skull has a more rounded
form, and is deticient in the double lateral bump conspicuous In tho former ; anil ho
has only fifty-four vcrtolinr, while tho Indian has sixty-one. On tho other l)an<l, ho
posses.ses twenty-one ribs, while tho latter has only nineteen. His tusks are also much
larger, and his body is of much greater bulk, as tho female attains the stature of tho
♦"ull-grown Indian male Tho ear is at least three times tho size, being not seliloin
above four feet long, and broad, .«o that Dr. Livingstone mentions having seen a negro,
who under cover of one of these prodigious flaps effectually screened himself from the
rain. All these differences of character appeared .so great to M. Ouvier as to induce
him to consider tho African elephant as a i '^'juliar genus.

Ancient medals representing large-eared elephants drawing charihts, aro concluaivo
of tho fact that tho Romans knew how to catch and tame the African elephant. lie
was even considerctl more docile than the Asiatic, and was taught various feats, as
walking on ropes and dancing. The elephants with which Hannibal crossed the Alps,
as well as tho,se which Pyrrhus led into Italy, must undoubtedly have been African.
At present he is only killed for his ivory, his liido, his flesh, or from tho mere wanton-
ness of destruction. The Cape colonists, to whom his services might be of great im-
portance, have never made the attempt to tame him, nor has one of this species over
been exhibited in England ; but the big-oared, largo-tusked African elephant is tho ono
best known in American menageries.

The African elephant has a very wide range, from Caffraria to Nubia, and from tho
Zambesi to Ca|)0 Verde, and tho impenetrable deserts of tho Sahara alone prevent him
liom wandering to tho shores of the Mediterranean, Although in South Africa tho
persecutions of tho natives, and of his still more formidable enemies tho colonists and
English huntsmen, have considerably thinned his numbers, and driven him farther and
farther to the north, yet in the interior of the country he is still met with in prodigious
numbers. Dr. Barth frequently .saw large herds winding through the open ])lains,
and swimming in majestic linos through the rivers, with elevated trunks, or bathing in
the shallow lakes for coolness or protection against insects.
Livingstone gives us many interesting accounts of the different modes of South

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Africnn clfpliiint-linntinj'. Tlic nittivcs nf tlic Mtiilli Imiik of tins Zimi)i(>si ornot, stn^os
<in lii<;li frees ovcihaiij^iiij; llit; |(atli.s liy wliicli tlin clcpliuiit.s come, ami then u.'^e a lui".'
^|i(;ai- with ii haiiillo nearly as thick as a man's wrist, ami tour or five feet ton;r. Winn
tliv unfortunato animal conios hunuutli, tliey throw tho Hpuiir, and if it enters lietwicn
tlio rilis ahove, as the Ithule is at least twenty inches lon;^ liy two hroail, tli(! mntiim of
tho liaiidUs as it is aided liy knockinj; against the trees, makes fiightfiil gashes within,
and soon causes death. They kill them also liy means of a sjtear inserted in a Iii.mii
of wood, which being suspended on the lininch of ii tree liy a cord attached to a Iiitcli,
fastened in the path and intended to lie struck liy tho animal's foot, leads to the lull
of the lieam, and the spear lieing poisone<l causos death in a few hours. Tho Husli
men select full-moon nights for tho chase, on account of the coolness, and cIioom' the
moment succeeding a charge, when the elephant is out of Imnitli, to run in and give
him a stab with their long-bladed spears. The huge creature is often bristling with
missile weapons like a porcupine, and though singly noiu; of the wounds may he
mortal, yet their lunnber ove-jiowers him by loss of blood. On tho sloping banks of
tho Zouga tho Bayeiyo dig deep pitfalls to entrap tho animals as they come to drink ;
but though tlicso traps are constructed with all tho caro of savage ingenuity, oM
(^lojihants have been known to precede the herd and whisk off their coverings all tin,'
Way down to the water ; or, giving proof of a still more astonishing sagacity, to have
actually lifted the young out of tho pits into which they had incautiously stumbled.

A much more forniiilable enemy of this noble animal than the s[H.'ars or pitfalls of
tho African barbarians is tho ritle, particularly in the bands of a European murksnian :
for while the (iriipias, Hoers, and IJeehuanas gi'nerally sta?i(l at the distance of a hun-
dred yards or more, and of course spend all tho force of their bullets on the air, the
English hunters, relying on their steadiness of aim, approach to within thirty yards of
tho animal, where they are sure not to waste their powder. It rc((uiros no little nerve
to bravo tho charge of tho elephant, tho scream or trumpeting of tho brute, when
infuriated, being moro like what the .shriek of a steam-whistlo would bo to a nrni
Htanding on the dangerous part of a railroad, than any other earthly sound ; a horse
unu.sed to it will sometimes stand .shivering instead of taking his rider out of danger,
or fall paralyzed by fear, and thus e.Nposo him to be trodden into a inumuiy, or, dash-
ing against a tree, crack his .skull against a branch.

Even the most experienced hunters have many dangers to encounter while facing
their gigantic adversary. Thus, on tho banks of the Zuuga in 18.')0, Mr. O.swell had
one of the most extraordinary escapes from a wounded elephant perhaps ever recorded
in the annals of tho chase. Pursuing tho brute into tho den.se thick thorny bushes
met with on tho margin of that river, and to which tho elephant usually tlces for
.safety, he followed through a narrow pathway by lifting up .some of the branches, iiml
forcing his way through the rest ; but when he had just got over this difficulty, he saw
the elephant, whose tail he had but got glimpses of before, now rushing full speed
towards him. There was then no time to lift up tho branches, so he tried to force his
hor.se through them. lie could not effect a passage, and as there was but an instant
between the attempt and failure, the hunter tried to dismount ; but in doing this, one
foot was eaught by a branch, and the .spur drawn along tho animal's flank ; this made
him .spring away, and throw tho rider to the ground with his face to tho elephant,
which, being in full chase, still went on. Mr. Oswell saw the huge fore foot about to

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KM;iMIANI-lirNriN(i IN AliVSSlMA AND INDIA.

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(Icsci'iid on Ills Icjry, |mrtc(l tliriii, imil dri'W in liiH lirciitli, ii.x if *<• rosist tlio prt>ssiim
(if till* (itlior fiHit, wliicli 111! cxpci'tt'il wiiiilil next iIchcciuI <hi liis Imdy. Ili.s rrlicf nmy
1)0 iiim^ined, when ho saw tho wholo Icmj^iIi of tho undor prt of the uiioniiouH brutu
piiMH over him, leaving him itorfootly uidiurt.

In Ahynmnia tho olophiint is limited in an r)ii;rinal mannor. Tho mon, who mako
this thoir ciiiuf o(TU|mtiiin, dwell eoiistantly in the woods, and live entirely n|Min tlie
flesh of tho animals they kill. They are exceedin;;ly aj^ilo and dextrous, Ixitli on
horsebnek and on foot ; indis|teiisal)le ijualities, partly inherited and partly aei|uired by
<'onstant. practieo. Completely naked, to render their movements nioro easy, and to
prevent their beinji; laid hold of by tho trees and bushes ; two of these bold huntsmen
pet on hor.«ebaek ; one of them bestrides the baek of tho steed — a short sttiek in ono
hand, the reins in the other — while behind him sits his companion, armed with n .sharp
broad-sword. As soon as they perceive a grazing elephant, they instantly rido up to
him, or eross him in all direetions if he Hies, utterinir at tho same time a torrent of
abuse, for the purpose, aH they funey, of raising his anger. With outstretched trunk
the elephant attempts to sei/o tho noisy intruders, and following the p(!rfe(>tly trained
horse, which, springing from side to side, leads him along in vain pursuit, neglects flight
into the woods, his sole chance of .safety, for while his whole attention is fixeil on tho
rapid movements of tho horse, tho swordsman, who has sprung unperceived from its
back, npiiroaclies stealthily from behind, and with ono stroke of his weapon, Bcvers tho
tendon just above the heel. The disabled monster falls shrieking to the ground, and
inca|)ablo of advancing a step, is soon dispatched. Tho whole flesh is then cut oil his
bones into thongs, and hung like festoons upon tho branches of treea till perfectly dry,
when it is taken down and laid by for tho rainy season.

Tho Asiatic elephunt inhabits Hindostan, tho Chin-Indian peninsula, Sumatra, Bor-
neo, and Ceylon. In the latter island especially, he was formerly found in incredible
numbers, so that thirty yean ago, an Knglish sportsman killed no le.ss than ln4 ele-
phants in three days. Major Rogers shot upwards of 1,40<> ; Captain Galloway has
the credit of slaying more than half that number; ]Major Skinner almost as matiy, and
less persevering aspirants follow at humbler distances. A reward of a few shillings
a head, otl'cred by tho government for taking elephants, was claimed for 3,r)00 de-
stroyed in part of the n<prthern provinces alone, in less than three years prior to 1848,
and between IH.'il and 1H.")(» a similar reward was pai<l for 2,000 in the southern
provinces. In conse(pience of this wludesale slaughter, it cannot be wondered at that
tho Ceylon elephant has entirely disappeared from districts in which ho was formerly
numerous, and that tho peasantry in .some parts of the island have even suspi.-nded tho
ancient practice of keeping watchers and fires by night to drive away tiie elephants
from the growing crops. The opening of roads, and tho clearing of the mountain-
forests of Candy for the cultivation of coffee, liavo forced tho animals to retire to tho
low country, where again they have been followed by largo parties of European
sportsmen ; and tho Singhalese themselves being more freely provided with arms than
in former times, have assisted in the work of extermination. The practice in Ceylon
is to aim invariably at the head ; and, generally speaking, a single ball planted in the
forehead ends the existence of tho noble creatures instantaneously.

In India and Ceylon, elephants have been caught and tamed from time immemorial,
and when we compare their colossal strength with the physical weakness of man, it

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THE TKOriCAI. WUKLU.

mirt'iy mr.pt hv coiisidi'ioil a ..in;iial triiiin|ili of his iiifclliorcnc*! and cotiraj^o, tliat In- is
able to bend such <;i^antic creatures to his will. Th(! professional clepliantcatt her^
of Ceylon, or Paiiickeas, as they are called, are particularly reni.ikabl(! for their darinj;
and adroitness. Their ability in tracing their huge game, rivaling that of the Anicri-
o«n Indian in following the enemy's trail, has almost the certainty of instinct, arnl
hence their .services are eagerly sought by tlie European sportsmen wiio go down iiiin
their country in search of game. So keen is their glance, that almo.st at tlic tup df
their speed, like hounds running Ireast-high, they will follow the course of an elcpli.int
over glades covered with stunted grass, where the eye of a stranger would fail to di>-
cover a trace of its pa.ssage, and on through forests strewn with dry Icavt!-;, where it
seems impossible to jierceive a footstep. Here they are guided by a lient or bnikcii
twig, or by a leaf dropped from tlu; animal's mouth on which they can detect tln'
pressure of a tooth. If at fault, they fetch a circuit like a setter, till lighting on
some fresh marks, they go ahead again with renewed vigor. So delicate is tiic sense
of smell in the elephant, and so indispensalilo is it to go against the wind in appmacli-
ing him, that the Panickeas on those occasions wb.en the wiiul is .so still that its dine
tion cannot be otherwise discerned, will su.^pend the tilm of a go.ssamer to dcteriiiiin;
it, and .shape their cour.se accordingly.

On overtaking the game, tlii'ir courage is as conspicuous as their sagacity. Tf tlicy
have confidence in the sportsman for whom they are finding, they will atlvancc to tlh'
very heid of the elephant, slap him on the (juarter, and then convert his timidity iiitn
anger, till he turns upon his tormentor, and exposes his heavy front to receive tlic
bullet which is awaiting him. So fearkss and cimfident arc they, that two men with-
out aid or attendants will boldly attempt lo capture the largest-si/.ed elephant. Tlicir
only weapon is a flexible rope made of bufl'alo's hide, with which it is their object to
secure one of the hind-legs. This they etie<'t either by following in his footste|is wlicii
in motion, or by stealing close up to him when at rest, and, avail'iig themsi^lvcs df tin'
propensity of the elcpl't-nt at such moments to swing his feet backwards and forwards,
thoy contrive to .slip a noo.«e over his hind-leg.

At other times, this is achieved by spreading the noose on the ground, partially
concealed by roots and leaves, beneath a tree on which one of the party is statioiicij,
whoso business it is to lift it .suddenly l.y means of a conl, raising it on the elephant's
leg at the moment when liis ^ -•-.■panion has succeeded in provoking him to place his
foot within the circle, the other end having beei previ(msly made fast to tlie stem of
the tree. Should the noosing be efVected in open ground, ami no tree of sutVicicnt
strength at 'vjul round which to wind the rope, one .,f the Moors, allowing himself
to y e pursued by the enraged elephant, entices him towards the nearest grove, wlteii
his companion, dexterously laying hold of the rope as it trails along the ground, sud-
denly coils it round a suitable stem, and brings the fugitive tc a stand still. On li'i'l
ing himself thus arrested, the natural impulse of the captive is to turn on tlic iikim
who is making fiust the rope, a movement which it is the duty of his colleagui! to pre-
vent by running up close to the elephant's head, and provoking him to confront iiim
by irritating ge.stic\dations and incessant sho\its of dah.' dah .' a monosyllable iiie
sound of which the elephant peculiarly dislikes. Meanwhile the first assailait havoig
secured one noo.«e, comes up from behind with another, with which, amidst the vain
rago and struggles of the victim, he entraps a fore leg, the rope being as before se-

CAPTUlli: OF KLErilANTS.

la

curod to niiotlier tree in frnnt, and the wliolo four fet-t having been thus oritaiifjled,
the eapture is etni.j»ieted. A siielter is then run up witli brandies to jirotect him from
tlie sun, and tlic hutiters proceed to build a wigwam for tliemselves in front of their
])risoner, kindling tlieir fires for cooking, and in: king ail the necessary arrangement8
ti»r remaining day and night on the spot, to await the process of Hubduing and taming
Ills rage.

Picketed to the ground like Gulliver by the Lilliputians, the elephant soon ceases
to struggle, and what with the exhaustion of ineffectual resistance, tiie constant annoy-
ance of smoke, and the lilieral supply of food and water with which he is indulged,
II few weeks generally suilice to subdue his spirit, when his kee])ers at length venture
to remove him U> their own village, or to the seaside for shipment to India. No |)art
(if the hunter's performances exhibits greater skill and audacity than this first forced
march of the recently captured elephant. As he is still too morose to sulimit to be
riilden, and it would be e((ually imitossible to lead or drive him by force, the ingenuity
of the captors If. displayed in alternately irritating and eluding his attacks, but always
so attracting his attention, as to allure him along in the direction in which they want
him to go.

My limits forbid me entering upon a detailed account of the great elephant-hunts
of India and Ceylon, where whole herds are driven into an inclosure and entrap[H'd
in one vast decoy. This may truly be called the sublime of sport, for nowhere is it
conducted on a grander scale, or so replete with thrilling enmtions. Tiie ke.ddah or
corntl, as the enclosure is called, is constructed in the depth of the forests, .several
liundred paces long, and half as broad, and of a strength commensurate to the power
(if the animals it is intended to secure. Slowly and cautiously the doomed herds are
driven onwards from a Viist circuit by thousands of beaters in narrowing circles to the
fatal gate, which is instantly closed behind them, and then the hunters, rushing with
wild clamor and blazing torches to the stockade, complete the terror of the bewildered
animals. Trumpeting and screaming with rage and fear, they rush round the corral at
a rai»id jmce, but all tlieir attempts to force the powerful fence are vain, for wlierever
tliey assail the palisade, they are met with glaring flambeaus and bristling spears, and
on whichever side they approach, they are repulsed with shouts and discharge of mus-
ketry. For u|)wards of an hour their frantic efforts are continued with unabated en-
ergy, till at length, stupified, exhausted, and subdued by apprehension and aniaze-
iiicnt, they form themselves into a circle, and .«tand motionless under the dark shade
of the trees in the middle of the corral. The artist, on the page 170 of this volume,
lias given a picture of a herd of captured elephants thus " tied up."

To secure the entrapped animals, the assistance of tame elephants or decoys is neces-
sary, who, by occupying their attention and ma.sking the movements of the nooser, give
liim an opportunity of slipping one by one a rope round their feet until their capture is
idiiipleted. The (I'lickness of eye displayed by the men in watching the slightest move-
iiiont of an elephant, and their expertne.ss in flinging the noose over its foot, and at-
taching it firmly before the animal can tear it off with its trunk, are no less admirable
tlian the rare sagacity of the decoys, who display the most perfect conception of the
(ilijcct to be attained, and the means of accomplishing it. Thus Sir Emerson Tennent
s-aw more than once, during a great elephant hunt which he witnessed in 1847, that
when one of the wild elephants was extending his trunk, and would have intercepted

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Tin: TllOlMCAL WOllM).

the rope about to bo plucoil over his leg, the decoy, by a sudden motion of her own
trunk, pushed his aside and prevented iiini ; and on one oceasion, when suecessivc ef-
forts had tailed to put tlie noose over the leg of an elephant wlio was already secincil
by one foot, but wiio wisely put tiie other to the ground as often as it was attempted to
pass the noose under it, he saw tiie decoy watch hei pp.'Ttunity, and wlien his foot was
again raised, suddetdy push iu her own leg beneatli it, and hold it up till the noose was
attached and drawn tight. Apart from the services which from their prodigious strern'tli
the tame elephants are uhme capable of rendering, in dragging out and securing tliu
captives, it is perfectly obvious that, witl. )ut their sagacious cooperation, the utino!;
l)rowess and dexterity of the hunters would not avail them to enter the enclosure un-
supported, or to ensnare and to lead out a single captive. ,

It must not bo supposed, however, that every elephant thus corrahwl is secured.
Sometimes one will, by the use of a little "Hoad-work," try to get free from the cords
which have bound his legs. His buttings and pitchings are a sight to behold. At other
times an " obstinate brute " will lie down, refuse to take food, and in a short time die

AN OBSTINATE nitrTE.

without any percoptiblo disoasp. The natives say that ho dies of a broken heart, ami
that the animal thus lost is likely to be the very finest of the whole herd.

It may easily be imagined that the passage from a life of unfettoreil liberty in tli >
cool and socjuesterod forest to one of obedience and labor, nnist necessarily put tli'
health of the animal to a severe trial. Oflicial records prove that more than iialt' of
the elephants employed in tiie puldic departments of the Ceylon government die in
one year's servitude, and oven when fully trained and inured into captivity, the work
ing elephant is always a delici'te animal, sul)ject to a great variety of diseases, and
consequently often incapacitated ♦'rom labor. Thus, in spite of his colossal stretintli,
which can not even be employed to its full extent, as it is difticult to pack him with-
out chafing the skin, and wagons of correspomling dimension to his muscular powers

TllK KIIIXOCEIIOS.

721

would utterly ruin the lest constructed roads, it is very doubtful whether his services
are iu proiiortioii to iiis cost, and iSir Kiiierson Tennent is of opinion that two vigorous
ilruy horses would, at less expense, do more effectual work than any elephant. Most
likely from a comparative calculation of this kind, the strength of the elephant estab-
lishments iu Ceylon has been gradually diminished of late years, so that the govern-
ment stud, whieli foniiurly c iiisis'.e I of upwards of sixty olep.iants, is at presunt ro-
ducud to less thau one-quarter of that number.

A LITTLE HEAD WORK.

The Rhinoceros has about the same range as the elephant, but is found also in the
island of Java, where the latter i; unknown. Although not po.ssessed of the ferocity
(if carnivoro\is animals, the rhinoceros is completely wild and untamable ; the image
of a gigantic hog, without intelligence, feeling or docility ; and if in boilily .size and
colossal strength it, of all other land animals, most nearly approaches the elephant, it
is infinitely his inferior in point of sagacity. The latter, with his beautiful, good-
natured, intelligent eye, awakens the sympathy of man ; while the rhinoceros might
figure as the v(!ry symbol of brutal violence and stupidity.

It was formerly supposed that Africa bad but one rhinoceros, but the researches
of modern travelers have discovered no less than four diirorent species, two white and
two black, each of them with two horns. The black species are tin H^rclo of the
Ik'cliuanas, and the Keitloa, whii-li is longer, with a larger neck and almost equal
liorns. Tn both species the upper lip projects over the lower, and is capable of being
cxtendeil like ;'iiat of the giratU;, thus eiialiliiig the animal to pull down the branclies
(111 whose foliage be intends to feast. Hoth the IJorelo and the Ki.'itloa are extreiiK.'ly
ill-natured, and. with the exception of tho buffalo, the most dangerous of all the wild
imimals of South Africa. Tiie white species are the Monoho (R. siinits ) and the
Kobaaba (/?. Oswrllis.) which is distinguished by ono of its horns attaining the
prodigious length of four feet.

Although the black and white rhinoceros arc members of the same family, their
mode of living and disposition arc totally difforent. The food of the firmer consists
almost entirely of roots, which they dig up with their larger horn, or of tho brauehes
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THE TROPICAL WORLD.

and sprouts of the thorny acacia, while the latter exclusively live on grasses. Per-
haps in consequence of their milder and inoro succulent food, they are of a tiiniil
unsuspecting nature, which renders thcin an easy prey, so that they are fast incltiii"
away before the onward inarch of tlie European trader ; while the black species, fnmi
their great ferocity and wariness, maintain their place much longer than their more
timid relations. The different nature of the black and white rhinoceros shows it-clt'
even in their flesh, for while that of the former, living chiefly on arid branulios, has a
^halp and bitter taste, and but little recommends itself by its meagerness and toui'h
ness — the animal, like the generality of ill-natured creatures, being never found willi
an ounce of fat on its bones — that of the latter is juicy and well-tiavored, a delicacy
both for the white man and the negro.

The shape of the rhinoceros is unwieldy and massive ; its vast paunch hangs down
nearly to the ground ; its short legs are of columnar strength, and have three toes on
each foot ; the misshapen head has long and erect ears, and ludicrously small eyes ;
the skin, which is completely naked, with the exception of some coarse bristles at thu
extremity of the tail, and the upper end of the ears, is comparatively smtwth in tlio
African fpecies, but extremely rough in the Asiatic, hanging in large folds about tlii'
animal like a mantle ; so that, summing up all these characteristics, the rhinoceros ii:i-(
no reason to complain of injustice, if we style it the very incarnation of ugliness. From
the snout to the tip of the tail, the African rhinoceros attains a length of from l.> tn
IG feet, a girth of from 10 to 12, a weight of from 4,000 to 5,000 pounds; but in
spite of its ponderous and clumsy proportions, it is able to speed like lightning, pa •
ticularly when pursued. It tlien seeks the nearest wood, and daslios witli all i:s
might through the thicket. The trees that are dead or dry are broken down as with :i
cannon shot, and fall bciiind it and on its sides in all directions ; otiiers tiiat are more
pliable, greener, or full of sap are bent back by its weight and the velocity of its
motions, and restore themselves like a green branch to their natural position, after the
animal has passed. They often sweep the incautious pursuer and his horse from tho
ground, and dash them in pieces against the surrounding trees.

The rhinoceros is endowed with an extraordinary acuteness of smell and lioaring ;
he listens with attention to the sounds of the desert, and is able to scent from a groat
distance the approach of man ; but as the range of his small and deep-.set eyes is im-
peded by his unwieldy horns, he can only see what is immediately before him, ,so tliat
if one be to the leeward of him, it is not difficult to approach within a few pucos.
The Kobaaba, however, from its horn being projected downwards, so as not to obstruc;
the lino of vision, is able to be much mere wary than the other species. To make ii|i
for the imperfection of sight, the rhinoceros is frequently accompanied by a liini
{Bnphaga africana) which seems to be attached to it like the domestic dog to man,
and warns the beast of approaching danger by its cry. It is called Kala, by tlic
Bechuanas, and when these people address a superior, they call him" My Rhinoceros"
by way of compliment, as if they were the birds ready to do him service.

The black rhinoceroses are of a gloomy, raelancholy temper, and not seldom fill
into paroxysms of rage without any evident cause. Seeing the creatures in their wild
haunts, cropping the bushes, or quietly moving through the plains, you might take
them for the most inoffensivt.-. good natured animals of all Africa, but when roused to
passion there is nothing more terrific on earth. All tho beasta of the wildorness arc

HUNTING THE RHINOCEKOS

723

afraid of tho uncouth Borclo. The lion silently retires from its path, and even th«
elephant is glad to get out of the way. Yet this brutal and stupidly hoggish animal
is distinguished by its parental love, and the tenderness which it bestows on its young
is returned with equal aficction. European hunters have oflen witnessed that when
the mother dies, the calf remains two full days near tho body.

Although not gregarious, and most generally solitary or grazing in pairs, yet fre-
quently as many as a dozen rhinoceroses arc seen pasturing and browsing together.*
As is the ca^o with many other inliabitant^ of tho tropical wilderness, tlie huge beast
awakens to a more active life after sunset. It then hastens to the lake or river to
flake its thirst or to wallow in the mud, thus covering its hide with a thick coat of
clay, against the attacks of flics; or to relieve itself from the itching of their stings, it
rubs itself against some tree, and testifies its inward satisfaction by a deep drawn
grunt. During the night, it rambles over a great extent of country, but soon afler
sunrise seeks repose and shelter against tho heat under tho shade of a mimosa, or the
projecting ledge of i rock, where it spends the greater part of tho day in sleep, either
stretched at full length or in a standing position. Thus seen from a distance, it might
easily be mistaken for a huge block of stone.

The rhinoceros is hunted in various manners. One of the most approved plans is
to stalk the animal, either when feeding or reposing. If tho sportsman keep well
under tho wind, and there be tho least cover, he has no difliculty in approaching
the beast within easy range, when, if the ball be well directed, it is killed on the s|tot.
But by far the most convenient way of destroying tho animal is to shoot it from a cover
or a screen, when it comes to the pool to slake its thirst. Occasionally it is also taken
in pitfalls, (^ontrary to common belief, a leaden ball (though spelter is preferable)
will easily find its way through the hide of tho African rhinoceros, but it is necessary
to be within thirty or forty paces of the brute, and desirable to have a double charge
of powder. The most deadly part to aim at is just behind the shoulder ; a ball
through the center of the lobes of the lungs is certain to cause almost instantaneous
death. A shot in the head never or rarely proves fatal, as the brain, which, in pro-
portion to the bulk of the animal, does not attain the three-hundredth part of the size
of the human cerebrum, is protected, besides its smallness, by a prodigious case of
lione, hide, and horn. However severely wounded the rhinoceros may be, he seldom
bleeds externally. This is attributable in part, no doubt, to the great thickness of the
hide and its elasticity, which occasions the hole caused by the bullet nearly to close
up, as also from the hide not being firmly attached to the body, but constantly moving.
If the animal bleed at all, it is from tho mouth and nostrils, which is a jiretfy sure
-'irn that it is mortally hurt, and will soon drop down dead. It is remarkable that the
rliinoceros, when hit by a fatal bullet, docs not fall upon one side, but generally sinks
on its knees, and thus breathes its last.

From what has been related of the fury of the rhinoceros, its pursuit must evidently
be attended with considerable danger, and thus the annals of the wild sports of Southern
Africa are full of hair breadth escapes from its terrific charge. The rhinoceros it
hunted for its flesh, its hide (which is manufactured into the best and hardest leather
that can be imagined), and its horns, which, being capable of a hitrh polish, fetch at
the Capo a higher price than ordinary elephant ivory. It is extensively used in the
manufacture of sword-handles, drinking-cups, ramrods for rifles, and a variety of otbei

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724

THE TROPICAL WORLD.

purposes. Among Oriental princes, goblets made of rhinoccros-liorn are in high
esteem, as they are supposed to have the virtue of detecting poison by cau.sint' the
deadly liquid to ferment till it flows over tlie rim, or, as some say, to split the cup.
Ttie number of rhiuoce-oses destroyed annually in South Africa is very considerable.
Captain Harris, who onoc saw two-and-twenty together, shot four of them one after tho
other to clear his way. Mes.srs. Oswell and Varden killed in one year no less than
oightynine ; and in one journey, Anders.>-on shot, single-handed, nearly two thirds of
this number. It is thus not to be wondered at that tho rhinoceros, whioli formerly
ranged as far as the Cape, is now but seldom found to the south of tho tropic. Tho
progress of African discovery bodes no good to him or to the hippopotamus.

The singlc-horned Indiim rhinocems was already known to tho ancients, and not
unfrcquently doomed to bleed in tho Roman amphitheatres. One which was .sent to
King Emanuel of Portugal in the year 1513, and presented by him to tho Pojm, had
the honor to be pictured in a wood cut by no less an artist than Albrccht Durer himself
Latterly, rhinoceroses have much more frequently been sent to Kurope, particularly
tho Asiatic species, and all the chief zoological gardens possess specimens of the un-
wieldy creature.

In its native haunts, the Indian rhinoceros leads a tranquil, indolent life, wallowing
on llie marshy border of lakes and rivers, and occasionally bathing itself in their
waters. Its movements are usually slow, "nd it carries its head low like the hog,
plowing up ihn ground with its horn, and making its way by sheer f-jrcc through tho
jungle. Though naturally of a quiet and inoflfensivc disposition, it is very furious
and dangerous when j)rovoked or attacked, charging with resistless impetuosity, and
trampling down o.- ripping up with its liorn any animal wliich opposes it.

Kesides the single-horned species which inhabits tho Indian peninsula, Java, and
Borneo, Sumatra po,ssesscs a rhinoceros with a double horn, which is, however, distin-
guislied from the analogous African species by the largo folds of its skin, and its
smaller size. It is even asserted that there e.'iists in tho same island a hornless spo
cies, and another with three horns. There surely can be no better proof of tho difiS-
culties whicli Natural History has to contend with in tho wilder regions of the tropical
zone, r'ld of the vast field still open to future zoologists, than that, in spite of all in
vestigations and travels, wo do not yet even know with certainty all tho species of so
large a brute as the rhinoceros.

In Java, this huge pachyderm is met with in tho jungles of the low country, but its
chief haunts aro the higher forest-lands, which contain many small lakes and pools,
whose banks aro covered with high grasses. Hero and there, also, tho woods are in-
terspersed with dry pasture-ground.s, and even in the interior of the forests, numerous
8f)ecies of graminetc are found increasing in number as they rise above the level of
the sea. In these solitudes, which are seldom visited by man, the rhinoceros finds all
that it requires for food and enjoyment. As it is unconnnonly shy, tho traveler rarely
meets it, but sometimes, while threading his way through the thicket, ho may chance
to Burpri.se wild steers and rhinoceroses grazing on tho brink of a pool, or quietly lying
in the morass. The grooved paths of tho rhinoceros, deeply worn into the solid rock,
and thus aflbrding proof of their immemorial antiquity, are found even on the sunvnits
of mountains above the level of the sea. They are frequently used for tho destruciion
of the atiimal, for in the steeper places, where, ou climbing up or down, it is oblige I

Tin: HIPPOPOTAMUS.

728

to Btrotch out its body, so that the abdomen nearly reaches the j^round, the Javanese
(ix large scythe like knives into the rock, which they cover with nioss and herbajjo,
thus forcing the poor rhinoeeros to commit an involuntary suicide, and touching him,
th()u<<;h too late to profit by his experience, bow ditticult it is to escape the cunning of
man, even on the mountain peak.

" Behold now IJehemoth, which I made with thee ; hi cateth grass as an ox ; his
bones arc as strong pieces of brass ; his bones are like bars of iron ; he lietii under
the shady trees in the covert of the reed and fens. The shady trees cover him with
their shadow ; the willows of the brook compass him alwut. Behold ho drinketh up
a river ; he trusteth that ho can draw up Jordan into his moutii." Thus, in the book
of Job, we find the Ilippoj)otamus portrayed with few words but incomparul)le power.
How tame after this noble picture must any lengthened description appear I *

According to the inspired poet, the hippopotamus seems anciently to have iiih iliited
(he waters of the Jordan, but now it is nowhere to be found in Asia ; and even in
Africa the limits of its domain are perpetually contracting before the persecutions of
man. It has entirely disappeared from Egypt and the rivers of the Cape Colony,
where Le Vaillnnt found it in numbers during the last century. In many respects a
valuable prize; of easy destruction, in spite, or rather on account of its .size, wiiich
betrays it to the attacks of its enemies ; a dangerous neighbor to plantations, it is con-
demned to retreat before the waves of advancing civilization, and wouhl long since
have been extirpated in all Africa, if the lakes and rivers of the interior of that vast
den of barbarism were as busily plowed over as ours by boats and ships, or their
banks as thickly .strewn with towns and villages.

For the hippopotamus is not able, like so many other beasts of the wilderness, to
hide itself in the gloom of impenetrable forests, or to plunge into the sandy d <sert,
traversed by the Bedouin on his dromedary; it requires the neigiil)orhood of the
stream, the empire of which it divides with its amphibious neiglilior the (Mocodilo.
Occasionally during the day it is to be seen basking on the shore amid ooze and mud,
but throughout the niglit the unwieldy monster may be heard snorting and blowing
during its aquatic gambols ; it thcii sallies forth from its reed grown coverts to gra/.e
by the light of the moon, never, however, venturing to any distance from the river,
the stronghold to which it betakes itself on the smallest alarm.

In point of ugliness the hippopotamus, or river-horse, as it has also very inMp[)ropri-
ately been named, might compete with the rhinoceros itself. Its shiipeiess carcass
rests upon short and disproportioned logs, and, with its vast belly almost trailing u[ion
the ground, it may not inaptly be likened to an overgrown "prize pig." Its immensely
large huad has each jaw armed with two fornndablo tusks, those in the lower, which
arc always the largest, attaining at times two foot in kiigth; and the in.-ide oF thi'
mouth is said to resendde a mass of butcher's meat. The eyes, which are placed in
prominences like the garret windows of a Dutch house, the nostrils, and oars, are all
on the same plane, on the upper level of the head, so tliat the unwieldy monster,

* It should be noted, Iiowovcr, tlint it is not altnnctlicr ccrt.iin tli.it tlio Ilippopot.nmus is
really llie llelicmotli of Jul). Dr. Thomson, tlian wiiom tlicre c.nti liardly 1 c l)('tter aiiilioiily,
in his aihniiiiblc work " Tlie Laud and the Book," iirgues plausibly iliut lit'hciiiDtli its iho
Svrian Biiffiila

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726

THE TROPICAL WORLD.

when iinmcrscd in its fuvoritc clement, is able to draw brcuth, and tn use three Rcnsen
ut once fur hours together, without exposing more than it<* snout. The iiidc, which is
upwards of an inch and a huif in thiclinesH, and of a pinkish brown color, clnudud
and freckled with a darker tint, is destitute of covering, excepting a few scattered hairs
on the muzzle, the edges of the cars and tail. Though generally mild and inoffutisivu,
it is not to be wondered at that a creature like thi.t, which when full grown uttuins a
length of eleven or twelve feet, and nearly the same colossal girtii, affords a truly
appalling spectacle when enraged, and that a nervous person may well lose his presence
of mind when suddenly brought into contact with the gaping monster.

As among the sperm-whales, sea-bears, elephants, and other animals, elderly males
are sometimes expelled from the herd, and, for want of company, become soured in their
temper, and so misanthropic as to attack every boat that comes near them. The honl
is never dangerous except when a canoe passes into the midst of it when all arc asleep,
antl some of them may strike it in terror. To avoid this, it is generally recomincndi'd
to travel by duy near the bank, and by night in the middle of the stream. The
" solitaires," or "roguc-bippoiwtami," frequent certain localities well known to the in-
habitants of the banks, and, like the outcast elephants, are extremely dangerous. Dr.
Ijiviugstone, passing a canoe which had been smashed to pieces by a blow from the
hind foot of one of them, was informed by his men that, in case of a similar assault
being made on his boat, the proper way was to divo to the bottom of the river, nml
hold on there for a few seconds, because the hippopotamus, after breaking a caiiou,
always looks for the people on the surface, and if he sees none, soon moves off. He
saw some frightful gashes made ou the legs of the people who, having had the niisfor-
tuno to be attacked, were unable to dive. One of these " bachelors " one day actually
camo out of his lair, and, putting his head down, ran with very considerable speed
after the missionary and his party ; »nd another time they were nearly overturned liy
a hippopotamus striking the canoe with its forehead. The butt was so violent as to tilt
one of the boatmen out into the river, while the rest sprang to the shore, which was
only about ten yards off; tho beast looking all the time at the canoe, as if to asucrtuin
what mischief it had done.

In rivers where it is seldom disturbed, such as tho Zambesi, the hippopotamus puts
up its head openly to blow, and follows tho traveler with an in'juisitive glance, as if
asking him, like the " moping owl " in Grey's Elegy, why he came to molest its " ancient
solitary reign?" but in other rivers, such as those of Londa, where it is much in dan-
ger of being shot, the hippopotamus takes good care to conceal its nose among water-
plants, and breathe so quietly that one would not dream of its existence in the river,
except by footprints on the banks. Notwithstandinf^ its stupid look — its prominent cyo.i
and naked snout giving it more the appearance cf a gigantic boiled calf's head than
anything else — the huge creature is by no means deficient in intelligence, knows how
to avoid pitfalls, and has so good a memory tha', when it has once heard a ball wlii/.
about its ears, it never after ceases to be cautious and " wide awake " at the a|)proaeli
of danger. Being vulnerable only behind the ear, however, or in the eye, it requires
the perfection of rifle practice to be hit ; an 1 once in tho water, is still more difTicult to
kill. It dives and swims with all the case cf a walrus or a sea elephant, its huge bodv
being rendered buoyant by an abundance of fat.

resembling tho finest young pork, and is considered

licious.

HUNTING THE HIPrOl'OTAMUS.

797

ns grcnt a delicacy in Africa as a boar's paw or a bison's hump in tho prairies of North
America. The thick and almost influxiiilo hido may bo dragged from the ribti in strips,
like tlie planks from a ship's side. These serve for the manufacture of a superior do-
Hcription of sjambok, the clastic whip with whirh the Capo boer governs his team of
twelve oxen or more, while proceeding on a journey. In Northern Africa it is used to
chastise rofructory dromedaries or servants ; and among the collection brought by Du
Chaillu from Equatorial Africa were several whips of hippopotamus hide, wliinh any
one wlio has had opportunity of examination would pronounce to bo among the most
effective instruments of llagullation ; and the ancient Kgyptiuns employed it largely in
tlie manufacture of shields, helmets, and javelins. ])ut the most valuable part of the
hippopotamus is its teeth (canine und incisors), which are considered greatly superior
to elephant ivory, and when perfect and weighty, will fetch as much as one guinea per
pound, being chiefly used for artifiuial teeth, since it does not readily turn yellow.
Many a belle, whose fascinating " ivories " are the wonder of her admirers, is in-
debted for them to the ugly river-horse. All these qualities and uses to which the
hippopotamus may bo applied are naturally so many prices set upon its head ; and the
ravages it occa.«ions in the fields are another motive for its destructicm. On the White
Nile the peasantry burn a number of fires, to keep the huge animal away from their
plantations, where every footstep ploughs deep furrows into the marshy ground, to the
great injury of the harvest. At the same time, they take core to keep up a prodigidus
clamor of horns and drums, to scare away the ruinous brute, which, as may well be
im.igincd, is by no means so great a favorite with them as with the visitors of the Zoologi-
cal Gardens.

They have besides another, and, where it takes effect far more efficacious method of
freeing themselves from the depreilntions of this animal. They remark the places it
most frequents, and there lay a largo q'lantity of pease. When it comes on shore
hungry and voracious, it falls to eating wliat is nearest, and fills its vast stomach with
the pi.asc, which soon occasion an insupportable thirst. The river lieing close at hand,
it immediately drinks whole buckets of water, as if it were intent upon .swallowing up
not merely the little Jordan, but the whole Nile itself, which, by swelling the pease,
cause it to blow up, like an overloaded mortar.

The natives on the Teoge. and other rivers that empty ihcmsolves into Lake N:j:imi,
kill the hippopotamus with iron harpoons, attached to long lines ending with a tlo it.
A huge reed raft, capable of carrying both the hunters and their canoes, with all that
is needful for the prosecution of the chase, is pushed from the shore, and afterwanls
abandoned to the stream, which propels the unwieldy mass gently and noiselessly for
ward. Long before the hippopotami can be seen, they make known their presenfo
by awful snorts and grunts, whilst splashing and blowing in the water. On appmat-ii-
ing the herd— for the gregarious animal likes to live in troops of from twenty-five to
thirty — the most skillful and intrepid of the hunters stands propanid with the harpoons,
whilst the rest make ready to launch the canoes should the attack prove successful.
The bustle and noise caused by these preparations gradually subside. .\t length not
even a whisper is heard, and in breathless silence the hunters wait for the decisive
conflict. The snorting and plunging become every moment more distinct; a bend
in the stream still hides the animals from view ; l)ut now the point is passed, and
monstrous figures, that might be mistaken for shapeless cliffs, did not ever and anon

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728

THE TUOl'lCAL WOULD.

one or (ho other of them plunge nnd roapponr, are noon dispcrsod ovnr tho trnul)I,.,|
wiitcrs. ()a jrlidcH tho riift, itH crew woiLimI up to tho liijijhest pitch of rxcitominf.
orid nt I('n'j;th resn-hi's itiu herd, whi(!li, perftMttly unconsi'ious of daii!^«!r, nnitinui' to
enjoy their cports. Presently ono of tho anirnids is in iiniiiodiiito contiint witli tin: mt't.
Now is the criticd moment ; tho foremost hnrpoorior raises hi.iisidf to his full InMirlit to
give the greater fon^; to the hlow, and tho next instant the iron deseeinls with ihht-
ring accuracy, and is buried deep in the hndy of the bellowing hippopittaniii-<. 'j'lio
woutiiled animal plungoa violently and dives to the bottom, but all it^ elforts to csenne
arc as iniffc< tual ua lha.'.o of tho soul when pio;:od with tho barbed inm of the
Oreenlaiider.

As H)on as it is struck, ono or more of tho men launeli a canoo from the raft, and
hastening to fho shore with tho harpoon lino, take a round turn with it about a tree,
so that the animal may either be brought up at onco, or should there be too great a
Htrain on the line, *' [)layed," like a tnmt or silinon by tho fisherman. Sometimes hotli
line and buoy are east into tho water, and all the eanoes being launeheil fmm nW the
raft, chase is given to tho poor brute, who whenever ho comes to the surfaeo is saluted
with a sliower of javelins. A long trail of blood marks his progress, his flight bueonies
slower and slower, his breathing more oppressive, until at last, his strength ehinngawav
through fifty wounds, he floats dead on tho surface.

But as the whale will sometimes turn upon his assailants, so also the hippopotamus
not seldom makes a dash at his persecutors, and cither with his tn.sks, or with a blow
from his head, staves in or capsizes the canoo. iSometimes even, not satisfied with
wreaking his vengeance on the craft, ho seizes ono or other of the crew, and with a
single grasp of his jaws, cither terribly mutilates tho poor wretch or even cuts his body
fairly in two.

The natives of Southern Africa also resort to tho ingenious plan of destroying the
hippopotamus by means of a downfall, consisting of a log of wood with stimcs aitacliod
to it to increase its weight, and a harpoon affixed to its hiwer end. Tiiis formidatile
weapon dcpcn<ls from the branch of an overhanging tree by means of a line, wliidi is
then made to cro;;s horizontally the pathway which tho hippopotamus is in tlie lialiit of
frequenting during the night, at a short distance from the ground. Wlien the aniin;il
comes in cimtact with tho lino, which is secured on either side of tho path by a sunill
peg, it snaps at once, or is disengaged by means of a trigger. The liberated (hnvu-
fall instantly descends with tho rapidity of lightning, and the harpoon is driven docp
into the back of the monster, who, bellowing with pain, plunges into the river, where
he .soon after dies in excruciating tormenta.

A few tropical animals, for which we have heretofore found no appropriate pl.io'^, yet
remain to be considered. Foremost of these is tho Camel. In m:iiiy respects, tiio
vast sandy deserts of Asia and Africa remind one of tho oaoan. Tlr.'re is tho same
boundless horizon, the same unstable surface, now rising, now falling willi tiie p!;iy of
the winds ; the same majestic monotony, tho same optical illusions, for as the thirsty
mariner sees phantom palm-groves rise from tho ocean, thus also tho sand waste trans-
forms itself, before tho panting caravan, into tho semblance of a refreshing lake. Here
wo sto islands, verdant oases of tho sea — there, oases, green islands of tlie desert :
here, sand billows — there, water waves, separating widely different worlds of plants

TIIK CAMKL

I

"tfti

and niiinials ; licro, tho nhip, tlio cniticl of the ocean — tlioro, tlio dromodury, (lio sliip

(if lh(! (ll'StTt.

