IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) ^O A (moaning "CON- TiiyUED"). or tha aymboi ▼ (moaning "END"), whicliavar appiiaa. iMapa, piatat, charts, ate, may bo fiimad at diffarant raduction ratioa. Thoaa too larga to ba antiraiy inciudai in ona axpoaura ara fiimad baginning in tha uppar laft hand comar, iaft to right and top to bottom, aa many framaa aa raquirad. TIm foilowing diagrama iliustrata tha mathod: 1 2 3 L'axamplaira fllm4 f ut raproduit grica A ia g4n4roaitA da: BIMiothlqiM MintfM NatloiMux du Camda Laa imagaa auhrantaa ont 4t* raproduitaa avac ia pius grand aoin, compta tanu da ia condition at da ia nattatA da l'axamplaira fiimA, at an conformit* avac laa condltlona du contrat da filmaga. I.as axampiairaa originaux dont la couvartura an paplar aat imprim^a aont fiimto an commandant par la pramiar plat at an tarminant salt par ia darnlAra paga qui comporta una ampralnta d'impraaaion ou d'iiluatration, aolt par la sacond plat, aaion la cas. Toua laa autraa axampiairaa originaux aont filmte an commandant par la pramMra paga qui comporta una ampralnta d'impraaaion ou d'iiluatration at an tarminant par la darnlAra paga qui comporta una taiia ampralnta. Un daa symbolas sulvanta apparaltra sur la darnlAra Imaga da chaqua microficha, salon la caa: la symbda -^ aignifia "A 8UIVRE", la aymbola ▼ aignifia "FIN". Laa cartaa, planchaa, tableaux, ate, pauvant Atra flimia A daa taux da reduction diff Aranta. Loraqua la document aat trap grand pour Atra reproduit en un aaul cHcliA, 11 eat fHmA A partir da I'angia aupAriaur gauche, do gauclie A droite, et de haut en baa, an prenant la nombre d'imagea nAceeaaire. Laa diagrammea auivanta lliuatrent ia mAthoda. 1 2 3 4 5 6 ART ANATOMY OF ANIMALS ^ .M^f ^^, ^^^r-/^^ ^^^Z- 3^- /'^^^ f a ja:^^^^^^^^'^^^-^^^-^'^---^ AF ^§m. NATURAI STUDIES IN THE ART ANATOMY OF ANIMALS BEING A BRIEF ANALYSIS OF THE VISIBLE FORMS OF THE MORE FAMILIAR MAMMALS AND BIRDS. DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF SCULPTORS, PAINTERS. ILLUSTRATORS, NATURALISTS. AND TAXIDERMISTS. BY ERNEST E. SETON THOMPSON NATURAUST TO THB GOVERNMENT OF MANITOBA; AUTHOR OF "THE BIRDS OF MANITOBA," "THE MAMMALS OF MANITOBA," THE KING OF CURRUMPAW." EXPOSANT AU SALON. ILLUSTRATED IV/TH ONE DR/tkVINGS BY THE AUTHOR LIBRARY NATIONAL MUSEUM lonDon MACMILLAN AND CO., LTD. NEW YORK : THE MACMILLAN CO. 1896. OOGO.^, WHO TO MY LIFE-LONG FRIEND MRS. C. M. B. SCHREIBER, WHO FIRST DIRECTED MY ATTENTION TO THE STUDY OF ART ANATOMY, THIS VOLUME IS affectionatdp Dedicated There ha fhere have bee liimals, but n( The varic Imewhat circii |e surgical oi [ject of study erburdened i I have en arking always led to inculc ring with it atomical stud I have ma liat this is the the artist, ai liscientious Ja I Birds may i I pen of Mr. bressly for ai The plates, lections or fi The same ; iild give a fr< as far as f llts in occas: pider the na descriptive PREFACE There has hitherto been no general work on the Anatomy of Animals from the Art standpoint, ["here have been several treatises on the Anatomy of the Horse and one or two on others of the domesticated limals, but no work presenting the general principles of Comparative Anatomy applied to Art. The various special works existent cannot be said to answer the present purpose even within their Imewhat circumscribed limits. All are open to serious objection. Either they were written entirely from le surgical or zoological standpoint, and internal structure rather than external form made the chief iject of study ; or the subject is treated obviously with the dead animal only in view ; or they are erburdened with text and in most cases poorly illustrated. I have endeavoured to advance a step by treating primarily the visible form of the living animal \ irking always with the living subject before me as well as a dead one on the dissecting table. I have led to inculcate general principles by treating in detail a familiar and typical species, the Dog, com- ring with it all animals commonly represented by the painter and sculptor and supplementing the atomical studies of each by series of actual and proportional measurements. I have made a careful study of Hair, or Fur, from the scientific as well as the artistic point of view, bat this is the first attempt ever made to study the subject is surprising in view of its great importance I the artist, an importance which will scarcely be questioned after an examination of the works of the iscientious Japanese or the best modern masters of animal sculpture. The section on the Art Anatomy Birds may also claim to be unique, for although antedated by the full and valuable papers from pen of Mr. Goodchild, this is the first time that the subject has been treated in a publication designed ^ressly for artists. The plates, which are the chief feature of this work, are from original drawings made from my own ections or from nature. The same anatomical names are used for all the species treated, as I cannot understand why anatomists aid give a fresh set of names to the muscles for each new animal — surely it is better to retain through- as far as possible, the familiar nomenclature of the human subject. It is maintained that this llts in occasional absurdities in view of the meaning of the terms, but it seems to me preferable to pider the names merely as handles to the facts, as abstract symbols ; for if we admit the right to a descriptive name the nomenclature must continue to change as long as human opinion changes. viii PREFACE Among the books referred to, the most useful were EUenberger and Baum's " Anatomie dei Hundes," and the anatomical works of Chauvcau, Mivart, and Cuyer and Alix. A list of the principal works consulted is appended. My thanks arc due to Dr. John Caven, of Toronto Medical School, and to Dr. A. Primrose, of Toronto Biological School, for assistance in making my dissections as well as for placing at my disposal the material and appliances in their laboratories ; to Professor Filhol, of the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, for putting at my service the skeletons in the Galerie d'Anatomie Comparee; and to Professor Ed. Cuyer for assisting me with the material in the Museum of the £cole des Beaux Arts in Paris. I am also indebted in an especial degree to Mr. William Anderson, F.R.C.S., Professor of Anatomy at the Royal Academy of Arts, London, for assistance in matters bibliographical, and for a revision of the text, particularly of the chapters relating to the bones and muscles; and to Miss Grace Gallatin, of New York, for essential aid in the literary revision of the work, and for putting the manuscript in due form for the printer. Eknest E. Thompson. Paris, y/ugusl 1895. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION CHAPTER I. General Considerations II. The Hair ... .. III. The Skin-Folds IV. The Nerves V. The Glands VI. The Veins ... ... VII. The Fasci.*, Ligaments and Tendons VIII. The Bones IX. The Muscles of the Doo ... X. The Muscles of the E)oo (continued) XI. The Muscles of the Dog (continued) XII. The Muscles of the Dog (continued) XIII. The Muscles of the Doo (continued) XIV. The Size and Proportions of the Dog XV. The Anatomy, Size, and Proportions of the Wolf XVI. The Fox XVII. The Anatomy, Size, and Proportions of the Cat XVIII. The Anatomy, Size, and Proportions of the Lion XIX. The Anatomy, Size, and Proportions of the Tiger XX. The Jaguar XXI. The Leopard ... XXII. The Cougar, Puma, Panther or Mountain Lion . XXIII. The Chita, Cheetah or Hunting Leopard XXIV. The Bear Family XXV. The Grizzly Bear XXVI. The European Brown Bear XXVII. The American Black Bear... XXVIII. The Polar or White Bear... XXIX. The Anatomy of the Horse PAGE I 3 4 7 8 9 lO II 13 «S i8 22 26 3° 31 33 35 36 37 39 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 Vlll TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER XXX. The Size and Proportions of the Horse XXXI. The Ass or Donkey XXXII. The Anatomy, Size, and Proportions of the Ox XXXIII. The Amep.ican Buffalo or Bison XXXIV, The Sheep XXXV. The Bighorn ... XXXVI. Polo's or the Pamir Sheep ... XXXVII. The Goat ... XXXVIII. The Giraffe ... XXXIX. The Prong-horned Antelope XL. The Deer Family XLI. The Wapiti or American Elk XLII. The Red Deer of Europe ... XLIII. The Virginian Deer or Common Deer of America XLIV. The Moose and the European Elk XLV. The Reindeer and the Caribou ... XLVI. The Camel and the Dromedary ... XLVII. The Pig XLVIII. The Indian Elephant XLIX. The African Elephant L. Measurements of Certain Skeletons LI. The Horse in Motion LII. The Gallop of the Dog LIII. The Anatomy of Birds LIV. The Peacock ... A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL WORKS CONSULTED INDEX PAGE t 52 ^ 1 55 ^ H 56 H 58 H 60 H 61 H 62 H 63 I 64 1 65 H , 66 j H 67 H PLA1 68 1 69 70 72 1 '^'' 73 7+ 5 75 1 1 ^ ■ 77 1 78 1 80 1 z 81 8 82 1 85 ■ 86 1 1 XII. 89 1 XIV. I XV. 1 ^^^' ■ XVII. 1 XVIII. 1 XIX. 1 XX. I XXI. I XXII. ■ XXIII. 1 XXIV. 1 XXV. I XXVI. ■ XXVII. ■ XXVIII. ■ XXIX. LIST OF PLATES PLATE I. Diagram of a Wolf II. Diagram of the Hair on the Bellies of Dog and Cat III. The Arrangement of Hair on the Greyhound IV. Heads of Lynx, American Buffalo, and Lion V. The Anatomy o? the Greyhound. The Skeleton VI. The Anatomy of the Greyhound. The Bone Points VII. The Anatomy of the Greyhound. Some Details of the Bones, and the First Layer of Muscles VIII. The Anatomy of the Greyhound. The Important Musci.es IX. The Anatomy of the Greyhound. Back and Front Views of the Skeleton and the Important Muscles X. The Anatomy of the Greyhound. The Skeleton and the Important Muscles seen from above XI. The Anatomy of the Greyhound. The Skull XII. The Anatomy of the Greyhound. The Muscles, &c., of the Head XIII. The Anatomy of the Greyhound. The Muscles of the Third Layer XIV. The Anatomy of the Greyhound. The Deeper Muscles of the Trunk and Thigh XV. The Anatomy of the Greyhound. The Deepest Muscles of the Trunk XVI. The Anatomy of the Greyhound. Inner Side of Forelimb and Under Side of Chest XVII. The Anatomy of the Greyhound. Exterior of Forelimb XVIII. The Anatomy of the Greyhound. Inner Side of Left Forelimb XIX. The Anatomy of the Greyhound. The Bones and Muscles of the Left Fore Foot XX. The Anatomy of the Greyhound. Inner Side of Left Hind Leg XXI. The Anatomy of the Greyhound. The Bones and Muscles of the Left Hind Foot XXII. The Anatomy of the Greyhound. The Bones and Muscles of the Pelvis and Tail XXIII. The Anatomy of the Greyhound. Sectious of Trunk and Limbs XXIV, The Proportions of a Typical Dog and V^olf XXV. The Anatomy of the Cat (also of Lion, Tiger, Panther, etc.) XXVI. The Skeleton of the Lion XXVII. The Proportions of the Lion XXVIII. The Anatomy of the Horse. The Skeleton XXIX. The Anatomy of the Horse. The Important Muscles Xll PLATE XXX. XXXI. XXXII. XXXIII. XXXIV. XXXV. XXXVI. XXXVII. XXXVIII. XXXIX. XL. XLI. XLII. XLIII. XLIV. XLV. XLVI. XLVII. XLVIII. XLIX. LIST OF PLATES The Anatomy of the Horse. Front View of the Skeleton and the Important Muscles The Anatomy of the Horse. Back View of the Skeleton and the Important Muscles The Anatomy of the Horse. Sections of the Neck, Chest and Forelimb The Anatomy of the Horse. Sections of the Trunk and Hindlimb The Proportions of a Typical Horse The Anatomy of the Ox The Proportions of the Ox The Proportions of the Sheep The Proportions of the Dromedary and the Camel The Horse in Motion. The Walk and the Amble The Horse in Motion. The Trot and the Rack The Horse in Motion. The Canter and the Gallop Attitudes of a Hound Running The Common House or European Sparrow (Passer domesticus) The Anatomy of the Common or House Sparrow The European Kestrel {Fako alaudarius). Female Upper Surface of Left Wing of European Kestrel The Anatomy of the Common Quail of Europe {Coturnix communis) Upper Surface of Left Wing of Common Quail of Europe The Plan of a Peacock's Train INTRODUCTION / We have not yet reached the point where it is no longer necessary to defend the study of Anatomy for artists. Art Anatomy of the human form has had man)- advocates ; the argument that they have considered quite satisfactory being, — the artist can draw the human form without a icnowledge of its bones and muscles, but he does it much better, and much more quickly and surely, when equipped with such knowledge. The argument for the Art Anatomy of Animals is yet stronger,— the knowledge of it is absolutely indispensable. The figure-painter always can pose his models, and paint what he sees. The animalier must continually work from knowledge of the form, his models never pose, and, unlike those of the figure- painter, they are invariably au naturel. There is no more convincing argument than the practice of the masters. The advocates of Human Anatomy point with pride to Michael Angelo, Leonardo da Vinci, and Raphael, who were profound students of surgical anatomy, as well as great lights of art. They were, in fact, pioneers in this field, entering it with a view to advancing their art. In like manner the animalier may find guidance — and guidance even less equivocal — in the history of animal painters and sculptors. There have been great genre painters who did not study Anatomy, but there has never been a famous animalier who did not. Barye, Landseer, Gericault, M6ne, Cain, as well as the living men, with one voice send the student to the study of Anatomy. Some of them would carry the study farther than others, but all are agreed in carrying it far, in grasping the subject thoroughly and broadly, but exactly. And yet, contradictory as it may seem, they all unite in warning the artist, that he who endeavours to make a display of his anatomical knowledge is as surely lost as though he had. none to display. The following extract from the address delivered by M. Eug. Guillaume at the inauguration of the Barye monument, gives an excellent idea of the methods pursued by the great sculptor of animals, and shows how he made use of anatomy in a manner that was at once broad and of the utmost exactness : — 'The composition once decided upon, Barye, compass in hand, measured the skeletons of the animals which he was about to model, recording the dimensions with the most scrupulous care, and incorporating them in his woric ; and, unless the bones, in their relative proportions, entered exactly into the frame of his maquette, he changed the latter, and never declared himself satisfied until he had made his work agree exactly with the proportions of the species he had undertaken to represent. ' It was thus that Barye arrived at perfection. His works give the lie direct to those theories which would make us believe that it is beneath the dignity of art to seek the aid of exact knowledge, or to have recourse to methods of precision ; they arc at least a rebuke to those who say that to proceed in this way is to divest art of its spontaneity, its ideality, and its life.* * • • ' If one were to ask me now what is, in my opinion, the master trait of the great artist, I should say strength. This, with arrangement, is the quality that he never fails to emphasize. At a time when there are so many enervated minds, when we are tossed 2 INTRODUCTION. about by changing aspirations, when by a sort of depraved diletuntism, one willingly styles oneself decadent, or again, to be more exactly in/« dt siicli conditions, one is pleased, in the art world, by an affectation of languor and vapidity, — it is indeed good to exalt and do honour to vigour in an artist of incontestable renown, for this is the sovereign and incomparable quality of the works of Barye.' To this Professor Ed. Cuycr adds : — 'In brief, these admirable embodiments of strength and suppleness were executed at the cost of a labour as scientific as jt was incessant. The drawings as well as the casts that we possess at the Museum of Anatomy at the Ecole des Beaux Arts effectually establish this. They explain also why one of his biographers wrote, — " Barye simply turned on his heel when he heard it said that science is fiital to the imagination." ' Professor Anderson of the Royal Academy, in his address before the British Medical Association on Art in its relation to Anatomy, makes the following very apposite remarks : — ' It is not the knowledge but the misuse of the knowledge that is dangerous, and there is no doubt that the pride of Michael Angelo in his anatomical attainments led him to neglect that close study of the living model, which had given perfection to the work of Pheidias ; hence it is that the critic who is dumb before the old Greek may feel compelled to temper his admiration of the Florentine with a regret that so great a mind should have stopped short of the highest goal. ' That Pheidias attained consummation in Art, without scientific education, proves only that there is no law for the highest genius ; the writings of Shakespeare do not tower above rivalry because he knew "small Latin and less Greek," but because with Pheidias, and, perhaps, a dozen other men in the world's history, he rose far above all theories of education. Setting apart such men as these, the greatest artist in art or literature will always express best what he best understands. The wise man is he who knows not merely a fact, but the meaning of the &ct, and Science will not fail to stimulate and guide observation when not weakened by admixture with an over- weening pride in itself.' The question has been raised as to whether the study of Anatomy is synonymous with dissection. Some writers consider that dissection is the sole means to a knowledge of the subject. I am inclined to the belief that the artist who works in the dissecting room, over ground already well known, is not using his time to the best advantage. He should rather avoid the dead animal and the surgical point of view. There is no doubt that one obtains a more thorough knowledge of the construction by dissecting, but it is unnecessarily thorough. It is of much greater importance that the student should model from the living anim J, using as guides the best anatomical diagrams obtainable, bearing in mind however that Anatomy is like a virulent poison — when judiciously administered it is a powerful stimulant to art, but in an overdose it is death. This is especially true in painting ; one sees but little of Anatomy in the living animal except in silhouette ; and he who makes it of prime importance, produces mere diagrams, and loses sight of the greater essentials of light, colour, and movement. i:i Association on ART ANATOMY OF ANIMALS CHAPTER I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. Art Anatomy is a scientific explanation of the visible living form, or, in other words, it is the study of those parts of a living animal which influence its outward form or its expression. Besides the principal bones and muscles, this includes tendons, cartilages, sinew-sheaths, external veins and nerves, folds of skin, teeth, claws, beak, hoofs, horns, bristles, hair, feathers, &c. ; and although it has been the custom of art anatomists to treat only of the first two mentioned, it will be seen that in many animals, the hair, and even the veins, are of far greater importance than many of the muscles or minor bones. In depicting Birds also, a knowledge of the feathering is, generally speaking, of more value to the artist than familiarity with the separate muscles and bones. But a sound knowledge of the form of Mammals must be founded on an acquaintance with the bony skeleton and muscular system. Ail Mammals are built on the same general plan ; even the human form is but a slight variation of the same. All however are not equally good for study; some are poorly developed, some have the form obscured by wool, or by fat, some are too unwieldy or too minute, and others are not obtainable for study, through their rarity. But the Greyhound will be found well adapted to the requirements of the art I anatomist, in his initial study of bones and muscles. It is superbly developed and the relation of its parts I is admirably displayed through the fine skin and thin coat. It is neither too large nor too small, it is readily obtained almost anywhere, and when alive is perhaps easier to study than any other animal. Natural sequence requires that the hairy coat be first treated or dissected. And it will be seen [that this course is not entirely without justification in the importance of the subject. Before proceeding further it will be well to give a word of warning regarding individual variation. [In all departments of anatomy great allowance must be made for this, but especially in the muscles [and the hair. It is probable, indeed, that the variations between a typical Dog and a typical Cat, Fox, Wolf, or Lion, &c., are not greater than those which will be found existing between difl^erent Dogs. H 3 CHAPTER II. THE HAIR. Plates I., 11., Ill, IF. It is remarkable that the study of the Hair should have been so long and so entirely ignored. In all animals that bear it, it is of interest and value, in most it is of equal importance with the muscles, in many it is of much more consequence than these, ranking in value next to the bones as an element of form. In the Horse, or the Greyhound, we see the hairy coat at a minimum, and yet in these the Hair has much to do with their appearance. In a Wolf the hair-masses are at least of equal importance with the muscles, and in a Grizzly, or Brown Bear, in its winter coat, the hair-masses and the bones give the clue to nearly all the visible form. In a Barye statue of a bear now before rne it is impossible to detect the form of a single muscle, except on the arm. All the rest of the detail is worked out in hair-masses. In very small Mammals the turn of the Hair is almost the only clue to the form, and the peculiar rounding and cracking on ham and on shoulder are the only indications of the complicated machinery of bones and muscles which lies far beneath. The Greyhound has too