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OTTAWA . ^^^^'CULTURE '^^WA - CANADA ■M " It cannot be expected that success will at once attend our efforts ; but it may be hoped that the data once ascertained, and facts correctly recorded, good results will soon follow, from the dissemination of sound practical knowledge." — John Curtis, in Introduction to ^Farm Insects.' ... .:. :;;;..::. ; .:'^- •.; -•••-.• ^.hj - " Those candidates who had been 'engaged mMj^^aewcSl work of the farm were free from tlietesitation and uncertainty MiBclf some of the more theoretical students displayed." — Observation in Report of Examiner in Agriculture oj the Roxjal Agricultural Society of England, May, 1890. Entomological Branch •' dMpawtment of agriculture ottawa - - canada SI A MANUAL 4 i !-■ S K\KK(yrs REMEDY iU'VRH. ..;«.]) FRTTTT .•^liui'i .^'iilrotriutiori . utamol0i}n. i sXu.:l^\iJXi. SI *. !v; 11 o\,' !, j.t, ;■ . i-l" i.».Gl,Ai J(UH « ; Hon. »5ltl 1 \ ',.'1 <>•■" -;OPT. SPC, ■■.->* i'.l*V.tf. CUB 0!» r:N5^' '- mANCH .» » ^■:htX-^ I -' -OM l^;^-; A MANUAL oi- INJURIOUS INSECTS WITH JIETHODH OF PREVENTION AND REMEDY Fon TIIEin ATTACKR TO FOOD CROPS, FOREST TREES, AND FRUIT. TO WHICH 18 APPENDED A ^Ijnrt littrcJutctiott to (Bntamologg. COMPILED By ELEANOR A. ORMEROD, F. R. Met. Soc, &c. ""^Mr^rr ^~'°^°''°'^"-^ °^ ^=^ »«^^^ AOaiOULTUnAL 80C1ETV Or ENGLAND, AND HON. MEMBER OF THE PAKMERS' CLUB, HON. AND CORK. MEM. OF ROVAL AG. AND HORT. 800., 8. AUSTRALIA; HON. MEM. OP ENT. SOC. OF ONTARIO, AND CORR. MEMBER OF FIELD NAT. CLnB OP OTTAWA, CANADA; MEMBER OP EASTERN PROVINCE NATURALISTS' SOC, CAPE COLONY ALSO MEMBER OF THE ASSOCIATION OP OFFICUL ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGISTS, WASHINGTON, U.S.A., &0. SECOND EDITION. LONDON: SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, HAMILTON. KENT & CO., Limited. r E^jmQKQm^^ BRANCH OTTAWA ■ Canada ' 28?' 280. 297. 303. 806. 818. 330. 370. 382 398 395 /a ' ' partly by myself, but for the ^ost jart byfc'lL; !V, ,T artist to Messrs. West Newman *'co.. L^t^' „f 'td ™om' , 'T t""-'-*-" '° «- work, by desire 01 tuenrt=. 1= fioiu a photo by Messrs. Byrne & Co.. Richmond Surrey, the reproduction being prmted for me byp^missTon ff XIV INTRODUCTORY PREFACE. the proprietor of the 'Farmers' Magazine,' 145, Queen Victor ia Street, E.G., and under Lis direction. In submitting this work in its enlarged form (as before, with the First Edition), I cannot but feel uneasiness as to how far my own part of the compilation miy meet the approval of those better able than myself to judge on many of the points entered on. But so far as in me lies, I have tried, by careful revision, and collation of authorities, and all other means in my power, to render the technical portions of the volume, bearing on insect descriptions and life-histories, free from inaccuracies, and to bring them up to the present date. Of the portion, representing the greater part of the work, which deals with remedial and preventive measures, I may say, in the spirit and almost in the words, of my late valued friend, Mr. Chalmers Morton, in the Preface to his * Cyclo- paedia of Agriculture,' that this " is written by such a large number of gentlemen practically conversant with the subjects which they severally describe," that I fully trust it may often be found of service in lessening the losses which at present (and often solely for want of having a little plain information at hand) add greatly to the burdens which weigh down agricultural prosperity. To all who have aided me I offer my sincere thanks ; and so long as it may be desired, and health and power are granted me, I trust to labour to the best of my ability in the cause of Injurious Insect prevention. ELEANOE A. ORMEEOD. ToRRINGTON HoUSE, St. AlBANS, August, 1890. ' PART I. FOOD CROPS AND INSECTS THAT INJURE THEM. ^ PABT I. FOOD CROPS AND INSECTS THAT INJUllE THEM. ♦- ASPARAGUS. Asparagus Beetle. Criocvris aspararji, Linn. Asparagus Beetle, larva and eggs; all magnified. Natural length of egg and beetle shown by lines. ^^ The Asparagus Beetle often causes iniury. and in somp seasons does much damage, by the grub eating off the leaves ti tttrs' ^^' ^"^"^"^ ^^^ -°- ^-^- «^-t' - - The eggs are dark-coloured, somewhat spindle-shaDed and may be readily observed fastened by one end along the shoots or on the unopened flower-buds. ' lar^^dSn^nVif "J^. ^ ^i^'*.y 'Jlive, or slate-colour, and exude a Fromte 1 i""'^'''^' ^"^? ^'"^^^ ^^'^ ^°^*^^ 0^ being touched. Fiom the tail bemg curved and holding fast by a fleshy foot /a%ortLtf'f V^^^ *^^^ '^- The^are fKd' "archmenTHh- '"^'''' *^'^ f ^'^"T^ ^^*« the ground, spin as ne W liiii ''"•'"°'?'' ? ^^''''^' ^^'^^ ^^^^^ng^' ^nd come up as peifect beetles m about another fortnight or three weeks. B 8 AHPARAOU8. The beetles are about a quarter of an inch long, bhie-black or greeninh ; thu body behind the head red, with two black spots. The wing-cases are ochreous-yellow, with a line down the centre of the back, a branch from each side of it, and also a spot or patch at the base and tip of each wing-case of blue- black. These markings form a kind of cross, whence the name sometimes given of *' Cross-bearer." The successive broods of Beetles lay their eggs directly after development, and the insect, in all stages, may be found from about the middle of June till the end of September. The 12-epotted Asparagus Beetle, which differs from the above in being red, with twelve spots on the wing-cases, is seldom found in England. Prevention and Remedies. — Dipping the infested shoots in a mixture of half a pound of soft-soap, a quarter of a pound of flower of sulphur, and about the same quantity of soot, well mixed together in a pail of warm water, has been found a good remedy. The infested shoots were well dipped, and next day the grubs were found to have all been cleared off. The plants were afterwards syringed, to clean off the dirt left by the dipping, and soon regained their healthy appearance. — (W. D. C.) Syringing with water warm enough to make the grubs loosen hold, but yet not of a heat to hurt the leafage, clears them off well. The greater part of the grubs fall as the water touches them, and the rest on a smart tap being given to the shoot. Dry soot plentifully thrown on to them, whilst they are on the ground under the Asparagus and are still wet, appears quite to prevent any return of the grubs to the shoot. If any (either of the beetles or grubs) return, a repetition of the treatment would probably clear them completely. A large number of beds may soon be dressed by a man and boy going round together — one syringing, the other striking the shoots and throwing the soot upon the grubs ; and the growth of the Asparagus, after this slight manuring, is good. The water should not be of a heat above what ci.r\ be well borne by the hand. Hand-picking has been recommended, but frcm tfio sLrong hold that the grub has on the shoot this is difficult to manage without hurting the plant ; but a little salt (or any other application disagreeable to the grub) taken in the fingers, instead of working bare-handed, helps to make it loosen its hold. Cu^!h'';"4 off t'le shoots that are badly infested with eggs and i" '.Tto/^ tiiem is of service. Shaking the beetles into a wide bason or tray, held below IIKAN. — nEAN APFrrs. 8 to receivG thorn, has been recommendod ; but it is deflirabin Imt fiomo m.xtnrn of m.ul or noot and water of Bmear ng o? tar, w n..Ii would almost certainly act well in retaining them Hhodd be provided for them to fill into, or they woufd^sZ Strewing the plants wo!' with unslaked lime early in the mornuig, wlul«t the dew is still on, is also re«Jn^lJ". BEAN. Bean Aphis. Aphis rimiris, Linn. ; A. fake, Kirby & Spenco. ^^1 1. Bean-shoot, with Aphides ; 2 male BeanjIAphis, magnified • 3 nat siz« 4, wingless female, magnified. ' ' ^'^° ' anf'Birk'Dolnhi^^^^^^^^ also as "Black Fly," "Collier," msMmmM he Bh^t'^rf''""' "■'""'' "'<=•'' ''"o »''<'<' ^vith tl eh sucS 13 2 -r 4 nKAN, answer to those of larva and pupa), although they have six legs and are active, they have not wings. The young are slaty grey, but soon acquire a blackish velvety coat. The pupa is larger and slaty grey, excepting the abdomen, which is black with various white spots, and the wing-cases are also black. Of the two kinds of females producing living young, the wingless kind is shiny (or sometimes dull) black ; eyes and cornicles black ; shanks and the middle joints of the horns are somewhat ochreous. The head, body, and abdomen are so much grown together as to seem almost like one piece (see fig. 4, magnified). The winged female is shiny and black, or with a brownish tinge ; the shanks and middle joints of the horns are amber- yellow, and tlie wings are yellow at the base, with a green line and mark on the fore edge, and brown veins. The egg-laying female — that is, a third description, which appears in autumn, and lays the eggs from which a new series of generations, producing living young, will start again in the following year — is very like the wingless viviparous form figured above. The male (fig. 2, magnified) is black and winged. — (* Farm Insects,' by John Curtis, and ' Mon. of Brit. Aphides,' by G. B. Buckton, F.K.S.). Prevention and Eemedies. — No better plan appears to be known than cutting off the infested tops of the Beans, but it should be done as soon as the " Colliers " are noticed. This point is very important, on account of the extraordinary rate at which Aphides increase. The tops should be trampled on thoroughly as they are cut off; or sheared into baskets and burnt ; or destroyed in some way before the Aphides can leave them, for if these are left amongst the Beans the insects are able to make their way back again to the growing plants, and thus little good will have been done. In garden cultivation, where there is only a small amount of crop to be attended to, it sometimes answers to throw soot on the infested plants. This lodges well amongst the Aphides and in the axils of the leaves. Any dry dressing that would thus lodge, and make the Bean-tops more or less unpalatable to the Aphides, would be of use. Where only a small extent of crop needs attention, a good drenching with strong soapsuds, or syringing with a solution of soft-soap, would also be useful ; the soapy matter sticks to the Aphis, and is thus a much surer remedy than many of the attempted applications which run off at once from the skin of the insects, and consequently are useless. Probably the addition of a very small quantity of paraffin, BEAN APHIS ; BEAN BEETLE. g or other mineral oil, to the soft-soap wash would make the apphcation much more serviceable. For proportions that ma;y je safely used and method of preparation, see references to " paraffin " and " emulsion " in Index. A healthy, luxuriant growth is also of importance. The " Colliers " may attack the healthy as well as the unhealthy plants, but the strong growth which is run on by previous good cultivation of the ground, and also the apphcation of a little liquid manure if desirable, will keep the plant in heart with a plentiful flow of sap, and thus it will suffer much less from attack than the weakly, stunted growths that have no power to replace the juices which the Aphides are constantly sucking out ot them. "^ ^ Eemoval of the wild plants on which this kind of Aphis is rvi. f?!^""?, '^'^"^^ probably materially lessen its numbers. These Colliers or " Black Flies " are to be found in great numbers on the Curled Dock {liumex crispus, whence their name of -n/wjc/s"), and also on Thistles; and it is stated (see Bnt. Aphides,' vol. ii. p. 83) that the wingless egg- producing female winters in Furze-bushes, the branches of which may be found dotted with Aphis eggs. Bean Beetle. Bniclms granarius, Curtis ; B. rufimanus, Boh. 0»H. 2 mTa l ^'-rI'v, -^ i u . ' .?^- "'''■'' ^^^ ™'^8- ; (i anil 7, pupa>, iiat. size and ^Tmn^' ^^^".^"J"!'^'! by beetle, vegetating; 9 and 10. Bruchm pisi, nat. size ana mag. ; 11, injured Pea. 6 BEAN. H! The mischief caused by this beetle is from the maggots feeding in the seeds of various kinds of Broad or Tick Beans, and thus lessening their value by weight for sale, and also their value for seed, as, where much is eaten away, the grow- ing power of the young plant from the damaged seed is also lessened. The maggots are fleshy, wrinkled across, and with a small horny, rusty-coloured head. As far as I am aware, they are legless, but in some kinds of Bruchi there are the rudiments of feet on the front segments. The method of attack is for the Bean- seed Beetle to lay its pgg on the young seed-vessel in the Bean-blossom before this is large enough to be called a pod, and from these eggs the maggots hatch, which presently pierce into the growing Beans. Then each maggot gnaws a gallery for itself, and there, amongst the dust and dirt (consequent on results of its feeding) which remain in the closed-up tunnel, it turns to the chrysalis, and thence to the beetle state. The beetle is little more than the eighth of an inch long, and if looked at under a magnifying glass will be found to have the head drooping, with the moutli forming a kind of wedge-shaped beak, the fore part of the L^ dy somewhat bell- shaped, and each wing-case pitted with ten rows of small dots. The colour is black, with brown hairs and various white spots ; the tip of the tail prolonged, and covered with grey down. The front pair of legs are reddish. The beetles may be found on flowers of the Furze as early as February, but though they may be found in seed Beans in March, April, and May, they do not always leave the seed as soon as they are developed. Beans that are still infested by the beetle may be known by having a little round depression in the skin, which is also, at this spot, slightly yellowish or transparent. This appear- ance is caused by the substance of the Beau having been eaten away inside by the maggot, which gnaws its gallery in the seed up to the skin, so that this sinks a little into the hollow space. When the beetle emerges, it pushes this circular bit of skin off, and the round holes thus caused show that the seed has been infested. Autumn- sown seed is most likely to be infested, as a large proportion of the beetles do not come out till the end of winter, or, in some cases, well on in spring. Prevention and Eemedies. — A great deal may be done towards preventing future attack, and loss consequent on weakened plant growth from damaged seed, by ascertaining what the condition of the seed is before purchase, or before sowing. When the beetles have left the seed, the round hole BEAN BEETLE. through which they escaped will show where they have been, and such seed is to be avoided. The injured seed will sprout in most cases, but although the growing germ is left, a great part of what this germ needs to make it grow healthily is gone. If we consider that, in germination, chemical changes take place by which the insoluble starch in these seeds is turned into soluble plant-food, and that on this alone the young sprouting plant is nourished until the leaves and rootlets are produced, it will be evident that our chances of a strong and healthy plant are much diminished by using maggot-eaten seed. The young plant depends on the quantity of food in the seed for the vigour of its first start, and if this first start is not vigorous the later growth will probably be stunted and sickly also ; therefore seed with a large proportion of "holed '' beans is not desirable for sowing. Where, instead of a round hole about as large as a shot- hole, there is a round depression, as mentioned above, rather duller in colour, and rather more transparent than the part around, this shows that the Bean is still infested ; and if the small round piece of skin is lifted off, the beetle will probably be found within. Such seed should not be sown. If Beans or Peas thus infested are sown (without some dressing being applied or measures taken to kill the insects within), the beetles will not be injured by being buried, but will come up through the ground in due time to infest the new crop. The following note of successful use of blue vitriol, together with McDougall's sewage carbolic and amount applied, was placed in my hands by Mr. Geo. Street, of Maulden, near Ampthill. On 10th of May, 1888, Mr. Street wrote me that the dressed Beans had made excellent progress, and the result as far as he could see was perfectly satisfactory. "The dressing applied to the Beans was used in a similar way to that used for seed-wheat. Formerly we used * blue vitriol ' only, but the addition of McDougall's sewage carbolic leaves a smell, which to some extent prevents birds eating the seed- corn. _ I am inclined to think the carbolic alone would be sufficient, if a larger quantity was used. We used 6 bushels of Beans, 6 quarts of water, 1 lb. of * blue vitriol,' and 1 pint of sewage carbolic. I am inclined to think that Beans should be dressed some few days before they are sown, (as the skin is thick), and turned over with a shovel every day. Those which escaped the liquid dressing might be killed by the strong dust which would be formed when the Beans were again dry." Good results have been found from the use of Calvert's carbolic acid, at a strength which killed all the insects in the Beans without b.iirting the seed. In my own experiments on infested Beans, I found that if 6 BEAN. placed for a short time to soak, the water passed through the thin film of coating of the Bean at the end of the gallery, and soddened the powdery dust and rubbish within, and thus choked the breathing-pores of the beetle lying within, and killed it ; but it is open to doubt whether, if weather was unfavourable for sowing when the Beans had been wetted, they might not be harmed. The following observations by Mr. J.Fletcher, the Dominion Entomologist of Canada, refer to methods which have been found serviceable for preventing weevil attack to Peas or Beans :— " When the supply of seed on hand will permit it, It 18 better to keep the Beans over until the following year in some close vessel. The beetles will emerge the first spring, and die without injuring the Beans further. A similar plan IS that practised with the Pea Weevil, of keeping the seed Peas shut up in a close vessel in a warm room during the winter, when the weevils will emerge and die long l)efore the seed is wanted for sowing. The remarkable freedom of Peas in Canada from the attacks of the Pea Weevil, during the last few years, is attributed by some to the care taken by seed merchants to poison all weevils contained in seed Peas, by subjecting them for some time, in large closed receptacles, to the poisonous fumes of bisulphide of carbon."* In some years Brnchns attack does a deal of mischief. In 1888 Mr. E. A. Fitch, of Maldon, Essex, reported to me that in his "own case a most moderate computation of loss of weight alone of 2s. per quarter would give £Q5 12s., i. e., 164 acresx4 quarters the acre x 2s. per quarter." ^ Bean Beetles (Bruchi) of various species are found— some- times in enormous quantities— in imported seed, and where there is : are as follow :?!one busheW^''?' '^ ^^' ^^°^« of lime fresh from the Idln six nmlnf ^f'^'Tr' ^"« ^"«hel pounds of soot, well mixed' aiVr!^' ""J '"fe^^"'' '^"^^ *«« early in the morning. ¥he ablil^^ f^ ^^ WHed and a broadcast ma^chine is tcomlnded^^ ^'' ^''\^''''' way of spreading it. Dressings nfT^ f ^? expeditious chemical manure suitabrfrrlnningZ Toi^''' T.^' ^"^ to b1 Se"- '-^-^ *e., whTcHf ^t^Ss^ra^i? i^^? tll'Xclr^^^^^^^^ to suppose that although in one instance «nn o] ^ ?^" ^^^* ^i* Mangold, Chickweed were atttkel rS^iXs tVfidT^^^^ "^^^^^ «^ Carrots on the two sides of infested MolnU ^"'"'P' ^"^ and. judging from what has S recSefw '''T'^ '"^m. be no reason to fear dan-er to ofhtr ., ^T'- ^^^'^ ^^"Id gi-ound, even when attack I.! t '"^'x ^"^ ^"^^ ^^fested t^'^''^-//a^.Z^ after at?ac^ ' BesSes t7Z '' t ^^'^^^"^' ^^ mentioned. Parsnips Potatoe. pf S' """^ ^'^"'^^^ ^^ove have been recorded n^ nil In '^•^^'' ^^^"« and Cabbage the Mangolds tdtendeXo"^^^^ ^"'^^*^^ "" ^^-^ ^^'e?: The Silver Y Moth. Ptusia gamma, Linn, Moth, caterpillar, and pupa in cocoon. autumn. ,.p,l ^r,.^„J'^" ""<"" "'innR the summe- ^nrt desirable to notic; .t "' "M'""" '» '="*' >>«mbe73. it t THE SILVER Y MOTH. 15 It is widespread in its localities ; it is to be found over the northern half of the ^lobc from Abyssinia to Greenland ; it is said to extend to the frontiers of China and Siberia, and it is also prevalent in Nortii America. In 1735 the caterpillars did much damage to Peas and Beans in market gardens round Paris; in 1816 the moths were noticed in vast numbers in the northern part of France. In 1831 the caterpillars appeared in Bavaria, and in 1868 oii the Sugar Beet in Saxony; and again in 1879 they appeared in Saxony in such overwhelming numbers that it is shown (from statements quoted in the * Times ' of Nov. 12th, 1879, p. 6, col. 1, of information given at the previous meeting of the Society for the Promotion of Sugar Beet Industry at Hallo) that, " before the appearance of the moth and cater- pillar, the Sugar Beet crops in Saxony were in excellent con- dition, and would in ordinary circumstances have yielded a harvest of from nine to ten tons per acre ; the actual yield where the caterpillars had been, was only three tons." The moths generally lay their eggs beneath the leaves " in considerable clusters" (J. C), singly; hatching in ten to fourteen days (E. L. T.) ; and although the caterpillars may be seen feeding by day, they are not easily to be observed irom their colour resembling the leaves. When full-grown they are green with a green or brownish head, narrow white streaks along the back, and a yellow streak along each side • and are covered with short hairs. They have a pair of reddish brown feet on each of the three segments behind the head but have only two pairs of sucker feet beneath the body and one pair at the tail, these are all green. When full-fed they spin a woolly or silken cocoon in a leaf or on a stem, within which they change to a pitch-coloured chrysalis. The moths have the head body between the wings, and crests running along the back and abdomen, of a purplish brown or deep ashy grey ; the fore wings, which have a satiny lustre, are variously tinted with grey and brown, the distinguishing inark bemg a bright white or yellow figure resembling the letter of the Greek alphabet known as "Gamma" and the English }, whence the name of "Gamma" or Y Moth The hinder wings are whitish, with dark veins, and a broad brown maigm. The moths may be seen as early as April, but are most common towards autnmn.-C Farm Insects,' 'Brit. Moths,' 'Prak. lusecten-Kunde,' &c.) n^n^rjTT ^'''' ?EMEDiKs.-These Caterpillars feed on mo .of the low-rowing plants, and also, if pressed for food" ?no vn^rr''/°*^-''*'^'"^'^?S weedy or gmss-grown spo in on ound gardens IS a good means of prevention ; nettles 16 CAnnArtE. especially ahould bo romoved, as those are one of their food- plants. When the caterpillars are seen, a dusting of caustic lime, soot, or salt, is a good remedy ; and hand-picking a sure, but very troublesome one. — (M. D.). Shaking the infested plants or leaves (as may easily be done by a light blow with a small bough or birch-besom) so as to make the caterpillars fall off, and then trampling on them, is a good remedy. Drenchings of liquid manure, or of water alone thrown over the plants, would be serviceable, from the circumstance of sudden wet being prejudicial to the caterpillars ; and also — as from their great size they consume the leaves very rapidly — it is very important to stimulate the growth of the attacked plants as much as possible. Should a serious attack occur to field crops, many of the methods of remedy given in detail for caterpillars of moths, or of Sawfly on Turnips, would be applicable. CABBAGE. Cabbage Aphis (Cabbage Green Fly). AjMs hrassicca, Linn. 1 and 2, male Aphis ; H and 4, female (nat. size, and magnitiod). Cabbage Aphis. — These "Green Flies" may be found on the Cabbage in great numbers during the summer, clustered under the outer leaves, and also in the folds or on the upper side of the inner leaves ; and some may be found remaining even as late as the end of November. They do muoh harm by inserting their suckers in the plants and drawing away the juices; and also causing a deformed and diseased growth. A.: of their food- cahbaoe aphis. 17 The young, when first hatched, are yellow. In the next stage (which answers to the pupa one, and whilst as yet they are without wings) they are much wrinkled, of a dirty green colour, with olive-green or groy- black wing-cases. The wing- less females which i^roduce living young are mealy, and when this meal is rubbed off they are of a greyish green, with black spots on each side of the back ; eyes and legs black ; antennte (horns) green or ochreous, with black tips. The winged viviparous female is of a yellowish green, with head and markings between the wings black, and some dark marks across the abdomen. The legs and antennre dark brown, and a mark on the fore edge of the wings also dark. The male is given by Curtis as pea-green, otherwise it is much hke the wmged female, excepting in the mark on the wings bemg green ; the antennoB longish and black, and the cornicles or honey-tubes black at, the base.— (' Farm Insects,' and *Mon. of Brit. Aphides.') Prevention and Remedies.— In garden cultivation, drench- ing the inlested plants with soap-suds is practicable and of service, especially in killing the young Aphides. Syringing with an infusion of tobacco mixed with lime- water has been found very useful, and the following mixture IS also stated to be serviceable :— Four ounces of quassia boiled for ten minutes in a gallon of water, and a piece of soft-soap about four ounces in weight then added ; and the mixture syringed over the plants. In this application the solt-soap is the important matter. From the mealy or powdery nature of the coats of the Aphides, mere waterings are apt to run off from them harmlessly, and adhesive applications like syringings of soft-soap are much surer remedies. Thorough drenchings of water with the garden-engine however, are of service, by forcibly clearing many of the Aphides from the plants and also by encouraging growth. We all know the overwhelming increase of Green* Fly that often happens when the plants are stunted by heat or disease,-or by the Aphis attack itself; and it is noted (see nn.