Hnt fiir tint <'!iim'l, tlio <l('scrt itself would over have rcmairusil impafsiililo and un-
kni>wti to mail. On ii iilotic duponds lliu cxi.stoiicc of tlic iioiiuidie trili(M of ilio Oiioiit,
the whole poiiimerciul intercourse of North Africa and Soutii-wcNt A^ill. and no wonder
that tho IkMlouin prizes it, alon;^ with the fruit teeiiiitin; date-palm, as tlio most |troiioii!4
Hift of Allah. Otlicr aiiiiiiiils have Ikmii formeij for the forest, the watt'r, tho navan-
nu ; to lie the puidi', tho carrier, the companion, tho purveyor of all iiian's waiitH in
the desert, is the camerH de.'tiny. Wonderfidly has l.o been shaped for tliis peculiar
life ; formed to endure privations and fatigues under which all hut ho would sink. On
cxaininiiig the camel's foot, it will at once lie peen how well it is adapted for walking;
on n loose ^oil, as the full length of its two toes is in-ovided with a broad, expanibil,
and clastic sole. Thus tlio camel treads securely nnd lightly over tho unstable sands,
while he would eitlur slip or sink on a muddy ground. IIo can support hunger longer
than any oiIk.t mamniifcrous aiiim:il, ntid is satislieil with the meanest food. L'ruijal,
liko his lord the wiry Hedouin, the grimling power of his teeth ami his cartilaginous
pnluto enable him to derive nutriment from the coarsest shrubs, from thorny mimosas
and ncaciiis, or even from the stony date-kernels, which bis ma.ster throws to hi n after
having eaten the swe'it flesli in whicli they are imbeddcl.

For many days he can subsist without drinking, as tho pouch liko cavitii -t of his
stomach — a peculiarity which distinguishes him from all other quadrupeds, piMliaps,
with the .^ole exception of the elepliant — form a natuial cistern or reservoir, whose
contents can be forced ujiwards by muscular contraction to meet the exigencies of the
journey. It is fre(|U(!ntly believed that this liijuid remains constantly liinpiil and pal-
atable, and that in cases of extreme necessity camels arc slaughtered to preserve tho
lives of the thirsty caravan ; but according to Kusscgger these accounts arj fabulous, as,
parti(!ularly after a long abstinence from drinking, the dromedary's supply is nothing
but a most nauseous mixture of putrid water and half digested food, from which even
Tantalus would turn away disgusted. Hut tho " ship of the ilescrt " is not only pro-
vided witli water for the voyage, but also with liberal stores of fat, which arc chiefly
accumulated in the hump ; so tliat this prominence, which gives it so dot'orncd an ap-
pearance, is in reality of tho highest utility — for should food bo scarce, and this is
almost always the case while journeying through the desert, internal absorption makes
up in some measure for tlu! dencicncy, and enables the famished camel to brave for
some time longer the fati^juiis of the naked waste. *Yet all mortal euilurani'o has its
limits, and even the camel, though so well provideil against hunger and thirst, must
frequently succumb to tho excess of his privations, and the ble ache I skeletons of the
much enduring animal strewed along the mad mark at once the path of tiie caravan
and the dreadful sufferings of a desert journey.

liut even these horrid wastes, where the glowing Khamsin whirls tho sands in snfl'o-
eating eddies, have beauties of their own. Particularly when tho full moon .shines in
tlic dark blue sky, bespangled witii constellations of a brilliancy unknown to tho
northein nrmaiiient, wlien tlio mountains throw their dark shades far away over th:t
yellow sands, and tho [litituresquo cfTect of the scene is enhanced by tho aspect of llio
tents, the watch-fires, and the reposing animals ; then wo m;iy well conceive how tin
wanJering Hedouin loves tho desert no less than the mariner lovoa tho ocean, or thu

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THK TROPICAI. WOKLI).

Swi«« ponHont his unnw-olnd mountaitiH ; nn<l how it inllanioii tho imngiiiatidii of ihn
oriental poota to ninny u pong, Holacing tliu tudiousnusa of tho oncuiiipmuut, und humlt'il
on from one generation to another.

To tho onnu'l tho vogront Arab owes his immemorial liberty and imli'jM'ndenco ;
when attacked, he places at onco tho de-^ert between tho enemy and himsi'lf. TIiim ho
han ever been indomitable, and when in other parts of tho world wo tind that the futal
pofseysion of an animal — tho nable, tho sen-otlei — lias entailed tho euryo of slavery
ii|M)n whole nations, tho dnmiedary in Arabia np|)ears as tho instrument of lusijn;;
freeibun. Mjiny a c()n(|uering horde luis been stopped in its career by tho ilesert, ntnl
while tho false glory of tho scourges of mankind that have so often thrown tho Kii!<t
into bondage passod liko a slindow, one century after onothcr looks down from the
hights of 8inai upon the free and unfettered sons of Ishmacl.

IJut the Arab too often tarni.-hes his IdHTly by crime, and degrades tho "ship
of the desert " to Ihj tho accompliee of a robber. Tlie Dedouin, anxious to pursue tliis
bnso profession, inuros himself, fniin nn early age, lo every fatigue, banishes slei'p,
patiently endures thirst, hunger and heat ; and in tho snmo manner nccustonis his
dromedary to every privation. A few days after tho animal's birth ho fniils its Ions
uniler its body, forces it to kneel, and loads it with a weight which is gradually
increased as it increases in strength. Instead of allowing it to seek its food wln'iiKver
it pb'ases, or completely satisfy its thirst, ho accustoms it to perform longer and longer
journeys without eating or drinking, trains it to etjual tho horso in swiftness, as it sur-
pas,scs him in strength — and when perfectly assured of its fleetness and endunmec,
loads it with the necessary provisions, rides away upon its back, waylays tlie traveler,
plunders tho secluded dwelling, and when pursued and forced to save his booty iiy a
speedy flight, then shows what be and his dromedary can perform. Hurrying on day
and night, almost without repose, or eating or drinking, he travels two hundred leagues
in a week, and during this whole tin)o his dromedary is allowed but ono hour's rest a
day, and a handful of meal for food. On this meagre diet tho unwearied animal often
speeds on seven or eight days without finding any water ; and when by cli ico o pool
or a spring lies on bis way, ho smells it at a di.stanco of half a league, his burning
thirst imparts new vigor to his speed, and ho then drinks at onco both for the past and
tlio futuro, as his journeys often last several weeks, and his privations endure as long
as his journeys.

While tho Hactrian Camel, with a double hump, ranges from Turkestan to China, tlio
single-hump camel or Dromedary, originally Arabian, has spread in opposite directions
towards tho East Indies, the Mediterranean, and tho Niger, and is used in Syria, Kgypt,
Persia, ond IJarbary, as the commonest beast of burden. It serves the robber, but it
serves also tho peaceful merchant, or tho pilgrim, as he wanders to Mecca to perform
his devotions at the prophet's tomb. In long array, winding like a snake, the caravan
traverses tho desert. Each dromedary is loaded, according to its strength, with from
sis hundred to a thousand pounds, and knows so well the limit of its endurance, that
it siiflers no overweight, and will not stir before it bo removed. Thus, with slow and
measured pace, the caravan proceeds at tho rate of ten or twelve leagues a day, often
requiring many a week before attaining the end of its journey.

When we consider tbc deformity of tho camel, we cannot doubt that its nature has
BulTered considerable changes frooa the thraldom and unceasing labors of more than

TIIK CAMEL TIIK CtRAFFK.

781

I

ono niilU'tiinm. ItH porviludo i« of older flnto, inoro cnmploto, nnd mon» irkcnmo. tliim
tliiit of nuy oiliiM' ilomuatio animal : of oliit>r ilaio, nil it iiiliahiiit tliu coiintricM wliivh
lii?*liii V |i<iinlMi)iit to lift an llio criuilt! of iimnl<iiiil ; nioro comploto, on all other (ioini'xtio
nniinaU Hiill liiivu tlirir wild t^rpcH roaming nhoiit in unreHtrninod liltorty, wliilt> tlio
wlioli; cniiii'l nice in (IoohilmI to plavery ; more irk.»onio, finnlly, an it is never kept for
luxury or ntiitu liko m many liorNCH, ht for the tahle like the ox, the pi^, or the
hlutp. Iiul is iiirrt'ly uwd on n Ixmst of transjiort, which its niaNtcr does not even give
liiinHt'll' the troiililo to attach to n cart, hut whor-u body in loaded like a living wn^on,
nnd frt'(|ucnlly oven roinnin.s burdened duriii); Hluep. ThuH the rntnel heiii'H all tho
iiiiirkH <if ^erfdoln. liarj»o nuked culhmitios of horny hnnlne».s rover the lower piirt of
u 0 hruii«t und the juint.s of tho lej^H ; and althouf;h they arc never waritinj;. yet they
tlieniselvcH give proof th, f they nro not nnturnl, hut that they have licen produced l>y
an exccHs of nUMory and ill-treatment, as they are frequently found filled with a puru-
lent matter.

Tho hardships of lonn; cervitudo, which hove thus gradually deformed tho orij»in-
aliy, perhaps, not ungraceful camel, have no doubt also soured its tein|)er, and ren-
dered its character as unaniablo as its appearance is repulMVO. " It is an ahominalily
ugly necessary animal," »nys Mr. l{us.sell ; " ungainly, morose, quarrelsome, witli
tee-totalling propensities; unaccountably capricioua in its friendhhips and enmities;
delighting to produce with its throat, its jaws, its tongue, and its stomach, the most
abominable grunts and growls. Stujmlly bowing to tho yoke, it willingly submits to
tlie most otrocious cruelties, and biles innocent, well-meaning persons, ready to take its
part. When its leader tears its no.stril, it will do no more than grunt; but, ten against
one, it will spit at you if you offer it a piece of bread. For days it will march along,
its nose clo.«o to the tail of tho beast that precedes it, without over making tho lea.st
attempt to break from tho chain ; and yet it will snort furiously at the poor Kurop'an
who amicalily pats its ragged hide." Tho camel seems to have been rather harshly
dealt with in this description ; at any rate, it may plead for its excuse that it would bo
too much to expect a mild and amiable temper in a toil-worn slave.

Which of all four-footed animals raises its head to tho most towering bight? Is it
the colossal elephant or tho "ship of tho desert?" No doubt tho former reaches
many a lofty branch with its flexible probo.<!cia, nnd tho cyo of tho long-neekcd camel
sweeps over a vast extent of desert ; but tho (liraffo cnd)races a still wider hori/.on,
and plucks the leaves of tho mokaala at a still greater bight. A .strange and most
surprising animal, almost aK nock and log, seventeen feet high against a length of
only seven Ironi the brea.st to tho beginning of tho tail, its comparatively small and
slanting body resting on long stilts, its diminutive head fixed at the summit of a col-
umn ; and yet in spite of these apparent disproportions, which seem rather to belong
to tlie world of chimeras than to tho realities of nature, of so elegant and pleasing an
appearance, that it owes its Arabic name, Xirapha, to tho graceful ea."© of its move-
ments. The beauty of the giratTo is enhanced by its mugnificently spotted skin, and
by its soft nnd gentle eyes, which eclipse those of tho far-famed gazelle of the Kast,
and, by their lateral projection, take in a wider range of tho horizon than is subject
to the vision of any other quadruped, so as even to bo able to anticipate a threatened
attack in the rear from tho stealthy lion or any other foe of tho desert.

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THE TROnCAL WOULD.

Tiic long, lilark tiiil, invariably curled aliovo tho baok, no doubt renders it jTnod
Mrvicc against many a stiiij^ing insect ; and tlio straight l-orns. or rather excresceiuis
of tlio frontal bono, small as they are, and mnllled with skin and hair, are by no tnoaii?
the Insignilicant weapons they have been supposed to be. '• We have sclmi tlicni
wielded by the males against each ether with fearful and reckless force," says Maun-
der, " and wc know that they are the natural arms of tlie giralle most dreaded liv tin;
kee[ier of tho ftresent living giraffes in tho Zoological Oardens, lieeause they are most
commoidy and si;ddenly put in use. Tlic giraffe docs not butt by de])rcssing and miI-
detdy elevating the head, fik-j the deer, ox, or sheep, but strikes tho callous olitu-c
extremity of the liorns against the object of his attack with a sidelong swfi-p of the
neck. One blow thus directed at full swing against the head of an unlucky attcinlnit
would be fatal. Tho feinalo once drove her horns in sport tiirough an inch lioard ''
The projecting upper lip of the giraffe is remarkably flexible, and its elongated pre-
hensile tip, jtcrf'.rming in miniature the part of the elephant's proboscis, is of material
assistance in browsing upon the foliage and young shoots of the prickly acacia, wlii'li
constitute tho animal's chief food. With feet terminating in a divided iioot'. and a
ruminant like our ox, the giraffe has four stomachs, and an enormous intestinal Icngtli
of 2S8 feet : a formation whicli bears testimony to tlio vast and prolonged powers of
(li"gesti(m necessary to extract nutrition from iis hard and meagre diet.

Ranging throughout the wide plains of Central Africa, from CafTraria to Nubia, tlie
giraffe, though a gregarious animal, generally roams about oidy in small herds. It is,
indeed, by no means comnuji-. <'ven at its head-quarters, and Captain Harris, who trav-
ersed the desert as far as the Tropic of Capricorn, seldom found giraffes without
having followed their trail, and. rovar saw more than fivc-and-thirty in a day. Not-
withstanding the rapidity with which the cameleopard striiles along, the fore and liiini
leg on llic satno side moving togetlier, instead of diagonally as in most other ((uadiu-
peds, yet a full gallop quite <lissipate3 its power ; and the he.titers, being aware of this,
always try to press the giraffes at once to it, knowing that they have but a slioit
.'■■[)ace to run before the animals are in their power. Tn doing tliis the old 'p irismon
are careful not to go too close to the giraffe's tail ; for this animal, .«ays Dr. Livius;-
stone, "c!!!! swing his hind foot round in a way which would leave little to cluiosc
between a kick with it and n clap from tiio arm of a windmill."

After m;: . the giraffe's chief enemy is the lion, who often waits for it in tlin tliick
brakes on the margin of the rivers or the pools, and darta upon it with a murderous
spring wliile it is slaking its thirst. Anderssoii, as wc have alrc.idy narrated,* once
saw five lions, two of whom were in tho act of pidling down a splendid giraffe, wliilc
the other flirce were watching close at hand tliC issue of tho dendly .strife ; and Capliii!i
Harris ridati s that, while he was encamped on the banks of a small stream, a c;i
meleopard u-as killed by a lion whilst in tho act of drinking, -it no great distance from
the wagons. Tt was a noisy affair; but an inspection of the scene on '.vhieh it oceuri(d
proved that the giant strength of the victim had been pr.rdyzed in an inst.nit. Some-
tii:((>s tlie girafe saves itself from !ho attacks of its arch-< jmy by a timely l...i:ht ; hut
when hemmed in, it offers a desperate resistance, and in spite of its naturally gentle
and peaceable disposition, gives such desperate kicks with its forefeet as to keep iti'
antagoiust tit a res|)ectful distance, and finally to compel him to retreat.

*Ante, p 699.

GIRAFFES— ZEBRAS— QUAGU AS.

7]3

Tlie Greeks and Romans were well acquainted with tlio giraffe ; and Aristotle, do-
Hoiibiiig it under the nanio of hippardion, or panther-horse, probably knew it better
tlian liuffon, wiio nek'er saw more of it than a Ktufled skin. Pliny relates that Julius
('jt'.sir (l."> n. c.) first cxliibited it to the Romans in the ampliitheatrc. and from that
time it often played a ccmspieuous part in the bloody spectacles with wliich the military
<Io>p(its (if tiie declining empire used to entertain the rabble of Runic. Kven during
the middle ages girutles were sometimes (-een in Kurope. The sultan of Kgypt pre-
sented llie German emperor, Frederick 11., with a cameleopard ; and Lorenzo de Medicis
was honored witli a similar gift. Rut since that time three full centuries elapsed be-
fore a single giraffe wa.> ever transported across the Mediterranean ; and when at length
the wily rdd tyrant Mclicinct Ali, who knew how to flatter the Fren<!h while grinding
his jiiior Fellahs, sent one of them to the Jardin des I'lantes in 1«27, it raised no less
a sensation tiian if it had l)een the unicorn itself. Th 'nceforth, the spell beiiig broken,
many giraffes have liecii impr)rted into Kiirope and America. There are many analo-
gies between t!ie giraffe and the ostrich ; botli long legged, long-neeked, fit for cropping
tlic tall mimosas, or seouiiiig rapidly the |)lain . bo'h, finally, dcfeniling themselves by
striking their feet forwards, the one against the jackal or hyjcna, tiie other against tho
assaults of the formidable lion.

As if to make up for tho hideous deformity of the rhinoceros and hippopotamus, tho
African wilds exclusively give birth to tho beautifully-striped Zebras, the most gor-
geously attired members of the equine race.

The fawiiy-colorcd Qungga, irregularly banned and marked wi h dark brown stripes,
whieii, stronger on the head and neck, gradually become fainter, until lost behind tho
shoulders, has its high crest surmounted by a standing mane, handed alternately brown
and white. It used formerly to be found in great numbers within the limits of the Capo
Colony, and still roams in vast herds in tho open plains farther to tiie north. Thus,
in the desert of the Meritsane, Major Ilarri.s, after crossing a park of niagniti(!cnt
camel-thorn trees, .soon perceived large herds of quaggas and brindled gnus, which con-
tinued to join each other, until tho wlude plain .seemed alive. Tiie clatter of thoir
hoofs was perfectly astounding, and could bo compared to nothing but to the din of a
trcmcndons charge of cavalry or tho rushing of a mighty tempest. The accumulated
numbers could not be estimated at les.i than 15,0<>(), a gre.-it extent of country being
uctually chequered black and white with their congregated masses.

The Uouw, or Rurcliell's Zebra, dilTers little from the common quagga in point of
shape or .size ; but while tho latter is faintly striped only on the head and neck, tho
former is .Mlorned over eve;, part of the body with broad black bands, bciutifully
contrasting with a pale yllow ground. Major Harris, who had many opportuiiites of
seeing this line species in a state of nature, remarks that, " IkviutifiiUy clad by tho
hand of nature, posscs>ing much of tho graceful symmetry of tho horse, with great
bones and mu.scular jiower, united to ea.sy and styli.sh action, thus combining comeli-
ness cf figure with solidity of form, this species, if suhjugatetl and domesticated, would
assured I / make the best pony in tho world." Although it admits of being tamed to ft
certain extent with the greatest facility — a halfdomestieated specimen, with a jockey
on its brindled back, being occasionally exposed in Cape Town for sale — it ban bitlierto
contrived to evade the yoke of servitude. The iensei) of sight, hcariug and sioeil, wn

:'!ti,iiii

731

TIIK TROPICAL WORLD.

txtroincly delicate. The filiglitcst noise or motion, no less tlian the appearance of nny
oliji'ct that is unfamiliar, at once rivets their gaze, and causes liiern to stop at.d listen
with the utmost attention ; any taint in the air oiiuaiiy attracting their olfactory
organs.

" Instinct havinz tauzht those beautiful animals tliat in union consists their strenirtli,
they eomliinc in a eumpact liody when menaced liy an attack, cither from 111:111 or
heast ; and, if overtaken by the foe, they unite for mutual defence, \vi(h their htmls
togotlicr in a close circular hand, presenting their heels to the enemy, and deaiiiig (nit
kicks in equal force and al)undance. IJcset on all sides, or jiartiaiiy cripiilcil, tluy
rear on their hinder legs, fly at their adversary with jaws di.steiided, and use Ixitli
teeth anil heels with tiio greatest freedoui."

The Gnu and the common quagga, delighting in the same situation, not unfrerpicntly
herd together; hut Hurehell's Zebra is sehloin seen unaeeompiuiiud liy troops of :ho
brindled (Jnu, an animal dilTcring very materially from its brothers of the same nouns,
from which, thougli Kcarcely less ungainly, it is readily <listinguishal)le at a groat ihs-
taiice by its black niano and tail, more elevated withers, and clumsier action.

Whilst the douw and the quagga roam over the plains, the zelira inlialiils mountain-
ous regions only. The beauty of its light symmetrical form is enliaiiced by the nmiow
black liaiids with which the whole of the white-colored body is covered. IJuflnn and
Daubenton wished to see this elegant creature acdinnitized in Kurope, which wmilii
procure us a beast of burden stnmger than the ass, aiu! more b<'autiful in its naked-
ness than the horse, even when adorned with the richest trappings. A king of iNjrlii-
gal use<l frefjuently to drive about with four zeliras ; and, about the year 17CI, tw > of
these animals that were kept in the park of Versailles had been so far tamed as to allow
themselves to be mounted. In spite of the proverbial obstinacy of the zcl)ra, tiiorc
are thus no insii|ierable obstacles to its domestication, and a course of training, contin-
ued through severid generations, would most likely subdue its reluctant nature as chiti-
pletidy as that of the original wild horse and as.s. The zebra is suppose<l to !«! the
real liipfinlujris, or tiger-tiorse of the ancients ; and this is t.c more probaiile, as he ranges
miicli farther to the north than the (juagga or the tlouw, and apfiroaches the rcgion>iiif
Africa comprised within the Roman empire. Ilisiorians inform us that in the year 'Jil'J
after Christ, Plautius, a governor or prefect of lOgypt sent .several centurions to tlie
island of the Erythncan Sea to fetch horses which "loctked like tigers." The zebra
seeks tin; wildest and most secluded spots, so that it is extremely difliinilt of approael).
The henls graze on the .steep hill-side, with a sentinel posted on some adjacent ciag
ready to sound the alarm in case of any suspicious approach to theii feeding (juartcrs ;
and no wxmer is the alarm given than away they s<'amper with pricked ears, and
whisking their cars aloft, to places where few, if any, wouhl venture to pursue them.

We have styled the hippopotamus and the rhinoceros "gigantic hogs," and .such
they arc to all seeming. Hut in Southern Africa the real hog itself reaches a size and
strength, of which we. who knov only his tame, lazy kindred, can hardly form a con-
ception. Thus Andersson incidentally mentions these animals. " Wild boars," he
Bays, " were rather numerous, ami nlTordeil us excellent coursing. The speed of tlie-e
■nitnals is surprisingly great. On open ground, when fairly afoot, I found the <lo'_'s
no match fur them. They fight doepcrately ; and I have seen wild boars individually

THK WILD BOAR.

73.1

kppp off most effectually half a dozen fierce a-ssailants. I have also Been them, wliuu
liiilly jiursued, attack and severely wound their pursuers."

'hi" •',},.!<<'%

i: MM

liI'V> ■■ I'll

mm.

■>\i".i

1

'11' Mf^:^

mm

1}

K' ':' 'i ' : ■'*' ,1 '' '111

■ ' l„*l'''l IIP
■ '''■•'''i.vMh'.HIiiii |i;

iiiiUi.iiiiMiLL

.l||:i

But of .ill the hntr tribe one of the most remarkuhle is the Hiibirusa, or " pig-doer,"
as it is called liy the Maliiys, from its long and slender legs and curved tuska, which

•r='ii:

MM \

Ml

*■

i

If

7;{o

Tin-: TllOlMCAL WORi.I).

rcscinlilo horns. " This extraordinary aiiiiiiil," says Wallace, " roseiiiblos a pi;^ in ii.H
general a p|u.'aran(!0 ; but it does not dig with its snout, as it feeds on fallen fruits
The tusks of (lie lower jaw are very long and sharp; but the upper ones, instead of
growing downward in tlio usual way, are pompletely reversed, growing upward out of
lioiiy sockets, through the skin on each side of the snout, curving baekward to ni';ir
the eyes, and in old aninuils often reaching eight or ten Inches in leng'h." As far as
we know, no living speeiuien of this extraordinary crcatun has ever reaeheil Kuropn
or Anicrica ; but its skulls, and drawings therefrom, arc frund in our niusiMiuis, Tli(>
uses of its curious tusks, like those of the elephant, are a problem which naturalists
have yet to solve.

FIcrc we bring to a close the results of our researches into some of tlic cliaraclcr-
istic forms of Animal and Vegetable Life, 'is manifosied iu the I'olur and Tropical
Worlds.

I

SUMMARY OF AKCllC EXl'LORING LXPEDITIONS.

787

ADDITIONAL CflAPTERS

'H I

TO

"The Polar World."

CIIAl'TKll xijir.

SUMMARY OF ARCTIC KXl'LORING EXPEDITIONS.

Arctic America.— The Arctic Arcliiin-lnno.— Hiiflin's Way nnd its Outlets.— Hudson's Bnj
nnd its Outlets. — Limits of Arctic Arnericii. — I'liysical Clmriicfcristics. — Icelanders the
first Arctic KxplDrerii. — The Brothers Zeiii. — The ("jihols. — I''r()hi>hir. — Davis.— Harentz. —
■ The North-west rassiit^e. — Henry lliid^uii. — IJalliii. — Iteiiii^'. — I lea rue. — riiipps, — Cook.—
Macken/iu. — Scoreshy. — liiichaii nnd Eranklin. — l{()>s and I'arry's tiist V'oya^ie. — Parry's
seconil Voyaj;e. — Franklin, Kicliardson and Hack's tirst Ovi'rland F.\|iedition.— Parry's
third Fx]K'diiion, — Parry's fourth I''xi)editi')n. — Franklin, Uichard.son and Hack's second
Overland F.xpedition. — Heechey. — Parry's E.\iieditio"i lieyond Spit/.her;;en — Sir .John
lioss's second Hxpedition. — Hack and Kinj;— Hack's (ireat Fish Hiver. — Hack's next Ex-
pedition.— Dense nnd Simpson. — Une. — Frnnklin's hist ExiK-dition — Its Sailing. — Last
ever seen of it. — Expeditions in Search of Franklin. — Franklin's .Movements. — Fate of hi*
I'artv — M()(ne nnd Kcllett. — Hichardson nnd Uae's Overland Expedition. — Sir .James
Ross's Expedition. — Exiu'ditionsof 1850. — Collinson and MeClure. — Austin and Oinnuiney's
Expedition. — Sir .Iiiines Koss. — Cap lin Pemiy. — fhe Prince Albert. —The Advance and
llescue. — First Traces of Franklin. — Sled nnd lioat Excursions. — Surmises. — Intiielield's
Survoys — Expeditions of Ihi')'-'. — Helchcr's Fleet. — Kellett's Hcsciie of .McClure. — Tho
Resolute. — Kane's Grinnell Expedition. — Rae's Expedition on the Mainland of Americu. —
Fate of Franklin's .Men ascertained. — Anderson's Search. — McClintock's Expedition. — Tho
Marvelous Drift of the Fox —On \ .e Iratk of Franklin. — Discovery of Relics. — Tho
Mystery Solved. — Hayes's Expciliiion. — The most Nurtiiern Lund ou the (Jlobe. — Charles
Francis Hall. — Exjjeditions since 1S70.

IN tl)i.s cliapter it i.s prnpo.scd to give in chronological order a .summary of tho
Arctic cxjicditions which havo been undertaken on tho American continent, by
land or water. Many of them havo been already described in detail in preceding
clia|)ter.s of " The Polar World." Reference will ho made to tlio.se accounts, so that
tlii.s chapter will servo as index nnd sniiplcment to what lias gone before.

From its western extremity at the head of ]}ciing'.s Straits, about 1^0° W.^
tlirough 05° of longitude to '.1')° \V., the parallel of latitude of 70° .\., forms tho
;;('iieral northern bomidary of tho American continent. Some cape.'^, however,
|iiojeet a little further norfhward, and many bays indent the coast lino to the south ;
tiui in about longitude 'J.")°, Hudson's Hay sets deeply in, and extends southward to
tbout Uliludu o\° Ou tbe M^torn sidu uf the lay, the vhore of the continent runs
47

788

Tin: I'OhAR WOULD.

II

northward to Iluilson's Straits, which open from the l)ay into tho Xorfhorn Atlantic in
nhout hititudt! GO*^ ju.st ojipo.sitc tho soutliurn cxtroinity of tho groat coiitinoiital i>l;inil
of (jrooiihiiid,' \viii(!li marlvs tlio propor lino Ix'twoon tho Atlaiitio and Arctic Occms,
In tho Arctic Ocean, botwoon ( irooiiland and Kuropo, lios tho island of loolund ;-
north of wliioh is Jan Moycn's island;' still furthor north, Spitzliori^on ; ' to tiio
cast and a little south of which is Nova /onihla,'' oil' tho northorn coast of Asia, hut
a littlo south of its oxtronio northern headland.

To the north of tiio continent, and extending to an unknown distance into 'In;
Polar Ocean, is an iinnionsc archipelago, tlio islands of which are separated \i\ in-
nuinerahlo sounds, channels, a:id straits, blocked up by ice during all but a few weeks
in every year, and soineti^no;) wholly so for several successive years. It is ia tlicse
Lays and channels and along their shores, whether island or continent, that tl.e navid
Arctii! explorations have boon carried on. Tho maps which are now added to this
volume furnish a clearer view of these and their relative positions than can bo given
by words. A few of tiiem deserve especial mention in connection with Arctic ex-
ploration,

Tho southernmost island is Southampton lying in Hudson's Ray, at its licnl,
and just o|)posite Hudson's Straits. North and east of this is the great island, nr
probably group of islands, known as Cockimrn Land, .separating the channels and
bays leading northward from Hudson's li;\y into Uatiin's Hay. J^atlin's JJay, sliii|iid
not unlike tho skin bottles of tho ancients, with its liroad mouth, Davis Straits, open-
ing southward into the Atlantic, separates Coekburn Land from Greenland. Like the
skin bottles to which we have compared it, i; has .several other natural op Miings, tliuiigli
these are for a great part of the year closed by ice. Opposite its mouth is Suiilli"s
Sound, leading directly northward into tiu; pr.>sumed open Polar Sea. In tho middle,
answering to one of the legs of tho skin bottle, is Lancaster Sound, with its continua-
tions known as Harrow's Strait, Melville Sound, and Mc(Mure's Strait running due
west, and forudng a north-west passage to Bering's Straits, though it lias been only
oneo traver.scd, by McClure and his party," and probably will not bo again within the
life-time of any man now living. Along the northorn side of Lancaster Sound are,
among others, tho islands of Noi'h Devon, Hathurst, and Melville, .separated by Wel-
lington ('haiM)ol and Austin Strait. Aloiig the .southern side of Lancaster Sound are
tho islands of Cape York, separated by Prince llegent Inlet from North Somerset islaml,
which is .separated from tho island of North Wales. Lancaster Channel now expands
into Melville Sound, which has on its south si<le Victoria Land and Prince AIImii
Land, possildy one island, but perhaps several, separated from IJanks' Land by I'rimo
of Wales Strait,

Ilud.son's Bay also communicates by a chain of winiVmg channels and straits, or
rather fiords, wiMi Melville Sound, which together form also another north-west pass-
age, every part of wiilcli has been traversed by .some exploring vessel, though no (;iio
has been through more than a small part of it.

The (Kltli parallel of north latitude may be considered as the southernmost limit e(
Arctic AuuM'ica. Hero ice and snow ha\e aci[uired absolnti.' mastery over vegetation,
tliougli toward the west the litii^ of stunted forests reaches perhaps five degrees higher.
All north of this is unlitted for the abode of civili/ed man. The wliole region is a

IP. ai, JOJ, et seq.

2 P. (W,

sp. 140.

4 P. :iO, lal, 310.

,P, uv.

6 P. S(W.

SUM^iAIlY OF ARCTIC EXIM.0IIIN(J KXl'KUITIONS.

7;m

m

vast jifiilo, rising only a few score yards, nnd never, as far a.H wo know, more than a
fi'W hundred feet above the level of the icy nea. It was prolmhly the lirst portion of
the }»lolie where dry land apjtearcd above the waters ; for, geologically speaking, nil
mountains and hills are of recent formation. They have risen from the wean ; and if
the present order of tilings continues for a sufficient number of millions of years, they
will, by natural laws now in operation, be removed and cast into the depths of the sea.
Every drop of water which falls u|K)n a mountain and thenco makes its way to tlio
ocean, bears with it some part of the solid rock ; and so, in the course of ages, the
Alleghanies and the Alps, the Andos and tho Himalayas, will all bo worn away. Great
rivers flow shiggi.^hly through this vast Arctic plain, and often spread out into shallow
lakes. It is only by olwerving their course that we know that there is any water-
shed. So closely do their head waters interlock, that with hardly a mile of portage a
ciinoe starting from a river fulling into Hudson's Bay, might descend tho Mackenzie'
whose month is on the Arctic Ocean, or tho Yukon* which fulls into Boring's Sou, a
part of tho Pacific.

Leaving out of view tiio aborigines, of whom no man knows when or whence they
came, the Icelanders were the first Arctic explorers in America. As early as 08'J,
A. 1).,' and perhaps still earlier, they discovered Greenland, and in the course of tho
ne.\t century founded a colony which flourished for many years. They penetrated,
as far as Lancaster Sound, anil built churches and convents, the ruins of which still
exist along the coast of Greenland. It is evident that tho climate was then fur mililcr
tiian it now is, probably not more severe than that of Norway or Canada in our day.^
Apjiarently the increase of cold has been going on steadily within tho last two ami a
half centuries, for Hudson and Davis seem to have found no JilBculty in penetrating
nearly as far to tho north as recent explorers have beeu able to do even with the aid
of steam.

There is no record that tho Phaniicians, tho earliest navigators, ever approached tho
Arctic zone. The earliest Arctic voyage on record is that made in 1 'MO by two Venetian
navigators named Zeni ; but it is uncertain how far or even where they wont. In
141)7 and subseijuently tho two (!abots projected a voyage to tho North pole, and went
as high as tho niiddle of Davis Straits.* Three-quarters of a century passed before
another Arctic voyage was made in America, for the Cortereals, in l.")00 hardly
reached latitude 01)°, and Willoughby in 1.k"i;5 did not touch even Greenland."

In 157(J-8 Frobisher made three voyages, and discovered the straits bearing liis
name, leading into Hudson's Hay." These voyages are notable as tho first in which
there is any account of .scientific observations being made. Davis, in I;"iS,")-7 made
discoveries more important than had as yet been accomplished. He disccivcred tliO
great strait that bears his name, and surveyed portions of the coast of Greenland.^ In
15yC Barentz, after having made two voyages to Nova Zembla, attempted tho north-
west passage from the west. He perished off tho coast of Alaska, having barely
penetrated the Arctic Ocean.''

The great object of Arctic voyages was now the discovery of a north-west pas.sage,
so that tho nations of northern Europe might share in the rich commereo with India ;
for Spain claimed, and was then powerful enough to make the claim good, the solo
right of traversing the Atlantic and Indian Oceans in that direction. In 1007 [lenry

*

il

hi

I

ip. 17. sp. ais. .iP. 382. 4 p. an. •■ p. axi, ,i.'9. 'P. .186.

bP. 387. 9P. I.K 34J.

rp. 387.

710

TIIK I'OI.AU WOULD.

Wi

Hudson wns sont nut by the Musoovitt! Company wiHi tlio simple direction to sfcor
stiiii^lit for till! Nidtli pi)lo. Ho went lietween Spit/.hergen and rneenland, iiiid in ilnj
two following yearH Imtween Spitzliergen and Nova Zenibia, and conviiieed liiniNlf
tliat tliuro was no passage in that tlireclion. lie then shot aeross to Labrador, M'ardi-
ing southward for an opening through the continent, and discovered the liay of N'c v
Yor' ,ind llio river which bears his niiiuo. On his last voyage in IttlO lie s.iilnl
through the straits and into the great inland sea named after him, and went humlivls
of miles further west than man had gone before. He was, after the Icelanders, tlie liiH
explorer who wintered in Arctic Ainerica. In the following spring his crew iiuKinii i|,
put him and seven companions, of whom all but one were invalids, into an opi'n JMiiit,
which was cut adrift, and he disappeared forever from human eyes. A part of ihi!
crew were killed by the Ki-ciuimaux, and a part died of cold and famine, only a t'lw
returning to Kngland.'

It was now fully believed that Hudson's Cay opened at its other extremity info llio
Pacific, and several attempts were made to perform the north-west voyage IVoai Imili
eides of the continent ; the most notable was that of Ballin, who in 101(5 surveyed tliu
coasts of the bay which bears his name, and sailed for some distance up Limciistcr
Sound. For half a century more nn ojIkt man went farther north or as far west ;is Ik; -

In 1711 Heriiig, having previously explored along the Arctic coasts of Kaim liiiiiiu
and in the sea nanuMl from him, tried to go still further north and cast, with the Ii(i|hj
of making the norlh-west [lassagc from the west. Il(! never saw the strait which hears
bis name, whi<h had been discovered by Deschnew almost a century befme. Al-
though Hi-ring touched upon the Arctic coast of America, he does not properly come
within the category of American Arctic explorers.'

In 171.'! the British Parliament oll'-red a reward of .£20,000 to the crew of the ves-
sel which should tirst make thi; north-west passage, and between 17t)!l and 1772
Samuel Ilearne made three overlanil journeys from Hudson's Hay toward the north.
He discovered iho Coppermine River, which he traced to its mouth in a gulf of the I'dhir
Sea, almost midway between Hering's Strtiit and llanin's Hay. Tiie Parlianienlmy
reward had been so far extended as to include any northern passage, and tin iuMiiional
reward of .l."),U()() was ollbred to any crew whioh should go within one degree of tiui
North pole.

Hitherto the hope of iloding a passage for commcrco liad been the main incentive to
Arcti(! voysigers ; but now this had been shown to bo out of the (piestinn ; and tlicie-
after seientilic, ili.»covery became the main obji.'ct. Capt. Phipps, afterward Loril .Miil-
gravo, in 177.'5, tiied to reach the polo by way of Spitzbergen. He went as far nnrth
as iHO° -18' no further than llud.«fin had gone more than si.<ty years before. In 1 < < "*
Cook attem|ited the roato by wjiy of licring's Strait, and so conlident was he of succc.-s
that a vosel WIS ! .nt to Tallin's IJ.iy to meet him. He however went no farther
noith than 7li'^ |.V, pas.-ing the extreme northern point of tiie American Continent, .ml
enterin'' the Polar "^ea. lie saw, or thf.u"ht he saw land still further nortli ; dhi r
iiavigator.1 have seen similar appearances of land ; but it is not as yet certain how tar i"
the we.st till" great I'l.'ar aicliipclago extends. He he.ided ea>tw:ir(l, but soon fouii 1
his way blocked bysilid ice. In .\ngu-t he turned southward, ami iu Fcbiuaiy,
177'J, was killed on tli. island of Hawaii.*

IV. iO.

ip.atix

if.m.JM.

«r. 3*4.

KUMMAUY OF AUCTIC EXI'LOKING FAPKUITIUNS.

7U

In 1780 Mackenzie, in llio employment of tiio Nnrtb-wost Fur Company, made an
overland journey anil readied the nmuth of the jjreat Polar river named after liim, half
way hi'twieii the Cop|ieniiitie and l?ciiii;;'s Strait. Tlio scaMtn appears to have lieen
unusually niiid, for he saw the dolphins sportin<r in a sea, open and free of ieu lieyond
the reneh of vi>ion. If he had had a Hhi|t, in all probaliility he iiii;;lit have sailed elear
to the pole. The valley of the Maekenzio forms a partial exception to the otherwiso
harren eharaeter of the Arctic rc^^ions, for there are forests reaching almost to tho
shores of the I'olar sea.'

In Ifsoil, Seoreshy, tho elder, in the command of a whaling vessel, passed up
hetwcen Greenland and Spiizhergen, and reached tho latitude of ahout 81° within
.^ 10 miles of the pole, and within, |ieriiapH, u score of miles as far north as a vessel
liiis ever gone, and witiiin si.xty miles as fir as was reached hy Kane or Morton, or
Hayes, or any otiier man. unless, as is said. Hall, three weeks hefore his death, went
(il'ty miles beyond. Ueforo him tho sea was open, and tho absence of blink showed
that no snowy land or icy sea lay before him. He wished to burst into that open sea
which keel has never plowed, but his was a voyage for whales, and he had to subordi-
nate his scientific aspirations to the pecuniary interests of tho owners of tho vcssi'l."

The yciir IS 18 is memorable for two Arctic expeditions: one under lloss ami
Parry to dis(!over the north-west passage, and tho other under Huchan and Lieutenant
(afterwards Sir tlohii) Franklin, to reach the pole. Tho latter wiMit between (ilrccn-
huid and Spitzbergeii, and penetrated as far north as latitude H!)0 .'51', got caught in
tlio ice, and was oliligeil to return, lioss, in command of the Isabella, and Parry, in
the Alexander, sailed April 18, and on tho '-i8th entered Lancaster Sound. After
sailing si.\ty miles, land was seen apparently stretching from shore to shore ; but tho
weather being threatening, the ves.«el.H were put about, tind returned to Kngland in
the following month. Ross reported that the supposed sound was a mere bay, with no
opening into the ocean beyond ; Parry was as confiilcut that it was a sound, and to
test the correctness of this !ie was ne.\t year put in command of an e.vpcdilion more
coinple.'ely equipped than any one which had ever bi'foro been fitted out.'

This expedition consisted of the Hecla, with the Griper as a consort. There were
ainety-four men and provisions for two years. They sailed May 11, 1811), fell in
with ice June 18, and were beleaguered on the 2.Vh for a month. They enfiMcd
Lancaster Sound, ,July .')(>, and laid their cour.^e up the cliannel. Parliament had
uliered a reward of ,£.'), ODt) to the first crew which should reach the meridian of 110°
W. On tiie -Ith of September, Parry aiuiounciMl to his men that they had reached
tint point, and the reward was theirs They were now near the head of Melville
Sound. On the 20th, they were Ixjset in the ice, which did not break up till Angi!>t
2, of the following year. On the l.'itli they were again fast imbedded in ice, having
Miado but a few miles beyond the point which they had gained the previous year.
They then returned to iMigiaiid in good health, having settled two important points:
tir^t, tiiat there was n channel running at least half wny across the continent, and pre-
siimatiiy the whole di>tancc ; and secondly, that it was [lossible for white trtcn to winter
ill tho Arctic regions.''

In the meainvhile, un overland expedition ennsistin* of Franklin, Dr. (nfterw.irds
Sir John,) llichard.snu, Mr. (aftcrwurdb Sir George) Hack, then a mid.-hipman, Hood)

^li

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71.

Tin: I'OLAK WOULD.

tt liuutunnnt, Hepliiirn, u nimiiiiiiii, ami hoiiio Cuiimliati voyji^mrx, HOt nut from rlio
Hliort! of lluilsdn's May. Tlu-y rrudii'il Fort Cliiin'wt'yaii latd in March, Isjd, liavin;;
travi'l(!(l ill till! ili'plli of wiiitiT on foot H.'itl inili>s, tln' iiificiiry fri'cziii;^ Milid in ili,.
Imlli of till! tlifrnionititcr. In July tlicy wont riiK) inilns fnitliiT to hut Kiit(r|iri-i.,
wlicio all llio jiarty wintiTuil oxin-pt Uiurlc who leturnoil to Fort Clii|mwi.'y!iii. to mihI
on provinions for tho nrxt year. Ilu then rcturniMl, n-^^aiiiinj^ Fort Knl(r|)iiM', y\;>\,\i
17, IHJI, having travulcil iiioro tiian I l<*(» inilfs, Moiiit'tiiiii's liciii;; without fdnij tnr
throi) iliiys in Miccui^sion, with tho thtTnioinutor rangin;; I'roin 47" to .'i7" lidnw /.crci ;
that is from ('>'.)^ to 7'.t° In-low frw/.ini^ point. Tho wholo party thon set out ilra^jiiii'.;
tlioir caiioi'H i-i^hty miles to t',o (l<ippcrniiiiu Uiver, which ihcy (Ii'sccikIimI to ihu sea, ; in!
then pailillcil castwanl alon;; tiio shoro. After walkin;.' about >'>'>{) inilcs they fouml
thomsi'lves at tiiu foot of a ileeji hay, with provisions for only three days. Tliey iiinle

ono larj;o eanoo out of their two Hinaller onus, and tried to a.xeond Hood Uiver. II '

and sonio of the Canadians lu'oke down and ould go no further ; Itichardsdii re
mainiMl with tlie.Mt. Hack, with a few of the more vigoroii.s, pii.>i|ieil on in the direc-
tion of Fort Knterprise to .send hack sueeor, whilo Franklin and tho rest of tin- |i.irty
followed on more slowly. The.so lui^t, on ruaithing ii depot found it deserted ; luit
ti.jre wore a few rejeeled deer skins and almost fleshle.ss hones. Ile.e tiny >l;iid
eighteen days, in the course of which they were joined liy Uiehardson and Ih pliMin.
Ilood had lieen killed liy a Canadian, who was in self-defence shot hy KichaidH>ii.
Tho other Caiiadiaim who had broken down had all liicd. At length on the 7ili of
November, when m.-arly all the remaining Canadians hail pcri.>>lied, three Iniliaiis wlium
IJaek had .sent thither, brought them some provisions. The survivors pushed forward
and succeeded in lejoining Hai-k, and returned to Kiiglaiid in IH2"J.' Ili>toiy
records nothing of self-devotion which exceeds tlii.s of Uichardson. Hack, and Frank-
lin, and never were honors and titles more worthily bestowed than upon iheiii.