scanty a covering to be a good subject for an initial study of Hair, so the Common Wolf {Cam's lupus) will be used instead. This animal, practically the same throughout North America, Europe, and Northern Asia, is really a Wild Dog, with the best possible development of a Dog's powers. Its coat illustrates admirably all the essential features of furry covering, features which, though discoverable in the Greyhound, are in that animal so reduced as to be difficult of study. The Hair of the Wolf and of most Mammals is of two kinds ; a fine wool next the skin, and an outer covering of long, nearly straight hairs growing through this. The first retains the heat, and the second repels the rain. The first predominates on the lower and the second on the upper parts of the body. The wool is also better than the hair for such parts as are very supple and change much in form, consequently we see a predominance of wool in those areas of loose or sliding skin under which the bpdy has great play. This may be due to the wearing off of the longer, brittler hair. The wool on these sliding areas is seen to crack open when the skin is extended. These peculiar tracts are so much more the result of | arrangement than of actual change in the fur, that it is impossible to distinguish them in the animal after it is skinned or long dead ; but no one can look at the living, moving creature and doubt their importance from a picturesque point of view. These areas are limited in the Wolf, but in the Puma, or American Panther, we see them at a j maximum, and the wonderful suppleness of this animal is aptly illustrated by the fact that its body is almost everywhere clad in this particular kind of covering. :hap. It. THE HAIR. The legs, shoulders, and face of the Wolf are covered by a variety of hair which is short, close and Ivery hard. This is well calculated to give to the limbs and the senses perfect freedom of action, and at the same time is readily kept clear of mud, remnants of food, &c. In general, the direction of the Hair is determined by two laws. First, the necessity of offering the ^east possible resistance to the air, and to grass, brushwood and other obstacles, while the animal is in ■motion. (This may be illustrated by the well-known fact that the hunter can readily drag, nose first, a [dead deer which, heels first, he could scarcely move, for the obvious reason that it would be * against the [grain.') Second, the necessity for running oflF the rain, especially while the animal is lying at rest. The [first law gives a backward, and the second a downward direction to the Hair. But these rules are much broken by local requirements of more force, as will be seen in the Wolf. I The first important exception is the curious radiation of the hair about the eye, with the object of clearing [the way for the sight. This divergence is well shown in the American Buffalo ; and among the feathered [tribes, a notable parallel case is seen in the Owls. The hair of this radiation, meeting the counter-current of [hair on the nose, produces the little ridge which is such a marked feature on the face of all hairy animals. [(Sec Plates I., II., and III.) On the side of the throat is a patch of reversed hair ; it lies between the great thatch of the neck and [the softer covering of the throat; it also covers the triangle between the upper and lower maxillary veins [where they join the jugular. This may be clearly seen in the Greyhound. (See Plate III.) After discussing with Dr. Cavcn the jrobable cause of this disturbance, we concluded that its history was briefly as follows : — The early aquatic ancestor of living Mammals breathed by means of gills, which were gradually liscarded as the creature became a land animal, and breathed by means of the elaborated air bladder, [which we now call lungs. But with that conservatism so well known in organic bodies, the gill-cleft in [the side of the neck persisted for long afterwards, and with it the accompanying circumvolution of the veins. [This may be detected in the mammalian fcetus, and when finally the old scar heals up, the disturbance in [the surrounding hair is still to be seen, and in riot a few cases the blood vessels preserve traces of the now [useless circumvolutions. There is a centre of divergence on the inside of each arm, as shown in Plate II., and the meeting of these radiations with the descending hair of the chest causes the ridges that are such a marked feature of Jthe front view. (See Plate III.) To explain these arrangements, I can suggest only the following theory. The skin is formed from centres of pellification, just as the bone is formed from centres of 'ossification . [At these centres the lowest layers are first formed, and in them the hair bulbs. The minute structures of the upper layer, having a tendency to push farther from the centre, would naturally give to the hair which traverses them, but which is fixed at its lower end, a tendency to diverge from the centre. The ridges of »a:r which appear as lines of convergence are the natural corollaries of the centres of divergence, they ire the points where meet the two areas of independently formed skin, and may be styled Structural Scars. The reversion of the hair on the back of the fore-legs may perhaps be explained in another way. The protection accorded by its position frees it from the operation of the first law ; and the fact that the leg is horizontal when the animal is lying down would give the second law full force and reasonably account for its direction. On the ischiatic bones we have radiating centres like those on the fore-arms, and on the inside of the lind-legs are reversed parts of the coat, as on the fore-legs. In Cows this area of reversed hair is called le * milk-mirror,* as its extent is known to correspond with the amount of milk given by the animal. This has been explained on the ground that the direction of the Hair is determined by the main veins, and khe amount of milk has, of couree, a direct connection with the blood supply. This explanation, however, not complete or satisfactory, even though one finds in other parts of the animal a remarkable coincidence ART ANATOMY OF ANIMALS. CHAP, II. These between the presence of superficial blood vessels and of disturbance in the Hair-arrangement, radiations are all remarkably clear in the Greyhound, Plate I. shows how the Wolf illustrates the foregoing principles. The drawing is understood to be diagrammatic, as the disposition of fur therein shown, though more or less discernible in all Wolves, will but rarely be found as clear and sharp as in the drawing. The chief masses are : — The ruff, beginning before the ears, and passing over the back of the jaw and under the throat ; this is much better developed in the Lynx and the Lion (Plate IV,). The curious little cushion under each car, a sort of central point or whorl of the several hair currents of the region. The great thatch or mane of coarse hair ; much developed in the Lion, The soft woolly part under the throat meeting the mane ; these two coincide nearly with the two parts of the Panniculus cervicis. The mane along the shoulders, and the smaller crest on the top or dorsal edge of each scapula. The patch of sliding fur behind each shoulder, and the corresponding patch on each flank, before the hind-leg, showing the great play of the limbs. The two areas of reversed hair on the breast. The fringe of reversed hair on the back of each fore-leg. The great cushion of wool on each of the buttocks. The tail, clad entirely in the sliding fur, except the slight thatch on the base above. The ridges on the chest and on the belly, apparently structural scars as already defined. The correlation of colour with this arrangement is striking. The heavy thatches are much mixed with black hair ; the thatch on the base of the tail is usually ended in a dark spot ; the ruff on the cheeks is always paler in colour than the hair on the crown and neck ; the sliding fur is always paler than the hair about it ;' while the close fur on the limbs and face is usually darker than elsewhere. This arrangement both of form and of colour will be seen in all Dogs, Wolves, Jackals, and Foxes, and in a general sense is common to all the Carnivora; the leading features are to be found in all hairy quadrupeds, as well as in man himself. From this it will be seen that, excepting on the shoulder, the fore-leg, and the hind-leg below the knee, these anatomical details of the hairy coat are in the Wolf, as well as in many other animals, of more importance than the anatomy of the muscles. .1! Nil ! ; •ly with the two CHAPTER III. THE SKIN FOLDS. Plate VII. In many animals the Folds of Skin are of consequence. In the Rhinoceros for instance they are of I much more importance than any of the individual muscles. In the present example, the Greyhound, we t find several of these loose flaps, which though greatly reduced are still of value in picturesque effect. First, the fold from the back of the arm to the ribs, that is, the roof of the armpit formed in part of J the muscular fibres of the Flyshaker or Panniculus carmsus. Second, the fold from the knee to the belly, forming the groin-flap or loose-flank. Nearly all quadrupeds have this and the first well marked, and usually they are distinguished by a [peculiar arrangement of hair. Third, two loose folds on the throat arising one from each ramus of the lower jaw, uniting on the front of the neck. These are excessive in the Bloodhound and kindred races, as well as in Bulls and Iseveral Pachyderms. Their object apparently is to give free play to the neck and protection to the (throat. !il 111 I I i CHAPTER IV. THE NERVES. Plate XII. Almost the only Nerves we need to observe are those whose terminations are enlarged bosses on the skin in which are long specialised bristles, feelers or whiskers. In the Dog we find these in four places on each side of the head, and in two places on the lower jaw : — Ends of the Infraorbital Nerves, or Whisker-bed. This is the great nerve-bed at each side of the muzzle, out of which, in the Dog, grow the whiskers in four rows. Malar, a small boss with four or five bristles. Zygomatic, a smaller boss on the cheek above and behind the preceding — in the Greyhound with but few bristles. Frontal, over the inner corner of each eye. The Mental, on the lower surface of the end of the Lower Jaw; more or less provided with bristles. Mylo-hyoid, a conspicuous boss with long bristles ; it is situated on the inter-ramal space beneath the lower jaw. There is also a noticeable cord crossing the hough space ; this is formed by a nerve and a vein lying ' side by side, and is strongly marked in the Greyhound. Some animals, as the Squirrels, have nerve-endings and bristles on the inner surface of the fore-legs, i These organs act as feelers of exquisite sensibility. They are usually most developed ia the strictly i nocturnal quadrupeds, and in those whose mode of life necessitates an absolutely silent course through the woods, when their eyes can avail but little. In such the bristles usually project the width of the body I on each side of the head. CHAPTER V. THE GLANDS. t each side of the e Greyhound with Plates VIIL, XII. Lymph and Salivary Glands appear as rounded bosses in several parts of the Dog. Those claiming notice are the following : — Salivary. Parotid. Submaxillary. Buccalis. Lymph. Pre-auricular. Cervical or superficial lymphatic glands of the throat, in three pairs. Thyroid, a deep set of glands showing between the jugular vein and the trachea. Suprascapular, in three parts under the cephalo-humeral and angularis muscles. There are many other larger glands, but they are too deep-set to influence the visible form. In other animals, such as the Goats and Deer, the glands are more numerous and important than in the Dog. lO CHAPTER VI. THE VEINS. Plates mi, XII. XIII., Xri, XX. The Veins arc in many instances more important than the muscles. They are largest and most marked when the animal is alive and in action. In the dead animal they are inconspicuous, and in the skinned subject they must be sought for. This no doubt accounts for their having been ignored so long. Yet the great facial and angular veins are among the most marked features of the face in the Dog, Horse, Deer, &c. They arc discernible even in the human face when the individual is thin or aged. Contrary to the usual rule, the overlying skin, instead of hiding the large external veins, seems rather to add to their prominence. The important Veins of the Dog are as follows: — Facial with its tributaries. Coronary, Angularis, Dorso-nasal. Temporal with its facial tributaries, not visible in the living Dog, Internal Maxillary, uniting with the temporal and maxillary to form on the neck The Jugular, a very large vein, though not always visible. Brachial, uniting in the front of the arm with the Subcutaneous Basilic Vein to form the Cephalic. • Ulnar, a tributary of the brachial. Great Saphenous, this is the conspicuous vein that crosses the hough ; its branches are seen on the back, front, and inner side of the hinder limb. III m i Hi 8 branches are CHAPTER VII. THE FASCIili, LIGAMENTS AND TENDONS. Plates VIII., XIX., XXI. The whole body is more or less covered with a thin fibrous expansion called Fasciii. This is allied to tendon in its structure, but forms broad planes ensheathing the muscles and tendons and often giving attachment to muscular fibres. Its direct influence on the visible form is not very perceptible, although it is anatomically very important. The only Fascis we need note are as follows : — Lumbo-dorsal, covering the loins. Ventral, on the belly. Fascia Lata, one of the most important, covering the outer side of the thigh, also called the Vagina Femoris. Femoral, on the inside of the thigh. Tibial or Crural, enveloping the leg. It is the chief insertion of the biceps. In their nature Ligaments are similar to Fascia;, but are thicker and narrower, with more definite boundaries and purposes. While every joint has its ligaments we need mention only the following : — Ligamentum nuchas, a very powerful and elastic structure connecting the occiput and cervical vertebrae; it supports the head. Greater and Lesser Sacro-sciatic Ligaments, between the sacrum and the ischium. Ligamentum patellx from the lower part of the patella to the crest of the tibia, — really the tendon of the quadriceps extensor, and not a ligament. Annular Ligaments, to retain the tendons at the lower joints of the limbs as shown on plates. Tendons or Sinews are composed of thick cords of material similar to that of the ligaments but [appearing as parts of a muscle, in which connection the important ones are considered. c 3 12 CHAP, VIII. !! HI i;,:ii ill 'm\ CHAPTER VIII. THE BONES. P/ates v., VI., IX., X., XXL It is not necessary to describe in detail each of the Bones. The plates give a sufficient idea of their individual characters as well as their general relations. A few remarks on special points and on the skeleton as a whole will be of most service. While some fair-sized Bones, such as the Vomer, Palatine, Ethmoid, &c., arc of little or no importance to the artist, some of the smallest, as the Pisiform and Calcaneum, are of cardinal interest. This of course is due to the latter being next the skin, through which they form prominent points of the visible anatomy. It is necessary to know these places of Bone contact with the skin, as they are fixed points whose position is mathematically ascertainable and from which all the rest of the anatomy tiay be accurately determined and drawn. The following is a classified list of the bony prominences of the Dog : — The Head. Plates VI., XL Occipital Tuberosity, Lambdoid Crest, and the Superior Curved Lines or Occipital Crest across the back of the head. Sagittal or Interparietal Crest— at right angles to the lambdoid. Internal Angular, or Orbital Process of the Frontal Bone, making the prominent ridge on the inner corner of the eye. Orbital Process of Malar Bone, much less prominent, but readily discernible at the outer corner of the eye. Nasal Bones. These present a large rounded surface rather than a point. Alveolar Ridge of the Premolars, on the upper jaw or maxillary. Alveolar Ridge or Eminence of the Canines, on the upper jaw or maxillary, much hidden by the whisker-bed. Zygomatic Arch — from the orbit to the ear. The Superciliary Frontal or Semilunar Ridges, over the eyes meeting in V shape on the forehead. CHAP. VIII. THE BONES. '3 The Neck. Platts VL, VIL, X. The Wings of the Atlas or First Cervical Vertebra, though not quite reaching the skin, are sufficiently prominent to make marked external protuberances. The Body. Plates v., VIL, IX., X. The Neural Spines of all the (13) Dorsal Vertebrae, especially where clear of the trapezius. Neural Spines of all the (7) Lumbar Vertebne. Neural Spines of the Caudal Vertebrje, the first or that next the sacrum being the most prominent, and the rest less so in regular succession. Curves or Bends of seven or more Ribs. Lower Ends of seven or more Ribs, that is, the slight projections where the ribs unite with the costal I cartilages. Manubrium or Presternum, the prominent point of the breast bone or sternum ; it forms a leading I feature of the front view. Tuberosities of the Ischium, one on each buttock. Crest of the Ilium, or Hip Bone, a very important projection. Keel of Sacrum, at the back upper part of the pelvis. Crest across the luch hidden by :he forehead. The FoRE-LiG. Plates v., VL, IX., X., XIX. Dorsal Edge of Scapula. Spine of Scapula, showing as a groove in the living animal. Acromion, the prominent outward point of the shoulder. Coracoid Process, discernible but not prominent over the head of the humerus. Head of Humerus, the prominent forward point of the shoulder. Olecranon Process, or Point of Elbow, one of the most important bony projections. External Epicondyle of Humerus, at the exterior of the elbow joint. Capitellum or Head of Radius, just below the preceding. Internal Epicondyle of Humerus, a prominent point on the inner side of the elbow joint, the only one that region, as the head of the radius does not show on the inner side. Pisiform, or Supercarpal, a small bone projecting from the back of the wrist. It is of cardinal iportance. Internal Malleolus of Radius, the prominent feature of the inner side of the wrist joint. Tuberosity of Radius, in front, not very important. Scapho-lunar, below the preceding, sometimes appearing also as a second slight boss in front low the radius. Trapezium, below the preceding. Head of the First Metacarpal, the lowest prominence on the inner side of the wrist. Pyramidal, the prominent boss on the outside of the wrist joint. Unciform, before and nearly on a level with the preceding — not very prominent. Head of the Fifth Metacarpal, the strongest feature on the outer side of the wrist. Heads of the Fourth and Third Metacarpals, forming protuberances in front below the carpus. ART ANATOMY OF ANIMALS. Sesamoids, small bones set in pairs, one pair under the end of each metacarpal. The Knucides or Joints of the Phalanges. CHAP, vm. The Hind-Leg. Plates v., VL, IX., X.. XXL Great Trochanter of Femur, a very strong feature. External Tuberosity or Epicondyle of Femur, on the outside of the knee. Head of the Fibula, below the preceding. Patella or Knee-cap, the small bone that lies in front of the femur at the knee-joint. Internal Tuberosity or Epicondyle of Femur, on inner side of knee. Internal Tuberosity of Tibia, below the preceding. Tuberosity or Crest of Tibia, projecting from the fore part of the tibial head. It is the prominent feature of the knee in profile. External Malleolus, the tuberosity on the lower end of the fibula. Internal Malleolus, the lower tuberosity of the tibia on the inner side of the hough. Os calcis or Calcaneum, the heel bone, the great feature of the hough. External Process of Calcaneum, a prominence on the outer side of the hough. Cuboid, under the preceding, very variable. Head or Tuberosity of External Metatarsal, the strongest feature of the lower and outer side of the hough. Navicular or Scaphoid, the tuberosity of this bone is prominent on the inner side of the hough just below the internal malleolus. Head or Tuberosity of the Internal Metatarsal, the most pronounced projection on the inner side of the joint. Tuberosities of the Two Internal Metatarsals show in front. Sesamoids, minute bones corresponding with those of the carpus. The Knuckles or Joints of the Phalanges are the remaining bony protuberances. CHAP. VIII, is the prominent CHAPTER IX. and outer side of THE MUSCLES OF THE DOG. Note. — ^In the following descriptive catalogue, those muscles which influence visibly and individually the form, and are perceptible in the living Greyhound, are in heavy-faced type. The Muscles of the Skin. Plate VII. Immediately underlying the skin, and adhering to it strongly, are two very thin sheets of muscle that [envelop nearly the whole surface of the trunk. They have but little influence on the visible form, and Imust be carefully removed before a clear view of the important muscles can be obtained. These are : — Panniculus carnosus, or Flyshaker. A great thin sheet of muscular fibres covering the body inder the skin. Its action is to move the skin, and its attachments are chiefly to it. But its fibres, which bun obliquely downwards and forwards, leave the trunk at two places, and become definite elements of tbrm, at the groin where they are the muscular basis of the loose flank, and behind the shoulder where this luscle, at its thickest, forms the roof of the arm-pit, and uniting with the latissimus it becomes apparently pi auxiliary of that great muscle. Excepting at these two places it is of little consequence to the artist. Panniculus cervicis {Platysma myoides). In two parts, upper and lower, the upper covering the neck knd uniting on the