\^K^'l^' ^PJ^^^es,' by G. B. Buckton, F.R.S., vol. i. p. 72) that when the juices of the infested plants begin to fail and become sickly from excessive numbers of Aphides a change commences in larvre subsequently born. Signs' of wings appear, and the viviparous females from these" pupa are winged; this different development, with its increased po^\jer of spreading attack, following apparently on the altered This is curious as a scientific observation, and, if always 18 CABBAGE. the case, watering would do much good by keeping up the flow of sap ; and applications of liquid manure and such methods of cultivation generally as will keep the plants in vigorous health are to be advised, both as making the plants less suitable for the insects and also preserving them from im- portant injury by any excepting severe attack. A careful dusting with caustic lime or soot is also very effective in getting rid of the Aphis, and some amount of good may be done by carefully breaking off the leaves that are coated with Green Fly (as happens in a bad attack) and crushin<]f them under foot, or putting them as they are gathered into a sack, so that they can be thrown either under water in the sack, or out into wet manure. Any way that wiU kill them at once will do. In the case of Aphides (as also with other insects of which one kind infests many kinds of crops), the remedies are mainly given in connection with the crops that are most attacked; the reader is referred, for further details of Aphides and remedies, to papers on Hops, Turnip, Plum, &c., and also to references to " emulsions," and soft-soap washes, in Index. Large White Cabbage Butterfly. Fieris hrassica;, Linn. 1 , Female butterfly ; 2, orrs ; 3, caterpillar ; 4, chrysalis; 5 ana fi, parasite Iclincimion-fly, rteromalus bmssiar, nat. size and magnified. The caterpillars of this butterfly arc very dcstructivo to the Cabbage crop by eating away the leaves until at times nothing is left but the large veins ; they do serious damage to White LARGE WHITE CABBAGE BUTTERFLY. 19 Mustard by feeding on the pods left for seed, and, in the case ot iurnips, they feed on both the leaves and seed-pods The eggs are bright yellow, and are laid in clusters beneath tlie leaf. The caterpillars are greenish at first, afterwards bluish or greenish above, yellow below, with a yellow line along the back, and another showing more or zess plainly along each sid®; they are spotted with black, and have tufts or a tprink- ling of hairs. When full-fed they wander off to some protected place, under old boards, beneath eaves, in open sheds or the like places, and there ha«g themselves up by their tails and turn into chrysalids of a pale green colour spotted with black ihe butterfly comes out in about a. fortnight from the mid summer brood of chrysalids, but not till the following spring from the chrysalids that form in autumn. The fore winss of the "Large White "Butterfly are white on the uppTr? de with a broad black patch at the tip, more or less notched on f^f^'''^/i?^^T^,*^'.^^'^^^^*^^'^ ^^^ ^^«o ^^^ wack spots in the middle of the wing, and a blackish splash at the hinder margin ; the under side is white, with a yellow tip, and with two black spots, both m the male and female. The hind wmgs are white above, with a small black patch on the front Swick '''^*^ *^'^ ^'' ""^^ ^""^ P''^^'^ y^"°^' 'P^^^^^d Prevention and EEMEDiEs.-The habits of this species of fllJ«rf^.w1P?^ °^ ^\' "^^^" ™t«" are so much alike that the following methods of treatment are applicable m either case, excepting with regard to destruction of the eggs ' — The "Large White'' lays its eggs in clusters beneath the leaves and as soon as the Butterflies are noticeable, the eggs ?nvn iff A^^^, for, and the pieces of leaf covered with them torn off and destroyed. The eggs of the " Small White " and of W^''? -^ ^^*' r^'^J^'^ '^^''^' ^^'''^^'^ this method ot treatment is not applicable. A most serviceable way to lessen the numbers of this pest— for'ardts&."'''~"'°^^^^ *'^ ^^^^^^^^^« «^'^^^^d It has been observed that the proportion of injury from attack of Cabbage caterpillars is much larger to Cabbag^ crops grown in gardens where there are plenty of protected place,, such as the caterpillar chooses for its change to the chrysalis state, than to the crops grown in fields whtre su^h sheiier is uuL at hand. " " When the first brood of caterpillars are full-grown and have disappeared from the Cabbages in early suSmer, they c2 *' r 20 CABBAGE. have left them to turn to chrysalids in any sheltered nook near, and may be collected in large numbers by children for a trifle per hundred. They may chiefly be found in outhouses, potting-sheds, and the like places, in every neglected corner, under rough stairs, step-ladders, or beams, or shelves ; or fastened against rough stone walls or mortar. Out of doors they may be found under eaves, or palings, or under pieces of rough timber, broken boards, or any kind of dry sheltering rubbish. It is very desirable not to allow these accumulations of rubbish, which are centres for all kinds of insect-vermin, but a thorough search in such places will produce handfuls of chrysalids, and thus greatly lessen the amount of the next brood of butterflies. In the winter, besides collecting the chrysalids, it is desirable at spare times to rub a strong birch- broom well up and down in the angles of the walls of sheds, or along the top of the walls beneath rough flooring, and thus make a complete clearing, before spring, of chrysalids from which the butterfly would then have hatched to start the first brood of caterpillars; the destruction of or^ female before laying her eggs prevents the appearance of scores of the grubs. Hand-picking the caterpillars is a tedious remedy, but where there is no great extent of ground it is advisable as a certain cure. The application of finely-powdered lime in a caustic state, or of fresh soot, will get rid of the caterpillars, but may be objectionable with regard to after use of the vegetable. A sprinkling of fine salt has been found very serviceable, carefully applied, so as to fall on the caterpillars ; and they may also be killed by waterings of weak brine, lime-water, or soap-suds. — (M. D.) Flour of sulphur dredged over the plants, or a weak solution of alum lightly syringed on the leaves, have not, so far as I am aware, yet been experimented with ; but, looking at the success of these remedies in other cases, they are well worth a trial. Many kinds of dressings, such as wood-ashes, &c., have sometimes succeeded, and sometimes failed so entirely that it is probable some point in the method or the time of application needs attention. It often happens that a dusting given when the dew is on, or after light watering (so as to make it adhere to the caterpillar and also to the plant), is of great service, whilst the same application given in the middle of the day is perfectly useless. j-li tlio LdjQc ui iicai. LfcU V/auutij^ca, II D^ilUhUn^ Oi auj Luing that would fall or wash down into the nooks of the Cabbage and lodge there, making it disagreeable to the grubs, would be LAKGE WHITE CABBAGE BUTTERFLY. 21 jltered nook bildren for a 1 outhouses, cted corner, shelves ; or )ut of doors ier pieces of y sheltering aulaticns of •vermin, but handfuls of of the next llecting the strong birch- Is of sheds, ng, and thus i^salids from tart the first male before ores of the y, but where as a certain in a caustic irs, but may getable. serviceable, s ; and they ne-water, or eak solution so far as I •king at the well worth 3, &c., have tirely that it f application given when i,ke it adhere L*eat service, >f the day is 1 ttllj IjUlllg he Cabbage bs, would be of use, and for this purpose gas-lime that has been taken from the surface of a heap exposed to weather for about two months seems to answer. The lime (as tried on a small scale) does not injure the leaves, and the various "pests" infesting hearted Cabbage do not like it at all. When seed-crops are attacked, it has been suggested as a good plan to shake the plants so as to make the caterpillars drop off, and to have a number of ducks ready to eat them as they fall. Probably if a boy was substituted, with a basket of soot or quick-lime to throw over the caterpillars, or if he trampled on them, or a ring of gas-lime was thrown round each plant to keep the caterpillars from returning up the stem, it would do much more good than the ducks. The large flocks of ducks or poultry sometimes recommended may do much good, but there is a direct outlay for their purchase and food — as they need something besides the caterpillars ; they must also be tended, or they will do harm as well as good, and altogether, except on a small scale, where the pro- prietor's poultry can be turned on and benefit by the open run and change of diet, the plan of clearing insect-attack by this means seems rather doubtful economy. It has been noted that caterpillars of the Cabbage Butterfly which appeared healthy up to a given date, immediately after (following on sudden rain) perished, and were found to have become mere lax skins containing a cream-coloured fluid. (J. C.) Many kinds of caterpillars are attacked by purging when feeding on wet leaves, and, looking at these points and also that dry weather is the time when these special pests most abound, it appears likely that a good drenching from any- thing, such as a hose or garden-engine down to a watering- pot, if nothing better was at hand, might do much good ; firstly, it would probably make many of the caterpillars fall off, and, if treated as above mentioned (that is, killed, or means taken to prevent their return), many might be got rid of ; and secondly, though artificial means would not help us as much as the change of weather, still the sudden chill from the cold water, and the wet state of the food which would be induced if the operation was performed in the evening, would probably clear off" many. Good cultivation and heavy manuring of the ground, there- by running the plants on quickly, has been found serviceable ; and the application of liquid manure will save a crop, even when badly infested. If, by manure or cultivation, the crop can be kept in a state of growth that will make a larger amount of leafage per day to each plant than the caterpillars on that plant consume, all 22 CABBAGE. i will be well ; bat if, through drought, poor ground, or any other cause, the caterpillars take more off than the plant makes good, necessarily it gradually dwindles or perishes. This point is a most important one to be considered in attacks of this nature, and especially with regard to field crops, in the case of which it is most difficult to employ any kind of insect-preventive in the shape of dressing, remuneratively. Severe cold in winter cannot be reckoned on as a means of getting rid of the chrysalids, which is the state in which these butterflies usually pass the winter. They have been found attached to walls, and frozen so hard that they could be snapped like sticks : yet those kept for observation appeared perfectly healthy on being thawed, and produced butterflies in due time. — (J. A. E.) During the severe winter of 1878-79, chrysalids of the Cabbage Butterflies which I had opportunity of examining appeared perfectly uninjured by cold, which ranged at 'various temperatures between 10" and 30° on twenty-five nights in January. The parasite maggots in a chrysalis of the Green- veined White Butterfly were also only temporarily stiffened. ^ The number of butterflies is much kept down by the various kinds of small parasite flies which lay their eggs in the cater- pillars or chrysalids, and especially by one kind of Ichneumon Fly {Microgaster glomeratiis) , which lays sometimes more than sixty eggs in one caterpillar of the "Large White." The maggots from these eggs feed inside on all the parts not necessary to the caterpillar's life till the time comes for it to change to the chrysalis, when, instead of turning, it dies ; the Ichneumon maggots eat their way out and spin their little yellow cocoons (like small silkworm cocoons) often seen on Cabbages, from which a small four-winged fly presently appears. — (J. C.) These cocoons should not be destroyed. Another kind of Ichneumon Fly, the Pteromahis brassicce, figured above, lays its eggs on the chrysalis when it has just cast its caterpillar-skin, and is soft and tender. The maggots, averaging two hundred and fifty in number, eat their way into the chrysalis as soon as they hatch, and feed on its contents. Wasps also help to keep the butterflies in check, and have been observed especially to u.tack the " Small White," or Turnip Butterfly. Small White Cabbage Butterfly. Pieris rapce, Linn. Butterfly) feeds on Cabbage, also on Turnip, from which it takes its name of Turnip Butterfly ; and also on the inner SMALL WHITE ; GREEN-VEINED WHITE. 23 lids of the leaves of the hearted Cabbage, whence the name sometimes given of Heart-Worm. Small White Cabbage Butterfly : 1, female ; 2, caterpillar; 3, chrysalis. The egg is laid singly (i>ot in clusters). The caterpillars are green, paler green beneath, and velvety ; and have a yellowish str-pe along the back, and a stripe or row of spots of the same colom* along each side. The chrysalis is of a pale flesh-brown or greenish colour, freckled with black. The fore wings of the butterfly are creamy white, with a slight grey or blackish patch at the tip (this patch not as long nor as regular in shape as in the Large Garden White). The fore wings have also one black spot above in the males, and two in the females. The under side of the fore wings is white, yellow at the tip, and has two black spots both in male and female. The hind wings are creamy white above, with a black spot °^.,*¥, ^^,°^^* ^^^^ ' *^^^ ^^^^^^ side yellow, thickly speckled with black towards the base. Peevention and Eemedies.— For these, see the foregoing recommended for the White Cabbage Butterfly. Green-veined White Butterfly. Pieris napi, Linn. The eggs of the " Green-veined White," which is known also as the "Eape-seed Butterfly," are laid singly under the leaves of Turnips and Cabbages, and though it is doubtful whether the caterpillars are often injurious to any serious extent, they are noted by Curtis as feeding on Turnip-leaves m 1841, and in the same year as doing much mischief to the hearted Cabbages, by gnawing into the middle of them, like the caterpillar of the Cabbage Moth. 24 CABBAGE. i t I i The grub or caterpillar of this " Green-veined " butterfly is velvety ; of a dull green above, brighter below, and has a row of red or reddish yellow breathing-pores along each side. Green-veined White Butterfly: i, female; 2, egg; 3, caterpillar ; 4, chrysalis; 5 & 6, parasite Ichneumon Fly, Hemitcles vielanarius, mag. and nat. size. The chrysalis is pale greenish white, or yellow and freckled, and has the two ends of a brown colour. The fore wings of the butterflies are white above, excepting at the base, which is generally black ; the tip also is dusky or black, and the nerves or veins greyish ; in the females the markings are blacker than in the male, and there are also two large black spots beyond the middle of the wing (the males have sometimes one spot). The under side of the fore wings is yellow at the tip, with dark veins, and two black spots. The hind wings white above, with a dusky mark on the front margin ; beneath they are sulphur or pale yellow, with broad greenish margins to the nerves. Prevention and Eemedies. — See " Large White." Note.— The three species of Cabbage and Turnip Butterflies just described are so much alike that it may be convenient to point out the main distinctions : — Eggs.— The ** Large White" lays its eggs in clusters; the two other kinds lay them singly. Caterpillars.— The caterpillar of the "Large White" is bluish green above, with three lines of yellow, and is spotted with black; also has tufts, or a sprinkling of hairs. The caterpillars of the two other kinds are green, but have no black blotches ; also they are velvety. These two kinds differ from each other in the " Small White " having three yellow lines, and the " Veined Vv^hite " having a row along each side of red or reddish yellow breathing-pores. Chrysalids.— The chrysalis of the " Large White " is nale greenish, spotted with black; of the " Small White" fleshy- brown, freckled with black , and of the " Green- veined White" GREEN- VEINED WHITE; CABBAGE FLY. ^S palG^ gi-eenish white, or yellow and freckled, with each end ButterJiie8.~The "Large White " usually measures about wo and a half to three inches in the spread ofThewkas the two other kinds are only about two inches. With regard to he markings,-m the '« Large White " the patch at th?tip of the fore wings is much larger, blacker, and more regularly notched on the inner side than it is in the " Small WWte ''^ also the ma es of the "Large White " have no spot (or rarely have It on the centre of the fore wings, whilst there s usS one in the case of the " Small White " usually lusters; the Cabbage Fly. Anthomyia brassiew, Bouche. 5°2- ^^L " radicum, Linn. Radish Fly. „ jjomlis, Fallen. and magnified. ' ' ^^ ' ^~^' ^- <"^''™««. larva and fly, nat. siz size Which 'cause 'tl'^'ln^ t !'"'* ^^''' ^'^'''''^ ^^"^« of flie. wnicn cause thj attacks known as those of Cabbage nnd n::Z &s'f.t • ^""T ^^5 '' ^^^^ ^°*^ in the fpp "r ?« Sffflf, u! ^',^.^^^^ maggots and the method of injury that it 18 d fficult to distinguish between them, and the histoYy of the Anthomyta brassiccB which has been most fully recorded serves as a guide to that of the three kinds.* ^^ecorded serves maJgora'JtaSlSSg'iS, aTd pSav'^h'^'^^'v^f""?. ^^^^^^' ^««t by Mr. E. H. Meade of%rA,?fnrT fi? ^^' "'^ ^^^^® ^'°*^ly I'^entified for me l^nown as the Radish Fly -5 a o ''°^"^'''^^«* ^^^ ^PP^ared to be that ff'i 26 CABBAGE. The maggots of these flies injuro the Cabbage-crop by eating passages in the stem and roots, and sometimes destroying whole fields of Cabbage by consequent disease, or decay in "wet weather, of the roots and the lower part of the stalk. They are also injurious to Turnips. The maggots may be found in hollows of the swollen Cabbage-roots. They are whitish, cylindrical, and legless, tapering to the head, and blunt at the tail, which has short teeth on the lower margin and two brown tubercles in the middle ; and when full-grown they are about the third of an inch long. They then leave the plants and turn, in the earth, to pupee (that is, their skins harden into oval red-brown cases), with a few black spots at the head, and short teeth at the tail, inside which the flies form and come out in about a fortnight or three weeks. These flies are on the wing throughout the summer, and successive generations of maggots are kept up till November ; after that time the pupa3 lie in the ground unhatched till spring or early summer. The fly is ashy grey, and smaller than the Onion Fly, which it much resembles. The male, however, is of a darker grey, and has a short black stripe along the back between the wings, with a curved one on each side of it, and one black stripe along the abdomen. The female is much smaller than that of the Onion Fly, otherwise is very like it. — (' Farm Insects,' ' Gard. Chron. and Ag. Gazette.') Prevention and Remedies.— Cabbage and Turnip maggots are to be found in dung, as well as at the plant roots ; and reports show particularly bad attack being connected with planting or drilling on good supply of farm-manure, especially if this was in neiv, rank state. In one instance, where twelve to fourteen loads per acre of farm-manure, with three cwt. of burnt ashes and artificial manure was given, and the seed drilled immediately, maggot attack was bad ; whilst the head- lands, treated only with burnt ashes and artificial manure, continued free of attack. Similarly, in a twelve-acre field dressed with three tons of fresh-burned lime to the acre, with the exception of a strip eighteen yards wide down the centre of the field, where no lime was given, but well rotted farm- manure at the rate of fifteen tons the acre, the Turnips on the limed part were " free from mark of insect or grub of any kind ; whilst the part that had been manured was far from being so satisfactory." Other accounts confirm prevalence of maggot presence after the application of much dung.* To grow Cabbage well without a good supply of strong forcing manure appears an impossibility; but accompanying * For special observations on Cabbage and Turnip root maggot, see p. 10—17 of 'Eeport on Injurious Insects' for 1883 pub. 1884, by Ed. a CABBAGE FLY. 27 ot, see p. 10 — 17 applications, 8nch as dressings of gas-lime, which makfl ih. ground thoroughly obnoxious' to the flies ind maggots and increase at the same time the action of the manure have been found very serviceable. "i^uure, nave Deen It was reported to me from one of the chief growers in th^ grea Cabbage-rais ng district near Hounslow. tsTo lows 1 I believe gas-lime to be the only practical currfn^ ^h. maggot tribe that infest our Brusse Jb^ B Cdf and Cabbage ribe"; and near Falkirk, N. B (to give an fnstancP Tv S is'sYtif r' '' *^^ ^"^^^'•■>'^' -^' - ^-^0^^^^^^ very bad in 1881, all the crop m one locality was saved thnf pTviSy!^ '" ''°""^ ^'^^^ ^'^ ^^^" dresLd with gas-lime In all cases gas-lime must be used with moderation nn^ discretion Nrf. Index for proportion and conTttT aisot should no^ be a owed to lie in heaps on the ground or the land beneath will become pdsoned for a while but 'in dp proportion the application is excellent. C continental aTatel^'s^?^^^^^^^^^^ superphosphate of lime ^adS Eotation of crops in garden growing, and puddlina or dipping the roots at planting time with'soot and water or hme or earth and cow-dung, or earth and St soH arl methods found useful to prevent attack. ^ ^'^ Where plants have failed from magaot and fbp am^^r^A u.a to be replanted, a handful of hot liSxed there^^^^^^^^^^^ was^to be placed, before dibbling in, provld suc'etf^^' When attack is present, heavy showers, or rain on land previously dressed with nitrate of soda rouid the Sants and superphosphate, stopped the spread of the maggots Also the application of lime-water has been found verfserviceable' Ihe plan adopted was soaking hot lime for twenfy-L™hours h water and watering with this, when clear, i^the after noon; his was found to destroy the maggot.- J^'K ) Plants ha are attacked by' the maggots may bt easilv nown by their yellow or dull lead-colour! and by^the leaves Irooping or fading in the heat of the day ; and unlessX tack IS checked as above mentioned, these pknts should be parefuUy removed and burnt, or got r d of in anv wav Th«? SdTnnhvT '' '"^^^"^ the'maggots inVem'; IS I'ny iquid apphcation, such as strong brine, or lev of ashes anph p the msect-pests which prey on this crop; and K" IP uil s I I il 28 CABBAGE. of such as turn to pupa in the earth, the grubs or caterpillars simply leave the roots, or descend from the plants mto the ground, and there undergo their transforraations. This may be immediately, or they may be in the earth during the winter, to appear as perfect insects in the ensumg sprmg or summer, and so on successively till the ground is completely infested by them. . It will thus be seen that a simple turnmg over of the ground, accompanied by heavy manuring, though it may be a remedy for the exhaustion of the soil, will not get rid of the A change of crop is necessary — such as Beans, Cereals, or even Potatoes ; these would not suit the Cabbage Fly for the deposit of its eggs, and planting the Cahbage afterwards on the clean uninfested land would greatly reduce the risk of attack. The grubs of the Eoot-eating Fly, Anthomyia radicum, Curtis, are of a yellowish ochre-colour, with two dark brown points at the end of the blunt tail. The pupse are of a paler and more ochreous colour than those of the Cabbage Fly. The Koot-eating Fly is figured at 4, p. 25, magnified ; the male has an ochreous face, with a rusty stripe on the fore- head ; body between the wings black, with three dark stripes, and grey sides; abdomen slender, grey, with broad black stripe along the back. The female is grey, with three dull stripes along the body between the wings. According to Bouche, the flies inhabit dung by thousands in the summer, and, from the nature of the excrementitious matter which they are stated by him especially to frequent, it would appear that the use of night-soil as a manure would be likely to attract attack. ^ . From experiments made by the Zoological-Botanical bociety of Vienna, it appears that these maggots were injurious to crops on ground manured with bone-dust, and also to those manured with horse-dung; but that on ground close by, manured with superphosphate, the plants v,'ere not at all Anthomyia tuherosa, Linn., figured p. 25, has been found feeding in Potatoes, and the larvaB and pupae have been found where garden-ground has been long occupied by Cabbages.— (' Farm Insects.') Cabbage Moth. Mamestra brassicce, Linn. This is one of the garden-insects from which we suffer regularW in the summer and autumn of each year, some- times slf^htly, but often to a serious extent. The caterpillars CABBAGE MOTH. 29 do not seem to dislike the leafage of any of our common plants whether sweet or acrid, and they may be found on Marigolds, Dahlias, and Geraniums, in the flower-garden as well as on the leaves of the Tobacco ; they froouent the Dock amongst wild plants, and they are sometimes found on the leaves of the Eed Currant ; but we suffer most from their attacks on Cauliflower, and on the hearted Cabbages in the autumn Mamestra hrassica : 1, moth ; 2, caterpillar ; 3, chrysalis. Their appetite seems insatiable (they are stated to eat day and night), but however this may be, they soon ruin the Cabbage by gnawing large holes down into the heart, and making what is left ruly disgusting, by the excrement from the caterpillars, which remains in lumps between the leaves or spreads downwards in wet green masses. The moth lays her eggs on the leaves, and the caterpillars hatch ma few days and immediately begin to feed Thev are usually green in their early stages, but afterwards vary mucn m colour, some being pale dingy green ; some green and black above; some blackish above, variegated with flesh- colour and on the back of each ring or segment there is a short line or somewhat triangular-shaped mark, lighter at the edge, and slanting backward. The head is ochrlous or marbled with darker brown, and the next segment to it ^s black above When full-fed these caterpillars are upward! oi an mch and a quartern length, and on being annoyed rol themselves into a tight ring. They change to chestnut coloured chrysalids in the earth (or sometimes^on the sulce " and usually pass the winter in this state, protected by earth From these the moths come out in the course of the following May or later m the summer. The moths are of a rich Cwn he upper wmgs are variously marked (as in the fig^are) with black streaks and circles, and have also a large ear-shS spot, bordered with white and surroundpd Iw a dn^Ue ?'« lower wings are brown, dirty white at "the' base"- ('Farm Insects,' 'Hist, of Brit. Moths.') ^ ^^""^ PI 30 CAnDAOE. Prevention and Krmedies.