The results of I'arry"s expedition had been so I'oiisiderable that another was fitted
out in 1H21 under his command, it consisted of the liecla and Fury. Instead of
entering Lancaster Sound they jia.ssed through Hudson's Straits, and attempted to
work their way north-westward through the channels winding among the i.slands. If
they gai«"d a little, the lloatiiig ice would in a few days sweep tlieiii back to a point
which tliey had left weeks bef'oie, and they wi-re obliged to pass the first winter on
Melville's jieninsula whicth forms a part of the ea.stern shore of Iludsoirs Hay. Tlie
ico did not break up till July li, \S->'2, when they .shot across the head of the liay, mid
found themselves at the entranco of a cliannel opening in the very iliieclioii ihi y
wished. This channel, which they named Fury and Ilecla Str.iits, runs lictwicn a
projection of tho continental shore and Coekburn Land. For sixty-live days tiny
vainly tried to force their way through this narrow strait, and in all that time never
were able to reach more than forty-tive miles to the west. After jiassing llic winter
near the head of the Strait, the oxficdition returned to Kngland in. good healili. It
however gained ono thing : it proved t'u. ■-. crew could pass two winters safely within
the Polar circle. -

Tn IH'l I, the Ilecla and the Fury were again refitted and put under (ho coimniind of
Parry. After siriiggling from the middle of July, all through August, and till t'l''
middle of September, with tho ico in baflin's Hay, they suocoeded in entering Lau-

I P. S4T.

!tP. 3W.

N

SLMMAUV OF AU( IK? KXI'LOKINC KXl'KDiriONS.

713

(•n*tor Pouiiil, wliiili tlioy fi)iinil nlinnsf olonr. Hut in a fow days ico I;o<»nn to form
all nrniinil tluMii, ami tliu iiiiimsoh Nwopt thiMii back ii;;Hin into niitliu's liny. Tlicy fftl
do.ir, anil iij^iiiti ontcTcd Ijuiii-asfor Sound, liiit coulil i;<t only as far west as H()3, fully
15')° oast of tilt! point wliidi I'iirry had rfai-lu'd in 1M1!>. Hero tlioy wiiitoro(|. In
July the ico nponcd and tlicy tried a«^ain ; hut tlic lloatin^ ico cut up the Fury
H(i Imdly that tlioy woro oMip>d to almndoii lior, and llio llocia, witli liutli crews,
Htocrcd hack for K!i;;!and.' The o)t|ie(rniiiii neooiiipIi>ln'i| notliiiig, In-yond doiiiou-
siratin;; tlie ali.soluie iiiiecrtaiiity of voyairin^ in tlic-^e cli.inncls.

Ill lH2'i till.' niililo irio, Hack, Franklin, and Kicliardsmi, sturloii upon a now ovor-
Innd expiMlilion ; tlii^ time amply provided. Hoforo winter .not in tlioy had Htruck
IMacken/.ii! liiver, and follmved it down to thu soa. In the suinnier of 1821! they w\y-
aiated, I'Vanklin aini Hack explnrinn iho coast to tho west of Rlaekonzio Kivor, and
Kichardson tin; oa.siein s-lion.' of the ('op]ierinine River. In the nuaiitiini! Heechy, in
till' HIo^snm, was sent to Herini^'s Strait, to moot I'urry and Franklin wlio it was hoped
would have ciinio together. I'ariy had put hack, never haviii;; loaehed within HO dt;-
(^rees of lon;;itudo of Herini;'s Sliaits ; Imt a lioat o.xpeditioii from the Hlossoni pushed
so far oastward alon<; thu Hhuru tliul it ouuiu within lot) miles uf Franklin's oxlromu
westerly point. '^

In 1827 I'urry, undeforrod by tho ill success of his l.nst two oxpoditions, undertook
nil overland, or rather ovor-ici.', expedition to the North poKt. (join;; by way of Spi'/.-
heri;cn. A whaliii;^ captain who had j;oiie to tho north of Spit/berj^en reported tlint
tho ioo-iiolds tlioro wuro fn.'o of craok or (i^.-nro .«(> that for h-amn-s upon lca;^uos a sled
enuld traverse them as if u|ion a sinoith road. I'ariy's llat-bottom boats woru provided
with a runner on each side of tho keel, so that they oonld be u.st'd either a.s sleds or
hiiats. Uy one or the otiier or by both ho liopeil to reach tho polo. Hut ho found
tho ioo soft and slushy, with froijuont hunimocks which rendorod sailin;» and sledding
niiko difllcult. Still for '•'>■'> days he toiled cheorily on ; but when ut last ho was abio
to take an observation he found that tho p;reat (loe upon which ho moved was driftiiifj
southward just about as fast us Im was travelinj; northward, so that thou;;!! in constant
iiinvenient ho wus day after day i)ceiipyin<^ just tho samu spoit in space. lie h.ul, how-
ever, tho honor of planting the Hritish lla;;; in latitude 82° -Ut' liO", tho most northerly
spot ever trodden by man, unless, indeed I lall may in his last expedition have ;;ono as fi'r.
It is only 10 miles beyoNd tho extrciiio point of Hayes, and only Mt niiios nortli
of Seorosby's extreme point, which ho had reached without didicMilty twenty-ono years
hefoio.'' This expedition does not, however, ooiiio within tho list of Arctic oxplora-
tioiis in America. This was Parry's last expedition, thou;;h ho lived IH years after,
ami rose to bo ti ktii;^ht and an admiral, and (inally governor of (jroenwii.'h Hospital.

In 1821* Captain (afterward Sir dohii) Koss desired to do something to muko
miiends for his failure in 1S1<). Sir IVter Hooth litted him out with a small steamer
called tho \'ictoiy, tho first tinio that steam was ever applied to Arctic navigation.
Tho screw propeller was not then thought of; tho Victory was an ordinary paddlo
wiieel steamer. As second in command went his nephew, James lloss, afterward noted
IIS an Arctic explorer. Tlioy pa.ssed through Hudson's Strait, entered I'rince Hogont'a
liilot. August '.>. Tho sea-iui was uiiusnally favoralilo, the channel being free from
ieu, tud by tho 17th tha A'ietory passed beyond Party's moriJittn of 110° yf,,waA

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duriiif; tlio next month worked its way alon^i; 300 miles of yet unfliscovorcd roast, and
went into winter quarters, October 7. Tlio winter lasted olev(!n months. On ^ep-
teml)er 17, 18o0, tliey got under weii,h ; the engine had been dis:ibleil and was
tlirown overboard. Tlie vessel made oidy three miles, and on the 17th a"aiii went
into winter quarters, from whieh they were released August 28, lS;jl ; but after a
month's hard work, during whieh they only made four miles, was again laid up fur tlio
winter. Scurvy now broke out among the crow, and tiio oxperiiMiee of two yo.nvt^ "-iivd
little ground for hojie that the vessel could be extricated the next sunnner. It was
resolved to ab( ndon her, and with the boats fitted up as biedges make their way to the
sp(jt where the Fury had been wrecked ; fur they knew that her boats and stores hail
been left tiicre ; and there was good reason to hope still remained. They started on
the '2oA of April, and reached tiieir destination July 1, 18152. They found the lioats
and provisions ; and in a month made an attempt to roach the open sea ; but Harrow
Strait was frozen .solid, and they were forced to put back to Fury lieacli, where tlioy
passed the winter of 18o2-3. Several of the men died hero. On the 8;li of July
they again put out. This time Barrow Strait was free of ice, and on the 2(ith of
August they were descried by a vessel and taken on board. Strangely enougli, tnis
vessel was the Isabella, now a whaler, but the same which Ro.ss had connnanded on iiis
fust expedition. No one on board could at first believe that this party were Ross and
his surviving companions, wlio had been given up as dead for nmre than two years.
M'hen Ross reached England, in September, 18'j3, he was received with honors hardly
less than those which greeted Columbus in Spain on his return from his first ex|)e(li-
tiun. The great towns presented him with the honorary gift of citizenship ; orders, and
medals, and di[)lomas rained down upon him from foreign states and learned societies;
the Crown conferred upon him the honor of kniglithood, and Parliament awarded him
a grant of jC5,00(). The results of this expedition were not inconsiderable. A con-
siderable space of shore lino was mapped ; the magnetic pole of that year was ascertained
to be in latitude 70^ o' 17", longitude OG'^ 41)' 4")", upon a peninsula to which tbe
name of Roothia has been given, jutting out northward fiom the Continent into the ar-
chipelago between the head of Hudson's Bay and Lancaster Sound. The greater ])art
of these successes are, however, due to Conunan<ler (afterwards Sir James) Ross, of
whom wo shall have to speak hereafter. One other circumstance is notable in tliis
expedition. It had passed five consecutive winters within the Arctic circle. Parry
had demonstrated two winters could lie passed by white men there without pf^ril. Ross's
experience, confirmed by that of others, seemed to show that this was the limit. It re-
mained for Hall to demonstrate that with jiroper regimen an Arctic winter or a series
of them, is not specially unfavorable to human life.^

Three overland expeditions, in a measure connected with this of Ross, must have
brief mention. In February, 18o.'], Back, aocompanied by Dr. King as surgeon and
naturalist, left England in search of Ross. Thoy reached the Great Slave lake early
in August, whence they pushed on north-eastward ; but returned to winter at Fort Heli-
ancc on the Great Slave lake, about latitude (52°. Here they surt'ered terribly fioiii
scarcity of food and cold, the thermometer at one time marking 70° below zero, or 1(12'*
beh)w freezing ])iiint, the lowest as yet anywhere autlientically noted. In the fulloff-
iug April, when Buck was about to start uorth-eastwurd, be received tidings that Ross

i:
I

1 P. 831.

Mil

m

SUMMARY OF ARCTIC EXPLORING KXPEDITIONS.

•15

i

4

and liis party Iiad been rcpoued. Ilcnoo nrof^e the punning [)Iirasc, tliat altljongli Bnok
liiid not f^dt Ross, Ko?H li;id <^(>t back. Unci', luuvevor, resolved to ia'eoni|ili>l) soiiie-
tliing, and pusliud north-eastward. On tlio 2.Sili of Juno lie struck a j^ieat river con-
fiidcrably to tlio east of any which had been explorcil. The natives c;dlcd it the
Thlew-ee-ciioh, or (jroat ri-sh. It is sitico styled ]5iick'.s Great Fish river, and has a
melancholy interest in connection witli the fate of the last survivors of Franklin's ex-
pedition. IJack followed this river to its mouth in a deep narrow Iny whicli he vainly
ho|)C(l would lead directly into the Polar sea. lie explored a jiart to the cast, but
was (inaiiy oblified to ])ut back about tlie middle of August. He reached I'jigland in
SeptcndMU", IIS.']"*, and in the following June again set out in the Terror, Imping to till
up some blanks in lloss's surveys of the coasts lying west of Prince Ivcgcnt's Inlet.
JJut the exjieditiim was fruitless. The vessel was so badly disabled by ice that they
were obliged to put back before even entering upon tl)cir proposed deld.'

Simultaneously with this, the Hudson's ]}ay Company sent two of their factors,
Dease and Simpson, on an overland expedition. They weic to strike Mackenzie
River and follow it to the sea. In tii.-uc successive seasons they traversed a long line
of coa.st lying between the eastern , 'lint as yet reached from liering's Htraits, and tlio
western point reached from llu<lson's Ray. Their discoveries in a geograjihical point
of view were of considcrab'e importance. They discovered two hirgo rivers, which
they named tlie Garry and the Oolville, and saw to the north of them a great tract of
land which they called \'ictoiia Land ; from an icy promontory of whith they saw
what appeared to them an open sea free of ice, stictcliing north-eastward, while the
coast of the continent tended .'^outh-castward. Their explorations nearly filled up tlio
great gaps already left, and liy the close of IS.jO, difl'erent parties of explorers, by dif-
ferent routes, had {raver.';cd tiio wliole space between IJaflin's Ray and Bering's
Straits. Simpson, the hero fif the cx[)edition, did not live to receive the rewards
whicli he bad fairly won. While traveling overland fron; the lied River to the head
waters of the Mississippi, on his way to England, ho was murdered by one of his
Indian guides. -

In 1840, the Hudson Bay Company sent out Dr. John Bao, of whom wc .shall licar
more, to settle some jioints in geography, whicli had been left undecided by Ross.
The main thing established by this expedition was that the part known as Boothia
was a peninsula belonging to the continent, a*id not an island of the northern archi-
pelago, and that conse(piently there is uo outlet from Prince llegent's Inlet through
the Gulf of Boothia, towards the west.

Wo now come, in order of linic, to Sir John Franklin's last expedition, to which a
special interest is attached on account of its disustrous'result. Franklin in 18I.J was
a hale man verging ujum three.'-corc. He had reached high honor in his profession,
and was in possession of an ample fortune, derived only in part from his second wife,
Jane Griflin, whom he had married in 18l'S. The achievement of a north-west passage
had been the dream of his life. His early cffltrts in that direction have been already
noted. He never forgot his aspirations while commanding a vessel in the Mediterra-
nean, nor afterward while governor of V;in Dieman's Land almost at the opjiosite ex-
tremity of the globe. In 1844 the Riitisli government resolved to place under his
command what it was hoped would be the last expedition to solve the Arctic mystery.

1 P. 855.

* P. 355.

710

THE POLAR WOULD.

It consisted of two vessels, the Erebus and Terror, both previously tried in Arctic seas,
and each now fitted up with a small steam engine and a screw propeller. If by sail
and oar alono so much had been done, what might not bo hoped when steam Wiis at
hand to be used in case of need ? Franklin was in immediate command of the Ere-
bus, and Capt. F. M. II. Crozier of the Terror. The vessels left England May 11),
18M, accompanied by a tender with additional stores, which were to be taken on board
in Davis's Straits. The tender parted with them July r2th, bringing back the firs^
and onl)' dispatches ever sent. On the 2Uth a jiassing whaler caught sight of them
moored fast to an iceberg near the center of Uiiil[in'.« Bay, apjiarently awaiting an op-
portunity of entering Lancaster Sound. The orders from the admiralty were that be
should push westward about latitude 74<^ 1 ;V to longitude 1)8° W., thence southward and
westward to Bering's Strait ; for the long line of surveys and explorations wiiicl: have
been noted, when joined together showed that there was a continuous water passage
skirting the northern shore of tho continent ; and there was, mor.iovcr, fair ground
for the belief that there was no permanent obstruction by ice. It was expected tliat
the expedition would return in about two years, in 1847 or 18 18, by way of Boring's
Straits, where another cxpcdiiion was to be in waiting to convoy them home. Ail told
there were rated on tlie ships' books 138 men; but of these, as afterwards ascertained,
nine had deserted, so that in all when they parted from their convoy there were 12!l.
Of these not one was ever seen alive by civilized man, and not a spar or rope of eitlier
vessel, after that 2rith of July, 1840. Toward the close of 1847, no tidings having
been received, apprehensions began to prevail that some misadventure had occurred,
and during the next twelve years numerous expeditions were fitted out for the discov-
ery and relief of the missing men. Tlie narrative of these relief expeditions constitutes
by far the most interesting chapter in the history of Arctic exploration. Little by lit-
tle isolated facts were brought to light, the sum of all being that after entering Lan-
caster Sound the expedition wintered in the ice, on the shoroof Barrow's Strait, in lat-
itude 70^ 0', longitude 98° 23'. ' n the summer of 1846 they ascended Wellington
Cliannel to latitude 77°, returned by the west side of Cornwallis Island, and wintered
in 184G-7 at Beechey Island, off the east shore of Cornwallis Island. Why Fr.'nklin
deviated from bis general orders to push on to the west must remain forever unknown ;
we can only conjecture that the passage through Barrow's Strait into Melville Sound
was blockeU up by ice. A puper found in 1359, near a cairn on Prince William's
Island, just south of latitude 70°, bearing date May 28, 1847, gives these particu-
lars, and adds that all were well. Around the margin of this scraf of paper, but in
a different hand, and bearing date April 2"), 1S48, was written, "Sir John Franklin
died June 11, 1847. The ships Erebus and Terror were deserted April 22, iSlS,
five leagues N.N.W. of this, having been beset since September 12, 184G. The
total loss by death, up to this date, has been nine officers and sixteen men. The
officers and crews, under command of Capt F. M. II. Crozier, landed here, latitude
09° 37', longitude 98° 4' 15", and start to-morrow, April 2G, 1848, for Back's
Great Fish River." Tliis is \he only written record made by any of tho party of
this ill-fated expedition. From September 12, 184G, to April 22, 1848, the vessels
soctn to have drifted in the ice about 350 miles, through the narrow channels leading
southward among islands southward from Barrow's Straits. How and where Frank-
lin died, only a fortnight from tho day when all wore well, must probably remain for-

f'

SUMMARY OF ARCTIC EXPLORING EXPEDITIONS.

747

ever unknown on earth. All that wc can know is that he died on his ship, locked
fast in the ice, having never reached fa'cher to the west than the place which had
heon set down as the real starting-point of the expedition.

Back's Great Fish River, on the continent, whitiier the 105 survivors bent their
way, falls into a great estuary about 200 miles south of the spot where the Erebus and
Terror were abandoned. Scattered indications were gathered from time to time from
1854 to 185'.), of the fate of a poiiion of this party, of whom a considerable part suc-
ceeded in traversing Prince William's Island or along its coast, and crossing the nar-
row Simpson's Strait which separates it from the continent. In the interval from 18")4
to 18.")!), scraps of information were picked up by different searching expeditions, all
tending to the same point : Tiiat many years l)eforc a ship had been crushed by the
ice in the deep channel lying off the north-west coast of King William's Island, and
another had been driven ashore ; that the people had gone away toward a great river,
and that they had all dieil of starvation. Every indication showed that they had not suf-
fered from any violence from the few natives of the region ; and there was some reason
to suppose that a portion survived until the spring of 185 1. It took years to gain even
this nuich information. How and by whom it was acquired will best be shown in the
accounts which follow of these various searching expeditions.

When the year 1847 had jjassed, and no tidings came back from Franklin, appro-
honsion began to be excited, and in 1848 the British government sent out three cx-
[icditions for his succor. The Plover, Conunodore jMoore and Herald, Ca])tain Kel-
lett, were to enter Bering's Strait, going at least as far up as Kotzebue Sound, just
within the Arctic circle, and thence in boats examine the sliore eastward. They were
joined by the plea.suro yacht Nancy Dawson, owned by Mr. Robert Dawson, who took
an active part in all their operations. The vessels went beyond the point assigned,
which they passed July 14, 1840, and stood on until they reached latitude 72° 51',
longtitude lGo° 48', when they were stopped by impassable ice. Boat expeditions
had meanwhile been sent onward to search the coast as far as the mouth of Mackenzie
River, about longtitude 135°, up which they were to make their way, and return over-
land. A part of these boat expeditions went on, and a part returned to the ships,
August 24, having explored the coast as far as Deasc Inlet, about longitude 155°,
without, of course, finding any trace of Franklin's party, who were then dying on the
other side of the continent. In the following summer, 1850, the two vessels explored
the same ground, with a like want of success, and the Herald returned to England,
Kellett, in the Plover, remaining, and wintering in Grantley Harbor, half way down
Bering's Straits. Of Kellett wc shall hear again.

Meantime a land party under Sir John Richardson and Dr. Rae had reached the
Polar Sea in August, 1850, liy way of Mackenzie River, whence they exjdorcd the
coast for 800 miles eastward as far as tiie mouth of the Coppermine River about lon-
gitude 1 1G°. Richardson returned overland to England, Rae remained behind, and in
1850 explored the shores of Wollaston Sound ; but still the icy desert told no tale of
the lost navigators.' All these expeditions were confined to the region far to the
west of any point reached by Franklin.

Meanwhile Sir Jar^es Uoss had sailed from England, May 12, 1818, entered Lan-
caster Sound, and explored its south side, and iu the spring of 184'J searched along

j^l

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i- I

1 p. 357.

•18

TIIK rOLAK WOULD.

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tlio eastern sliorcs of North S^oniprspt. in a clianncl alone; wlinso western side Franldin
Iiad lieen two years liefore lielples.-ly drifting. Ho returned to England in Nnvenihor,
1811), liringing liaek no tidings.

In iMareli, IH-ti), tlio IJriti^li governn.etit ofTered a reward of X2n,OnO to any ex-
ploring party from any eoiintry whatsoever, whieh should render ellicii'nt aid to
l-'ranklin and his party. The hope of gaining this reward partly, liut niueh more a
feeling of intense interest in the fate of the inishing navigators, led to niMneroiis
peareliing expeditions. In 18">() there were eight in all. eonipri^ing eleven vessels.
The residt of all that had up to this time been learned was that Franklin liml
never reaelied as far a.s longitude 1 1(1^ and that he was not to Ik; looucd for east of
longitude jl()o. Theie was then no indication that iliey had gone to tiie north of Lan-
caster l^ound, or that they had anywhere reaehed the continent and were making their
way overland. The prohahle field of search was tlnis, upon good gronmls. reduced
witiiin ntirrow limits. Tiu'y were to he kioked for, with l)est hopes fif success, amou'r
the group of icc-liound islands lying westward of Melville Island. Tlntlicr fiom lioth
sides of the continent, the search was ])rosccute(l in IBjIO and the following years.
In 1819 Lady Franklin, who devoted all her life and fortmie to the .'■earcii for her
Imshand and his conipauions, had placed a sujiply of coals and [irovisioiis ui)on Capo
Hay, on the south .'•ido of Lancaster Found. Such a supply, left iiy I'arry in 182I,
had heeii in 18J12 the means of preserving Sir John Koss and his men during their
long bcsetmcnt.

Ajiart from Ilae, who as already mentioned, was continuing his searclics on flic con-
tinent, the fust expedition of 'IH,')0 was that liy way of Bering's Straits, consisting of
the Knterprise, Ca]>tain Collinson, and the Inve.'^ligator, d iimander McClure. They
were instructed to cruise in company as far to the eastward as they could go, to make
friends of the natives ; to make depo>it.s of jirovisions here and there, in hopes that
they might prove of use ; and diove ail, to avoid any bcsetmcnt by the ice. Wc fol-
low McClurc in the Investigator. In August, ISilO, having got separated from his
consort, he rountled the western point of the continent, and plunged into the Arctic
seas, and thenceforward for tliree years was lost to human sight. lie reached the
eastern coast of IJank's Land in September, 18.;0, and in October was frozen in and
finally abandoned his ship in Mercy IJay on the north side of Haidc's Land, where in
180-1 he was rescued liy an cxjiedition sent by way of Ualliu's l>ay, and returned to
Kngland. These first and last of all men have in iier.son nia<le the whole; north-west
passage, rounding the American continent from Bering's Straits to IJaflin's Hay.
Collinson, in the iMiterprise, followed hard after jMcClure, went almost as far, and
made many explorations, but finally returned by the way he had gone.

Tlic IJalTin's iJay expedition, sent out from England in the spring of iSoO, consisted
of the Ile.Mdute, Captain Austin, the Assistance, Captain Onunauey, sailing vessels,
and the Pioneer and Intrepid, screw steamers, Capt. Sherrard Osborne. Their in-
ptructi(ms were to the same jiurjiort as those given to McClurc and Collinson. The
schooner Felix, with a small tender, the Mary, was also fitted out by private subscrip-
tion, and placed under conunand of Sir James Koss. The expedition was provisioned
foreigh'.een months and was to go along Lancaster Sound to the westward. The Lady
Frank'in, fitted out by Lady Jane Franklin, and commanded by Captain Penny, also
tailed from England. Lady Franklin also defrayed two-thirds of the cost of another

.„».,>

SUMMARY OV ARCTIC KXPLORING EXrKDlTION'S. 710

expedition, consisting of tlio suhooncr Prince All)ert, commanded l)y Charles Forsyth,
and havinff on .oard William Parker Snow, a volunteer, who after n)ueh sorvicfc in
foreign seas, had acted as secret ry to Macaiilay, and uidi'd him in the preparation of
tlie manuscript of tlie History o^ England. An American expedition consisting of
the Advance and the Rescue, under command of Lieutenant Do Haven, was also sent
out this year. It was fitted out nominally by the government, but mainly at the ex-
pense of Henry Grinnell, a mer<;hant of New York, whose name is al .) identified
with the expeditions of Charles Francis Hall. On this expedition, as surgeon, was
Dr. Elisliii Kent Kane, who as connnander of a subsei^uent one won us hiijh honor an
was ever acliievcd by any Arctic explorer.

All these vessels cruised over the same general region, and for the one purpose of
di>covering Franklin and his men. The first traces of them w«'re found at Capo
Riley by Ommaney, in the Assistance, August "23, 18.")0. This was afterward sliown
to bo the i)lacc whero Franklin had spent the winter of 1840-0. Here and close l)y,
mainly by the American expedition, were discovered the embankment of a house, the
working places of carpenters and armorers, the site of a small garden, empty meat
cans, and pieces of wearing apparel which had been thrown away ; and also the graves
of three men. IJut there were not the slightest traces to indicate in what directioa
Franklin bad gone.

All the vessels wintered not far from each otiior, and tlio spring of 1851 was de-
voted to land expeditions wliich explored C72 miles of hitherto undescribed coast
along the .shores of Wellington Channel to the north and towards Melville Island to
the west. One party, under Lieutenant McCiintock, went farther west than had
hitherto been reached, as far as longitude 114° liU' . From tlie tamencss of tho ani-
mals here seen it was inferred that few if any ln'.inan beings iiad ever been seen there.
Kane came to the conclusion that after the breaking up of tho ice in 1S4(J, Frankl'P
had gone up Wellington Channel to tho north. So far he was right; but ignorant of
the fact, not known for years after, that Franklin had merely rounded Cornwallis
Island, and returned almost to tho same point, he supposed that Franklin had sailed
on northward into the great polar open sea, whoso existence had now come to bo
accepted.

The Prince Albert returned to England in tho .summer of 18")1, carrying back tho
tidings of what had been discovered, and was sent back by Lad;, Franklin to explore
tho shores of Itewnt's Inlet. She returned in 18."j3, haviiij; discovered nothing.
The American expedition returned to New York in the autuuni of 18 Jl. Sir James
Ross also returned, bringing nothing but vague rumor, afterward proved to bo un-
founded, that tho Franklin party had been murdered by the Es(|uimaux at Wolsien-
holme Sound, near tho head of Hailin's Bay. Lady Franklin thereupon .sent tho
screw steamer Isabel, Captain Inglefield, to explore this region. Inglefield Wt l^"g-
land in July, 185-, examined tho Sound, but found no traci^s of Franklin, who had
indeed never gone in tiiat direction. He, however, suIIimI up Smitii's Sound, heading
northward from Rallin's I5ay, and reached latitude 78° 2fi' 21", about 140 miles further
than any one had gone before on the American side of the polar regions. Ho thought
that the climate was less rigid than it was furtlior south ; he also rendered it almost
certain that Smith's Sound was a strait connecting Ralliii's Bay with the Polar Ocean ;
a theory which is confirmed by all subsei^ucnt explorations.

1,;

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760

THE POLAR WORLD.

I

IMoantimc followinf^ out Kiino's Wollitif^ton ("Ilmnnol tlitory, Sir Edward Ro'lclior
WUH sent out ill A|)ril, l^l."»2, in tlio cdinuiaiid of live vusHeln, tlio Assi,«tun(!o, UL'.soluto,
North Star, I'ionucr, and Intie|iid, tins last two Ijuiiig stcainurH. Tlii' North Star was
the store Hliip. Tiie Assistam-o and I'ioneor wuro to steer up Welliii'fton ClianiU'i •
while the Intrepid and the Resolute, the latter cowinianded by Capvain Kellett, wen;
to push westward in search of 3IcCluro and Collinson, who had not lieen heard from
Bince they had sailed eastward from IJering's Straits in 18o(). The Resolute had a
singular fate. After an unusually favorable voyage she reached Melville Island in
Scpteinlier, 1852, and went into winter quarters, whence parties were sent out to
explore the coast in various directions, one of which found a dispatch showiip' that
McClure liad been, and probably now was, at Mercy Bay, on the opjiosite side of
Kank's Strait. Sledge parties were sent in that direction ; but before they returned
tbey were anticipated. McClure had heard of the proximity of the Resolute, and one
day a party of worn men were ^ t-n making their way over the uneven ice. It was
McClure and his men. They were taken on board, and the Resolute set out upon her
return voyage. She got as far as Becchey Island, when it was decided to abandon
her, May 15, 1854, all on board being taken oil' by the other vessels of Belcher's
expedition, and broujrht safely to England. Sixteen months after, September 15,
1855, the American whaler George Henry, Captain Buddington, vessel and captain
thereafter known in connection with Charles Francis Hall's expeditions, while sailing
in Bafliu's Bay came across an abandoned vessel. She was encumbered by ice but
perfectly tight and sea-worthy. It was the Resolute. Without human guidance she
had drifted 1200 miles through those dangerous seas. Buddington brought his jirize
home to New London, Connecticut; she was purchased by the American government,
thoroughly refitted, and by order of Congress presented to Queen Victoria. The
British government had her stripped and laid up in ordinary in the navy yard at
Woolwich.

In April, 1853, the new American Grlnnell expedition, the Advance, commanded
by Dr. Kane, sailed from New York. The story of this expedition has already been
fully told in this volume,' and will not here be repeated. No account of any Arctic
expedition equals in interest this as detailed by Kane himself. Although fruitless as far
as its main object of finding Franklin or the remains of his expedition, was concernod,
it made valuable contributions to geographical knowledge. These may be thus
summed up: 1. The survey and delineation of the north coast of Greenland to its
apparent termination by a great glacier. 2. The survey of this glacier and its exteii-
pion northward. 3. The discovery of a largo channel to the north-west, free of ieo
and apparently leading into an open sea. 4. The discovery and delineation of a large
tract of land forming the nor;hward extension of the American continent, or rather of
Greenland. 5. The completed survey of the coast as far south and west as Capo
Sabine in Smith's Strait, connecting with the previous surveys of Captain Inglefield,
and completing the circuit of the straits and bays opening from Davis' Straits, and
leading into the Polar Sea.

In the meantime a land expedition under charge of Dr. Rae, had been exploring on
the American mainland. In April, 1854, near Pelly Bay, on the Gulf of Boothia, ho
found Esquimaux who had in their possession various articles which had evidently

I

I'

SUMMARY OF AllCTIC KXI'LOUINMi KXrKDITION'S.

f)!

belonged to Franklin or liis ofl'icors. Close (|ue.stioniiif» tli.sclost'il the following .icts:
Some four years before some of tlieir jjeoplu wiiile limitiii^^ seals on a lar^^e i>lan(l, pre-
sumably tliat which we know as Kinj^ William's, saw a party of while men, about l(» in
number, they thou;;ht, going southward along the west shore of tiie island, they wero
drai'i'in*' boats and sledijes alonp; with them. Tiiuro was with them no one wlio could
speak Esquimaux; but as far as could be learned from signs, their ships had been crushed
and they were trying to get to a place where thrre were deer to shoot. They .seemed
to have I'lenty of ammunition, but to bo short of provisions. They purchased .some
food of the natives and went on their way. When five years later the record was
found on the island that Crozier and the surviving 10'> had started for Back's River,
there could be no doubt that this party were those who then survived, liut how
many had died before this is unknown, llae was clearly of the opinion that this party
had died from starvation and not from any violence by the natives. The relics wero
purchased from the Esquimaux, and sent to England. Still later in the year but
before the breaking up of the ice, the corpses of about thirty persons and some graves
were discovered on the Continent, and on an island near by five nioro corpses. All
tlie indications were that the men had broken up into small squads, who had wandered
in diil'erent directions in search of food.

In 18.").">, Mr. James Anderson was sent to search the region of the disaster. On
June 30, a little way from Back's Kiver, ho found natives who had many articles
which had evidently belonged to the expedition. They said that the owners had all
died of starvation. On the small island where the five men wero said to have perished
wero a few articles, among others a stick upon which was rudely carved the name
of Mr. Stanley, tho surgeon of the Erebus, and a plank, having on it the word
Terror. That was all ; there wero no corpses there nor a scrap of paper. This
party wero unable to search King William's Island, presumably tho main scene
of the disaster. It was not, indeed, until four years later that tho scrap of paper,
already mentioned, was discovered, which told where and when tho vessels had been
lost, and that Franklin himself had died ten months before.

In 1857, Lady Franklm fitted out, at her own expense, a new expedition in search
of her husband, then dead for almost ten years, though no one as yet knew it. Tiie
Fox, a screw steamer of 177 tons, formerly a pleasure yacht, was purchased and fitted
up. The crew consisted of 24 men all volunteers, and the command was confided to
Captain Francis McClentock, who had already served in the Arctic Seas under Ross,
Austin, and Belcher. The Fox left Aberdeen on July 1, 18-^7. The design was to
explore a tract of about 300 miles s(iuare, lying west of Boothia, between the northern
limits of the exjtlorations of Rae and Anderson, and the southern ones of Sir James Ross
and Belcher, and to the west as far as tlie track of McCluro. By the middle of August
the little vessi,l was far up Baffin's Bay, and on the 17th was beset by the ice near tho
entrance of Lancaster Sound. For eight weary months she was held fast and ap-
parently unmovable, by tho solid pack which was, however, drifting slowly southward,
and when finally released, April 25, 1858, she had been borne helplessly IJJ'J.") miles.
McClentock refitted at Ilolsteinborg, in Greenland, and boldly set out again. On tho
12th of July he sailed through Barrow's Strait, and attempted to pass down through
Peel's Sound, but was stopped by the ice. Then he went north-eastward, skirting
North Somerset, hoping to reach the mouth of Back's River through a strait, since

Vi)-J

TIIK POLAR WOllF.D.

iiameil FraiiklitrH. Tlii.-< wii^ nlistructed liy ici; ; hut lin mnnngod to pusli tbroufh on
'lit' (Ith (if ScptiMiilicr. Hero nj^aiii lio wiih (laiij^lit fast, nnd hold for thrco Wdck.s,
wlicn 111! took up winter ijuartcrs on tlio north sido of tiio strait. Hlcd^ri; ('X|ii'iliiions
wcro fcnt out in all ilirections ; and on onu of tlii'fo McCldulock, March 1, iH.'i',), Ji,.
luarncil from a party of Esijuiinaux a ship had boon crushed by luo in dwp wator olf
th(! iiorth-wcst slioro of King VVilliani'.s Island. Slowly new ncrap.s of information
were i;;aino(l, to the purport that when tho vessel bad gone down tlie men had movi'd
toward a great river, liiat many of them hail drojiped down by the way, their lidiiics
being found in tho spring, and some of them luiried ; but that all had died of starva-
tion. MeClentoek had now got at last upon Franklin's track, or rather that of tho
10') who bad escaped after the wreck of tho Erebus and Terror.

The first trace of tho long lost crew was found near Capo Ilorschell. It was a
bleached skeleton on the beach ; near it were somo fragments of clothing, a pocket-
book and a few letters, which told nothing, for they were from home, addressed to,
but not written by the pc: son to whom they had belonged. The next day they caiiu)
to a boat fitted up as a sledge, in which were two skeletons, two loaded guns, ammu-
nition, chocolate, tea, tobacco, and soino articles of silver plate, the marks on
whieli showed that they had belonged to Franklin. At last, on tho (Jth of May,
tliey came to a largo cairn, and lying among some stones wliieii had fallen from
its top, was tlie paper containing the record already mentioned, upon which was
wiitteu all that niaii can ever know of tho fato of tho Franklin c.xpolition from July
20, 184."), when the ships were seen moored to tho iceberg in Haftin's Bay, to April
2.'), 1(S4S, when the surviving 105 were on the point of setting oft" on their returnless
journey towards Back River.

Captain (now Sir Francis Leopold) ^McClcntock, had thus supplied the last of tho
links in tho story of tho Franklin expedition. Ho had demon.stiated that there was
not a human probability that a man of them could now bo living. lie bad also
solved some of tho great problems which had for eleven years occupied tho mind of
all Arctic explorers. Ho bad also sliown that Franklin, when finally beset, had
really gone over tho waters which linked together tho explorations made from tho
cast and west, and was, therefore, tho actual discoverer of the long sought north-west
passage, whoso usclessncss for all purposes was also demonstrated.

Subsequent explorations arc yet to bo briefly noted. In July, 18G0, Dr. Isaac I.
Hayes succeeded, by aid of private subscriptions, in organizing an exploring expedi-
tion. It consisted of fourteen men ; sailed from Boston July G ; late in August was
frozen in in latitude 78° in Smith's Sound. He made boat and sledge expeditions to
the north; and finally on 3Iay 18, 18G1, with a single companion stood upon a pro-
jecting headland, in latitude 81° 3.5', which ho believed to bo tho most northern
known land on tho globe. Parry had indeed gone somewhat farther, but it was upon
a floe of ice. No otiier man had before or has since gone so far north upon land, un-
less indeed Hall, three weeks before his dc.th, in 1871, went a degree beyond; j.
point which will, perhaps, never be settled. Before him Hayes saw a sea then eii-
cumborod by soft ice and floes, but which ho thought would be free in summer ; but
he had no boat, and was obliged to turn back, reaching New York in October, 18G1.

Ill 18G0, Charles Francis Hall constituted himself an expedition to tho Arctic ro-
gioQS. He lost his boat, and was obliged to contiao his explorations withiu narrow

r
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V

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SUMMARY OF ARCTIC EXPLORING KXPKDITIONS.

753

limits. He returned to New York, iiffcr lli o yeiirs' Hojniirn, liiiving in tlie nicnnwliilo
(l<ino much for future service. In u itrevi:)u:Mliiiiiti'r ' full detiiils of tliu expodilinn
liavo heen given. In lH<i< he iigiiin set out, returning in lMti;». In the following eliii|)-
ter will bo told all thiit is known <tf thisexpodition, of wiiieh no full record has appeured.
In 1871 ho once more otartcd upon what was to be his hist ex(tedition. Of tliis and
of the tnarvehtus escape of a portion of his men after his death, the next chapter will
contain an account.

Of lute years the opinion has become prevalent that the most feasible way of
reaching the open Polar Sea is by way of Spitzbergcn or Nova Zend)la ; that is, to
the eastward of Greeidand, and several European exiiediiions have gone in that direc-
tion. It is argued that the warmer waters of the great oceanic current of the Gulf
Stream, flowing as a surfa* j current in this direction, keep the channels comparatively
free of ico. Some indeed go further, and ascribe the existence of this assumed open
sea to be owing to these currents. In IHOH a German expedition was organized by
Dr. August Petermann of Gotha, the foremost geographer of the day. It consisted
of a vessel of 80 tons, under conmiand of Capt;iin Koldeway, and left Bergen, in
Norway, early in May. Koldeway went up between Greenland and Sj)itzbergen,
reaching a point as high as Hl° o' North, and returned in October. In 1808 the
Swcdis!) government also sent an expedition which sailed to the north of Spitzbergen,
but accomplished little or nothing. In June, 186*.(, another German expedition of
two vessels left IJremcn. One of these, tho Hansa, was in October wrecked in the
ice near the eastern shore of Greenland. The crew escaped to an ice-field which
was slowly drifting southward, and constantly diminishing in size as it came into
warmer waters, until at last it was hardly larger than a raft. The men then took to
their boats, and succeeded in reaching Fredericksthal, near Cape Farewell, tho south-
ern point of Greenland, and reached home in tho summer of 1870. Their adven-
tures while on this ice-field read strangely like those of the persons saved from Hall's
last expedition, to be narrated in the next chapter. Meanwhile the other vessel, the
Germania, whieh had become separated from her consort, endeavored to reach high
latitudes by keeping close along the eastern shore of Greenland. She turned back
as winter set in, having apparently accomplished nothing toward solving the problem.
13ut she discovered what was supposed to be a deep indentation in tho shore, running
north-westward, to which was given the name of Francis .Joseph Bay. Hall's last
expedition discovered, on the opposite side of tho Gi-cenland coast, an apparent bay
running north-eastward. Many circumstances combine to render it probable that
these two supposed bays are a connected channel, forming the northern boundary of
the island of Greenland. During 1801), 1870 and 1871, several other expeditions,
among which was one conducted by James Lamont, an English gentleman of fortune,
tried the way between Greenland and Spitz'jergen, but none of them reached very
high latitudes, or made any important discoveries. In June, 1871, Payer and Wey-
preeht, lieuicnants in tho Austrian navy, embarked at Tronso, in Norway, on board
a little trading vcss(!l, and sailed between Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla. They
reached only as high vs latitude 78° 41', but entered an almost open sea, in which
navigation was impeded only by very light and scattered ice. Had they been fitted
out for an extended cruise there seems good reason to suppose that they would have

II

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48

1 P. 433, et aeq.

]: Miti'^

7M

TIIK POr.AR WOULD.

heon nblo to Niiil fairly into thu Itroixl, open I'olar Son ; but oh it wan, tho vorkoI
riffiirnt'tl to Troiisn in UctdluT. I'l'fcrinuiin liciiiivus lliat tlu- resultH of tliiH cxiicili-
tioii wcru uf tiio ili;>ll(•^t ^(!0)riii|ilii(ul iiii|ii)rtaiici! ; that it airtiially pciit'tratnl inlo tin;
opon HL'U by itH nio.st avuilal)ie entranct!. Two Norwegian caiituinn, ToliicM.n arid
Maok, «ubM'(jiu'ntly coritirnied tho roportM of I'aynr un<i Woyproolit. Anotbor Nor-
wogian, Captain Carlson, cailo*! up tiiu t;oast of Nova Zonibia, and diiscovori d, at tlm
nortli-oant oxtroinity of tho iMand, tlio roniainw of the winter onoainpuiont owtabiishod
27."> yearM before by the Diitoh navigator Uaront/, just a.s Hull, in his first oxpodition,
found relics of tho expedition of I'Vobisher, which hud remained almost twenty years
longer. Ulve and Hniytli also uailed to the north of Spit/.bergen, and found open
water as higli as latitude MO^ 27'. In 1H72 Octavo I'avy, a young Freneliiiian
resident of New Orleans, made proposals for an expedition, which was to leave San
Francisco for Kamchatka, and endeavor to reach tho IVdar iSoa by tho way of Mering's
Strait. lie projected an India rubber raft, which when inflated would carry tho crew
nnd 10,000 pounds of freight, but which was so T 'it that when not in use it could
be packed in a barrel, and so conveyed over land. But there is no account that tliis
idea has been carried into oifect.

It remains only to describe, as far as is now known, tbo last Polar expedition
undertaken by Cbarlos Frauuis Hull.

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TllE LAST EXrEDITIOH OF CHARLES FEANCIS HALL. 7»7

CHAPTER XLIV.

THE LAST EXPEDITION OF CHARLES FRANCIS HALL.