face and throat with the lower. Its action is to draw back the lips, shake the skin knd move the ears. It is no thicker than a sheet of paper, and is of no consequence to the artist, small slip of this is attached to the front of the ear ; as it draws the ear forward it has been called le ' Watching Muscle.' THE MUSCLES OF THE HEAD. There are about forty muscles in a Dog's head, but not more than a fourth of these are important, or eed be studied individually, for it is only as a mass that they influence the visible form. The following a classified list of these muscles. Those on the muzzle, lower jaw and hyoid region are briefly described, some of them are distinguishable in the living animal. i6 ART ANATOMY OF ANIMALS. CHAI', The Muscles of the Mouth and Cheek. Plates VII., mi., X., XII. I have failed to detect the individual form of any but four of these in the living Dog, but the complex mass surrounding the mouth is peculiar in shape and is important. RisoRius {Risorius Santorini). ZvGoMATicus MAJOR, running from the malar bone to the angle of the mouth. Levator labii superioris alseque nasi [Maxillaris). This may be detected in the living animal on careful examination. Malaris or Zygomaticus minor, an unimportant auxiliary of the preceding. It is closely related to the lachrymalis of Hoofed Animals. Levator labii superioris proprius (Nasalis longus), discernible on careful examination. This and the preceding are parts of the ^adratus labii superioris. Levator anguli oris (Caninus). This may be discovered on careful examination. Incisivi, minute fibres connecting the orbicularis with the gums. Buccinator. This is divided into two parts, the molaris and the buccalis. Orbicularis oris {Sphincter oris, Labialis), surrounding the mouth. Depressor labii inferioris {^adratus labii inferior is, Maxillo-labial). The Muscles of the Eyelids. Plate XII. None but the first of these is individually discernible in the living animal, but the corrugations of the skin that they cause are very marked. Orbicularis palpebrarum, surrounding the opening of the eye. Levator PALPEBRi^ superioris, a minute and deep-lying muscle that raises the upper eyelid. Corrugator superciliaris medialis, or inner frowning muscle. Corrugator Superciliaris lateralis, or outer frowning muscle. The eyeball itself is held in place and moved by seven unimportant small muscles within the socket ; four Recti, two Obliqiii, and a Choanoid or Retractor. Tme Auricular Sheet or the Muscles of the Outer Ear and Scalp. Plates VII., VIII., X., XII. Authorities differ greatly in their treatment of the thin but complex sheet of fibres that surrounds the base of the ear and causes the movements of that organ. None of the divisions or recognised muscles arc 'sS discernible in the living animal, and in the dead they readily escape the notice of the dissector. Scutularis, subdivided into three parts, intermedius, frontalis, andcervicalis. Attollens [Auricularis superior. Levator auris medius). Attrahens {^Auricularis anterior). This muscle is divided into three parts, superior, median and ^ inferior. Retrahens [Auricularis posterior, Cervico-auricularis, Occipito-auricularis). This is subdivided into longus, brevis and levator. Parotideus {Depressor concha, Parotideo-auricularis). Rotator {Scutulo -auricular is inferior, or internus). IX. THE MUSCLES OF THE DOG. »7 living Dog, but There are also several minute unimportant muscles connected with the cartilage of the ear ; these are T'ransvenus, Helicis, /4 ntitragicus, tragicus major, and Tragicus minor. Epicranius (^Occipitalis), This is a thin sheet of fibre that moves the scalp. The Muscles of the Lower Jaw. Plates VIII., XIL Masseter. This is a very prominent muscle : it is divided into three layers or parts, which however need not be considered separately. Origin : zygomatic arch and malar bone. Insertion : into the concave outer surface of the ascending ramus of the lower jaw. Action : to raise the lower jaw and close the mouth. Temporalis. Origin : on the side of the skull and from the bony crest bounding the temporal fossa or great space between the temporal bone and the zygoma; it fills this fossa. Inseition : the coronoid process and anterior border of ramus of lower jaw. Action : to close the mouth by raising the lower jaw. Pterygoideus internus and externus. This is within the jaws; it is in two parts, the internal and external. Origin : the first, on the inside of the pterygoid bone which is in the back of the palate behind the palatine bone. Insertion : the hollow or inner face of ramus of lower jaw. Origin of the external part: on the outer side of pterygoid and surrounding bones. Insertion : the neck of the mandibular condyle. Action : to raise the jaw. iiuscles within tlic The Muscles of the Tongue and Throat. Plates VIII., IX., X., XIL, XVI., XXIII. Digastricus [Biventer maxilla infer ion's). Origin : styloid process of the occipital bone. Insertion: one part into the posterior border of lower jaw, the other part into the internal face of same. Action : to depress the lower jaw and to open the mouth. Stylo-hyoid. Origin: styloid process of the temporal bone and auditory bulla. Insertion: the base [of the lesser cornu of the hyoid bone. Action : to draw the hyoid bones backward and upward. Mylo-hyoid. Origin : on the inner side of the mandible. Insertion : the body of the hyoid. [Action : to support or raise the tongue and the hyoid bone. Genio-hyoid. Origin : inside the lower mandible at the symphysis or chin suture. Insertion : [the body of the hyoid. Action : to draw the hyoid forward. Sterno-thyroid. Origin: inner surface of presternum or manubrium. Insertion: thyroid cartilage I of larynx. May be perceived in some dogs while alive. Thyro-hyoid. This is a sort of continuation of the last. Origin: thyroid cartilage. Insertion: the [greater cornu of the hyoid bone. Sterno-hyoid. Origin: inner surface of manubrium anterior to the sterno-thyroid. Insertion: the Ibody of hyoid bone. Action: this, with the foregoing two, draws back the hyoid, &c. Stylo-glossus. a large muscle arising from the styloid process of temporal bone, and passing into the tongue. It is the edge of the tongue. This and the followuig two arc obviously of little importance. Hyo-glossus (Basio-glossus). A flat muscle from the body and cornua of the hyoid bone to the side jf the tongue. Genio-glossus. a flat muscle from the under side of the tongue to the thyro-hyal. Lingualis, longitudinal fibres, extending the length of the tongue, divided into superficial and deep. i'his forms the body of the tongue. Closely related to the foregoing are seven pairs of very small deep-lying muscles that act upon the bharynx and soft palate, and yet other seven pairs which move the larynx. i8 m 3 CHAPTER X. THE MUSCLES OF THE DOG {continued). The Deep-lying Muscles of the Neck. Plates XIII , XIF., XV., XXIII. The following twelve muscles influence the form as a mass only, and therefore need not be studied in detail. In the subject they are very complicated and subject to much variation. The first four may be grouped together as parts of the Prevertebral Mass, and the remaining eight as parts of the Erector colli or Postvertebral Mass. Omitting the last two, the whole group has been styled the Capital Muscles. LoNGUS COLLI. Origin : from the first six dorsal vertebra under the neck to all the cervical vertebras but the first two or three. Insertion : the under side of atlas. Action : to curve the whole neck downwards. CoMPLExus MINOR [Longissiitius capitis, Trachelo-mastoideus, Transversalis capitis). Origin : first four dorsal and last three or four cervical vertebra;. Insertion : mastoid process. A separate slip on the under side of this is attached to the wing of the atlas, and has been called the Longus atlantis. Action : to incline or bend the head. Rectus capitis anticus major [Longus capitis). Origin: transverse processes of all but the first and last cervical vertebrs. Insertion : under side of occipital bone. Action : to bend the head down or to one side. Rectus capitis anticus minor. Origin: the atlas. Insertion : under side of occipital bone. Action: to aid the foregoing. Rectus capitis posticus major. Origin : raise the head. Rectus capitis posticus minor. Origin Action : to lift the head. Rectus capitis posticus medius, closely related to the two foregoing. Rectus lateralis. Origin : wing of the atlas. Insertion : styloid process and surrounding portion of skull. Action: to turn the head. Obliquus inferioris, a large muscle. Origin: neural spine of axis. Insertion: wings of the atlas. Action: to turn the atlas on the axis. Obliquus superioris, a small muscle. Origin: transverse process of atlas. Insertion: the mastoid region. Action : to turn the head. Transverso-spinalis cervicis, a continuation on the neck of the multifidus. Intertransversalis, small muscles between the transverse processes of the vertebras of the neck. Action : to incline the neck to one side. neural spine of axis. Insertion : occiput. Action : to : the atlas. Insertion : occiput below preceding. CHAP. X. THE MUSCLES OF THE DOG. »9 The Muscles of the Neck. Flates VIII., XIIL, XIV., XV., XXIIL The following, though really belonging to the foregoing group, are more superficial, and are visible in the living animal., The first belongs to the Prevertebral group, and the other two to the Erector group. Splenius (^Spino-transversalh). This large muscle, with the preceding, has an important influence on the form of the neck. It is in two parts, S. capitis and S. colli. Origin : all along the neck and as far as fifth dorsal vertebra from the neural spines. Insertion : with the little complexus into the mastoid, and into the transverse processes of the upper cervical vertebra;. Action : to extend or incline the head. Complexus major, a large and important muscle. Its upper part is sometimes treated separately as the Semispinalis. Origin : the last six cervical vertebra-, and the dorsal vertebra; as far as fourth. Insertion : occiput. Action : to extend the head or bend it to one side. Longissimus cervicis [Cervicalis descendens, Transversus cervkis). Origin : on the spines of the first four or five thoracic vertebra and on the longissimus dorsi, of which it is a continuation. Insertion : the transverse processes of the four or five last cervical vertebra;. Action : to raise the head and neck. )ra; of the neck. The Muscles of the Trunk. Erector spinse. This very large and complex mass of fibres involves the dorsal surface of the whole spinal column. If we consider it as one muscle, the following three must be looked on as parts of it. I have, however, treated them separately because they appear on the surface and as well-marked separate forms. Most of the authorities treat it as a number of closely related muscles, of which the most important parts, in addition to these three, are : — Semispinalis, Multijidus spina, Rotatores spina Inter- spinales, Intertransversales. But as the whole mass of these latter is so deeply seated as to have no influence on the external form, excepting as a mass, it may be well for the sake of simplicity to reckon them as one muscle under the above name. (Plates X., XIII., XIV., XV., XXIII.) Longissimus dorsi {Long Dorsal, Ilio-spinalis). This large and important muscle is a part of the erector spins, it is especially noticeable in the loins, where, with the ilio-costalis and spinalis, it forms the I long horizontal mass above the hollow of the flank. Origin : anterior margin of ilium and sacrum. I Insertion : the seventh cervical vertebra, and also to all the thoracic and lumbar vertebra; by their trans- I verse processes, and to the ribs. Action : to extend the spine or bend it to one side. (Plates X., XIII., JXIV, XV., XXIII.) Spinalis [Spinalis dorsi et cervicis or colli). This is but the inner part of the longissimus dorsi, land is therefore part of the erector spins. Origin : chiefly in the last dorsal and the lumbar vertebra and jfrom the sacrum. Insertion : the spinous processes of all the thoracic and cervical vertebra; except the atlas. lAction : the same as that of the longissimus. (Plates XIII., XIV., XV.) Ilio-costalis [Sacro-lumbalis). This is part of the erector spins. Origin: ilium and sacrum and the longissimus dorsi. Insertion : the seventh cervical vertebra and by a tendon to each rib. Action : to assist jthe two preceding and to aid in expiration. (Plates XIII., XIV., XV., XXIII.) Serratus anticus [Serratus posticus superior). Origin : by fascia from the spinal column. Insertion: j)y muscular digitations into each rib from second to tenth. Action : to lift the rib in inspiration. (Plates [III., XIV., XXIII.) Serratus posticus [Serratus posticus inferior). Origin : by fascia from the foremost lumbar jrtebrs. Insertion : into thirteenth, twelfth, eleventh, and tenth ribs. Action : to draw down these ribs expiration. (Plate XIII.) Serratus magnus [Serratus anticus major). This, though not a superficial muscle, is of great iportance, as its large and peculiar form is always well marked on the living animal, but much more so u 3 20 ART ANATOMY OF ANIMALS. CHAP. "if in the Cat tribe than in Dogs or Hoofed animals. Its cervical part is sometimes described separately as the Levator anguli scapula. Origin : by digitations from the first seven ribs and the last five cervical vertebra. Insertion : the vertebral margin of the scapula. Action : to raise the trunk between the shoulders and the ribs in inspiration. (Plates XIII., XIV., XXIII.) Levatores costarum, small groups of fibres. Origin : dorsal transverse processes, passing obliquely backward to their insertion in the ribs. Action : to raise the ribs in inspiration, (Plate XXIII.) Intercostales. These are fibres in two layers, external and internal, connecting the ribs, one, the outer, directed downwards and backwards ; the other, the inner, the reverse way. Action : in breathing. (Plates VIII., XIII., XIV., XV., XXIII.) Sternalis {Transvenus costarum). Origin: anterior end of rectus abdominis close to the sternum at the third and fourth costal cartilages. Insertion : first rib just below insertion of scalenus. Action : an inspirator. (Plates XIII.. XIV., XXIII.) Triangularis sterni. Origin : inside of sternum. Insertion : cartilages of the ribs. Action : an expirator. It is within the chest, and therefore not important to the artist. Rectus abdominis.' Origin : on the pubic bone. Insertion : into the xiphoid cartilage by muscular fibres and into the cartilages of the first five or six ribs by a tendon ; its muscle fibre ceases at the ninth rib, in front of this it is a narrow, ribbon-like tendon. Action : it is the principal flexor of the spine. (Plates VIII., XIII., XIV., XV., XVI., XXIII.) Obliquus abdominis externus {Great Oblique). The lower edge of the fleshy part of this muscle forms the prominent ridge along the side of the hound. Origin : from the eight or nine hindermost ribs and the lumbar fascia. Insertion : the ilium, pubic bone and the fascia of the loin and groin. Action : in expiration or to flex the spine, or incline it laterally. (Plates VIII., XVI., XXIII.) Obliquus abdominis internus {Small Oblique). Origin : this lies under the preceding, and its fibres cross those of the great oblique nearly at right angles : it arises from the lumbar fascia and the ventral margin of the ilium <;nd the pubic bone. Insertion : on the back end of the last rib and cartilages of the hindmost ribs. Action : to assist the preceding. (Plates XIII., XXIII.) Transversalis abdominis. Origin : this is the deepest of the abdominal muscles, its fibres are nearly perpendicular ; it arises from the cartilages of the ribs behind the diaphragm, and from the lumbar transverse processes. Insertion : the fibres extend downwards into an aponeurosis which unites with the rectus. Action : it forms a kind of elastic and contractile belt to support or compress the bowels. (Plates XIV., XXIII.) The Diaphragm, and the minute muscles styled the Inguinal and Preputial, are omitted here, the first being entirely internal, and the others quite insignificant. Quadratus lumborum. This is within the abdominal cavity, and therefore not important. Origin : the inner face of two or three last ribs and most of the processes of the lumbar vertebra on their underside. Insertion: chiefly on the ilium. Action : a flexor of the spine. (Plates XXII., XXIII.) Scalenus in two or sometimes three distinct parts, anticus, medius, and posticus. Origin : cervical vertebra, chiefly the fifth. Insertion : on the ribs as far as the sixth near the sternum and by a tendon reaching as far as the ninth rib. Action : to draw the ribs forward and so expand the chest. This muscle is more important in the Cat than in the Dog, because in the former it is seen on the ribs farther behind the | shoulder. (Plates VIII., XIII., XIV., XXIII.) Trapezius. An important sheet of muscle in two parts. Fore part, origin : fascia in the middle I of the neck and back as far as the middle of the scapula. Insertion : the spine of the scapula. Hind\ part, origin : spines of the dorsal vertebra. Insertion : upper third of spine of scapula. Action : to raise | the shoulder, or to carry it forward or backward. (Plates VIII., IX., X., XXIII.) Angularis {Levator scapulce veniralis). This has been called a ribbon of the trapezius. Origin : the atlas. Insertion : the acromion. Action : to lift the lower end of the scapula. (Plates VIII.,] IX., XXIII.) THE MUSCLES OF THE DOG. ai de ribs. Action: Rhomboideus, in two parts, dorsal and nuchal. Origin : neural spines of six hinder cervical, and six or seven anterior dorsal vertebra: : a thin separate ribbon of this is inserted into the lambdoid ridge, and has been described as the Levator scapula dorsalis. Insertion of both parts, the vertebral margin of scapula. Action : to draw the shoulder upwards or backwards. (Plate XIII.) Cephalo-humeral, consisting of two parts, a great thin variable sheet originating in the fascia behind the head; and a thick band of muscle under the first, originating on the mastoid process by a tendon. These two unite near the shoulder, on what is known as the clavicular tendon, because it marks the place where the clavicle bone ought to be, and are inserted into the lower end of the humerus around the fascia of the shoulder joint. Action : to advance the limb or to draw the limb and the head together. (Plates VIII., IX., X., XVI., XXIII.) Mastoideus, or Sterao-Mastoid. This is more or less united with the preceding, sometimes they are described together as the Sterno-cleido-mastoiJ, or Mastoido-huvwralis. Origin : the manubrium. Insertion : the mastoid process and also by fibres to the fascia of the occiput. Action : to depress the head. (Plates VIII., IX., X., XVI.. XXIII.) Latissimus dorsi {Great Dorsal), a large and important muscle. Origin : neural spines of vertebra from the sixth dorsal, the fascia investing the loins and the last two or three ribs. Insertion : its tendon blending with that of the teres major and with the panniculus inserted into the humerus inside below the tuberosity, and also into the fascia enveloping the arm. Action : supports the arm and carries the trunk forward, &c. (Plates VIII., X., XXIII.) Pectoralis superficialis or major. A large and important muscle in two layers, a forward and a transverse. Origin : the manubrium and attachments of first four costal cartilages. Insertion : on and under the lesser tuberosity half-way down the humerus. Action : to adduct, flex and rotate inwards the fore- Hmb. (Plates VIII., IX., XIII., XVI., XXIII.) Pectoralis profundus or minor, a large and important muscle, much disposed to split up into bundles, one for each part of the sternum. Origin : on the sternum from the xiphoid cartilage to the second rib. Insertion : to the inner tuberosity of the humerus. Action : to draw the shoulder downwards and backwards, and move the arm backward. (Plates VIII., IX., XIII., XVI., XXIII.) itted here, the first ta CHAP. xr. m CHAPTER XI. THE MUSCLES OF THE DOG {continueit). The Muscles of the Shoulder. Ii'!