— Where the autumn Cabbage- crop has been much infested by the caterpillars, the chrysalida will bo turned up in great nurabera in the wmter diggmg. When seen these should be immediately destroyed, or thrown into a basket to be effectually destroyed at the first leisure moment, and by this means the number of the next season s brood will be much diminished. It is no use leavmg them to be killed by frost in undisturbed ground, because such kinds as have been tested at present will stand being frozen stiff without the slightest apparent injury, so long as they are left undisturbed in the cells or shelters which they have made for themselves. If, on the contrary, the caterpillars are thrown out on the surface to alternate cold and wet, this is an excellent way of getting rid of them. Poultry are of service in clearing the ground of these chrysalids, as the common barn-door fowls are particularly fond of them ; but hand-picking is the surer method. When the caterpillars appear on the Cabbage it is very im- portant to attend to them, in some way or other, at once. The grubs are very voracious, and very soon— by what they eat and what thoy spoil by their excrement — place the attacked Cabbage past all hope. Hand-picking is of use, and may be best done by children, as their small fingers are most suitable for getting between the folds of the Cabbage-leaveB, and, under proper inspection, the Cabbages may be well and rapidly cleared at a small expense. With regard to the hearted Cabbage, the application of gas-lime vhich has been exposed for about three months to atmospheric action— so as to neutralize its poisonous effects, but still not mtirely to destroy the sulphury smell— has been found very seiviceable. The powdered lime rolls down and lodges in all the nooks of the Cabbage, and thus makes the spots where the caterpillars most resort to, before piercing into the heart, the most distasteful to them. By comparison of gas-limed and unlimed plants in one garden, the effect has been found to be good in keeping down the grubs, without the least injury to the Cabbage. Sprinkling a good dressing of the gas lime in this state on the surface of the Cabbage-bed is a very good preventive to attack, and acts well as a '^ In^my ow i garden I have found less harm done by these caterpillars to Cabbage planted in rows amongst other crops (as between Celery-trenches) than where the Cabbage was planted in a bed. Also, clearing off such of the lower leaves of the Cabbage as lay on the ground appeared a very useful plan, many oi xhu iuuivua Wuie paitxjr auucuj^.^ ^^..- — little use to the plant, but gave shelter by day to such cater- ORBAT YELLOW UNDERWINa MOTIT. 81 pillars as were Btraying about (besides slugs, &c.), and also gave much additional ease of access to the plants. In the case of caterpillars that feed, like these, on many of our commonest weeds, it is desirable to clear aW^lsLh food-plants; and if the grubs have been noticed in summer in neglected corners, to turn over the ground in winter to see ff the chrysahds are there, and. if so. to destroy them or better still, trench down the ground, which will effec uX get Siif tiS\b^' "r"? '' ^'^' Hn^^i«turbed until past t'- ns ts,":nd^^^^^^ """^^ '' "PP^^^ ^" «^^ ^'-' y^--V 1^^-n^ Great Yellow Underwing Moth. Noctna {Tnjpluena) })ronuh(i, Linn. TnjphcBna promtba : 1, oatei pillar; 2, chrysalis; 3, Moth. The Yellow Underwings are much more observable than he grey Cabbage or Turnip Moths, by reason of their bright yellow under wmgs, banded with dark brown or black. trom which they take their name, and which makes them very noticeable as they rise, towards the latter part of summer, before the passing foot in recently-mown grass or ow-growing plants. Their chief time of flight is, however in he evening or night. They lay their eggs in some quantity at the root of various kinds of plants about the middle of summer. The caterpillars hatch in about a fortnight. By day they he hidden, i;olied into a ring in the earth under 1 eir food-plants, or sheltered under clods, stones, or the hke and come out at night to feed. They have been found with the caterpillars of the Heart and Dart Moth at the roots ot iurnips. and also at the roots of Lettuces, and have been stated by various authors to feed on the roots of grass The lumps of dirt and gnawed leaves show their whereabouts. 82 CABBAGE. ! During the winter months they may be found near the surface of the ground, and in spring they come out iigain and feed. When full-grown the caterpillars are one inch and three- quarters long, and about as thick as a swan's quill. The head is ochreous, with two black stripes ; the general colour is very variable, from a sickly green to a dull brown, varie- gated with rosy brown, and freckled with a brown band down the back, marked with a pale line along the middle, and a short line of black spots or streaks along each side ; the caterpillar is pale green beneath. Theso caterpillars are very fat, not at all shining, and on being disturbed coil them- selves into a ring. When full-fed, whicli may be from March to June, they bury themselves and form earth-cases or hollows in the ground, in which they turn to reddish chry- salids, from which the moths come out in June or July. They are variable in marking, but may be known by their pale or rich umber-brown fore wings generally mottled or spotted, as figured at 3, and by their hind wings being orange-yellow, with a somewhat narrow waved black band, but without any central mark. By one or other of the three points — their large size, the comparatively narrow black band on the hind wings, or the absence of the dull mark on the hind wings — this moth may be distinguished from other species of Yellow Underwings. Prevention and Remedies. — The moth shelters itself amongst dry leaves and herbage, and in seasons when it is numerous many might be got rid of at a small expense by setting children to catch them with a bag-net, or merely with the hand. It rises before the passer-by from grass in hay- fields that have been lately cut, or in rough neglected spots ; and its flight being sluggish, and itself large and very con- spicuous from its " yellow under wings," it is easily taken. In 1884, Mr. W. W. Glenny, of Barking, Essex, sent me specimens of this kind of Yellow Underwing Moth caterpillar, together with some of the common Turnip Moth and the following observation : — " Surface-caterpillars have been exceedingly destructive, especially amongst the Cabbage seed-beds. . . . The most effectual way of checking them is to hunt for these cater- pillars just below the surface periodically, say twice a week. By these means the attack may be lessened, and a crop saved. " This year having bc^n dry, the caterpillars have given much trouble amongst transplanted Leeks^ and one field of about four acres was searched more than once ; the result was satisfactory, large numbers were destroyed, and the crop CABBAGE moth; SNOWY FLY. 33 slowly ?nd irtJr fl "'"?"' '■''^ 'his the plants grow recommenldlTIZ ■""1?''^ '^ P'-ovention that are Doc" f and on "^'t?'"'"' ?* "'^ ™'°^ Underwfng fe!ds ou eo"r:tn^ld°s\SlSr4rsS.''^ ''^^""« '"^ Snowy Fly (Cabbage Powdered-wing). Aleyrodes proleteUa, Linn. ; A. cheledo,m, Latr. Aleyro,esrroletella : Fly and pupa, much magnified ; Flies on loaf, twice nat. si.e, poL^eryWhLSI-^T™^'^ ^^^' ^^^^ ^^^e a small aS to fh« q.?f ? '"^ '}' appearance, but is in fact nearly ^.iiea to the Scale Insects and to the Aphides It mav i.{ found on different kinds of Cabbage, more or less ^Mhp Zl T?h; ?i' T''' ?*^^r ^^ -« "Sorlus;;altt nnd fl.of • fl""''*'. ^'^ '*^"'^^' *he soft white flies Will rse and float in the an-, and settle down like miniaturrsnow flakes, whence its name of the Snowy Fly S re.t fm f ^I tM^ 1 'i^?^'"' '■ ''^"^ ^^ *"^e« ^^0 a good deal of harm he attacked eayes may generally be known b/their patchy colZed?' '''^''' ''''''' ^""^ «^^^*^^^« are^SlfS first^^al\tE.5l°rAh'TMi„T%T-7%^^!-f"'.- ^onun, from such a nactised in the Cabba-^o a3n^ d^^fW? °^ tlus laothod of treatniont as T'oventionandrcniedf^iruSoVoTofW ,"""* Hounslow, for methods of tor explanation of thK Sliiit/^v^Sl'^'^^^ i^lJP^-^^^-^''''-^'' -^^ it 84 CABBAGE. As far as is known, these Snowy Flies breed in winter as well as in summer. ^ o lv. i ^ u The female lays her eggs in a patch on a leaf; these hatch in about twelve days, and the young spread hemselves on the leaf and shortly become covered with a scale, white, with two yellow spots. In this state they much resemble the common Scale Insect, and they stick fast to the leaf, which thev pierce with their sucker. In about ten days they turn (beneath this scale) to a pale chrysalis, with red eyes, and in about four days more the perfect insect comes out through the scale. This is very small, only about the eighth of an inch in the spread of the wings, and is covered with_ a white powder. The head and the body between the wings are black variegated with yellow ; the abdomen is yellow or rosy, and the four wings are white and mealy, the upper pan- having a dusky spot in the middle and towards the tip. ihe head has a rostAim or sucking-tube with winch it draws away the juice of the leaf.-(' G. Chron.,' and Ag. Gazette, 1846.) Pre^-ention and Eemedies. — Cabbage infested by these Snowv Flies may be known by the unhealthy look ot the leaves, which are sometimes withered, but more commonly marked with whitish or yellowish patches; and there is the un- usual inconvenience that the creatures are to be found doing mischief all the year through. They have been observed to withstand rain and cold, and have been found in all stages in the middle of the winter. As the attack is mamly beneath the foliage, there is great difficulty in bringing any kmd ot dressing to bear on the insects; but dusting the plants with soot, oi°ashes sprinkled with tar, or if possible giving a good syringing with tobacco-water, or soft soap, might be ot service. The best treatment, however, appears to be cutting off the infested Cabbage leaves and destroying them, ihis should be thorouqlili) done, and at once, as, if the leaves are only thrown to aVubbish-heap, they will remain fresh enough for some days to support many of the grubs up to the stage in which they turn to the chrysalis. Throwing the leaves to be trampled in farm-manure gets rid of them thoroughly, or burning amongst rubbish would answer better. The Sncwy Flies shelter in any convenient nooks on the surface of the ground, or under leaves ; therefore, digging in- fested ground, or top-dressing with caustic lime would be ot service. CARnAOR AND TUnNIP-OATJ, WRKVIL. 35 Cabbageauc.TurnipaanWeeyl,.a„<„,,,,„,,,„,,„,„,„„.e^„ ao'"ut-a, «, legof Weevil, magnified. often o-bse.vlbrtl^^^ST'^'f'fe^ also on the imderRround onrt nf fi.tJ. ^ bwedea, and --/ various kinds S GmZ Tbose tni T ?-!!P '^^ '<""« themselves, so far as Tur^s are ZScd -tt'f •''"'", '" they are very numeronq m- oa.-,cZ ^'^"''^l^®^*— that is, unless hollows in the Ss fi^S wbTI . i'^^ ^^ ^'* ^^^^^^S ^^ the But with Cabbafe 'i 'dSe^ent AlrT^'' ^^^ ''''^'^' the old stocks are not avaS t f^r I *, ' g^^'growths on Turnips ; they carry off the inn f, ff ^' ^^^'^ ""'^ ^^^^ besides inducing decay ^' "' *^' ™^g direction, The Turnip and Cabbage-gall Weevil ,'« o blackish beetle, about the eiahfh nf ol • 1 J ^ ^^^^ «^^all shape figured abovrfmacSffier i m "' i^ ^°"^' ^^^ ^^ t^^e proboscis, or snout wt^1hf't^lbowed.''o'r '^'' ^^^^ fine placed on each side • a so f h« Iho ^ f ^^^ennaB, or horns, the thorax, and stiS,' or toows abn'. tb^ '^' ^^^^^^ °^ colour is black, with grev or S*^ «-? wing-cases. The times a sprinkling of & abte '''^'' ^'^'"*^' ^^^ «°^^- littf'LTefwlt^XL^^^^^^^^^ to make -usually one in eacfi tie "o ^Ts^ ImplvT T '.?^' ^^^^' the surface of the Turiiin-bi lb m- r!i.? ^ •^.*^, ^^^ *^^^^ on the case may be. The i^.tots ^hSfe '' ''''' ^« are as figured, thick and le]3e , v ™ ^gg« and white or yellowish tL hJ,i-^ ? • ™i^ied across, chestnut-coloured Iws dar P.. of f '\f'''''''^'^<^ with strong D 2 ' 5 r iJ ES^3w**'~'TtiSSS^S 36 CABBAOE. i after o. while, as they grow and eat out th^, "^ti-e of tl>e gaU „,;+v, +v,oiv «fvnnfT iaws thev may be found either singly, lu Temra e gal s o°r where he galls are in clusters) there may beTgrourof Uttle cells, communicating with each other I'ndrlp and each with a maggot within. Wh^n^ll-fecl the maggotTleave the galls and make earth- cases Tn which they turn to the pupal or chrysalis state ThesVcases they form by fii^t securing a little bit of the mateHaTlyhig close to them with the tip of the tail and then. ^"t heiJ'^l's and moisture f-m the mouth fastening on fn this beeinning little morsels of peoble, sticks, earth, or whSer may be within reach, and so foi ming a solid case mound themselves. If disturbed in this operation, the Swot ;ill drag its partly-formed case with it, or if the case. Xn nev y made, is broken, I have seen the maggot com- plete it again. The quantity of moisture used m fastening C-rticTes of earth'togethL is bo great that wet patches can be observed inside the case as the work goes ?^- ^^^^ complete the case or earth-cocoon is smooth mside, and lined with a kind of whitish or yellowish gummy material, and it lies in a hollow in the ground from which he material was aken. The time occupied from the maggot going mto the ground to the perfect beetle coming up from it was betwfen fifty-four days and two months m the middle of Slimmer in the instances that T watched. , Te beetles may be found from spring onwards during summer, and some maggots still in the gaUs in ™ter ; and thP massots bear being frozen hard without the slightest appaTenUnury for on being thawed they will at once go down into soft ekrth and begiS to build up their earth-cases. Prevention and Remedy. -With regard to Turnips and Swedes, the simple fact that in common rotation the ciop corses ;t sufficient interval to prevent the ground harbouring the weevils, or morsels of maggot-mfested pieces from the precrdinc i^ot-crop, is usually a great security; but where in Cabba°^e-growing districts, one Cabbage crop may be put in aftr a°nother, with only interval enough to lay a heavy a^^pStion of manure on the land, the weevils are likely ^"^ mere^lXage is a constant crop of the district, a great deal of good might be done by burning the infested old Cabbacre-stocks when drawn from a- .elds, instead of throw- in- them into rot-heaps or of digging them into the ground, as'^is often done. In this case the maggots are pertectly weii suited to take care of themselves ; they go iroin the galls into the earth near them, and (unless the galls are very CABBAGE AND TURNIP-GALL WEEVIL. 37 such treatment a.KSuKe o" I^To'S'tr ''*"^"'' ""' botSTblt;" 4"itet\"r'<' ."'-'« -■«"' 0-i.y yaKl wJiei-e the »,XTAi *" ""* P'S'""' ""^ '"'o a farm- wet mZte !a fieU rT'T ""'V™"" ^' "hA^d „ or shoot them into t nplrl ,.^,..1 «esiiable to bum them, smell wouldTiot cause annnvl ^^''^^..^^'^^^ /^^'^«e8 where the be^re the maggotllVJ^timTto ll "th^gl^^^^^^ ^* ^^^ C^:''\i^dj^]J^ r ^^f^"-' ^"^ -here Brussel-sprouts 0? ot r n£s omL ?Tf' ^^^^^^^ers, or cultivated, that are hblp o tlL^ I . ^/^^""f ^^ ^'''^^' ^^^^ stantly growi, then the tlf Lv ^"^^^*f ^^o^) must be con- to be gas-lime ^''* application to the land appears and™ stte";^:;^ rJ^^i^^' r. ^^ -^^^^ -^^^ when clear of ciop^in Wum, i^^?''^ -^ ^ ^^^^^.^" ^^'^We land exposed to the a^ fort T..T T*''' ?^ flowed to be ploughed in Thus hv PvtL ^fv^^ ^^^^'^ ^^^^re being lime^vhicl \.t fir t dotsX T: ? "^' T' ^^'' "^*^^^'^ ^^ ^^^ what is subjected to it Ts o alte Pd'fi? }'':^l\''^'f'' kiting sulphate of lime, a man L suitable fn^ *° gypsum is of use, and especiaHy s vLab tol''' 'f''^' minous crops and Turnips. serviceable to many legu- The quantity mentioned "by Dr. Voelcker a^ «nfp ;. f i per acre, applied as abovp • w \i 7 ?, ^^^® ^^ ^^^^ *«"s and time that can be aUowed fm- t I ,• """""l '"^ "">?' exposed. Those who .vkbl ■ . "T^'" S^s^me to he of gas-hme ,.Z a ;;u:a n'to'u.^'^o Uvi^'Zd ""' ,?"? .■?j:5X.!^^bl:2a^ri V^-"l ',' ^" "'.'^ Composition and Use of Gas.lin>e in a sncnUnrP " iw n a lii iff: 38 CABROT. 'i accompanied by deep trenching. Where the area to be dealt with is not too great, trenching, if thoroughly done, is of great service in getting rid of attack, for if the top spit of land, with the maggot-cocoons or weevils in it, is turned down, and the lowest spit laid on the top, then the working part of the land (for a while at least) is purified from infestation. Dressings of fresh field-soil are very useful in infested gardens. In planting seedlings, those that are much galled should be rejected. Wood-ashes are said to be a good preventive for attack on the r. '% and dressings thrown on of sand, or ashes, or dry eau^i, with paraffin added in the proportion of one quart to a bushel of the dry material, would be very likely to be of service in preventing the weevils going down for egg- laying. The diseased growths known as "Club" in Cabbage, and as " Anbury " or sometimes " Finger-and-Toe " in Turnips, con- sisting of swollen masses and misformed bulbs, passing on in bad cases to cracking and bursting of the surface followed by putrefaction, are not caused by Gall-weevils, orby any other kind of insect attacks, but by a kind of Slime Fungus, scientifically the IHasmodiophora brassica of Woronin. For information on this infestation and means of prevention and remedy, the reader is referred to observations by the late Dr. Augustus Voelcker, in his paper on " Anbury," in the 20th vol. of the ' Journal of the Eoyal Agricultural Society ' ; also to a paper on " Club-root," in * Diseases of Field and Garden Crops,' by Worthington G. Smith (Macmillan, London) ; and in my own 12th • Annual Eeport on Injurious Insects,' pp. 27—31, 1 give condensed observations from the above authorities, with some observations of my own, especially on the serviceableness of gas-lime for prevention of this fungoid attack. r CARROT. Carrot Ply. Psila roscc, Fab. The damage done by this " Worm " or maggot is known as " rust," from the peculiar reddish or rusty colour to which the gnawed parts turn. The maggot is legless, white or yellowish, and shiny ; about a quarter of an inch long, pointed at the head end, which is furnished within with a black horny apparatus of two curved CARROT FLY. 89 o ^SffiHSSGEScato. <^ 5 G ■'W»fi',.fcS puiI'S^«^^;S,!'\r^^^^^^ *^^ C-ots and turn to ruBty o" ochre cobur pa e Sef nf flf"^'f are shiny, of a black points at the ail Tli« flf *^' ^¥'' '^'^^ ^^^^ ^^^^e weeks in summe but in S./h'^""'' °"* ^^ *^^'^^ ^^^ fo"r and the fly Ss not tmeTom t^^^^^^^^^^^^^ unchanged, or summer. It is veiTsmaT ess than ol^"'"^'"? ^^'"'"^^ spread of the Avinffs hCS, ^^an half an mch in the s^ un;r«.f oar.*"? Jr ^-^ b "i me seea , 2nd, thmning at such a stage of i If Ji %^^ 1 40 CAUROT. I growth, in such circumstances of damp weather, or with such watering or treatment after thinning as may least expose the plants to the attack of the Carrot Fly, which frequently occurs after this operation. Whether the fly is attracted hy the scent of the bruised plants, or what brings ib is not clear, but it is very clear that as it goes down into the ground to lay its eggs on or by the Carrots, that all operations which leave the soil unusually loose and open, lay at the same time the Carrot-roots open to attack ; and it will be observed that the various methods of treatment, in regard to thinning, bear on the means of meeting this difficulty. Observations as to kinds of manure, and special applications, as salt, gas-lime, wood- ashes. Sec, found to be serviceable, are also given. The notes are classed as far as possible in groups, with reference to the point mainly brought forward in the observa- tioii. The notes immediately following refer to 2)rep<.iration of the ground and time of thinning. At a locality near Dingwall, N.B., where the ground is a damp heavy clay, and consequently unsuitable for Carrots, a piece was prepared in 1874, on which they were found to answer very well sub- sequently year by year. The soil was removed to the depth of two feet, and replaced by a mixture of well-decayed leaf- mould, sand, charcoal, soot, and light soil; on this the Carrots have only suffered slight injury, when other beds in the neighbourhood have been destroyed by the fly. It is advised that Carrots should he thinned out to the dis- tance at which they are to be grown, when they are weeded the first time, for if they are thinned after they come to any size, the soil is opened round the Carrots, and if dry weather follows, the fly is sure to attack them. — G. M'K. At another locality near Dingwall it was the custom to sow sparingly, and not thin the Carrots till fit for use ; and — in illustration of attack of grub or "worm " following on thin- iug — it was observed that in 1880, after commencing this process with the second sowing of Carrots, " the grub com- menced too, and within three weeks spoiled them for use. Late ones alongside escaped until we began to use them ; but by keeping to the side the grub was on, it kept up, but did not advance beyond the damaged part." — (A. S.) ** Unless the Carrots are thinned very early it should not be done till they are fit for use, as there is great danger of attracting the fly by the broken pieces of root remaining in the ground." — (A. A.) At Dunrobin, N.B., the ground was carefully trenched, and the manure kept about a foot or fifteen inches from the surface ; and it was the practice to use the best seed, sow thinly, and thin early, or not till the Carrots are fit for use. CARROT FLY. 41 inch m fwi I T"'v*!'?"^"?' ""« «^^ould be done when an (D mV^ ' the fly seems to attack them more readily."-- the'flVonihrn^r' "^' Carrot-crop suffered severely from taken for rn^nf"-'^ 'T ' ,^ ^^^^^ ^^ P^^^y g^'ound w^ -(J DO ^^^^"^-S^'^wmg which produced good\?opB yearly Carrols'pttol^" a^f ^A/'^f Tf' ^? ^^^ -"*^^ «- thinning f^^' '"^ ^^'' '^^^"'^' '^/^^ ^« ''«^^' /^^^^^^'^.^^ o« remLlyt"flt'a'';^rtiot oL^'^"? °' ^f ^^^ *-^ - ^ depth of tweni; two7nZ« ^ T^ ""^^ "^'^"^^ «^^* *« the (F. G. F.) "^ ^ t° ^^^® '^^g"^ its ravages.— was hlfn^ f W ]oam near Isleworth the same experiment the bottom of at tiench 'vh n "'^"™"'■^ '"""8 P»' »t of »alt was-give„,whti wa\t' Zf IXCin'ranf previous to sowing a good drcssiug of sZ and woo^aS was M th I' J f •; 42 CARROT. applied. Care was taken to perform the first thinning as soon as the plants could be handled, leaving them an inch or two apart. When the thinning was complete a sprinkling of guano was given, and a thorough watering if the weather was dry. Particular attention was paid to keeping the Carrots growing without any check till some time after they are finally thinned, when, if all has gone well previously, they are considered safe. _ Still, however, it is thought well to look them over occasionally, and if any are found drooping, to have them pulled up and burned. This method of cultivation has been found after many years' experience to answer well.— (A. F.) Near Berridale, N. B., the method adopted was to turn up the ground in winter as roughly as possible, and give a good dressing of salt. In spring, before sowing, it was forked over, and a dressing given of i)eat and ashes. When the Carrots are thinned, a mixture of soot and water was poured over them ; and parafiin also used, in the proportion of an English pint of parafiin to two gallons of water, but care is recom- mended in the use of it in dry weather, lest it should burn the plants.— (J. S.) Frequent waterings of salt water are mentioned as of service to an attacked crop.— (T. M'D.) At Dalkeith, N. B., good Carrots, tolerably free from injury by the fly, were grown on ground which had been previously hGavily salted for Asparagus. This was upon soil which had been used for a kitchen-garden for forty years, and upon which endeavours had failed to get a good crop in any other way.— (M. D.) & & i j At Ballinacourte, Tipperary, the most severe portion of an attack of the Carrot Fly occurred in the centre of a field which had not received the same treatment as the part round it, and the plant was consequently more feeble. In this case bad manure and the absence of salt were considered to be the cause of the attack. It is advised that good manure— rich and well rotted— should be applied at the autumn ploughing, and artificial manure/with salt, applied in the drill at sowing- time.-(D. S. S). ^ In the following notes mention is made of the use of paraffin in regular course of cultivation, or as a dressing in case of attack, proving a very good means of prevention : — The crops have usually proved good at Oxenford Castle, N. B., on abed of tree-leaves covered with soil composed of emptyings of flower-pots, boxes, &c., and consequently of a light, friable nature. In 1879, however, the fly proved destructive, and in 1880, in order to experiment, the beds were beaten firm after the seed was sown, and lightly covered with soil, as above mentioned. A good dressing was then C.vnnOT FLY. 18 CavZ' ™'™V"'', '""■"«" "" ■■""' strewed amongst tl,o wiv"l(G M™'; ™'"'"' "'• ™' °°"'^^'' "« ^ Sood tiini"TeT;a;nm; ""-^ CaiTOt-erop ,vas not satisfactory dassfuk t^ n ' 11 " ,°'' *'" "'<' Pi'oportion of two wino- t nnW,",! if™, "f ^'f') '■"" aUg the drills X iiiimiing ^^as tiiecl, and proved very successful ~m Ar black hea/, as well as t^eTpper side of tL''fi°°? """ ''**,' ''"'' »e is brown or black • iUs onll 1-! * I ./ '^=-"'"'' '^^''''"1 «- Ml-grown. ' ""'^ "'""'' ^alf an inch long when stem. "meiimes it boies for this purpose into the- the wings are reddiirbrownf freckkd ll'hf ^,°\^'i'^'^" wings are of the same colour freckled ^th ^-i^ ' '^V™^'' black streaks, and the under ^Me is darTth^ht;d''l'' """""^ light grey. ^ ' ^^® ^^nd wings are Prevention and Remedies.— The eatprnilinva ^ n ^ a thread when disturhprl fw./ caterpillars fall down by and destroying the cate^ma^^^ ^^' Carrot-top^ but it should be remSrp/ A f ^""F '' ^ ^^^^ ^^^edy ; mediately destroyed^" s rtl-n t* """"^T. *^^ ^^'"^ i« i^' duftTvt"tL'iS:d%TaK^^^ being a'good thing to It is stated by vadouf wrSeS^ ^^1 ^^^ ^« °" the Parsnip to the CarroTfor de^^^^^^^^ sequently/by planting ParsnnLlwi- f.^'^^^g^' ^nd con- the Carrits/the latte? wi 1 b "^ atT ,^^^^^^^ Parsnip-tops, with the caternilh, vc o T ^**'^^^'' ^"^ ^^^o the lected, may be convenientlv fn W.^^ chrjsalids thus col- ever, needs a deal of ca?e or h/p .'f ^"n ^"'^'- ^his, how- by their threads and esc^r RrpJ^^^^^^^^^ ^^'^P ^^wn tubissuggestedasaS^medvt^^^^ ""^ ''''' ^ Insects/ from which the aSw^'^^^.^"'"*'" ^" 'Farm have chiefly been Tak n ; tt Tt world'K;^;^^ ^^T^* ^'"'''^ have a thick mixture of soof nn/ i ^^^^^ '" ^^^^ case to thing that wo^ Id destrov them nfr*''' "' ^"^^^-lime, or any- Placedat the bottn oTt lieTub Ta^^^^^^^ bm-niug. ' ^'^"^^^ tlian to depend on 48 CARROT. — CELERY. Purple Carrot-seed Moth. Dfpressaria dcpressella, Curtis. The caterpillars of this moth resemble, .both in habits and appearance, those of the Carrot-blossom Moth, but are rather smaller, being hardly more tha': a quarter of an inch long. They are brownish grey in colour, and the black hairs grow from white instead of from black warts. The sides of the body have swollen edges. Their food-plants appear like those of the Carrot-blossom Moth — as also means of prevention, &c. Note. — The scientific names of the species of Depressaria are those given by Curtis in his * Parm Insects.' I i CELEEY. Celery and Parsnip Fly. Tephitis onoponUnis, Fab. ; Trypcta unoponlinis, Meig. Tephritis onopordinis : fly, magnified ; line showing nat. size ; maggot and pupa figured in blistered leaf. These flies infest the leafage of both Celery and Parsnip, but as it is the former of the two crops that usually suffers most, I have placed the observations under the heading of Celery. The Celery Fly lays her eggs on, or in, the Celery-leaf, and from tliepe there hatch iriaggots of the shape figured above. These maggots are fleshy, legless, pointed at the head, and CELRUY AND PAHSN'P FLY. eating away the eubslaace cause iLt ^vH'^f,^'- ""d. ^y which are white at first, and turn brofn "'"fr"''? ?