Charles Francis Hall, — His second Expedition, — His last Expedition. — The Polaris. — Officers
and Crew. — Setting out. — A slight Dispute. — OiT for tlie Pole. — Hall's farewell Dispatch.
— The next Tidings. — The rescued Nineteen. — Tlieir Story. — "Voyage to tlie highest
Latitudes. — Taking up Winter Quarters. — Hall's last Sledge Journey. — His last Dispatch.
— The Return to the Polaris. — Sickness and Death of Hall. — Buddington takes Command.
— Winter in the Ice. — Aspects of the Region. — Accident to the Polaris. — A Boat Expedi-
tion,— Starting for Home. — The Polaris in Peril. — Taking to the Ice. — The Separation. —
The Parting on the Ice. — Herron's Journal. — October: Abandoned. — A Fortnight's Wait-
ing.— November: Trying for the Shore. — A Godsend, — Amusements. — Beginning to Drift.
— Killing the Dogs. — A Thanksgiving Dinner. — December: Adrift, — Eating Seal Skin, and
Fox Meat. — Game in the wrong Place. — A Christmas Dinner. — January : Unpleasant New
Year's, — Drifting Southward, — Another Godsend. — A Sight of the Sun. — Drifting on. —
February: Snow Storms. — Narwhals and Seals.— '■^'ilcs of Ice. — A Sight of Land. — Off
from the Sealing Ground.— Provisions Short, — Ebierbing the main Stay. — Dovekies. —
March: Seals, Birds, and Icebergs. — The Floe Splitting. — On a Fragment. — More God-
sends.— The first Day of Spring. — Launching the Boat. — More Seals, — Rate of Drift. —
Floe wearing away. — Ainil : Taking to the Bo.it, — Ice and Water. — Repairing the Boat, —
Plenty of Seals.— Floe breaking up. — A Struggle for Existence. — Ebierbing and Hans to
the Rescue. — A fearful Night. — Six Months adrift. — Stealing Food, — On short Allowance.
— Thoughts of Cannibalism. — A Seal and three more Meals certain. — A dainty Repast. —
Swept over by the Sea. — The last ten Days, — Length of the Drift. — A hungry Bear and
hungrier Men.- A desperate Risk — Seals again. — In fresh Peril, — A Steamer in Sight. —
The Steamer Disappears. — Another Steamer in Sight. — Hopes and Fears. — The last Entry
in Herron's Journal. — The Fog lifts. — The Tigress, — Saved at Last. — Wonders of the
Drift. — Ebierbing the Hero. — Conduct of the Men. — Proposed Searches for the Polaris.

IN 1859, at a meeting of tho New York Geographical Society, held in honor of
Dr. Kane, a plain blunt man introduced himself to the President with the words,
"I want to go and find the bones of Sir John Franklin." In a rather hesitating
manner he proceeded to explain the plan which ho had conceived in his Western
home. Somctiiing in the manner of the man won the confidence of Henry Griunell,
and the result was that a scanty outfit was provided, and Charles Francis Hall set out
on his first expedition, which has already been described in these pages.

I first saw Hall immediately upon his return from this expedition. Ho brought
his journal and notes to a publishing house for which I was acting as literary advisor,
wishing to have them published. I saw at once that they were of unusual interest,
and had no hesitation in advising that they should be prepared for the press ; and
while this was in course of execution, I saw Hall almost every day. Many of tho
very be.st portions of the book were exact copies of l-i ; original memoranda, written
in an Esquimaux snow hut, with pencil, bocauso ink could not bo kept unfrozen.

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Of his early life ho said but little, /.bout all which I call to mind was that he
was born about 1823; had been brough , up a blacksmith, had somehow drifted into
journalism in Cincinnati, and that a desire to explore the unknown Arctic regions had
for years been growing upon him, until at last he had come to look upon it as his
special mission to unravel the mystery of the f-ite of Franklin. Even when ho set
out upon his second expedition, he had a strong persuasion that some members of
that party were still alive and might yet bo rescued.

In 1864 ho pailed from New London, Conn., on his second expedition, in a whalin''
vessel, commanded by Captain Buddington of whom we shall hear more. With
him went only the Esquimaux Ebierbing and his wife Tookoolito. He 1 nded on
the coast of Hudson's Bay, penetrated to the north as far as Ilecla and Fury Bay,
and thence journeyed into King William's land. In this region he spent four suc-
cessive winters, living entirely amon^ the Esquimaux, most of the time near Rcpul«o
Bay, acquiring a knowledge of their language and customs, and adapting himself to
their habits and modes of life, and so fitting himself for the prosecution of a larger
enterprise. By careful inquiry among the natives he satisfied himself of the ti ith
of the reports that the bulk of Franklin's party had died of starvation on Kinf
William's land, and that only a small part of them had succeeded in passing to the
main land. He brought back with him many relics, and convinced himself that
before the final besetment Franklin had actually gone as far westward as any one
has since gone, and was thus the actual discoverer of the long sought north-west pas-
sage. He found, however, no tiaces of the r(?cords oi the expedition ; and it is
probable that all were lost when the vessels were hastily abandoned. That the aban-
donment was hasty, is shown by the fact that no stores or provisions appear to have
been saved.

Of this second expedition of Hall, the general results of which have been thuo
meagerly stated, I know that ho had full notes ; and it was his purpose after he had
made one more expedition, in which he had full confidence that ho would be able to
reach the pole, whether it was upon land or in water, to combine the results of both
in a work which should tell all that man could kn w of regions which human eye had
never seen, and might not perhaps again sec for generations.

For long months he labored to induce the government to fit out another expedition,
in which he was at last successful. What with government aid and the assistance of
private individuals, notuing which human foresight could provide sotined wanting to
ensure success, if this lay within the scope of human power. A steamer of 400 tons.
known as the Periwinkle, also rigged as a schooner, was purchased, and fitted up and
strengthened to adapt her for the new work. Six inches of solid oak jjlnnking was
placed upon her sides ; her bows were built up so as to be almost a solid mass of tim-
ber, sheathed with iron and ending in a sharp iron prow. The screw was so arranged
that it could be unshipped and placed upon deck, so as to be out of danger from the
ice. Extra blades, rudder, spars and sails were provided. Boats were built for the
special service. One of those, capable of carrying four tons, weighed only 250
pounds, and was so constructed that it might be folded up at three minutes' notice,
and could be placed on a sledge, transported over snow or ice, and launched when-
ever a piece of open water was reached. Nothing was spared to ensure to oflieers
and men every comfort which could bo attainable in the inhospitable region to which

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THE LAST EXPEDITJON OF CHARLES FRANCIS HALL.

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tliey were bound. Of late, indeed, men bavo come forward to assert that the steamer
was not fit for the service. But such certainly was not the judgment of Hall or of
his associates, among whom were several men inured to Arctic navigation. A better
vessel might doubtless have been built for the express purpose ; but it does not appear
that there wiis then in this country, or in any other, a steamer bcli-r adapted to Arc-
tic navi^aMod. The vessel was fittingly rechristened the Polaris — " Tiie Polar Star."

Extraordinary care seems to have been taken in the selection of officers and crew.
As for Hall himself, a careful investigation of all that has ti'nce come to liglit, shows
that no other man possessed so many qualifications for the command. Eight years in
the Arctic regions bad made him perfectly acquainted with the best means of pre-
serving life and health. He had learned the language of the Esquimaux, of whoso
assistance he expected largely to avail himself. Ho certainly had the faculty of
maintaining strict discipline, and at the same time of gaining the affection of those
under him. It is true he was not a professional sailor or engineer ; neither were
Kane or Hayes — the two men whose namei best deserve to be associated with his.
In any case, even bad he been a naval officer, the practi-ul details of navigation must
have been placed in charge of some one accustomed to voyaging in the ice.

As far as man could judge, no better choice could have been made for sailing
master than Sydney O. Buddington. He had been in a whaling vessel in eleven
voyages, extending for more than thirty years, in these very regions. He had been
in command of the vessel in which Hall had sailed upon his former expedition. Hall
and othets who bad the best means of knowing the man deemed him the one for the
place. If, as there is now reason to believe, his character sadly changed in conse-
quence of a newly-acquired passion for liquor, no one had any good reason to antici-
pate this. The assistant navigator was George E. Tyson ; what will hereafter bo said
of him will evince his fitness for the post. The first mate, Hubbard C Chester, for
aught that appears, was well chosen. As second mate went William Morton, who a
score of years before had been the right-hand man of the lamented Kane. It was
Morton who discovered what Kane firmly believed to be the edge of the open Polar
Sea, although it is now known that this is but an expansion of Smith's Sound, and
that still north of it lies a frozen strait. Like the foot of the rainbow this sea seems
to recede as we try to approach it. As chief of the scientific department was Kmil
Bessels, who had brought with him from his nati"'' Germany the highest testimonials ;
and was endorsed by Petermann and Agassiz. He had also been a member of an
Arctic expeditiop sent out by the Prussian government. Besides these there were
Erail Schumann, chiei .;ngineer, Frederick Meyer, meteorologist, R. D. \V. Bryan,
astronomer and chaplain, the faitliful Es([uimaux Ebierbing, his wife Tookoolito, and
their child, " Puny," who had come to them in place of the little " Butterfly," whom
they had laid in a New England grave-yard. Ebierbing was to act as interpreter and
hunter, and to him in the end was mainly owing the jtreservation of the nineteen
persons whom we know to be the survivors of this expedition. The crew of all
capacities numbered seventeen, of whom about half were Germans or Scandinavians.
In Greenland they also took on board an Esquimaux, Hans Christian, to act as dog-
driver, with his wife and three children, to whom another was born afterward. So
that, all told, the entire expedition consisted of forty persons.

The Polaris sailed from New York June 29, 1871, and reached St. John's, New-

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foundland, July \li. wbero the expedition was cordially welcomed liy the governor
and principal citizens. Thence they steamed up Davis's Straits, reaching Ilolsteln-
borg, in Greenland, on the Hist. There they found a Swedish vessel, which was just
about sailing for home. This reported that Baftin's Bay rras more free from ice than
it had been for years. They awaited the arrival of the transport Congress, bearing
additional stores and supplies, and in the meantime jiu.chased dogs, furs, and other
requisites. On the 17th of August the Polaris badj adieu to the Congress, ami
fairly set out on her expedition for the pole, touching successively at Upernavik and
Kong-i-tokc, where more dogs were procured. On the 22d they reached Tessuisac,
in latitude 73° 30', probably the most northern permanent settlement on the globe.
Here Hall commenced penning a dispatch, to which on the two following days he
added brief postscripts.

There had been, as was reported by the Congress on her return, some disputes
between Hall and his scientific associates. As far as we can judge from tho scanty
account, in Hall's view tho main object was to reach tho pole, and to this cverytiiing
else was to be subordinate ; in their view, quite naturally, scientific observation and
research was tho main thing. Tho instructions from the Secretary of the Navy seem
to us to bo so clear, as to leave no doubt that Hall's view was the correct one. So
at least it was decided by the commander of the Congress, and his decision seems to
have met with prompt acquiescence. The dispute, whatever it was. was adjusted, and
Hall writes in tlie highest spirits :

"August 22, 1871. The prospects of tho expedition are fine ; tlic weatjier beau-
tiful, clear, and exceptionally warm. Every preparation has been made to bid faro-
well to civilization for several years, if need bo to accomplish our purpose. Our
coal-bunkers arc not only full, but we have fully ten tons on deck, besides wood,
planks, tar, and rosin in considerable quantities that can be u&ed for steaming pur-
poses in case of any emergency. Never was an Arctic expedition more conqiletely
fitted out than this. The progress of the Polaris so far has been quite favorable,
making exceedingly good passages from port to port. Tho actual steaming or sailing
time from V»"ashington to New York was sixty hours ; and from that place to this —
the most northern civilized settlement of the world, unless there bo one for us to dis-
cover at or near the North Pole — has been twenty days, seven hours, and thirty min-
utes. There is every reason to rejoice that everything pertaining to tho expedition,
under the rulings of High Heaven, is in a far more prosperous condition than I had

hoped or prayed for. We arc making every effort to leave here to-morrow.

August 23, Evening. We did not get under way to-day, as expected, because a
heavy, dark fog has prevailed all day, and tho same now continues. The venture of
steaming out into a sea of undefined reefs and sunken rocks, under the present cir-
cumstances could not bo undertaken. August 21, 1 P. M, The fog still con-
tinues, and I decide that we cannot wait longer for its dispersion ; for a longer delay
will make it doubtful of the expedition securing tho very high latitude I desire to
obtain before entering into winter quarters. A good pilot has ofl'ered to do his very
best in conductinjr the Polaris outside of the most imminent danger of the reefs and
rocks. Now, at half-past 1, P. M., tho anchor of tho Polaris has just been weighed,
and not again will it go J?<¥n, till, as I trust and pray, a higher, a fur higher, latitude
has been attained than over before by civilized ni^.a. Governor El'jcrg is about

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accoinpanyin}; us out of tbo harbor and seaward. lie leaves us when tlie pilot does.
He lias rendered to this expedition much service, and long will I remember him for his
great kindness. I am sure you and my country will fully appreciate the hospitality
and co-operation of the Danish oflicials in Greenland as relating to our North Polar
Hvpedition. — Now, at a quarter past 2, the Polaris bids adieu to the cM'.'.^ed world.
Governor Elbcrg leaves us, promising to take these dispatches back to llpernavik,
and to send them to our minister nt Copenhagen by the next ship, which o^>portunity
may not be till next year. God bo with us."

The annual Danish vessel had left Greenland ; and, as Hall had anticipated, nearly
a year passed before there was any opportunity of sending this dispatch. When
these hopeful words were read in the United States, whence they had come by way
of Copenhagen, their writer had been dead nine months ; and, as the event i)roves,
with him had perished all tbo high hopes which bad been cherished of the success of
his expedition.

From that 24th of August, 1871, to the 30th of April, 1873, not a word of
tidings of the expedition passed through the icy barriers of the Arctic circle. On
this last day the staunch little steamer Tigress, built for the scaling trade in the
Greenland Seas, and owned in Newfoundland, while steaming down the coast of
Labrador, in about latitude 53° North, in a dense fog, came upon a patch of ice
some twenty feet square — about as largo as the floor of a .small room. Upon this
were human beings, who were taken on board and found to be a part of the crew of
the Polaris. They proved to be Tyson, the assistant navigator, Meyer the meteorol-
ogist, Jackson the cook, Herron the steward, five seamen, with the Esquimaux
Ebierbing and Tookoolito, and their cliild, Hans Christian, his wife and four children,
the youngest only eight months old, six months and more of whose brief life had
been passed u}.on the ice : in all nineteen souls.

These were bi »ught to St. John's, Newfoundland, and in a few days the tidings of
their rescue reached the United States. The Herald newspaper had at St. John's,
as almost everywhere else, a capable correspondent. He interviewed the persons,
and on the 21st of May a long and full report of what they could tell appeared in
the Herald. Meanwhile the government had dispatched a steamer from New York to
bring the party to Washington, where they arrived early in June. They were all
carefully examined by a commission consisting of the Secretary of the Navy, assisted
by Commodore Reynolds, the senior officer of the Navy Department, himf<clf an
experienced explorer ; Professor Spencer F. Baird, Assistant Secretary of the Smith-
sonian Institute, among the foremost scientists of the age, a wr.rm personal friend of
Hall, and an ardent promoter of tho expedition ; and Captain Howgate of the Signal
Service. Their narrative to the T^erald correspondent, and their testimony before
this commission, agree in every e.ssential respect, and embody all that we can at
present hope to know of this expedition : all that we can ever hope to know, unless
the Polaris herself and the remainder of her crew shall hereafter be found.

On the 24th of August, as has been seen, the Polaris got safely out of tho danger-
ous harbor of Tessuisak, shot acrr?s the head of tho stormy Melville Bay ; passed
Northumberland Island, and through Smith's Sound ; and meeting little obstruction
from ice, entered what Kane and Morton and Hayes believed the open Polar Sea,
which however proved to be a mere expansion of tho Soundj and to which the name

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702

THE rOLAR WOULD.

of Kane Sea must lieroafter be given. The Sound then narrowed, ) at with a deep
indentation setting into the Greenland shore. Steaming noitliward through a cliainiel
apjiarentiy twenty-five or thirty miles wide, with high land on either side, in just a
week they reached their highest northern point, which by Hall's reckoning was in
latitude 82° 2!)' but which by Meyer's subsequent and probably more accurate calcu-
lations was in latitude .S2° IG', a difference of about fifteen miles. Here, on the .'iOth
of August, the channel to which Hall gave the name of Robeson Straits, in honor of
the Secretary of the Navy, was impassably blocked by heavy masses of floatin<' ice.
Hall took a boat and vainly sought to find a passage through the ice. To take a
step backward was far from his purpose. He found a small bay where he hoped lo
make his winter quarters. A con.sultation was held, and, as it would seem, mainly
through the influence of Buddington, it was decided not to lie up here. To this bay
Hall gave the name of Kefuse Harbor. The ice now took the matter into its own
hands, and drifting slowly bore the Polaris southward for four days. On the JJd of
September the pack opened, and the Polaris headed eastward into a small cove settini'
into the Greenland shore. The mouth of the cove was sheltered by a husrc icebor"
and here it was decided to winter. This cove, in latitude 81° 88', was named Polaris
Bay, and the sheltering ice island was called Providenceberg. Here at midnight, on
the 3d of September, Hall landed in a boat and raised the Stars and Stripes in the
name of God and the President of the United States. Polaris Bay is, if all calcu-
lations are correct, just three minutes of a degree, or about three miles further north
than the farthest point reached by Hayes, ^y land on the oyiposite side of the strait,
and about two hundred miles north of Kane's famous winter quarters.

The Pol'-.ris was moored fast to the iceberg, an observatory was established, and
scientific worK set about. Hall forthwith began to plan a sledge journey to the north.
Taking with him only Chester the mate, and Ebierbing and Hans, with two sledges
and fourteen dogs, he set out on the 10th of October. A fortnight, that is a week
for advancing and the same for returning, was the period fi^ed for this expedition.
On the evening of the 10th day he wrote his last dispatch, probably the last words
he ever wrote, for the Secretary of the Navy. By a strange chance the draft of this
dispatch has been preserved. Here follow the essential parts of it :

" Sixth Snoic/eouse Encampment, latitude 82° '6', longitude 01° 20'. October 20,
1871. Myself and party left the ship in winter quarters, Thank God Harbor, to
discover, if possible, a fca'-'ble route inland for my sledge journey, next spring, to
reach the North Pole, purposing to adopt such a route if found better than a route
over the old floes and hummocks of the strait. We arrived here on the afternoon of
October 17, having discovered a lake and river on our way. Along the latter our
route, a most .serpentine one, which led us to this bay from the top of an iceberg near
the mouth of the river, we could sec that this bay extended to the eastward and south-
ward about fifteen miles. On arriving here we found the mouth of the bay open, the
water having numerous seals in it, bobbing up their heads. This open water making
close to both headlands, and the ice of Robeson Strait being on the move, debarred all
chance of extending our journey up the strait. The mountainous land (none other
being about here) will not admit of our journeying further north ; and we comm. ice
our return to-morrow morning. To-day we are storm-bound at this our sixth
encampment. We can sec the land extending on the west side of the strait

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703

this

to tlio north about seventy miles, thus making the land wo discovered as far as
latitude 8^° •''' N. There ia the appearance of land further north, and extending
more easterly, but a peculiarly dark nimbus cloud j)revents my making a full deter-
iiiinaliou. Up to the time I and my party left the ship all have been well, and uon-
tinuo with high hopes of accomplishing our great mission. We find this a much warmer
country than we expected. The mountains on either side of Kennedy Channel and
liobeson Strait were found entirely bare of snow and ict, with the exception of u gla-
cier that wo saw commencing in about latitude 80° 30' N. on the east side of the
Strait, and extending in an easterly direction as far as can be seen from the mountains
near Polaris Bay. We have found that the country abounds with live seals, game,
geese, ducks, musk cuttle, rabbits, wolves, foxes, bears, partridges, lemmings, etc., etc.
Our long Arctic night commenced October 13, having seen only the upper limb of
the sun above the glacier at meridian, October 13. This dispatch I finish at this mo-
ment, twenty-three minutes past eight P. M., having written it w'.th ink in our snow
hut. Thermometer outside, 7°; yesterday all day, 2()°-23°."

There is a postscript dated next morning: "A copy of this dispatch was placed,
October 21, 1871, in a pillar at Urevoort Cape" (the northern headland of the bay
on which this encampment was situated). This dispatch, found in Hull's writing desk,
and iirst read in Washington in June, 1873, i'> a voice from beyond the grave certify-
ing to the fact that up to this time nothing had occurred on the expedition to diminish
the confident expectation which he entertained of complete success, and in connection
with the former one is abundant refutation of the newspaper charges that there was
anything lacking in the equipment of the Polaris.

The return journey was naturally more rapid than the advance had been, and on
the fourth day Hall and his companions regained the Polaris. He was to all appear-
ances in his usual robust health, and certainly in his usual buoyant spirits. His great
laugh, which all who knew him knew so well, rang out in the darkness of the Arctic
night, and he thanked the men for having behaved so well while he had been absent.
The change from a breezy temperature of 15 or 20 degrees below zero, to one of GO
or 70 above, in the close cabin, probably somewhat aflfectcd him, and he declined any
refreshments except a cup of coffee. He took a hot sponge bath, and retired to rest.
In the morning he was seriously unwell, the chief symptoms bjing a burning in the
throat and vomiting. For a week the disease made progress, and from all the evi-
dence was accompanied by partial paralysis and delirium. From this he partially re-
covered, made some attempt to resume his work, and it was supposed that he would
be well in a few days. On the night of the 8th of November he had a fresh attack,
and Tyson, going into his cabin, found him lying in his berth, breathing heavily, and
insensible. He died during that night, and was buried three days after in a shallow
grave dug with difficulty in the frozen ground.

If the doctor was correctly understood, he pronounced the death to have been occa-
sioned by apojdexy. Ball himself undoubtedly believed that he had been poisoned
in the cup of cofTee which he drank, and after his partial recovery was continually
looking over medical books to find out the poison which would produce the symptoms
which he experienced. Once he called the faithful Ebierbing, and pointing to some word
in one of the books, said that this was what was making him sick. In his delirium
he fancied that every one was trying to kill him. liut the commission report:

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" From personal examination of all tlic witnesses, wo reach tho unanimous opinion that
the death of Captain Hall resulted naturally, from difsease, without fault on tho part
of any one. During his illness he was under the medical caro of Dr. Bcssels, and as
none of the persons now hero are capable of giving a more particular account of tlio
nature and symptoms of his fatal sickness, the return of tho Polaris must he awaited
for precise information."

Out of a thousand picked men it would bo hard to select one whoso chances of life
were so good as those of Hall. Ho was slightly above the middle height, strongly
built, with large head, broad chest, and muscular limbs. In all bis habits he was
strictly temperate, and even when he returned from his second expedition ho pre-
sented the ideal of robust health, as he did when he set out on his last one. The in-
structions, however, had provided for the possible contingency of his dciith, in which
event the command was to fall upon Buddington. The long winter was passed as
usual in the Arctic regions, but without any suffering from want or even from cold.
Indeed it seems fairly established that on tho western continent at least tho line of
greatest cold rui's considerably south of latitude 80°. The highest points where a
continuous series of extreme cold have been noted are in al)out latitude 72'^ on the
American continent and in Kamchatka. Scientific observations were carefully kept
up, a considerable extent of coast was surveyed, and Kbierbing and Hans Cliristiun
hunted whenever opportunity presented, and with no inconsiderable success, the store-
rooms of the Polaris being filled with skins and skeletons of musk oxen, bears, and
other animals, with birds of many species, and their eggs, and other olijects of naturnl
history. To all appearance the waters were wholly destitute of fish ; for although
nets and lines were continually set, none were obtained. But marine invertebrata,
such as jelly-fish and shrimps, were abundant, which were believed to constitute the
ihicf food of the numerous seals. Many pieces of drift wood were picked up, tho
walnut, ash and pine being identified. These must have been drifted from a warmer
climate, and have come either through Bering Straits from the west, or around tlie
northern coast of Greenland from the east ; all the probabilities being in favor of tlie
latter. Indeed it is more than probable that the northern coast of Greenland does
not extend much nearer the pole than latitude 83°. As has been previously men-
tioned, the Germania and Hansa expedition discovered an apparent sound stretching
westward into the eastern shore of Greenland ; and it is not improbable that tliis
communicates with the one which the Polaris saw running north-eastward, and so
defines the northern coast of Greenland.

Two or three weeks after the death of Hall, a strong gale swept down from the
north-east, forced the Polaris to drag her anchors, and drove her against the ice-island
■at the mouth of the cove, to which she was then made fast, and so remained until the
following June. During the winter a pack of moving ice drove her higher up the
berg, where her bow remained fixed, resting upon the ice-bed, while her stern swung
up and down with the rising and falling tides. The strong stem-piece was strained,
some of the planking started, and when at last she settled into the water she leaked
somewhat ; but after being once cleared by the steam pumps, she was kept clear by
working the ordinary deck pumps for about six minutes in an hour.

Early in June, Buddington ordered a boat expedition, under Chester and Tyson,
to go up the shore as far as possible. One boat was crushed in the ico almost at the

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outset ; but its place being supplied by the light canvas boat, before mentioned, a
point was gained almost as far north as that which Hull had reached in his tdedgo
journey. Here they remained until the middle of July, 1872, waiting for the ice to
open, when they were recalled by Huddington, who had determined to ret\irn homo
as Hoon as the ice would permit. The party made their way overland, saving the
boats behind. From the data now accessiltle, this detcrmiDatioa to return can burdly
be censured, although Hall would not probably have consented had he been living.
The Polaris had been much strained, and though there were abundance of storen
from which overland parties could bo sujiplied, the coal was getting short, and so the
Polaris itself would hardly have been able to make her way again under steam far to
the north.

The Polaris got free early in August, and steamed cautiously down the western
shore for a day, when she was beset in the ice, aud was in imminent peril. On tho
IGth tho ship was made fast to a huge floe, in '"*itudo 80^^ 2', aud drifted slowly up
and down Smith's Sound for two months, durmg which they only gained about a
dozen miles to the south, bringing them near Northumberland Island, in latitude 'uli^
53'. To bo prepared for the worst, provisions were brought on deck, in readiness to
be thrown upon the ice should it bo necessary to abandon the vessel, aud a canvas
shelter was put up on the -ce.

On the loth of October a violent gale set in from the south, driving the ice under
tho ship, pressing her fairly out of the water, and throwing her over on her beam
ends. Some provisions and stores were thrown over, and half of the crew wore
ordered out to carry them further upon the ice. All the boats were lowered. In tho
middle of the night, in a violent storm, the Polaris broke loose, and in a few minutes
was out of sight. Upon tho ice were the nineteen persons already named. All
through the night they labored to save the provisions ; and when morning dawned
attempted to reach the shore, which was in plain sight. During tho day the Polaris
hovo in sight, at a distance of four or five miles, apparently approaching the floe
under sail and steam. Those on the ice were sure that they must be seen from tho
vessel, and that they would soon be taken on board. But the vessel changed her
course, and soon disappeared. Not unnaturally they believed that they had been
purposely abandoned. But tho commission, upon a full review of all the circum-
stances, came to the conclusion that there was no sufficient evidence that this was the
case. A few hours afterward, another glimpse was got of the Polaris. She appeared
to be made fast to the shore or to the ice. From that day up to the middle of July,
1873, when these pages are written, a period of more than nine months, no tidings
of the Polaris have been received. It is indeed hoped that she is fast beset in tho
ice, but otherwise safe. If so, as there is no danger of starvation, it is believed that
the crew, if not tho vessel, may bo rescued.

i I

f^ !

by

We now turn to the fortunes of the nineteen who were left upon tho ice, and who
were finally rescued by the Tigress. In all the records of adventure and peril there
is nothing which, for interest, exceeds this ; and of it we have an account, unique in
its kind ; the only thing approaching it being tho famous journal of Bligh and his
party of seamen, who were set adrift from the " Bounty" in 1781). Bligh, in an
open boat, was adrift forty-six days under a torrid sun. These men, women and

'irn I

I r

■fc,:[

i

"08

THE POLAR WOULD.

cliildron, for l'.>'> days, driftoil upon a ciko of ico all throu:»h an Arofir wintor. ()no
of the party, John Heron, tlio wtewanl, thirty-ono yoarH of ago, Itoin in Liverpool,
but a citizen of the United Statos, kept from day to day a minute joirnal of all tliat
occurred. From tliiH, greatly abridged, our narrative will bo drawn, »<oting only the
salient points, but preserving the wonls of the writer :

" October \itth. — Galo from the S. W. ; ship niado fast to floo ; bergs pressed in
and nipped the ship until wo thought she was going down ; threw provisions over-
board, and nineteen souls got on the floe to receive them and haul them up on the
ico. A largo berg eamo sailing down, struck the floo, shivered it to pieces, and freed
the ship. She was out of sight in five minutes. Wo were afloat on diflferent pieces
of ice. We had two boats. Our men were picked up, myself among them, and
landed on the main floo, which wo found to bo cracked in many places. Wo remained
shivering all niglit. Saved very little provisions. \&th. — Morning fine ; light breeze
from the N. The berg that did us so much damage half, a milo to the N. E. of us.
Plenty of open water. We lost no time in launching tho boats, getting the i)rovisions
in and pulling around tho berg, when we saw tho Polaris. Sho had steam up, and
succeeded in getting a harbor. In the evening wo started with the boats for shore.
Had wo reached it we could have walked on board in one hour, but the ice set in so
fast that wo could not ])ull through it. We had a narrow escape in jumping from
piece to piece until wo reached the floe. Wo dragged tho boat two or three hundred
yards, and made for our provisions, which were on a distant part of tho floe. We
can not seo our other boat ; the snow drift has covered our lato tracks. 23rf. — With
the aid of a marine glass wo discovered a boat, and at some distance therefrom a tent.
Tho ice for a few miles is very thin ; but wo risked it, and returned to headquarters
weak but thankful to God, and rejoicing for our increase of stores. We have now
eleven bags of bread, thirteen cans of pemmican, eleven dozen cans of meats, soups,
etc., and fourteen hams. 31s<. — Sent Joe and Hans with a dog team to see how the
ico will stand, as wo intend starting to-morrow for shore. Tf the ice hold good wo
shall be there in two or three days. If wo reach the shore wo shall live better, as
we may kill some game."

" November 2d. — Ico open and water all around us. We started before daylight
with the dogs and sled, not knowing what had happened until we were nearly driven into
tho water. Tho ice closed in a little. Wo tried again, and ventured acro-ss on the
other floe. Saved one rake, some of Joe's clothing, three guns, anu a few other
things. When tho men returned to tho crack it was just opening; they had got
across just in time, as the ice opened, and tho floo has not been seen since, 'id,
— Building snow houses. No chance now of getting ashore ; must now give that up.
Ml. — Joe caught a seal, which ia a Godsend. We are having a fcst to-night ; three-
fourths of a pound of food to a man. Mr. Meyer made a pack ot cards for us from
some thick paper, and we are now playing euchre. Wo are a good deal further from
land, and are drifting south pretty smart. 1 6</i. — Joe saw three seals yesterday and
a fox track, but got nothing. We have nothing to feed our dogs on. They got at
the provisions to-day. We have shot five, leaving four. Shot some two weeks since.
We are lining our new hut with canvas. 2\st. — The natives caught two seals.
They shot three, but lost one of them in the young ice. Wo shot two dogs. They
got at our provisions. 28</t. — Thanksgiving Diy. Wo have had a feast : four pint

I

I

THE L'iST rXI'KDITlON OF CHARLES EUANCIS HALL

7(17

cnns of mock turtle soup, hIx pint cons of groon corn made into (<coucli. Afturnoon.
three ounces of hrcud, untl the luHt of our choeolato."

" Dccemhvr 'Id. — No open WiitL-r lias been seen for sovcrnl dnys. Cannot catch any-
thing, i^und has l)(!en seen for several <lu)s ; cannot deterniino which shore it is,
east or west. It has been so elouily tliat wo cannot select a star to j;o hy. Some
think it is the cast land ; I think it is the west. Boiled some seal-.skin to-day and
ato it, l)lul)l)cr, hair, and tou;;h skin. The men uto it ; I could not ; the hair is too
thick, antl we have no means of getting it off. i'tlh. — A fox came too near the other
day. liill Lindemann shot him ; skinned him, and cut him up for cooking. Fox ia
this country is all bones and hair. «<//. — All in good health. The only thing that
troubles us is hunger ; that is very severe. We feel sometimes as though we could
cat each other. Very weak, but, please God, we will weather it all. 2()//i. — Joe
found a crack yesterday and three seals. Too dark to shoot. It is a good thi.ig to
have game underne .Ji us ; it would bo much better for starving men to have them oa
the Hoe. To-morrow will be our shortest dny ; ti<en the sun turns buck. 2 !</*. —
Christmas Eve. Wo are longing for to-morrow, when we shall have ([uite a least :
half a pound each of raw ham, which we have been saving nearly a n'.Outli for Christ-
mas. A month ago our ham gave out ; so we saved this for the feast. Yesterday U
degrees below zero; to-day 1 degrees above. 25</i. — Christinas Day. This is a
day of jubilee at homo, and certainly here for us ; for besides the approaching day-
light we have (juite a feast to-day. One ounce of bread extra per man, which made
our soup for breakfast a little thicker than for dinner. We had soup made from a
pound of seal blood, which we had saved for a month ; a two-pound can of sausage
meat, tbo last of our canned meat ; a few ounces of seal, \/hieh we saved with the
blood, all cut up fmc ; last of our can of apples, which wo saved also for Christmas.
The whole was boiled to a thick soup, which I think was tbo sweetest meal I ever
ato. This, with half a pound of ham and two ounces of bread, gave us our Cbrii^t-
mas dinner. Then in the evening wo bad our usual thin soup."

'■'■January 1, 1873. — Poor dinner for New Year's Day : mouldy bread, and short al-
lowance. 'Id. — Mr. Meyer took an observation last night. Latitude 12° 10', longitude
60° 40'. The news was so good " [i. o. in about nine weeks they bad drifted south-
ward something more than seven degrees, about 525 miles] "that I treated myself
to an extra pipe of tobacco. We arc obliged to cook our meals over the lamp ; slow
work. Thermometer 31 degrees below zero. \Qth. — Hans caught a seal to-day.
Thank God, for we are very weak. Our light would have been finished to-morrow,
and our cooking also. But God sent this seal to save us. It has been so all the
time. Just as we wore played out, something cauie along. I am afraid I have a
touch of the scurvy ; a little raw meat will drive it out, I hope. Vdth. — Clear, light
wind. Thermometer 39 degrees below zero. The sun has made his appearance to-
day, I gave bim three cheers, hoping we will be able to start " [that is in the boats]
" in a month. The sun has brought us luck in the way of a seal which Joe caught
21th. — The sun is out. Mr. Meyer took an observation. Ho makes latitude G'jo
32". Ho thinks we are 42 miles from the shore. Godhaven, on the island of Disco,
is in latitude 09° 13". That leaves us nineteen miles north of our store-house, which
I am afraid we will i.ever see. God knows where we will fetch up."

" February Ath. A gale from the west ; very thick snow drift, I seldom see it snow

\i

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■111

ro8

TIIK ror.AIl WOULD.

hero ; for when it Ih blowing hard fho snow vuwoh likt> flour with tho wind. Whrthcr
the Hnow fallM or tho wiml takcx it up from tho ieo I cuimot toll ; hut it ia ho flno uml
tiiick jfou cannot sco. Thcro \h no loaving tho hut in puoh wonthor, as tho hnow is
nlwayH citliLT diiflin^ or fallinj;, with tho Mow, no matter from what ((iiartcr. All
widl hut mo. 1 havo a xlij^ht touch of tho wurvy ; hut, phmso (iod, it will noou havu
nio. Wo hopo whon this hlow i8 over, wo whall hio land ami havo u litlki open water.
7//i. — IIunH caught a Koal, aud firod at n narwhal. Joo shot and killed a hijr ful.
low, hut could not get him. Ho turned helly up and sank. He would havo heeii
food for u month. Thoro wero a great many of them going north. It i.s their time of
tho year. Hth. — A pretty largo crack around tho tloo. Shot fivo narwhals to-day,
but could not get them, hh they got away under tho ico. Joe Haid a largo fleet of
thorn were going north, but could not find water, and wo camo hack again. We cnn-
not find any weals when they are about. Joo say.i tho seals are not afraid of the nar-
whals ; but I think they nro. IGth. — Saw plenty of narwhals, I wish they would go
away; they frighten tho seals away, which wo nro so badly in want of. Our provisions
aro getting h)W. When you take a glass and look around, you sco tho ieo in the dis-
tance piled as high as a ship's ma.st, so that it seems impossible to travel over it — cer-
tainly not with a boat. No land to bo seen yet. Wo want water to escapo. 1 'Jlh. — Tlio
welcome cry this morning was, " land ho !" to westward, Capo Walsingham. Now
wo will bo out of tho narrows. Tho straits commence to widen liere, so that wo can
travel fast if wo cannot reach land. I've caught a small seal to-day. 2 Uh. — (^'an see
tho land, but cannot start. Such a quantity of light snow has fallen, and you sink
into it so that it would bo impossible to get tho boat through it. Land is twenty
miles off, I should say, and wo appear to bo leaving it. JMy advico is to start for it.
Wo seem to havo left tho sealing ground. Wo cannot catch anything to speak of. and
wo havo only three weeks' provisions left. Captain Tyson and some of tho men aro
afraid to venture in shore, and unwilling to leave tho boat ; so wo havo made up our
minds to stay, come down in our provisions, and trust in God, hoping wc may coino
on better sealing ground. I asked tho Esquimaux what they would do if they had
not us to inlluouco them. They told me thoy would start for land directly they saw
it. They do not like to speak their minds openly for fear something would hapjien,
meaning that they would bo blamed for it; so they aro silent following only the advico
and opinions of others. Joo caught a very small seal, which is tho eighth this month.
He is very much to be praised, so is his wife Hannah. Wo may thank them and God
for our lives and tho good health we aro in. Wo could never have gotten thus far
without them. If we ever got out of this difficulty, thoy can never bo paid too much.
28th — Followed up a boar track, but at a crack lost it, where he broke through tho
young ice and swam across. Shot a meal of dovekies, a kind of small bird, to-day,
which we will havo for breakfast to-morrow morning. Saw some seals to-day, but
could not get them. Thermometer 28 to 23 degrees below zero."

" March 2d. — To-day God has sent us food in abundance. Joo shot an oogchook^
one of tho largest kind of seals : plenty of meat and oil, and forty-two dovekies.
7th. — Immense icebergs all around the floe. There was a fearful noise all last night,
which kept us all awake. Tho floe was cracking, splitting and working with a noiso
like a park of artillery and musketry. I expected to see it split into a thousand pieces
every moment. Every man is complaining of headache from eating oogchook liver

|i

V

Tin: KAsr r.xi-r.iMrioN of c iiaim.ks i-miaxcis iiai.i,.

ni')

Tlit'y siiy it \^ (limi^i'roiH to cut ; Imt wliiif !■< ii liiiii;;ry tniin ti» ilii V Wi' liiivc caton
till' M-iils, liiiir, hKiii iiimI <>vi-iy tliiri;; iilmut tlii>iii. anil iiro ulnil tn K<'t iln-ni. Wl/i — •
l{lowiii;r a siriiii^ ;.'iil(> yit. All liariils wur<' tip laxt iii;(lit ami (lrf)*si>il ami n>iiily for
a juni|). for till- iin w.is ^|lliltinl.^ <Tackiii(^ and iiiakiiijja fi'iirfui ihmm' all ninht Toijuy
lias licciii a fcaiful day Curinipt nc for fumy tiiiCt. ^\o know tlu' lloo is limkiii
into hniull iiiuiuM. AVo aro ulioat, jinii|tiiiij; and kicking aliout. \'2t/i, — hiist ni;;lit wiih
a fc'ii'tnl ntio of >iHwponHU : iuu cracking and l)r('iiking ; tliu gain roaring, uiid tliii water
MWasliing ; lintwlicro? Wc know it is all aroinid lis, Imt cininot sco anything. Sinno
oni! o'clock liic wind lias liccn going down, and now 1 can sec aixiuiitl. A nice pi(!tiiru.
Kv<.'rytliing lnokcn into Miiall |iieces. W'v ai« on tlic l)cst |iiec('. Tlio ^'now Iiouhom
are nearly covered Afternoon. It Ims calmed down to a line day, with n light
lnocze. Joe caught two seals, Hans one, and Captain Tyson ono. .loe caught two
dovekiex, and the cook two, showing how good (iod is to us. 2'2(l. — The first day of
spring. The sun »ihines very powerriilly, at lea.st I think so. TlieniKinieler l<Mo l*J
degrees lielow /eio. doe caught two Heals to-day. .'JOM.— IJlowing u gale from W.
N. W. ; it looks fearful. LtiSt night the sight was dreadful I went out, and there,
within ten or twelve yards of the door of our hut, was a v«'iy large and ugly looking
icelieig grinding again.st us. ( )ur little (loe gets smaller in open water. To-day we had
the pleasure of launching the hoat. We saw on u piece of ice u large seal. We tired
and thought we had him. When we had pulled there with the lioat, we found a largo
liladder-nose and her pup. i>he showed tight, hut was soon killed, and, with her pup
towed to our Hoe. The Ituck was shot hut got under the young ieo. When opened,
wo found considerable milk in lior ; so wo can have some g(H)d soup to-niglit, using the
milk and two ([iiarts of lilood. 3]st. — Strong wind W. N. \V. Thick. I^ooks like
clearing up. A seal and two calves killcil hy Joe; one calf hy Hans. Mr. Meyer
got an ohservatioM : latitude .O'.fo 41'. That iiiakes twenty-three miles per day that wo
have drifted tho lastfivo days, besides what eddying we have made with this W. wind.
The.se seals have all been caught on tiic ieo which drifted by us. Our pic(!o of ice gets
much smaller. Open water. Sometimes we get separated from tho ice and it looks
like the ocean which wo have on one side of us — the K. side. Wo are nearly offCape
Farewell. I^ast night ran a very heavy sea ; not a bit of ice to be seen as far as the
eye could roach. To-day closed around a little, but plenty of water. Dare not ven-
ture in our open boats : we must watch and wait and trust in God Caught three
more calves and one more seal. Heavy weather setting in ; tho tloo wearing away
rapidly. I must hope for the best. All well."

'* April 1st. — A fearful night, last night. Must leave our Hoe at once. Got under
way at 8 A. M., the boat taking in water, and loaded too deep. Threw overboard
one hundred pounds of meat, and must throw away all our clothes. Cannot carry any-
thing with us but the tent, a few skins to cover us, a little meat, and our bread and
pommican. Made ten or fifteen miles S. and three or four W. W^o landed to lighten
our boat, and pitched our tent, intending to stop all night. This piece of ieo is crack-
ing, and not very safe. Caught a young seal as soon as we got on the ice, and after-
ward two more. 20//*. — Started at 5 A. M. Worked tho oars two hours ; then a
breeze sprung up, and increased until it blew almost a gale. We had several narrow
escapes with our boat before we could find a jiiece of ice safe enough to land on, and
when wo did so the boat was making water fast. When emptied we found a hole in

49

f'

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I iiii

770

TIIK I'OLAK WORLD.

her side. "Weather stili very bad. We are in a bad fix. "td. — Repaired our boat
and started at S.\'> A. M. Kept under way till 2.30 P. M., wlien wo had to haul
up on a jticce of floe. We were beset by tlio ieo and could not get throuirh. We
take seals whenever wo want them, so that it is not necessary to croak any more until
they get scarce. Cjt/i. — Blowing a gale, and a fearful sea rutiuing. Two pieces broke
from the floe. Wo are on ono close to the tent. At o A. M. removed our thini's to
!he center. Another piece broke off, carrying Joe's hut with it. Wo cannot do any-
thing to help ourselves. If the ice breaks Uf) much more wo must break up witii it
S/A — Last night, at 12 o'clock, the ice broke again right between the tent and the
boat, which were so close together that a man could not walk between them. There
the ice split carrying away the boat, the kyack, and Mr. Meyer. It was blowing and
snowing, very cold, and a fearful sea running ; the ice was breaking, lapping, and
crashing. IMr. Meyer cast the kyack adrift, but it went to leeward of us. He can
do notiiing with the boat alone, and so they are lost to us unless God returns them.
The natives went off on a ))iece of ice with their j)addles and ic spears. We may
never sec them again. Ijut we lUu lo.st without the boat, so that they are as well nfl'.
After an hour's struggle we can make out, with what little light there is, tliat they
have reached the boat, about half a mile off. There they appear to be hel[)less ; the
ice closing in all around ; and we can do nothing until daylight. Daylight at last, 3
A. M. We .see llieni with the boat, but tliey can do nothing with her. Tlie kyack
is the same distance off in another direction. We i.'Uist venture off, for wc may as
well be crusiied by the ice or drowned as to remain here without the boat. Off we
venture for the boat, all but two, who ilare not make the attempt. We juiTip from one
piece to another, as the swell heaves it, and the ice comes close togetiier ; one ])ieco
being high tlie other low, so that you watch your time to jump. All who ventured
reached the boat in safety, and after a long struggle got her safe to camp again. Tlicn
we ventured for the kyack, and got it also. We have taken our tent down, and
]»itched it in the center of our little piece of ice, with our boat alongside. Joe has
built another snow hut al)agside f lie tent. '.H/t — Blowing a gale. The sea runs very

o ran •/

high, threatening to wash us (,tr any minute. The ice is much slacker, and tlie water
is coming nearer. Things look very bad. God knows how the niglit will end. Eve-
ning, Wo are washed out of our tent, and Hannah from her snow hut. Have got
everything in the boat ready for a start ; but she can never live in such a sea. Land
in sight. The women and children are in the boat ; wo have not a dry place in which
to walk about, nor a piece of fresh-water ice to eat. The ice is closing in fast, and
the sea going down. At midnight tilings look so quiet, and the ice is so closed around
that we have pitched our tent, intending to have a sleep, for we are worn out."