-:;i' !lli It HI Action : extends the Insertion : by a tendon humerus and rotate it Plates Fir, mi., IX., X., XIII., XVI., XXUI. Most muscles have more than one function. Many of the foregoing, though classed as muscles of the trunk, bear also on the limbs, &c. ; the last nine should perhaps be considered as muscles of the forc-Hmb rather than of the trunk. The following are strictly muscles of the fore-limb. Deltoid [Abductor brachii), in two portions. Scapular part, origin : spine of the scapula and surrounding aponeurosis. Acromitn part, origin : acromion and adjacent parts of scapula Insert'", of both : the deltoid ridge on the outside of humerus. Action : to flex the shoulder joint and rotate the humerus outwards. Supraspinatus. Origin : the whole surface of the front part of the scapula and its spine. Insertion : by a tendon to the inside of the great tuberosity of the humerus, humerus. Infraspinatus. Origin : the whole extent of the infraspinatus fossa, to the external face of the great humeral tuberosity. Action : to abduct the outward. Teres minor. Origin : posterior (axillary or caudal) border of scapula and by i small tendon from the external side of margin of glenoid cavity. Insertion : on the humerus near the top of the deltoid ridge. Action : to flex the shoulder joint. Teres major. Origin : dorsal surface of scapula near the angle, and the posterior border of the subscapular muscle. Insertion : chiefly by its tendon to the internal tuberosity of the humerus. Action : to flex the shoulder joint and draw the arm back. SuBscAPUL.'VRis. Origin : the whole under surface of scapula. Insertion : by thick tendon to the internal tuberosity of the humerus. Action : to extend the shoulder joint and push the arm forward. The Muscles of the Arm. Plates VII., VIIL, IX., X, XIII., XVI.. XVII., XVIII., XXIII. Biceps (^Biceps bracliii, Coraco-radialis, Long Flexor of Arm). Origin : by a thick tendon at base inside of the coracoid process. Insertion : by one tendon to the bicipital tuberosity of the radius and by a smaller tendon to the tuberosity of the ulna. Action : to flex the fore-arm. Brachialis anticus {Hunter alts obliquus, Hunter alts externalis, or Short Flexor of Arm). Origin: c:hap. XI. THE MUSCLES OF THE DOG. ■^3 on the deltoid ridge of the humerus. Insertion : by a small tendon which forks and unites with the tendons of the biceps. Action : to flex the fore-arm. CoRACO-BRAciiiALis. Origin : the beak of the coracoid. Insertion : by a flat muscular band to the humerus by the internal tuberosity. Action : to advance the arm, and rotate it inwards, and extend the shoulder joint. Epitrochlearis {External Dorio-epitrochlear, Extensor antibrachii longus. Tensor fascia antibrachii), a muscle of but slight importance though superficial. I fail to detect it in the living Dog or Cat, though Mivart gives it great prominence in the latter. Origin : of its principal head in the fa.scia of the latissimus dorsi, of which it seems to be a mere slip ; it is also attached to the spine of the scapula. Insertion : inner side of olecranon. Action : to draw the arm backwards and aid the triceps. Triceps [/Inconeus /ongus, y1. vastus, or Caput longus). A very important and prominent muscle in four well-marked parts or heads — the long, the outer, the inner, and the posterior heads. Some authorities treat the four divisions of the triceps as one muscle, with four difl^erent origins and one insertion. Others treat them as four distinct muscles. As the divisions are quite well marked, it will be better for us to treat them separately. Nevertheless, in the living animal, the fossa between the long head and its tendon is much more pronounced than the depression between any two of the divisions of the triceps. Long Head. Origin : nearly the whole axillary or caudal border of scapula. Insertion : the top of the olecranon. Action : to extend the fore-arm. Outer Head [Anconeus externus, A. brevis, or A. lateralis). Origin : on the deltoid ridge or spine of the humerus. Insertion : the olecranon. Action : to extend the fore-arm. Inner Head [Anconeus internus, A. medialis). Origin : along the inner side of humerus below the lesser tuberosity. Insertion : chieHy by a tendon, to the inner side of the olecranon. Action : to extend the fore-arm. Posterior or Deep Head [Anconeus posticus). Situated behind the inner head and uniting with it near the olecranon. Origin : the under edge of the head of the humerus. Insertion : the olecranon fossa. Action : to extend the fore-arm. Anconeus {A. parvus or quintus). Origin : the back of the external condylar process of humerus. Insertion : capsule of the elbow joint. Action : to raise the articular capsule that it covers I and prevent it being pinched between the two bony surfaces, and to aid the triceps. Arm), Origin : The Muscles of the Fore-Arm. Plates Fill., IX., XIII., XFL, XVII., XVIII., XIX., XXIII. The muscles that belong strictly to the fore-arm group themselves as follows : — Six Extensors on the outer side and fore part of limb. Seven Flexors on the inner side and hind part of limb. Two Supinators. Two Pronators. Extensor carpi radialis [Extensor magnus, Radialis lateralis, R. externus or Anterior Extensor the Metacarpus), an important muscle. Origin : chiefly from the supracondylar ridge on the kuter side of the humerus. Insertion : by two tendons to the upper ends of second and third metacarpals. Action : it extends the metacarpus on the fore-arm. Extensor digitorum communis [Ext. pedis. Anterior Ext. of Phalanges). Origin : chiefly the epicondylc. Insertion : by a four-forked tendon one branch into each of the digits except le first. Action : to extend these fingers and to help to extend the hand. Extensor digitorum brevis [Ext. digitorum lateralis, Ext. dig. tertii, quarti, quinti proprius, n n n » » Feet. Inches 2 lOj 3 oj 3 >2 2 8 2 10+ m. 38 ART ANATOMY OF ANIMALS. CHAP, XVIII. The average length of three Lions, measured in siceleton, was 5 feet j.^ inches from the nose to the ischium. The average height at shoulder of nine Lions was 33] inches. A large skeleton, known as ' Cuvier's Lion,' measured by De Blainville, gives an approximate height at the shoulder when alive of 39^ inches. In estimating the height of the animal from the skeleton, take five-sixths of the sum of length of scapula, length of humerus, length of radius, and distance from wrist-joint to the ground. In its proportions the Lion differs from the true Cats, and approximates rather to the Dog form, as will be seen on comparing the Plates XXIV. and XXVII. In brief:— A Dog goes ill a square o( 3 heads. A Lion goes in a rectangle of 2^ heads in height by 3 heads in length. A Cat goes in a rectangle of 2^ heads in height by 3J heads in length. The Lioness presents no striking proportional differences. In the tabic (Chaptfir L.) are given measurements of a Lion and of a Lioness. CHAP. XVIII 39 cr L.) are given CHAPTER XIX. THE ANATOMY, SIZE AND PROPORTIONS OF THE TIGER. Altikhtcui the Lion is popularly called the king of beasts, most sportsmen agree that the Tiger is a larger, stronger, and more formidable animal. Mr. Stcrndale says in this connection : ' I should say that the Tiger was the more formidable of the two, as he is, I believe, superior in size. ... I usually found the Tiger the larger of the two.' Mr. Blanford says : ' Of the two, the Tiger, though standing lower, is heavier in the body and, I think, the more powerful animal.' Colonel G, A. Sweny, a sportsman of some African and many years' Indian experience, writes me that he agrees with Mr. Blanford in the foregoing, and adds : ' The average full-grown male Tiger, in the Central Provinces of India, will weigh, when in good condition, about 400 lbs., but the female not more than 330 lbs. Average height at shoulder of male about 3 feet 4 inches; females consider- ably smaller. Assuming that my estimate of 400 lbs. is a reasonable average for the full-grown male, I have certainly seen a dead Tiger which weighed over 500 lbs., but only one.' According to Colonel Percy (Badminton Library), 'The Lion is a less active animal than the Tiger, and apparently not so powerful ; in every case of a fight between the two occurring in a mena- gerie, the Tiger has invariably killed his opponent.' According to Jerdon : 'An average Tiger is 9 to 9^ feet in total length, or occasionally 10 feet.' Sterndale gives the following : — Measurements of two very large Tigers. Length. II ft. o in. 10 „ 2 „ Girth or Chest. 4 ft. 6 in. 6 „ I „ Girth of Head. 2 ft. 10 in. 3 » S » Tail. 3 ft. 4 in. 3» ■ n Girth of Fore-ann. 2 ft. 2 in. 2 „ 10 „ Height. 3 ft. 7 in. 3 n 9 » Measurements of the largest Tigress among seventy or eighty that came under his notice : — Length of Head and body tail » n » n Feet. Inchet. ... 5 2 • • 2 1. Total 8 4 He gives a medium-sized Tiger at 9 feet 8| inches, of which the tail was 3 feet ; and adds these Imeasurements of a :naic : — Length Tail Heel to shoulder. Feet. Inches. 9 S 2 10 3 2 4° ART ANATOMY OF ANIMALS. *,' CHAP. XIX Kt. Inchn. 3 II 2 — 5 3 2 7 3 — 3 3 Shoulder to point of toe Elbow to point of toe Girth behind shoulder ... Girth of fore-arm Girth of neck Circumference of head According to Blanford, * Sanderson found a bulky, well-fed male Tiger to weigh 25 stone (350 lbs.), and Elliot gives the weight of two large male Tigers as 360 and 380 lbs., and of a large Tigress 240 lbs.' The following measurements from living specimens in the Jardin des Plantes were taken by the writer in 1895:— Feet. Inches. Tiger, adult, height at top of scapula 2 iijV „ „ „ )i )t 3, » ••■ "• '•• ••• ••• ••■ ••• ■■• ■•• 2 10^ » young, » » .. » » 2 ^H Tigress, adult „ „ „ „ „ 2 gj 2 7i 2 5i « » » » »> 55 ,•♦ u The average of seven measurements of head and body is 6 feet 2f inches ; and the average of nine measurements of height at shoulder is a trifle over 35^ inches. These figures show that the Tiger is proportionately longer, as well as a somewhat larger animal than the Lion. On the Tiger's shoulder is found the centre of hair divergence that becomes so prominent in the Lion on account of its effect on the mane. This centre is seen also in the Jaguar and Leopard. The Tiger is identical with the Cat in all other details of anatomy and proportions. In the table (Chapter L.) is given a series of bone measurements. M ' CHAP. XIX, ■«t. 3 2 Inchei. II 5 2 3 3 3 7 3 stone (350 lbs.), a large Tigress en by the writer ret. 2 2 2 2 2 2 Inches. "A lOi 9i 7i Si average of nine hat the Tiger is nt in the Lion on 4« CHAPTER XX. THE JAGUAR. {Fe/is ofifa.) The Jaguar of South America is in effect a large Leopard. It is extremely variable in size ; the specimen now living in the Jardin des Plantes is but 24 inches high at the shoulder ; and yet Azara speaks of one that was 2 feet 9 inches high, its measurements being : — Length... Tail Circumference of root of the tail . . , neck , fore-leg at the middle „ ankle ... „ head close to the cars » » chest „ „ hind part of body Height at shoulder Length of head as fiir as occiput Height of ear Width „ „ » » » Feci. Inches 6 9 2 2 — 8 2 «J I H — 84 2 *i 3 "4 2 II 2 9 I 04 — H — 2} » » » There is, in the Museum of the Jardin des Plantes, the skeleton of a male which is even larger, it fairly rivals the Lion in size. Its measurements are : — Length of skull head in life, about cervical vertebrae dorsal vertebrx to point of ilium ... From front of ilium to back of sacrum „ nose to sacrum ... Height at shoulder From manubrium to ischium These, however, are exceptionally large individuals. Audubon gives an average specimen thus :— Nose to root of tail Lengthoftail Height of ear Shoulder to end of claw Length of largest claw Around the wrist Around the chest Around the head Breadth between eyes The proportions of the Jaguar are like those of the Cat. Kcet. Inches. I 14 I H — 10 2 10 — 6 s 4 2 94 3 84 ime Feet. n thu Inches. 4 I 2 I — 2t 2 — — 2 — 74 3 — I 9i — 3 mi-:" i 4a CHAPTER XXI. THE LEOPARD. {Fe/t's pardus.) Naturalists now recognise but one species of true Leopard. It is spread over Africa and Southern Asia, and varies in colour with the climate, being reddish, yellowish, grayish, and even black, according to the region. Sterndale states that it ranges from 3 to 5} feet in length of body „ 2| to 3 feet 2 inches in length of tail „ i^ to2 feet „ height The largest one measured in Ceylon by Dr. Kelaart was : Head and body Tail Height at shoulder Feet. Inches. 3 4 3 2 2 4 The following living specimens were measured by the writer in the Jardin des Plantes in 1 895 : — Leopard male from the Congo, height at shoulder female India ? Feet. Inches. 2 if I 9i head, in life, 8.| inches ; The skeleton of a small male measured as follows : — Skull, 7^ inches ; shoulder to ischium, 24 inches ; height at shoulder, 20 inches. The proportions of the Leopard are similar to those of the Cat. It may be considered as a small Tiger, and two-thirds of the dimensions given for the bones of the Tiger in Chapter L. will fairly represent the Leopard. 43 life, 8:1; inches ; he bones of the CHAPTER XXII. THE COUGAR, PUMA, PANTHER, OR MOUNTAIN LION. {Felts concolor.) This is simply a large Cat of extraordinary agility and suppleness. In all its proportions and anatomy, it agrees with the Cat. When young it is variegated, like most of the Felidic, with black spots on the body, and rings on the tail. But these markings disappear as it matures, in order, it is supposed, to make it more like the Deer upon which it preys. Audubon and Bachman give the following measurements : — Male shot by J. W. Audubon, at Castroville, Texas, January 28th, 1846. From point of nose to root of tail ... Tail Height of ear posteriorly ... Length of canine teeth from gums Female, killed January 26th, 1846. Length of head and body » » "•' Height of ear Length of canine teeth Weight 149 lbs. Dr. C. H. Merriam says : — ' In the Adirondacks it is an uncommonly large Panther that measures 8 feet from the end of its nose to the tip of its tail, and an unusually heavy one that weighs 150 lbs. • • * • Shot a male on Seventh Lake Mountain, that weighed about 200 lbs. This is the heaviest Panther concerning which I have been able to procure trustworthy information. • • • • yy^ adult Panther stands about 2' feet high at the shoulders.' Mr. Rowley gives me the following measurements : — Panther, male, from Central Park Mena- gerie, New York : total length, 82 inches; tail, 29 inches; hind-foot, from point of calcaneum to point of longest toe, 1 1 inches. Also another male from Barnum and Bailey's circus : total length, 84 inches ; tail, 30 inches ; hind-foot, ii inches. Feci. 5 Inches. I 3 I — 3 Feet. 4 2 Indict. II 8 _^ 3 O 2 44 fctrJ '^}^ 'fJL-'.- •■ "- CHAPTER XXIII. 'ti^'i THE CHEETAH, CHITA, OR HUNTING LEOPARD. (Cynailurus jubatus.) This remarkable animal, although classed with the Cats, has somewhat of the Dog in its form, anatomy, habits, and proportions. It is long-legged, going in a square of three heads ; its paws are but little prehensile, its claws are blunt and non-retractile, and it cannot climb. It is the species which properly bears the name ' Leopard,* as it was supposed by the ancients to be a hybrid between a Lion and a Pard or Panther ; but the present allotment of names is according to modern usage. Mr. Blanford says, ' It is probable that for a short distance the Hunting Leopard is the swiftest of all mammals.' According to Jerdon : — Feet, Inches. Feet. Inches, --..,46 Length of head and body about Tail Height Basilar length of a skull. . , Width across zygomatic arches . 2 6 2 9 — S-3S — 455 45 CHAPTER XXIV. THE BEAR FAMILY. In the Anatomy of the Bears the most important external difference from the Dogs and Cats is the plantigrade hind-foot, which is like the foot of man in being relatively short and so formed that the whole surface, from the heel or calcaneum to the toes, is set on the ground. The Bears also have on each foot five fully developed toes, with long non-retractile claws ; the first toe on the fore-foot is on a level with the rest. The pointed muzzle, the small, close-set eyes, the rounded ears, the in-toeing of the fore-paws, the shaggy coat, the high arching of the back, the diminutive tail, and the lowness of its position arc the other important peculiarities. As in the Cats the edge of the scapula rises above the line of the dorsal spines, ca.sing the shoulder hump — and the limbs are so articulated as to give them remarkable flexibility and play. But they resemble the Dogs in having no trace of a clavicle. The Grizriv, Brown, and Black Bears go in a square of two heads.' The neck is three-quarters of a head long, the width at the shoulders one head, and at the trochanters three-quarters of a head. * The arch of the back, however, rises considerably above the line ; but for the shortening of the body by this arch, it would be too long to form a square, as is seen in the table of measurements. 46 CHAPTER XXV. A i ; THE GRIZZLY BEAR. A Grizzly Bear killed by Lewis and Clark near the Porcupine River, measured as follows :- Length from the nose to the extremity of the hind-foot Circumference near the fore-legs „ of the neck „ „ „ middle of the fore-leg ... Length of the talons ... Feel. Inche*. 8 7i 5 'oJ 3 " I II - 4i To this Ord adds, ' His weight on conjecture was between 500 and 600 lbs. But this was not the largest Bear killed by the party. They give an account of one which measured 9 feet from the nose to the extremity of the tail ; and the talons of another were 6:^ inches in length.* Audubon and Bachman give the following : — Male, killed by J. J. Audubon and party on the Missouri River, in 1843, not full grown. From point of nose to root of tail Tail (vertebrae) „ (including hair) From point of nose to ear Width of ear Length of eye Height at shoulder » » ""ump Length of palm of fore-foot Breadth „ „ „ „ Length of sole of hind-foot Breadth,, „ „ „ Girth around the body behind the shoulders ... Width between the ears on the skull The following are the principal measurements of the Grizzly Bear skeleton, of which the full details are given in the table. Chapter L. Length of head in life ... » »neck Manubrium to ischium Height at shoulder in life Width between acromions „ „ trochanters Feet. 5 Inches. 6 — 3 — 4 I 4 3i 1 3 5 4 7 8 — 6 __ 9i Si 4 I 7i Feel. I Inches 5i — Hi 3 10 3 1 2 6 1 I 47 as follows :- Feet. Inches. 8 74 II II 4S It this was not the "eet from the nose ind party on the Feet. Inches. 5 6 — 3 — 4 I 4 - 3i — I 3 5 4 7 _ 8 — 6 - 9i - 5i 4 • - 7i lich the full details CHAPTER XXVI. THE BROWN BEAR OF EUROPE. This animal closely resembles the Grizzly in its anatomical details; some old authorities have considered them as identical. The following are the principal measurements of the Brown Bear skeleton, of which the full details are given in the table. Chapter L. It is a small individual. Feet. Inches. ' 3 — 10 3 *i 3 o Length of head in life „ „neck... Manubrium to ischium Height at shoulder Width at acromions „ „ trochanters I of — lOj Inches. 54 "4 10 2 6 I 48 i% !'<. CHAPTER XXVII. THE AMERICAN BLACK BEAR. The measurements of the commonest animals have proved the most difficult to get. No one seems to have thought it worth while to measure fully the Common Deer of America and of Europe or the commonest of the American Bears. The skeleton in the Galerie d'Anatomie Comparee is as follows Length of skull „ „ head in life, estimated „ „ cervical vertebrx Manubrium to ischium Height at shoulder From elbow to ground Width at acromions „ „ trochanters Feel. Inches. II} 10 II 3 3 10} 9 Audubon and Bachman give the following measurements of a ' very large ' Black Bear: — ' From nose to root of tail, 6 feet 5 inches ; height to top of shoulder, 3 feet i inch. ' A larger Bear than the above may sometimes be captured, but the general size is considerably less.' 49 Feel. Inches. Hi I Ji — 10 2 II 2 3 I 3 — lOj — 9 Jear: — 'From nose jnsiderably less.' Feet. Inchei. 7 I 2 3 4 3 7 0 2 0 — 7 CHAPTER XXVIII. THE POLAR OR WHITE BEAR. One measured by order of Lord Mulgravc was as follows : — Length from the snout to the tail „ „ „ „ „ „ shoulder bone Height at the shoulder Circumference near the fore-legs „ of the neck near the ear... Breadth of the fore-paw Weight of the carcass without the head, skin, or entrails, 6io lbs {Ord). Dimensions of a Polar Bear, killed July 17, 1 821, near Jan Mayen (see Manby's Journal). Length from snout to tail Height of the shoulder . . . Circumference at the shoulder Breadth of fore-paw „ „ hind-paw ... Length of fore-claws „ „ hind „ „ tusks in upper jaw Feet. Inches 7 6 4 6 6 Hi — Hi — 9i — 2} — 2i — 24 H 5° CHAPTER XXIX. THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. Plates XXVIIL, XXIX., XXX., XXXI., XXXII., XXXIII. If the domestic quadrupeds were ranged in a line according to their anatomical affinity, the Cat would probably be found at one end, and the Horse at the other. The Cat with eighteen toes, the Horse with but four; the Cat with its supple form, its manifold muscles, and its infinity of complex movements and posi- tions, the Horse with its muscles and bones greatly reduced in number and its movements and positions almost limited to those required for mere locomotion. The Horse's characteristic external features are so well known that they need not here be enlarged upon. The skeletal differences on comparison with the Carnivores are sufficiently set forth by the Plates V., IX., XXVIII., XXX., and XXXI. It will be noticed on these that in the Horse the orbit of the eye is usually more prominent than the zygomatic arch ; the male has canine teeth ; the species has eighteen dorsal vertebra:, eighteen pairs of ribs, and but six lumbar vertebrx ; the wings of the atlas are much developed, and form marked protuberances on each side of the neck ; the scapula has little or no acromion, but at its upper end is a broad, strong cartilage, called the cartilage of prolongation, which virtually lengthens the scapula ; it has no clavicle ; its ulna and radius are fused, so that such acts as pronation or supination are impossible ; its fibula is a mere rudiment; it has but one developed and two rudimentary metacarpals in each fore foot, and metatarsals in each hind foot ; and each of its limbs is terminated in a single toe. The muscles, with few exceptions, partake of the common tendency towards simplification. The panniculus is highly developed, in the living Horse the upper edge of its fleshy body forms a ridge which crosses the middle of the ribs obliquely backward and downward; the muscles for controlling the nostrils, the lips and the ears are more highly specialised than in the Dog; the zygomaticus does not reach the ear ; the sterno-hyoid and sterno-thyroid are united ; the superficial pectoral is divided into two distinct parts, the sterno-humeralis or anticus, and the aponeuroticus or transversus ; the deep pectoral is divided in two parts, the sterno-trochineus and the sterno-prescapularis, the latter being attached to the fore part of the scapula ; the deltoid and the flexor carpi ulnaris are divided in a peculiar manner ; the extensor carpi ulnaris, and the special muscles of pronation and supination are absent. On the hind-quarters, the gluteus medius is reduced, and the gluteus maximus greatly enlarged ; the semitendinosus arises on the sacrum. There is a new large muscle called the vastus longus ; this has been treated as the back part of the gluteus maximus, and also as the fore part of the biceps, it being formed of fibres derived from each, but most authorities separate it under the above name, as it has independent action ; it arises on the sacrum and is inserted into the outside of the knee. The sartorius is small and inserted far back on the inside of the knee ; the adductor magnus appears in two CHAP. XXIX. THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 5« separate parts, magnus and parvus ; there is but one peroneus on the leg ; the soleus is present ; the tendons of the perforans and perforatus arc so close together as to appear like one mass or cord on each limb below the pisiform or the hough ; immediately next to the bone is the suspensory ligament of the fetlock — a flat, strap-shaped ligament which arises on the carpus (or tarsus) and passing downwards behind the bone is inserted into the summit of the sesamoid and into the toe. The point of the splint or ru limentary metacarpal (or metatarsal) bone forms the ridge that appears on each side of the lower part of each leg. The chestnuts or warts on the insides of the limbs are no doubt relics derived from some remote ancestor that was provided with pads similar to those of the Camel. The veins which show everywhere on the body of a thoroughbred Horse need not be treated in detail, excepting those large ones which are reasonably constant as features of the visible form. These arc the angularis and facialis, of which the simplest types are represented in the plates ; the spur vein ; subcutaneus ; and the inner saphenous. The outer saphenous, so important in the Carnivores and Ruminants, is too minute in the Horse to need notice. The ligamentum nucha; becomes a structure of great size and importance, in the whole of the Horse family. re be enlarged H 2 5« CHAP. XXX. is |, /), 11' ^ 'k III Vt'' =• 11 « CHAPTER XXX. THE SIZE AND PROPORTIONS OF THE HORSE. P/ate XXXm According to MM. Cuyer and Alix, Horses vary in height at the withers from 0*96 m. (about j/.'J inches) to 2*10 m. (about 6 feet 10 j inches): French Cavalry Horses are selected between 1*48 m. and i'6o m. (about 4 feet loJ^ inches to 5 feet 3 inches). English Hunters vary from 1*55 m. to 1-62 m. (about 5 feet i inch to 5 feet 3f inches). Racers about the same or taller by i inch. Heavy draught Horses from i'65 m. to 175 m. (about 5 feet 5 inches to 5 feet 9 inches). The following life-measurements were taken by the writer from an ordinary carriage horse, a gelding, of good form : — Length of head Thickness of head through zygomatic arches » » ... .. "fbits Depth of head Length of necic when erect Neck and body from occiput to insertion of tail Ditto to point of ischium Length of tail bones Total length from point of nose to point of ischium Height at shoulder ... Length of car .. „ .. opening Width through external points of the iliac crests Width through at heads of humeri ... Girth of muzzle just behind the mouth head „ „ „ eyes neck at throat n n ''"se chest just behind shoulder ... belly at deepest point ■ loins just before ilium arm at middle of radius metacarpus at middle leg at middle of tibia metatarsus at middle The following are the life measurements of ' Sunlight,' a nearly thoroughbred English hunter of FmI. Inches, 2 oi ... — 9i ... — 9i ... — "1 5\ 0 4 8S 4i I ... — 7J ... — 6 8J 3} 8J •i 6} 7i 8J 0 7 24 ... — 8| I 4i ... — 9» CHAP. XXX. THE SIZE AND PROPORTIONS OF THE HORSE. 