*'■=•>««. Where there are many of these blistZ*!,' ,""' "'''" "i™'- ,^;^. and the ,U are Cse^^rdtt^Tel o?:,^^; turp:>J5:„"'S--^^ egJte?rfe;X'S'a^^^^^^^ '='i?»S- from the more broods during the year ^Th 'fl/'™ *!?' '°'' «™ « the eighth of an inch lonf arid „ir„ * I '^ ''''*''^'' '"«'■<' than across in the spread of th!' w^* f ""* ^ree-eighths of an inch t Jt:tngrat=t»^^ "T. «-. and brown. The poisers rfl.nfta mottled with patches of Btalk which p?o ecTfr m h ' b^Td h1" ^^^^' « ^ «"- second pair of wines in 'hVMl? ^ *f ^^ *^^ P^ace of the ochre-cdoured. ^ "''' ^*^^'^'«' «^ two-winged flies) are anfgSst'r^^^^^^ j^the middle of Ma,, " Celery is planted out tm S^it ^ ^'"^ *^^ ^^^^ ^^^ i^ t^e SS1;I£ --^-^^^^^ andre.ain thfw:™?pT^^^^^^^^^^^ be done in infested crops have bee7grS2d w^ "" ^^^^^^^ fu I of the pupre) :-The IreaW S ^^ ^^ '" ^^"^^^^ certainly into the eartlfto change foTuprtlnU^«^r;>"^^^^^^^ ^^^^" cases, out of which the flv Sn ' ^' *^ *^^ ^^^tle brown Pupc^ may be found n^u^itli^rt],? 'T-'"'''^' *^^^^ Where there has been a borl o+? f •. *^^® ^^^^ ^^ *i^i'Qed up toskimoifthosoiiraSep^of&^^^ burn It (if only a small am ntfvV' ^^^^.^o^^ur inches, and with its conteni iranv nH^«, ^^' "1: ^f* ''^ ^^ ^^ thoroughly ^ If this process'cTnSbetSon?^?^'^ ^^ preferred '^' trenched, care beini? H ] Pn f + .?^^*' *^® ^^'^und might be of the precedingZnch^" ^^ them to develop and come nn .J^'^ ^^S- P"P^ ^^^ deep for might be of benefit bvnt^^ ^''''' ""^ ^'^'' ^ough-diLC the reach of hvi? \i^[ ji'^^^.^^g some of the flvcat« J?hH in trenching." A iore, pis'- "^' ?^^'? ^^ *^^ same m'anner as taes.und^teron?ergat7C;SfSr 60 CELERY. I " pointed-in," or mixed with three or four inches of the surface-soil, would destroy the pupse; and sufficient time would elapse before the next crop was sown for the gas-lime to have gone through the chemical changes which turn it to a valuable manure. (See ref. to gas-lime in Index.) The plan commonly recommended to get rid of the maggots, when attack is present, is to pinch them in the blisters ; and this is good so far as concerns checking further attack from the next brood of flies which would have come from these maggots ; but, with regard to the attacked plants, unless the pinching is very carefully done, it causes nearly as much damage to each leaf as the maggot itself. If it is simply crushed, it is all very well, but if a piece of the leaf is torn, or cut out, the damage is great from the operation. Care should also be taken to have infested leaves which have been removed from the plant, or refuse leaves with grubs in them, destroyed at once. The plan of throwing them on the rubbish-heap is especially bad in the case of this maggot. It has great powers of endurance ; I find, by experiment, it will stand damp and mouldy surroundings, or, as a pupa, the extreme opposite of very dry ones, and come out in due time as the fly injierfect health. The only Coi'tain way of destroying the maggots in the leaves is to burn them. Sprinkling the leaves with a good coat of anything that is disagreeable to the Celery Flies (and so prevents them from egg-laying), and that will promote the healthy growth of the plants, is certain to be of use. A mixture of one part of un- slaked lime, one part of gas-lime a month from the works, and twu of mixed dry earth and soot, all well stirred together, and scattered liberally on the plants and the ground, has been found serviceable ; and so also has been a dressing of soot, but this is not always successful. During the bad attack of this Parsnip and Celery leaf-miner in 1883, Mr. John. Speir, of Newton Farm, near Glasgow, wrote me, with regard to damage to Parsnips, that up to that time his usual remedy, or rather preventive, had been soot applied at the rate of 10 cwt. along the rows, which generally prevents both " Eust " and "Burnt leaves," but not so that year. The soot was applied about July 10th. The damage from this leaf-miner infestation is caused by the plant being weakened by loss of leafage faster than it can make new growth to replace it; consequently a good start first of all is of importance, and a check at planting-out time is to be avoided. Any amount of manure, or water, or treat- ment of any kind suited to run healthy growth on rapidly, will be serviceable. i of the iiit time s-lime to L it to a naggots, irs ; and ,ck from m these !, unless IS much ) simply 1 torn, or e should removed estroyed -heap is IS great \\ stand extreme ,s the fly I in the ; that is im from 1 of the 3 of un- 8 works, ogether, nd, has ssing of if-miner xlasgow, 3 to that sen soot ;enerally t so that lUsed by ,n it can od start 3ut time or treat- rapidly, CLOVER. — STEM EELWORM. gj suS'Cmlro\.t"Vnd'\r*^^^^^^ S^^^« '^ wet places weather. For'Sts^n'itt'deSj^ *'^^^^« - "r^' to turn a good supply of wa erinfn f {, i ' ^^^""^ Practicable, time. This makes tL manure ^tfllt ^T'^''. ^^"^ ^^^^ ^o ^^^-^^;:VLtr:^^^ or hose the row, and send a good nnw«v nf ! '°^"''^"' ^^ ^^e end of age, going regularly Od from 2l"' IT^I^ ^* ^^^ ^^af- other. This clears^ swarms oTiZ.r^ '^.*^" '^^ *« the be seen preceding the omZfnl 1 '"«^°t-vermm, which may the leafage is stilfmoisranX^^^^ "^^ ^'' ^'''''' be serviceable is sprinkled ovei thpT? *^^*.'^^^ ^^ ^"o^n to while, and be very^seful in^l^ing oTattack"/" '''^^^ '''^ CLOVER. Stem Eelworm. r,^.„.,,, ,;,,,,,^,,,^. j^^,^^^ Clover "sickness" as h ,'« f.,.^.^ .._ causes, such as unfavourablp 'w«nfS ' "''"'•^ ^^'^^® trom many E 2 li K-}| 52 CLOVER. I* i Cx mould, but one chief cause ig the presence of small eel- worms in the stems and shoots. These eel- worms {Ti/lenchus devastatrix, scientifically) are too small to be observed without the help of a magnifier. At full growth the males and females are about l-25th of an inch in length, the exceeding slenderness of their eel-like shape can hardly be conveyed by statement of measurement, but when magnified 200 times, so that they appear a little more than eight inches in length, their greatest magnified width hardly exceeds one-quarter of an inch. They multiply by laying eggs, and the eggs, young wormlets, and fully formed males and females, may be found in great numbers in the infested and misshaped stems and leaf-buds of the Glover. From the circumstance of the stems and shoots being especially attacked by this Tylenchus the more serviceable name of " Stem Eel worm" is given to this special kind, and similarly the term Clover " Stem-sickness " is more useful for describing this iHsease than the general description of " Sick- ness " which includes all Clover ailments together. For practical purposes the deformed growth of the *' Stem- sick " Clover is qu/te sufficient to show the nature of the attack, the amount of deformation of course may vary with circumstances and season. Specimens sent from Woburn about the middle of April, submitted to Dr. J. Eitzema Bos, Prof, at the State Agri- cultural College, Wageningen, Netherlands, one of the highest authorities on this attack, were reported on by him as follows : — " The stalks and branches were shorter and thicker than in the normal Clover plants ; the buds particularly were much thicker, and some stalks and branches began to decay, or were dying. I found in these plants larvsB and adult nematoid worms belonging doubtlessly to the species Tylen- chus devastatrix. In the buds I found them in considerable numbers."^ Early in July, in 1887, 1 had myself the opportunity of examining excellently characteristic specimens of " Stem- sick " Clover, also from Woburn. In this case some of the stems with flowering heads were still to bo found, but also there were a large number of short barren shoots, about an inch long, oval in shape, and with the distorted growth of leaves then merely forming an imbricated, or "tile-like," exterior. These shoots were placed closely together, ap- parently from the growth of the shoot having been stopped. They varied in number ; sometimes as many apj five gi ew on an inch length of shoot, one at the extremity anr two at each side below, so as to forrii together a flat, fan-like mass. I did not find they grew round the central stem. They were not all similar in form of diseased growth, but were commonly STEM EELTVORM. ,« \nown ^sV'ZTnec&^^^ ^l*^ ''''^^^' what L the lower part o^the flowerin^^^ '"^ '^T' ^^^ sometimes or two at the base ^''''^''''^ «*^^ was enlarged for an inch it. One of the Thnnfl ?i^ i, ^^^^"g^owth proceeding from together short Ld by disasfonTi "^''''^ T"^"' ^' ^ ^^^ near the base, with ic^'^'^r^.???^^^' Proved hollow brown powdei'y or rathe? dZ. ""'^i '"' ^^^ ^^«« P^^ish placing this undei a one-inch ShifnrV"' T'^''' ^^^ '^^ swarming with Anmnnlf ^^^J^fjl^^ass it proved to be qimrter-inch objeS^^^^^^ ^ '' Eelworms." Under a these the presemfp of o ^,f ^^'^^'^^^ distinguished in some of These speciSswpir'^-'"??^ ^ ^^"^^^"^ *««^-* Bos,andbySrjVde J :;rjd fo^ ''^ ^'' ^^^^ema known expirt in thrd^^cuU ;tudf of t'b "^'^' ''^'T? ^ ^«"- injurious wormlpfa n«^ -^ °^ *"®s® mmute but verv found within. Duii„„ «,„ • „ Jot-^ I- ^f""^""! deeastatrix ^Tfe ~ detail to desiib^^ feedingL%t:ILrnro^^ ^af ^^™"'^^^^^ ^' ^^^^orms mg parts of plants suifering from r^Mns attack, although" tles^ ttn? .?'?^' ^^ ^^^ '-^B observa! tions go at present, wa-er cause the Clover " Stem-sickness.'- One mam point of distinction of these Nematodes, or "thread worms," is the fori of the ^1" IS sucked into the wormlet. In some cases the mouth-cavity is urnisM with a long Ss called a spear, and in the Ti/- l\u }\' 'P^^^- iB Piaced on a tnlobed bulbous base. The ac - - -¥ cnaiGaeo. ■ :„ :"'^,' ''"«^o«'^% real siiie micro- * For details of th .• . ^'°- ^ '°'"'^«'- ^^^'- ^•^^^"-n. exceUeat plates. J'^L^Slulo^do 't^l^'' ^T^'^;, '"S^*^- -ith iifee, lyienchus dcvastatrix par .11 '■* I, ii u CLOVER. Prevkntion and Remedies.— Where Clover Stem- sickness is present, it has been shown, by the experiments of Mr. John Willis, at Rothamstead, that an application of a mixture of sulphate of potash 3 cwt., and sulphate of ammonia 1 cvi^t. per acre, had an excellent effect. This was applied April 8rd ; the disease ceased and the Clover made a very vigorous growth, which was continued markedly in the second crop. Sulphate of iron, at the rate of 2 cwt., also answered very well, both in stopping the disease and causing good growth ; but in this case the growth of the second crop was not quite so luxuriant as with the other application. Half quantity of sulphate of iron was less effectual in checking spread of Tylenclms. Amongst the series of careful experiments tried for several succcessive years relatively to prevention or cure of Tylenchua attack in Tulip-rooted Oats, or " Stem-sick " Clover, the -oUowing mixture acted well : — sulphate of ammonia 4 parts, sulphate of potash 1 part, and steamed bones 2 parts ; this was given at the rate of 1} cwt. per acre, and was followed up by a dressing of 2 cwt. per acre of sulphate of ammonia. The result gave so luxuriant a growth that in little more than a fortnight after the second dressing the unhealthy plants, if any remained, ceased to be noticeable. One very important point to be borne in mind in dealing with attack of this Stem Eelworm is that it infests many kinds of crop and weed-plants, and can pass from one to the other. This may be proved by sowing seed of plants liable to infestation on earth in which pieces of infested stem have been buried. This experiment I have myself tried, and on the broad scale of field cultivation I have notes of Clover-plants, " Stem- sick " from this Eelworm, occurring on land where Tulip-root had been bad in Oats the previous year, and of Tulip -rooted Oats occurring on land where the Clover 1 ad been " sick " the jDrevious year. It is highly desirable, ichere there has been Stem Eelworm- attack, to take as the, next crop something ichich is not known to suffer from it ; and amongst the crops which are especially liable, as Oats are in this country, to n ■ 'ack of the Stem Eel- worm, Cforcr should never succeed Tulip-rooted Oats, nor Oats Stem-sick Clover. The Eelworms have the power of leaving the infested plants, and lie near the surface of the ground ; therefore ploughing with a skim-coulter so as to turn the surface thoroughly well under and to leave it there is a good remedy ; but common Dr. J. Eitzema Bos.' Also in my 13th Report on Injurious Insects (Simpkin & Co., London) I give a digest of our Enj/lisli observations up to date, with a plate showing male and female T. devastatrix and eggs, taken, by kind permission, from drawings by Dr. Eitzema Bos. CLOVER " PEAR-SHAPED *' WEEVILS. 55 bv it ThT^f ''f "''on '« animals fed on fodder infested all Sfhii , ^f^^' '>"' ^'^y identical Belworms will in all likelihood go back again to cause new mischief Which the attack may be met, see paper on - Tulip-root." _ Clover "Pear-shaped" Weevils. Api07i apncans, Herbst, - .:t.>.,7t.«or<,<««,, Kirby : A. asHimile, Kirby. ^' '^'sf/Z "^'■'■'^""V '^~^.' '"^Sgot and pupa ; 8, 9, A. asnmile ■ -all nat. size and magnified; 1, maggot feeding.magnS' stalked pear, whence its name. ^ °^ "- ^''"°- There are many species, some of which do great im-„rv f. redS I^n "^J^"" °°'°'"-' °^ «°»^ »hade of toti^'or et :Sts:t r ^i;:rt-r;?:niSd-^otiS to be mere varieties: and tbrn-n i« a third kind f^n fT^J-T which is very like the above-both in sLape anf "oIom'"£; IS said to occur sometimes in large numbers on PuriX Cw! ; I !' Il 66 OtOVEU. The Ajnon apricans, more especially known as the " Purple- Clover Weevil, " may be generally described as follows :— Black ; proboscis curved. ITorns black, with base of a brownish yellow, and placed near the middle of the proboscis. The thorax or lore body cylindrical, smaller before and punc- tured. Head punctured, chnn.ie]! d between the eyes. Wing- cases furrowed, with cor v-^x buane between the furrows, and the furrows punctured. Loir" p^i 'tly black, but all the thighs, the shanks of the fore legs, and some of the smaller upper portions yellow or reddish yellow. The maggot is of the shape figured at 3, magnified, dusky white, with a reddish horny head. The liie-history is thus described by Dr. E. L. Taschen- berg :— When wintering time is past the beetles pair ; after this the females lay many eggs in the blossom-heads of the Clover. The larvae, which soon hatch from these, feed on the still unripe seeds and seriously injure the production of Clo'.tir-seed. The maggot-infested plants may be easily known by the rapid withering of the heads. By the time of first cutting of the Clover the larvse are full-grown and turned to pupse at the bottom of the Hower, between the dried-up blossoms of the heads,"* From these chrysalids the weevils come out in about a fortnight, or, in the case of autumn broods, may remain in chrysalis state till spring. As the stages of their life-history are gone through rapidly, there may be several generations in one year ; the pests stt red as maggots or chrysalids with the harvested Clover will produce swarms of weevils to come out and attack the blossoms of the second crop, and so continue their generations, weather and crop permitting. In specimens sent to myself the attack was present in the second crop, in one instance doing great harm to about fifty acres of seeding Purple Clover, and similar mischief was then being done to a serious extent near Bridgwater and West Buckland, Somerset. I found the little whitish maggots at the base of the florets just as described. Prevention and Eemedies.— When the maggots are feeding in the forming seed, which may be known by the rusty or prematurely withered appearance of the flowering heads, nothing can be done to save the seed crop, and the benL that can De done is to mow the crop as soon as possible for hay. As a preventive measure the only thing which it seems possible to do is to lessen the amount of weevil-presence in the neighbourhood beforehand; and as the points of this * ' Praktische Insektcnkundc,' by Lr. E. L. Taschenberg, Part II., p. 181. OLOVIIR "pear-shaped" WEEVILS. fff wh,ch are known or supposed \o be'^::l%2lXZ mi :.-r^^^^^^^^ ^"d vary the culture." Ihe 5th suggestion is that if the Clover is Rf^ohoA ^ and subjected to a sufficiently high ^^1^1 f" .^^^"^ brown tlie maggot contained fn i will Cdestro^l ull,'* presen day the use of the silo would Ls st S tZ tse *^' gre^t'nuX:^: — isct^^^iV'f eo. .oTS „er something might be done to Hn iT^i k . "^""^ ^'^^^^^^ lime or gas-lime on them When ttT«,/-*'''^T^ ^^"^^• (as has been recorded) that th^^are Tc^s "n TeVan" 'and they are regularly sweeping on from the st^ flT'u^u they started, something might beTone to et rfd^fT^'^ hordes. It is mentioned by John Curtis th . \L -i*^^'^ soft anu tender in the chrvsahs state «nH fl- ^'T^5 ^'^ c pportunity of o. .rving in Cpedm^ns'lt^Use^^^ ^° When properly de^'eIoped, the Purple-Clovor We7^-1 ioo p/;:/r :is: in' •" ets:r.t' !«• f ^ be a grent check on spread of the Zl °"'"™«' '' """Id itrr^'h^nnirvt^^ CoVheldsl?^^ ^^'J^ For paper on Jlover Sitona Weevils see ' Ppa p«o„ j Clover Weevils." **etivu8 see i.ea, J3ean, and I I 11 5d CORN AND 0RA8S. CORN AND GRASS. Antler Moth, or Grass Moth. Charans graminis, Linn. Antler Moth (Gharceas graminis) and caterpillars. The attacks of the caterpillars of the Antler Moth are remarkable for only occurring occasionally, and especially in mountainous districts, and for these appearances buing in such vast numbers, and over such a large extent of country, as to be an amazemont to all not acquainted with their habits. ^ Such an attack occurred in June of 1884, in the mountainous part of Glamorganshire, extending over an area of about ten miles of the country lying west of the Rhondda Valey, and such an attack occurred again in the summer of 1885 in Selkirkshire, N.B., destroying in its course some of the hill pastures in Ettrick and Yarrow. The above figure gives the size and method of marking of the Antler Moth and caterpillar. With regard to colour, the moths are variable, but may be generally described as having the fore wings of various tints of brown, with somewhat pale or white antler-shaped markings, from which the moth takes its name. The hind wings are brown or greyish brown. The caterpillars are marked with dark brown, and pale streaks running lengthwise; the head is brown or yellowish. The life-history is stated to be that the eggs are laid by the female moths about the middle of summer; these hatch in about three weeks, and the caterpillars are then said to hide them- selves by day and feed by night: they live through the winter, and in spring again begin their destructive operations. These continue till about June, when they go down into the ground to turn to chrysalids, from which the moths come out to lay the eggs, as above mentioned, in July and August. No detailed reports were forwarded as to the parts of the grass which were devoured by the caterpillars in either of the above attacks, beyond the general fact of the pasture being devoured; but, with regard to this important point, it is stated, in Curtis's ' i^'arm insects,' pp. 50(), 507, that " they AMTLSR MOTH. fi« live on the roots, nnd cat away all shoots " Tn ■ Tf„ii Inseo 8 injurious to Gardeners/Fa mors • &c ,, IST ™",T translation), it is stated:-" The food of tl,«'L„ ^-i '^"«''"'' Bists of all the soft parts of erasses '",/'?<'*'<''•?'"'"• eon- and eats all the oerms AlthonT:* t • • ?^ *'• "'<' ™»'9' it lies henumbed in H,» Ivf?^ • l'''''''^'™'='="'»>''«inn, again in tWiV vet the eff.'.^ T'^ ""'' ''"^'^^ "> <">* live'arthe roots^T var ous'&s''ot' ""*,' '^^ "f^'P'''^'^ i^ ."Jt o^nisrrdtnisfour:^^^^^^^^ Se« sap t^h iKfak rslckfr 'tll^t^T ^T^ ^™^ "» strength of the riant lmt„1f„ •"' ™'y ""'""'^'iig *he tis£.y meaLtte tnt^^^^^^^^ to the drill's aur^L^ir -- ■^"•?».- «»«>'" tl'o Aphis cannot -s Bu-„j m, theu >,u, gram is safe from further injury. I' ;l 62 CORN AND GIlASS. The wingless viviparous females are described as green or brownish green, with brown horns, and the horn-like tubes at the end of the abdomen also brown; the eyes red. The winged viviparous females have the abdomen green, and the rest of the general colour pale brown, or rusty yellow; tiie tubes on the abdomen (cornicles) black ; eyes red. The wings are green at the base, with brown veins, and the spread of the wings is about a quarter of an inch or rather more. In its earlier stages the Plant-louse is green ; the pupa has a more golden tint in autumn, and its wing-cases are pale brown. (Mainly from Mon. of Brit. Aphides.) 1—4, winged and wingless Aphides {AjMs granaria), nat. size and magnified (3 and 4 discoloured from attack of parasite fly); 5 and 6, Aphidius avena: ; 7 and 8, Ephednis plagiator, parasite flies, nat. size and magnified. Empty skins are often to be found amongst the other Aphides, differing in being somewhat swollen, wingless, and brown in colour (see above figs. 3 & 4). These are Aphides which have been destroyed by the maggot of a parasite fly feeding within them. In the year 1886, damage from infestation of Grain Aphis was unusually prevalent, and was reported to me from various places, extending from Fife, in Scotland, down to Kent, — but the observations were mostly across the northerly or north- midland part of England (Cheshire to Lincolnshire). By careful examination of the specimens sent, a large pro- portion of which reached me alive and unparasitized, it appeared that some were of the Common Grain Aphis, the Sijihonophom granaria, Kirby, but by far the larger proportion COEN APHIS. 63 stage, ov partial amount of sreen t t ^'■'"' i" "^« "arfy which is characteristic of the tr ,e « '""»'"' "P""™™'. corresponded more with tl>o Ji '^ gramna.* They short description is ^W „ in cttlsV Ff,''''-V °' ^'''^ ™™ ^.Ih™?-; mattefconseouentlv'in /„^ ?i!!S'^-',P: ^00. >e dark Aphides sent ™ ^l/Sl' "'.again.^ ;fh"ttr?h1s:Z\ S^tn^t t'^^'^^^f ^""^^^^^^^^^^^^ the variable comments n™!!^!" ™''* 9"'^ a wiefy of conjecture sometimes broStf™ '' °\\ "«?'" (Allowing the change of colour tothe inSwfST''^ ''''*'""• 'here is a green whilst feeding on S toave n.'^r*' f '""'•.-from colour when it has slltled in the grain ' '" ""> ''™™ CoSl^STorg a'^rTtrpi^^fr/Z'^S -'«' 'i-, whilst the been suggested as useful; and soot w„"^^f^!l''°"' <>» "- has It being a fertilizer as well «<, ,i- ",'? ^^ ''''c'y to do good probably a dressIig'^TL"; ^nH?"" '" "'^ '"sectsfbut encourage healthy H?owthwonWKri,.S?"« 'hat would would depend on ttTsd^ and site „^'t ^^^ f"*"^ "f this It has been noted that wi, ft "' '"^ "^"l?-^ severely; whe™'; 'siTed fess'^Sr?.^ ^'^" ™f-'=1 the case does not appear bnti- V^^'f*^'' '^ia is always eaves and ears havinfnassedtl»V?*''Hy' P'"'"^ from the he Plant-louse can piirce them^f ' -f'"*'' ^'ate in which •nsect appeared to aEk them and „aH,™f '''' ^^''^ '^' rnr^o^-rs.^'-^ '^eSgTelrat'rhet^fe ^P^'iLZft^V^, \tt^\ P'>-icle and a«aL^d^^"rrp.tXt~ affects the tater wCts °tl fch Tn ' *"'*' P^''- « "^"stly with hundreds of thesrcrlaure, , 1?-T ™''' "« '"vered sucking out the juices from'Th'^eS; tt 'ZP^^! ^Z ans n, (1. r„V i"'" ""■(.'■=««■> (which aieal ihiffi, "''■' P'""'' ""li ""h a yeliow-tawn ; abdonieS „, a Se, En,' ■ .^"f ''"'i)' chestnut „;.omS! lue an -dull i)opularIy known as thp <<«*,.„• ^ ^"^'^ dresy hr, thrown 1,1 greatly injure the Apllidos, and wSl puT."^'"'-;' ^^^^ ^^AS^Z^ - puoh on a good growth of the plants: 4 i*m«emt»mmaim>m»t>aAi 64 CORN AND GRASS. :■»? I mostly too dry to be injured at the time when the creatm-es are developed in sufficient numbers to be mischievous." In an extremely bad outbreak of this Aphis on one hundred and ten acres of Wheat, in Cheshire, during the wet summer of 1879, the Wheat was Marcli sown, and was about six weeks later than in average seasons ; and in the middle of Septem- ber every green head i.i the field was blasted by them.— (S.L.) In another instance recorded the infested ears were noticed as tapering from the middle upwards, and it was found the upper half was mainly infested by the Aphides, this appar- ently from being rather less advanced, and conscquentlv aofter. ^ "^ The various observations point to any method of cultiva- tion or date of sowing being desirable that will get the plant on in good time, ahead of the main appearance of this kind of Aphis. How this Aphis passes the winter in this country is not clearly known, but it has been observed by Dr. C. Thomas, late State Entomologist of Illinois, U.S.A., that when winter Wheat appeared above ground in the autumn, the Aphides appeared on it. He says : — " Here they work upon the leaves and stalks smgly while the weather is not too cold, but when winter appears they move downwards towards the ground, some of them at least entering the soil and feeding upon the sap of the roots ; at any rate I find the apterous ones at this time working upon the roots, but at the same time I find a wmged individual above ground. I have also observed them heretofore at the root of the Wheat late in the winter, while snow was on the ground, and what somewhat surprised me, I found them busy at work under the snow, and the apterous (wmgless) females bearing well-formed larva). I am therefore led to believe that in this latitude the species passes the winter in other than the egg state. This will also probably be found true wherever winter Wheat is grown."* This Aphis has been recorded as infesting all our common Corn crops, and many of the wild and cultivated Grasses. It would appear, therefore, that such thorough cultivation of the surface of the ground as would clear out any roots whether of crop or weed Grasses in which the Aphides could shelter, might be very serviceable, before putting in Wheat. The habit of sheltering in wild Grasses would quite account also for the appearance of the insect in spring or early summer on Corn growing near such shelters, and destroying headlands and breadths of wild grass would do good. , r,',.^'^i^^ Annual Report on Noxious and Beneficial Insects of the State of Illinois,' by Dr. C. Thomas, pp. 53, 54. me. DADDY L0NGLEG8. Qg Daddy Longlegs. Tipula oleracea, Linn, (and other species). Daddy Longlegs {Tipula oleracea) .- eggs, grub, and chrysalis. The flies commonly known by the name of Daddy Longlegs. or Crane Fhes which develop from the grubs known as Leather-jackets, are to be seen in multitudes, especially in autumn, m neglected grassy spots, meadows, and Clover-leas, and also on marshy ground, where they deposit their eggs and are the cause of enormous damage to Corn and many other crops both of garden and field, in consequence of the grubs gnawing tho young plant just below the surface of the ground, and thereby destroying it totally or lessening the yield, ihe female Tipula oleracea, lays her eggs (mainly during autumn) m the ground, or on the surface, or on damp grass or leafage close to the surface of thp - -ound. These eg^s aro small, black, and shiny, so small ai. so numerous that t,s many as three hundred are to be found in one fema'e, form- ing a mass which occupies nearly the whole of the abdomen. The grubs which hatch from these eggs are cylindrical legless, wrinkled across, of a dirty greyish or brown colour! the tint of which may vary considerably ; I have seen them ot a deep blackish colour when from peaty land. When full- grown they are abor^ -n inch to an inch and a half long, and about two-thirds J flu thickness of a common pen-quill. Their little black hoxuy heads, which can be protrud-^sd at pluasuro, are furnisned with a pair of strong black jaws, and bear a pair of minute horns ; the tail-extremity is cut short off and bears four tubercles above and two below. From the great F 66 CORN AND GRASS. toughness of the skiii the grubs are often known as Leather- jackets. The grubs change to the chrysalis state (under the surface of the giound, or under the protection of weeds), and in this condition the form of the future wings laid down on the breast, and of the legs laid along beneath the body, are observable. The abdomen is furnished with spines, by means of which the chrysalis pushes itself on until it stands about half out of the ground (see " 2 " in figure), the horny covering presently splits, and leaving the empty case standing upright, with the hole in it through which it has escaped clearly shown along the back, the Crane Fly or Daddy Longlcgs comes forth, spreads its legs and two wings, and appears as seen at fig. 3. These flies appear ciiiefly towards the end of summer. Besides the species known as Tipida oleracea, of which the tawny brownish appearance is well known, there is a smaller kind, of a yellow colour, spotted with black, known as T. maetdflsa, or the Spotted Craru' Fly, and another larger kind, known as T. paludosa, or the Marsh Crane Fly. These two kinds are hurrful to the crops in the same manner as the common Daddy Longlegs, and require the same methods of prevention.