From April 10 to 10 (which completed just six months from the time when they
took to the ice) they were piisoners on that bit; saw many seals, but could citcli
none, and starvation began to stare them in tiie f .ce. Mr. Meyer froze his fingeis
and toes, and began to be very weak, hunger seeming to have more effect on him tiiun
on the others.

" A/in'l l(V/( — Wind increasing; ice nearly the same ; no swell on. My head and
face have swollen to nearly twice their usual si/e. I do not know the cause of it.
We set an hour's watch at night. Some one has been at the pcmmican on his watch,
and I know the man. Ho did the same thing in the winter, and I caught him in the

br

THE LASr KXPEDITIOX OF CHARLES FUANCIS HALL.

771

act on flu' T'li. Wo sliot tlio (l()j>;s Inst winter for stealing our provisions. If I had
my way, with the consent of all iiands, I ■ luld call out and slioot down tliat two-
li-jrcred (locf who lias ."^incc lieen at tliein. We have hut few days' provisions left, and
came down on tliein tliis morning. Weala-ning work, hut it must he done to save
life as long as wc can, which cannot he long unless something good conies along,
which I iinpc may soon hapjien. The only tiling tliat trouhles me is the tlioiiglit of
cannilialism. It is a fearful tiiougiit, hut may as well he looked holdly in tlie face.
If sue!) tilings are to happen, we must suhniit. May God save us. ]f^t/i. — Joe saw
a small hole in the water half u mile oil'. He took his gun and ventured over the
loose ice. No sooner had ho gotten there than he shot a seal, and sang out for the
kyack, as the water was making rapidly. It took an hour to get the kyaek there,
and another to get it hack. It is a nice-sized seal, and will give us three meals, raw,
anil save us from starvation for some days. We njturned thanks to (^id for his increy,
for we have only a few pounds of hread and suilijient pein.nicaii fcr to-night. We
divided tiie seal very nicely, losing nothing hut the gall. Wc divided it into sixteen
jiarts. One man tlien turned liis liack and calletl out the names, each man stepping
up and taking his share of meat, hluhhcr and .skin. The inside — heart, kidneys, liver,
lights and stomach — were divided hetween the Es(juiniaux and us. A\'e then gave
some hluliher and rags each, so that we got a lire mulcr way and cooked some good
SOU]) from what at other timv;s I would call oll'al. Cut up fine in a cjuart of ,soup,
with a little hlood the mess was higtily relished. 20^//. — IJIowing a gale somewhere.
The swell is very heavy. The (list warning wc had, a .sea stiuck us, washing over
us, and carried away everything tiiat was loose. This hapiiened at !• o'clock last
night. ^Ve shipped sea after sea, live or ten minutes after each other, carrying away
everything we had in our tent, skins, and most of our hed-clothes, leaving us desti-
tute, with only the few things we could get into the hoat. There we stood fioin 9 id
the evening to 7 tlie next morning, enduring, I should «ay, what man never stood
hefore. The few tilings we saved and the children were placed in the hoat. The sea
hroko over us during that night and morning. Every IKieen or twenty minutes a .sea
would come, lift the hoat and us with it, carry us along the ie^, and lose its strength
near the edge, and sometimes on it. Then it would take us the next lifteeii minutes
to get hack to a safe place, ready for the next roller. So wc stood that long hour,
not a W(U(1 spoken hut the commands to ' Hold on, my hearties ; hear down on her ;
put on all your weight ; ' and so we did, hearing down and holding on like griiii
<leath Cold, hungrv, wet, and little prospect alu'ad. At seven o'clock there came
clo.sc to us a small j)iecc of ice, which rode dry, and we determined to launch the
hoat, and reach it or perish. The cook went overhoard, hut was saved. All well.
Tired and slec])y."

There were to he hut ton more days of this weary imprisonment ; hut into them
were crowded as much of jieril and endurance, as imo any other period of C([ual
length. An ohservation showed that they were in latitude ,'>'.]° 57'. They had thus
drifted through ahout twenty-seven degrees of latitude, a distance in a straight line
from north tt) south of ahout 1<S7.'> miles. Tiie entries for .some days tell a uniform
story : " All hamls wet ; hunger trouhles us most ; cannot get the hoat through the
ice, ami must wait for a change; sometimes in sight of land, and then driven off;
no hirds and no seals." Here is one episode iu the monotony ;

tt.i

THE rOLAIl WOULD.

"J/»i/'22c/ — Wcatlier very barl. Last ni<;lit cniimicnwd with snow sqiiallw and
filoet ami liuifbeJ willi rain, llairicd all the nijjlit and until twelve o'eloek to-day.
Still remains very tliiek. The iec in pash inelosed around us. It appears to me we
are the sport and jest of the elements. The other night thoy played with us and our
boat as though we wi'.e shuttleeoeks. Men would never believe, nor could pen dc-
seribe, the scenes wj have passed through and yet live. Here we are, half drowned,
cold, and with no tricans of shelter. Everything wet, and no sun to dry it. The
scene looks bad ; nothing to eat. Everytliing finished if .some relief does not come
along. I do n.)t know what will become of us. Fearful thouglits enter my head as
to llie future. 31r. Meyer is starving ; he cannot last long in this state. Joe has
been off on the ice three times to-day, ihe little way he can get, but has not seen
aiiytiiing. Cliewed on a piece of .skin this morning that was tanned and saved for
clotiiing ; rather a tougli and tasteless breakfast. Joe ventured off on the ice the
fourth time and after looking a gootl while from a piece of iceberg saw a bear co.nin"
slowly toward us. He ran back as fast as possible for hW gun. All of us lay down
and remained perfectly still, Joe and Ilans going out some distance to meet the bear.
Getting behind a hummock, they waited for him. Along came Bruin, thinking ho
was coming to a meal instead of furnishing one himself. Clack, bang ! went two
ritles, and down went IJruin to save a starving lot of men. The Lord be praised ;
this is his heavctdy work I \\'o caimot catch seal for the pash ice, and we are on a
bad sealing ground, lie therefore .sends a bear along where bears are seldom seen,
and we certainly never expected to lind one. The poor bear was hungry himself ;
there was nothing in his stomach. Joe, poor fellow, looked very much down on our
account. Eveiything looks bright again but the atino.spliere ; it looks threatening."

" April '2')(/i. — Wind increased to a gale last night. Raining all night and day,
with snow squalls. Jjaunched the boat at 5 A. 31. The case was desperate ; run-
ning vith a liglit patched boat, damaged as she is, and patched all over. But the
piece of ice we were on had wasted away so much that it would never outride tiie
gale. Our danger was very great ; a gale of wind blowing ; a crippled boat, over-
loaded, and a fearful sea running, tilled with small ice as sharp as knives But,
thank God, we got safely through it. Wo are all soaking wet, in every thing we
have, and no chance of drying anything. We have had neither sun nor moon nor
star for a week. We have struck the sealmen's grounds. I never saw such an
abundance of seals before. They arc in schools like porpoises. We hauled up on a
Hoe after eight hours' pull. Joe shot some seals, but they ail sunk. Hard times.
2(V/(i. — Joe shot a seal last evening, and so broke the charm. Hans shot one this
morning. Ice very thick around. Started at half-pa.st .six A. M., and were beset
two hours afterward. Pulled up on a small piece of ice, the best we could (inii.
Snowing all day. Repaired the boat; and the weather cleared up in the afternoim.
Got some things dried a little, and half of ua turned in. Hans shot a seal, making
two to-day."

April 2Ath — Gale of wind sprung up; heavy sea running ; all ready and standing
by the boat all night. Launched the boat, but could get nowhere for the ice. Hauleil
up on a piece of ice at G A. M., and had a few hours' sleep, but were threatened to
be mashed to pieces by icebergs. They were fighting quite a battle in the water,
and bearing right for us. We launched the boat at 1 P. M., and got away, the

StOil

»

THE LAST EXPEDITION OF CHARLES FRANCIS HALL

wind Mowing niodcratcly, and tlie sea going down. Tlie ice is much slacker, and
tlierc is more water tiian I have seen yet. At 4.30 saw a steamer right ahend, and a
little to the north of us. We hoisted the colors, and pulled until dark, trying to <'ut
her ofT; but she does not see us. Wc found a .small fiiece of ice, and hoarded it
for tlie night. The stars are out for the first time this week, and there is a il'w mnon.
Divideil into two watches, four hours' sleep each. Intend to start early. .Joe had
shot three young seals, \?hich wo had taken along in the boat. Cooked with a hluh-
Iter (ire ; and kept a good one all night, so that we could bo seen. '2\'^th — Morning
falm, water quiet. At daylight sighted the steamer five miles ofF; launclied tlie boat
and made for her. After an hour's pull gained on her a good deal ; another hcmr
and we got fast in the ice, and could go no farther. Landed on n piece of ice and
hfiisted our colors on an elevated place. Fired three rounds from our rifles and pistols,
making a con.-iidcrable report, and were answered by three shots, the steamer heading
for us. She headed for us N. then S. E., and kept on so all day. We tried very
hard to work through the ice, but could not. Very strange. I should think any sail-
inn; vessel, much more a steamer, could get throuo;h with ease. Siie was nt)t more
than five miles from us. Latu in the evening she steamed away, bearing S. W. We
gave her up. In the evening she hove in sight again, but furtlier off. While looking
at her another steamer hove in sight, so that we have two sealers near, — one on each
side of us; but I do not expect to be picked up by either of them. Hans caught a
seal, very small and young, a perfect baby of a seal. Dried most of our things to-
day."

From the next and closing entry in Ilerron's Journal it is probable that ho was mis-
taken in supposing that tlio party had been seen from the steamer. Probably the
musketry which they fired was heard, and suppo.sed to come from some unseen vessel,
and was answered kiy the three guns fidiii the steamer. At all events he was
fortunately mistaken in his belief that tliey would not be jiiekcd up by the other
steamer.

" Wednesdnij, April 30th. — Five A. IM., weather thick andfi)ggy. Glorious sight
when the fog broke : a steamer close to us. !~!ie sees us and bears down on us. We
are saved, thank God ! We are safe on board the Tigress of St. Johns, Captain
IJartlett. He says the other steamer could not iiave seen us, as the captain is noted
for his humanity. The Tigress musters 120 men, the kindest and most obliging 1
have ever met. Picked up in latitude .J2'-' 3.V N."

!

Here closes this most remarkable journal, of which wo have given only the leading
points. That a party of nineteen persons, among whom were two women, and fivi'
children, one of them only two months old, should thus have drifted well nigh li.Oii i
miles, for 19;"* days all through an Arctic winter of unusual severity, and come out
not merely alive but in good health, is marvelous. Unless they had been forced to
adopt Hall's theory of living there as the Ks(|uiniau.x live, it is hardly probable that
they could have escaped. If they had been left on the ice with an abundance of ship's
stoics, and so not been thrown mainly upon raw seal and blubber, most likely the
scurvy wouhl have swept them all away. But were it not for Ebierbing, or a» he is
here called Es(piimaux Joe, they woiihi have cauglit but few seals, and .^^o would have
died of starvation. It is safe to be'ieve tiiat had he been with Sir Jolin Franklin, the

r

771

THE POLAll WORLD.

crews of the EreI)UH and Terror would have been saved. Ebierbing stands out every-
where as the hero of this wonderful story. Hardly less is ho tlie hero of Mair.s
account of his first expedition ; and should the records of his second expedition ever
be publislicd, ho will iippear e((ually prominent there. The attachment of Kbierimi"
for Hall was somcthinnj which has no counterpart, saving in that to Robinson (JruMn;
of his " Man Friday." To him also wo owe the preservation of the last dispatch
of Hall. It was contained in Hall's writing desk, which was thrown upon the ice
when the Polaris was left. All through that long drift the faithful Es(|uinian.x licpt
guard over it. AVlien provisions, clothing, and almost everything else was thrown
overboard, ho still held fast to that priceless document. If ever a man lived who
deserves an ample reward while living, and a noble monument when dead, it is tliis
little dusky ''Esquimaux, whose portrait appears in this volume, on pa'i;a ['Si.

Another thing which must .strike every reader is the marvelous fidelity and brotlipr-
linessof that strange party on the ice. Saving for the three instances where one()f the
men appropriated a little of the scanty stock of provisions, there is not a word of im-
putation of blame upon one of them. The first thought of the.«e saiiors, compiising
almost as many nationalities as individuals, seems to have been for the Es((uiinaux
women and their cliildrcn. And even in the case of the one person who is mention"d
with blame, any one who has felt for long weeks the keen gnawings of hunger, will
be slow to pass a very severe censure. All this is *' i more remarkable from tlic fact
that all this .solf-restraint was .self-imposed. There was no one who really had any right
to command, or any power to enforce an order. In his testimony before the commis-
sioners, Ilerron says : "' (laptain Tyson had command on the ice ; l)ut he never seemed
to take much of a lead. Everytliing seemed to go on very well. There was not a
great deal of commanding ; it was not wanted. When we did not do as he directed it
turr cd out wrong."

The fate of the Polaris, and of the men left on board of her, is as yet uncertain.
"When last .seen she seemeil safe from present danger. She had an abundance of
provisions on board, and so there is little apprehension that her crew b.ave suffered
starvation. IJut she was most likely badly crippled by the storm which separated her
from the ice floe, and probably laid up at or near Northumberland Island. She had
not a single boat left, so that the crew could not by that means make their escape to
the Greenland settlements far to the south. To ascertain the facts in the case, the
Navy Department has promptly taken proper measures. The steamer Juniata, the
best for the purpose at the disposal of the Department, has been sent to the Grecn-
1 nd ports ; but it is not expected that she can penetrate the icy region to the north.
If by the time, say late in July, 1873, when she reaches Disco, no tidings has
reached there of the Polaris, her work will have been accomplished. Meanwhile a
more efTective expeilition has been organized. The Tigress, built expressly for navi-
gation in the ice, has been pureiiased and brought to New York, there to be fitted up
for a voyage to the far nortli. She set sail on the 18th of July, with orders, first of
all, to find if possible, the Polaris and her crew. Tliat failing, she was to push north,
ward, and endeavor to complete the work begun by Hall. At best, however, shu
cannot be expected to reach the icy seas during the summer of 187^. So that,
assuming that she sets out from Greenland, in the summer of 1874, and finds tliii

P.

be
Ti
of
til

m

'HIE LAST EXPEDITION OF CIIAllLES FllANCIS HALL.

775

Pulai'is and hur crew at or noar Northumberland Island, another year must pass
before we can know more than we now know of tlie results of Hall's last ospedition.
Till then it is right and just that judgment should be suspended as to the real cause
of the death of Hall, and tl'.o conduct of those who after that event had command in
the expedition.

Thus rests the matter ii the closing days of July, 1873.

^m

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II'

n

THE POLAR WORLD.

i

it-

OFFICERS OP THE POt-VniS.

THE LAST KXrEDITION OF CHARLES FUAXCIS HALL.

CHAPTER XLV.

THE FATE OF THE TOLARIS,

The Senrcli for the Polaris.— Tlie First Tidings.— Second Tidings of the Safety of the Crow.
— The Searcii for the Tigress. — At Nortiunnlierliind Island. — At Littleton Islimd. — (jreet-
ing by the K,s(iuimiiiix. — Last of the Polaris. — The AI)imdoned Hut. — Close of the Senrcli.
— The Esenpu of the Crew of the Polaris. — The Separation in the Ice. — teaching the
Vessel. — ['reparations for the Winter. — Forebodings for the Future. — Chester, the Right
Man for the Emergency. — Huilding the Boats. — The Scurvy. — Getting off. — Skirting the
Ice. — At Ilakluyt Island. — Fighting a Whale. — 'I'he Rescue. — Arrival at Dundee. — Recep-
tion of the News. — Results of the Expedition. — Finis.

IN tlio preceditif^ chapter lias been narrated the voyage of the Polari.s fo tlio most
estremo northern point ever as yet readied by civilized man, togetlier with the
untimely death of Charles Francis Hall, her noble commander, and the wonderful
adventures of that portion of her crew who, on the 15th of October, 1872, became
separated from the vessels. Mention has ahn been made of the two vessel.**, the largo
.Juniata and the small Tigress, which were sent by tlie government of the United
States to a.scertain the futo of the Polaris, and, if poK-;iblo, to rescue the remainder of
her crew. Thi.s chapter will narrate the results of these cflbrts, and bring to a close
the story of thi.s remarkable exploring expedition.

After tlio departure of the Tigress from New York, in July, 187,3, weeks passed
before any tidings came back from the Arctic regions, wliither .«ho hail gone. But,
on the 10th of September, the telegraph brought from St. Johns, Newfoundh-.n!, a
brief dispatch to the effect, that the jilace where the people of the Polaiis had pa,ss('d
the preceding winter had been found ; that the vcsel, herself, had been lost ; but
that the crew had, a few weeks lieforc, set uff soiitlnviird in boats, which they had con-
structed, and that, in all likelihood, ftiey h;id been jicked up by some whaling ves.«el
which would convey them either to T^abrador or Ivuopp.

A week later came another telegram announcing that the Polaris pirty had nil
arrived safely iu Dundee, Scotland, wiiitlier they had been brought by a whaling
vessel.

The story of the .seareli is best told by (^immandor Green, of the Tigress ; what, in
the meantime, happened to the people of the Polaris, must be learned from their own
nirrativc.s.

The Tigress reached the Arctic seas in safety, and on the 11th of August, 187.3,
steamed northward from Upernavik, heading for Te.ssuisak, which Hall, two years
before, had styled the most northern known civilized settlement on the globe. At
Tessuisak, not a word had been heard from the Polaris since she had so hopeluUy de-

Tin: roLAK would,

■WESTEHN IIEMISPIIBKE.

[In the Western Hemisphere, the Polar World includes the space between the
Pole and latitude oO° North, and between the Pole and latitude 40° South. The
Tenipeiate Zones are between latitude 0U° and 30^ North, and 40° rnd 30° South.
Thus in tiio Western Hemisphere the two Polar regions are 10° broader, and the
Temperate Zones 10° narrower than in the Eastern Hemisphere.]

P

[In

and li
peratc
Tropic
30° J

TlIK LAST EXI'KUITION OF CIlAllLES i-'KA.NClS ilALI. 779

EASTERN HEMISPHKRE.

'een the
b. The
' South.
and the

[In the Eastern Hemisphere, the Polar World includes the space between the Poie
and latitude 6O0 North, and between Uie Pole and latitude 40° South. The Tem-
perate Zones are between latitude 60" and 30© North, and 60° and Si)^ South. The
Tropical Zones in both hemispheres lie on each side of the Equator between latitude
.30° North, and 30° South.]

I

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ifi

'<%'':

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llli; I'OLAII WORM).

piirti'd. A Htcnin liiiincli, tlio littlis .luiiiiita, Iwlonging to tlio large Juniatn, was licro.
She had gone us fur iiortliwurd as ,slio l'ouIiI, lut Imil loarnuil nothing of tlio INilaris.

On tho 12th of August the Tigress jMiinted her |irow northward, and soon j)assod
CajK! York, keeping as eloso to the shore as tlie ice would luTniit, and nil tlie time
watching for any signal tiiat might ho made fruui tho land. IJut the icolioiind const
giivo back no signal that any human being saw tho smoko from tho steamer.

On the l.'llh, tho Tigros.s skirted Northund)crland Island, near wliicli, ns was
believed, and as is noted on tiio m!i|), on ])igo 7.'>i>, Tyson and liis party were set u-
rated from tho Polaris; but some of iliat party, who wore on board tlio Tigress, couM
not recognize tlio spot ; and it was concluded that tho sepanition had really taken
place at some place still fnrtlier northward. At 0 in tho >_voiiing, of the llth, iis
measured by tho clock, tliougli at this season, in those! latitudes, there is scarcely any
distinction between day and night, they brought up at Littleton Island, standing out
darkly in the wintry sky. This looked like tho place for which they were in search ;
and a boat was lowered and sent to shore to learn, if might be, whether the I'ohiris
had ever boon tliere. The boat dodged anion- tho icebergs nnd was soon lost to
view ; but before long a faint sound of cheering was hoard fn^m tno shore. In an
hour or two the boat came back with tidings, Tho crew had landed, und saw dimly
in tho distance a hut which had evidently been built by civilized men, while hurrying
down to niPot them were a half dozen Esquimaux, who told them, as well as they

IISCOVKIIV UK I'OI.MnS CAMl'.

could, that this was the place where some white men had passed the preceding winter,
but that thoy had gone away a moon or two before, about the time when the ducks
began to hatch.

Those Escjuimaus had been on a hunting expedition, and when they came hero
tliey found tho big ship tied fast to tho shore, and the white men living in tho lint.
When they went away, tlieir head man had told the Esquimaux that they might have
the sliip, an 1 all t'.i re was left on board. Ibit not long after, a gale of wind came

i^

f

TIIK LASl' i;Xl'i:i)ITI()N OF CIIAULKS FU ANCIS IIAI.I..

IHI

liorc

on ; tlio whip Imiko loose, niitl drifted a mile or two awny, nnd llien «unk in sliiillow
water. All ine-lloo, with a couple of ieehfrgs, also diiftufi down, and (grounded on
tlie wreck. The liergs were Mill there, and for yearn lo como thow ley nioiintaitis will
form a nioiiiiiiicut grander than man has ever built, to mark the reHting-plaee of tliu
I'olari.s.

Kvery thing on shore confirmed the Htory of these Ksquimaux. There stood a
eoihfortalile wooden house, built ol planks and roof(ul with m\\>, with bunks, iiiattressc!*,
and appIiaiK^es for cooking, and a carpenter's lench with fresh shavings near it. All
around the hut were scattcie<l |)rovisioiis, stores, broken instruments, and fragments
of books and papers, all in a useless condition. The wliole place looked like a house
from which the tenant had just removed, pitching out in confusion everytliing not
worth (ianying away. There was not the slightest indication that there had ' ecu any
violence, or any extraordinary sufTcriiig. The position of this camp is in !■ .tude 78°
'2o' North, a little beyond the place which hud been llayew' winter (|uarti in 1800-
18G1.

The Tigress having learned here all that could be gathered from th Ksipiimaux,
and picked up the few things worth carrying oil", then .steamed down Balliiis' Hay,
looking in at Tessuisak and Upernavik, and reaching Disco on the 2'>lh of August
Kvery thing showed that the missing men could be nowhere on the Greenland coast,
and tiiat they must either have been lost in the ice, or, as there was good reason to
hope, had been picked up by some whaler. The work of search was accomplished,
and the Tigress returned to New York.

Wo now follow the fate of the men who had been left on board the Polaris on the
l.Oth of October, 1S72. Their story in most respects confirms, and in some respects
supplements that told by the nineteen from whom they had been separated.

The Polaris had for u long time been leaking so badly that it had been resolved lo
abandon her, it being thought certain that she could lloat but a little longer. All
hands were engaged, some on the vessel, some on the ice, in getting out every thing
which could be of use for a sojourn, the length of which no man could know, in the
unhospitable North. At this moment the hawsers which held the vessel to an ice-Hoe
parted, and she drifted helplessly away. It is hard to .say which were in the more
hopeless condition, those on the quivering ice or those on the leaky Polaris. In all
human probability, the fate of all was sealed. It was apparently only a question of
time. Those on the vessel would most likely live the longer, for they had apparently
more means of preserving life for a season.

As it was clear that the Polaris could never reach any port, the most that could be
done, was to endeavor to keep her afloat long enough to reach some place where she
could be beached, and her provisions and stores could be saved. Her engines seem to
have been frozen up so us to be useless ; but luckily a crack opened in the .solid ice,
and the wind was blowing sharply from a direction to take the vessel through the
narrow passage. Probably the distance from shore was less than half a dozen miles,
but it took twelve hours to bore through the slush.

The Polaris fairly beached, the next thing was to provide a shelter on shore, and to
secure the stores for the long Arctic winter, which was now setting in. The vessel
was soon reduced to little more than a hulk. The timbers between deck were torn

i

rH2

Tin: POf-AIl WOIM.I).

out. mill tlio planks iind IiouihIh roinovod. In ii few days, a Imi was (lonstnictod (if
tlicso |ilanks, nrid roufud over witli xails. lAirtuiiati'ly ulso, ilio party of Ks(|ui;iiuux
niadi! tli(>ir appi!aninc(> ; and fur a few liils of iron, and iitlii>r tliinirt wliidli to ns scctu
paltry, l)iit which Ut thcni uru imiro valiiahlu tlian gohl or silvt-r, thfy L'ii<ra;;i'd to 'u'lp
ill L'ouvoyiug tlio provisions, coul and stores froai tho vossel to thu hut. Moreover,
tiicy liad liuuti unusually Kucuosful in thuir liuntin^. and had, nn aliundancc of >>kins
of which they were );lad to dispose. These furnished nuiterials from which warm,
tliou^rh far from inodorous eioihin^ ini;;lit lie fashionod.

The loii;^ winter, during which their ninetoen comrades were performing; their mar-
velous drift on thu ice, was passed with little actual discomfort. The snow, indeed,
fell furiously, liut it served to bank up the;, jnit, and exclude the cold. The I'olaris
was u wood-pile ready at hand, sullicieiit to furnish fuel for a time. Water could Lo
hud liy melting the ico, of which the supply was unlimited. For a while, at least,
they liad provisions,

Hut all these supjtlieH would in time bo consumed ; after which, death woidd staro
them in the face. The great point came up, bow they were to get away ; for it must
be Iwrne in mind, they bad no good reason to suppose that for another year nt least,
any report of the probable loss of the .'oluris, would reach tbo United States, atid
therefore there was no likelihood tliat any expedition would be sent for their relief.
The bouts hud all been lost ; und they had no means of making an overland journey
over the rocks und ice.

In great cmergtincics the right man somotimos confics to the front. So was it hero.
The right man for thi.s emergency was not Buddington, the commander; it was not
iSessels, the scientist ; it was not liryan, the astronomer and chu|)lain. It was
(!he.ster, the mate. He, with the aid of Coffin, the carpenter, undertook to build
a couple of boats, or rather scows, from the fragments of boards, pierced with nuil-
lioles, which had formed the lining of the cabins. Week after week the work went
slowly but surely on ; and as the brief summer drew near, the boats were finished.

Hut now a[)pears an enemy more formidable than even cold or darkness. The
scurvy made its appearance ; not, indeed, in a violent form, but there was, judging
from all that the experience of oHier.s had taught, every reason to apprehr. d the worst.
liut here the teachings of the dead Hall, which he had learned during his long sojourn
in the Arctic regions, came into play. The men abandoned i - use of salted food,
and betook themselves to raw walrus l-ver, and in a short time the dreaded enemy
was vanquished.

Luckily, also, the season was unif.'ually early. The ice began to give way about
the middle of June and the party embarked in their frail boats. The chances were
fearfully against their ever being able to escape from the icy walls of their prison .
and so, while the Juniata and Tigress were being fitted out to search for them, they
were on their way.

By day they rowed along, and by night drew up their little craft upon the ice, and
prepared their only warm meal for the day. Their cooking apparatus was simply a
modific.ntion of the Esquimaux lamp. For fuel they had oil ; for wick, bits of rope ;
for fire-place, a piece of an iron kettle. At Hakluyt Island, they were detained for
several days by a violent snow-storm, which, however, proved to be a blessing in dis-
guise ; for the island is a breeding place for the auks, who were just hatching their

I

Tin; LAS'I' KXI'KDITION OK CHAIIMCS rUANC'IS MALL.

rs.'j

young. It was fur flicm ii liitul of jilcnty, fur llu* liirds wcro »o ahundnnt that tlio
Hupply was only liinited liy llicir power of i'onsiini|ition antl of carryin;» away

Thun tliuy again HOt out, laboriously rowing llirougli tim hIusIi, and skirting tlic Hoiid
i(!e-llot!s. until tlio 2()th of July ; two days Iwforo tho Tigross Hut out from Nt;w V'ork
in sL'arcii of thum, tlio party cauglit sight of ii vessel. They were discovered and taken
on l)oard. This proved to ho tho Itavenseraig, u Scottish whaler, liy which the^
wcro taken up. This whaler, n'-t iiaving her cargo tilled up, and wishing to complete
it, transferred tho men to the Areli(!. another steam-whaling vessel, wliich, heing full,
was starting homewaril. They reached Dundee, Scotland, in the afternoon of Sep-
tember 17. Uefore night closed, the telegraph had (Mnivcyed the news from Dundee
to London, and thencu across the Atlatitic to America ; and tho New York morning
newspapers, of September lit, contained tho rc|K)rt of tho safety of the men of tho
Polaris.

Hero ends tho story of tho most romarkablo of all Arctic voyages. Of the forty
persons, men, women, and children who, ot one time or another, took part in it, only
Mie perished. Uut that was tho one who, of all, could be least spared. With Hall,
died out the heart and soul of the expedition. The men were subse((uently brought
to America But so far as yet appears, they had nothing to tell of any value. Most
likely tho reports of the scientiKc portion will add a little to our knowledge of the
natural history and meteorology of tho Arctic regions.

Still later, other expeditions have been proposed. Hut it may be confidently
assumed that years more will elapse before anything important will bo added to what
is now embodied in " The Polar World."

11!

THE END,

IP

T^j-S.

j-v.^

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INDEX.

Ill

AnrxiE, Terrc, discovery of, 402.

ARoiiti, the, of I'atatjonia, 419.

Auriculturi', state ol', in Iceland, 79.

Aimin. treaty of, lOfi.

Air, remarkable inoisture of the, in Tainiurland,
225.

, i's perpetual inotinn in the Arctic zones, 225.

Akiirii:, oidiT-ducks of, 81.

Alhasiii, the Kiissla'i fort of, built. 195,

. de^tmyed by the Chiiiosc, but rebuilt, 19().

Alliatross, wanderiiii-, of llie Ant irc ic seas, 395.

Alcyoiiians on tlie coasts of Greenland. .")9.

Ali'utian Islands, causes which led to the discovery
of tlie, 201.

. , extent of the. 270.

Ali'uts, their wretched cndition under their mas-
ters, 27:?.

■ . tlieir skill and intrepiditv in hunting, 273-

27(i.

Alexander, Cape, di-^covcry of, 3G5.

■ Island, discovery of, 401.

Al;;erine pirates, ravaf;:'s of, in Iceland, 95 ; and in
the Westnian Islands, lll>.

Alask;!, discovery of. 2IV.>.

, climate of the, 2()9.

, mountains and forests of, 269.

, purchase of, by tlie Antericans, 2T7.

, teleiiraph tliionf;h, 278.

, travellint; in, 278-289.

.natives of 278-289.

. , climttte of 284.

. . food in, 287.

Almann.i.tcja, description of the, 7.3.

Altai JIoLintains, cros.sed l)y the Cossacks, 195.

Alten, copper mines of, 128.

Altenfjoid. vej^etation of the borders of the, 128.

America, North, treeless zone of, 18-22.

. character of tlie Coniferie of, 23, 24.

, raiit;e of the caribou, or reindeer, of, .36-39.

— — , the ninsk-ox of, 41.

■ , the white dolphin in the rivers of, 61.

, the black dolphin of, Gl.

, walruses of llie sliores of, 64.

, liis:ory of the fur-trade of 307 et seq.

■ , first discoverers and settlers of, .335.

America. North, destruction of the Greenland colo-
nies, 335. j

. , subsequent discoveries, 335 et arq.

— — , attempts to discover tlie north-western pas« ,
saire to India, 342 ct scq.

Am rica, !{tissiaii, its transferto the United States, I
272, vitl<i. I

Amonr, river, discovery of the, by the Russians, who
relinquish it to the Chinese, 195, 196. 1

— -, the country annexed by Russia, 196. ,

Anakerdluk, in North Greenland, buried forest of,

29.
Aiiu'ekoks, or priests of the Esquimaux, 301.
Animals, comparatively small number of, in the

Arctic reciims, 25.

, the forests the head-quarters of many, 41.

of tlie Arctic S"as, 59.

of tlie coasts of Spitzlieruen, 134.

, fur-bcarini;, of Siberia, 2IJ9.

, the, orTaimiirl.Mid, 227.

of Nisliiie-Kolyinsk, 235.

of Newfoundland. 378.

— ■ — , no land, in th" Antarctic region, 394.

of Patai:onia, 418.

Aniuj, vej^etation of the valley of the, 235.

, chief resource of the people of the, 237.

.\njou, l.ieut., his Arctic explorations, 238.
.■Vrchanj^el, foundalicm of, 192.

, New, site of tlie town of, 272.

, fur-trade of, 273.

, medium of exchanpe at, 276.

Areliers, tlic Ostiaks as. 187.
Arctic ret:ioiis, rivers of the, 17.

, limits of the. 18.

, tlie forests of tlie, 18-2.3.

, their treeless wastes, or Tundra, 18.

, in Slimmer and winter, 19.

, tlieir extent and boundaries, 21.

' , animal life in the, 25.

-, intluenee of the sea and winds on the severity

of the winter of the, 27.

, the lowest teniperaturesfeltby man, 27, 28.

, how man becomes accustomed to the rigors of

the winter of the, 28.
, proofs of a former milder climate in the not th-
em re^rioiis of tlie nlobe, 29.

, beauties of Nature in the. 31-33.

, land quadrupeds and birds of the, 34.

, the seas of the, 49.

compared with the Antarctic re(j;ions, 391.

.\rctio voyaflcs of disroverv. 3.S5 ct seff. 737 et. seq

Are Thori^ilsnn. bis leel.indie work.s, 94.

.\rt;ali (^Diit ai-fi'ili) i<( Siberia. 41.

Arrows of the Ostiaks. 187, 188.

.Ascidians on the roasts of (ireenland, 69.

A-.li, the, in the .\rctic rejiions, 24.

.\,sia. treeless 7imr of. 18 22.

Athabascan Indians, buntiiifi-^rrou'ids of the, 327.

AtlassofV, the Cossack, his treatment of the natives

ot Kamchatka, 198.
Atmosphere, transparency of the, in the Polar re-

};ions, .54. 55.
, pheii-.imena of, reflection and refraction, and

their probable cause s. 55.
.\uk, the niiint. ''s rarity at present in Iceland. 8.5.
.Vurora bore, ills. 33.
, splendor of the, in the Arctic regions, 33

m
iiiii

788

INDKX.

Aurora liorfnlh, tprror of llic I^ipps at the, 157.

. . at Nulato, 'JHl.

Austin, ('a)itaiii, liis soarcli for Franklin, 357.

Avalanclit's of jcn in Sjjilzlier^itMi, l.'io.

Awaklok and Myoiik, their imprisunmcnt on an

iccheri,', •-'•.m.
Awatscha Hay, sea-hinls of, '2'>.').
, its niugiiilicence and extent, 2uG.

B.

Baaty Kuan, his sniijection of Itus.sia, 191.

H icIk lor rivpr, the, -ll'j.

IJack (Mr., afterwards Sir George), his Arctic vov-

uKes. :!4(i, .'$■17, 3-19.

, his search for Captain Hoss, ,154.

. his discovery of (Irc-at l•'^^h Kis'er, 355.

■ , voyage in 1835, o,')5.

Back's river, discovery of, 355.

Badarany, desert of swamps, tlip, 2.34.

Baer, Il^rr von, liis scientific journey to Nova

Zenihla, 1.">1.
Baffin, his voyages of discovery, ,143.
Ballin's Bay, prolialile intluonce of the northerly

winds on the depression of the lenincaturo of,

27.
Baffin's Bay, walrn.scs of the coasts of, 04.

, discovery of, "43.

Balleny, liis discoi .ries in the Antarctic ocean, 401.

Islands, discovery of, 4111.

Banks's Land, proofs of a former milder tempera-
ture in, 29.
Bar.'s, or Scahl.s, of Ireland, 94,
I' .. ■,'7., William, visit of, to Spit/.hergcn, 138.

, his voy.-igps o( discovery, :VM).

, his winter in Nova Zemhla, 310.

, his death, .342,

Barley, cultivation of, in Norway, 124,

Barren grounds, harrens, or tuiulri, .\ictic belt of

the, IX,

, causes of thoir liarrrnness, 18,

, their appearance in winter and in slimmer, 19.

, indistinct and irregular houiidarics of the, 21,

, those of Newfoundland, 377.

Barrow Point, traffic of, 3(r2,

Barter I!eef, traffic of, 3(12.

Bear, Idack, muskwa {Crsiis nmericanus), ya\tte of

the fur of the, ;>]5,

, description of him, 315, 318,

. , tirown, of North .Vinerica, 315,

■ , value of the skins of the voung brown bear,

211.
, grizzly, of the Rocky Mountains (^i'rsiia fe-

n).r\ 3].'),

.hi.s. -kin. ,31.5,

, the polar, his mode of hunting, 05, 44fi, 448.

. , his favorite food and mode of seizing it, G5,

447, 4.iO, 4.M.

, anrcdote of one, (i5.

, instances of his sagacity, 05,

, parental care of the she-bear, 05,

, her winter nursery, 05, 00,

' , her internal store of food for her hvhernation,

00,

, immense strength of claws and teeth, 60, 07.

, his unwelcome visits to Iceland, 81,

of Spitzbergpii, 137,

of Nova Zemhla. 149.

, I.Jipp mode of hunting the, 104-106,

• , Ks<iuiniau.\ methods of hunting the, 103.

Bear of Newfonndland, .378.

, abundance of, in Kamchatka, 25R,

, sea-, value of the skins of the, in ('hina,3', •«.

, cliasc of the, in the I'ribilow Islands, 274.

fiiuiilies and battles, 274, 275.

, tlie Austral sea-, .399.

, hunted by dogs, 453.

Bear l.-land, or Cherie Lsland, accoui t of, 143.

, climate of, 144.

. walruses of, 144.

, boat- voyages of Norwegian sailors from, 146.

, di.scovery of, 34(1.

, surveyed by the Kussians, 200,

McaM'jt {t'.tstnr jUiirX its skin the standard of ex>
ch.uigc with the Canadian luilians, 31.3.

, former enormous trade in the fur of the, 317.

of Newfoundland, 378.

Beaver i;idians, their luinting-grnnnds, 327.

Bee, .sand {.\nilrpi\n), of Nova Zenibbi, lij4.

Beecli, Ainarctic {/■'nr/ii' b( /iilaifles), 41(1.

Beechey, Captain, his vovagc to Bering's Straits,
3i(t.

Becrenberg mountain, 140.

Bering, Titus, never passed through the straits hear-
ing his name, 197.

, his s'cond voyage, 201.

, his second voyage of discovery, 248, 249.

, his bad Conduct, 25(..

. his death, 252.

Bering Island. Bering and Steller on, 2,)1.

Sea, descripiion of the, 208.

, liarrcn lands at, 22.

, seals and walruses of, 0.3, 04.

, its climat •, 2(i9.

- — , character of the shores of thr, 270.

, animals of the, 271.

Bering's Straits, view of the Old and New worlds in
the, 271.

, Captain Beechey 's voyage to, 350.

Belcher, Sir Kdward, his search for I'raiiklin, "50.

Bcllinghausen, his discovery of the i>bin(ls I'.uil tlio
First and .Alexander. 401.

BrlU.t, Lieut., his gallant .•search for Fiankliii, 3.59.

, his death and monument. .302.

Beluga, or white dolphin {Oi/ji/iiitus leiicni), de-
scription of the, 01,

, domain of the, 01,

Beluga Bav, visit of Von Baer's party to, 151.

Bonnet, Stephen, his visit to Bear Island, 143, 144.

Beiry-gathcriiig in Nishiie-Kolymsk, 2.')8.

Bilbenies of the Arctic regions, 24.

Billings, vovage of, on the coast of Sil'crla, 201.

Birch, paper, value of the, in No'th .\meiica,30L

Birdi-trees in the Arctic regions, 24,

Birds, flights of wild, in sumnitr months, in the
Tundra, 19.

, their migrations to and from hi.h latitude*,

43, 41, 07.

, the polar singing-bird, the snow-lninting, 43,

, raptorial, of the Arctic regions, 43.

, enormous numbers of, along th' Arctic ghorce,

07.

, Icelandic, 81,

of the coast of Norway, 124.

of Spitzhergen, 1.33, 134, 137.

of Nova Zrmbla, 1.54.

, a bird bazar, 154.

.— , abunilanco of sea-fowl on the coast of Kam«
chatlia, 255

, F.siiuimaux mode of hird-ca'ching, 29.5.

, abundance of, on the coast of Greenland, 388.

i?

INDEX.

f89

IJirda of the coasts of the Antarctic sea. 39 1.

of Piitui;i>iiia, tli).

liirkarls. tlieir tiiiui siilijuiratinn of the Liipps, ITiO.
IJU IOC, his (liscnviTy of Eiiderlv l^aiid, and of (jia-

haiii Land, 101.
1!I uk diMth, ravages of tlie, in tlip Xorili, .'i8.1.
Llackfcet [iKliaii.s, iheir wars witli tlie limiu and

C'rei's. :Ui), 3:i0.
lllooily Falls, on tin; ('o|i|iprniine river, 2114.
lioats of the llsiiuiinaux, L"j;l.

, thu liirch-ljaik cMiioes . f North Americ i, 301.

IJo^liorrics of the Arctic ret^ions, 21.
liootli, Sir F(dlx, his .\rctic cx| cdiiion, 251.
llouj^:uuville, his voyaj^e through tlie .Strait of Ma- j

t;ellan, -i^i.
Brandt, the Danish forester, liis journcv witli Von |

Middondorff, 220. " I

Uraiidy, fondness of the Sanio'icdes for, 171-173. |

drnnk at Kolymsk, 2;)K.

Urant Ysl)rant/.0"n, liis voyafjes of discovery, 339. |
HrcMd of the poor Icclandiis, 79. i

llri'd.il, Kric, his education of Lapps in Christianity,

ISO.
Urid;;ca, swi i}?, of Iceland, 111.
Uiownc, T. Itoss, 74, 9.'), lul, 11,').
IJiK'han, ('aptc'in, iiis .Arctic voyafre, 344.
IJinitiiifr, its nilj,rati(ins to and from the north, 43.
— — , the LajdaiHi (J'eutrojih'ini-s I.dpjionicu.^), lati-
tudes iiihaliited by the, 43, 44.
IhmtinLC, the snow, the polar .sin^in^-Lird, 44.
Uuntiufr. its nest and loud, 44,

of Iceland, 81.

of Si)ilzl)erL^en, 1^7.

IJurj^lars, trealnient of, in Russia
liurrounh, Stephen, his voyage

north-eastern passage, 33(!.
Busa, Jelissei, his ascent of tlic rivers Lena and

Oleknia, 19,').

, his discovery of the Tana, 19."i.

, , liis re-idence anu)ng the JnUahirs, 195.