53 admirable form. Thii may be contidrred a typical modern war-hor«e, at hii size and build arc those requited for the heavy cavalry service. His only defect, perhaps, is the size of the head, which should have been i inch shorter, and proportionately narrower. iplne, /./., end of mane ;lish hunter of . Length of head Width nf „ at widest piMni, /./., through upper eyelidi II II II ju*t ohuve the orbit! Length of car „ „ neck, in ordinary poiitiun from occiput to point of tirM dorul „ „ body from firtt donal «pine to point of ischium „ from back point of iKhium to front of iliac creit Height at ihouldcr* ... „ of belly from the ground „ from point of olecranon to gromui n II n II calcaneum,, „ Depth of neck at throat II 11 II II ''*'* • ' • II II belly Width of neck at baw: ,., „ „ body from point to point of ahoulders I. II belly „ „ body through iliac crests „ „ „ „ trochanters „ „ „ „ extreme points of ischium Girth of head just above the eyes ,1 II chest II I, belly „ „ fore-arm in middle „ „ metacarpus ... „ „ leg in middle of tibia „ „ metatarsus in middle Length of fbre-hoof from point to extreme of hairy heel „ „ hind-hoof „ „ „ „ „ „ „ Width of fore-hoof ., „ „ hind-hoof ... ... The measurements of a Horse skeleton arc given in the table, Chapter L. The following proportional measurements will be found of service in determining the contour of ii typical Horse. The most important are put in heavy faced type. Nos. i, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 14, 15, 28, 29, 30, 32, were indicated by Buurgclat, Duhousset, Cuyer, and other authorities. The length of the head, A B, is the accepted unit of measurement. 1. The body fOM In a aquare whoac side 2. The belly, legs and ground form a square whose side is ... (At half the height of this square is the pisiform bone Z.) 3. The length of the neck above, A H, in the position shown 4. The depth of the body 5. The distance from H on the withers to the lower part of the flat drawing 6. From the point Oal. to the ground 7. From the point P on the loose flank to the point Cal. ... 8. From the back angle of the Scapula L to the fbremoit highest point of the crest of the Ilium 9. From P, on the loose flank to the highest point of the croup, Cr., in nature but not in the flat drawing rtti. InchM. a 1 — 10 — 9 — 8 1 5 10 »i 9 <1 2 o» 9l 11 — 9 3» oj loi 9i 31 3 ■i 6 1 6 8 1 4i — 81V I 5j — 8J — 6i — 6i — Si — Si humeral head, on the equals about 2^ heads I'i head equals >i .. 11 ' „ 11 • .1 11 II • 1, 54 ART ANATOMY OF ANIMALS. CHAP. XXX. equals I head >h ']]' '- 10. rrom point to point of tho oroata at tho wldMt part of tbo lllnm throngbtho body, that ia, jnat bolow O 1 1. Tbronih the wldaat part of the cheat ftvm aide to aide, that ia, about the middle oftheUneMN 12. Through the thlokeat part of the thl|ha, that la, about the middle of the line R8 13. The Crupper line O Q, that is, from the crest of the ilium to the ischiatic tuberosity ... 14. From P to Q 15. The bridle line A F 16. The depth of the neck at its base H I 1 7. The line of the under jaw D G 18. The line of the throat D to the tip of the ear 19. The line from the scapular angle to the front of the shoulder L J. . . . 20. The length of the front of the neck D Pc 21. On the fbrelimb the length of the acapnia, i.t., flrom D 8 to O O "• » » » „ « » » upper leg /./., from V to M O 23.,, „ hindllmb,, „ „ „ „ ilium,, „ Oto& H- » n n « » « » » fl»mur„ „ RtoS 25. „ „ „ „ ,) „ „ „ leg „ „ B to A at. *6- « » » » » » » lower,, „ „ A at. to Pta 27. From the outaide point of the humeral head on one aide through the body to the correaponding point on the other 28. The depth of the head DO 29- « » » » neokDB 30. The length „ „ humerua J to Spi 31. „ „ „ „ lower fore-leg M C to M P 32. „ „ „ „ hind canon Oub. to X 33. I'he thickness of each thigh is as a corollary of No. 12 ... 34. The thickeat part of tUe head ia from eye to eye, outaide theae rather more than 35. The length of the ear 36. The thlckneaa of the neck at ita thickeat point T N 37. The width of the foreleg, V W 38. The dlatanoe ttom the fore fttlock to the ground T Or 39. The diatance from the hind fttlock to the ground, X Or 40. The width of the hind-leg B T to F T 41. The distance from the point of the calcaneum Cal. to the point ot the cuboid 42. From H, the ' axe cut,' to the end of the body Z Z M. Gustave Debrie, to whom I aiu indebted for a critical revision ot the plates relating to the Horse, points out that since the typical Horse head is '60 metre or 23I inches in length, the Horse which is only 2^ heads at the withers is but 1*50 metre (about 59 inches) in actual height. This is a small Horse. A specimen that is r6o metre (about 63 inches) would be 2f heads high, for the size of the head is the least variable of the dimensions. Similarly, a large Horse 175 metre (about 69 inches) at the withers would be nearly 3 heads in height. To construct one of these large animals by the table of proportions, it would be necessary only to fix on a convenient standard of length, calling it a " head," but make the length of the real head jj of this for medium-sized horses, or g of this for very large animals. According to Colonel Duhousset, the head of a typical Horse is as follows : — '60 metre (about 23I inches) long, •30 m. (about 1 1 13 inches) deep from throat to forehead ; '22 m. (about SJi inches) wide from point to point outside the orbital arc. These measurements are exactly the proportions of the Horse of Silene in the pediment of the I Parthenon. n of a head H » » u » n i » n i » n i » n i n « i » » i n n i » n i » n i n n i n » * n n S » « i » » i n » i H » i n » i n » i » » 4 )) n 4 » » i n )) 4 » » i » n i » » i » n 1 n n 2 heads 54 ART ANATOMY OF ANIMALS. CHAP. XXX, n \^ 10. II. 12. 14. 16. >7- 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23- 24. 25- 26. 27- 28. 29. 3°- 3«- 3*- 33- 34- 35- 36. 37- 38. 39- 40. 4'- 42. From point to poiat of tho oroita at tho wldtit part of tha lUnm tlironctatha bodj, that is, jnat balow O Through tha wldart part of tho ohettftom tide to slda, that la, abont tho middle ofthoUnoMN Thranghtho thlokoat part of tho thlgha, that la, abont tho mlddlo of tho lino RB The Crupper line O Q, that is, from the crust of the ilium to the ischiatic tuberosity ... From P to Q The bridle line A F The depth of the neck at its base H I... The line of the under jaw D G The line of the throat D to the tip of the ear I'he line from the scapular angle to the front of the shoulder L J. . . . The length of the front of the neck D Pc On the foroUmb tho length of tho acapnia, i.e., flrom DBtoOO » » » » « « » upper leg !>., flrom V to M O « » » ,, lUuni „ „ Otoa „ „ „ Amur,, „ BtoS )i » » » !•» » » 8 to A at. equals I head hlndllmb. lower , Aat. toPh From tho outalde point of tho humeral head on one aide through tho body to the oorreapondlng point on the other The depth of the head D O „ „ „ „ neokDB Tho length,, „ humerua J to Spl „ „ „ „ lower fore-leg M C to M P „ „ „ „ hind canon Oub. to 3C I'he thickness of each thigh is as a corollary of No. 1 2 The thlokoat part of tUe head la flrom eye to eye, outalde theae rather more than The length of the car Tho thlokneaa of tho nook at Ita thlokoat point T N The width of the foreleg, V W ... The dlatance from tho fore fitlook to tho ground T Or The dlatance flrom tho hind fttlock to the ground, X Or The width of the hind-leg B T to F T The distance from the point of the calcaneum Cal. to the point ot the cuboid From H, the ' axe cut,' to the end of the body Z Z !* of a head H » » \i » » J » >» i n » i » n 2 » » i n » ? » II « » II » » » i )i II i H II J M n S >» II i> II » II » » » II » II >i II n » n » » II » » n II » II n II 5> n 2 heads M. Gustave Debric, to whom I ani indebted for a critical revision ot the plates relating to the Horse, points out that since the typical Horse head is "60 metre or 23I inches in length, the Horse which is only 24 heads at the withers is but i'50 metre (about 59 inches) in actual height. This is a small Horse. A specimen that is r6o metre (about 63 inches) would be 2| heads high, for the size of the head is the least variable of the dimensions. Similarly, a large Horse I "75 metre (about 69 inches) at the withers would be nearly 3 heads in height. To construct one of these large animals by the table of proportions, it would be necessary only to fix on a convenient standard of length, calling it a " head," but make the length of the real head || of this for medium-sized horses, or {} of this for very large animals. According to Colonel Duhousset, the head of a typical Horse is as follows : — '60 metre (about | 23! inches) long, •30 m. (about 1 1 jg inches) deep from throat to forehead ; '22 m. (about S^J inches) wide from point to point outside the orbital arc. These measurements are exactly the proportions of the Horse of Silene in the pediment of the ! Parthenon. CHAP. XXX. 55 all I head { j} of a head n » n \i » » * n n i n n i » » i » « i » » J n n i n n i n n i n n 1 n n i » n * n n i n n > i » » i » »» i i> n i » n i n » i » » J » n 4 » » i n II i II II i 11 » i II II i II II 2 heads ating to the Horse, iorse which is only . small Horse. ; size of the head is ;hes) at the withers ecessary only to fix eal head || of this | — "60 metre (about (about 8iJ inches) : pediment of the CHAPTER XXXI. THE ASS OR DONKEY. This animal agrees closely with the Horse in all essential features of its anatomy. In its proportions it differs somewhat, especially in the size of its head. All specimens examined by the writer go in a square of 2 heads. From the point of the occiput to the point of the withers is i head ; the line of the breast just divides the height, /.<*. it is i head from the ground ; depth and greatest width of the belly, each i head ; when the animal is standing the figure included between the fore-leg, breast, knee, and ground is a square of t head ; the ear is half a head long. In height, the Ass varies from 3 to 4 feet at the shoulder, although specimens of much greater size are occasionally seen. It is probable that the very large, thoroughbred Asses go in a square of 2^ heads, for, as I elsewhere remarked, the head is the least variable part of the anatomy. Life Measurements of a Female Ass of Medium Size. Length of head Depth „ „ just before the eye ... Width „ „ at the orbits, the widest point Length of ear P'rom tip to tip of ears ... From occiput to neural spine of first dorsal vertebra ... „ „ „ ischium TotuI length from point of upper lip to ischium Length of tail (bone only) Distance from manubrium to ischium Height at shoulder ... Depth of neck at throat — II II II 11 base Width of belly, at thickest part Depth of belly Width between the |ioints of the shoulders „ „ crests of ilia II I, II ii. ischia Girth of chest 11 II hclly Elbow to ground... Cnlcaneum „ ... Belly Knee to elbow (standing in ordinary position) ... Feet. Inches I 9i — 104 — 8 — lOj I 10 1 10 5 2 6 "i I 2 3 7J 3 6i — loi I 4 1 7 1 9 — loi 1 2 — 9 4 0 5 »i 2 3 I 6 I 9 I 9i 56 CHAP. XXX CHAPTER XXXII. THE ANATOMY, SIZE AND PROPORTIONS OF THE OX. Plates XXXV., XXXVI. In most of its bony and muscular anatomy the Ox may be considered intermediate between the Horse and the Dog. The Horse has one toe on each foot, the Ox two (fully developed), and the Dog four or five ; the Horse has fifteen or sixteen bones in each foot ; the Ox nineteen or twenty ; the Dog thirty-two or thirty-six. The Ox resembles the Horse in having the ulna and radius united into what is practically one bone, and the fibula a mere rudiment ; but it resembles the Dog in having thirteen pairs of ribs, whereas the Horse has eighteen ; all three animals have twenty-eight bones in the head, seven in the neck, and lack the clavicle. The Horse has eighteen dorsal or thoracic vertebra;, six or five lumbar vertebra;, and about sixteen tail bones ; the Ox has thirteen dorsal vertebra;, six lumbar vertebrx, and about twenty tail bones; the Dog resembles the Ox in the number of its vertebra;, except that it has seven in the lumbar region. Notwithstanding the increased number of ribs and dorsal vertebra;, the Horse has in all but 191 bones to the Ox's 196, and the Dog's 255. The Ox is a typical ruminant, the digestive system being peculiar and complex ; and the teeth are very difl^erent from those of either Horse or Dog. They consist of twenty-four molars, six on each side of each jaw, and eight incisors in the lower jaw. There are no upper incisors, i,e. front upper teeth, their place being taken by a sort of pad, against which the lower incisors work. The horns of the Ox form a striking peculiarity ; their radical difference from the antlers of the Deer is noted elsewhere. The rudimentary hoofs which appear on each foot are but little more than appendages of the skin ; for although they are attached to minute bones, the rudiments of toes, these latter are not perfectly articulated with the limb, as in the Pig, and have no proper muscles or| tendons. There are no remarkable departures in the great muscles of the trunk. The well-known pro-j nounced conformation of the region about the loins, for instance, is merely the result of increased weight and size, an exaggeration of the elements of form found in Dog and Horse, without any important change in the constituent bones and muscles. But on the limbs the intermediate character of the muscles, corresponding with the intermediate I number of toes, is very obvious. CTn the outer side of the fore-arm and on the hind-leg we find much the I same muscles as in the Dog, but more united, and with less independent action ; the extensor communis, however, is peculiar in being split in two parts. The supinators and pronators are absent as in the Horse. On the thigh, the Ox has the vastus longus, like that of the Horse, and on the leg the peroneus longus, as in the Dog. It also resembles the latter in having the semitendinosus arising on the ischium. The prominent veins of the face and limbs are like those of the Dog ; but it agrees with the Horse I in having the great spur vein on j.. i'i , Plate XXXVII. In its muscular and bony anatomy the Sheep may be considered as a miniature Ox. Its external peculiarities, consisting as they do of the well-known differences in the coat, the form of the head, horns, and hoofs, are chiefly matters of degree, and need not to be enlarged upon. This animal goes in a square of 2^, heads ; its other proportions are sufficiently set forth in Plate XXXVII. An ordinary male Sheep of French breed was 27 inches high at the shoulder. The females arc smaller. The following measurements in inches were taken from two-year old Sheep of Hampshire Down breed : — Male Lengtli of head „ „ body, manubrium to ischium Total length Height at shoulder Length of neck in ordinary horizontal position.. » » ^^f „ from tip to tip of ears From point of upper lip to fore corner of eye . . . Width of head through the eyes From calcaneum to ground , „ elbow to ground ... Belly to ground ... From elbow 10 knee while standing Girth of belly, measured over 2 months of wool M ,, cnesi „ ,, ,, ,. ,. ,, . . . Female. (wether) Feet. Inches. - "S I'cet. Inches. loj 2 4 lOj 7i 2 3 7 lOj 2 5 2 'i I 1 — lOj I 5* 3 7 1 Si 3J 6i — 6 — 5i I I — lOj I 7 1 3J I 2 1 0 I 1 4i 4 8 3 10 10 6i CHAPTER XXXV. THE BIGHORN. (Ov/V montana.) This animal, though clad in hair like that of a Deer, is a true Sheep in all anatomical essentials. Ord {N. A. Zoology) quotes from Mr. M'Gillivray the following measurements of a male : — Length from the nose to the root of tail „ of the tail ... » » » horn Circumference of the body The stand He adds, 'A pair of these horns have been known to weigh 25 lbs.' Audubon and Bachman give the following: — Length Height at shoulder Length of tail Girth behind the shoulder Height to rump Length of horn around the curve » » eye Weight 344 lbs., including horns. Nose to root of tail Tail Height of rump Girth back of shoulder , Weight 240 lbs. (killed July 3rd, 1843). Male figure in our plate Female figure in our plate. Kci't. Inches. 4 6 o 9 Feel. Inches 6 0 3 5 — 5 3 II 3 .0} 2 loi —m~ '* 4 7 — 5 3 4i 3 4i 6a t "I* ?! II it'' "i \ CHAPTER XXXVl. POLOS OR THE PAMIR SHEEP. {Ovis polii.) This magnificent animal was originally described by Marco Polo in the thirteenth century. The account of this explorer was discredited however until the animal was rediscovered in 1840 by Major BIyth, who found that Polo had understated, rather than overstated, the facts. Blanford gives the following : — Dimensions of an adult male with 48-inch horns. Height at shoulders Length of head From horns to tip of tail Tail with hair „ without ... Length of ear in front Girth round chest Basilar length of a good skull Breadth across orbits Females are not much smaller than nules. Good horns of rams measure 50 to 60 inches round the curve, and about 15 inches in girth at the base, the extreme recorded measurements being 75 and 1675. SevertzoiF estimates the weight of an old male at about 600 lbs., but he did not weigh one. The large pair of horns mentioned would thus have a total length around the curves of 1 2^ feet. A pair described by Sterndale was 54 inches across the tips, and another was 5 feet from tip to tip. The same authority gives the weight of an adult Polo Sheep at 576 to 612 lbs., the head and horns weighing over 72 lbs. It agrees with the common Sheep in going in a square. But the height of the figure is increased from 2^ to 3 heads, a change of proportion elsewhere noted as characteristic of giant races. Feet 3 . Inches 8 I 125 s 2 — 55 — 4 — 4-75 4 35 (Stoliczka) I 07 — 7*5 63 CHAPTER XXXVII. THE GOAT. The ordinary Goat, though so unlike in appearance, is of the same proportions as a Sheep, nor docs its bony and muscular anatomy present important differences. The following are the life measurements of a male Goat a year and a half old : — Length of head Width „ „ across orbits From point of lip to corner of eye n n » n » froit basil line of horns Length of ear From tip to tip of extended ears Length of body, manubrium to ischium. . . Height at shoulders (exclusive of hair) . . . Neck from occiput to point of scapula . . . Total length point of lip to ischium Tail bones Girth of belly Height of belly from ground Distance from point of elbow to ground Length from point of calcaneum to ground Feet. Inches — 10 — 5 — 5i — «i — 5i I 4 2 4 2 3i — 10 4 7 — 6 2 II t 2 I I II I CHAPTER XXXVIII. THE GIRAFFE. The three living Giraffes measured by the writer were each 4 heads in height at the shoulder, and 2 heads in length of the body ; the croup ' head lower than the withers ; the neck 2 heads long. From the knee to the elbow was about 1 head ; from the hough to the ground i \ heads ; from the belly to the ground 2j^ heads. The large male Giraffe in the Jardin d'Acclimatation is 21 feet high. In the Galerie d'Anatomie Compar^e is the skeleton of a male Giraffe which measures as follows : — Length of skull „ „ head in life, estimated „ „ cervical vertebrz From manubrium to ischium Height at shoulder „ „ „ in life, estimated . . . „ „ iliac crest From the highest point of the shoulders to th e xiphoid „ xiphoid to ground „ olecranon to „ „ calcancum,, „ » » » P»tell» „ point of pisiform to ground Width at humeral heads „ of chest at widest part „ at trochanters „ „ iliac crests Feet. India. 