* Prevention and Eemeoies.— The poirts to be especially attended to are : — r j Ist. Any measures tending to lessen the quantity of eggs laid. 2ndly. Methods of cultivation which will destroy the egg or the grub in infested ground. 3rdly. Such applications of manure as may push on vigorous growth from the first sprouting of the seed, and also such special application in case of attack as may act rapidly— that 18, be carried down at once to the roots, and thus invigorate the growth and carry it through the season when it is suffer- ing from part of the supplies being cut off. 1st. Measures tending to lessen quantity of eggs laid.~The parent fly frequents damp meadows, neglected herbage, and shady spots, such as are to be found by hedges and strips left at the sides ot cultivated fields; and also under the shade of trees in open fields. Eough-mowing neglected ground, and then collecting and burning the mixed grass and tops of weeds, would destroy a deal ot shelter ; and in meadows bush-harrowing is a good plan to lessen egg-laying. It disturbs the shelter in which the flies prefer to lay, and exposes many of the eggs. «fal!'°LTl'^''°"P/\°"^°' ^- "'"''''''' ^" as a means of killing the grub, and very v weather when the rain washes it down quickly, it is probnoi J of little or no use ; but in moderately dry wen^ier it ni 1 of some service in keeping the grubs from straying abo it oa the surface, as it annoys them. -A 'trat'' of soda , fs writ, hot' I7 benefiting the plant and injuring the grub. In t tried by myself I have found immersion of the ub in a solution of the nitrate to be followed by an immediate and violent discharge from the intestines. Amongst th xperiments tried by Mr. Lowe he placed grubs in earth at a depth of within one inch of the surface, and covered the surface above them respectively with an amount of salt representing 1 ton per acre, lime 8 tons per acre, and nitrate of sodp, 2 cwt. per acre. These were watered with rain-water until the -il was well saturated, and "the effect in salt and lime wat percept, ule. The grubs treated with the nitrate of soda wore very relaxed, soft, and help- less y ; and eight days after Mr. Lowe wroiu that they still continued limp and helpless. This helj) ssness is a very im- portant point, for thus the grub, instead of creeping away, is kept under the action of the solution good for the plant but bad for itself, and ultimately dies. An application of 1 cwt. of nitrate of soda to Barley as soon as well above ground had an entirely satisfactory result on land where the previous crop had to be ploughed in conse- quently on grub ravage. With regard to effect of cold, I was permitted to have some specimens frozen by artificial means, at Kew Observatory, down to a temperature of — 10°, that is, ten degrees below zero, or forty-two degrees of frost ; and although most of the grubs died, yet it showed that the grub could exceptionally survive even this temperature, to all appearance quite un- injured. The grubs have been noticed frozen until quite brittle, and yet when thawed they were perfectly active. With regard to poiver of hearing immersion, I found by experiment that although the grubs appeared to be dead after remaining in water for about fifty-eight hours, yet that they recovered after being exposed to the air ; the exact time at which life was destroyed after being replaced in water was difficult to tell, but the whole time they lived from the begin- ning of the experiment might be considered about four days and nights ; it certainly did not exceed five days and nights — that is, one hundred and twenty hours, for the grubs then burst. i i ^ r 11 !l -r-r-il .11 \ >! 'I I IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT.3) 1.0 |2.2 I.I 11.25 ^& IBM ^ BiS i 20 1.8 lA. Ill 1.6 PhoiDgraphic Sciences Corporation 7 A / i/.. % % t -^^ iV :\ \ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 87^-4303 A^ f^.i^ 8tance8 along the headlands, and iteaUyX: tf/ bTte'^plS n the moist situations, and as sumier advances the Boddln tt^S^. ^1?- tfac^ttsT^ Si fetS ;™teh^t^^ti^^Sa7orero"^tt^^^^^^^^^^ fhJ^pltta^^tlK^^^^^^^^^ '" - --'- 0? One hundredweight and a half of guano mixed wJfh f^. salt applied when the braird has come weH fn * v t""""^?" crop is attacked, would be IMytrprTve SLficra^'M^I? would check any tendency of ihi nioi,* /^ "^"®,°^^a'- Salt leafage as a co/sequtc^oflh^afi^o V'^n t?^^^^^ application of salt at the rate of from three to fnnli! ^^/ weight per acre has been recommended °"' ^''''^''^- theory as a means of prevention of future attack T? '° unlikely to be carried out in practice; Sikewisewher^^^^^^ httle stumpy-made black-and-yellow flies arrfnnn!5-*u® The Hessian Fly. Ceddo,>,i,ia destructor, Say. The year 1886 was memorable, asriculfnrnllv f«. tu appearance of the Hessian Fly as a Snf fvf? lv^°f *^:? Barley in Great Britain. Whether thP fll L^k ^^'^* ^^^ Wore 1886 we cannot tell,tTw\"ean teli%e?y^e^^^^^^^^ It was not kno.n to have been present ; a7d ato'^Lti^^^ 80 CORN AND nilABS. attacks had not been recorded agriculturally ; nor had the fly, the Cecidomyia destructor, Say, been entered in the lists of British insects. B4£0 Cecidomyia destructor (Hessian Fly) : nat. size and magnified. On July 27th the first specimens of the flax-seed-like puparia or chrysalis-cases were forwarded to me by Mr. G. E. Palmer, from his Barley-fields at Eevell's Hall, near Hert- ford, and I went as soon as possible to examine the nature of the infestation in the field. The peculiar form of the pu- paria, and also the peculiar nature of the injury to the infested Barley- straw, showed clearly the nature of the attack ; and on the 8th of September the first imago deve- loped from my specimens, and proved to be the true Cecido- myia destructor, Say, commonly known as the "Hessian Fly." The presence of an infestation which in other countries was known to have caused in some instances the most serious results, was a fact which it was necessary to make public at once, and which attracted enormous attention. In 1886 the Hessian Fly attack was reported to me, with specimens accompanying, from localities near Hertford, Ware, and Romford, in England, and from near Inverness and near Crieff, in Scotland. These infestations were almost entirely to Barley, though in one case to Wheat. In 1887 the area of its presence increased to a more or less broad band, sweeping with occasional intervals up the eastern side of the kingdom, from Kent, in England, to Cromarty, in the north of Scotland ; and was also present at some localities in the south of England. Both Wheat and Barley were attacked, but the infestation could not be heard of (on special enquiry being made) as having reached so far north on the mainland of Scotland as Caithness, nor as being to be found in the Orkney Islands. Altogether, the localities of infestation which I could speak to with certainty in 1887, — from reports sent to myself by contributors conversant with the subject, — or with specimens accompanying, amounted IIE3SIAN FLY. 81 £,y^'^.' ""^ l^ '" ^"^^^"^^ ^'^^^ ^^°^^* 20 in Scotland, theso S? T often representing districts and sometimes many miles of area of attack. "^ In 1888 there was a most marked and satisfactory decrease of presence Little mention of the presence of the%est was made m the agricultural journals save a note somewhat vaguely worded of it being "all over" one of the southern counties and only about six reports were sent to myself. renor?fd in i'f T'° *' ^'^^'^^ infestation was reliabl3; reported in a few other cases. rJl}^^^\^^'i''': *^^';® ^^''^ °°^y ^'^ou* *^e same number of nC 7"^,^- '° ^^"^^'^ ^" *^^«^ instances, where it was observed at all it was noted as being very prevalent, that is. It was noticeable on much of the straw; but also it appeared from my own observations and report sent, that each attacked magVs ''''' ''''* ''*'^ ^^ "^^'^ *^^^ °^^ °' *^^ „ J" *i^ same year it -could not be found at Daleally Farm, near Errol, the locality of one of the first observations of Hessian Fy m Scotland, and no reports of its presence fTunVL" nX^r '""^^' ' ^°^ ^^^ '' ''' ^^^^ --^^<^ - At present we are only aware of the summer form of Hessian Fly attack (that is the attack to the growing straw) being observed in this country. *= ^ The minute reddish eggs are laid so that the maggot which hatches from them can place itself a little above a knot, and there, remainmg quietly at one spot, the white legless maggot t (or m bad attacks many of the maggots) feed bv sucking away the juices outside the stalk, but inside the leaf-sheath. Commonly this is just above the second knot, but the attack may occur lower down at the first knot, or close mv!i? *^^?^°^^ "otes I have specified the information as bein- reported to SSrraivthTn.' n^fr ^"J.^f/^^^^ ^^ere prevalent, and it was Tpo sible mVnsrorffi^uffi^obstvS/"^*^ ^^--^^^'^-- o' speci- + " T/ie egg is very minute, about the fiftieth of an inch long cvlindrical pomtedateachend,the shell shining and transparent, ?he °y^''^'»"«»l' dlvefoped." * ^ '^'* "°^''"' '^^'° *^^ ^""^'^^ '^ *^^*^^y "Tlie larva.— Attex remaining about four days in the egs- state the larva or maggot of the Hessian Fly hatches, and is of the form represented. The body is soft, smooth, shining, oval cylindrical beneath a little flattened, and consists of twelve segments besides the head, the latter soft, fleshy, and but httle separated from the body, with very rudimentarv mouth-parts "-'Hessian Fly Eeport of DepSmeSffi culture,' U.S.A., 1880-82, p. 208, previously cited. ^ report ^"""^^ ^^^ ^°^ ^^^^* ^^^ ^°^^^^ ^^°^ *^^ ^^^^ R+P Egg and mnggot of Hessian Fly, nat, size and mag. a 89 CORN AND OnASB. to the root; or it may occur higher up above the third or fourth knot. to Attacked Barley-stem : 1, bent down ; 2, showing " flax-seeds." The mark of attack being present is the stem elbowing sharply down just above where the maggot lies. It does not commonly break, but, unless the straw is very firm, it bends at the infested spot, and thus damage is caused to the fallen head, besides difficulty in reaping from the confused state of the straw. The injury is caused by the fly-maggots lying at the same spot sucking the juices from the stem, which is thus weakened, and presently, although both the stem and the ear above are (in any important amount of attack) more or less stunted, yet the weakened piece of stem cannot bear their weight, and it bends sharply down at the injured part. Sometimes a gall or swelling of the stem occurs just above where the maggot fed, but in the specimens I examined this was rarely noticeable. The whitish maggots will often be found to have a green tinge running along them,— this is caused by the green plant- juices showing through the transparent skin. Beneath the maggot at the head-end is a horny or chitinous appendage (see figure) which is found on cecidomyideous larv£B and is known in America as the "breast-bone, with us as the " anchor -process." The presence of this peculiar appendage HESBIAN FLY. 88 I li Anchor-process of larva of C. de»tructor ; 2, of C, tritici (masr- nifled). ^ ^ ll?«rn? convenient way of knowing this kind of larva from nZ rnr! tT^'^" ^^ ^'"S^";^' (.lipterous larv») which infest Corn. The process consists of a sliort stem fixf> it one end to the hirva and free at the other, which is enlarged and of very variable form. The use of this appendage does not appear as yet to he fully known, but from my own observations I conjecture that it is used as a digger or scraper to assist the excessively delicate mouth-parts in acquiring their food from the stem. It appears from Dr. Lindeman's care- ful observations in Eussia that the larva (or maggot) lives about twenty-eight days m this condition. Then it changes at the precise spot at which it fed to a brown fliit chrysalis, in size and shape and colour strongly resembling a rather small and narrow flax-seed, whence the name of " flax-seeds " is commonly given to these chrysalis-cases or puparia. At first, as will be seen by the figures, these puparia are smooth on the surface, but gradually become wrinkled longitudi- nally. Within this hard outer husk the maggot changes to chrysalis, and the chrysalis to the perfect fly, but how long this may take depends very much on circumstances. It mav Ir^^^l^^ ^^ i^'^J''^''^ ^""^ .favourable circumstances, so soon that the whole time occupied in the life of the fly from egg to development is only about forty-eight days: but it has been shown that if the ^.;,anz..^-to gile it tlfe precL name —IS put in unfavourable circumstances, development may be greatly retarded. Thus, some of the flies may come out in autumn m the fields, and others threshed out, or stacked in the straw, or kept artificially for investigation, may very likely not hatch until May, or much later in the following year. ^ anaf ort^'* Aj i^uch resemblcs a stout-madc little brown gnat about one-eighth of an inch in length, with one pair of smoky-grey wmgs, and with long horns. (See fig., p. 80) * At present we h^e no reason to suppose that we suffer in this country from Hessian Fly attack to the young autumn- sown Wheat-plant. In this form of attack the maigot (f^om g2 "Flax-seeds " or pu- paria in diflerent stages of development, nat. size and magnified. 84 CORN AND GRASS. the eggs of the flies of the autumn brood) is stated to " lie at the sheathing-base of the leaves of the young plant just above the roots, at or near the surface " ; and " before assuming the 'flax-seed ' state, rests between the leaves and the stalk."* Plant of young Wheat, showing position of Hessian Fly maggot at "a " (after Prof. Webster). "The plant itself has not tillered, the leaves are of a darker colour than those of a healthy plant, and proportionally broader. The central spindle-shaped leaf is missing, and the whole plant is only a bunch of rank-growing leaves. In any case the darker colour of the leaf, and the absence of the- central leaf, together with the bunchy appearance of the part alfected, will readily distinguish a fly-infected plant from one not injured. The yellow colour of some leaves is seldom observed, at this season of the year, on fly-infested plants." —From circular by Prof. P. M. Websjer, of Lafayette, Ind., U. S. A., on Hessian Fly maggot-attack to young Wheat. Prevention and BEMEBmB.— Late sowing of autitmn Wheat. This is a point which great stress is laid on in American • See Bulletin i of U.S.A. Entomological Commission. i HESSIAN FL*. 85 l\ practice, and it is especially recommended in the United btates (where autumn Wheat-sowing runs earlier than with us) that Wheat should not be sown until after the 20th of beptember in the Northern States. In this country this remedy is applied for the most part in w? /.P^^''^^^ °^ farming arrangements; commonly our Wheat is not sown until some time after date named, and thus the young plant is not up until the flies which would have laid eggs on it are dead. It is quite a plain thing that if. when the flies come out from the chrysalids, there is nothing suitable for them to lay their eggs on,— that either the eggs will not be laid or the maggots from them will be starved to death. Thus so far we have escaped the winter attack to the young plant which is a most important matter, and in fact at one? saves half (and what I am informed b^ Prof. Riley, Entomo- logist of the Department of Agriculture, U.S.A., is considered the most important half) of the year's mischief caused by this pest. Destruction of '' flax-seeds'' found {after thresliinrj infested straw) in stftmgs or light grain is one method of quiie certainly lessening amount of coming attack. ^lT^"T^*^m ^P^^'^^^ I'eport on this subject sent me in 1886, by Mr. D. Taylor, Jun., of Daleally Farm, Errol, N. B., he men- tioned that he not only found the ''flax-seeds " in the " sift-' mgs, but that they were still more noticeable in the light gram or " shag " which fell immediately behind the dressing- tanners, or IS delivered at the side by a "shag" or "tail- spout," also amongst the earth and small weed-seeds which tall through the sieve below the fanners." The proportion of " flax-seed " to the handful was found to be much larger in this light corn or " shag " than in the siftings. In these the amount of " flax-seed " ran to about twelve to fifteen to the handful, but in the light Corn as many as nearly forty to the handful were found. It IS a great point in prevention to destroy thes*. infested screenings. Where they are merely of dust, rubbish, and w-eed-seeds, it would be little trouble or loss beyond cost of labour to have them burnt, or by any other more con- venient ^yay thoroughly destroyed; and where they are in the light gram, this should be treated so as to prevent the "flax- seeds " being distributed with it. Mr. Taylor wrote regarding tJis point:— "We are boiling those 'flax-seeds' which are amongst the shag along with it, and feeding our horspa nnd cows_ with it ; the weeds and dirt are promptly destroyed." iiut in whatever way each owner may think fit to manage it, the matter of destruction of these " flax-seeds " is highly im- 86 COBM AKD QBASS. portant, or m due season the insect-pest will be likely to hatch out and start new attack. Whether these chrysalids or " flax- seeds '' have their vitality destroyed by being swallowed along with the hght-grain food of the stock does not appear, but, judging by what happens in other cases, it is at least so far possible as to make the thorough scalding of them very desirable, as well as to kill those which might develop their flies (otherwise) at once. Prevention hy ploughing in, or hy burning infested sttibhle.— With regard to such amount of "flax-seeds " as may be left on the land, either on infested stubble or fallen therefrom to the ground, there does not appear to be any way of getting rid of these excepting by such ploughing as will bury them thoroughly down, or by burning the stubble. The kind of plough needed is one fitted with a "skim- coulter," or skim-share, which can be fastened to the beam and removed at will. This chips the surface, so that it can be turned down with the furrow, and would answer well if care was taken that the " skimmed " piece was thoroughly buried dozen. If this is done, the weak little Hessian Flies cannot by any possibility (even if they developed down below) struggle up through the overlying load of earth. But it must be thoroughly done. If only common ploughing is done, and the edges of the land-shce left running in ribbons of stubble and weeds ex- posed to air and light, on the back of the previous one, then what " flax-seeds " may be there will be little injured, and will be hkely to give out their pests in due season. When once turned down the infested land should not be turned up again, until the season for the appearance of the next brood of Hessian Flies has passed, and therefore only crops requuring surface cultivation should be taken from the land. Burning infested stubbles. —V^liQm nothing further can be done, it is at least desirable, directly after harvest, to skim infested stubbles and drag the rubbish and burn it. Thus all of the pest that may be left will be destroyed; and experience has shown that the " flax-seeds " may be found at the ground- level, and at the first knot, as well as at the second knot, and higher yet. Where complete firing of the infested stubble can be safely done (and I have myself seen in many cases that this could be carried out) the plan is very desirable. But in burning stubble it is not right to let the fire go wildly as the wind may drive. The right wav is to fire the field at the borders first. Thus there is only a slight warmth at first, and a line of fire quite under control near the hedges. HESSIAN FLY. 87 \ The fire as it spreads draws towards the middle of the field, and, however the wind may drive, the flames cannot return over the already charred surface.* Treatment of infested strmv after threshing. — In regard to infested straw taken off the field, it has been found to answer well to stack this carefully after threshing, well built up square and firm, like a haystack, instead of throwing it anyhow ; thus a very great proportion of the flies which come out of the "flax-seeds" are destroyed, simply because they are not able to get to the outside of the stack. The kinds of Corn attacked are Wheat, Barley, and Rye. Oats are not known to be attacked, neither are any of the crops known as roots, such as Turnips, Mangolds, Potatoes, &c. ; nor Pulse, as Peas, Beans, &c. ; nor Cabbage, Flax, Mustard, or ground or bush fruit-trees. Rotation of crop with most of these would both ensure safety from the pest to the crop itself, and also, by removing the food necessary to the insect, would give a thorough check to its presence so far as that crop was concerned. Two kinds of ivild Grasses subject to attack of Hessian Fly are "Timothy Grass" {Phleiim iwatense) and "Couch Grass" (Triticum repens). In 1887 the first -named of these was found to be severely attacked in the Russian Government of Tambov, and Couch Grass was attacked in the government of Tambov, and also of Woronetz ; " Couch Grass was so severely attacked that in whole districts covered with this Grass it was destroyed." There has been doubt and difference of opinion as to other kinds of wild Grasses which may be liable to infestation, but the above observations give an additional reason for skimming and dragging rubbish together and burning it in the fields, and also for preventing neglected Grass or hedge-banks by Corn-land being allowed to become nurseries of the Hessian Fly. A firm, stiff-strawed kind of "Wheat or Barley, and such cultivation of the land and choice of soil, and also exposure, as will give a vigorous and healthy growth, are the best means of reducing amount of damage to be expected if attack comes. The stiff straw does not elbow down readily under mode- rate infestation, and where there is healthy growth the plants will stand an amount of loss of sap from maggot-suction which would have ruined them if weaker. A crop of Barley grown on a dry hot exposure may be seen going down under * i'or the above hints I am indebted to Prof. Hoyea Panton, of the Agricul- tural College, Guelph, Canada. m CORN ANl) GRASS. attack, whilst one a field or two off, in a more suitable position, IS as well as could be wished. Parasites.— It is not necessary here to enter in detail on the subject of parasites infesting the Hessian Fly, as it is im- possible for any one without good knowledge of the subject aided by type specimens, descriptions, and fairly good (or rather powerful) magnifiers to identify them trustworthily. ihose who wish to study them will find descriptions in 'Die rteromalinenderHessenfliegevonProf.K.Lindeman.'Moscow, 1887, and in the publications of Prof. C. V. Riley (Entomolo- ^] X, °^P-^-^- I^epartment of Agriculture) " On th3 Parasites of the Hessian Fly." Our own parasites of this Cecidomyia destructor were deter- mined first by means of specimens bred in this country, which I forwarded to Dr. Lindeman (above mentioned), who Identified them, and who was good enough to send a set of specimens of Russian parasites to Prof. Eiley and one to myself. ■D . r.^M^^J®^,* ^^^ 8one into with the most extreme care by i'rot. Eiley, during his stay in England in 1887 ; and I have m my possession the long detailed communication he was good enough to give me, containing his most valuable obser- vations as to identity, synonyms, slight or important varia- i^f- i.°j°V ■^*'^*^®^ parasites considered with reference to published descriptions, to which he appended the remark :— Ihus every one of Lindeman's forms have been reared in Ji^ngland. _ I should not have been able to speak so positively ^ without his types, which he has been kind enough to send me," . . .— (C. Y. E.) ^ In the pamphlet by Dr. Lindeman, *0n the Pteromali of the Hessian Fly ' (pp. 14 and 15), above alluded to, he gives frmu ?t!^'"« observation as the result of his examinations :— Ihat the larvae of the Cecidomyia destructor in North America and in Eussia are certainly infested by Pteromali of the same genus, but do not produce any identical species, as is shown by the following comparative lists :— ■liABVa! ARE INFESTED IN N. AlIEBICA BY — 1. MerisuB destructor, S. 2. M.subapterus, B,il, 3. Tetrastichus productus, Ril. 4. Evpelmus alhjnii, Fr, 6. Platygaster herrickii, Pask. LaBV^ ABE INFESTFD IN BuSSIA BY — 1. Merisus intermedins, Linijinn. 2. Tetrastichus rilcyi, Lindmn. 3. Eupelmus karschii, Lindmn. 4. Platijgaster viinutus, Lindmn, 5. Semiotellus nigripes, Lindmn, 6. Exiryscapus saltatxis, Lindmn. 7. Platygaster 1 sp," Dr. Lindeman's list of the Eussian parasites is that of which I have the advantage of possessing Prof. Eiley's commentary. fiESSiAij fly; Wheat midge. 89 The examination of our parasites pointed therefore very strongly to the probability of our Hessian Fly attack having been imported to us from the East of Europe. ? Attack imported in foul Corn and spread in infested screenings. —hong and careful investigation of imported straw, at ports on the East of England, gave no reason at all to suppose that it came in straw imports; but nothing is more likely than that infestation should coine by means of so- called "flax-seeds " in foul grain imports ; and the practice of purchasing the screenings of these cargoes, foul with injurious insects, weed-seed, ergot, and any other adulteration that may chance, is a most fertile cause of infestation, both of field and granary, whether Hessian Fly *' flax-seeds " be in it or not. * Wheat Midge (Red Maggot). Cecidomyia tritici, Kirby. The grub of the Wheat Midge, known as the " Eed Maggot," often does some harm, and at times causes a serious amount of damage^ to Wheat-crops, by injuring the young grains when forming in the ear, so that many of them never reach maturity. In June, when the Wheat is in blossom, the female Midges may be seen laying their eggs, and are noted as being busiest at the work about 8 o'clock in the evening. In the morning * Information regarding the Hessian Fly, its habits and history, and means of. prevention and remedy, will be found in especial detail in the following works : — 'The Hessian Fly; its ravages, &q. U.S.A. Department of Agriculture- Third Report of Entomological Commission. Washington, 1883. (lleprinted' with additions and corrections, from Bulletin IV. of the U.S. Entomological Commission. By A. S. Packard, jun., 1880).' ' Untersuchungen iiber die neue getreide gall-mucke. Von Dr. Balthasar Wagner. Fulda & Hersfeld. 