Butter made fr.im the reindier milk, 3(!.

Butterllies in Taijnurlind, 227.

Byron, Commodore, his voyage through the S;rait

of Magellan, 414.

c.

20G.

to discover the

Cabot, John and Sehastian, their re-discovery of j
parts of North America. 33,}.

, ihiir re-ilis(overy of Newfonndlaiul, 379. ,

Canada, enterprise of tlie French suttlers in, 3%. ■

, , results of the luigllsh conquest of, 30t). ,

, history of the fur-trad' of, 307. 1

Cano, Sebastian el, hi« voyage round theglohe. 413.

Canoes, birch-bark, of North America, 3 '4, 305. [

Cape, North, <lescription of the, 129, 130. I

Caribou, or reindeer of >«orth America, range of
the, 3i!.

Carrancha, the, of Patagonia, 419, 420.

Cartier, Jac(piis, his voyages, .335.

Caryophylhe, the, of the treeless zone, 21.

Cascades of Ic land, 78.

Castor and Pollux river, discovery of, 35t).

Caslri'ii, Matthias .Meximder, account of him and
of his journeys, 1(')8-17S.

Catherine's Foreland, (ineen, 409.

Cattle, value of, to the Icelauds, 80.

Cavendish, his voy.igcs, 414.

Chancellor, his discovery of the passagj from Eng-
land to the White Sea, 192.

Chancellor, his voyage to discover the nortli-eastern
lonte to China. 33(i.

. his visit to Moscow, and subsequent fate, 33t''.

Charles |,\., King of Sweden, his kindness to tha
L:lpps, l.jli.

Cliataiig.i river, scanty population of the, 220.

, Midilendiirtfs journey to the, 220. 221.

Chatangsk, Middi-ndortrs journey to, 221.

Cheese made from reindeer milk, 3(j.

Cherie Island, account of, 114.

Chess-players of the Tungusi, 24G.

Chiekweed, the. on the Mary Minturn river, 20.

('Iiimengo, the, of Patagonia, 419.

China, Castren's journey over the mountains into,
177.

Chinese take the Russian fort of Alhasin, 195 ; and
make the treaty of Nertschinsk with tliu Rus-
sians, VM.

, the treaty broken l)y the Russians, who com-
pel the Chinese to give tliem the Amoor, 19(5.

Chinga {Mep/iiti.i ckiiii/n), its fu'tid secretion, 310.

(Jhiislian IV'^., King of Denmark, his troatuient of
the Lapp priests and sorcerers, 15(>.

, his expedition to Greenland, ,'i83.

('hri>tianity, introduction of, into Iceland, 92.

(!hurclies of the Icelanders, 104.

('layering, his voyage to (Jreenland, ,380.

ClerL'v of the Lapps, their poverty and self-denial,
1,57".

, their sermon', ],')7.

, those of Iceland all blacksmiths, 101, note, 106,

, their poverty, lOG.

Coal, does not exist in Iceland, 88.

of Spit/.liergen, 137.

in Coal Bay, 145.

C .al Hay, 145.

Cochlearia fenestrata, the only esculent plant in
Spitzbergen, 13(i, 142.

Cod and cod-lishing of tlic coast of Icehuul, 80, 87.

, the, c, ".led stockfish, 87.

, the cod-tishery of Nonvay, 125-130.

, wretched slate of the ti-hermen, 127.

, exports of, to various countries, 129.

, co(i-lishery of Grtcidand, 388.

, value of the cod-tishery of Newfc luland

,379, ,380.

, mode of fishing and curing the cod, 380.

, dangers of the lishery. 3«1.

, immense numbers of, 381.

Cod-liver oil of 'Iromsci, 128.

Collinson, Captain, his search for Franklin, 359,
3tll.

Commodore Islands, chase of the sea-bear ou the,
274.

Condor, the, of Patagonia. 420.

Conifera', Arctic forests almo-t confined to the, 24.

, di(t(;rence between the Kuropean and Asiatic

and .\merican species, 24.

Constitution, Cape, discovery of, 309.

Cook, his attempt to discover the northwest pas-
sage, 344.

Cook, Captain, his discovery of South Georgia, 393.

, his Antarctic voyatres. 401.

Copper mines n' ar Drontheim, 124.

of Al en. 12X.

of liaipas-:, l-_>s.

Coppnrmine river, Dr. Richardson's voyage to the,
319.

Cornelius Ryp, his voyages of discovery, 340, 341.

Cornelius Corneliszpop, his voyages of discovery,
339.

Wi

790

INDEX.

CorniciilarlBB, carpets of, and the treeless zone, 21.
Cortereal, liis vnyani'.i of discovery, ItiS.
Cossacks, Don, their depredations, 192.

, tlieir conquest of .Silieria for the Czar, 10.?.

, their priviloj;es and duties in Ni>hnc-Ko-

lynisk, 2'M>.
Conreiir des hois, the, of North America, 304.
f'rard)erri( R of the A'clie ret;ions, 'Jl.
Cree Indians, uses of the papcr-hirch-trce to the,

305.

, mnge of tlie various trihes of, 319.

, their conquests of the Tinne, but subsequent

defeat, 319, 3-,;0.

. their wars with the Bhickfcet, 320, 321

, tlieir cliaracter, 321.

tlicir customs, habits, and dross, 321, 322,

323.

their wives and families, 323,
their cradles, 323.
-, their wifiWiinis, or tents, 324.

f

, their nicdicinc-men and vapor-baths, 324.

, their tianies and sports, 324, .'iS").

, their wooden figures for worship, 325.

, their malicious or capricious spirit, called

Kcpoochican. 325.
, their notion of the Great Spirit and of the

Delude, .325.

, their Tartarus and Elvsium, .325.

, prospects of Christianity innon^st them, 326.

Cross, the game of, of the Cree Indiins, 325.
Crowe, Mr., his copper mines at Altcn, 128.
Crozier, Captain, his last voyage, 356.

, the last heard of him, 364.

, his Antarctic voyages, 402.

Crucifenc, the, of the treeless zone, 20.
Crustaceans, immense numbers of, on the coast of

Greenland, 59.
Cumberland Strait, Davis's discovery of, .3,37, 338.
Currents, magnificent system of, and their eflects

on the uccuraulation of ice, 56, 57.

D.

Dances of the Tchuktchi, 266.

Darwin, Mr., his ascent of .Mount Tarn, 411.

Davis, John, his voyages to discover an Arctic pas-

sag(^ to India, 337.

, his visit to I.alirador, 33S.

, his subsequent life, ,338.

Davis's .Straits, probable influence of the northerly

winds on the depression of the temperature of,

27.

, Sebastian Cabot's discovery of. 3"5.

Dead, roverencpaid to the, liy the Samoiedes, 181.
Deasc, Peter Warren, his l.ind Arctic expedition,

355.
Death, black, its ravages in I'-^land, 95.
Deception Island, account o'', 3'.3.
Deer, red {Cirrus elcp/ias), its habitat and uses to

man. 40.
Deer of Vogelsang and Trcurenberg Bay, 137.
Deluge, Cree legend of the, .325.
DemidofT, fnundation of the family of, 219.

, th'ir enormous wealth, 219.

Deschnew, Semen, his the first and last voyage

throiiixli liering's Strait, 197.
Desolation, South, 412.
Dl .i-t'oss, an Icelandic cascade, Mr. Gould's dc-

.sciiption of the, 78.
Disco bay, icebergs formed in, 49.

Divers, their migrations to and from the north, 42.
Dog-rib Indians, huniing-gionnds of ihe, :;27.

, their character, dress, and customs, 327,329,

, tlieir want of hospitality, 32'.l.

, tlieir hoiiestv, 329.

, their notions o."" a future life, 329.

Dog, the reindeer of the Lapps, 161,

, WrungeU's dog-sledges on the Polar sea,

239.

, Icelandic, 80.

, the, of the people of Kolymsk, 230,

, the Kumchatkan, and dog-sledges, 258j 259.

, their mode of foretelling storms, 259.

, mode of training sleilge-dogs, 2.'i9.

, trained bv Esqiiimau.x to attack the bear,

297.

, description of the, and dog-sledges of the F.s-

imanx, 299.

qii, Dr. Kane's Newfoundland and Esquimaux,

307.

, epidemic amongst the EsquimaMx, 372.

Dolgorouky, Prince, his exile to Siberia, 205.
Dolphin, white, or beluga, ol Nova Zumbla, 155.

, Greenland fishery of tlie, ,"H7.

Dolphins of the Polar seas, 61, 398.

, the beluga, or white dolphin, 61.

, the I. lack dolphin, " ca'ing " whale, or grind,

61,

, the ore, or grampus, 62.

■ of Spit/.bergen, 137.

Drake, .Sir Francis, his vovage throirgh the Strait

of Magellan, 414.
Drifanda Koss, an Icelandic cascade, 114.
Droiitlicim, the red deer near, 40.

, dtsciiption of, 121.

Ducks, wild, of the Aftic regions, 19.

, their migiations to and from the north, 42.

of Iceland, 81, 84.

Dndinka, Castn n's visit to, 176.

Dungeness, Point, 409.

Durfoorth, his voyage and death, 336.

D'Crville, Duniont, his discoveries in the ,\ntarctio

ocean, 402.
Dutch, their expeditions to discover an Arctic pas-
sage to India, 339.

E,

Eagi.e, the sea- (//alicctua albicilla), of the north,

44,

, his food, 44,

, white-tailed, of Iceland, 85.

, value of the skins of the, 85.

, the, on the coast of Norway, 125,

, in the Tundra in summer. 19.

Ebicrbing, 441, 466, 773, 774, 758-761,

F.gede, Hans, his voyage to Greenland, 384,

Ki;g-vare of lh(! coast of Norway, 124.

Egil^on, Olaf, the Wcstnian clergyman, his slavery

in Algiers, 118.
Eider-duck, its migrations to and from the north,

43,

of Iceland, 81.

, breeding of, 83.

, Mr. Shepherd's visit to one of its head-quar-
ters, 83.

Elder, the, in the Arctic regions, 24.

F.lephant, sea-, of the Antarctic ocean, 399.

Elk, or moose deer, of the forests of tlie north, 3&

, CiBsar's account of if, 39.

, its food and prasent habitat, 40.

1^

INDEX.

791

Elk, its mode of defending itself, 40.

Eiiara, Lake of, tlio Fislier Lapps of, 168.

. , description of tlie, IGO.

Enderby Lund, discovery of, 401.

Ennliali pirates, ravanes of, in Iceland, 9.5.

Erelpus, monnt, eruption of, 103.

r.ric the lied, his visit to Greenland, 382.

Ennino {^Mustda ermiiiea) beauty and importance
of the fur of the, '210.

. , thos-- of llio Hudson's Bay Territory, 310.

Esk, volcano, 110.

Esquiinau.x(see aUo Innuits), their wide extension,
21)0.

. , tlieir own name of Innuit, 2!I0.

, character of the rcfjtions they inhabit, 290.

. , their physical character, liabits, and man-
ners, 290, 291.

. women, 2!ll.

, their dress and snow-huts, 291. 292.

■ , tlieir l)oat, the kayak or baidar, 293.

-, their weapons, and fiabin^ and hunting; im-

plements 293, 294.
-, enmity between them and the Red Indians,

294.

their chase of the reindeer, and bird-catching,

295.

, tlieir whale and seal hunts, 295. 290.

, their ''keep kuttuk," 290.

, their bear ami walrus hunts, 296, 298,

• , tl|eir dosrs and dog-sidles, 299.

, their games and sports, 300.

, constitution of their society, 300.

, their angekoks, or priests, 300, .301.

. their moral character, self-reliance, and in-

telliijenco, 301, 302.
■ , thi'ir maps, and predilection for commercial

pursuits, .302.
• , their voracity, and seasons of abundancn and

distress, 302, 30,'i.

, their depot--, of food. ,302, 303.

• , their war.' with the Kutchin Indians, .3.3,3.

• , th 'ir attock of Franklin's boats, 349.

, their hunting expeditions with Dr. Kane's

party. 370.

• , their ravages on the Greenland coast, 383.

Europe, treeless /.one of, 18-24.

Evil Spirit of the woods of the Laplanders, 157.

E.\ili.s, Siberian, 204, 205.

, annual number of, 200.

Eyjalialla, eruption of, in 1821, 96.
Eystein, King, his benevolence, 126.

F.

Fakrof. Islands, chase of the black dolphin, or
"ca'ing" whale, in the, 01.

Falkland Islands, climate of, ,394.

Famine, Port, rich vegetation of. 410, 414,

Festuca of the .fistic regions, 20.

Finback whales of Spitzliergen, 137.

Finches in the Tundra in summer, 19.

Finmark, trade and fisheries of the coast of, 129.

Finnur Johnson, the Icelander, his " Ecclesiastical
History of Iceland," 98.

Fir, different species of, in Europe, Asia, and Amer-
ica, 24.

Fish, and fishing season of Iceland, 86.

, abundance of, in Kamchatka, 2o5l

of Newfoundland, 379.

of Ureenland, 387.

Fish river. Great, Back's discovery of, 350.

Kisbor Lapps, account of the, 160.

Fiskernasset, eod-lishery of, 388.

Fitzroy, Ciptain, his surveys of Patagonia and

Tierra del Fuego, 415.
Fj.iU Lappars, or Mountain Lapps, account of the,

159.
Flatey, cider-ducks of, 81, 8i.
Flat-iish, abundance of, on the coasts of Iceland, 87.
FloUi, the Vikin.g, his visit to Iceland, 90.
Flora of Spiizbergen, 136.
Flowers of the Arctic regions, 20.

of the island of St. Lawrence, 27L

j of Taimurland, 226.

of Unalaschka, 209.

Fogs of the Arctic seas in Bumme', 54.

j near the island of St. Lawrence, 270.

j — ~- off Newfoundland, 380.

! Food, amount of, required by man in the Arctip Km

gions, 28.
Forest regions, Arctic, 18.

, extent of the, 22.

, character of the trees of the, 24.

, distinctive character of the forests, 25.

, characters of the Arctic forests of the Miocene

period, 28, 29.

, legions of gnats in the, 25.

, changes being effected by the agency of man,

25.
Forests, the, head-quarters of many of the Arctic

fauna, 41.
', more in than abovethts earth inNovaZembIa,

153.

of Newfoundland, 376.

For^'ct-me-not found in Nova Zcmbla, 153.

Forstcr, Captain, his expedition to the Antarctic
sea, 393.

Fossils, jVrctic, in New Siberia, 203.

Fouike, Port, Dr. Hayes's winter at, 372.

Fox, tlie Arctic {Canis Ingopus), its mode of protect-
ing itself from the ttiost intense cold, 42.

Fox, the Arctic, its food and enemies, 42.

of Spitzbcrgen, 137.

in Nova Zembla, 154.

found in Taimurland, 227.

of Newfoundland 378.

, black, of Siberia, value of the fur of the, 211.

, the Brazilian (6'a»M /Izarre), of Patageuio,

419.

, red (^Vulpes fulvus), the, 211, 317.

, value of the fur of the, 317.

Fox Islands, discovery of the, 201.

France, ri.ght of the people of, to fish on the banks
of No .vfuundland, .379.

Franklin, Lieut, (afterwards Sir John), his fir-st
Arctic voyage, 344.

, his first land journey, .346.

. his second land journey to the shores of the

Polar sea, .349.

, loss of his first wife, 3.50.

, his last voyage, .35(5.

, searching expeditions sent for him, 3,56.

, his fate and that of his companions, 362-364.

Franklin Island, discovery of, 403.

Fraser river, voy.ige of Mackenzie down the, 308.

Frederick II., King of Denmark, his expedition to
Greenland, 383.

Frederick IV., his foundation of the Finmark mis-
sion, 156.

Friedrich, the Saxon bishop, introduces phrjstiani*
ty into Iceland, 92,

^1'

i1

^^!

r92

INDEX.

Fritillnria Sarrann, uscil ns food in Knmdiatka, 2J8.
Froliislicr, Martin, liis cnilcavori to ilistovtr uii

Arctic |)a.s»anc to Inilia, ;).'!".

, (li.sci)von' of lilies of, KKi,

, Ills nulis(:<|iii'nt career, ,'U7.

Froward, ("ape, scenery of, 111).
Frozen sailor, -liil.
Fruits of tliu Arctic rejjions, 21.
Fiie(;o, Tierra del, clinialc of, ',)'.)X

, origin of the name, ll.'!.

, ('ui)lain I'itzroy's survey of. 111).

, account of I lie Fiietfians, Vl't.

• , degradation of the Fuc^ians, I'J."), •120.

, their powers as iidnucs, I'-'O.

, their notions of trade, 127.

, cau'ics of their low state of civilization, 427,

, their food, r.>«.

, their dregs, lints, arms, and ornaments, 428,

42!t.

, their cannibalism, 4,30,

, their lancnaKc, 4.'iO.

, Captain Fitzroy's three Fuegiang, 430, 431.

, missionary labors, Lfl.

, Captain Gardiner, 4I!1.

Fuel, kinds of, used in Ic(daiid, 89.

Fur, account of the Kussian Fur Company, and its

operations, 272.
• , account of the fur-trade of the Hudson's Bay

Company, .'!04 it fCfj.

, trade in, at the fair of Obdorsk, 189.

of Sdieria, 208.

, importance of the trade in, 212.

of the Tchuktchi, 204.

GAnRiFi, Chaxnei., williwaws of, 412.

(iadllies which attack the reimleer, 38.

<;alictis vittata, the, of Patagonia, 418.

(tanil)linf; of the Cree Iniliaiis, 324.

Gardar, the northern pirate, his the first circum-
navifiation of Iceland, 90.

Gardur's Holm, or Gadur's Island, Iceland so called,
!t0.

Gardiner, Captain, his mission to Fucgia, and mel-
ancholy end. 431.

Gawrilow. produce of the gold mine of, 218.

Geese, wild, of the Arctic regions, II).

-, snow, their migrations to and from the north,

43.

of Iceknd. 81.

"George Henry," the ship. 436.

Gcorite, St., climate of the island of, 270.

, .sea-lions ami f;uilleniots of, 271.

(leorfjia. South, discovery of, .393.

Germany, the elk or moose-deer of, in the time of
Cii'sar", 31).

Geysir, the Great, description of the, 71.

Gheritz, Dirck, his discovery of the New Shetland
Islands, 3<)2.

Gilbert, .Sir Humphrey, takes possession of New-
foundland, 379.

Ginkloti, or children's disease, in the Westman
Islands, 118.

Gissiir, his wo '' on his voya};es to the East, 94.

, the Icelander, his learning andtru' ols, 98.

Gjas, or chains, in Iceland, 7(i, 77.

Glacier, the great, in the Gulf of Penas, .394.

Glaciers, enormous dimensions of the, of the polar
regions, 50.

(iliiciers of Magdulcna Bay, 136 j ico cllfTs and ava-
lanches of, i;i.'>.

of the liei rcnberg moiintain, 1 lO.

Glott(j|f, Stcphiii, his discovery of Kadiali, 202.

(ilovi's, reindeer, of Tornea, 37.

liliitt<iii, or Wolverine, strength and fierceness of
the, 37.

Glutton, its attack of the ri'indrer, 37, 38.

, its voracity, 38.

, found in 'I'aimurlaiid. 227.

, those of North America, 3in.

, value and Uses of the fur of the, 310,

Gnats, legions of, in the forests and swamps, 2fi.

(ioda-foss. the, an Icelandic cascade, 78.

Gold diggings of Ivisti .i Siberia, 2(18.

, description of th,- gold-lii Ids, -Hi,

Gomez, his voyages of iliscov( ry, 33.5.

Goose, bean (A user srr/i-lunt), of Nova Zenibla. Vi'>.

Goose, Urcnt, its migrations to and from the norili,
43.

• , its rapid llight, 43.

Graali, Captain, liis explorations of the coast of
Gicenland, 3k0.

Graham Land, discovery of 401.

Grampus, or ore (^/h/j>liintis orcu), description of
the. 02.

■ , his fcrocitv and mode of ploughing the seas,

62.

• of Nova Zcmlda, I.').").

of the Antarctic Oc.aii, 3|18,

, conllict of one witli a wlialo, 398.

Grasses, tiifteil, of tlie Arctic regions, 20.

of the treeless zone, 21.

, paramount importaiic-' of the grasses in Ici;-

land, 79.

of Taimurland, 226.

Greenland, vast ice-lields of, 27.

, proofs of a former milder climate in, 20.

, enorinoiis diinensiuns of the glaciers of, ,')0.

, the, whale, 00.

, transparency of the water on the coast of. ii'.).

, abundance of animal life in the seas of, 00.

, walrn.ses of the coasts of the north of. (!4.

, Kan(\'s sledge journey along the coast of, 307.

, unknown extent of, 382.

- — , ancient Scandinavian colonists of, 382.

, the name of, given to it, 382.

, introduction of Christianity in, 382.

, dicline and fall of the country, ,383.

, sulisc(]nent explorations of, 3K3.

, Hans F.gede, the pastor, his voyage to, 384.

, foundation of Godlhaal> in, 384.

, arrival of Ilirrenlmth mi sionaries in, 384.

, explorations of the coast of, 38:").

, present Danish settlements of, 386.

, scanty population of ,380.

, modeof life of the people of, 386, 387, 389.

, fisheiies of, ,388.

, poorness of the land in, .388.

, ((uantities of drift-wood at, 388.

, minerals of, 389.

, Christianity in, 389.

, climate, mountains, and fjords of, 389.

, ice-caves of the coast of, 390.

, the capital of, 437.

Greenlanders, their discovery of, and colonies in
America, 3,3.j.

, destruction of their colonies, 335.

, their habits, 437.

(ireilVi-nfeld, his imprisonment in Munkholin, 124.
Grinds. >See Dolphins, black.

it

I

INDEX.

793

H

GriiintU Lntul, vr^olatinn of, 20.

, Dr. Iliivt'sV discovi'iirs in, 372 371.

riuanuc'o, the, of I'litiinoriia. •ll!t.

(iiiaiio, circiinistiuiccs which tiivor the deposit of,

■IIM.
Oiiillcinot, oil the Priliilow Ishiinl*. 271.
(iiiir Stri'iiiii, ImIIik'iicl' of, on thi! smith nnd west

coiists of Iccliiiiil, 71) ; and on thu climate of

Norway, 121.
Ciull, l!o>s's, distance nortli at wliich it has been

soon, <')7.
(lull, Ivory, in Taininrland, 227.
Ciiislaviis (., Kinj; of Sweden, liis l«itid treatment

of tlie Lapps, l.'ili.
Gnstavns Adolplius, his foinidation of a school for

the Lapps, IDO.

H.

Haddocks, abundance of, on tlio coast of Iceland,

H7.
llalfon, King of Norway, his annexation of Iceland,

Hall, Charles Fr.iiicl9, his llrst Arctic expedition, 433
et aeij. His last expedition and death, 737 et aeq.

, .lames, liin voyage to Crepiilaiul, 3H3.

Hammerfost, description of the town of, 129.

, trallic of, 12i).

, tlie peofile of, 120.

, cargoes of walruses and seals brought from

Spitzliernen, 1 13.

Hare, the fur of tlie, of Siberia, 212.

, ice {I.epu/i iihiciwis'), 317.

found in Taimurlaiid, 227.

Hare Indians, lnintliii.'-grounds of the, 327.

, their women, 328.

Harold Ilaafager, or the Fair-haired, his establish-
ment of an absolute monarcliy in Norway, DO.

, exodus caused by liis tyranny, 91.

Harp-seal of the Polar spas, (>2.

Hatlierton, Cape, discovery of, 30,5.

Haven, Lieut, de, his search for Franklin, 357, 358.

Hawks in the Tundra, in summer, 19.

Hayes, Dr., his sledge journey over Kennedy Chan-
nel, 3()«.

, liis Arctic voyage in ISfiO, .372-374.

, his opinion as to what may be done in the

Arctic regions, .371.

Hccla, erii|)tioiis of, since the colonization of Ice-
land, 9.') -97.

" Hecla" and "Fury" Straits, discovery of, 318.

Heemskeik, his voyages of discovery, 310.

Heineson, Mogens, the ''sea-cock," his voyage to-
wards Ureenland. 383.

Hepburn, John, the sailor, his overland journey,
31(i.

Herald Island, discovery of, 3G0.

Heimaey, or Home Island, description of, llfi.

Herring, the fishery of ihe coast of Norway, 125.

, food for the rorqual, or tin-whales, (>1.

, abundance of the, on the coasts of Iceland,

87.

Hesporis, the, on the Mary Alinturn river, 20.

Hildringen, agriculture of, 121.

Hcl)son, Lieut., his searcii for Franklin, 302, 3C4.

Holme, the, of Norway, 124.

Hood, Kobert, his ,\rctic journey, 34G.

■ , murdered, 347.

Horn, Cape, discovery of the passage round, 414.

Horse, the, in Iceland, 80.

of the Jakuts, 230-232.

Hrafnagja, 75.

Hudson, Henry, visit of, to Spitzbergen, IPS.

, liis tlie (irst attempt to sail across the North

Pole, 342.

, bis subsequent voyages and discoveries, 342.

, his melancholy end, 343.

Hudson's Hay, barren lands of, 22.

, characters (if the Conifera' of, 24.

, walruses of the coasts of, 01.

, discovery of 312.

Hudson's Hay Company, account of the fur-trado

of the, 3(ll!
— , the old coureur des bois and the tnodern vot-

ageur of, 3u4, 3().j.

, history of the, "07.

, formation of a rival company, and subsequent

ainalgamution of the two, ;i07 :ilO.
- — -, palmy days of the. 310.

, its reconstruction in 1M03, 310.

- — -, its trading-posts, and their management, 310,

311.

, its efforts to civilize the native tribes, 312.

, the standard of exchange, the beaver-skin,

313.

, extent of the fur-trade of 313.

, account of the fur-bearing animals of the

Territory, 313, :')14.
Hudson river, discovery of the. .342.
Hudson's Straits, Sebastian Cabot's discovery of,

3,".5.
'iliiinboldt Glacier, the Great, 50.

, Kane's description of the, 307.

Humming-bird on the peninsula of Aliaska, 269.

in Xewfouiidlund. 378.

of Patagonia, 420.

Huts of the Ksquimaux, 293.

of the Icelanders, 102.

Hval.i, i.sland of, 129.

II vita river, in Iceland, 78.

I.

IcR, vast fields of in the plateaus of Spitzbergen,

Greenland, and Nova Zcmbla, 27.

, floating masses of, in the Polar seas, 45.

, enormous extent of the Polar glaciers, 49, 50,

, causes which prevent tlie accumulation of

Polar ice, 55, 50.

, a liad conductor of heat, 57.

, ice-lields of Iceland, 09.

, glaciers, ice-clifl's, and avalanches of Spitz-
bergen, 135, 130.
, impodiments offered by the hummocks to

travellers oi the Polar sea, 210.

, icebergs of the Antarctic sea, 392.

, ice-caves of Greenland, .3911.

, the great ice-barripr of the Antarctic Ocean,

403.

. imck-icc of the Antarctic Ocean, 404, 405.

Icebergs, 40,

, forms and size of, 48.

, origin of 48.

, localities in which nio.'^t of the icebergs of the

North Atlantic are formed, 49.
, Dr. Ilaves's description of, in a midnight sun,

50.

, how distinguished at night and in fogs, 52.

, dangers of collisions with, 52.

, protection to ships afforded by, 53.

, dangers of anchoring to, 53.

if

I

794

INDEX.

K'clwrK", "chIvImk" of, 54.

, cniiiililiiiu of, T)!.

Ii'o-liliiik, (li'scri|pti(Mi of tlio plienomcnon of, 04.

. it-i ailviuituiii'8 to the Arctic imvigator, 64.

Irc-fii'liN, It;.

, liiiiiiiiux'ks on, 40,

, idllUiim (if, IH.

, iIiiiii;i'iH (.'iiiisctl liy, to ships, 48.

Ic '-({nilto of Siirts-licllir, 77.

Icrlund, volciiiiic orijtin (if, (ifi.

, thu t'oiiiitry ill HiiitiTiiiul in sinntner, 08, 79.

, stcrili! portions of llio ishind, OU.

, iiH Iniin iisi! ici'-liclds, (i'J.

— — , its java-stieanix, (il(, 77.

, thr binninii nioiintaiiis of Krisuvil<, C9.

■ — — , llie nind-ciiidrons and liot springs, 70,

, tlie (ire. it (icysir, 71.

, tli(! .Siroltkr, 7'.'.

, crystal pooli, 7.1.

, tlio AlinaMiia;.'j.i, 7.1, 74.

, til ' Suits lirllir, or caves of Siirtur, 77.

-, rivers and cascades of, 78.

, iiilhieiieo of thu ocean currents on the cli-
mate, 7H.

, mean annual tempcrnturo, 79.

• — — , absence of trees in, 7!).

, venetaiion and comlition of nfrriculture, 79.

, in<liiienons land (luadrupeds, HO.

, catlli! of the Ic.landers, 8J.

, lievcrafxe-', HO.

— , mo le of shearing sheep, 80.

, characteristics and number of horses, 80.

- — — , the reindeer, 80. 81.

, th- p lar liear. «l.

— — , the ciiler-dnck, 81, 88.

■ , the fi'\M\t auk, 8,>, 8().

, Icilandic lish and (i>hin£f season, 86, 87.

— - — -, hospitality of the people, 87.

, minerals of the country, 88.

, fuel used by the Icelanders, 88.

, history of, 8!t.

. . NachUjdr's discovery of the Ice Land, 89;

which he naim d Snowland, 0 •.

, circnmnavit.'atfd by the pirate Gadar, and

called liy him (iardar's holm, SH).

• , visited by the vikiiit; Fluki, and called by

him Iceland, '.10.

, foundation of Kcvkjavik bv Ingolfr and Leit',

90.

• , exodus from Norway to, 91.

, introduction of tlie ><orwei;ian language and

customs, !•!.

■ — -, code of laws of I'flliot the Wise. 91.

, the ancient Althint,' at Tliinjjvalla. 91. 0'2.

, in;roduetion of Christianitv into the island,

9-2.

— — , the f;oIden nge of Icelandic literature, 04.

— — -, history of, annexation of the island to Nor-
way, 'Jo.

, its subsequent misfortunes, 95.

, volcanic ernpti<ius, 9.').

, iniseiv caused by the curse of monopoly, 97.

, hope for the future of the islanders, 97.

-, account of the Icelanders of the present dav,

98.

, Skalkott, the former capital of the island, 98.

— — . the present capital. Reykjavik, 100.

■, state of tra<le in, lOH.

, the merchant and the peasant, 101.

, temperate haliits of the people, 101.

, condition r.f agriculture, loi.

Iccli nd, a harvest homo. lo2.

, winter life, 10-.>, l(i8, ]0!),

, hilts of the Icilanders, lii2, 103.

, churches, 101.

, <h' h'ymcn all black.'mlths, 101; note, 106j

tluir poverty, lOii lux.

, the Ici land poet, .lolin Thorlakson, 107.

, education of llie (dir^jy and childien. 108, 109.

, industry and thirst It r knowledge of the peo-
ple, lol) ; their laiuiiage. 111').

, the library of Heykjavik, 109.

, the Icelandic I.iti'rury Soi'iety, 110,

, Icelandic newspapers. 110.

, health of the p.oplc, 110.

, dilliculi ies and expense of travcllint?, 110-113.

nioss, eaten and exported by the Icelanders,

79.

moss, food for the deer of Spitzbergen, 137.

, in the treeless zone. 21.

Idols of I he Sainoedes, 180.

iKh'olik, island of, MH.

lli).diiik. thu l'.s(piiinaux, her intelligence and pas-
sion for music, 1118.

Indians, lied, I heir enmity with the E?quininux. '294.

-, their decimation by sinuUpox and drunken-

noss, :108.

, eO'orls of the Hudson's Bay Company to civ-
ilize them, ;!1'2, .1i:i.

, the beaver skin their standard of exchange

with the Conipaiiy, ,1l:t.

Inj;lelielil, Captnin. his se.irch for Franklin, 359.

, his (liseoverit s. .105.

Ingolfr, the Norwegian >arl, his visit to Iceland,
au'l foundation of Heykjavik, 90.

Inniiits, the. .vee alsn Ksquimiiux, 433, 467.

, their cliaracter, 4;i9, 461.

, amusement of, 4 10.

■ , their dwellings, 44.1,457, 462.

, distress in winter. 444.

, seal, feasts of, 445.

, mode of captnrinf; seals, 446, 448, 452.

, their doj^s, 445, 450, 4.54.

, their opinion of the bear, 451.

, modi' of hunting tlie walrus, 454.

, their implements, 456.

, mode of constructing an igloo, 457.

, thiir use of the reindeer, 458.

, their clothinir, 400.

, reindeer feasts, 4.59.

, fond and mode of eating, 4G0.

, their religious ideas, 4G0.

, treatment of the sick, 461.

, gradual extinction, 462.

Insects of Taimurland, 227.

Iri-h colonists on the Westman Islands, 115.

Irkutsk, extreme cold of. 208.

, Wrangell's visit to. 213.

, summer flowers of, 21.1.

Iron mines near Drontheim. 124.

Isabella, Cape, discovery of, 1(15.

Ishem«k, f'astren's visit to, 174.

. the Isprawnik of. and his wife. 174. 170.

Islands within the -Vrctic Circle, barren grounds of
the. 18.

Isleif, the oldest chronicler of the North, 98.

Is.saki)w. of Ki in, rounds the north-eascern extrem-
ity of Nova Zemlila, 150.

It.ilincnes, cruelty of their conquerors, the Rus-
sians, lO.'^.

Ivan Wasiljewitfch I., first Czar of Russia, his de-
feat of th« Tartars, 191,

INDEX.

795

106;

, 10f».
) |iuu>

-113.

W"

idcig,

17.

1

I pa».

p

.204..

^

) clv-

innge

^

9.

1

land,

1

is of

rem-
r.us.
i de-

Ivnn Wu'iiljowltsch I., iiibdues the Great Novtja-

rod, IIU.
, lu'Cdiiics linnd iif tlie (ircck orthodox Church

mid Ihc first i'/.iir. 1!)'.'.

. ('liuMi'cll<ir'i vi»it tn him at Moscow, .1.10.

Ivan Wiihilj'wiiMcli II., lii.H ('(inqiiost of Kanaii, 102.

, liH Biinmino of th.' Tcnilili', I'.i'J.

Ivory, foMijI, in tlie isimids ol Sew Niliprin, 202.
IwhIo riviT, ill Lu|iluiid, Custioii's journey on the,

Itii),

J.

J,\Kowi,r,\v family, 210.

, tlu'ir I'lioiiiiiiu.i weaitli in f!old mines, 219,

Juluiis, tlie, cualinned liy tlie Czur in tlieir pussc8<
Hionc, mo.

, llifir sniires and traps, 213.

, tlicir energy and ciiniiiiij;, 228.

, their lanniiaL'e, origin, cliaruutor, and person-
al appearaiiL'e, 2-'M.

, tlieir iuminer and winter liutd, 220.

,, th'ir liiirsif, 2;!(t.

, tlicir powers of endurance and sharpness of

vision, 2:U).

, tlicir manufactures and articles of dross, 231.

, tlicir ;:lutttpiiy, 2:11.

, tlio universal carriers to the cast of the Lena,

231.

, their suporstitions, 232.

, tlicir ofVcritijjs of luirsclmir to the spirit of the

iiioniilnin.s, 232.

. their sonc.s, 232.

. wretilied inndiiion of the rivrr, 2.')2.

Jaknt-ik, mean temperature of, in siimnierand win-
ter, 27.

, extreme cold of, 208.

, t;loomy appearance of the town, 233.

, trade of, 233.

.lun Jlpycii. (lc8cription of. 110.

Jelly, made from the horns and claws of the rein-
deer. 37.

Jellv-fish {I'leiirobraclii'i pileus) in the sea of Kara,
VA.

Jenissci river, ras(r6ir8 journey to the, 176.

Jeniseisk, Ca.stren's visit to, 177.

■ , the o.strof; of, founded, 1!I5.

Jyrfalcoii (/■'i/co yyrfuico), its head-quarters in Ice-
" land, 85.

, former trade in the, 85.

Jilibeainliacrtje, or Num, the Supreme Being of the
Sanioicdes, 170.

'Mciliii, ricntlcmaii," the Kiifjlish pirate, 118.

.lohn's, St., capital of Xewloiindland, .378.

Jnkuls, or ire-mountains of Iceland, (JH.

•I( kiilsa i .\xarlirdi river, in Iceland, 78.

Jiikulsa river, in Iceland, 7H.

Jones's Sound, discovery of the entrance to, 34.3.

Jukahircs, chief resource of those of the Aniiij,
237.

, Jeli.ssci Busa's re>idence among the, 105.

Kadiak, island of, di.scovery of the, 202.
Kai:ik, i.sland of, laiidiiif: of Stella on the, 240.
" Kulcwala," Cistron's Swedish translation of the,

170.
Kamchatka, subjugation of. by the Russians, 108,
, cruelty of the conquerors, 108.

' Kainclmtka, Stcllcr's iciontilU- journey to, 248.

, its climate and fertility, 2J4.

. abiiiidanci' of lisli in the rivers, 256.

I , bird-cat( lu rs ol', 2,"j,").

I , pepulllliiill, 2."i.'l.

, nioiiiiljiin chain and vidcanocs, 256.

, climate anil iiiiiieral springs, •J5(J.

, harliiiis and popiilaiiim, 'J.'iii.

, liealiliiiie-s ol the people, 2."(7.

, their f(i<)d, 'J5s.

, their animals, 2,')8, 200.

, cliiiraeter of the people, 200, 2G1,

Kane, |)r., his .Arctic voyu;ies, 305.

, his account of his lir»t winter in Uvnsseluer

Hay, 305.

, Ids description of (he Polar night, 300.

, his sledgu journey along the coast of Green-

l.ind. 307.

, his illne-R on the voya^je and recovery, 308.

, re .(lives to wiiiler a second time in Kcnsselaer

lliy, 300.
. departure and return of part of his crew, 309,

370.

, MilTeringsof his party, 371.

, alianilonnicnt of Ids sliip, and boat journey to

fperiiavik, 371.

, his rctiini tn New Ymk, anil death, 372.

Kara Gate, n ached by Stephen Burruugh, 330.
Kara, Sea of, 147.

, expediiioiis to the. 117.

Kas 111, liiissian c<in(|iiest of, 102.

Kellett. Captain, Ids nenrch for Franklin. 350.

Ki'iid.ill, I.iiit., his voyage to tlie Coppermine

river, ,340.

. liis accnnnt of Deception Island, .303.

KcniMdy, William, ids searcli for riaiikliii, 858.

, his sledi;e j( iiriiey with Ilellot, 3.V.).

Kennedy Cliaiincl, Dr. Hayes's sludge journey

Hcrn,ss, 30H,

' , Ids voyage aeniss, 373.

Kert;uelen Land, climate of, 303.
I Kliipsaek, destruction of tiic empire of the Khanit

of, 1:11.
King, Captain, his survev of the Magellan Strait,

415.
King William's Isl.ind, coast of, traced by Mr.

Thomas .Siiiiiison, 350.
' Klofa jnkiil. extent of the. CO.
I Knight, John, his niclaiicholy Arctic voyage, 311.

I , murdered by the INiininiaux, 342.

Koldewev, Captain, his journey towards the North

Pole, 374.
Kdhva, Castren's visit to. 174.
Kolyma rivi r, inundations of the, 237.
Kiilymsk, Ni-hnei, fouiidaiion of the town of, 197.

, Wrangell's vi>it to. 2.'!4.

, situation and climate of. 2.14.

•, vegetable and aidniai life, 235.

, popiil.ilion of tlie district, 2l!0.

, dwellings of llip Russian residents, 236.

, niiideiif life of the natives, 'J30, 237.

, their dogs. 2:)G. 237.

, iierry-gatlicriiig in the district, 238.

, f inline of the people, 238.

. social parties at, 2:W.

KoriaUs, the. confirmed by the Czar in tlieir pos»

sessions. ]!)!).
Koroniioie Filippowskoi, Von MiddendorfTs jouinev

to. 221.
Kostin Schar, visit of Von Baer to, 152.
, storm ill, 152.

Ill

i

r'.)C

INDKX.

KiitluftJi, eruptions uf, niiicn the cdliiiii/atioii uf

Ir liiiiil, '.t.'i, !tT.
Kia«iiiijiii-k, Castri'ii'H visit to, ITTi, 17i!.

, cNlriniiiiiiiici' (if llic pii'l arlNtiicr.K y of, 'JIH,

Ki't'iiil/.in, liii ili:'i'i(vriy (jf llii' iii'iiliHiiiiKil' Alja.il»H,

Kri'MidWoxilwisliuiisIf, pr(Mliiri> uf tin! ^M iiiiiiu ui',

•JIH.
KrhMivllt, Ipiiiiiiiin iiKHiiitaiiiH cif, (i'.t.
Kniluw, l.iiiiU'iiant, Inst dlV Nova /ciiiliiil, 117.
Kiilcliiii Imliaiis, their ilwc'lliiitiplai'c, ;!,'!1.

, tlivir p rsdiial ap|iiMraii('i' ami lirusM, ',VM,

— , lli'lr iiii'iimin dl' i'xrliaiii;r, :i;ll,

. , llnir wiinii'ii anil cliiliiriMi, IIM2.

. , ilii'ir aiiiii-cMiii'iits, :i;i'.'.

■ , 111 ir wars willi tin' lvs(piiiiMiix, MM.l.

. , tlii'ir siispiiidus anil liiiiDmiiH lives, 'X\:\.

, tlicir iiiiiili' of poundi'i^c ilie iiiuose-ilccr, 333,

. , their freipieiii ili.ilres!', ;!;ll.

, tin^r lints, ;i:lt.

Kiitclimii Kliiiii, his cdiiipiL'st iif SihpViii, I'.i'i. |
, ilc'feaiL'd by Ycrniuli tlie rubliur, at ToUiIsIt,

la:!, I'.ll.
. , \i\i rovoiit^c, I'Jl,

Laiiraikiii, barren lands df, 'J'i.

, ellect of tlio iiy sLMb and culd ciirroiits on the

climate uf, 'J'J.
• . di->edvcred and edloiiizod liy Grccnluudors,

LiiohdW Islands, diseiivery of tile, 202.

l,a;:artliiit river, in lecdaiid, 7K.

Lakes df Newrdiiiidlaiid, 1177.

Lainliert. M. <in-.tavL', his opinion us to tlie route
fd the I'dle, Il7.'i. ,

Lancaster Soiinil, discovery of tlie entrance to, .llli. |

Lap|)s, tlicir history and conversion to t'hristiuiiity,
l.')li.

■ , pdvertv and self-denial of their clerjjy, iri7.

— — , their ancient yods and present superstitions,
Idd. l."i7.

,Kvil Spirit of the woods, l.'>7.

, sorcery and witchcraft, l.'iH.

, their personal appearance, 1,'iS.

Lappars, the Kjall, or .Mdnntain Lapps, 159.

, their (Uvolliii};s, I.V.).

, tlicdr reindeer pens, lliO.

• -, their summer and winter encampm?nts, IGl.

. , their sledj^.'s and skates, 101.

, natural beauties of ih -ir country, 102.

■ -, their love of lionie, 102.

, th 'ir mode of liuntiiit; the bear and the wolf,

103, 101.

, the wealthy, and their mode of living;, 104.

, their aninnil visits to the fairs, 10,'>.

, their drnnkeiiness, lO.'i.

, th ir worship of niunimon, treasure hoard-
ing;, lO.'i.

, their fondness for brandy and tobacco, 105.

, th ir alVectionate disposition, 100.

, the Skofislappars, or I'orest Lajips, IGG,

-, the I'isher, 100.

Laptcw, Lieut. Clieriton, his explorations of the

coasts of Tainiiirlaud, 2i)0

, his ex|)ldrations to the east of the Lena. 200.

la'ch, the, of Siberia. 21.

, of the lludaon's Day Territory, 21.

Lawrence, St., climate and vegetation of the island

of. 271

Lava Btreaiin of Iceliiiid, 00, 77.

, Ntreaiiis ol, thrown out by the ({reat eruption

of Skaptar .li kill, 'Xt ',i7.

Laxaa, or Salmon river, abniidaiire of llsh cau^lit
in the, H7.