2 2l 2 4 5 »i 4 6 8 75 9 3 7 0 3 9i S 0 5 6 3 6 2 7 2 II I 4i I 10 1 9 2 ol n ': , «5 CHAPTER XXXIX. es as follows : — THE PRONGHORNED ANTELOPE. {Antilocapra americana.) In its anatomy this unique animal bears a general resemblance to the Ox, Goat, and Deer tribes. One very evident difference is in the feet, the Antelope, like the Giraffe, having but two hoofs on each foot. Its horns are very remarkable, for although formed of true horn, as in the Ox, they are shed periodically as in the Deer. A typical Antelope is 2^ heads high and but 2 long. Richardson gives the following dimensions of a male Antelope : — Length from the nose to the root of the tail Height at the fbre-shouiJer „ „ „ haunches Girth liehind the fore-legs „ before „ hind-legs Length of the tail with the hair According to this, the head of the animal would have been 1 4.^ inches long. Judge Caton gives the following as the dimensions of an ordinary Antelope Length from nose to end of tail Height at shoulder » » hips Length of fore-legs » » hind-leg n » ear Feet. Inches 4 4 3 0 3 0 3 0 2 10 — 4* Feet. 4 Inche 10 2 10 3 6 1 10 — S to 5 feet 66 *'t,< CHAPTER XL. THK DEER FAMILY. TiiF, anatomy of the Deer corresponds closely with that of the Ox. The most striking difference is, perhaps, the antlers, which are borne by the males, anil in the Caribou ami Reindeer species by the females as well. These remarkable structures are of solid bone, and arc grown and shed each year. The number of points on them has but little relation to the age of the animal; the finest antlers are grown by the finest bucks when they are in their prime; a very young, a very old, or an unhealthy buck always produces a poorly developed antler. The Deer are also distinguished by the presence of a ninnber of glands which secrete an unctuous matter that is supposed to be a means of intercommunication. At least two pairs of these merit notice :_ .the lachrymal pit or fossa under the inner corner of each eye, and the tarsal gland on the outer side of each hind- leg below the hough. The former by its size, colour, and shape is a marked feature of the face, and the latter on account of the hair-tuft around it gives a peculiar character to the hind-leg. All of the true Deer measured by the writer go in a square of 2.4 heads, with i head or less for the neck, I [ heads for depth of belly, and i to i ^ heads from hough to ground. Some of the smaller Deer have a habit of drawing the hind quarters under them, so as to make the body short and very high at the back. In this position they of course do not make a square, although the heiglu at the shoulders remains unaltered. :r i 68 '■;:*■- 1>A CHAPTER XLII. THE RED DEER OF EUROPE. {Cervus elephas.) Wapiti in miniature. The does with him u This is the Stag rendered famous by Landseer's pictures; it is much like a According to Bell {Br. ^ad.), ' A fine Stag stands about 4 feet or even more.' A medium-sized Stag at the Jardin des Plantes is 3 feet 8 inches at the shoulder. are about 4 inches lower. According to Rev. L. Jenyns {Br. Vert. An), the dimensions of the Stag are : — Length of body, 6^ feet ; of the horns, about 2 feet ; of the tail, 7 inches ; height, about 3 fttt 8 inches. In the Galerie d'Anatomie Comparee is the skeleton of a male, which measures Length of skull „ „ head in life, estimated Actual length uf cervical vertebra: From manubrium to ischium ... Height at shoulder ... „ „ „ in life, estimated „ „ top of inner angle of ilium ... From xiphoid to highest point of shoulder « « » ground „ humeral head to ground ... „ olecranon „ „ „ patella „ „ „ trochanter „ „ „ calcaneum „ „ „ » » patella Width of skull at widest place, the posterior edge of the orbits „ „ shoulder at humeral heads ... „ „ chest at widest place, nth rib „ „ pelvis through iliac crests .'.. » » » » trutnante-s Another fine skeleton in the same collection is as follows Length of skull ,. . „ „ head in life, estimated „ „ cervical vertebnc From manubrium to ischium ^ Height at shoulders ... „ „ „ in life, estimated ... „ „ top of sacrum ... 1* rom olecranon to ground „ calcaneum „ „ „ xiphoid „ Feet. Incho. I 4l I 7i I H 4 oj 3 6 3 9 3 4l I 8i I II 2 6J 2 ol 2 6i 2 II I 7 1 3i — 6i 1 9} 1 "i "^ lOj Feci. Inches. I 3i 1 7i 1 6 3 7i 3 9 4 0 3 8 2 6 1 9i 2 2i 1 69 CHAPTER XLIII. THE VIRGINIAN DEER, OR COMMON DEER OF AMERICA. (Cariacus virginianus.) AuouBON and Bachman give the following dimensions of this species : — Length from nose to root of tail „ of tail (vertebr*) „ „ „ including hair Height of ear The male skeleton in the Galerie d'Anatomie Comparee measures Length of skull „ „ head in life, estimated Actual length of cervical vertebra; From manubrium to ischium Height at shoulder „ „ „ in life, estimated „ „ top of inner angle of ilium From xiphoid to highest point of shoulder » » n ground „ humeral head tu ground „ olecranon „ „ „ patella „ „ „ trochanter „ „ „ calcaneum „ „ » » « patella Width of skull at widest place, the orbits „ „ shoulder at humeral heads „ „ chest at nth rib, widest place „ „ |Klvis through iliac crests „ » „ „ triichantcrs Feci. Inches. 5 4 — 6 I I — 5l Feel. Inches. — "i I 2 I 3h 3 S 3 oj 3 5 3 I I 3 I 9 2 2 I II 2 I 2 8 I 5 I ^i — 48 — 71 — 10 — 71 — 8i 70 CHAP. XLIV. :| |r It w ^-1 M:! CHAPTER XLIV. THE MOOSE AND THE EUROPEAN ELK. Many good authorities consider the Moose of America and the Elk of Scandinavia as one species. They differ considerably from the true Deer in their proportions, as well as in many details of their anatomy. The body is 2 heads in length and 2;| heads in height at the shoulder. The neck is about half a head long, and the body through the belly i head deep ; from the point of the hough or calcaneum to the ground is i head or rather more ; and the distance from elbow to knee, when standing, is i head. A Moose is from 5 feet 8 inches to 6 feet 6 inches at the shoulder, exclusive of the mane ; 6 feet may be considered about the average height of a bull Moose. Mr. John Rowley has given me the following measurements of a large bull Moose, shot by himself in New Brunswick : — Kcct. Inches. I'otal length, end of muzzle to end of tail 8 2 Femur to humerus, f./., centre of head of humerus to centre of great trochanter ... ... ... 4 o Height at shoulder, i.e., from top of skin at hump to flat of hoof, with leg placed in a natural position, not outstretched, thus giving approximate standing height at shoulder 6 4 Height at rump, leg placed in natural position not outstretched, and measured from skin on rump to flat of hoof 5 9 Depth of body behind shoulder, from bkin uf back just behind hump to bottom of brisket . . ... 2 8 Greatest distance across horns ... ... 5 o Measurements in all cases made with a tape in a straight line, not following the contour of the body. According to Sir Henry Pottinger {Badminton Library) :— The average bodily measurements uf a full grown Scandinavian Elk, let us say over seven years old, are as follows : — Kcct. Inchc!.. Length fro.n tail to crest Crest to noM Height at wither At quarters From belly to ground ... .. ... Greatest girth Rojnd thigh Round fore-arm ... ... The following are the measurements of a male Elk, from Sweden. They were taken from the skeleton in the Galcrit; d'Anatomie Comparee : — Lengtii of skull ... ... ... ... ,,, ,,, I! <'timatcd length of head in life .. From top of head to |K>int of longest (4th) dorsal spine, with 1,'eck horizontal From same spine to back of ischium 9 5 2 S 5 8 to 9 ? 5„ (> 3 4 6 II „ 7 ft 3 0 I II Kcct. Indies 2 0 a • 4 2 0 4 ■i CHAP. XLIV. THE MOOSE AND THE EUROPEAN ELK. 71 as one species, f their anatomy, out half a head ilcaneum to the head. le mane ; 6 feet Actual length of cervical vertebrae From manubrium to ischium Height at shoulder „ » » '"''fc „ „ top of inner angle of ilium ... From manubrium to highest point of shoulder „ xiphoid „ „ „ „ manubrium to ground „ xiphoid „ „ humeral head „ „ olecranon „ „ patella „ „ trochanter „ *. „ calcaneum „ Width of skull at widest place, the orbits shoulder at humeral heads „ chest at nth rib (widest place) „ pelvis through iliac crests „ „ trochanters Feet Inches. 1 8 5 2 5 7 S II 5 2 2 •i 2 5i 3 10 3 1 4 I 3 Si 3 8 4 6 2 6 — 9 I >i 1 loi 1 'i i 3 ■et. 8 Inches. 2 4 0 6 4 5 2 9 8 5 0 "eel. IncheH. 9 5 2 5 5 8 to 9 S 5„ b 3 4 6 1 1 „ 7 ft 3 0 1 II taken from the eel. Inches. 2 0 2 • 4 2 0 4 >i ^t *'"S^.?; CHAPTER XLV. .*•{- THE REINDEER AND THE CARIBOU. {Rangifer tarandus.) Most authorities agree that the Reindeer and the Caribou are geographical races of the same species. They resemble the true Deer in general proportions and anatomy, their bodies going in a sijuare of 2j heads, etc., but they differ in many details of form. The small ear and eye, the bovine character of the head and neck, the hairy muzzle and the great size of the hoofs and the horns are striking differences. But the fact that the great palmated antlers are also borne by the females, is one of the most nt)table distinctions between this and the other Deer. The skeleton of a male Reindeer in the Galerie d'Anatomie Comparee, gave the following : — Length of skull ... „ „ head in life, cstiinntcd „ „ ccrvic.ll vertebr.r ... Maniihriiiiii tc> ischium ... Height .It shoulders Width iit humeral heads „ „ trochanters From calcaneum to ground l'ft.(. Inches. • 3 1 4 1 .'. \ 5 i 4 — ^ — ^ 1 1 2 I 73 CHAPTER XLVI. :es of the same )dies going in a 1 eye, the bovine id the horns are 'cniales, is one of Mowing : — L'tl. Inclicn. 1 3 ' 4 I.', i 5 i 4 — «.', — 8J 1 7 2 1 THE CAMEL AND THE DROMEDARY. P/ate XXXVI IL The Camel, while it resembles the Ox in the general arrangement of its bones and muscles, shows many wide anatomical differences, as well as the very obvious dissimilarity of general form. The absence of horns and of accessory hoofs; the presence of tusks like canine teeth (three on each side of the upper and two on each side of the lower jaw) ; of callosities on the breast, elbow, and knee; and of the hump of reserve fat on the back; the small ear; the woolly coat; the twelve instead of thirteen dorsal or thoracic vertebra? with the accompanying twelve instead of thirteen pairs of ribs ; the seven instead of six lumbar vertebras; and the great length of neck and limb, are the most striking characteristics. The Dromedary is merely a lightly built, swift Camel, bred for saddle use. Its bone measurements and general proportions are very similar to those of the Camel. For those who wish to study the subject further, the monograph by P-lijah Walton will be found quite exhaustive. The following measurements are taken from that volume: — The head of a full grown Camel is from l foot ll inches to 2 feet in length, and i kmt across in the widest part. • ' The ear is small, being only 4 inches in length by about 3 in width. Camel : — The head 2 feet long and 1 fcKit deep. full length from shoulder to tail Foreleg full length Hindleg „ „ Full height from top of hump to sole of foot Dromedary, male : — Head, length, i foot 9 inches ; width, i foot 2 inches. From shoulder to tail Foreleg ... ... ... ... Hindleg Full height Dromedary, female : — Head, length, 1 fimt 8 inches ; width 1 foot From shoulder to tail Foreleg ... Hindleg ... Full height In addition to these, the same authority gives the following measurements of the large Two-humped or Bactrian Camel, in the Zoological Gardens at London : — Bactrian Camel, female : — Head, f''! lengii: ... From shoulder to tail Foreleg, equally divided iic the wrist Hindleg ... From top of humps to the soles of the feet The proportions of the Camel are indicated on Plate XXXVHI. IVit. liUlllS 5 8 4 4 4 4 7 0 I'l-i-i. Inchos 4 1 1 4 0 4 0 6 6 I'eel. Inches 4 10 3 8 3 8 6 2 l-iet. Inrhis. 2 4 6 1 3 2 3 2 7 5 T- 'If •J' V V" . \ CHAPTER XLVII. THK PIG. In the main features of its anatomy the coinmon Pig agrees with the Ox tribe. It has, however, many more bones— about 270 to the Ox's 196; the greatest difterences being in the limbs, where the Pig has four fully developed toes, with accompanying bones, to each foot, and the Ox but two. The muscular anatomy need not be studied in detail, as nothing but general masses are visible. The large Pig skeleton at the Beaux Arts gives the following dimensions: — Skull Head in life about ... Mnnuhriwm to ischium ... Height at shoulders This would give, as the life proportions, 2 heads in height at the shoulder, and 3 heads in length of body from manubrium to ischium. A medium-sized female Pig of Essex breed measured as follows: — Head Length of ear Height at shoulder ... » » back Body from manubrium to ischium Total length from occiput to ischium ... Total length, nose „ „ From point of calcancum to point of accessory hoof From point of elbow to ground ... Kirt. 1 IndiM. 1 4 \ 10 X 8 Kcet. Inches 1 0] — »i 2 li 2 5 3 oj 3 9 4 9* 1 10 1 fc;^-'il \'' t ' \\:i\ ..!( > 1' '1'; 75 CHAPTER XLVIII. eads in length of THE INDIAN ELEPHANT. The males are usually 9 feet, and the females 8 feet at the shoulder. According to Sanderson: — The Indian Elephant does not reach a vertical height of 10 feet at the shoulder ; the largi»t male out of some hundreds observed was g feet lo inches, and the largest female 8 feet 5 inches. The calves at birth arc usually 3 feet high at the .ihoulders, and have a trunk but 10 inches long. < Sterndale gives as a unique, authentic measurement of a male: — 10 feet 7 inches at the shoulder, and mentions as a curious fact that twice around an Elephant's foot equals its height at the shoulders. If the length of the head be taken from the crown between the ears to the point of the lower lip or to the point where the tusk first appears, the Elephant is 2i heads high at the shoulder, and 2 heads long from the point of the shoulder to the ischium. The ear is half a head long; the trunk more than long enough to reach the ground; from the breast to the ground about i head; the tail i liead in length. In the British Museum is the skull of a very large rogue Elephant that was killed at Meerut. Its dimensions were: — Height Circumference of forefoot » n •f""'' » « neck Length from top of head to end of trunk Measurements of the skeleton of the female Indian Elephant, in the Galerie d'Anatomie Comparee Length of skull from highest point of crown to extremity of bone of upper jaw Estimated length of head in life, from crown to |K)int of lower lip Height at shoulder „ to top of inner angle of ilium, the only prominent point in the sacral region Length from manubrium to ischium „ of neck bones From manubrium to highest point of shoulder, i.e., the 3rd dorsal >pinc „ tup of head to highest (Xiint of shoulder " "'Phoiil „ „ „ „ highest |)()int of shoulder to inner angle of ilium Height of lower outer angle of ilium from gnnind (N.B — This angle is very im|)ortaiu ; it is the most prominent feature of the region, and disguises the trochanter.) L 2 Feet. Inches 10 6 5 3 4 4J 'i 6 1 1 I Keel. Inches. • 3 I 4 2 8 6 7 6 .. 6 1 7 4 •• i 6 •• i 5i 4 i 4 i 6 0 ;.»/?; 76 ART ANATOMY OF ANIMALS. Distance from Mine angle to line of JKhiatic tuberoMty „ ufume angle in advance of centre of trochanter „ „ „ above the trochanter ... ... (N.B. — The pelvis, as well as the limb bones, of the Elephant is remarkable for its perpendicularity.) From manubrium to ground „ xiphoid „ „ shoulder-head „ „ point of olecranon to ground „ knee-cap „ „ trochanter „ „ ischiaiic tuberosity „ Width of skull at the widuiit point, viz., just ubovv the <>|Kning of the ear „ „ chest „ „ „ the loth rib „ between the mctacromiuns, the prominent external points of the shoulders „ „ „ heads of the humeri „ through the pelvis at the external angles of ilium CHAP. XLVItl Feet. Inehcf. 1 I — 8 — 8 6 S 1 •'1 7 3l 0 4 4 II 7 81 CHAP. XLVIII. Inchei. v CHAPTER XLIX. THE AFRICAN FLEPHANT. This is a slightly larger animal than the Indian species, and, although quite distinct, uf the same anatomy and nearly th: same general proportions. According to Sterndale: — The African Elephani is uf larger size as a rule, with enurinously dcvvloped cars which cjuite overlap the withers. The forchcaii recedes and the trunk is more coarsely ringed, the tusks are larger.* • * Sir Samuel Baker had in his possession :i tusk, measuring 10 feet 9 inches.* * * The African Elephant has only three nails on the hind foot, whereas the Asiatic has four. Mr. Rowland Wurd, referring to the large Elephant brought from Africa by H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh, says: — This animal was undoultedly one of the largest examples ever brought to this country, of the African s|)ccics. His height at the withers was From lip of trunk to tip of tail Girth From top of the head to the end of trunk Circumference of head From ear to ear . . Length of ear ... The skull and tusks weighed more than 3 cwt. * * * The weight of the entire Elephant in the flesh was 4 tons, 8 cwt., 4 lbs. The ears of the African Elephant, it will be seen, are i head long instead of half a head, as in the Indian species. Keel. Inchus. 10 0 n 5 16 6 1 1 3 10 0 q 0 4 6 CHAP. L. n CHAPTER L. MEASUREMENTS OF CERTAIN SKELETONS. Actual measurements in inches of certain skeletons which are in the normal position of the animal standing at rest. All are from extreme points. The mark ' ? ' means that the measurement, though taken as it stands, is not beyond question. In the Herbivores given, the greatest width of the skull is at the orbits, not at the zygomatic arch as in the Carnivores, and the greatest width of the shoulders is at the humeral heads. The Dog, Brown Bear, Horse, and Cow are in the museum of the Ecole des Beaux- Arts at Paris, The Lion, Lioness, and Tiger, Grizzly Bear and Buffalo arc in the Galerie d'Anatomie Comparcc, Jardin dcs Plantes. SnciH. Dm. Lion, LlONIM. TlOIR. Grizzly BlAk. Brown BlAR. HOMI. Cow. Amirican BurMui, Rcmirks. Length nf skull from occipital tuberosity to L«rgc. 0?x ind brtcd unknown' Average specimen Average specimen Small specimen male Sex? Sex? Size, Medium. ■ Small male. Above avenge •ize. Large Male. alvcolars of upper incisors Length of head in life, i.e. allowing for lOj 1 3ft '■i 12fi 16 >4i 20J 21} 22 { nasal cartilages, &c Depth o( skull at external orbital process of io8 ■43 12J '3l '7J 15 2l{| "1 25 H frontal bone at right angles to the long axis 4* 6J 5 5i 7i 6J 10 loa "1 C/3 Width between alveolars of upper canines. . . 5i 31 3 3i 3i !! ai Greatest width (at zygomatic arches) n » (at orbits) 7 qIv 9 — — "— lOf lof 10 9f •31 Length of cervical vertebrx 9i II 11} >9) ■92 '9 |3 Length of dorsal vertebrx from neck to a point opposite the front of the crest of the ilium 22 33i 26| 3'i 3' 258 36 49 54 From level of iliac crest to back of ischium 7l >3 12 15 12 i6i 21; 21J From level of iliac crest to back point of 85R sacrum II 7 5 6 10 8h loJl '3! 134 o Length of sacrum 4 40 3I' 3!^ 6i 5i 8j| 10} 9J Length of caudal vertebrc 6i? 4J •5? 3* 20 Depth of chest at xiphoid cartilage or mcta- sternum 11} % 128 ■4l 20 .» <5f H 29i 391 From iliac crest to centre of great trochanter Si 7iV 7i 10 8A 12 '5 i4i Width from crest to crest uf ilium at its widest point, i.e. the inferior external angle 5 6 6i 61 <4i lot '81 22a 20 Width between ischiatic tuberosities, external points ... Si 6i 6 6 «i' 6S 9 '5 12J u Width at widest part of chest, i.e. about ^ tenth rib H 10} 9i lOi 18 >3ft i8i 223 22i Width from acromion to acromion, the widest point of shoulder 7.4 lOj? 9i? 10? 18 14 — — — Width from head to head of humeri, the widest point of shoulder — — — I2i| 18 •7 Width from trwhantcr to trochanter 7'i 9i 9i 9i 3« lOj "5 ■9j •9 Height at shoulder when alive (estimated)... 37 3* 35 36 54 60 70 From angle of scapula to crest of ilium ... '7 15J 20.' 22j •9i .7J ^Si 3(' 36 Length of body from manubrium to ischium (or from head of humerus to ischium) .., 3° "' , *■' 45J 44' 38I 5Ai.n, Al'°*« Large "f'^K-^ Male. 21} 12 "J 25 loj >'l 9J Ml •9i '9 49 J 54 2U .3J 10} 3^ •3i 9J 20 29i "5 39-1 '44 "H 20 "5 I2i 22} 22i CQ ■-4 »-4 C X . Spiciii. RlMAOKt. Length of Kapula to tip of acromion proccM Length of Kapula to tip of coracoid procets Length of humerus on outer sidu Length of humeriw from centre of head to centre of external epicondyk- Length of humerus initide f'om centre of the trochin to the centre of the tuheicle Length of ulna from top of olecranon to line (if flexure of wriit From top of olecranon to point of pisiform hone Length of radius inside From line of flexure of wrist to under ?idc of outer sesamoid From point of oiiiir seMimoid to level ot tip of longest toe without hiM)f or claw Greatest length of femur From centre ) 9 >3i Small mile. ;n Above average iiie. Large male. 61 81 .0| loJ '3 8 9 12 "4 1$ '7 "9 10 ■:! 7J "Oft 9l loj 12} "1 9i loV, la 7J loj 9l 91 124 "1 94 lOj III 10.' '4l nl <3ft '4 iji |6J 16} ■71 ■ii ■43 1 1 '11 '♦1 loi 111 ;;i lii •71 12.1 \ll *k 42 45 5\ 4t 32 loj " lOj 41 4i 4i 51 6 1 5) 7i 7 1 73 oJ '4^ i^S •4l ni '5J ■5l |6A '7 :u 1 iiJ ; "1 12 •5 121 'ii "4 '.U «3i! '4^ \\i 9l 9i 12 II 4 , io| i lo} a 4l 12 ! II 3 ; 3i ■2S •1 4k '3 6 6 '34 6J bj 9 «j 94 1 7J 6} •58 '71 '71 3i 4i 4 44? i 5 1 , 51 n 7i 1 i 71 1 Mf- |8 ■9j 6o '7 '9 7° 36 70l 74 \ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) ilo ks o ^*^> 4^ 1.0 ^1^ lii ^^B itt Ui 12.2 i II S-^ U& ^iyi4u^ Hiotographic Sdmoes CorpOTadon 23 WBT MAIN STtHT V»nSTm,N.Y. 14SM (71«)«73-4S03 4^ '^ ^ .*t^ .