1861.' (Enghsh translation will be found in Appendix to 3rd Report of Entomological U.S.A. Commission mentiohed above pp. 8 — 38). ' 'Die Hessenfliege (Cecidomyia destructor, Say), in Russland von Dr. K. Lindeman. Moscow, 1887.' In my own pamphlets, ' The Hessian Fly in Great Britain ' (1886), and 'The Hessian Fly in Great Britain in 1887,' and in my Reports on Injurious Insects (Messrs Simpkin & Co.) I have recorded its first appearance in this country, with descriptions and identifications, and notes of habits, &c. Also, as on the appearance ot this fly, the Cecidomyia destructor, in Great Britain, the observations of the attack, with enquiries and specimens, were for- warded to myself and identified first by myself, I have carefully 'preserved in one large volume the communications received announcing its first appear- ance, the confirmation of my identifications by Prof. J. 0. Westwood (Life President of our British Ens. CORN Tnnrps. 07 Corn Thrips. Tkrips m-ealiim, Ilalitlay ; T. physapus, Kirby. 1-4 Com Jhripn Thrips cerealum (female), nat. size and maRnifiod ; 0— », I otato rhnps, :f. minutiasiim, nat. size and magnified. The attack of Corn Thrips is one of those which often does a great deal of harm very quietly, and without the cause of the mischief being suspected, on account of the minute size of the insect, which is scarcely more than the sixteenth of an inch long. ^ Thrips are well known to gardeners as being troublesome in frames, and they are also generally well known as the little black speck-like insects often seen wriggling actively about in flowers; often too, by the annoyance they cause in hot weather by settling on the face, where they twist in all direc- tions, holding on by their bladder-tipped feet, whence they take their German name of " Bladder-foot." 1 ^^*^ *^® ^¥^P,<^/ ^ magnifying-glass the perfect insect will be found to be blackish, a little less than one line long the abdomen long, narrow, and smooth, with the tip bristly • the male without wings. The female has two pairs of Ions narrow wings, fringed with long hairs, and curving outwards, so that when they are laid straight along the body at rest the tips are apart. The feet are very short and stumpy, without Claws. The two earlier stages of grub and pupa much resemble the perfect msect, excepting that the grub is deep yellow, and has no wings ; the pupa is of a paler yellow, with whitish cases for the wings which are not yet developed. ^ The above figure shows the female Corn Thrips at rest, and ^"^AA T^ l^ ^^.?S%.i^^ *^® fig^^e of tlie Potato Thrips is added to show the difference in shape of the wingless con- CtlulOIi. . The Corn Thrips lays its eggs on Wheat, Oats, and (speak- ing generally) on Corn and Grasses, and the insects may be 98 CORN AND GRASS. found as early as June in the ears, and also in the sheathing- leaves of the 'stem. The injury is caused by the Thrips draw- ing away the juices by its sucker-like jaw-apparatus, and thus the grain shrivels and becomes abortive. PR13VENTI0N AND Eemedies. — It is stated that Thrips do most mischief to late-sown Wheat, the early-sown crop being too hard at the time the Thrips appear for them to injure it, and though it appears quite impossible to do anything to check Thrip-attack when once established in the Wheat-ears (by reason of the minuteness of the insects), yet a good deal may be done in the way of prevention. " The circumstance that Thrips are to be found in autumn (and still later) in large numbers in rotten roots, or in stuhble, and in similar lurking-places, and also in the next spring before the development of the insect from the egg can have taken place, speaks for the hybernation of the Thrips in its perfect state, and also points to where attack comes from.*" The perfect insects are thus preserved, and next spring the females being furnished with wings, have full power to fly, or to be carried by any light breezes from their wintering places, to neighbouring Corn or Grass, where they will start new attack. Therefore, any measures for destroying their lurking- places would be sure to be of service. Also these insects are to be found near marshes, and in the damp hot weather accompanying thunderstorms they have been noticed as especially injuring the crop in the part of a field to the north of a high hedge, and also the Potato Thrips, figured above, have been noted as most abundant on plants sheltered from the wind. From these observations it would seem that a well-drained soil, properly cultivated and free from weeds, with surround- ing hedges well trimmed down, so that the sun and wind might have free play, would be the best preventive, by in- ducing an early ripening of the Corn that would be beyond the power of the insect to injure, and would also do away with the damp close places which in some cases at least it has been found to infest. Deep ploughing, so as to bury the Thrips well down, or dressings of gas-lime, or anything to poison the surface of the land, would be useful where the Corn was known to have been badly infested. Removal of waste pieces or headlands of wild Grass would also be desirable, as these serve as propagating grounds, as well as winter shelters, from which the Thrips come out on the Corn. * See ' Praktische Insekten Kuude,' by Dr. E. L. Tasohenberg. CORN THKIPS; TULIP-ROOT. 99 was Zt!i27t rr*'-^"" !?^? " ^^^^ ^'^^ °f attention was attracted by a disease or attack to Wheat which cave if he appearance of being prematurely ripeneTl and soon became known as "White-eared Whe/t." The heads were barren, and the top of the stalk within the sheath Tin the advanced stage m which specimens were sent for examination^ was usually severed across about three or Cr Ss above the uppermost knot ; so that though the injury d?d not show externally yei by holding the lower part^of^the s?em and gently pulling at the ear. the stem came out of the sheath hiS knot"%h?s' ?' '' f 'r;".°^^^ ''^^ atUed tte mgnestknot. This stump looked flaccid and shrunken and The injury extremely resembled that caused by the maa«nf vation 01 a very similar attack known as " Silvertop^ in Hav points to Thrips-attack being very likely the ca^is^nffif' ;rin fr f^r^* s^ ^^' EiomS^^isru^Botl L'' pp. 59-62 of Appendix to ' Report of the Experimenta Farms, Canada, to the Minister of Agriculture, 1889.') Tulip-root, or Segging, caused by « Stem Eelworm " lijlenchm devastatnx, Kuhn. ' Tulip-rooted " Oat-plant. from fb« r.ii "^'''' ^' Tulip-root " in Oats takes its name from the swollen appearance of the base of the stem wh cli bears some resemblance to a Tulip-bulb, though still iore to H 2 100 CORN AFD GRASS. I a "duck-necked" Onion. This swelled stem is usually surrounded by a number of small doubled-up shoots, pale in colour, and bent to and fro, instead of being properly extended. The figure (p. 99) shows the appearance of an attacked plant as it is often seen ; the disease is also known as •' Segging," or " Sedging," from the Sedge-like appear- ance often assumed by the leaves. From the healthy growth of the plant being checked there is necessarily much loss both in straw and grain. . This disease has been much noticed of late years, especially in Scotland ; and on investigation in 1886 I found Eelworms present in the bulb-liki base of the stems, as well as in the spongy curled shoots; and from the resemblance of the diseased Oat-plants to the diseased appearance which is assumed by Eye when attacked by the Eelworm known by the name of Tylenchus devastatrix, it appeared likely that this Eelworm was also the cause of our attack; and on special investigation being made at my request, by Dr. J. G. de Man, of Middleburg, and Dr. J. Ritzema Bos, Professor of Zoology at the State Agricultural College, Wageningen, Holland (both well known for their minute and skilled research into the history of Nematode worms), this proved to be the case. On examination of Oat-plants badly affected by " Tulip- root," or Segging, which I forwarded to Dr. de Man for his inspection, he wrote me that he found inside the lowest part of the stem a large quantity of living specimens of Tylenchus devastatrix, and a few days later, when he had examined more of the diseased plants, he further wrote that he had found in all of them large quantities of living specimens of this Eel- worm. Dr. J. Ritzema Bos also considered the above to be very characteristic specimens of the peculiar diseased ^ growth under consideration, and on examination he found in them " a large number of Tylenchus devastatrix, males and females, larvse and eggs." Frequent examinations and careful study each season have confirmed these observations fully, as well as shown that this is one of the attacks which may with a little care be very much lessened or entirely prevented. Descriptions and mag- nified figures of the Eelworms will be found under the head of * Clover-stem Sickness ' ; and in my ' Report on Injurious In- sects' for 1889, fuller details are given, together with a full-page illustration of these Eelworms highly magnified, copied by kind permission from original drawings by Dr. J. Ritzema Bos.* * For full information as to the habits of this Eelworm, plants infested by it description, measurements, and excellent figures, in fact complete details, see ' Li'Anguillule de la Tige,' par Dr. J. Kitzema Bos, Haarlem, 1888, ana Part 2, 1389. fULIP-ROOi:. 101 Prevention and Eemedies. - Two practicable measures aL^fn I w'r ""^ ^Tw '"'\°^ " Tulip-root " on infested land t'Z^ I ^ ''''T *^^* '^" ^^ ^^^«*6^^ in the rotation, and to ff f^ ^^? ''''^^?^ ' ."^'^^y «^ *h^ Eelworms leave the plants TJ ^^ fit ""^ .?'^ ?^ maturing, and lie in the upper surface^of the soil; and if they are well turned down, much of the infestation will be got rid of.* Dr" Tnllnf ?f'l ''^'?f-^^ x^°^ worm-sick fields is stated by Dr Julius Kuhn, Director of the Agricultural Institute of the University of Halle, Germany, to consist in late ploughing uptriavLof *1? '^.tr. ^''^-^ ^^ '^^' treatmeift "h^e ZT IZ- ^^^th^^th the contained AnguilluMcB is buried snT' Thl '! T"'^ '''^^ t ^"" ^P^^^'« depth of the under f^i r, Jf treatment must be carried out in autumn, and in the next spring cultivation, rich manure given to the crop. It whShlf t'"'"^^' *^"l,*^^^ ^^"^^d '''' ^' °f stable manure Tf ^1 * ""f ^ P°^'\^^^ "^^y ^^^nt'^in Eelworms, but rathe^ pLI? ?-'''J? ^^Perphosphate. Carrots and Potatoes sue th wol'?-*^' late-ploughed land. Should, notwithstanding, finu A '?^'^ "-PP^^^ ^g^i^ at the same places in the fields, the spots should be dug anew deeply, two spades deep • we can also prevent the spread of these woi^nlets by isolS; aLTs.''-(j!K.)*'''''^ '^ ' ^'"^ ^"^ ^ ^'^^ ^^'P ^"d ^ f^^* With regard to different methods in which the wormlet in- fection may be spread, it is shown by Dr. Kuhn that one way n Iwt^ ^'""^ T^'^*^^ ^'^^'- This is shown by an instance n which a man, to mark his disbelief in the possibility of such transmission, had earth from Eelworm-infecLdland sUeadon That thf intT ^''""' ^'^ '^""'Z'' ''^' ^''^'''- It - -'"^ land rtbnf t 1 ^^y he spread in earth carried from infrsted o thi hoof '.f T '""'^^ ^^^^f^rig to agricultural implements, to the hoofs of horses employed on the foul land, or to the shoes of the agricultural labourers).: Ihis kind of Stem-eelworm possesses enormous vital fnfS Z, "^^t fT'' *^^^^"g^^ '^" ^"i^^l feeding on kfn Alt ff' i""'*?^-^* ^'f^ ^^J"^'^*^ hy processes of diges- het 7,/' ' •M/'' ^ ^'^ '^^^'' ^^en for several yetrs, these lylenchi will regain their vital powers on being Dr\Sma'Bo^'"«??/'^'?. ^ \^PP«° ^^ the case of stem-sick Eye by ..ifh^i'"°'^'''"f '^^Pth of ploughing, such as can bo o,a.T;,.,l nut with - plnnrrh Kuitl£^7im. ''''''' ^'^ Wormkrankhcit dos lioggens/ .fee, von Dr. Jul, 102 CORN AND GRABS. I I moistened. Consequently, manure made from infested fodder, whether Straw, Clover, or other plants, ought not to be carried to fields where crops are to be grown which are liable to attack. Likewise it is desirable to collect and burn the stubble remaining on the ground, in order to destroy in it all the wormlets which may have remained, and also all the Tylenchus eggs. Amongst Corn crops, Oats and Eye are especially subject to attack. Wheat can take it, but as far as we have seen does not sufifer much. Clover is excessively liable to attack of this Stem-eelworm, and Buckwheat also and Teazels, both wild and cultivated. Onions suffer much from the infestation in Holland, but have not yet been reported as injured in this country. Various kinds of meadow plants and Grasses are liable to attack, as Daisies, Buttercups, and the Eibwort Plantain; also the Sweet-scented Vernal Grass, Annual Meadow Grass, and Meadow Soft Grass.* Barley appears to be perfectly free from infestation, there- fore is useful in rotation, and the ordinary field crops (with the exception of those specified above) appear safe practically, although there may be doubt as to what time may show as to Potatoes, and I have myself infested Turnips by sowing seed on earth in which I had buried Tulip-rooted Oats or Eye. Clover after Tulip-root, or Oats after stem-sick Clover, should he most carefully avoided. Special applications which have been found most service- able as manure in the preparation of the land, or as dress- ings to bring an infested crop over attack, are sulphate of potash alone, or as a mixture with sulphate of ammonia and phosphates. In one special case reported of Tulip-rooted Oats in Mid Lothion, in 1888, a top-dressing of about 1 cwt. per acre of sulphate of potash was given, with the result that the disease disappeared, and an excellenl crop was cut. In another instance regarding Tulip-rooted Oats (in fields from which specimens of stem-sick Clover had been sent me in the previous year) the manure applied consisted of phos- phates, ammonia, and potash when sown, at the rate of 3 cwt. per acre. This produced a very luxuriant growth, with the exception of a sandy knoll. These knolls are noted as being especially subject to Tulip-root. The following detailed note, sent me in the course of experiment carried on for several years with^ much care, regarding Tulip-root prevention, by Mr. J. Elder, of The * For most recent list of plants liable to infestation, and amount, see voik by Dr. lUtzcma I3os already quoted. • TULIP-nooT. 108 Holmes, Uphall, Linlithgow, N.B., on June 15th, 1888. 8ho\ys that at that date " The unmanured land was giving the most unhealthy crop ; that with steamed bone-flour came next; the plot treated with sulphate of ammonia had a number of unhealthy plants, but was better than what was unmanured ; and of the two others, both were doing very well on the whole, but that treated with the mixture of sulphates and phosphates was better than that treated with sulphate of potash alone. ^ "No. 1. Steamed Bone-flour, 3 cwt. per acre, got very yellow for a while, but has now taken on a growth; a number of unhealthy plants on this plot. " No. 2. Sulphate of Potash, 55 per ceM., 3 cwt. per acre was always fresh and green, and not an unhealthy plant on ttie whole plot ; it is now, however, losing growth a little. No. 3. No manure, has always been the worst, havinf^ a great number of unheathy plants, and a sickly yellow appear- ance. It 18 now mending a bit. "No. 4. Sulphate of Ammonia li cwt. per acre, has also a number of unhealthy plants, though not so bad as No. 3. It nas now taken on a luxuriant growth. "No. 5. Mixture " (consisted of about 2 parts of sulphate of potash, 56 per cent. ; 3 parts of sulphate of ammonia, 25 per cent. ; and 4 parts of phosphates, 48 per cent.) "has been similar o No. 2 all spring, perhaps not quite so dark a green. Plants healthy, with few exceptions. Gives promise oi being the largest crop of any of the plots." In experiments carried on in the preceding year, 1887, by the same observer, the application of | cwt. of sulphate of potash per acre, m addition to superphosphate and ammonia, 18 noted as so marked, that the supply having run short before the field was finished, the part that received the potash grew on most luxuriantly, but the rest threatened to be a com- plete failure. Nitrate of soda, at the rate of 1 cwt. per acre, is noted as doing no (700(7, and after a fortnight of "growing weather." bringing no improvement. Sulphate of potash, at the rate ot about i cwt. pe- acre, brought good growth and a heavy crop harvested. "^ Dr. Kuhn concludes bis valuable pamphlet, previously qiioted from (at p. 101), with the following summary : — • Deep cultivation, rich manure, but with care not to use wormlet-infested stable manure, and suitable rotation of crop are the best methods of combatting the evil ; their applica- tion CQDsibtenily earned out will be certain to succeed in 104 CORN AND GRASS. "Ear-cockles"; "Purples"; "False Ergo Ji"; Galls of Wheat Eelworms. TyUnchus tritici, Bastian ; Tiirio tritivi, Bauer. 1 Si Wormlets escaping from eggs ; section of Coclde-gall, with wormlets within ; after Bauer's figs, (much magnified), Spikelet of Wheat, with galls (magnified). T. tritici wonnlet (greatly magnified), nat. length of largest about one-fourth inch. This paper is placed immediately after that on ^ Tulip-root, as the diseased growths known respectively as Tulip-root, and Ear-cockles, are in each case caused by presence of Eelworms of the genus TyUnchus ; in one case by the T. devastatrix, in the other by the T. tritici. Cockle-galls, or " Purples," are the small roundish or distorted growths, sometimes found in Wheat which give an appearance to the ear much as if purplish or dark coloured peppercorns had taken the place of the Wheat grains. Some- times they are present in great numbers, as in 1886 when a bunch of Wheat almost ruined by the amount of Cockle-galls present was sent me from near Cirencester, with the note that there was presence of this gall attack in Wheat in three fields covering together about twenty-seven acres; but this amount of infestation appears to be quite exceptional. On splitting one of the galls and placing it in a drop of water, the vast number of wormlets within (which were all collected together, as shown, in the section of a Cockle-gall figured above magnified) swelled up and overflowed in count- less numbers on the microscope slide. The method of spread of attack as quoted by Dr. Charlton Bastian, from M. Davaine's experiments, is that when the infested galls are sown, these galls become softened, and the wormlets within, thus being able to escape, make their way to the yonng sprouting plants, "and then insert themselves between the sheaths of its leaves, gradually working their way round till they come to the innermost of these, where they remain for a variable time, without increasing much in size, Wheat eelwotims. Ida till the rudiment of the future ear begins to form." Whilst this is still so young that the future portions of the flower are not yet distinct, and are still of soft cellular tissue, the worm- lets introduce themselves within these portions, and the gall- like growth of "Cockles," or "False Ergot," is the result. The "young worms soon become perfectly developed males and females. These vary in number from two to twelve in each gall, and, after producing an enormous number of ova [eggs] containing fully-formed young (which speedily liberate themselves, though they afterwards undergo Httle change), themselves die and wither at the time when the gall begins to assume its characteristic black or brown appearance." The above is partially quoted, partially abridged, from Dr. Bastian's account of his own observations, and those of Davaine.* The figures (p. 104) give the mass of worms in a Cockle-gall, and also the worms j^st escaping from the eggs, all greatly magnified. It is difficult to convey any exact likeness of the wormlet itself at this size on wood, but the figure gives the general shape, and the upper end shows moderately the spear or proboscis in the mouth-end, though not its three-lobed base ; also the rounded muscular swelling just below, which is one of the characteristics of this species ; and the coarse fat granules in the intestine. The colour is yellowish white, and the largest wormlets are from a seventh to even a quarter of an inch in length. Prevention and Eemedies.— It is stated by Dr. E. L. Taschenberg that these wormletp are destroyed at once by the effect of acid or metallic saltg, and it is mentioned that the well-known steep Of sulphate of copper, likewise of dilute sulphuric acid, are of use in killing the wormlets in the "Cockle "-galls, and thus preventing infection being sown with the seed. Of course, as in all other cases, care must be taken that the steep is not strong enough to injure the grow- ing power of the seed. The method of application is to place the Corn in a vessel with the steep so that the liquid shall be a little above the surface of the Corn ; then stir the Corn gently, anci skim off the galls (" Cockles ") that rise to the surface. Thus, as Dr. Taschenberg aptly remarks, "we kill two flies with one blow."t It would be desirable to avoid use of manure for Wheat-fields which had in it dung of fowls or other animals which had fed •"Monograph on the AnguiUulidaD," by H. Charlton Bastian.—' Trans. Linn, boc.; vol. xxv., pp. 87, 88. •f ' Traktischo Insekten Kunde,' von Dr. E. L. Taschenberg, pt. v., p. 17i, u 1^1 I: I 106 c6rM aKI) grass. on screenings in which Cockle-galls were mixed, and which would consequently be almost certainly infested with the Gall Eelworms. Wheat-bulb Ply. llylemyia voantdta, Fallen. ^S^II^Jj^ Wheat-bulb Fly (Uylemyia coarctata), niagnitied, and lines showing nat. size ; maggots and chrysalids, nat. size and mag. ; mouth-apparatus, and extremity of tail, with tubercles, mag. ; infested plant. The attacks of the maggots of the Wheat-bulb Fly and those of the Frit Fly (noticed at p. 73), are much alike so far as method of injury is concerned. In both cases the injury to the plants is caused by the maggot feeding within the young stem, and thus causing the death of the infested shoot from the joint effect of the gnawing of the maggot and the con- sequent decay of the attacked part; and the two kinds of whitish maggots also look very similar to the naked eye, but when examined with even a moderately powerful glass the differences may be clearly distinguished. The Wheat-bulb maggot thus seen is whitish, legless, cylindrical, and somewhat lessened towards the head end, which is furnished with two black mouth-hooks. The tail extremity is furnished above with two black spots, which are the spiracles (or breathing- pores), by which air is drawn into the very observable trachece (or air-tubes). Beneath, that is at the lowest part, the tail segment projects, and ends in two squarish-ended teeth with flattened edges placed centrally, with one pointed tooth, and sometimes more on tlie. outside of the central square pair. V/hen seen with a higher power the teeth appear as fleshy projections (see figure 1), and the ends of the two central WHEAT-BULB FLt. 107 teeth, instead of appearing square or a little curved-in, appear noticeably indented. The presence of these teeth and the absence of a little bunch of stalked spiracles near the head appear to me to be the simplest way of knowing the Wheat- bulb from the Frit maggots. The chrysalids are of the size and shape figured at 8, p 106 (nat. size and magnified), that is, somewhat oval, thickest at the head end, and of a medium shade of brown, with the spiracles still projecting, and always very plainly noticeable at the tip of the tail, m the form of two little knobs. The flies are two-winged, and not altogether unlike the well- known Onion Fly in general appearance. More particularly noticed, they are as described by Mr. R. H. Meade : Males with the thorax grey, the sides lighter, and the dorsum (back) indistinctly striped ; the abdomen hairy, oblong, narrow, flat and cinereous, with an indistinct narrow dorsal stripe ; anal segment grey ; subanal appendages hairy, with two black lamellse ; wings with narrow veins ; legs black with pale tihice. The females have both the thorax and abdomen pale ash-grey and immaculate, and the four posterior femora, as well as the tibiae, pale.* The maggots may be found far enough advanced in size about the beginning of April to be destroying the young Wheat-plant; at the beginning of May I have had consign- ments of specimens with fat, strong maggots upwards of a quarter of an inch long, one maggot lying lengthwise in each stem examined and nearly filling it up. During May they ceased feeding; towards the latter half of the month they were turning to chrysalids (leaving the plant, to change in the earth), but the Fly itself did not emerge until the beginning of July from chrysalids which were being kept under observa- tion, though judging by dates given in German observations, It IS likely that it would take a much shorter time to develop when in natural circumstances. The attack of this Wheat-bulb maggot was first certainly identified in 1882, though there is good reason for believing that it was present to a serious extent before ; now it is one of our regularly recognised Wheat-plant pests. In 1888 packets of infested plants were forwarded to me for examination almost daily from about the first week until the end of May. The localities from which attack was reported were mainly* in the Midland and Eastern Counties, extending as far north as Darhngton in Durham, and as far south as Almondsbury in (jrloucestershire. The amount of injury was reported by various corres- .„ r ' '^t^lM^^t^ ^''* "^ ?^V""^. Anthomyiidffi," by K. H. Meade. ' Entomolo- gists Monthly Magazine,' March, 1882. 11 108 COB^ AKD OBASg. pondents in that year as very severe ; sometimes every plant being destroyed for yards together, or a complete failure in various places, and in the Fens " hundreds of acres being eaten off"; also that near Warrington, "for several miles around, both in Cheshire and Lancashire, the Wheat-crops in some fields have been greatly damaged, in some entirely destroyed." Prevention and Eemedies. — In continental observations the Wheat-bulb maggot is given as attacking Rye ; otherwise Wheat appears to be the only crop infested by it ; but the only method of prevention of attack whic. appears to be known of at present is not to sow Wheat on land of which the preceding summer conditions have been observed to be specially followed by this kind of maggot, attack, though why we do not yet know. It is very remarkable that from the beginning of observation of maggot in the young Wheat-plant, about 1880, before the attack had been certainly identified, as well as since, where we have been quite certain of the pest, the attack has been specially found to follow on fallow. In a report given me by Mr. Parlour, of Middle Farm, Dalton-on-Tees, near Darling- ton, in 1888, he mentioned, " I have examined several fields in the district, and find that almost all fallow fields have suffered more or less." " In no case, so far as I can find out, has any Wheat been attacked where the land was cropped last summer." In 1882 Mr. W. Creese, writing from Teddington, near Tewkesbury, regarding this attack (of which specimens had then been trustworthily identified), observed that it attacked plants on land that had been fallowed in the previous summer, but did not appear on land ploughed for the first time in the autumn ; also that it leaves a belt of four or five yards near the edge untouched. In 1881 Mr. B. Brown, of Beard's End, near Stevenage, wrote regarding a maggot infestation which appeared to be similar to that under con- sideration, that it attacked some portion of his Wheat there, sown after dead fallow, and its ravages were so great that he discontinued planting Wheat after fallow. The Wheat looked well until after Christmas, but began to die off in the spring months. The special reports of 1888 and 1889 mention the attack as being most commonly observed after fallow, and after Turnips or Swedes, or ivherc a iwrtion of these have failed, or sometimes after Potatoes where they have been raised before they are ripe, or raised early, or had thin amount of leafage. The above is the only clue that we appear to have at present to prevention. It appears very possible that Couch Grass or wnEAT-BULn fly; wireworms. 