Leif, the .Ndrwe^'ian jarl, his visit tn L'elaiid, '.Ml.

- — , ninrdered by his Iri-li slaves, ill.

Leinniiii;^, its habitat and fodd, 12.

■ , exann'fatidiis df Ohms ALii^nns and I'diitdp.

pidaii respectiiij^ the, ■{■>,

, its enemies, and accidents to whicli it is liit-

ble, 12.

of New Siberia, 27.

of Nova /.eiiibla, l.'ij.

Lenu river, ascended by the Co«8ttcks, 195.

, uiiportance of the, 17.

, barnn unainds near the, 22,

, Wiaiinell's journey down the, 233.

Lcjirosy, or '■ likthra, "of Iceland, lln.

Lichens, uray, of the '•barren grounds," 18.

-, f<iod for the reindeer, 27.

, the /.illicit niiiij'fiviiiua, the food of the rein-
deer, 30.

of NovaZenilda, l'i3.

of Ihc! I'ribilow Islands, 271.

I.idilon, Lieut. .M., his Arctic voyages, 315.

LindeiidW, (ioil-ke, his voyap' to (ireeiiland, 3H3.

Lidii, sea- (Jlliiriu HtulUri), value of tlie skin of the,
•270.

, the sea-, of the .Vntarelic (Jccan, 3'JO,

Lister, Cape, discovery of, 3M.">.

Litlunini I, the elk of, 3!*.

Loaisa, (i.ircia de, his vdyn(;o rdiiiul the globe, 413.

Ldfdten Islands, the, 125.

— — , cdil-lishery of the, 125, 120.

Ldoinin:^ objects in the .Arctic lei^ions. 55.

Loschkin, the walrus-hunter, his voyage on the const
of Nova Zemlda, 1 17.

I,('i>tadius, the Lapp priest, his self-ilcntal and pov-
erty, 157.

Louelienx. .SV? Kufchin Indians.

Louis-I'hilippe Terre, discovery of, 402.

Ldvnniien, putlins of, 125,

Liiwenorn, his voyat;e to (Ireonland, 385.

Liitke, .\<linirnl, his endeavors to penetrate alont;
the coast of Nova Zenibia, 1 17.

Lychnis, purple, of the Arctic regions, 20.

Lynx, Canada, or pisliu (/.i/ii.r('anailensi^), 317.
■, value of the fur of the, 212, 317

Lyon, Captain, his unsuccessful voyage, 348.

M.

Mackenzip;, Alexander, his voyages of discovery

in North America, 308.
Mackenzie river, importance of the. 1'.

, forests and barren lands near the, 22.

, influence of the southerly winds on the tenv

pcrature of the valley of the, 27.

■ -, di-Cdvery of the, 308.

Maesnikow, Nikita, his gold-fields in Eastern Siba

ria, 214, ^217, 218.
Maplalena liav, description of, 133.
Mat;ellan, Strait of, 4(18.

, d 'scriptidn of tlie, 408.

, entrances to, 4ii'J.

, opening; into the Pacific, 411.

, discovery of the, by Magellan, 413.

, Sir J. Narborough's chart, 414.

, Captains King and Fitzroy's surveys of, 415.

r

INDEX.

r;i7

Maurrn, Ulnml nf, I.".).

Miij{ii'liiiin (if (lie > incpi'i'dcd, 180, 1«t.

Miili'»iii-kv, l.iciitriiaiit, Ills ^iilil iiiiiio iir(ll;{iniik

•.'IH.
MiicNlrnm, llii>, I'.'fi.
Miiiiinioili, I'oitnil ii'iiiuinN of tlip, in New Silicriii

2(c.'.
Mull, IiIk ilillU'iilly ill chlalilixiilii^; a fuuliiiK in tliR

Arctic rcniciiis, 17,
, Imw lie ii alilu to Ktuiicl tlic rigors nf mi Arc-
tic winter, ■-'«.
Maps of the l>(iiilniaiix. :!'>■.'.
Slaiiiiisk, Htiitioii of, Imilt liv tlic liiissiann, 100.

, ^olil lllillr of, '.'17.
Marsiics of Ncur>iiiiillaii(l, 1177.
Mnrti'ii, pine {M'iiii\i ithi< iiim), llie, "in.
- --, valuer of llie fur of llic, lUll.
Marv Minliirn rivir, (lowers of, ■.'().
RIatiiiKclikiii, Ills hlcilj^e jonriinv over tlio I'olnr Seo,

•-Ml.
Matoichkln Srliav, visits to. H7-l.'')2.
Muttliew, .St., i^lall(1 uf, inliu.-'pituliiu clmractcr of

tlip, '."71.
Mattliew'.s Sliaits, visited liy IJosniysslow, I'acli-

lussow, anil lleirvoii Itiier, 117 ]."i-'.
JIcl lliit<ick, l.ieut. (_now Sir Lco]ioKI), lii» suarcli

liir I'raiiklin, .'Itlil.
, Ills vo\a(,'e ill t!ic " Fox," and discovery of

t\\(: fate of Franklin anil hi.scoiii|i:iiiioiis, 'MVJl III! I.
RIcCliire, Captain, Ills search for I'raiiklin, ll.'il»-;'(!l.

, his (li-coverv of the north-west passage, 3(i0.

Mecliaiii, I, lent , Ills search for Franklin, I'tlO.
iMeililenaneaii, dried codfish sent to the, 129,
MkUish', enormous mirnbers of, in the I'ular world,

.Ml.

, in flic sens on'Spit/.lle^^;en, 133.

McIvIIIr May, enormous nl;ici"rs of, lit, SO,

Melville Island, discovery of, ;!1."(.

MoiitscliikolV, Prince, his exile and death in Siberia,

'205.
— — , his son restored to the honors of his house,

20.').
Mercy Finy, discovery of, .llil.
Mercy, harbor of, 112.
MidilendorlV, Von, bis adventures in Tnimurland,

220.

■ , his visit to the Chatanga river, 221.

• , bis joiirnev down the Tainiur river to the

Polar Sea, 22U22:i.
• — -, bis return journey and illness, 223-223.

• , fjratitiide of tlip Sumo cdes, 224.

• , his observations on the cliinute and natural

productions of Taiiiiurland, 22.').
Midni^rht, silence of, in Spitzbci'gen, 135,
Milk of the reindeer, 30,
Minerals of Iceland, S8.
Mink (I'lVon Amiricdiiiif), value of the fur of the,

.31 (i.
Misery, Mount, 115.
Mollusca, small, of the Polar Seas, 50.
Moonlight nifclits in the Arctic regions, 32, 33.
Morse. .Sec Walrus.
Morton, one of Kane's crew, 308, discovers

Washington land, 309 Hall's last expcd., 769.
Mosiinltoc; of Nishne-Kolymsk, 23.j.
Mosses, dincy, offhe " barren grounds," 18.

■ of Nova Zenibia, 153.

of the Pribilow Islands, 270, 271.

Mourawicd". (.'oiint Nicholas, his uane.xation of the

Anioor, lOG.
Mouse, field, of Spitzbergen, 137.

Miirlinmor, the fiiii^iis, nsi'd as fond by the Kain-

cbiitkuns, 'i'lS,
Mod spriiik'K, lioiling, nf leelatid, 70.
MiinicJi, .M.irsbal, bis i>xlle lo Siberia, 205.

. bis return mid Mib«i'i|iient life, 20(i.

Mnnk, .lens, hi* vo\a(;i's, 313.

MllMkllollll, ejistle of, 121.

Murderers, ti'i'iitinent of, in liiissia, 200.

.Muscovy ('onipiiny, its endeavors to discover i»

nortli-east (lassaKe to India. ;i:'>)i.
.Musk-ox {iliilni.H vi'im hiiliin), description of llie, lO.

, lis furnier and present biiliilat, 10, 11.
Mnsipia-b, niiisk-rat, or ondatra i^l'ih' r ztlielhirtif'),

id 7.

, villii'.'cs, ;ilH.

, iiiodis of eiitcliinn the animal, 318.

, value of llie fur nf the, .ilH.

Mnsstlsoii the coast of ( inenlunil, 59.
.My vat n, ducks of the, HI.

N.

N.uiiiniiR, the Xorwegiap pirate, liis dif^coverj' of

li eland, HI,
Xi'iliiar, or loilinj; miid-sprinns of Ii eland. 70.
Niirlioron>,'li, Sir iloliii. Ins chart of the Strait of

iMa;,'ellaii, 111.
Narwiial, or seaiiiiicorn, domain of the, CO.
— -, Its tusk, I'll.
— — , (ireeiiland lisliery of the, 3H".
Naryni, Castren's vi-it to, 175.
Nei ToniinK'v of the .Sanio'ciles, 1.'0,
Nertscliinsk, treaty of, I'.il!.

, criminals at ilie mines of. 2011.

Ness, ( 'iistren's vi-it to llie .Sanio cde villa;;e of, 172.
Newfoundland, discovered and coloiiizcil by (irceii-

landers, 335.

, its deso'ato appearance. 37f!.

. , its forests, tiiarsbes, and barrens, "70, .377.

, its lakes and ponds, 377, 37k.

, its liir-liearinn animals, 378,

, its reindeer and wolves, 378.

, its climate and inhabitants, ."78,

, its capital, St. .lolin's, 37t<, 370.

, history of the island, 370.

, taken pos.scssien of by the iMitrlisb, 370.

, riybt (f the French and .Ameiicans to fish

on tlie bai.k- of, .370.

, the I'Vencli town of Placontiii, 37'.i.

, the whole island c 'ded lo I'.iigland, 379.

, importance of tlie cod-lislicries, 370.

, the great banks of, 3M0.

, account of the mode of lisliing, 380.

, fogs and storms, 3><0, '.)xl,

■ , seal-catcliiiig, ."81.

Newspapers of Iceland, 110.

Nii^ht of a Polar winter, Kane's description of, 300.

Nicolayevsk, statio^j of, built by tlie llussians, 100.

Noiba, g<ilil-di^'gings on the, 210.

Norfolk Hay, position and fur-trade of, 272.

Nortb-eastirn route to India and (.'hina, .Sebastian

Cabot's iilea of, 335.

, attempts to discover it, 335-337.

North Pole, the first attempt to sail across the, 342.

, the plan lirsl sngi;esteil by Tliorne, 342.

, .Scoresliy's near approach to the, .314

, Parry's boat and sledge jotiriiev towards the,

350.
, Dr. Hayes's opinion as to the practicability

of reaching the, across Kennedy Clianiul, 374.

798

INDEX.

North Pole, opinions of otlicr scientific authorities

a^ to the lii'St w.iy to rcuci), 374.
North-west passage .o India, attempts to discover

the, 312, ;i43.

• , .M '('lure's difcovcry of the, 300.

Comp.my of Canada, formation and trade of

the, 307.
— , its wars willi tlie llndnon's Bay Company,

and liiial amal^, niatinii, 308-310.
Northnniberlan I Sdiitid, tenijierature of 28.
Notothenia, the, of tlie Anlarctic sea*. -100.
Norway, the lonnnln;; of llie Dovrifjeld, in, -I'i.
, an al>solnte monarchy established by Harold

llaiirra};cr in, flO.

, causes of tlio mild climate of the coast of, 1'21.

■ . conditiiin of the soil, and of the i;ultivator9

of it, lJl-l-.'3.
-, constitution of, and education of the people,

l-.'l.

• , population of, 121.

, coast Si encry of, 123.

, Dronthcim and its industry, 124.

, birds of the coast of, 124, 125.

, the hcrrini; and cod tish. rics of, 125-128.

Nova Zcnibla, invcstif;atioiis of the shores of, 147.

, circunniavi(iat(d l)y I'aclitussow, 117, li><.

, meteorological observations of Ziwollta, 150.

■ , tlip climale of, ir)l.

• — — , Von IJicr's sciciitilic journey, 151.

, sci 'nlilic results of his journey, 152, 153.

■ , venojation of, 153.

■ , ;"ilitu(le and silence of, 154.

• , rarity of inserts in, l.Vl.

, lemmings and foxes of, 154.

, liirds of, 151.

, other animalB of, 154, 155.

-, winterintfof the Dutch under Harentz i''t, 34C.

Novf^orod, the Great, subdued by the Czar Ivan I.,

v.n.

Nowodsikoff, Jlicliael, his discoveries, 201.
Nndibiancliiata, euoruious numbers of, iu the Polar

seas, 5',l.
Nnllipores on the coast of Greenland. 59.
Nun, or .lilibcanibaertjo, the Supreme Being of the

Sanio.edci, 179.

O.

OnnoRSK, Castrcn's visit to, 174.

, description of the town, 188.

. the fair at, 189.

Olii river, importance of, 17,

, barren f;iounds near tliP, 22.

, its importance to the Oslialcs, 185.

, Cistren's journey to tlie, 174.

■ , misery caused Ity the ovcrHow of the, 175.

, inhal)itants of the banks of tlie, 175.

Ochota river, the, 24(i.

Ochotsli, sea of, reached bv a.partv of Cossacks,
195.

, description of the town, 24(i.

(IhilTriigfjeson, Kiiif; of Xorwav, sends a mission-
ary to Iceland, 93, 94.

(tlKinsk, Hold mine of, 218.

Oloiic/,, Muniber of boars kill d for their skins every
year in, 212.

(biiinaii'v, Ciiptain, his soarcb for rranklin, 357.

, his di-covcry of Franklin's lirst winter-quar-

t(•^^ 3,57.

Oiikilon, or sedentiiry Tchuktchi, 267.

, tlii ir mode of lifi.', PiiT.

Oracfa Jckiil, height of, 69.

, eruptions oi, siiKc the lolonization of Iceland.

05.
Orange Island, visited by Barentz, 339.
Ore. ^ip (irampiis.
Osborn:-, Captain Shcrard. his opinion as to tha

nuthoil of reachiufi the North Pole, 374.
Ostiaks, their (ishiiiK-Kfounds on the Obi, 175.

, tlieir summer huts and mode of life, 185, 18G.

, th ir p'vertv ]8(i.

, their winter . ,its, 186.

, th ir attachment to their ancient customs,

l^*(), 187.

, their clans, and princes, or chieftains, 187.

, their excellence as archers, 187.

, their personal appearance, and customs, 188.

, anniial triiiiitc levied by Yeiniak, the robber,

on then), 191.
, coulirnied by the Czar in the possession of

their lands, 199!
Ostrich, Darwin's, of Patagonin, 420.
Oslrownoje, town ami lair of, "^63 265.
Otter, the sea-, or kalan (/wi/iyt/cw lutriti), value of

the fur of the, 211,212.

, di'scription of, 211

, chaie of the, in Kiti..chalka, 258.

liunlinK of the Aleuts, 27.3.

Otter, the ish-(/.M'ra Cunadtusis), 317.

, fur of the, ;117.

Owl, its favorite food, 43.

, its winter in the highest latitudes, 43.

Ox, the, in Iceland, 80.

Oyster, most northerly limit where found, 126.

P.

r'ArnTUs.ww, his circumnavigation of the southern
island of Nova Zembia, 1 18.

. his second voyage and death, 149, 150.

Pack-ice, 46.

, its tendency to separ.ate in calm weather, 54.

Paikolf, his discovery of the Fox Islands, 201.

Parrots of Patagonia, 420.

Parry, Lieut. W. K. (afterwards Admiral Sir), his
Arctic voyages, 314.

, his .second voyage, 348.

— , Iiis third voyage. 319.

, abundoninent of the " Tury," 340.

, his boat and sledge journev towards the Pole,

;i5().

— — , his snbsef]uent career, 351.

Parry, Mount, discovery of, 3ii0.

, Dr. Hayes's journey to, 37.3, 374.

, Mountains, discovery of the, 40:>.

P.isina river, scanty popnlalion of the. 220.

Patagonia, Capiain Fitzroy's survey of, 415.

, the people of, 417, 420.

— — , dilt'ercMce of climate between the cast and
west, 417.

, aridity of the east of, 417, 418.

, large rivers of, 418.

, iinimalsof, 418, 119.

, introduciion of the horse, 424.

, fashions of the Patagonians, 421.

■, their religious ideas, 421.

, their superstitions and astronomical knowl-
edge, 422.

, their division into tribes, 422.

, their huts, 422.

— — , their trading routes, 423.

INDEX.

799

land,

> tb«
18G.
oms,

lf8.
bber,

)n of

uc of

tlicrn

r, 54.
). lii«

Pole,

; and

Patagonlann, their system of government, and great
cacique, 4iiJ.

, thoir arms, amuscincnts, and character, 424.

Paul, St., climate of the island, 271.

, clia.'ie of the sea-bear on the, 313.

Punl the Fir^t, di.scoveiy of the Island of, 274.

Pckan, or woodsliock {Marlta Cimaclcitsia), fur of
tlip, ;!lfi.

Pcnas, gulf of, glacier at the, 394.

Penguin, tlie, of tlie Antarctic scus, 305.

. its food, 307.

I'l'imy, .Alastcr, his snarch for Franklin, 357, 358.

I'oruviaii current, inlliience of tlie, liOI.

Pi't'Tniaun, Dr. Auj,ustU8, his view of the route to
the I'dlo, 37 I.

Petrel, the giant {I'roceUaria yigantea), of the An-
tarctic ,sei. 1, 3',)4.

Petropavlosk, its population, 2.'>7.

, unsuccessful attack of the English and French

oil, y.'iO.

Petschora river, 149.

Philip's liav, 409.

Phipps, Captain (afterwards Lord Mulgravc), his
voyage to discover the north-west passage, 344.

Pipit (Anlhiis /)m/( ;i,«i,<), the, of Iceland, 81.

Plachina, Castron's residence iind study at, 176.

Plover island, discovery of, oGO.

Plovers of Iceland, 81.

Poland, the elk of, 39, 40.

Pole, North, proliable condition of the land (if any)
at the, 27.

Popow, Fcdor, his discovery of the gold fields of
Fastern .Sil>pria, 214.

Population of Norway. 122.

Potato, cultivation of, in Norway, 124.

Pribilow Islands, climate of, 271.

, sea-lions and guillemots of, 271.

, cha'"e of the sea-bear, 274.

Prontschisclitschew, liis fruitless endeavors to dou-
ble the capes of Taimurland, 200.

, death of Inni and his wile, 20.

Pru.ssia, Fast, the elk of, 39, 40,

Ptarmigan (/,n/7o/)H« nlhii.i), its residence in the high-
est latitudes in winter, 43.

of Spitzbergen, 137.

, its summer visits to Taimurland, 227.

in tlie Tundra in summer, 19.

Pteropods, food for the Greenland whale, 60,

Puflins of Lovunnon island, 12.').

, mode of catching tliein, 125.

Puiita Arenas, colony of Germans at, 416.

Pustosersk, visit of Gastrin to, 171, 173.

Pym, Lieut., his sledge journey of search for Frank-
lin, 3G0.

Racoon (Pmci/iyn /ntm-), 315, 378.

, valiie and trade in the skins of the. 316.

Rap, Dr., his search for Sir John Richani'on, .357.

, bis discoveries in the Arctic seas, 3)7.

, his discovery of the fate of Franklin and his

crew, 3(i2.
Raipass, copper mines at, 128.
Kanuncnlus, snow {liaminculns uivalis), of Nova

Zembla, 153.
Rat, niusK-. Sei' Musquash.
Ravens of Iceland, 84.

, in Scandinavian mythology', 84, 85.

— — , superstitions of the Icelanders respecting the,

86. I

Razor-hill, its nests on the most northern rocks, 67,

Red-kuifo Indians, their hunting-grounds, 327.

Hed-pole, the, of Spitzbergen, 137.

Red river colnny, destruction ol' the, ,308.

Rid sharks of Iceland, 81.

R'.indeer, its summer and winter quarters in the
Arctic regions, 19.

, food found by the, in Spitzbergen, 27.

, itaimporlunce to man in the northern regions,

31.

•— — , its formation and adaptation to the circum-
stances in which it is placed, .34.

, clattering somid of its feet, 84.

, its antlers, 34.

, its young, ,3.5,

, its milk. 3(i.

, its liKiil and olfactory powers. ,36.

, the caribou of North America, 8ti.

, its geographical range in the Old and New

World, 3ii.

, its love of a cold climate, 36.

, its services to man, 37.

, its enemies, a-id disorders to which it is lia-
ble. 37, 38.

, a nuisance in Iceland, 81.

of Spitzbergen, 137.

. the. pens of the Lapps, l(iO.

, milking the, 1<;0.

, the, sledges of tlie Lapps, 161.

, attempt made to acclimatize the, in Scotland,

102.

, ravages of wolves in herds of, 164.

, rich La|ip owners of lipids of, 101.

, Lapp mode of killing the, liiL

, its two annual migrations, 237,

hunts of the .Inkahiresof the Aniuj, 2.37, 2.38,

race, if the Tchiiktrhi, 206.

hunting of the Fscniiniaux, 29.'),

. the Kutchin Indian mode of pounding the,

333.

, chase of the, in Greenland, 388.

Rensselaer bay, teniperamre ot', in mid-winter, 19,
20.

, Kane's winters at, 30.5, 309.

Resanow, .lakin, his gold-fields, 214.

" Rescue." wreck of the, 4 10.

Reykjablid, boiling inud-caldrons of, 70.

Reykjavik, mean annual temperature of, 78,

, the present capital of Icelaiul, 91,

, account of, 99, 100.

, tlie annual fair of, 100.

, salary of the bishop of. 100.

, schools and libr.iry of, ](i8, 109.

, the Icelandic Lilerary Society, 110.

Rhinoceros remains found on the coast of North-
ern .''iberia. 203.

Rirliardson, Dr. (afterwards Sir John), his Arctic
land voyages, ."ilO, ."49.

, dieadfnl siilVerings of the p.irty, ,340. 347.

, his sparch for Sir .lohn Iraiiklin, ,3.'iO.

Rivprs discbargiug their waters into the Polar
ocean, 17.

of Iceland, 78.

Rocky Mountains, the wild sheep of the, 41.

Roelinck, near Lakp Baikal, 40.

Rorquals, or liii-« hales, habitat and size of the, 00.

- — , their food, 00.

Rosmysslow, bis investigations of the shores of
Nova Zembla, 147.

Ross, ('apt. (afterwards Sir John), Arctic vovages
of, 344.

;

800

INDEX.

Rdss, Sir John, his second journey, !!.')!.

, his five years in tlic Arctic Ocean, 351-354,

, liis return liomc and lionors, ,'!51.

■ , Sir ilanics, liis Arctic voyiij^es, 851.

, liis soarcli for Fninliliri, ii57.

, liis discoveries in tlie Antarctic Ocean, -102.

, collision hetween his ships, the "Krebus"

and '•Terror," 405, 40(1.

, his danger between two icebergs, 406.

Hum, elVrcts of, on an Iceland clerf;yniiin, 101.
Rupert's Land, held by the Hudson's bay Company,

310.
Russia, character of the coniferre of, 23, 24.
, the elk of the woods of the northern parts of,

4Q.
— , cinqiiest of, by the Tartars under IJaaty

Khan, I'll.
, liberated from the Tartar yoke by Ivan I.,

I'.ll.

, iidvanc's of, in Siberia, 10.5.

■ , annexes the country of the Ainoor, lOfi.

, condition of the natives under the voko of,

l:)7, 1118.

■ , exiles from, to Siberia, 204-201!.

. value of the skins annuallv imported bv, 212,

213.

, life and dwellings in Ni'hne-Kolymsk, 231).

, (irst treat}' of commerce between England

and, .33r..
, Company, patent granted to the, to fish off

(ireeidand, IDS.
Russian Fur Company, account of the, and its trade,

272.

S.

Sapink, Mount, discovery of, 402.

Sable, value of the, to the Cossack conquerors of

Siberia, 105.

, importance and beauty of the fur of the, 209.

, hunting, 210.

Sabrina Land, discovery of, 401, 402.

Saiiimen, or histori^ms, of Iccdand, !)4.

Sajan Mountains, (,'astren's journey over the, 177.

Sahnon, .Alpine {Sulmo (i//i(rt«.»), immense immbers

of, in Nova Zeu'lila, 155.
Salmon, shoals of, in theriversof the Arctic regions,

19.

, abiindanc:- of, in Iceland, S7.

, of the Sm of Ochotsk. 2Hi, 217.

, abundance of, in Kamcliatka, 255.

SamdiedcB, ICuropcan, Castron'sjouinev among the,

170. ■ •

. their drunkenness, 171.

, their impati'nce of confinement, 171-173.

■ , their barbarism, 179.

. tlieir Supreme Heing, Num, or Jilibeambacrt-

je, 171t.

, their recourse to incantations, ISO.

.their idols, 1«0, 1S1.

, their reverence .aid to the dead. 181.

. tlii'ir mod.' of taking an oath, 1«2.

. , tlieir personal appearanco and habits, 182.

. , tlnir wealth in reind<'er, 18:!, 184.

— — , their entire number iii ICnrope ami Asia, 181.

, their traditions of ancient heroes, 184.

, eonlirnu'd bv the <'zar in tlieir possessions,

199.
■ , the companions of Von Midilendorff on his

journey, 221, 225.
Samund Krode, his Icelandic works, 94.

Sand-bee (Andrenn) of Nova Zembla, 154.

Sand-reed bread used in Iceland, 79.

Sanniunto, IVdro, his voyage, 414.

Sawina river, 118.

Saxil'raga.s, th.', of the treeless zone, 20.

Scalds, or nards, of Iceland, 94.

Sc.indiiiavia, character of the coiiifera; of, 22.

Schalaurow, hie journevs on the coast of Siberia,
201.

Scliarostin, li:-' residence at Spitzbergen, 142.

Scliehigskoi. Cape, rounded by Count Michael Stad-
ucbiii, 197.

, leached by Schalaurow, 201.

Scoresby, Dr., his visit to Spitzbergen, 132.

, Captain, his near apjiroacli to the North Pole,

344.

, his voyage to Greenland, .385, ,38fi.

Scotia, Nova, discovered and colonized by Grean-
landers, 335.

Scurvy in Spitzhcrgen, 140-142.

, preservative against, 141.

' . Lapp mode of preventing the, IGfi.

Sea, iiitiuence of the, on the severity of the Arctic
winter, 27.

Sea, Antarctic, compared with the Arctic regions,
391.

, absence of vegetation in the, 391.

. cau.ses of the inferiorily of the Antarctic cli-
mate, 391, .392.

, immensity of the icebergs of the, 392.

, the Peruvian current, .394.

, birds of the coasts, 394-

, cetaceans, .397-399.

, Au-tral lishes, 400.

, voyages of di.-covery, 401.

, storms and pack-ice. 404 c( sej,

Seas,'.\rctic, dangers peculiar to the, 45.

, floating masses of ice, 45, 40.

, ice-blink, 51.

, summer fogs, 54.

, clearness of the atmosphere and apparent near-
ness of objects, 5.5.

, phenomena of reflection and refraction of the

atmosphere, .55.

, causes which prevent the accumulation of

Polar ice, 5.5-.57.

, the animals cfthc, 40, 4.3, 44, ,59.

, Russian discoveries ofTthe Siberian coast, 201

rt seq.
, Von MiddendorfTs journey down the Taimur

river to the Polar sea, 221.

, Wrangell's nights on the Polar sea, 2.'!9.

, his observa;'nns on the Polar sea. 240.

, Matiuschkin's sledge journey, 211.

, voyages of the Knglish and Dutch, 335 el

seq.
Sea-bear of Hering's soa, 02.
Sea-eagles of the coast of Norway, 125.
Sea-elephant of the .\iitarctic Ocean, 398, .399.
Sea-gulls of the coast of Norway, 124, 125.
Sea-lion of Hering sea. 02.

of the Pribilow Islands, 271.

Seal-fishing at Spitzb?r;;epi, 142.

of Nova Znnbla, 155.

hunts of the Ksqiiimanx, 29.5, 290.

cati liiiig at Newfiiundland, 381.

— - hunting on the coasts of (ireenland, 384, 440.
Seals, the, of the Polar seas, (i2.

, their uses to m.in, 02, 440.

, the Antarctic. 399,400.

, their igloos, 449.

INDEX.

801

ibcria,
I Stad-

i Pole,
Gresn-

Arctic
egions,

;tic di-

nt near-

II of the
tion of

ast, 201
Taiiniir

I.

, 335 el
99.

84, 446.

Sea-olter, value of the skin and former numbers of

tlic, -JOl, 'JO'.'.
Scd.^er river, roiiiantie sccncrv of tlio, 410,
Sciiiplo, (iovernor, murder (if. .SO-'.

ScrtiilMriaus on tlio coasts of (irceiiland, 09.

S rvicL'-ti'ces in tlio Arctic rcj.;iuiis, '>i.
Sbarli, ba>l<iiig, oa llic nurtlicni coasts of Iceland,
87.

, its uses to the islanders, 87.

, oil iiiamifactured from its liver, 87.

, tlie northern {Scyinuus iiiicrucn/ihalas), abund-
ance of, olf Spiizberf^eii, l:)7.

, (ishery of, on the cou.-t of fJreenland, 387.

Slicop, wild (^OrL- munl-inu), of the Kocliy Mount-
ains, dtscription of the, 11.

, tho, of Ici laud, and tlieir eniniics, 80.

, mode of shecp-shcuriufj;, 80.

Shetland Isilands, Xe«-, accoimt of the, 392, 393.

Slnimps off .Sjiitzber^en, ];):>.

Siberia, p.xtont of tlio treeless zone of, 22.

, character of the conifenu of, "J3, '24.

, the elk of, 39.

, tlie roelmck and red deer (f, 10.

— — , the arj^ali, or wild sheep of. 11.

, the while dolphin in the rivers of, 01.

- — -, coiKpiept of, by the Cossacks, for the Rus-
sians, 1<J3. 194.

, linal coiKpiest of, by the Russians, and foun-
dation of Toliolsk, 195 ^f siq.

, condition of the natives of, under the dominion

of Russia, 197, 19H.

, seientilio expeditions sent to, "200 ct siq.

■ , its past a^es, '203.

, its extent and capabilities, 201.

, the exiles sent tin re, 204 '206.

, their condition there, 'JOi!.

, condition of the West Siberian peasants, 207, '■

208. I

, resources of the country. 208. j

■ , exirenips of heat and cold, 208. I

- — — , fiir-lii ai inf; animals, 2(tU it seq.

■ . tliej^old-lieldsoflCastern, and the miners, 214- '

216. j

. value of the produce of foine of th . mino-^, !

'217, 218. j

, entire value of the produce of gold in 1856

and l«(''t, 218. !

. , luxury and pxtravafrance caused by the

wealthy irold speculators. 218, 219.

, the {i;old of tho I'ral. 219.

; New, lemmiiiiis of, 27.

, discovery of the islands of, 201, 20'2.

, fossil ivory of. -202.

Sibir, tlie capital of the Tartars in .'Liberia. 192.

. , taken bv Yerniak, the robber, for the tzar,

191.

Simpson, J[r. Thomas, his Arctic land voyage, 355.

, his discoveries, 356.

, as-assiiiated, .'!56.

Sirowatsky, his discovery of tho Archipela^^o of
New Siberia, 203.

Skalholt, the ancient capital of Iceland, account of,
98.

- — — , its present condition. 99.

. , its meadow lands and scenery, 99,

Skaptar jiikiil, 69

, the threat eruption of, in 1783, 95.

Skates of l,a|)ps, Itll.

Skeidara, Mr. Holland's joiirnov across the, 111, 112.

iSkjallaiidatljot river in Iceland. 78.

Skoysliippar, or Forest Lapps, account of th •, 166.

Slfcdj^'es of the Lapps, 161.

, the sacred sledge, llahcngau, of the Samof>

eiles, l."!).

Smith's Siiund, temperature of, 27,

, icelierns formed in, 48.

, discovery of the entrance to. 343, 3G5,

" Sni'ko, valley of,'' in Iceland, 70.

Siiorn Stiirlc.-on, the Herodotus of the North, ac-
count of him and his " lleim>krin^da," 91, 95.

Snow-lnintings of the "barren grounds," 18.

Snow, its protection of the vegetation of the Arctic
regions, lit.

■ — — , warmth caused by, 19.

, no land yet found covcredto the water's edg«

with eternal snow, 27.

, amount of the fall of, in Taimurland, 225, 226.

■ , proliablo dimiimllon of the I'al! of, advancing

towards the jiede, 22(!.

, its protection against cold, 220.

Socialism anionir the I)oi^-rib Indians. .329.

Solfataras of Iceland and Sicily compared, 88.

.Solovetskoi, convent of. 18(1.

.Sorcery of the Laplanders, 158.

, of the Samoiedes, 180.

Spain, salted cod-lish iniportrd into, 1'29.

Spasy, produce of the gold mine of, 218.

Spirits, invisilde, of the Samoicdes, 180, 181.

Sjiitzbergen, (lowers of, 20.

, vast (ields of ice in the plateau of, 2(.

; food of the reindeer of. 27.

. proofs of a former milder ilimato in, 29, 30.

, birds of, 43. 44.

■ , apparent nearness of objects at, in clear

weather, .')4.

, the walrus of the coast of, 61.

, description of the archipelago of, 131, 132.

, the west coast, 132.

■ , .Scoresby's aseoiit of a mountain, and excur-
sion along ihe coast, I3'2, 133,

, .Magdalena bay. 133-136.

, iee-eli(Vs and avalanches of ice, 135.

, srieiitilic exploring expeditions sent to, 136.

, flora and fauna of, 136, 137.

, fisheries of, l:!9.

-, coal and drift-wood of, 137, 138.

, history of, 138.

, attempts mat'e to edonize it, 139 141.

. , Russian biuiteis' mode of wintering at, 142.

, walrus and seal-fishing at, 142.

— -, discovery ot', ."40.

Spout, the, of Newfoundland, 376.

Springs, hot, of Iceland, 70.

, the (ieysir, 71.

, the .Sti'okkr, 7'2.

Spruce lir of the Hudson's Hay territory, 24.

Sipiirnd. value ot the fur of the, 212.

.Sladolski Island, visit of I'achtussow to, 148.

Stadiichin, ('(Uint Michael, his foundation of th*
town of Nisbnei-KolMnsk, 19(5, 197.

navigates the sea cast'A'ard of Cape Schela^

skid. 197.

Stawinen river, 118.

Steller, C. W'.. notice of him. 218.

, his scientilic journey to Kamchatka, 248,

, ill-treated by lieriiig, 2.'i0.

■ , his .sniferings on Bering's Island, 251.

, death of his conimandcr, IJering, 252.

, his return to Kamchatka, 252.

, perseented by the Siberian authorities, 253

, Ids death, 253.

S.'ocAtish of Iceland, 87.

802

INDEX.

Storms on the White Sea, lfi9.

of the Tiindraa, 17-', 173.

of the Arctic zone, 22j. 226.

ofl'Ne'.vfoiiiulhuKl, :81.

in tlie Antarctic ocean, 404, 405.

, the williwaws, or hnrricune squalls, of the

Str.iitof MafTollan, 412.
Stro^onoff, founilation of tlic Uussian fumilv of, 192,

l'.»3.
Strulxltr, (lescriptioii (if tlie, 72.
Strongbow Iiu'ians of tl)o Itoclty Mountains, the,

:i27.
Siilikcrtoppon, seen l)y Davis, 337.
Siil|pliur of Icoiand, HH.

, compared willi tliat of Sicily, 88.

Summcr.tlic perpetual daylight of, CG.

. fofjs of, 54.

in Taininrland, 225.

Sun, the inidnif^lit, etl'cct of, on icebergs, 50-52.

Sni'sct, mafiniliccnce of a, 32.

Snrtiut, Casticn's visit to. 175.

Siirts-liellir, or caves of Surtur, description of, 77.

Snslik, tlie, of Siberia, 212.

, value of its far, 212.

Svatoinoss, Cape, lb.«sil ivory at. 202.
Sviatoi-noss, donbled by the Russians, 200,
Swans of Iceland, 81,81.

Tabin", tlie imaginary Cape, of the Dutcli naviga-
tors. 339.

Tadibes, or sorcerers of tin Samoicd-'s, 180.

, their dress and incantations, INO.

Tagilsk, Xisline, the j:old-piodiiciii{; town of, 219.

Tai^a, nul.inclioly character of tin-, 230.

, uold-lields \,( the, 21.3.

Tainuir I<akc, visited liy Lieut. Laptcw, 200.

-, storm on the, 223.

Taiinur river, visited by Meut. Laptew, 200.

, Von MiddendortV's journey to the, 221-223.

Taimurland, endeavors of Trontschijchtschew to
doulde the capes of, 200

, Middi'iidorirs adventures in, 220, 221.

, his observations on the climate an<l natural

productions of, 225.

, amiuiit of the fall of snow in, 225, 22().

Tana river, discovery of th;-, by Jcdissei IJusa, 105.

Tarn Mount. Darwin's accent of. 411.

Tartars, their subjeclion of the Kussians, 191.

■ driven out by Ivan I., 101.

permanently overthrown by Ivan II., 19i.

Tattooing. Creo Indian mode of, .32.3.

Tchcndoma. the, visited by .lelissei Husa, 195.

Tchuktchi, barren grounds in the land of the, 21,
22.

, the land of the. 202.

, pipes of, 201.

, their short summer, 202.

- — -, ti'iftir iiidepciidcncc and commercial enterprise,
203.

ladies, Ma'iusihkin's visit to some, 205.

, anuisinii'iits of the people, 2(!(!.

, the wanderini; and sedentary, 207.

, their mode of life, 207.

•, population of tlie land of the, 207.

Tea ])arties at Nisline-Kolyni>k. 2'.'S.

Ttiiippraturc of Kensselaer bav in mid-winter, 10,
20.

■ , effect of the sea on, of the Arctic rcgionp, 27.

Temperature, influence of the winds on, 27.

, forniir milder, of tlio Aictie rc^jions, 20.

i , iirubable causes of the chaiijies in the Arctic

1 climate, 29.

, th(! lowest ever felt by man, 28.

, how man is enabled to bear extraordinary low,

I 28.

' of Iceland at dilfi rent places, 78.

; Tennyson's Monument, Dr. Kane's description of,
I 307.

Terror. Mount, 403.

' Tcrski Lapps, Castion's attempted journev to the,
I 170.

Thangbrand, Christian missionary to Iceland, 9A
j 94.

Thiiigvalln, plain of, 76.

■ , site of tlie ancient Icelandic Althing at, 91,

■ 92.

■ -, pastor of. 104.

, church of, 105.

Thingvalla Lake, in Iceland, 9'2.

Thiorsa river, in Iceland, 78.
, TliDvlakson, .Ion, the poet of Iceland, account of
j him and his works, 107.

' Thome, Kobert. his suggestion for sailing across the
; North I'ole. 312.

Thorwald the tiaveller, the lirst Christian Icelander,
his career, 92, 93.

Tides, effect of the, in preventing the accumulaiion
of Polar ice, 57.

Tiniie Indians, defeated by the Crecs, 319.

, their retaliation, 3211.

, their wars with the lUaekfcet, 320.

, their wiv;waMis. or tents, 324.

-, various tribes of the. and their range. .327.

. their appearance, manners, and customs, 327-

329.

, improvements in their condition, 329, 330.

, their wives and children, 3.30.

, tlieir cruelty to the ajicd. .330.

Tjiimon, the lirst settlement of Russians in Siberia.

rjr,.

■ -, Steller's grave at. 253.

Tobacco, fondness of the Lapps for, 105. 107.

. eagerness of the wild tribes of the North for,

204.

Tobolsk, battle of. 193, 195.

, foundation of the city of, 195.

, cdndition of the southern part, 207, 208.

Tolstoi Ness, Castren's visit to. 177.

Tolstych. Adrian, his discoveries, 201.

Tiiiiisk, ciiniinals of, 200.21)7.

Tornea. reindeer gloves of, .3".

Torsteinson Jon, tlie martyr of the Wcstman Isl-
ands, 118.

Tookoolito, 442,400, 758, 759, 761.

Train-oil i^f Tronis p, 128.
; Transbaikalia, Castren's visit to, 177.
'■ rravelling in Iceland. 110, 111.
; Treeless znne of Kiirnpe. Asia, and America, 18-22.

Tfi iirenberg bay. deer of, I:!".

Tndladyngja, eruptions of, since the colonization of
j Icidand, 95.

Tronsii. co<l-fishery and cod-liver oil of, 128.

I , description of the town and island, 128.

I T.schirii^ow. his voyages. 201.

! Tiieutuco(^V noniijg Mni/dldiiicii). the, of Patagonia,

' 419.

TniKlri, or barren grounds of the Arctic regions, 18,
19.

of tlic European .Sainoiedrs, 171.

"in

INDEX.

803

m-

I

t^

I

i

Tundrl, sfornis of tlie Tundras. 172.

Tiiiig-owor, or hot sprint; it liiikliolt, in Iceland,

70.
Tmifrusi, the, thiir rclat'o.iship .j the Mantchou,

211.
, their conquests and final suhjugation by the

Kussians, '.'11.

■ , tlieir intellectual devcli>pnient, 2J1.

, their trihe.s and pupiilatiun, 214.

, their wreichednoss. 211.

, their manners and customs, 21.').

Tun.i,'ii>ka river, ^jold-lichU of the I'pper, 214.
Turkey-buzzard, the, of Patagonia, 4in.
Tnrnchansk. ('a>trrn"s visits to, 17t;, 177.
Tyndull glacier, inornious tize of, 50.

U.

UrFMOT the Wise, his first code of laws in Iceland,
01.

I'nalaschka, climate of, 209.

, vegetation of. 2W, 270.

, pcoph' of, 27:i.

I'nion, Cape, Dr. llaycs'ssledge vovage to. .^73. ;!71.

United States, right of, to lish on tho banks of New-
foundland. .37!).

I'ral Mountains, Castrcn's passajjo of the, 174.

, first discovery of gold in tho. 21 1.

, quantity of gold found in the, 219.

Ustsylmsk, Castrcn's vi.-it to, and ill-trtatment at,
17.^. 174.

I'tzjoki, the pastor of, IfiO.

Uiisa river, Gastrin's journey up the, 174.

V.

Vaaoe, cod-fishery of, 12G.

, ancient importance of, 126.

Vancouver's Island, placed under the management

of the Hudson's Hay Company, .310.
Vapor baihs of the Cree Indians, 324.
Viire. the, of Norway, 124.
Vegetation, protection afforded by snow to, 19.
, distinctive diameters of the Arctic forests,

22-24.

■ of the " barren grounds," 1.S, 21, 22.

, length of lime necssary for the formation of

even small stems of trees in the Arctic regions,

2,5.

, harmless character of tho Arctic plants, 2.").

-, no land yet discovered in wliich it is entireh'

subdued by winter, 27.
, former, of the northern regions of the globe,

29.

of Spitzbergcn, 13Ct.

of Nova ZeMd)la, ]r)2.

• of Taimnrland, 226.

• of Kamchatka, 2.")1.

• of the Hay of Awatscha, 256.

of tlie Piil)ilo\v Islands, 271.

of Newfoundland, 37G.

of (Jrecnland, ,'i8f<.

■ , absence of, in tho Antairtic regions, 391.

of Port Famine, 410.

Verchnei Ostroi;, in Kamchatka, built, 198.
Verazzani, his voyages, ,3:!.").
Veslfjord. cod-fish' ry of the. 126.
V'ictoria Land, discovery of. 402.
Videy, eider-ducks of, ^l, 82.

Vigr, eider-(hi(ks of, 8.3.

, >lr. Slicpherd's visit to, 8.1, 84.

Vikings, tlitir couruge and discoveries, 89.

Virgins, Cape, 409.

A'ogelsasig, deer of, 137,

Volrn!iic eruptions in Iceland since its colonization.

9.'p,
Volcanoes giving birth to Iceland, fiS.

, those now e.\isting there, 09.

, the Ksk, on ,lan iMcyen, 140.

, of Kamchatka, 251').

— — , eruption of Mount Krebns, 40,3.

Vole, field (.Ircico/a (economus), indigenous to Ice.

land, 80,
Voyagpur, tlie, of North America, 304.
■ , his life and character, 304, 305.

i

j WAi.nrs, or morse {Trkhechus rotmarus), descrip.

I tioii of the, G2 (M,

, its affectionate temper, G4.

, its parental love, 01.