**■ So ¥i 1^ i>4 '^^ 'ti CHAPTER LI. THE HORSE IN MOTION. P/ates XXXIX., XL., XLT. The positions in which artists were wont to represent quadrupeds in rapid motion have long been known to be merely conventional attitudes, with but little foundation in nature. Many original observers, John Leech, for example, made attempts to replace the conventional positions with others more true, but finally relinquished the idea as hopeless. The conclusion ultimately accepted by such men, was briefly this : — In every case art is a conventional abstract from nature, and its appeal to the imagination must necessarily be influenced largely by education. These impossible attitudes are through education able to suggest to us the idea of motion, and therefore they must be accepted. Many other artists made attempts to draw nearer to the truth, but it was not until the appear- ance of the well-known Muybridge photographs, in 1878, that the matter was forcibly brought to the notice of the public and the whole art world. At first these photographs were looked upon merely as amusing curiosities, but their educational influence has steadily grown, and to-day it is the exception when one sees a running Horse depicted in the * hobby-horse * attitude. Being instantaneous photographs, their truth is beyond impeachment, and yet it is perhaps need- less to remark that all truth is not equally good ; and the artist who blindly and without judgment adheres to the attitudes shown is not likely to arrive at satisfactory results. The plates representing the walk, amble, trot, rack, canter, and gallop of the Horse are kindly loaned by Professor Eadweard Muybridge, whose definitions of these paces, as given in the Standard Dictionary, are reproduced by permission of Messrs. Funk and Wagnall of New York. IValk. To move with the slowest pace, in which a quadruped has always two or more feet on the ground, and a biped always one foot. (Plate XXXIX.) It is thus seen that when a Horse during a walk is on two feet, and the other two feet are suspended between the supporting legs, the suspended feet are laterals. On the other hand, when the suspended feet are severally in advance of and behind the supporting legs, they are diagonals. These invariable rules seem to be neglected or entirely ignored by many of the most eminent animal painters of modern times. Amble. A method of progressive motion in quadrupeds, with the same sequence of foot-fallings as in the walk, but in which a hind foot or a fore foot is lifted fi-om the ground before its fellow hind foot or fellow fore foot is placed thereon, the support of the body devolving alternately upon one foot and upon two feet, the single foot being alternately a fore foot and a hind foot and the intermedial supports the diagonal and lateral. (Plate XXXIX.) The amble is natural to the Elephant, and, in some countries, to the Horse, the Mule and the Ass. The sequence of loot-fallings is the right hind, the right fore, the left hind, the left fore, beginning again with the right hind foot. At no time during the stride is the body of the animal unsupported. The amble and the walk are the only regular progressive movements of the Horse wherein the body is never without the support of one or more legs ; in all others the weight is entirely off the ground for a longer or shorter period. Trot. A progressive motion of a quadruped, in which each pair of diagonal legs is alternately li.^ed, thrust forward, and placed upon the ground with approximate synchrony, the body of the animal being entirely unsupported twice during each stride. (Plate XL.) It appears somewhat remarkable that until quite recently many experienced horsemen were of the opinion that during the action of the trot one foot of a Horse was always in contact with the ground. Raci. The rack differs from the trot in the nearly synchronous action of the laterals instead of the diagonals. (Plate XL.) Canter. A system of quadrupedal locomotion in which the feet are landed on the ground in the same consecutive order as in the walk, but at shorter or quicker comparative intervals of time. (Plate XLI.) The canter is usually regarded as a slow gallop, probably from the facility with which a change from one gait to the other can be effected ; an important difference will, however, be observed. Gallop. The most rapid method of progressive quadrupedal motion (sometimes erroneously called the run), in whis.h the animal springs into the air from a fore foot, and lands upon the diagonal hind foot. (Plate XLI.) r without the support 8i CHAPTER LII. I a biped always one THE GALLOP OF THE DOG. Plate XLII. Many of the attitudes assumed by a Dog at full speed, unlike those of the Horse, agree with the conventional attitudes which have been used indiscriminately to represent all quadrupeds when galloping. The following is the definition in the Standard Dictionary : — The gallop of the Dog differs from that of the Horse in that the sequence of foot-fallings is rotary instead of diagonal. The order is the left fore, the right fore, the right hind, the left hind, and then again the left fore ; but this sequence is often reversed, so that the order becomes, the left fore, the left hind, the right hind, the right fore, and then again the left fore. M t-'y 82 CHAP. LIU. !i"tj CHAPTER Llll. > ,* THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. There is a widespread idea that the bodies of birds are everywhere and equally covered with feathers. This is far from being correct. All birds, with one or two exceptions, have large naked spaces on their bodies, covered however by the overlap of the feathers nearest, which would in many birds show an aggregate area nearly as great as that of the feathered tracts. The first to call attention to this arrangement of feathered tracts, or Pterylae, and bare tracts, or Apteria, was Nitsch. In the general plan of pterylosis that he lays down we find the following feather-tracts named :— 1. The Spinal tract, extending on the bacic from the nape to the tail ; extremely variable. 2. The Humeral „ narrow bands, one on each arm across the humerus. 3. The Femoral „ similar to No. 2, one across each thigh. 4. The Ventral „ begins at the head and passes along the under surface to the tail ; extremely variable. 5. The Capital „ covering the head. 6. The Alar „ the rest of the wing feathers. 7. The Caudal „ the tail and its region. 8. The Crural „ the leg feathers. The importance of these tracts to the artist lies in the fact that the series of feathers which emanate from them are separately visible in the plumage of the living bird. And when drawing is made with due reference to these anatomical considerations, it wears an air of truthfulness which all recognise, even though they do not know the reason for it. Hitherto no one seems to have considered these facts to be worthy of the artist's notice, excepting the sculptors and painters of ancient Egypt, ancient Assyria, and Japan. In the last country the love of nature and truthful rendering of it has continually kept alive the study of feathers, as is abundantly attested by the exquisitely artistic and truthful representations of the Shijo, or Naturalistic School. Mr. Goodchild, in his able paper on the Cubital coverts of Birds, points out the peculiar character of the wing feathering of the Hawk tribes, and adds : — The wing of a Merlin well illustrates the whole of the normal Acciptrine forms, Mr. Wolfs beautiful figures of the Birds of I'rcy all afford excellent illustrations of the same point, while, from a part of the world where experience has led us to expect minute accuracy of detail, we have the Japanese figure in metal of a species of Spiziictus now among the choicest treasures at South Kensington Museum which affords a correct illustration of the Accipitrine style of cubital coverts. This figure is the work of Miy6chin Muneharu, an artist of the sixteenth century. In the same room is a bronze incense-burner of nineteenth-century work, decorated with life-sized Peafowl and Pigeons, which also affords equal evidence of artistic feeling and scientific accuracy carried to the highest pitch. In our own time and country the bird drawings of Wolf, Keulemans, and Thorburn are among the best studies extant in this field. Mr. Wolf, indeed, may be called the founder of the London School. As early as 1840 he made a series of Falcon studies which are among the classics of the subject. While Wolf was treating artistically the study of feathers, Sundevall was making purely scientific CHAP. LIII. THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS. 83 d bare tracts, or -tracts named :— investigations in the same department, and in 1 847 published a paper on the ' Wings of Birds,' from which the following extracts are taken : — (i) IVmg-quilh (Penn.-c alares, Remiges, Linn, and III.) are only a single row, which are seated in the posterior margin of the wing, and are the largest of all. All the others are usually named coverts (tectriccs). (2) Large coverts (Tectrices majorss, Pteromata, 111.), a series of feathers which lie immediately over the roots of the quill-feathers, inserted in the skin behind the muscular layer. (3) Second series of coverts, which are also seated in the fold of skin behind the true arm or hand. They often show the peculiarity that they lie in a reverse position to the preceding, as to which more hereafter. (4) Small coverts (Pluma; or Tectrices minores, brachiales, cubitalcs, digitales, so named according to the part upon which they are seated). They form from three to five series, and are placed upon those parts of the skin which enclose the bones and muscles of the limb. They are wanting upon the cubitus in all birds which possess singing muscles at the lower larynx, but occur in all other birds. {5) Arm-fold feathers, or the anterior small feathers of the wing (Plum;c antecubitales, or Tectrices minimx), are seated in several rows upon the fold of the skin in front of the arm itself. 1. Remiges primores ("lash-feathers"), which are seated upon the hand, constitute the most important part of the organ of flight. In numbers they are usually ten. The number of the fcithers varies but little; only between 9 and 11. There are 9 of them only in some Song-birds, and this because the first feather disappears (of which more hereafter) ; and 11 in the genera Podicfps (all the Swedish species, also P. domini- cemis and phillippensis), Phoenicipterus, /fnastomns, Tantalus, Ciconia (according to Nitsch, also C. mycteri/i, but not C. argala), Musophaga and Corythaix, but not in Schizorhlx, Wagl. The typical form seems to be that all the 10 feathers are of equal length i but in consequence of the way in which they are attached to the hand, the first feather projects beyond the following ones and thus seems to be the longest, while the following ones appear to get gradually shorter. The wing then is quite acute. This form of wing occurs generally among the lower birds, namely, in a great many of the Water-birds. In those which fly with remarkable rapidity, the second feather is usually the longest. In the Song-birds without exception, the first feather is abbreviated.*** It either remains as a small rudiment, or entirely disappears ; and in this latter case there are only nine primaries. This reduction of the first feather is peculiar to Song-birds, but among them it is quite usual. We may indeed estimate that one fourth of the known species are destitute of the first quill-feather, one fourth have it rudimentary, one fourth have short rounded wings with ten primaries, and the remaining fourth have tolerably long wings, but with the first feather shorter than those that follow. 2. Remiges cuhitales, or Penna: cubitales (arm-feathers), are inserted in the fold of the skin along the posterior side of the ulna, so that the root-ends always rest against the outer side of that bone.*** Most of them are nearly of the same size and structure, so that when the wing is folded the inner ones usually extend gradually beyond the outer ; but a few of the innermost, 2-5, are always gradually much diminished in size, and have frequently a different colour and structure from the rest. They are in this case softer, more pointed, &c., and both in form and colour resemble the feathers of the back. In number the cubital quill-feathers vary very considerably, namely, between 6 (in Trochilus) and 36-40 (in Diomedta exulans).*** The number is in general greatest in Water-birds, some of iiie Waders {Ardea, Ciconia) and Raptorial birds [Fulturinrc). The average number in the other Raptorial birds, Gallinie, and Waders is 15-16, which also occurs in many Water-birds ; most of the Coccyges have 10-13, but in these, as in all the fore-named orders, the number varies, even in species of the same genus. Only the Song-birds have a nearly constant number, 9, which is the smallest number of general occurrence. 1. Tectrices majores (great wing-coverts, Pteromata, III.) form a single series, which is always situated immediately within upon the roots of the quill-feathers. They always retain much resemblance in form, texture, and colour to their corresponding quill-feathers, and are always, like the latter, destitute of accessory plumules. They should be named after their quill-feathers, so that those on the hand are called Tectrices primoris or manus (great hand-coverts), and those on the fore- arm cuhitales (great arm-coverts). The former are always inserted in the skin in the same tube with their corresponding quill-feathers, and so close upon the latter that the two seem to have grown together. The greater hand-coverts (7". majores primores) are equal in number to the quill-feathers. Of the Tectrices cubitales there are always one or two more than of the corresponding remiges ; thus, externally, there is always one small supernumerary one. Properly, they ought to be of equal number, as the feathers here, as everywhere, are arranged in quincunx (rows of three different sets), which constitutes a continuation of their arrangement on the hand. The supernumerary coverts seem to me, therefore, to show that a quill-feather, which ought to have been placed in the middle of the wing-fold, is not developed.*** In the Song-birds they are so short that they do not attain half the length of the remiges, except inwardly in some genera; but in all other orders they are larger, so that they always reach beyond the half of their corresponding remiges. 2. Tectrices secund/t seriei (the coverts of the second row), which lie immediately upon the greater coverts, generally resemble the ordinary feathers of the body. Those which belong to the cubitus have usually the peculiarity of lying reversed with relation to the greater coverts and remiges, so that the inner margm of each feather (that turned toward the humerus) is free and covers the outer margin of the next one. But I have always found them unreversed in Trochilus, Coracias, Cuculus, Columba, Gallus, Lestris, Sterna, and Uria, as M 2 84 ART ANATOMY OF ANIMALS. CHAP. LIII. '*>' well as in young Song-birds in their first dress.*** They are most visible in the Oscines, in consequence of the absence of the next series, and are quite short, soft, and usually distinguished by a peculiar colour-marking, t.g,f white at the apex in many so that they form a transverse band upon the wing. (A transverse band upon the wing is almost still more frequently produced by the apices of the greater covert feathers, which in the Song-birds, are often white, yellow, or of paler colour.)*** In the Song-birds, in which they alone are reversed, they may receive this name [ptrvirste). 3. The Tectrices minora cubiti vel manus (smaller wing coverts) in form do not differ at all, or but slightly, from the feathers of the body, and in position they agree with the next preceding series, inasmuch as their margins cover each other in a contrary way to those of the remiges. But they lie similarly reversed also in those birds in which those of the second series are not reversed ( Coracias, Cuculus, Sic.), In the Song-birds these feathers should properly form three series on the cubitus, but they show the remarkable peculiarity that they are never fully developed. Only in the young in their first plumage, and in the winter plumage, a few of them, but never all, occur in the form of down, or of very small undeveloped feather rudiments covered up by the next following perfect feathers. In older birds in the summer plumage, scarcely a trace of them is usually visible. This remarkable structure is so peculiar to those birds which have the inferior larynx furnished with five pairs of muscles, that I have been unable to find any other form except Cypselus which resembles them in this respect, but it occurs in the whole of them without a known exception, and, consequently, forms a certain external character for them. In every Song-bird, even when sitting with folded wings, and in stuffed specimens, we recognise this deficiency at the first glance : it causes the wing to exhibit only a small number of coverts, and these to occupy an inconsiderable space in comparison with those in the wings of species belonging to other orders. O I the hand these feathers are continuous in two or three series, which in no respect differ in structure from the second series of coverts, and exactly cover the small portion of the hand which is not clothed by the large coverts. They are usually concealed by the quill-feathers of the thumb, and always lie right. I.e., not reversed as on the cubitus. 4. The Tutrices minima s. antecuhita/es (smallest or foremost covert-feathers), are seated in several series upon the fold of the skin in front of the cubitus. They are right-lying, not reversed tike those on the cubitus itself. But we often find one of these series reversed, in agreement with the preceding ones, e.g., in the Gallinx, in the diurnal and nocturnal Birds of Prey, and many others. On Plate XLIII. is shown the Common Sparrow, its ordinary appearance, and a chart of its feather arrangements. These are explained by the drawings on Plate XLIV., and will serve to illustrate the feathering of all the Passerine Birds. Plates XLV. and XLVI. present the living appearance and anatomical details of a Kestrel, as a type of the Birds of Prey. Plates XLVII. and XLVIII. give the natural appearance, abstract form, feather arrangement, and living details of the Common Quail {Coturnix communis). •A \\ . t l< yf i' J >, * I CHAP. LIII. 8| ss CHAPTER LIV. m-. THE PEACOCK. P/iite XLIX. Common opinion has awarded to the Peacock, above all birds, the palm of beauty. Many of the recently discovered Hummingbirds arc exquisite, as are the rare Birds of Paradise and some of the Asiatic Pheasants brought to light by modern research, but, divested of their charm of novelty, it is found that none of the species mentioned can successfully compete with the Peacock. Probably there is notliing else as beautiful in the world of Zoology. The train, or ' tail ' as it is commonly called, is the unique and splendid feature of this regal bird. The chromatic beauties are no less notable than the mathematical correctness with which they are displayed. It is almost unquestionably the most remarkable illustration extant of the regular arrange- ment of feathers. The perfect geometric design, indicated in the Plate, is not merely hypothetical, but will be seen in every Peacock's • tail ' when in full plumage. The explanation of this is very simple, as will be seen on reference to the drawing of the naked Sparrow (Plate XLIV.). The true tail of the Peacock, composed of eighteen ordinary feathers, is under- neath the train and supports it when spread. The train consists of two hundred and fifty odd posterior feathers of the dorsal tract, which are set on in diamond pattern, as in the Sparrow, and the regular lengthening of which towards the back, together with the radiation when spread, completes the mathematical figure. A slight variation is sometimes seen when the tail is newly grown. The ends of the three outer rows or Y feathers are close together and separated from the true eye feathers by an exceptionally wide interval. They are also supplied with an embryo eye, which however is soon worn off. m 86 iiiilfi ifr A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL WORKS CONSULTED. 1683. Snape (Andrew). The Anatomy of an Horse. With copperplate illustrations. A careful description, afterwards translated into French by F. Garsault, 1732. 1766. Stubbs (Geo.). The Anatomy of the Horse. In eighteen tables, all done from nature. London. The plates were engraved by the artist himself, and are among the most accurate anatomical illustrations extant. 1769. Bourgelat (Cl.). Elcmens de I'Art Vcterinaire. [Traitc de la Conformation extcrieure du cheval, &c.] Paris. The anatomy of the Horse compared with that of the Ox and Sheep. 4th edition in 1807. 1779. GoiFFON ET Vincent. Memoire artificieile des principes relatifs a la fidelle representation des Animaux, tant en Peinturc, qu'en Sculpture. Alfort. Folio. With 23 large copperplates showing accurately the action, anatomy, size, and proportions of the Horse. [1799.] GiRARi) (J.). Tableaux Comparatifs de I'Anatomie des animaux domestiques. VII. de la Republique. 1807. GiRARD (J.). Anatomie des animaux domestiques. 8 vo, 2 vols. (4th ed., 1841.) Translated into German by K. L. Schwab, 1810-11. 1822. GuRLT. Handbuch der Vergleichenden Anatomie de Haussaugethiere. With atlas of plates, and edition 1832; 3rd edition 1844. 1832. Percivall (Wm., M.R.C.S.). The Anatomy of the Horse. London. 8vo. No illustrations. 1843. Sundevall (C. J.). On the Wings of Birds : The Ibis, fifth series, vol. iv.. No. xvi. art. xxxix. pp. 389-457. Plates ix. and x. [Translated from the original Swedish of the Kongl. Vetensk.-Akad. Handlingar, 1 843, by W. S. Dallas, F.L.S.] London, 1886. Two plates, comprising 13 valuable illustrations. This is the first attempt to study the subject. 