109 nn !v f Grasses would sprout in the fallows, or on the bare patches of Turnip-fields, or in the early- turned Potato-fields! and m the young shoots of the Grass, the Wheat-bulb Flies which come out in the beginning of July might lay their eggs. It IB agatnst all hkehhood that the identical flies which appear n July should live on to lay their eggs from October to March! hiU very likely that they should lay them on wild Grasses durmg July, or at least shortly after they appeared ; and the maggots from these eggs turning in regular course to chrysa! nn'm if fn?f *• ^'^'' "If' ""^"^'^ ^^ ''^^y ^° «*^rt attack on Wheat following on the same ground. The following observation may also be worth notice :-" It is also to be re- marked that the tops of the ridges (i. e., where the soil is the hoUowest from the plough having thrown up the two ridges together from opposite directions) are more affected than the ridges below these or in the bottom." In this case the hoUowness would be mpre favourable for escape of the flies from the chrysalis than the solidly laid earth. Wheat, on land dressed with pond mud, has been found to suffer more from the attack than other parts of one field specially reported on ; but at present no remedy appears to be known. The only special treatment which has been suggested IS a very thick seeding on all lands where attack is fearfd • if the crop escapes and is considered to be too thick on the ground, a portion of the plants can be harrowed out. r;i Wireworms (Grubs of Click Beetles). Elater {Aijriotes) lineatns, Linn. ob'iciirm, Linn. sputator (Linn. ?), Fab. (Athdiis) nijicaudis, Gyll. {hcemorrhovhais, Fab.) >i Wiieworms may perhaps be said to do the greatest amount of mischief of any of our farm pests; the| destroy root grain, and fodder-crops. From their method of gnawing the niw f "^^^^fo^^^d shoots, and then going on to another plant, they waste and destroy far more than they need for tood; and as they live for several years as grubs, and feed durmg these years on almost every kind of crop that is com- ^ m, y ^^.^y""' *^^^'^' i-avages are of a very serious kind. The Wireworm is the grub of the long narrow greyish- brown, or blackish beetle (see figs. 1-6, p. 110) often seen durmg summer in Grass-fields, commonly known as the bkip-Jack, or Chck Beetle, from its power' of regaining ts no ronN AND OnAHS. Figs. 7 and 8 givo the sizo of two kinds of thcso grubs wliich are called Wireworms, from their likeness in toughness and shape to a piece of wire. Like it they are very smooth and shniing, and somewhat cylindrical ; hut a little flattened, HO that (like a wire that has been pressed by a weight) they have a blunt edge at each side. The colour is usually ochreous-yellow, turning to a darker tint after death. ^^'^^as-ca?*^,!^ 1 and 2, E. hncatus; 3 and 4, E. olscurus ; 5 and 6, E. mutator, nat. size and magnified; 7, larva of E. sputator?; Sand 9, larva of E. lineatus, nat. size and magnified ; 10, pupa of Wircworm (lines show nat. length). The Wireworms have three pairs of short legs, one pair of these bemg placed on each of the rings immediately behind the head, and they have also a sucker-foot below the tau. The egg from which this grub is hatched is laid either in the earth close to the root of a plant, or between the sheath- ing-leaves, or amongst leaves near the ground. On being hatched, the grub or " Wireworm " eats into the stem just above the true root, about an inch below the surface of the ground, and sometimes eats its way up the middle of the stalk, even above the surface of the earth. The Wireworms are said to live five years in the grub state, but the length of time probably depends on the supply of food. Where they are well fed, it is supposed that they only take about three years before changing to the pupa. But however this may be, with the exception of any temporary pause in winter (when they go down deeper and deeper into the ground as the frost increases), they feed voraciously, near the surface, till the time has come to turn into the chrysalis (or pupa). Then they go deep into the soil, and form an earth-cell in which they change, and from which the perfect beetle comes up through the earth in two or three "weeks, probably appearing about the middle of summer; or they VVinRWORMB. Ill may pass the wmtor in this state, and tlio beetles devfiinn from the chrysalis in the following spring ^^ Of the many kinds that are to bo found of these beetlo« only four are noticed as being particularly hurt^ to crop ' Ihese were formerly all known scientiLally as diffoZt species of T^later K sputator, fig. 5 (and 6, magnified) pi 10 18 the smallest. It has the head, and part of the body Lind It, black; legs rufous; and the wing-cases dusky. ^ E ohscurus fig. 3. magnified) is larger and pitchy, covered w h ochreous down or hairs, so that perfect spec mens appear dull brown all over, and rubbed ones blackish Tf iIL i P T thighs, and the shanks and feet rusty ^' ^^"''^ E. hneatm (fig. 2, magnified) is very like the nrocedinfr i.„f ^T^wl '"' *'^«,T>--^«-. Btriped.Vnd the C rusty red' ve'^etleTth. '' ""^ ^^^^^^^ '^ ^^^^ ^^"^ ^ ^^-^ ami inJtlaTof '^".'"'^ "^ "°^ ^^"^-"^ k°°^ as A,rioies, The fourth species, now known as Athiius, has its snflm-nl name of ruficaudisirora the red colour of the abdomen^ and tail ; this IS larger than the others. ^tuuumen ana . These four kinds of Click Beetle are, however aliko in nil important points in their manner of life. ' ^" Elater (Agriotes) obgcurus, nat. size and magnified. The reader is particularly requested to notice the fi^rure and description of these grubs or larva3, that is, of "/!.' ' T/. Wmvormr that he may distinguish it from the grubs of ?n P^VJir^'^'iT^^i'^ ^'^ "°^ altogether unlike it and from insect aHies which pass under the name o! false WirZorm the t;I"'o7r l^Vr ^^ ^T ' '^''' distinguishes itZm Tn!wl\ ? • 1 ? ^""^^y Long-legs, or Crane Fly (Leath^ Jackets) which have none. Also, the Wireworm has oS six egs (besides the sucker-foot at the end of the tTil) th s d CW^ZTf^^^^^^^ pasture.land and nnrl ,'f Y^'-'~f"li^-''"^^ ^ , ''"^^^ ^^^^ destructive grub? 112 CORN AND GRASS. The first point in measures of prevent ion is such treatment of pasture or ley by dose grazing, treading with sheep, dressing with lime, gas-lime, salt, dc., as may best prevent the Click Beetles laying eggs, or may destroy such eggs or Wireworms as may be in the soil before the land is broken up ; also various methods of ploughing and consolidatin, llo '^irll'rZ^^t^^^^^^ 5 ?,^-^^ proportion of the almost all of tlTeTin Ser and loT^i^^^"^^ ^^'' ^^'^' come up to the surface in spriig ^'' *^'^ "^^"J"^^^ to alst SZentT' V^ZLft^f'f °? *^ ^-- *^^ ^-^-^ sixteen bushels per acre ff.? ^^^ ^^^^^'^ ^* *^e ^^te of hundredweight "all Tn « ^ ^•''^''^ ^* *^^ '^te of two patches that were appai^ntlv d Jv'^^ /^^"f ^^^^ ^^ ^^e about half ar?ncTbdow thf tr/^ ^^^ °."* ^^^ root« at excellent. "" *^^ '^r^^*'^' and the crop was wasLd'Lr int'thTso?^^^^ *^^ -^--- being first signs of at^ack.tf'^th^^ZTglfor 'f f -^^ ^^' any kmd of liquid manurp f W "T ®^f ^ 0* tl^e plant is gone, «i onc.,-by the Wd man 1VP . f ^' P''^?'""^ ^^« applied -it would II lu^t^ZZt J-'-' *^'^ '' practicable, the Wireworms awav bnt ?V Lfl 7 "''.'''^ ''^^^ amount of food in a form thTt Jcon ill f^ ^ f'"^'"^ *^" P^^^* strong balance theTe sened sun^I p' '' "^' '* T^^' ^"^ «« countei? stem. ^^'^ '"Pl'^'"' conveyed up the partly-eaten would thus come a^ly^lLTc^^^^^^^^^^^^^ i2 116 CORN AND GRASS. i Superphosphate for Turnips and nitrate of soda for Corn crops have been specially recommended, and the nitrate given at a rate of 2 cwt. per acre, and a mixture of the nitrate and common salt, in proportion of 1 cwt. of the first to 2 cwt. of the second, have also been found useful in pushing on the young crop, or saving it when attack was present. A mixture of 2 cwt. of Kape-cake, 2 cwt. superphosphate, and 1 cwt. kainite, is noted " as a good fertiliser for Wheat, when sown broadcast at the time of Irillmg the seed ; this carries the plant out of reach of attack and gives a satisfactory return on all light soil. On clay it is useless. '— (Ralph Lowe, Sleaford, Lincolnshire.) The application of Rape-cake, nuts or meal, acts well in lessening amount of injury, both by fertilising the land and attracting the Wireworm from the plant. The cake has been found of use applied at the rate of 5 cwt. per acre, crushed into about half-inch lumps and mixed well with the soil. , . , • - j Rape-dust of Indian or Kurrachee cake, which is formed from Mustard-seed, has answered well, whether drilled with Oats or together with Turnip manure. In one special case the following note was sent:— "About the application of Rape-dust to the land to destroy Wireworm, I may say that in 1874 I got two tons of very fine Rape-dust— as fine as flour. I mixed it up with the Turnip manure, and sowed it in the drills in the usual manner. The result was very good. There was no Wireworm, and the crows did not look for any, but on about an acre of the field that got no Rape-dust the worm was bad and the crows pulled the Turnips. In 1875 I used three tons with the same good result. Of course it has a certain value as manure as well."— (Edw. Gordon, Mams of Kelton, Kirkcudbright, N. B.) In my own experiments I have found that Wireworm supplied with nothing but the moistened Kurrachee cake for food died in about a fortnight, whilst those supplied with only the true Rape-cake, moistened like the other kind, were still alive upwards of three weeks after being placed in it, and showed no signs of ceasing to thrive. Pressure of the land, by rolling or by treading ivith sheep, or other measures calculated to compress the soil firmly, and thus keep the Wireworm from travelling, are strongly recommended both for prevention and remedy when attach is present. "Rolling after sowing is generally admitted to be the best preventive. By rendering the soil firm and compressed it prevents wie rcauy paasnyo ui xn-i-^ rTii^^rtOiiu .^i^vn ^tt — plant, and thereby localises the damage. Where crops are affected, rolling or treading by sheep where practicable is a WIREWORMS. 117 morpifJfi" 1?"^ •' fi^"^/?»^^ hard pressed the Wireworm has Hon E /;,^tt:i„T^„fhS iSpTtT^tr^^ thit HkeTlf /.r,"™'!?'^ " '" ™P''««'"'' t° ^™ '^ n any. ™i?in nf w- "•' ™ *^f '^''''y P°'"'« which bear on pre- vention of Wireworm attack, but in the foresoinff imJl examp es are given of different ways in which the most fm portant of these may be carried out, namely, treatiTent Zd apphcations to prevent egg-laying, or to deSioy Ceworms ™ •tle^tml^'of'tnd " f ""« *.^operation'of bSHt' up, ireatment of land and manurial applications snifpH fn push on good growth, so as to carry the Xn s " W ''of! i Special observations regarding treatment for Wireworm prevention amongst Hops, to which crop the P co^cIn^S Amongst root-crops, drill-hoeing, horse-hoeinrl,'^^'^ ^H°nf ^nf?™f^ion is niainly taken from a paper by John Curtis in the ' A^S -M. a'T^'^'W""^- ^"'" ^'^^' '^"^^ i»f«i-«^ation in ' Economic EnSo ogy ' Apteui by Andrew Murray, pp. b8, 8y. "*"bJ. RED BMDEn. 187 damage in the English and German IIop-planlationH Tlie X7d thoVl"^ 'T'^ ^^°T' H'^"^' «l-ivelled. and Ml head ) *^°"^^^^» ^^ acres produced no Hops."— (C. White- the^effif n7'"^ ""• *' ?'T^^''. ^^^ 1^'^«^^^« ^^ th« attack, and the effect of ram in checking it ; and also gives some idea of the amount of loss consequent on attack :-- middrnfl^n 1 T^ by a brownish yellow appearance in the middle of the leaf, generally at the top of the poles, in larce omosTS^r^Tif^^ '" r' *'^ Hop-gardel unless raS comes, winch, if of any continuance, stops its progress On looking under the discoloured leaves a sm'all web w'u be found and tb« n ^'^' uY^"''- ^5^^' ^ *^°^^ these leaves drop off and the Hops all become red or brown. In 1868 I had fifteen hundredweight per acre reduced on several acres to five hundredweight, and then the fivriiundred weight were only worth about half-price. We do not use anv- thing to stop it, because of the Hop being out.^ ^ been kif £ l\' "^^'^ "°* 'P"",^^^ ^" ^^^^ Hops which have been kept back by vermin, as the leaves are young and full of and I 8hould7b?nl%? rf/Tthing that conduces to its spread hn vAnn^ 1 i ^^- ^^^} i^^' y^^' °"^ thousand acres of Hops Have been left unpicked through it.— (J W ) Besides the winter shelter found by the'Eed Spider under Btones near where infested leaves have fallen (Sfoned by M. Duges m Murray's 'Aptera' previously quoted) ^s mentioned by Mr. C. Whitehead that "in the^ase of Hon plantations they also retire into the cracks of the poL ani be?n «n ^/f \T^ "P°^ *h^ Hop-bines after Fl^y have LThetror^l^^^^^^^^^^ ,^ -^« of binges left from Mv'm^'^i!^'V'''"°''^'?^,^5''^^*^0"«' ^^tracted rerhathi Ho^nY«;fl aV'^'A^-^^ ^'^""'^ «" Insects Injurious to Hop.plants, Mr. Whitehead being a well-known and approved br"/:^" *'^ ^"^J"^^* '' Hop-growing in' ifsTaSs 7 As English Hop-planters cannot irrigate the Hon-land lllZt f ^"'^Ti!"' *^^ °^^^ ^^'^^^^ ofprelentSaie to apply hot hme or other caustic and pungent substances as oot or ime, round the Hop-stocks in the late autumn aS an P ces of' bS'e LT onib '" '\1.^ '^ P"* °^- *h^ «^-is and rureleslraVlf tl°:t*'T-.,ii^*^^ ^' -f d be of fbtl 1 ^^^ftically, however, as Hop-planters would ac^ree this IS almost impossible. In the case of poles that are fixfure^ 188 HOP. in the ground to cany wires or strinRS, according to the new methods of trainin<^ Hops, so much adopted in Germany and extending in this country, it would be well, after an attack of Red Spiders, to wash these poles with a strong solution of soft-soap and water, with quassia added, or with paraffin or petroleum solutions brushed well into the crevices. Poles should be well shaved before they are set up, as their bark harbours these mites and many insects injurious to Hop- plants. " Kaltenbach, the German entomologist, says that washing with water containing solutions of sulphur and tobacco may be advantageously employed. This was tried in 1868 in England without much benefit. The only effectual remedy would appear to bo washing the plants by means of hand or horse-engines, with a composition of water, soft-soap and quassia, in the following proportions :— 100 gallons of water, 4 to 6 lbs. of soft-soap, 4 to 6 lbs. of quassia (extract after well boiling). " Water alone would be effectual, only it runs off the web- covered leaves. The soap fixes it on them, and the bitter of the quassia makes them unpleasant to the tastes of the Bed Spiders." * Hop-growing being a very special industry I have not mtermixed notes of treatment of " Eed Spider " attack on other crops with the above observations, but, in order to place the observations on this infestation together, append some notes of treatment on orchard-trees or in gardens, which were given in the first edition of my ' Manual,' under the heading of attacks to Plum-trees, and have likewise appended an account of a severe ca.e of infestation to Limes at Walthamstow ir 1880. Prevention and remedy of Red Spider attack on Plum or orchard-trees or in gardens : — The " Eed Spider " is most injurious to vegetation in hot dry weather ; and consequently washings and syringings, or drenchings by means cf the garden-engine, which will render the leafage and ground, and the walls to which the trees may be attached, moist, will be very serviceable. The extreme dryness of air and soil are thus counteracted, and a healthy growth encouraged, which more or less counterbalances the injury to the leaves from the suction of the mites. It is important to check the attack at the very beginning, and for this purpose syringings morning and evening are advised, sent hard at the under side of f.bfi Iprvph ba aa fn * ' Ecrort on Insects Injurious to Hop-plants,' prepared for the Acriculturai Department, by Charles Whitehead, F.L.S., &c., p. .SO, 31. RED SPIDER. i8d or break the webs and wash thorn down with the contained tor the Eed Spider, and some planters tried a solution of «nl steTol """f ^"?J' ^"'' '"'o «"«»mrtanee ha iHs crude ^me when a uniform fluid will be obtained wXutsedimenf Vr-M-^. '^?™P™n''. Veitch'8 Chelsea blight comnositinn n„-vf,.,.c cbI l-"^,s^ ' I *^'^ ''''" '' *^^^n pamted with the Th.8 apphcafon, made once in the selaon as™iar ye™ly M V, 140 HOP. ■ treatment, hi.3 been found to prevent Ked Spider attack quite satisfactorily.— ('Gard. Chron.,' 1845.) This plan acts by poisoning and burying the " Eed Spider" in the walls, and also by putting a band in the way of such as have been wintering under stones and rubbish, so that they will not care to cross to get at the tree ; other mixtures, as preferred by the cultivator, might be similarly used. Clean and properly-pointed walls are a preventive of attack, as is also ground so cultivated and attended to that there shall be no neglected surface the mites can lurk in, or hiding-places under stones, clods of earth, or rubbish beneath which they can hybernate. An autumn dressing of gas-lime would be a desirable application to neglected borders where there are in- fested wall-fruit trees. If by means of experiment it should be found that there is any fluid capable of dissolving the Red Spider's webs without at the same time injuring the leafage, we could thus, by clearing off its breeding-grounds, probably get rid almost entirely of the pest. Hop and Lime-tree Red Spider. Tetmnychus tiliarum, Miill. ; T. tclarim, Claparede. This attack is just mentioned, as an outburst of a special pest of this kind in special states of weather is of practical interest. Red Spider of Lime-trees : web with eggs in dried state, and after being moistened, all greatly magnified. Opinions differ as to whether the "Red Spider" of the Lime-tree is the common " Red Spider," T. telarius, or a dis- tinct species, T. tiliarum (so named, from infesting the Lime), but which is also at times injurious to French Beans and some other garden-crops. These Acari or mites, which are figured above were exceedingly injurious in the autumn of 1880, to some Lime- trees at Walthamstow, from which specimens were sent me. nop AND LIME-TREE RED SPIDER. 141 From their extreme minuteness and transparency, the various parts show very indistinctly when magnified, and the nipping-jaws and sucker were not clearly visible. I have therefore only been able to give the general figure of the mite, with the pecuHar long stiff hairs with knobs at the ends (which are believed to help the Eed Spiders in spinning) figured on those feet, on which they were distinguishable. These mites spin their webs over the trunks and branches, and beneath the leaves of the infested trees, giving a kind of glaze or p.ilky lustre to the surface ; and on this web they can travel easily. They are to be found heaped like masses of living yellow dust at the foot of the tree, and those on the leaves congregate chiefly on the lower side, sometimes so thickly that none of the green colour of the leaf is visible. Here they draw away the juices with their suckers, and, though they are but small, there are so many of them that the leaves shrink and di$ from the injury. Prevention and Remedies. — The eggs, figured from life at p. 140, may be found attached to the - ibs; and it has been found that brushing the tree-stems hard and thoroughly, so as to remove the webs, is serviceable in some degree in clearing attack, and would be still more so if some soft-soap was brushed in at the same time. With regard to the masses that congregate together at the base of the tree, something might be done by banking round at a few feet distance and a few inches high, and filling the space enclosed with mud made as thin as would be retained by the raised edge. The Eed Spider particularly dislikes moisture, and a few experiments would show what chemicals or other additions might be mixed with the mud, to poison as well as drown the pest. A liberal mixture of fish-oil soft-soap, so as to completely plaster round the foot of the tree and stick all wandering mites fast that touched it, could not fail to do good at a trifling cost ; but, excepting by such continuous and thorough drenchings as it is scarcely possible to apply to large trees, it is most difficult to do anything for the infested leaves. The following recipe, however, might be of service : — Gas- water, three gallons, to which is added one pound of flour of sulphur ; these to be held over the fire whilst being mixed, and soft-soap added in such quantity as to make the mixture adhere. This may be applied to the branches by means of a painter's brush, and where remedies are needed on a large scale it may be diluted to the state in which it is a safe appli- cation, and the liquid thrown over the leaves by means of the garden-engine. Probably fifteen parts of water to one of the mixture would be quite safe, but this would require trial. 142 HOP. This attack has been considered to follow peculiar atmos- pheric conditions, and its severe occurrence at Walthamstow above noted was after heat and drought, which is generally favourable to Eed Spider. Hop Wireworm. Larva of Striped Click-beetle. Ai/riotes Uneatm, Linn. t Striped Click-beetle and larva (Wireworm), nat. size and magnified. This species of Wireworm is the grub of the Striped Click- beetle, an exceedingly common kind, which is often to be found on grass, in hedges, cornfields, &c. It is stated by Bouche that the Wireworm of this kind (the A. lineatus) is sometimes to be found in great multitudes in dung, and in vegetable earth. For life-history of "Wireworms," see this head amongst Corn-insects. Prevention and Eemedies. — Wireworms are frequently very injurious to fresh-planted Hop-sets, especially upon recently broken-up pasture-land, eating off the tiny shoots directly they appear, and sucking the juices from the hearts of the sets. It sometimes happens that a large percentage of the sets die in consequence, and have to be replaced, involving great expense to the planter, as well as the loss of a year. The best and most sure way of getting rid of the Wireworm when at work on the Hop-plants is stated by Mr. Whitehead to be to put small pieces of Mangolds, Potatoes, Carrots, or Swede Turnips, or small pieces of Rape-cake two or three inches below the ground, close round the Hop-hills. These should be looked at twice-a-week, and the Wireworms which have eaten their way into them should be taken out and destroyed. As many as one hundred and fifty Wireworms have thus been trapped close to one Hop-hill. — (C. W.) As these Wireworms, if once in possession, will live on in the same ground for several years (it is said five years), eating ::! i HOP WIRE WORM. 1 wenrw^'lf'T' '^''P*^"g When i;hey may go down deep in cold weather, it is a very important matter to save the expense of trapping or attack, by taking measures that the ground should nr«nfv.frff 18 possible) clear of them before planting, and also that they should not be brought in with vegetable-siil i.Z I ?^'*T •'' ^^^^ '''°^''" "P ^o^' Hops, it is of service to brush It ear y m autumn with chain or brush-harrows, and . dress It with hme-compost; this is a great preventive o Ihe beetles laymg their eggs. Folding sheep so that the gi ass is eaten very close answers the same purpose. In preparing the ground it is much better, as regards getting, nd of the Wireworm to trench with the spade two spitTdeep than to plough with the subsoil plough following. The weeds and Grass-roots, and the like, in which the Wireworm feeds are not as horoughly got rid of, even by deep plougWn. as by being thoroughly put down below by the spade? and the Wireworm has consequently plenty of food to keep i thriving until the new crop is put in. ^ f Fu ""'S? ^""^ burning is serviceable as a means of getting rid of the Wireworm and its food together, but has its drawbacks agriculturally; and it should be borne in mind that the Wire- worm will go down as much as twelve inches in cold weather therefore it is well to pare and burn before cold has set in • also the parings should be collected and burnt at once, or the TiunT'''"' ""^''^ "^'""^'^^ '^^'''^ themselves again in the All possible care in removing the clods with Grass-roots and clearmg the ground of rubbish which would keep the Wireworm m food-plants till the Hops come, would answer! (See Wireworms " m Corn.) The fresh vegetable-soil from old hedgerows or similar places broughtin to restore old Hop-grounds is particularly & ' /'""g m Wireworm. It would save after expense to have the fresh field-soil heaped with lime or gas-lime, and the surface of the heap turned from time to time, to destroy Grass and weeds, which would otherwise serve as well for food to the gmbs here as in the field. Gas-lime would thoroughly destroy all It touched-insect or _plant-at first, if fresh from the works, but the atmospheric action or mixing with the earth would rapidly change its chemical nature to the sulphate of hme or gypsum serviceable to the crops. It is noted that in planting, "one good well-rooted set in good soil will make as good a stock as two or more ; but it is safer to put two, for fear of Wireworm " (C. W ) • and in the enuj .pixng o^anun, >^ixcu luo xiop-plauts are dressed and the vi f r'^'.'J^ ""'"'.^ ^'*h ^""^ '^'^^' '^ '''^^^ l^'oh'^^b answer well to add some insect-deterrent. "-"f^woi 144 HOP. - - MANGOLDS. For Wireworm in Turnips, it has been found to succeed well to mix sand with just enough paraffin to moisten it slightly— not enough to clog, but still to run in the hand— and to sprinkle this very lightly over the roots by hand. Ashes or dry earth would answer as well as sand. It was found m the Stoke Edith experiments that the Hop-shoots came up without the shghtest injury through a dressing of a bushel of dry material sprinkled with a quart of paraffin ; and as the Wire- worms usually feed near the surface, the smell, or the paraffin in dilute state driven down by the rain, would probably soon tell on them. , . , . , Mr. Whitehead mentions in his Eeport previously quoted that, "opening a trench in the autumn after the poles are down, and forming a ring close round the plant-centr^, and putting in earth, ashes or sawdust, saturated with paraffin oil, is an excellent plan in the case of plantations that are bad y infested" {taking care not to put too much oil, lest it should kill the roots). Likewise that "planters who suspect the presence of Wireworms very frequently set a row of Potatoes between the rows of Hop-plants, in order to draw the Wire- worms from the young Hop-plants." And further, that "dressings of Rape-dust dug in round infested plants will also draw the Wireworms, relieving them for a time, but also tending to collect the Wireworms round or near the plant- centres." MANGOLDS. Mangold or Beet Ply. Anthomyia {Chdrtophila) hetm, Curtis. A bctoc liemale), mag. ; line showing spread of wings, nat. size ; pupa, nat. size and maguiiied. Eggs (after Farsky), mag. MANGOLD OR BEET FLY. 145 w J i! ?