• , its chief resorts and food, C4.

fishing at Spitzbergen, 144.

bunted on Hear I.slaiid, 144.

of Nova Zenibla, IS.').

hunting on the coast of .Miaskn, 275.

, pieces of .skill of, a medium of exchange, 276.

, Ksqnimaiix mode of Imniing it, 298.

Wasliington Land, discovery of. 3(i9.

, Dr. Hayes's journey to, :<7o.

Wussiljew. his visit to the Lena, 19.').

Waygatz, island of, the sacred island of the Samoi.
edcs, 1811.

Weasel, the Siberian {Vivcrra SibcricnX the fur of.
i 211.
! AVeildell, Captain, his .•\ntaictic voyages. 401.

Wcldeii, Ins visit to Hear Island, 114,

Wellington Clianncl, temperature of, 28.

• , discovery of, 1545.

Weiijamin, tlie Arcliimandrito, 170.

Western, Thomas, preaches Christianity to tha

Lapps, 15ii.
Westinan Islands, description of the, 114.

. dirticully of access of ti.e, 114.

, how tiiey became colonized, 115.

, Ileimaey, or Home Island. 110.

, food and trade of the people, 117.

-, popidatiiin and moi tali.y of the children, 118.

• , their snlferiiigs from pirates, 118. 119.

Weymouth, his voyage to Hudson's Bay. 341.
Wliale, the (ireenlaiid (Baloiua mysticetut), or
smootli-b.ack, (iO.

oft" Nova Zi-inbla, 155.

, tho white, or beluga, Gl.

, the "ca'ing," G2

, a stranded, at Spitzbergen, 133.

, the tiii-buck. 59. (10.

of Spitzliergen. ll!7.

off Nova Zenilila. 155.

, smoolli-backi (1, of the Antarctic seas, 397.

, sperm, of the .Antarclie Ocean, 308.

Whalers, their dangers, in th - Arctic seas, 48.

I i

I

— , depressing effect of tlie summer fogs, 54.

, their opeiation.i in the Polar seas, 59,

— — , whale chases nf the .Meiits, 275,

, wli.ile-hnnts of the ICsqiiimaiix, 295.

, abundance .of ulialeMn the. ■Vntaretic seas. 397,

, battle betueen a whule and a grampus, 398,

804

INDEX.

Wlialo Round, enormous (jiaciors of, 50.
Wliitu-lisli, or Coregonus, ol' Nortli Aniorica,

;il(), lill.
Wliitu Sun, Castrrn's journey to tlie, 170.
■ (;iiMnuL'll(>r's disuovury of tliu passage

troni iMit^liuid to the, rj2.

, an iMiitliali expedition in the, 30(5.

Wliv iniiL'i", Frederick, travels in Alaska, 277-

2.s:t.
Wilkes, Captain, his diseoveries in the Antarc-

tie Ocean, lO'i.
Wilkes's Liind, discovery of, 102.
Williwaws of the Strait of Maj^ellan, 412.
Willou^Hiby, Sir Hugh, his voyage and death.

Willow, polar [Salix pnlaris), of Nova Zciubla,
15:3.

, dwarf, of the treeless zone, 21.

, dwarf, on tiio shores of tlie rivers and

lakes, 24.

Win l-holo Strait of the Dutch navigators, 339.

Winds, etfects of the cold sen-winds on vegeta-
tion, 22.

, inrtuonco of the, on an Arctic climate, 27.

Winter Harbor, Parry's winter in, 346.

Wiiitiria Aromntica, the, 410.

Wiiclicraft and witches of tiie Laplanders, 158.

Wolf, its attack of the reindeer, 37, 38.

, Lapp mode of huntinfi the, 1C4.

, in Newfoundland, 378.

Wolverine. (Sen Glutton.)

, fur of the, 310.

Wood, length of time necessary for the forma-
tion of, in the Arctic regions, 25.

Woraio, Jying, abandoned, 402.

WrangcU, Lieut, von, his services as an Arctic

e-xplorer, 233.
, his journey to the shores of the Polar

sea, 234.

, his winters at Kolymsk, 238.

, his night on the Polar .sea, 230.

, his danger, and return to St. Petersburg.

241-213. "

Wrestling for a wife among the Tinne' Indians,

330 ; and among the Kutchin Indians, 332.

Ykxisei river, importance of, 17.

Yermak Tiniodajeti; the Cossack robber, 192.

, his conquest of Siberia and death, 194.

, ills monument in Tobolsk, 194, 195.

York roads, beautv of, 412.
Yukon river, 278-289.

, ice in, 283.

Yukon, fort, 284.

Z.

Zembla, Nova, vast ice-flelds of, 27.

, moan temperature of, in summer and

winter, 27.

, the narwhal of the seas of, CO.

, the walruses of the coasts ot, 04.

Zinzendorf, Count, his interest in Greenland,

381.
Ziwolka, the Russitin steersman, his voyages,

149, 150.
, his meteorological observations, 150.

THE TEOPICAL WORLD.

A.

Akave.e. (See Spiders.)

Aard-vark, or cartli-hog, 008.

Abyssinia, elephant-hunting in, 717.

Acacias, 5c7.

Adjutant bird, 025, 057.

Africa, Savannas of, 503 ; hunting in, 504 ; lake
region of, 500 ; insects of, 588, 598; serpents
of. 027; moidicys of, 077; lions of, 700;
elephants of, 715; rhinoceroses of, 721 ; hii)-
popotamus of 725; camel of, 7i;9 ; giratfe of,
731; zebras and quaggas of, 733.

Alligators, of the old and new world, 035;
their prey, 035 ; size of, 03() ; crane caught
by, 0;i7 ; men caught by, 038 ; tenacity of
life, 038; their young, 039; their enemies,
039; torpidity in the dry season, 500, 039;
feign death, 040; lights with the orang-
outang, 0><3.

Agassiz Louis: Ilia collection of fishes, 520;
accoimt of natives of the Amazon, 521, 522;
estimate of the productions of Amazonia,

524; description of Brazilian coffeo-plnnta-
tions, 504 ; of the coHee-moth, 500.

Agave-plant, the, 533.

Alpaca, the, 483.

Altos of Peru. (See Pimn.)

Aluatcs, or howling monkeys, 090.

Ainache, ant, 597.

Amazon, Uiver and Valley of, !..7; extent of,
518; lagoons, 518; inundations, 519; vege-
tation of, 519; fishes of, 520; animal life of,
520; natives of, 521; siesta on, 554; alliga-
tors in, 030; turtles of, 041.

Ampliisbienas, 521.

Anac^onda, or walcrboa, 020.

Andersson, .lohn, Notes of, 504, 005, 667, 700,
701, 704, 721, 732, 735.

Andes, the ascent of, 490.

Animal life, general survey of, in different
zones, 581.

Animals: Alpaca, 4S3; boars, 735; bahirusa,
73() ; camel, 728 ; dromedary, 750 ; elephants,
712; giralfes, 731; hippopotamus, 725; hu-
anacu. 483; jaguar, 710; leopard, 708; lion,

LNDEX.

80u

698; puiim, 710, quni;p;a, 733; rhinoceros,

7'Jl ; sloth, 07;5; tigor, 705; vicuiiu, 483;

wild-oats, 711 ; zubrus, 733.
Anuinaliiri, tliu, U73.

Aiit-heurs, COO ; ant-bear and jaguar, 007.
Am-liills, 002.
Ants : Their niinihors, 094 ; pain of their bite,

6"Jo; (k'striictive of plants, iV,»0; housoliotd

pests, 607; the bashikouay, 698; liouse-

buililin^ ants, 699; slave-holding ants, 000,
Apes. (See Monki-ys.)
Aphides, or plant-lice, furnish honey for ants,

600.
Arabia, coflee culture in, 605.
Arabs, mode of bunting the lion, 702.
Aras, or macaws, OO'J.
Argala, or adjutant-bird, C25, 057.
Armadillos, 009; extinct species, 610.
Arrow-root, the, 665.
Aru, how natives of, shoot birds of paradise,

054.
Atacama, Peruvian I^esert, 608.
Ateles, or spider-monkeys, 690.
Atlas, Mount, Lion-hunting in, 700.
Atmosphere, the : currents of, 475.
Atolls, or coral islands, 478.
Atta cephalotes, ant destructive of the banana,

696.
Australia, coral reef of, 479; desert of, 608;

birds of, 055; bowcr-liird of, 050; the tale-

galla, 666 ; the emu otj 068.

B.

B.vninuSA, the 730.

Haboons. (See Monkeys.)

Bacha, or African falcon, the, 697.

Bamboos, uses of, 632.

Banana, and plantain, 661.

Banyan, or Indian figtree, 620.

Baobab, the giant tree, 527 ; Mrs. Livingstone's
grave under, 628.

Barth, Henry, Notes of, 504, 510, 715.

Bashikouny ant, the, 598.

Basilisk, the, 032.

Bat, the, 669; character and habits, 070; the
kalong, 670; eaten in Java, 070; the v.im-
pire, (571 ; horse-shoe bats, 072; small bat of
Ceylon, 072.

Beetles, abundance of in the tropical world,
681 ; used for ornament, 692.

Behemoth ; is lie the hippopotamus or the buf-
falo? 725.

Bell-bird, or campanero, 647.

Biite-rouge, the, 687.

Birds: the coik' .-, 480, 498, 693; the asfir,
509; the ostrich, 512, 663; the secretary,
624; the adjutant, 625; general view of biril-
iiie, 645; the toucan, 646; the humming-
bird, 647; coting.is, 647; the campanero,
647; manakins, 048 ; cock of the rock, 048 ;
troopials, 648 ; orioles, 649; cassiques, OlO;
the mocking-bird, 649 ; the toropishu, 650 ;
the tunqui, 650; goatsuckers, 660; tlie or-
gan-bird, 050; the cilgero, 050 ; the flamingo,
650; the ibis, 051; the jabiru, 651 ; the ja-
cana, 651 ; the rhinoceros hornbill. 051 ;
Eun-birds, 052 ; honey-eaters, 062 ; ocel-
lated turkey, 652; the lyre-bird, 653; birds
of p.iradise, 653; tl.e bower-bird, 660; the
talegalla, 656; the coppersmith 657; the

devil-bird, 657; the tailor-bird, 668; the
grosbeak, 668 ; the korwc', 668 ; weaving
birds, O.J9; parrots, 059; cockatoos, 662;
macaws, 062; panxiuets, 66;{ ; the ostrich,
60;i; rheas, 607; the cassowary, 607; the
emu, 008; the condor, his character and
flight, 093; mode of cajuuring, 094 ; the car-
rion vulture, 095; the harpy eagle, 096 ; the
sociable vulture, 696 ; the baclia, 697 ; the
tisliing eagle, 697; the sparrow-hawk, 698;
the secretary eagle, 698.

Boars, wild, chase of, 735.

Boas, 620; the boa constrictor, 020; water
boas, 50(), 020.

Bogota, table land of, 495.

Bolas, the, 602.

Hon, M., his spider-thrend stockings, 014.

Borelo, or black rhinoceros, the, 721.

Bo-tree, or I'ippul, 630.

Bower-bird, the, 666.

Brazil, Agassiz's estimate of its future, 523 ;
coflce-culture in, 663; ants of, 601 ; toads of,
633.

Bread-fruit, 650.

Hufo gigas, or great toad of Brazil, 033.

Buildings of ants, 602.

Busbropcs, or lianas, 516, 686.

Butterflies, 682.

Butterfly, the leaf, 683.

C.

Cacao, or chocolate, 607.

Cactuses, 533.

Camel, the, 728 ; ships of the land, 728 ; forma-
tion of its foot, 729; its food, 729; its water-
pouch, 729 ; its hump, and tlie uses of it,
729; its desert home, 729; the camel and its
master, 730; training for rol)bery, 730; en-
durance of tliir«t, 730; distinction between
the camel and the dromedary, 730; caravan
journeys, 731^; changes from servitude, 731 ;
effects upon its temper, 731 ; excuses for it«
ill-temper, 731.

Camek'opard. (See Giraffe.)

Campanero, or bell-bird, 647.

Cassava, or Mandioca, 664.

Cassia. (See Cinnamon.)

Cassiques, 649.

Cassowary, the, 607.

Cattle and horses in America, 600.

Caymen. (See Alligators.)

Ceiba-tree, the, 631.

Cerastes, the, 020.

Ceylon, Game in, .')05; parasitic and thorny
plants of, 636 ; Cinnamon culture, 673; ants
of, 696 ; serpents of, 616 ; alligators of, 640 ;
turtles of, 644; birds of, 667; monkeys of,
086; elephants of, 713; taming elephants,
717; Panickeas, or elephant-catchers, 718;
their mode of capturing the elephant, 718;
elephant establishments of the government,
721.

Chacma, or pig-faced baboon, 687.

Chaco, the grand, of Paraguay, 602.

Chameleon, the, 030.

Charming, by serpents, 021.

Cbegoes or jiggers, 585.

Clieelab, or '>unling leopard, the, 708.

Chelonians, or tortoises, 042.

Chimpanzee, the, 677.

i*

806

INDEX.

Chirinioyn, the, 492, 556.

(Jiiiicoliite, Ml.

Churc'li, F. A., Iiis paintini; uf the Heart of the
AiideH 4'Jl.

Cicadio, the, 6',t2.

('ilnero, the. (350.

Ciiiiiiiinuii, f)7l ; the Dutcli monopoly of, 572;
amount prodiiccil, 672; liistoriual notices of,
573; present consuni])ti(ii) of, 574.

Climbers, tiie, CU'.I; the hat, ti(Ul ; tlie flyinR
squirrel, C7i?; the unleopitlieci, 07:!; the
ani)maiuri,07:!; the sloth, 073; monkeys, 670.

Climhin); plants, 5155.

(cloves, 57 1, 57t').

Cobra .Ic Capollo, the, CIO.

Coca, the leaves of, 508 ; effects of their use, 56'J.

Cochineal insect, the, 5'Jl.

Cockatoos, 002.

Cock of the rock, G48.

Cockroaches, 58',).

Cocoa Cacao, and Coca,nottobeeonfounded,508.

('ocoa palm, the, 5!!8.

Cottcc, 502; home of the plant, 662; coffee
countri.'s, 501!. 505; cofleo plantations in
Bra/il, M>i; natherintf the berries, 505;
eiieniies ot the plant, 500.

ColIce-bii)r, the, 500.

Cotleeinoth, Mrs. Agassiz's description of, 600.

Colobi, the, 'Uil.

Columbus, and the Gulf-stream, 474.

Condor, the, 4^0, 4'.i8 ; his character and liight,
01)3 ; mode of capturiiijj, 0'J4.

Copiwrsmith, bird, the, 057.

Coipieros, or coca-chowcrs, 570.

Choral, reefs and inlands, 478, 479

Cordilleras the, 490.

Cotingas, 047.

(^ougar, or puma, the, 711.

Crab, robber, the, 580.

Crane, caught by alligator, 637.

Crocoililes. (See Allii/ators.)

Cubbeer-burr, a famoiis tree, 529.

Currents of the ocean, 473 ; the equatorial cur-
rent, 474; the Gulf Stream, 474.

Cynoecphali, monkeys, the, 087.

Dancing parties of birds of paradise, 055.

Deryas, sacred nionkev of Egypt, the, 688.

Desplobado, the, 480, 482, 485.

Deserts (See also Savannas.) Of Atacama,
608; of Australia, 5' 8; the Sahara, 609.

Devil-bird of Ceylon, 657.

Dioseorea, or yain-plants, 655.

Doldrums, or equatorial calm belts, 476.

Dorey, ants of, 597.

Douw, or nurchell's zebra, 734.

Dragon trees, 528

Dromedary, the. (See Camel.)

Du Chaillu, Paul : Account of the bashikouay

• ant, 698 ; of squirrel charmed by serpent,
024; kills large snake, 027; kills a gorilla,
078; female gorilla and young, 079; number
of gorillas seen by him, 080; whips of hippo-
potamus-skin, 727.

Durioii, the, 557; favorite food of the orang-
outang, t)84.

Diitcl), tlieir monopoly of spices, 672, 675.

Dy:iks, of Mnrueo, 081 ; contest with the orang-
outang, 084.

Eaof.e, the liarpy, 690; the fishing, 698; the
secretary, 098.

Kcnador, characteristics of, 490.

Kdible inse(;ts, .592; edible spiders, 614.

Klevation, its influence upon climate, 480, 486.

Elephant, the, 712; dilierence between the
tamed and wild, 712; timidity of the ele-
phant, 713; his power of climbing, 713 ; his
water-stomach, 713; his trunk, and its uses,
713; his tusks, and their possible uses, 714;
elephant herds, 504, 714; tuskers, 714 ; rogue
elephants, 714; distinction between African
and Asiatic elephants, 715 ; elephants known
to the ancients, 715; range of the African
elephant, 715; liow they are Inmted by the
natives, 710; by Europeans, 71ft; in Abys-
synia, 710; the Asiatiis elejihant, 717; their
abundance in Ceylon, 717; mode of cap-
turing them, 718 ; behavior of the captured
animals, 719; great elephant-hunts, 719;
elephant-corral, 719; tied up, 470, 719; tamo
elephants assisting to capture wild ones, 719;
decoy-elephants, 720; an obstinate brute,
720; a little head-work, 720; dying of a
broken heart, 720 ; the elephant in captivity,
720; value of their .abor, 720.

Ellioit, Ensign, adventure with a tiger, 707.

Emu, the, (107.

Eniydie, or marKh-io'toises, 641.

Enormous snakes, stories of, 627.

Epiphytic plants, 535.

F.

Favo8, poison, of serpents, 618.

Eascinati(m of serpents, 021.

Fireant of Guiana, 595.

Fire-flies, 584.

Fishing eagle, the, 098.

Flamingo, the, 050.

Flies, noxious, 587.

Flying frog, Wallace's, 6.33.

Flying lizards, 032.

Flying squirrels, 073.

Forests of the Tropical World, 514.

Formica. (See Ants.)

Fo.x-bat, or k.along, the, 670.

Franklin, Dr., Account of Indian corn, 649.

Frogs and toa<ls: Gigantic of the Amazon, 520;
the pipa, 632 ; Brazilian tree-frog, 033 ; Wal-
lace's flying frog, 033; singular toad at
Bahia, 033 ; the bufo gigas, 0;i4.

Fruits and I'lants of the Tropical World ; the
chirimoya, 492, 650 ; the leroshua, 504 ; the
mokuri, tlie kengwe, the naras, 606; the
date, 642; the litchi, 550; the mangosteeu,
557 ; the mango, 557 ; the duriou, 657.

G.

Galaoos, semi-monkeys, the, 688.
Galapagos, or Tortoise Islands, 040.
Galeopitheci, the, 673.
Gallin.izos, or carrion vultures, 695.
Gavials. (See Allir/ators.)
Geckoes, the, 029.
(iibbons, monkeys, the, 685.
Ginger, 67b.

'''V':

INUKX.

807

Giraffe, tlie, 504 ; jnilli'd down by lions, 099 ;
its u8|H'ct, 7!il ; iiH wuapoiis of ili'ti'nci.', "il'J;
it* iinutoniiuiil stnictiiri', "!j'J; i;liuse of the
giratlL', 7;j2 ; encounters witli lions, O'J'J, Tlili;
Aristotle and Uiitli)n on the ({iratte, I'M;
t;iratK's in Kurope and America, 7;!li; analo-
gies between the ostrich and the giratie, Tl!3.

Glufjah urass, the, 640.

(inn, the, 7;i4.

(iod's birds, name for ))ird8 of paradise, 053.

(ioliath beetle, the, oW.

(iorilla, the, 078; Dii Cliaillu's adventures
anion);, 078 ; female and yonnjf, 070.

Gourds, esculent, of the kalahari, 6U5.

(iranjinea, or grasses, 632.

Grosbeak, the, ()68.

Guachos of South America, 502.

Gutn-lac insect, 692.

H.

IIaje, serpent, the, 020.

Harpy eagle, the, 090.

Henderson, A. M., on tlie fascination of ser-
pents, 021.

Himalayas, mountains of, 497.

Hippopotamus, the, 72.") ; is it the behemoth of
Job? 725; its ancient and present habitat,
726; its mode of lite, 725; its unpleasing
aspect, 725 ; its inotlensive character, 720 ;
the rogne hipiiopotamus, 720 ; intelligence
of the hippopotamus, 720; whips of its hide,
727 ; its ivory, 727 ; modes of destroying,
727 ; spearing tlie hippopotamus, 728 ; the
downfall, 728.

Historical tree, the oldest, 630.

Hog, the, destructive to tlio rattlesnake, 019.

Honey-eaters, 052.

Hornbill, the rhinoceros, 051.

Horse, tlie, introduced into America, 500; in-
fluence upon the natives, 502.

House-building ants, 599.

Humming-birds, 047.

Huanacu, the, 483.

Humboldt, A. Von: Notes of, 498, 517, 525,
552, 001, 038, 091, 094.

Huniman, the sacred monkey of India, 086.

Hunting, of the vicuna, 484 ; of the gazelle,
512; of the ostrich, 512, 004; of the lion,
700 ; by the cheetah, 708; of the rhinoceros,
723 ; of the hippopotamus, 727 ; of the wild
boar, 735.

Hurricanes, velocity of, 477.

Hya?na, the, 709 ; different species of, 709.

Uydrosauri, or water-lizards, 632.

Ibis, the, 651.

Igaripc's, or canoe paths of the Amazon, 518.

Iguanas, 631.

Incas of Peru, 486; origin of their civilization,
487 ; present asjwct of their sacred island, 487 ;
fountain of the Incas, 488 ; their great mil-
itary roads, 489.

Indians, of Kcuador, 493 ; of southern Africa,
500 ; of the Amazon, 521 ; of the Malay isl-
ands, 552.

Iiipects, aliundanoc of within the tropics, 581 ;
beetles, 681 ; goliath, 582; leaf-buttertly, 682,

niantiii or soothsayer, 583 ; flre-flies, 584 ;
iuosquitoes, 685; jiggers, 585; the bete-
rouge, 580; ticks, 687; lanil-U'Cches, 687;
the tsets(', 587; Jsalt-Salya, or zimb, 588;
locusts, 688; cockroaches, 589; the silk-
worm, 59IJ; the rot'hineal insect, 591; the
gum-lac insect, 592; edible insects, 592; or-
namental insects, 593; aphides, or plant-lice,
01 '0, (tSee n\so Ants, Termttes, uinl Hpiders.)

Iiidiarubbcr tree, tlie, 530.

Inundations, of the Amazon, 619.

hlaiiils : mostly trojiical, 477 ; volcanic, 478 ;
coralline, 478; volcanic, 479; how peopled,
479.

J.

J/"'RtT, the, 651,
Ji vana, the, 051.
.'.•guar, the, 710; his ravages, 710; mode* of

hunting, 710.
Java, cotlee of, 603 ; Dutch monopoly of spicea

in, 575 ; bats in, 070.
; Jigger, or chegoe, the, 685.

K.

Kai.a, the rhinoceros-bud, 722.

Kalaiiari, South African Savanna, 503; vege-
tation of, 505 ; water in, 605 ; insects of, 506 ;
wator-flnding ants, 50*'i ; inhabitants of, 600.

Kalong, or fox-bat, the, 070.

Keitloa, or black rliinoceros, the, 721.

Kengwc, an African plant, 5('5.

Khanisiii, or simoom, the 511, 729.

Kobaaba, or white rhinoceros, the 722.

Korwe', the, 068.

LABAnni snake, tlio 617.

Ladang, or mountain rice, 54G.

Lake Region of Africa, 500.

Land and Water, Proportions of, 473.

Lasso, the, 501.

Leeches, Land of, Ceylon, 587.

Leichardt, Mr., ex|>lorations in Australia, 509.

Lemurs, semi-monkeys, 088.

Leopard, the, 708; tlie cheetah, or hunting
leopard, 708.

Lcroshuii, an African plant, 504.

Liana, the, 483.

Llanos, of Venezuela, the, 499; in the dry
season, 500; in the wet season, 500.

Lianas. (See Bushropes.)

Life and cold, struggles between, 471.

Lion, the, 504; lion and rhinoceros, 504, 704;
general characteristics of the lion, 693 ; moilo
of seizing his prey, 099; lions and girafie,
099 ; lion and man, 700; hunting the lion on
Mount Atlas, 700, 702; man-eating lions,
700, 704; adventure of Hottentot with, 701;
of Andersson with, 701; of Livingstone with,
702; hunted by the Arabs, 702; by the
Bushmen, 703; ancient range of, 704; pres-
ent range of, 704; Livingstone's opinion of,
704.

Litchi, the, 550.

Livingstone, David . Notes of, 605, 527, 685,

808

INDKX.

Liviii«st()iu', David: XotcH of, C88, 605, COO, I Nutritive riiinls of tlio Tropicnl World (flmp.

Gt)7, 7iilt. 7IM, 7l'i, Tl'ii, 7:il!.
Liviiiu'ntdiii', Mrs., (iravu of, r)28.
l.iziinlH, t)2'.) ; llic (.'ci koe, (I'J'.t; tlio nnolis.OW);

tilt' cliaiiu'lpnii, ti:i((; llic i(,'iiaiia, (iol ; flio

tfja, ('i.!l ; livdrnsiiuri, or water li/anis, tiii-;

tlyirv4-li/ar<l-i, tju2; the busiliitk, 0u2.
Locllslrt, t>W.

liorJH, soiniinonkc.VH, 088.
IiDvel'arrot, the, lilJl.
Lyru-bird, tlie, Uuu.

M.

Macaws, ('.02.

Mare, ")7t).

,M:\!,'ilaleiia river, voy.ipc up, 495.

MalKj^'iiiiy tree, the, uIU.

JIai/e, or Indian Corn, 547; it8 productivc-
iie.ss, 518; Fraiikliu'ji aeeoiint of, 51',).

Malay Arehipela^'o, the, |iruduutions aiul ani-
iiial.s of. (See Wallace.)

Maiiakins, bird.'*, ('>18.

Mama Oella, le!;cnds of, 480.

Maiiuo Cai)ae, lenendH of, IHO,

Mandril.s, iiioiikey.", the, ()87.

Maiidioua, or Ca.ssava, 554.

Maiifi'), the, 557.

Mani;o.steen, the, 557.

Manide.s, ant-eaters, (108.

M.'intis, or soothsayer, the, 583.

Marehiiiij termite, the, 000.

Mata, a plant of the I'aiia, 483.

Meiiatherimn, the, 075.

Menihraeida', aphides, 000.

Me.xieo, tableland of, 4',(0.

Mias, or oranfj-outanjj, 080.

Millet, 550.

Mimosas, 534.

Mocking-bird, the, 049.

Mokuri, an Afriean plant, 505.

^Monitor, lizard, 031.

Monkeys, their liabits and characteristics, 070 ;
l)laee in the scale of bciiiR, 077 ; distinfjuished
from the linman race, 077 ; the chimpanzee,
077 ; the ^''''illa, 078 ; the orang-outanjj, or
mias, 080; the (jibbons, 085; the semno-
jiitheci, OSO; the litniiman, 080; the eyno-
cephali, baboons and mandrils, 087 ; diller-
ence between monkeys of tlio two lienii-
spheres, 08b ; abundance of monkeys in
.South America, 089; miriki, 08'J ; howliiif;
monkeys, 090; spider-monkeys, 091; fox-
tail nuinkeys, 091; the Saimiris, 091; noc-
turnal monkeys, 091 ; domesticated mon-
keys, 092; s(inirrel monkeys, 092.

Monolio, or white rhinoceros, tho 721.

Jlonsoon.s, the, 470.

Mora-tree, tho, 531.

Mosquito, the, 585.

Mountains: as iiiHnencinff climate, 470.

Mnle, the ship of the desert of Atacama, 508.

Alunciaaracng, of Amazonia, 521.

Mylodon, the, 075.

N.

Naras, an African plant, 505.

Kests of weaving birds, 058.

Nocturnal monkeys, 091.

Nutmegs, 571; lintch monopoly of, 575.

ler VI. fsec also J-'iuih mid J'/niiln.) Uice,
5t5; .Maize, 547: Millet, o.'.O; biead-friiit,
550; banana and plaiilain, 551; the sa^u-
i)aliii,552; cassava, or inaiidioca, 5,'il; yams,
555; sweet potato, 555; arrow-root, 555;
taro root, 5.')0.

Nycteribia bats, 072.

Nyclopitiieci, ur uocturnal nionkcyi, 601.

O.

OCKAN AND ATMOSPIiF.nE, the, 471.

Ocaiu, the, extent of, 472 ; inllneiico upon cli-
mate, 473 ; laws noveniinn them, 475.

Okhotsk .Sea, cnrrents of, 475.

Oiaiiji-oiilaiiji, or iiiiis.tiMO; Wallace's account
of, Osl ; portrait of female, 0^1 ; streiiijth
and tenacity of lite, 082; size of the larnesl,
t')S2 ; a (ormidable op|ionent, ti83; fights with
the alligator and [vtlion, 083 ; its habits and
liiod, 08;!; Wallace's jiet orang, 084.

Orchids, 535.

Orejones, of Hopotii, 495.

Orijan-bird, the, 05U.

Orioles, tils.

Ornamental ins'.ct.'', 592.

Oricoii, or sociable vulture, 090.

Orotava, great dragon-tree of, 528.

Orton, .James : Not ;s from, 490, 493, 494, 498,
520,522, 524,030,041.

Orveteropi, ant-eaters, 008.

Ostrich, the : Hunting of, 512, 004 ; the ostrch
at home, 003; its enemies, 004, <'t)0 ; its in-
stincts, 005; care for its young, 0t)5; con-
necting link hotween birds nv.:\ ()uadrupe()s,
000; its omriiverous uppetite, OiiO; vatuo of
its feathers and eggs, 007.

0.\, the, introduced into America, 500 ; their
vast inurease, 501.

Paoittcermati of iho tropical world, 712.

J'.'iddy, or native rice, 547.

I'aim-trees: Tho niaurifit, 499 ; on the Ama-
zon, 409, 51',); general characteristics, l''8,
542 ; avenue of, at Uio Janeiro, 539 ; multi-
plied uses of, 539; the sagner, and aieca,
540; the palmyra and talipot, 541 ; the date-
palm, 542; oil-palnis, 542; p'llins on tho
Amazon, 543; the sago-palm, 552; future
commercial value of the palm, 544.

Piiinpas, of South America, 4'J9. (See also
Sarannas and Llanos.) Horses and cattle in,
502.

Panama railroad, forest on, 520.

Pandanus, or screw-i)ine, 533.

Pangolins, ant-eaters, 008.

Panickeas, elephant-catchers of Ceylon, 718.

Paradise, birds of, 053; early stories about,
053; Wallace's account of, 053; shooting oK
by natives of Arn, 054 ; the great bird of
paradise, 055; snaring the red bird of para-
dise, 055.

Parasitic plants, 535.

Paroquets, (i03.

Parrots, 059.

Peons, in South America, 522.

Pepper, 570.

INDEX.

809

Peru, micient clvilizntinn of, 486,

I'icliiiic'liit, volcunu, duDcuut iiitu, 404.

I'inii'iito, 677,

rippiil, or Ho-trcc, MO,

J'i(jiii', or jijjKi'r, 68').

I'liintain uikI Imiiiina, 551,

I'liint-licc, npliidi's, f'lirnisli honey to nnts, fiOO,

PliiiitH, nutritive, (iici' Fniiti ami Trent.) Hice,
Mi); maize, 517; iiiillft, 550; Huj^nr-caiie,
f)5'J ; t'otli'i', 5(12 ; cacao, or cliocolato, 5ti7 ;
vanilla, 5t)H; coca, 50H ; ciiuiuii<oi> uud cas-
sIm, 571 ; iiutiiu'K!) ami cloves, 574.

Ponora clavata, uiit, 5',»(.

I'oroi'ucoca, on tlie Aniuzon, 518.

I'otiito, the sweet, 555.

Prey, beasts ami birds of, V,'X\.

Puma, or cougar, Anicricaii lion, the, 710.

Puna, the, or table-land of Peru; its extent
and character, 481 ; diseases of, 482; life in,
4K2; vei,'etation of, 4h:i; animals of, 484;
climate of, 485. (Sec also Tiiicacn.)

Python, the, 020 ; contests witli the orang-
outang, 083.

QpAOOA. (Sec Zchra.)

Quinua, a plant of the Puna, 483,

Quito, table-land of: its elevation, 489 ; ways
of access, 4'JO; approach from the Pacific
coast, 401 ; tlie climate and productions,
402 ; its fauna and flora, 402 ; the people,
493 ; its surrounding volcanos, 494,

R.

Habiiit, fascinated by serpent, G23,

Rains and rain-fall, 470 ; at sea, 477 ; in Tarious
places, 477, 513.

Rutans, 541.

Rattlesnakes, 010; power of fascination, 021.

Realejo, or organ-bird, the, 050.

Red ant of Ceylon 50.".

Reefs, 478,

Rlieas, or American ostriches, C07,

hhinoceros, the, 721 ; species of, 721 ; diifer-
encc between the white and tlic black, 721 ;
general characteristics, 722; acutcness of its
smell and hearing, 722; imperfection of its
vision, 722; its bird attendant, 722; bad
temper of the black sjiecies, 722 ; fondness
for its oUspring, 723; its nocturnal lialiits,
723 ; hunting the rhinoceros, 723; its vitality,
723; value of its ivory, 723; rhinoceros
paths, 724 ; the Indian rhinoceros, 724,

Rice, species and culture of, 545 ; rice lands of
the United States, 540 ; enemies of the rice-
plant, 647.

Rice-bird, the, 647,

Rice, Colonel, adventure with a tiger, 700.

Roads of the Incas of Peru, 480.

Rogue elephants, 714; rogue liippopotami,
720.
liobber crab, B80 and CM.

8.

Saceu, tlnncing parties of birds, C56.
Sucred island in Luke Titicacu, 485, 488.

Sngn, mode of manufacturing, 652; productive-
ness of the tree, 5.'i3.

Sahara, I)»'sert of, 500; liarth's adventure in,
610; oa^cs in, 511; khamsin, or ijestilential
wind, 511; animals and birds of, 512; seuuoni
of, 513.

Saimiris, monkey, 091.

Sakis, the, OOl.

Sandal-tree, the, 631.

.•Sargasso Sea, the, 471.

Sarumpe a disease on the Puna, 482.

Satinwood-tree, 530,

Savannas and Deserts (Chapter III.) The
Llanos of Venezuela, 4'.'0 ; the Pampas, 500;
the Kalahari, 502 ; Lake Region ot Africu,
500.

.'^awa, or marsh rice, 5-10.

Scorpions, 014 ; their aspect, 016; their venom,
015.

Sensmf, the : Changes of, in different hcmii-
pheres, 470.

Sea-weeds in the Sargasso Sea, 474.

Secretary eagle, the, 021, OO.s.

Scmi-nionkeys, lemurs, loris, etc., 688.

Semnopitheci, monkeys, the, 080,

Serpents: Rarity ot venomous species, 616;
danger from, 017; antidotes to their poison,
018 ; mechanism of their ])oison-fangs, 018;
the bushmaster, 010; rattlesnakes, 019 ; ex-
tirpated by hogs, 010; the cobra, 020; the
liaje, 020; boas and pythons, 020; fascina-
tion of serpents, 021 ; catching their prey,
021; their bird enemies, 024; eating each
other, 0i;5 ; anatomical structure, 025; the
formation of their jaws, 020 ; protracted fast-
ings, 020 ; nseful serpents, 027 ; trce-snake»
and water-snakes, 027 ; enormous 8ori)ent8,
027; large snake killed by Du Chaillu, 027;
larger one mentioned by Wallace, 028.

Serpent-destroyers, 010, 024.

Sikkim, the table-land ot, 497.

Silk-worm, the, 600.

Silla, traveling by, 400.

Simoom, the, 611, 720.

Sjambok, whip of rliinoccros-liide, 727.

Slave-bunling ants, tlOO.

Sloth, the, 073; lielplessncss on tlie ground,
074; activity on trees, 074; tenacity of lito,
675; gigantic fossil sloths, 070.

Snakes. (See Serfientx.)

Soothsayer, or mantes, 583.

Soroche, a disease on the Puna, 482.

Sparrow-hawk, the, 008.

Speko. John H., Accoimt of the Lake Region
of Africa, 507.

Spices, 5.'iO; cinnamon, 571; niV.megs and
cloves, 574; pepper, 570; pimerto, 677 ; gin-
ger, 578.

Spiders: Nnmornus on tlio Amarjn, 620; pen-
er-i| characteristics of, 610; their venom,
iill; their webs, Oil; neutr.nl-colored spi-
ders. Oil; bright-colored sjiidcrs, 012; modes
of life, 012; spider-eating birds, 013; insect
enemies of tlie spider, 013; small eflects of
the bites of spiders, 013; edible spiders, 014;
possible industrial uses of their filunicuts, 014.

Spider-monktys, 001.

Spider-webs, their fineness, 614.

Spoonbills, 051.

Squier, K. G.: Notes from, 481, 484, 487.

Squirrel, clmrmed by serpent, 6'i4; the flying
squirrel, 078.

J<10

iNUKX.

Sfiuirri'linoiilu'.vs, 002.

Siurt, Mr., K\|ii(irniiimn In AiMtralln, TiOO.

Siitziir, iiiiiimiai.tiiri' nl', 5iil.

hii„'ir-ciiiii', 111!', ii'i'J ; its intro(liiclii)ii into

Aiiu'rii-ii, 01)1); cliiiructi.'riHtiL'!t ut' tliu plant,

full.
SutiliinN, (i.'/J.
iS^'cuuiure, the, G29.

TAnu', L.wns, of rcrii, 480; of Quito. 480;

H(>t,'i)lii, I'.i.'); ot Mcxii'i), I'Jd; of llx' lliiiia-

layiH, l'.)7.
Tnilor-liinl, the, fi'iS.
TaluKiilla, or liriiHh-turkcy, the, CtM,
Tapir, tiie, T/Jl.
Tarantula, HpidtT, cxnggcrated accounts of its

VIMIOMI, (ll4.

Taro-root, tlii>, MO.

TatiKicil Indians on tlio Amazon, 621.

Teak-tree, the, &;!(>.

Teju lizard, tiio, tllil.

TenMent,Sir Knierson; Notes of, 527, C35,f)lG,

();!H,(iio,oiJ. 072, 7i;;, 72 1.

Termites, or white aiit.s; Their habits and
food, 1)1)1; destruetivoness to books and t'ur-
nilure, tlOl ; their ii.scs, (102. their (^oniniuni-
ties, (102; their building's, (102; their indus-
try, (103; their military o|ioralii)ns, (101;
American termites, (10'); mode of cai)ture,
(105; marc'.iing termites, (10(5.

Theobroma, or chocolate, 507.

Thorny plants, 504, 530,

Ticks, 58(1.

Thorpe, T. B., on the fascination of serpents,
022; on the size of allijjators, ii'M.

Tiernis, climatic re^jions of Mexico, 490.

Tiger, the, 705 ; appearance and habits, 705 ; his
lerocity, 705 ; his present and former range,
704; tiger-hunting by natives of India, 71)0;
by Knglish residents, 700; perilous adven-
ture, 700 ; peacocks and monkeys warning
against the tiger, 707 ; preying upon tor-
toises, 'OH.

Titicaca, the sacred lake and island of Peru:
elevation of the lake, 485 ; the sacred island,
480.

Toads. (See Frofjs.)

Toropishu, the, 050.

Tortoises. (See Turtles.)

Toucan, the, 040.

Trade winds, the, 470.

Trees and Plants of the Tropical World : ^Inu-
ritia |)alni, 4',)0; the wait-a-bit thorn, 504;
baobab, 527; dragon trees, 628; the syca-
more, 620 ; banyan, 520; pipjiul, or bo-tree,
630; the teak-tree, 530; .satinwooil, 530;
sandal-wood, 531; ceiba, 631; mahogany,
531 ; mora, 531 ; bamboos (see umlir hind) ;
agave, 533 ; pandanus, 533 ; cactuses, 6:54 ;
mimosas, 534; lianas, 635; acacias, 537;
mangroves, 538; ■\K\\n\^ (see under hnul) \ rat-
ans, 541; breadfruit, 5.50 ; ciouamon, 572.

Trigonocephalus snake, the, 018.

Troopia.s. 048.

Tropical World, the : Ocean and Atmosphere
of, 471-170. (Chapter I.) — Table-Lands and
Plateaus of, 480-408. (Chapter II.)— Savan-
nas and Deserts of, 400-513. .'Chapter III.)
J'orcsts of, 514-624. (Chapter IV.)— Charac

teristlcforni'* of Veiretation, r.2.')-5JJ. (C'liaiv
tcr V.)— .Nutriti>|. I'ianis of, .Vl.'i-.i,.s. (Cliap.
Ii'r VI,) — ('(Midinii'ntM and Spicen, iViO-r)7H.
(Cliiiptcr VII.)— In«fcis lit, .'iSl ■.)'.i:;. (f|iii|i-
ter VIII.) — Ani.t, Spi'lers, and Si'iirpioMi,
5',il-0l,'), ((,'liapler l.\.) — ^er|«'nls, Lizards,
Krogs and 'I'oad.-i, 0|il-(i;il. (Chapter .\.)— .
Alligators, CrocoiliUM, ami 'l'urtlc'M,(l:;.'>-i)l4.
Chapter .\l.)^ltird Life, (115-ilOS. (Chapter
XII.)— The Cliinliers, (l(i;i-(102. (Chapter
XIII.)— Heasts and Hirds of I'rey, il'.i;;-71 1,
(Chapter XIV.) — The Klephant, Hiiiiiiu'eni*,
llippiipotamiis, Camel, and /ebra, 712-730.
(Chapter XV.)

Tschiidi, von. Notes from, 484, 485, COO, 585,
500, (lot, 710, 711.

T.M'tse-tly, the. 587.

Tunqui, the 050.

Turkey, the, ocellated, 052 ; tlio brusJi-turkey,
050.

Turkey-buzzard, tlie, 004.

Turtles, 040; thuir chief habitats. Oil; slow
travelers, 041; hunting their ejrus on the
Am.izon, Oil; .Marsh-tortoises, (ill; sea-
turtles, (142; enemies of the turtle, 01::;
modes of taking, 013 ; barbarous treatment
of. Oil; vocal turtles, 044.

u.

Unrnu, or c.irrion vulture, 095.
Unjuiza, General, his vast estates, 601.
Umbrella ant, the, 600.

V.

Vanilla, 5G8.
Vami)ires, 071.
Vegetation, Tropical, characteristic Forms of,

525.
Vernga, poisoned water of the Tuna, 482,
Veta, a disease in the I'unu, 482.
Victoria regia, the, 53(1.
Vicuna, the, 483 ; hunts of, 484.
Vivagiia-ant, the, 500.

Volcanos : of Ecuador, 494 ; of Mexico, 497.
Vulture, the carrion, 096 ; tlie sociable, O'JO.

W.

Wallace, ALFREn R. : Account of the bread-
fruit, 550; the nuinufacture of sago, 552;
description of the durior, 557; of the leaf-
butterlly, 582; ants in Dorey, 507 ; describes
lingo snake, (128 ; of a tlying trog, 033 : of
birds of paradise, (153; of edible i-ats, (17li;
of the orang-outang, 081; bis pitorang,
084 ; notice of the babirusa, 73(1.

Water: Proportion of to land, 471', relations
to fertility, 475, 400, 626; obtaining in the
Kalahari, 505.

Waterton, William : Notes of, 017, 037, 040,
050. 072, 074.

Weaving-birds, and their nests, 659.

Webs of spiders. Oil.

West Inilies, sugar in, 501 ; coffee in, 503.

Whirlwinds, 477.

W'liite Ants. (See Termites.)

WiM-Cats, different species of, 711,

VViuiis, us regulators of rain, 476.

INDKX.

811

WimkIm, orimitii'iitiil of the Aina/oii, &"J1.
Wouruli i>oi8oii, the, O'JO.

Yam, fho, CM.
Vriurifiw, pulius, tlie, W3.

Z.

/kiiiu, tlio, "O? ; itn ntHM'ninnci', 7.'13 ; cnitncity
Ifir (lomcstinitioii, T;;:!; Imliiti, "UU; miuiunt
iiniiii's III', 7;U.

/iiiililly, ihc, .'iMrt.

Zuiiun ut' tliu Eurtli, LiiiiiU of, 472.