1844-53. ScHLEGEL (H.) et Verster DE WuLVERHURST (A. H.). Traite de Fauconneric. Leiden and Diisseldorf. With 12 life-size plates by J. Wolf. 1845. Straus-Durckheim (Hercule). Anatomie descriptive et comparative du Chat. 2 vols, text, 4to, i atlas folio. Paris. Atlas with 1 3 admirable plates, J life-size. 1847. NiTSCH (C. L.). Systeme der Pterylographie. The first edition was published in 1833. The English translation by Dr. P. L. Sclatcr, in 1867. 1850. Levh (F. A.). Handbuch der Anatomie der Hausthiere. Stuttgart. 8vo. 2nd edition, 1859. Excellent treatise on Anatomy of Horse, Cow, Pig, Cat, and Dog, with careful woodcuts. 1861. Leisering (A. G. T., Dr.). Atlas der Anatomy des Pferdes und Ubrigen Hausthiere. [Drawings by Moritz Krantz.] Valuable lithographic plates of Horse, Cow, Dog, Cat, Birds, &c. 1865. Walton (Elijah). The Camel: its Anatomy, Proportions, and Paces. London. Folio. Ninety-four large lithographic plates by the author, many of them coloured. A most valuable work. A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL WORKS CONSULTED. 87 cheval, &c.] Paris. des Animaux, tant 1870. Flower (W. H.). Introduction to the Osteology of the Mammalia. 1873. Marey (E. J.). La machine animate. Locomotion terrestre et acrienne. Paris. 8vo. The locomotion of inimils studied by mechinicil apparitiM ; 1 17 figures in the text. Followed some years later by works with instantaneous photographs. 1880. Reoamey (Guillaume). Atlas de l'Anaton)ie des formes du Cheval. Paris. With chromo-lithographic plates. 1881. MiVART (St. George). The Cat. New York. 8vo. 1882. Stillman (Dr. J. D. B., A.M.). The Horse in motion. Under the auspices of Leiand Stanford. London. One hundred and seven plates, chiefly from photographs by Mr. Ead. Muybridgc, illustrating the Horse, Ox, Dog, Pig, and Deer in motion. 1883. Franck (Dr. LuDv.). Handbuch der Anatomie der Hausthiere. Stuttgart. 8vo. 1884. GouBAUX (A.) et Barrier (G.). De I'extcrieur du Cheval. Paris. A valuable work with 34 plates and 346 illustrations. A second edition appeared in 1890. i88j. Leiserinc (A. G. T.) und Mueller (C). Handbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie der Haussaugethiere. Berlin. 8vo. A new edition of Leisering's work (1861). 1886. CuYER (E.) et Alix (E.). Le Cheval. Paris. Sixteen large coloured plates, with superimposed parts and many woodcuts. 1886. GooDCHiLD (J. G.). Obs. on the Cubital Coverts of Birds. P. Z. S. Pp. 184-203. London. Thirty-seven cuts. 1887. MuYBRiDGE (Eadweard). Animal Locomotion. Philadelphia, 1872-1885. Ten folio volumes, containing 781 plates, each representing a series of movements of Mar., Birds, or Animals. 1890. Ballu (Roger). L'CEuvre de Barye. Precede d'une introduction de M. Eugene Guillaume. Paris. Folio. An important work, with 25 Urge plates, including portrait of Antoine Louis Barye, and 51 wood-cuts. 189'. Ellenberger (Dr. W.) und Baum (Dr. H.). Systematische und topographische Anatomiedes Hundes. Berlin. An admirable monograph, with 208 cuts, 37 lithographs. A French translation by Dr. J. Dcnikcr appeared in 1894, published by C. Reinwald and Co. 1891. Chauveau (A.). The Comparative Anatomy of the Domesticated Animals. Revised by S. Arloing. Trans- lated by Geo. Fleming. New York. 8vo. First edition (French) dated 1855. First English edition 1864. 1892. GooDCHiLD (J. G.), H.M. Geol. Surv., F.Z.S., M.B.O.U. The Cubital coverts of the Euornithes in Relation to Taxonomy. Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edinburgh, 1890-91. Vol. x. Plate xv., 17 pp. 317-333 pp. One plate with z6 figures of wings. 1892. {Idem). Notes on Crested Birds of Prey. Same publication, pp. 202-208. Plate x. One plate with 13 figures of heads. 1893. (Idem). Supplementary Observations on the Cubital Coverts of the Euornithes. Same publication. Vol. xii. (1892-3), pp. 171-181. 1894. SussDORFF (M.). Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie der Hausthiere. 2 vols. An impurtiint work, with very accurate illustrations. ^1 4* .^' VlH 5*1- I w"a S5 S f -J -2 = In-S 0:2 X 2 e. -S J ^1 O I i- •« f^ QQ ^1 -3- c/.y .:^^ f4 V«J J-v ^ A' n:' 5 -^ f^ ■ji * o Iff I I ►:;j '^n '^"'1 ^4.» ?!*-.* O Ji !5 Z Id .a 2| 5 iS a ^ o 1 e 1 0. s- ^M t^ ^>' ^' O c ;j :2 5 c- > 1 O - :Ni ♦«^-. .4* i r: t- t H g %■. EE*!* -#^1 ««^ ■•'»J^ ^W" I' 3 i ^ p> = 2hJ r /•'^ 2 |:S>« - 1^1 c =■; :o z _ . X aa ' <*i sK*r o = s /■ a d = * a ^-^ a -3^ •_ "51 " 2 — • w ^11 H .S £. I -S, ^ a ) ^ ■^. 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X A 0 a *i Im 0 t rt Q. *i . s c a V V •0 S i u •S 5 .« u ^ rf ■^ ^ 4 u *> /• / a V/> u ■<^, A/ t 1^ /A > \C ..^ — Q \ ^•-Y-' jd vV ^ c \'\ H V \\\ "\ rt \ N •0 0 m s u •S a ■V. 4J s 0 f^ § •a •$ I ■ «^ N ^ j: — I'S '%^^ i Ml ^■H-e7iZB s- -SH f= S^.. S-£-j * 3;. ■1:1 i< .= £.s i.a^'-i. a! .5 I X.\ 5" 3 -tj g ZZ «^ ./, ** ^ . o.S-i ;: = 2-^:2K §3,2 H 9-= a: -=■ o t'» iii?=- i i-n — b X 0 -f tfi a fi I 5 ^ I ■f7: '1 ""J ^ ^' 'f L.) ?t^ I'LATI-: XL.— THIi HOKSK IN MOTION— 'niK TROT AN1> TIIK UACK. 2^^ rs K: 1 ^/^: -^ r -^ "v^ /.L .^'. W fi :>^ ^,_^^»^ '^\^ £^-V^ >^7\ !ir:>'{ ' %y ^ :'§' _^^ PLATE XLL-THL IIOKSK IN MoTION-TlIE CANTER AND HIE GALLOP. From Afiiyh-itixf f'hotagraphs. c ^ I s ■^. < -< l'LAT« XLIII.-TI1E COMMON HOUSE OR F.I'R0I'|:AN SIAKROW. (/',««/ ,/^/««//.,„.) A. Till' livinR Ilircl in (jixicl Kcillici, In show ihe Pattern. It. The Anatuniy or .XrrnngciiKni of tlu' I'lMlhiring. This plate will illustrate the Fcatlu-r arrangiMiicnl of all tli<-' .SinKiiiK llir.ls or Tasscrcs. The plate is lifc^i \ lo. III. 0/ llif Grtut Covtrit or TfClrices, ij otvr Iht Primarin , «n4 II ovtr tht Stnndarits II, til. of Iht If KtvtntJ Covtrli. la.tii.o/lhej/rnlltirs \ .. of the WinnM. \ / k 14. lit. 0/ thf t) Primaries *S '*'■ off lit' 9 Secomiuriis i.>r A'li'ii'x't'i iuhtii/i'i} fhi inmost J itrv sumctinws cti/Sed rt'riials. iij. Tht' inHfr %*fth*' tvo /vk'S of fftithcrs flutf grtnv oil Iht ilumfml J met. They are ctimmonly cttllt'd Scapulars, If*. The $ uniuimt'd mTi-s on thf upper part of the U'lHi,' art' the Sunt// Co't'i'rts. C /»** ^J^' iS. The Iturnvrul Feather Tract 10. Alar Tract- 22. Femoral Triut ( .f rows ) 3j. C 'rural Tract — 24. Caudal 7'ract iT.Ctipila! Trad II). The Humeral Tract: cousi^ting of three distinct rmos, though but tivo ■ire seen in the living bint. -31. Dorsal Tract B. Plate XLIV.-TIIK ANATOMY OV THE COMMON OR HOUSE SPARROW. A. The upper surface of the left Winjj, lo show the Fi.'ather armngement. U. The naked Itotly, to show the Feather tracts and Naketl tracts. This phle also will illurtnttc the general features of Feathering in all the Passcres or Singing liirds. This plate Is lirc-sizc. Tlatk XLV.-TIIK KUROI'F.AN KKSTKia,. ^/;r/-v a/a«,/dW/w.)-Female. To illustrate llic I-'.nin and I-Valhcr .irran[;cincnt uf the ImIcohs. The plate is half life-size. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 1.1 ■» Itt 12.2 E Hi ■" £ m 12.0 HiotogFaphic Sdenoes Carporalion 23 WIST MAIN STRHT WIBSTIR,N.Y. USM (716) •72-4503 ■^ H if O ~ ^ H •%. 3 i i-i INDEX V Anatoi Anders Antelo| Antiht Anus, ' Arm, 1 Ass, T A Auricu Barve Bear! Bigh< Birds INDEX. Anatomy, Art, of AnimalH, i of Mninmnls, chiefly refers lo bones, i^ of Hirds, chiedy refers to feathers, /A Kxplnnation of visible bving I'orni, //'. (icnerni consideralions of, //'. of (ireyhouml, adapted to rei|iLireimiils of iirt aim- toinists, i/>. Abuse of, 2 Human, i I'rofcssor Anderson on use of, 2 Professor Cuyer on liarye, //«. Anderson, Professor, on use of anatomy, ;/'. Anteloix;, The Pronfjhorned, Anatomy, size and pro|iortions of, 65 Compared with Giraffe, ii. Aniilotapra amtritana, or Pronghorncd Antclo|K', //'. Anus, 1 he Muscles of, 30 Arm, The, Muscles of, 2 2 Ass, The, Size and proportions of, 55 Amble of, 79 Auricular Sheet, The, 16 B Barve, His methods, i An advocate of art anatomy, ib. His opinions on anatomy, 2 His groups of Lions, 37 Bear Family, The, 45 Feet of, ib. Absence of clavicle in, ib. American Black, 48 Proportions of, 45 Brown, of F.urope, 47 Hair-masses of, 4 Proportions of, 45 Life measurements of, ib. Measurement of Skeleton, 78, 79 Grizzly, Hair-masses of, 4 Size of, 46 Proportions of, 45 Similarity to Brown Bear, 47 Measurement of Skeleton, 78, 79 Polar, Size of, 49 White, Size of, ib. Bighorn, The, 61 Size and proportions of, ib. Compared with sheep, ib. Hair like Deer, ib. Birds, Anatomy of, 3, 82, 83, 84 Nitsch on the anatomy of, 82 Feather tracts, or Pleryla of, ih. Naked tracts, or Apteria of, «','. Japanese drawings of, 'ib. Birds, Miy6<:liin Munifharu, Snilptor of, Hj I'asserine, 84 Of Prey, //-. (ioodrhild on feathers of, H2 Wolfs drawings of, ih. Keiileinans' drawiuf^s of, ih. Thorhnrn's drawings of, ih. Siindevall on wini^s iif, 82, H.}, 84 llison. The, or American llulTahi, 58, c,i) Mta. uremcnt of Skeleton, 7.S, 7c; llloodlioimd, The, Skin holds ol, 7 Itddy, The, llonis of, 13 Hones, The, 1 1 ( )f I lorse, 50 Points of eonlact with skin on Head, 12 Neik, 13 llndy, //'. lore-leg, ih. Hind-leg, 14 Buffalo, The American, or Bison, 58 Size and proportions of, 5S, 59 Measurement of Skeleton, 78, 79 Bull, Shorthorn, Measurements of, 57 Skin Folds of, 7 Cain, Advocate of Art Anatomy, \ Camel, The, Anatomy, size and proportions of, 73 Pads of, compared to ches.iiuts or warts on horses, 51 Bactrian or Twohumiied, 73 Canis adusta, or Jackal, 35 latrans, or Coyotd, 34 lupus, or Wolf, 33 tmlpes, or Fox, 35 Cariacus virginianus, or Virginian Deer, 69 Cat, The, Anatomy, size and jiroportions of, 36 Compared with Horse, 50 Compared with Dog, 36 Clavicle in, ib. Cheek, The, Muscles of, i6 Cheetah, The, Anatomy, size and proportions of, 44 Chestnuts, or Warts on limbs of Horses, 5 1 Chita, The, or Cheetah, 44 Ctrvus canademis, or American Elk, 67 eltp/ias, or Red Deer of F.urope, 68 Clavicle, The, or Collar-bone, 36 Cotumix communis, or Common Quail, 84 » Cougar, The, or Puma, 43 Cow, The, Reversed hair on hind legs of, called " milk-mirror," 5 Measurement of Skeleton, 78, 79 Swiss, Measurements of, 57 Coyote, or Prairie Wolf, size of, &c., 31-34 Cuvier's Lion, 38 Cuyer, Professor, On Barye, 2 CynailuTus 'ubatus, or Cheetah, 44 N 2 92 INDEX. Dane, The Great, Size of, 31 Da Vinci, Leonardo, Student of surgical anatomy, i Deer Family, The. 66 Antlers of, il. Veins of, 10 Glands of, 9, 66 Hair like t'nat of Bighorn, 61 Proportions of, 66 Red, The, of Europe, size of, 68 Miniature of Wapiti, ih. Proportions of, 66 Common, The, of America, size of, 69 Proportions of, 66 Dew claw. The, or Fifth toe, 31 Diaphragm, The, ao Dog, 'l"he, Size and projiortions of, 31 . ^ Arrangement of hair of, 6 m Length of head of, 32 Veins of, 10 Resembles Fox and Wolf in general anatomy and proportions, 35 Resembles Cat m anatomy, 36 Resembles Bears in absence of clavicle, 45 Gallop of, compared with that of Horse, 81 Muscles of, compared with those of Horse, 50 Measurement of Skeleton, 78, 7y Compared with Ox, 56 Donkey, The, or Ass, 55 Amble of, 80 Dorsal, The Great, 21 Long, 19 Dromedary, The, or Saddle C^amel, 73 E Ear, The, Muscles of Outer, 16 Elephant, The, Proportions of, 31 Indian, Size and proportions of, 75 African, Size of, 77 Amble of, 80 Elk, The American, Size of, 67 Proportions of, 67 Of Scandinavia, probably same as Moose, 70 Extensor, The, Lateral of Phalanges, 23 Anterior of Phalanges, ib. Anterior of Metacarpus, ib. Oblique of Metacarpus, 24 Long, of the Great Toe, 28 Eyelids, The, Muscles of, 16 t Fascia, The, 11 Felis concolor, or Puma, 43 onfa, or Jaguar, 41 pardus, or Leojiard, 42 Flexor, The, Long of Arm, 22 Short of Arm, ib. Deep of Fingers, 24 Superficial of Fingers, ib. Internal of Metacarpus, ib. Superficial of Phalanges, 28 Deep of Phalanges, ib. Oblique of Phalanges, ib. Square Fleshy, 29 Flyshaker, The, or Panniculiis eaniosus, 7, 15 Foot, The Hind Muscles of, 29 Forearm, The, Muscles of, 23 Foreleg, The, Bones of, 13 Fox, The, Anatomy, size and proportions of, 35 Compared with Wolf and Dog, ib. Arrangement of hair, 6 Euroi>ean Red, 35 American Red, ib. Foxhound, The, Size of, 31 Gericault, Advocate of Art Anatomy, i Gill-cleft, 5 Giraffe, The, Size and proportions of, 64 Feet of, resemble those of Antelope, 65 Glands, The, of Dog, 9 Goat, ib. Deer, ib. Salivary, ib. Lymph, ib. Gluteus, Deep, 26 Superficial, ib. Goat, The, Size and proportions of, 63 Glands of, 9 Goodchild. On Birds,.82 Greyhound, The, Size of, 31 Muscles of, 15-30 Arrangement of hair, 4, 5 Skin Folds of, 7 Adapted to requirements of Art Anatomist, 3 Groin-flap, The, or Loose-Hank, 7 Guillaume, M. Eug., On Baryc's methods, i Hair, The, Kinds of, 4 Arrangement of, in man, 6 Chief masses of, /'/'. Of Dogs, ib. Foxes, /■/'. Greyhound, 4, 5 Grizzly, and Brown Bear, 4 Horse, ib. Jackal, 6 Lion, //'. Lynx, ib. Puma, or American Panther, 4 Small Mammals, ib. Wolf, 4, S. 6 Radiation of, on inside of hind legs of Greyhound, 6 Cow, called mirror," 5 about eyes of American Buffalo, ib. Several directions of, ib. Theory of divergence of, ib. Haunch, The, Muscles of, 26 Head, The, Bones of, 12 Muscles of, 15 Horse, The Anatomy of, 50 Size and proportions of, 52 Arrangement of hair, 4 Bones and Muscles of, 50, 3 1 Veins of, 10 Chestnuts and Warts on limbs of, 51 Li^amentum nucha in, ib. Reduction in numbers of muscles and bones of, 50 Compared with Cat and Dog, ib. Compared with Ox, 56 English hunters, 52 Cavalry, ib. Of Silene, 54 Measurement of Skeleton, 78, 79 Locomotion of, 80 Walk of, ib. Amble of, ib. Trot of, ib. Rack of, ib. Canter of, ib. Gallop of, ib. Hunt'ng Leopard, The, or Cheetah, 44 Intertransversales, The, 18, 19, 30 ' milk- INDEX. 93 J Jackal, The American, or Coyote, 34 Of Central Africa, 35 Arrangement of hair, 6 Jaguar, The, Size and proportions of, 41 Occasionally equals Lion in size, ib. Jaw, The, Muscles of Lower, 1 7 Kestral, The, 84 Keulemans, His drawings of Birds, 83 Landsef.r, Advocate of Art Anatomy, i ' ' Leoch, John, on Locomotion of Horses, 80 Leg, The Hind, Bones of, 14 Lower, Muscles of, 28 Leopard, The, Size and proportions of, 42 May be considered as small Tiger, il>. Supposed hybrid between Lion and Pard, or Panther, 44 Ligaments, The, 11 Ligamentum nuchic. The, in Horse Family, 51 Lion, The Anatomy, size and proportions of, 37 Kinds of, ih. Resemblance to Cat, ib. To estimate height of, from Skeleton, 38 ♦ Arrangement of Hair, 6 Measurement of Skeleton, 78, 79 Lioness, The, Size and pro|X)rtions of, 37, 38 Measurement of Skeleton, 78, 79 Loose-flank, The, or Groin-flaj), 7 Lynx, The, Arrangement of Hair, 6 M Mammals : Knowledge of Skeleton necessary, 3 Mastiff, The, Size of, 31 Measursments, Full, of Dog, 78, 79 Lion, ih. Lioness, ib. Tiger, ib. Grizzly Bear, /'/', Brown Bear, ib. Horse, ib. Cow, ib. American Buffalo, ib. M6ne, Advocate of Art Anatomy, i ' Merlin, The, Wing of, 82 Anatomy of, ib. Michael Angelo, Student of Surgical Anatomy, i Milk-Mirror, The, of Cow, 5 Miydchin Mundharu, Sculptor of Birds, 82 Moose, The, Size and proportions of, 70 \ Mountain Lion, The, or Puma, 43 Mouth, The, Muscles of, 16 Mule, The, Amble of, 80 Muscles, The, of the Dog, 1 5 Horse, 50 Greyhound, 15 Skin, /'/;, Head, ib. Mouth and Cheek, 16 Eyelids, ;*. Outer Ear and Scalp, ib. Lower Jaw, 17 Tongue and Throat, ib. Deep-lying of the Neck, 18 Prevertebral mass, ib. Postvertebral mass, ib. Capital, ib. Of the Neck, 19 Trunk, /*. Serratm magnus in Cat Tribe, 20 Less defmcd in Dogs and Hoofed Animals, ib. Muscles, The, Diaphragm, 20 Inguinal, ib. Preputial, ib. Scalenus in Cat and Dog, ib. Of the Shoulder, 2 a Arm, ib. Forearm, 23 Deep Flexor, 24 Rcdial Palmar, ib. Ulnar Palmar, ib. Supinator longus, well developed in Cat, wanting in Dog, ib. Crural, Of the Dog, 27 Of the lAJwer Leg, 28 Paw, 25 Haunch, 26 Thigh, 27 Hind Foot, 29 Tail, 30 " Anus, ib. Adduflor brachii, 22 longus poinds, 24 . minimi digiti, 25 ' ' poinds brer is et opptmens pollids, ib. AdducU'r indids, 25, 29 iragnus, 28 minimi digiti, 25 pollids, ib. qvinti digiti, 29 Anconeus, 23 brevis, ib. externus, ib. internus, ib. lateralis, ib. longus, ib. medialis, ib. parvus, ib. posticus, ib. quintus, ib. vastus, ib. Angularis, 20 Anterior Extensor of the Metacarpus, 23 Phalanges, ib. Antitragicus, 17 Attollens, 16 Attrahens, ib. Auricularis anterior, ib. posterior, ib. superior, ib. '\\ Basio-glossus, 17 Biceps, 22 brachii, ib. femoris, 27 Bivenfer maxilla inferioris, 1 7 Brachialis anticus, 22 Bucdnator, 16 Bulbo-cavernosus, 30 Brachio-radialis, 24 Caninus, 16 . Capsularis, 27 Caput longus, 23 Cephalo-humeral, 21 Cervicalis descendens, 19 Cervico-auricularis, 16 Choanoid, ib. > , Coccygeus, 30 Complexus major, 19 minor, 18 Coraco-brachialis, 23 ■radialis, 22 Comigator superdliaris medialis, 16 lateralis, ib. Curvator, 30 Deep Flexor of the Fingers, 24 1 Phalanges, 28 Deep Gluteus, 26 Deltoid, 22 Depressor, 30 concha, 16 labii inferic: is, ib. Digasiricus, 17 94 INDEX. M\\sc\es, Sficranius, 17 EpitrMhltaris, 23 £rector, 30 colli, 18 spina, 19 Extensor anlibrachii longus, 23 hret, 28 poinds brcvis, 25 Flyshaker, 15 . Gastrocnemius, 2"^ Gemellus, 27 Genio-glossus, 17 Genio-hyoid, ib. Gluteus maximus, 2(t medius, ib. minimus, ib. Gracilis, 28 Great Dorsal, 21 Oblique, 20 Ilelids, 17 Humeralis externalis, 22 obliquus, ib. Hyo-glossus, 17 , Ilio-costalis, 19 spinalis, ib. Indsivi, 16 Infraspinatus, 22 Jntercostales, 20 Internal Flexor of Metacarpus, n Interossei, 25, 29 ' . fnterspinales, 19 Jntertransz-ersales, 1 8, 19, 30 Isehio-cavernosus, 30 Labialis, 16 Lachrymalis, ib. , Lateral Extensor of Phalanges, 2^^ ' Latissimus dorsi, 2 1 Levator anguli oris, 16 scapula, 20 rt»'i 30 i7;/m medius, 16 /n/'M superioris aheque nasi, ib. proprius, ib. palpebrcc superioris, ib. scapula dorsalis, 2 1 ventralis, 20 Lroatores costarum, ib. Lingualis, 17 Long Dorsal, 19 Extensor of the Great Toe, 28 Flexor of Arm, 22 Longissimus capitis, 18 cen'ids, 19 (fo«/, ib. Longus atlantis, 18 capitis, ib. «»///, ib. Muscles, Lumhricales, 25, 29 Malaris, 16 Masseter, 17 Mastoideus, 21 Mastoido-humeralis, ib. Af axillaris, 16 Afaxillolabial, ib. Multifidus spina, 19 Mylo-hyoid, 17 Nasalis longus, 16 Oblique Extensor of Metacarpus, 24 Flexor of Phalanges, 28 Obliqui, 16 Obliquus abdominis externus, 20 internus, ib. inferioris, 18 superioris, ib. Obturator internus, 26 externus, il). Ocdpitalis, 17 Occipitoau vularis, 16 Orbicularis vris, ib. palpebrarum, ib. . Ow/er Flexor, 24 Pal maris brevis, 25 longus, 24 magnus, il). Panniculus carnosus, 1 5 cervicis, ib. Parotideo-auriailaris, \b Parotideus, ib. Pectineus, 28 , Pecloralis profundus at minor, 2\ superfcialis or major, ib. Perforans, 24, 28 Pe.'foratus, ib., ib. Peroneus brevis, 28 laterads, ib. longus, il). Plantar Flexors, 25, 29 Plalysma myoides, 15 Popnteus, 28 Posti'ertebral mass, 18 Pronator quadratus, 2^ radii teres, ib. /'wa.t magnus, 26 parvus, ib. Pterygoideus internus B.nA externus, 17 Pyramidalis, 26 Pyriformis, ib. Quadriceps extensor cruris, it Quadratus femoris, ib. /(tW/ inferioris, 16 superioris, ib. lumborum, 20 Radialis externus, 23 internus, 24 lateralis, 23 medialis, 24 .A'w//, 1 6 ^^i-/;« abdominis, 20 <•«//■/« antims major, 18 »;«>K>r, ib. posticus major, ib. medius, ib. /«;'»or, ib. femoris, 27 lateralis, 18 Retractor, 16 Retrahtns, ib. Rhomboideus, 21 Risorius, 1 6 Santorini, ib. Rotator, ib. Rotatores spina, 19 Round Pronator, 24 Sacro-lumbalis, 19 Sartorius, 27 Scalenus, 20 Scutularis, 16 INDEX. 95 Muscles, Scutulo-auricularis inferior, or interims, i6 Semimembranosus, 37 Semispinalis, 19 Semitendinosus, 27 Serratus anticus, 19 major, ib. magnus, ib. posticus, ib. inferior, ib. superior, ib. Short Flexor of Arm, 22 6'///<;// Oblique, 20 Sphincter ani, 30 0r/>, 16 Spinalis, 19 (ii«/ 0>', ib. Muybridge, Professor, Ed., His photographs, 80 Or/> montana, or Bighorn, 61 /o///', or Pamir Sheep, 62 Owls, Radiation of feathers about eyes of, 5 Ox, The, Anatomy and proportions of, 56 Compared with Dog and Horse, /A Pachyderms, Skin Folds of, 7 Panther, The, or Puma, 43 Pard, The, or Panther, 44 Paw, The, Muscles of, 25 Peacock, The, Arrangement of its train, 85 Pheidias, Attained consummation in art, without scientific educa- tion, 2 Pig, The, Anatomy, size and proportions of, 74 Compared with Ox, /'*. Puma, The, Anatomy, size, proportions, and colour of, 43 Quail, The Common, 84 It Rangifer tarandus, or Reindeer, 72 Raphael, Student of surgical anatomy, 1 Reindeer, The, Measurement of Skeleton, 72 Rhinoceros, The, Proportions of,' 32 Skin Folds of, 7 Scalp, The, Muscles of, 16 Scars, Structural, 5 Sheep, The, 60 Compared with Ox, ib. Measurements and proportions of, ib. The Pamir, or Polo's, 62 Size and proportions of, ib. Shoulder, The, Muscles, of, 22 Sinews, 11 Skin Folds, The, 7 Of Rhinoceros, ib. Greyhound, ib. Bloodhound, ib. Bulls, ib. Pachyderms, ib. Covering muscular fibres of Flyshaker, tb. Forming groin-flap, or loose-flank, ib. Sparrow, The Common, 84 Spiziietus, The, Japanese Bronze of, 82 Squirrel, The, Nerves of, 8 Stag, The, or Red Deer of Europe, 68 St. Bernard, The, Size of, 31 N Neck, The, Bones of, 13 Deep-lying Muscles of, 18 Muscles of, 19 Nerves, The, of Dog, 8 Squirrels, ib. Nocturnal Quadrupeds, ib. Zygomatic, of Greyhound, ib. Newfoundland, The, Size of, 31 Oblique, The great, 20 The small, ib. O Tail, The, Muscles of, 30 Tendons, 11 Thigh, The, Muscles of, 27 Thorbum, His drawings of Birds, 82 Throat, The, Muscles of, 17 Tiger, The, Anatomy and proportions of, 39 Size of, 31, 39 Larger than Lion, 39, 40 Measurement of Skeleton, 78, 79 Tigress, The, Size and proportions of, 40 Tongue, The, Muscles of, 17 Trunk, The, Muscles of, 19 96 Veins, Maxillary, S Jugular, ib. Of the Dog, lo Horse, it. Deer, ib. INDEX. w Wapiti, The, or American Elk, 67 Warts, or Chestnuts, on limbs of Horses, 51 Wolf, His drawings of Birds, 82 r ,, ,, Wolf, The, Anatomy, size and proportions ot, 33, 34 1 ProDortions compared with Greyhound, 34 IdeK of WolvM of Old and New Worlds, 33 American Gray, 34 Buffalo, 35 Common, of Europe, 33 Gray, 33. 35 , , Prairie, or Coyote, 34> 35 Russian, 33 Timber, ib. White, ;*. Yellow, 31 Wolfhound, The Irish, Size of, 31 ti anatomy and propor- 34 Ids, 33