^^i ^^y ^a^ages the crops by means of its maggots. thus reduce the leaves or large patches of them, to nothing but dry skin This kind of attack does not appear to have been generally observed in the country till the year 1880. when the " Mangold maggot " was prevalent in many localities and especially m Westmoreland and Cumberland, where, of 1024 acres of Mangolds grown in those counties, it is reported that all were infested. It had, however, been noticed in Cumberland several years before the above date ; on which subject Mr. Watson Hornsby, of Abbey Town, Holme Cultram. Cumberland, favoured me with the following note :— "It would appear, however, that the insect has proved itself a pest to Mangold-growers m Cumberland several years previous to the one you name" (1880, Ed.). In 1876 the Mangolds on the larm I then occupied were much injured by it, but this was the first year that I had ;ioticed the maggots in the leaves, although for some years previous to that the leaves of the young Mangold plants had presented, at certain stages of their growth, tnat shrivelled-up appearance which is a sure sign of the attack of the maggot ; and I have no doubt that it was so, though at the time the injury was ascribed to other causes, trosts, &c. The attacks, however, were not very severe or general until 1876, since which the Mangolds have suffered heavily every summer, so much so, indeed, that in many dis- tricts they have been dropped out of cultivation in a 'great measure, only a few patches being grown in situations peculiarly adapted to their growth (August 26th, 1885). The eggs of the Mangold Fly are very small, snow-white, and oval (see fig., p. 144, much magnified, by Farsky, showing honeycomb-like markings). These are laid in small patches beneath the leaves ; as soon as the maggots aro hatched they bore through the skin of the leaf, and, being voracious, clear away the substance rapidly. The maggots are about the third of an inch long, legless, cylindrical, blunt at the tail, and tapering to the head, which carries two black hooks by means of which it cuts away the pulp of the leaf. The colour is yellowish white, but sometimes green, especially towards the tail, from the intestines filled with green food showing through the thin skin. They feed for about a month, and then turn to chestnut-brown pupfe, sometimes in the leaves but commonly they quit the leaves and pupate in the ground about three inches below the surface and near the attacked plant. ^ In summer the flies come out in about ten days or a fort- night. These are ashy grey, with various darker markings, and with black bristly hairs ; and about half an inch across 146 MANGOLDS. in the spread of the winga. In the male the large brown eyes nearly meet on the top of the head, and the abdomen is very narrow, straight along each side, and with a black triangular spot down the centre, at the base of four of the segments. The female (figured p. 144, magnified) has the eyes distant, with a narrow white band round them on the face, and the abdomen is enlarged at the base, tapering to a blunt point at the tail, with three indiBtinct dark stripes along it. The Hies appear from March to May, and there are two broods (if circumstances are favourable there are probably more) in the summer and autumn. The date of development of the latest brood is variable ; in regular course it passes the winter in the pupal state, but sometimes specimens develop at once, and hybernate. Prevention and Eemedies.— Mr. Watson Hornsby (in ob- servations above quoted) mentioned further, "With reference to prevention and remedial measures, I should recommend good cultl:\-tion, autumn if possible, a free use of fertilisers, and I consider a liberal application of salt, or potash-salt, or both, to to the land intended for Mangolds as a sine qua non in Mangold growing. Treatment of the foregoing kind will, I think, prove the best preventive. I have tried dusting of several kinds on the plant, but without perceiving any benefit; but a good drenching of paraffin and water I have known undoubted good results from. The difficulty is in applying the latter, as the mixture requires constant and quick stirring during application, or the paraffin will come off by itself."* Mr. Jabez Turner (Norman Cross, Peterborough), wrote me that his plan was "to use a mixture of farmyard manure applied in the autumn as soon after harvest as possible, and a fair dressing of superphosphate, &c., put on with the seed." He further noted that he had never suffered from fly in a Mangold crop ; and he thought if the plants were well fed and nourished, the growth was too strong for the enemy to do much damage. In 1884 Mr. Turner again observed : — " I am still in favour of autumn manuring for Mangold ; in fact, on strong land I do not think the land should be worked in the spring, except with a horse-hoe. This will give sufficient tilth, and the con- dition of the manured soil will force the plant beyond the attack of the fly." A rapid healthy growth, whether brought about by cultiva- tion, manure, or weather influences, is, as far as appearsat present, the only reliable way by which the maggot infestation when set up can bs counteracted. * For methods of ri-iitmg paranin oil with soft-soap, "See references in Index under these heads and ' Emulsion." MANOOLD OB BEET FLY; MILLEPEDES. I47 ^Jr'^t^^ ^*^''' ""T^ Ormskirk in 1881, although the A. beta ?^yltli:T"''^ in large numbers on the under side of tt to out Zw ll'^'T^^' ^^d f ?i«t weather enabled the plants L from fT. P ^^W '-^"if ^",^??^ ^^°^- McCrackenf writ- ?oLd ^ T^ M«T u ^'''^"r ^ ^°"'^^' Cirencester, men- half of June h^?Ti 7^^^"*]"^' very prevalent in the first growth pM^'nf r ' ^^T^^. *^°"^' °^^°S to the rapidity of growth at that time, was hardly appreciable " i' J' "^ ih^T""^^^ l^^^'l^^ dressings, nitrate of soda, sowed between the rows just before showers, has been found to bring Man golds, so completely wasted down by this maggot attack tha he leafage was almost gone, well round. aXaved a good Srent^'naris nl'ZfZ '' '**5^^ 'T'''^ ^^°^ Chesgir^e! «,,ovf! -fu °/ *^! ^^.^^ ^^^^ ^^'^ssed experimentally with hada' JnS TS^f ri^ "^^''^^ superphosphate' Ind all (S F ) ' ' * ^^^ superphosphate was the best.- Any fertilising ipplication which would push on erowfh rapidly and healtl ily, and thus help the plant to f^rm new leafage more rapidly than it was destroyed by the m^ganr would be sure to be of service. ^ maggot, nf 9!"^^.^^ manures would probably be better than application t^Tr^ fa/m-manure, for many of this class of flies if no^ sometimes farm-manure- as well as plant-feeders, at least wou?d ail'^o7rtZo'z ^'^ ^^^"^^*^^"' '^' '' -^^^ -^ ^-- In some cases, where infestation has come on a crop when very young it has been found to answer to send womeToS he land at once to hand-thin the plants, or nip out The in fested piece of leaf. The infested plants being thoroughly Z rid 0 the five-acre field specially experimented upondKll If the plants are carefully destroyed, the thinning-out plan may answer very well; if not, such a large proportion of the maggots will probably change to chrysalis without being hurt by the operation, that it will do little good ^ f.of /' Mangold Fly attack appears to be just one of the in- festations to which the application of fluid or powder-dressings by the strawsonizer would be likely to be of service as a means Snake Millepedes. Julidm of various species. Flattened Millepede. Polydesmus complanatus, Linn. The Julus worms, or Snake Millepedes, are not true insects as they do not go through three different stages of life and l2 148 MANOOI.DS. they never have wings ; but from the great amount of damage they cause they may well be classed amongst crop injurers. 1, Julm londinensis; 3, J. guttatus {pulchellus, Leach); 4, J. terrestris ; 5, horn ; 7, Polijdesimis complanatus ; all magnified; and 2 and 6, nat. size. The Julus terrestris (Linn.), figured above (magnified) at " 4," is one of the largest of the British species. This is about an inch long, shining, cylindrical, of a dark lead or pitchy colour, with pale or ochreous legs, these amounting in number in the specimens examined by John Curtis to as many as 156. The segment immediately preceding the tail segment is furnished with a kind of spike (" mucronate "). Julus londinensis, Leach (fig. 1), is very similar to the fore- going, of a dark lead colour, but is distinguishable by the penultimate segment being just a little angulated in the centre not mucronate. The figure gives a good idea of how these black, shiny Millepedes are usually seen when disturbed from under a stone or rubbish, lying partly coiled-up with their multitude of short legs, forming a kind of fringe beneath the Millepede. The J. guttatus, Fab. (pulchellus, Leach), figured nat. size and magnified at "2" and "3," is also cylindrical, and shining ; it is of an ochreous colour, with a double row of bright crimson spots down each side excepting on the four first and five last segments. It has about 170 legs. After death the change of colour of this species to a red purple is very striking. * The females are stated to lay their eggs in the ground from about the end of December until the following May, and to propagate most in undisturbed ground ; but the Millepedes are to be found under rubbish, or amongst dead leaves, or especially in manure-heaps where much refuse garden rubbish is thrown. * The above descriptions, and that following of Polydesimis complanatus, are mainly taken from Cuitis's ' Farm Insects,' which see for full descriptions of various specie?, pp. 201 — 204. MILLEPEDES. 149 ^1, ?i,^°""^ .^^^"®P®*^®^ ^*^^^' ^^en first hatched, not more than three pairs of legs {vide Murray's 'Aptera,' p. 15) : but with their successive moults they gain additional segments, and, as noted on p. 148, great addition to the numbers of their legs, ihey live tor two years before arriving at full growth and power of reproduction. "" b^owm The Polydesmm complanatus, or "Flattened Millepede," figured at " 6 " and " 7 " (p. 148), is distinguished from the Snake M 1 epedes by being flattened on the back, and the segments a little dilated at the sides. This is of a lilac colour above, whitish below and the back granulated; it is from about a (luarter to over half an inch long, and has 60 legs. This kind is stated to be similar in its habits to the " Snake Millepedes." or Julidce. -^ * , The attacks of the Millepedes appear either to have much increased or been much more observed of late years, and enquiries have been frequently sent me regarding 'injuries to S l°^;.?r^i'^®" ?°* ^'°P^' ^^^^ also of injury to Wheat. The bpotted Millepede, J. guttatus, often found in Strawberry fruit. 18 also excessively fond of Mangolds, therefore I have placed the attacks under the above heading. Besides preying on plants. The Snake Millepedes are general feeders, consuming both decaying and living animal and vegetable substances! liiey prey upon slugs, small snails, insects and their larv* and pupaB, earth-worms," &c. Prevention AND Eemedies.— Very little has been com- mumcated in the way of direct observation of means of pre- vention or remedy of Millepede infestation, but, looking at such information as is attainable, the following appear the chief points to be attended to :— To avoid carrying Millepedes or their eggs on to the land whether of farm or garden in soil from infested manure or refuse-heaps. Millepedes are found under rubbish or amongst dead leaves, or m manure-heaps where much garden refuse is thrown ; and where such manure is wheeled or carted to the *arni or garden, infestation will be carried with it. _ Where infestation is known to have been present in land or is suspected to be present, it is desirable to disturb the surfkce }if^^^ f'^^^ P^^^ °^ *^® y^ai'' so as *o ^^^ow out the eggs, and Millepedes of various ages ; or trench in gardens, or plough with skim-coulter attached in the field, so as to bury down the whole infestation at once; or dress heavily with salt, nitrate ot soda, or gas-lime. In experiments tried by myself, and also by the bailiff to Mr. Pain, of Audsley's Wood, Basingstoke, Hants, in 1885, we lound that a strong solution of common salt or of nitrate 160 MANGOLDS. of soda rapidly killed the Spotted Millepede ; his report for- warded to me was as follows : — " After receipt of your letter I went to the field when rain- ing (pouring), and got about two pounds of the soil with the insecN in, and added a tablespoonful of salt to one pound and the same quantity of nitrate of soda to the other pound : in tivo hours* time th" insecis were still alive. I afterwards added a little water, ai d [',i<:y wore all dead in both cases in five minutes' (just as Misa Ormerod said), but previous to my adding the water there was sufficient moisture in the soil to dissolve both the salt and nitrate of soda. Therefore, I think a brine of salt and water would be more eifective, and put on with as little labour as dibbling the salt up the drills." Cotton-cake has been four-d to attract them from the attacked crops, and the overwhelming fondness of the Pink- spotted Millepede {J. guttatus) for Mangolds may be turned to account, in attacks on special crops, by placing slices of Man- golds for traps, which I have seen swarming (when removed) with the Millepedes crawling over them in all directions. An application of soot and water was tried in garden culti- vation, mixed in the proportion of two handfuls of soot to one gallon of water. This was reported as successful ; whether it acted by killing the Millepedes, or driving them away, was not mentioned. John Curtis mentions use of soot actuig well in driving the pests away. The following notes, also sent me from Audsley's Wood in 1885, are very serviceable, as giving an instance of the double feeding, that is on both animal and vegetable matter commonly attributed to the Millepedes : — " We find tht n in bunches now and then round a bit ';/ hone or refuse used in the manufacture of the manure ; still they have a great liking for the Wurzel, as I have proved to- day. Upon searching I found the most of them deeper in the soil than I found them on Tuesday ; I concluded this was owing to the rain, but I soon discovered it was in search of food. " Before drilling the seed I soaked half of it for forty-eight hours, and, when sufficiently dry, mixed it with the unsoaked seed, and drilled together. The soaked seed germinated in five or six days, and furnished food for these insects [Mille- pedes, Ed.J close to the surface ; this they have devoured, and now they have attacked the unsoaked oed just germi- nating, as we find a bunch of from five to twenty round every seed. This accounts for their being deeper in the soil in this instance." Po7ver of migration. — In 1885, Mr. J. A. Smith, of Rise Hall, Akenham, sent me specimens agreeing with the Earth Mustard. — mustard beetle. 151 MillGpede, J. terrestris, with the note that a few mornings before he had noticed the Millepedes in great numhers cross- ing a road from a field of Oats towards a pasture-field. The Oats were after Turnips (hoth crops partially failures), and the manure had been of a mixed sort suitable for encourage- ment of the pests. This power of migration would account ?Jm, V^^ sudden appearance of ritack in full force- for as Millepedes live for two years before they are full-grown, it may be presumed when a si Iden devastation is set on fo(.n that they have suddenly arrived— for there is no sudden change in their powers, and if present previously in the warm season, they could not fail to have been feeding up to the date of observation.* i| MUSTAED. Mustard Beetle ("Black Jack"). i'hmUm bitid. esumed especially to attract the fly The maggot infested Onions may be known by their leaves lading and turning yellow, whilst the inside of the bulb becomes decayed. 160 ONION. These infested Onions should he cleared out of the bed at once. This is a most imiiortant point, and if thoroughly done will much lessen the amount of further attack because thus the maggots tiiat would have developed into the next brood of flies will be got rid of. A common rough way of proceeding is to pull up as much of the Onions as will come, but they ought to be taken up by a spud, or old knife or any implement that will raise the whole of each decayed bulb, and the maggots in it, up together. The Onion that is badly attacked be'^omes a rotten mass towards the lower part, with the maggots mside it just covered by the skin of the bulb. If the leaves are pulled at they come up easily, but the d(icii,yed base of the bulbs, and many of the maggots, remain behind. These are perfectly able to make their way to the neighbouring Onions and consequently though the bed looks better, it may happen that very little good has been done. The infested bulbs, maggots and all, as they are removed, should be put carefully into a pail or tub or vessel of any kind out of which the vermin cannot creep, and be carefully destroyed. The importance of this was shown in 1882, in the gardens at Longleat, near Warminster. Mr. W. Taylor reported that some of the Onions showed signs of flagging whilst still only about the thickness of a knitting-needle. Every Onion so affected was pulled up, carefully placed in a basket, and carried straight to the stoke-hole fire. The plants were treated in this way every two or three days for three weeks, and the result was that there was no further damage, and the crop of Onions was good. Mr. Taylor added the very noteworthy observation that one of his garden men followed the plan so far as to pull up all the faulty Onions in his garden, but he threw them down a short distance from the bed, and lost his entire crop. With regard to special applications for prevention of the maggot, various forms of spraying or watering with mixtures of paraffin oil (carefully applied at not too great a strength) have been useful ; and various other dressings, liquid or dry, suited both to encourage growth and make the ground ob- noxious to the fly, have been reported as serviceable. Amongst these it is probable that the mixtures of paraffin oil would be both more satisfactorily apphed, and more safely for the leafage, if mixed thoroughly with soap-wash than only diluted with water. During the past few years great advances have been made in the methods of application of mineral oils as insecticides, and references to these will be found under headings of " Soft- soap-wash," &c., in Index. ONION FLY. 161 In one locality when the maggot appeared, paraffin oil was xiiixecl with water iii the proportion of a pint t(j two gallons of water, and with this the Onions that were planted in rows were watered through the spout of the can without the rose, it was noted tliat the paraffin should be used carefully in drv weather, lest it should burn the plants. Another method of application was to mix a good glassful ot paraffin oil with about six gallons of water, and throw this mixture carefully as a spray over the Onion-beds ; this cured the maggot-attack after two or three applications.— (J. W.) In another locality the only means found serviceable" for prevention of maggot-attack was the use of sand saturated with paraffin oil, and sprinkled amongst the Onions, this sand being afterwards watered by means of a can with a rose. In this case experiment was made as to the direct effect of paraffin on Onion-maggots, and twenty-four hours after the application ol three drops of paraffin to the soil in a flower-pot containing some young Onions and 'Onion-maggots, these maggots were found, on examination through a magnifying glass, to be (with the exception of two) all dead.— (G. M'K.) Soap-suds were noted as very useful ; it was found that there was no trouble with the maggot where watering with soap-suds was freely given on its first appearance; the suds usually destroyed the maggot in two or three applications, and also nourished the Onions.— (P. L.) It is a good plan to pour the suds over the plant through the rose of a watering-can, so as to make them disagreeable to the fly, as well as effective to the grub in the ground. The ammoniacal matter contained in house-slops make them a valuable manure for Onions. They may be applied with advantage to the growing plants, and, in cottage gardens, good crops are taken off ground where these slops have been thrown during the winter, and the bed dug and sowed in the spring. Liquid manure from farm-yard tanks, diluted with water till reduced to a safe strength, has been found useful ; also the use of liquid drainings from pig-sties have been observed togive good crops when all others in the neighbourhood have failed by maggot-attack. — (J. K.) A heavy watering, to render the fertilising matter in the soil available, is often of much service in running the growth on healthily without check in dry seasons. Soot, charcoal dust, and pulv -ised gas-lime, have all been found of good service in checking attack ; but probably the use of ground clean from the Onion Fly to start with, and so prepared that a healthy vigorous growth is likely to take place, a watchful eye to remove infested plants as soon as thev show M 162 ONION. — PARSNIP. and the immediate applicatiou of a strong drenching of the fluid most obnoxious to the grub that can be found, are better than dressings not rapidly soluble, for the fluid goes down at once and lodges in the maggot-holes. To the above I may add that the worst cases of maggot- attack I have seen followed sowing on ground which was not prepared beforehand, and had not received a special dressing of manure. Guano is recommended by some growers, but I have known such severe attack of Onion Fly accompany its use as a dressing that I have not mentioned it as desirable. — (Ed.) PAKSNIP. ■ Carrot and Parsnip Fly. " Rust." Psila rose. Parsnip and Celery Leaf-miner. Tephritis onopordinis. Carrot-blossom Moth. Ihpressaria dauceUa. Carrot and Parsnip-seed Moth. Deprcssciria dcprcssclla. Parsnip and Celery Fly, magnified ; line showing nat. size ; larva and pupa figured in blistered leaf. I am not aware of the Parsnip being seriously injured in this country l)y any insect peculiar to itself. Its chief enemies are those above mentioned, which are noticed under the heads of insects infesting Carrots and Celery. PKA8. — PEA MOTH. 163 PEAS. Pea Moth. Gmpholitha pisana, Gu^nee. 1, Caterpillar on Pea ; 2, cater^)illar magnified ; 3 and 4, moth, nat. size and mag. The caterpillars of this moth cause the " worm-eaten " or "maggotty " Peas often found in old pods w' -;n the crop is maturmg with the insides eaten away, and partly filled with, and partly surrounded by, the excrement left by the cater- pillar. These caterpillars or maggots are fleshy and slightly hairy,"" about or somewhat more than a quarter of an inch in length, and are generally yellowish in colour, with a black head, a brown band on the ring next to the head, and eight brown dots on most of the following rings. They sometimes, how- ever, vary in colour ; in some specimens the head and the next ring are brown, and in some they are intensely black. The legs on the three rings next to the head are black. The caterpillars go down into the earth to change, where they spin a cocoon (that is, a kind of egg-shaped covering formed of silken threads drawn from the mouth) in which they remain till spring, when they turn to chrysalids, out of which the moths appear in June. The moths are rather more than half an inch in the spread of the wings, satiny, and mouse-coloured. The upper wings have a row of very short white streaks directed backwards from the front edge, and have a silvery oval ring with five short black lines inside it placed near the hinder margin. y Although maggotty Peas are one of the commonest of mfestations, the attack appear? to be so little thought of that enquiry is very rarely made about it. I have therefore merely given above the short notice of the moth and its method of causing ^the infestation published by John Curtis in his * Farm Insects,' and below some of the methods of nvp.\'<^nt ion of m2 % '1 164 PEAS. recurrence of attack which obviously could not fail to bo of service. Prevention and Eemkpiks.— In gardens where maggot- attack is noticeable in tho podn, the Pea-haulm shoii'd be cleared away directly tlio crop is gathered, so that all .-^tray podp (which are very likely to be infested) may be cleared off the ground before the maggot can go down "into it. This haulm should bo carefully destroyed at once ; the safest way is to burn it, and it would be a very good plan to lay the haulm and any other combustible rubbish at hand along the rows where the infested Peas stood, and burn it there, so as U get ril at once of all grubs remaining in the pods or quite near the surface of the ground. For field treatment, as the haulm could not well bo spared, it would be desirable, if a Pea-growing district was infested, to plough deeply, so as to bury the chrysalids well down during the winter ; or to skim the surface lightly, so as to throw them open to attack of birds. But commonly the regular rotation of crops might be expected to prevent this infestation getting ahead. ° In garden treatment it might be worth while to watch whether the little grey moth infested the Pea-plants during flowering time, especially in the evening, and in case they were noticeable in any great numbers it might make a difference in the amount of egg-laying to dust the plants with any powder dressing as soot, &c., which might be obnoxious to the moLhs, but would not do harm to the leafage or blossoms. Pea and Clover Weevils. Sitoncs lineatiis, Linn, (find other species). 1 ana 2, s. crhiitns ; 3 and 1, ,S'. ihicatus, nat. size and mag.; 5, leaf notchea hy V/eevils. PEA AND CLOVER WEEVILS. 166 'ii 0 bc( 08 ;(re ofttii very injurious to the leafage of Peas, i well as t that of other legi^'^'noi ^ crops, as Beans, Clover, itc. The attacked crops may . u known by tho leaves hieing scnoped out at the edf,'e, as figured. The b< ies be^'in their work aL the edges of the leaves, and gradually eat their way onwards, until, in bad attacks, nothing is left but tho central rib. or uk f<^ly the leaf-stalk. Great numbers ci the weevils appear in March and iter ( , and do gr it mischief i>nt up to the year 1882 the place of deposit of the ( no history of these weevils in th ir early stages wu, ill i.s completely unknown as when Curtis, in his 'Funn Inject. ,' mentioned of the S. lineatus that "it still romainud to be ascertained where the eggs are depos- ited " and of the S. cnnitus (more in detail), " No one ivnowh svhere the female lays her eggs : no one knows where the maggots feed, or where they change to pupro." In the course of tho spring and summer of 1882, the long- needed observations of' where the maggots of these two kinds of the destructive ^itoncs weevils feed and turn to chrysalis state were madi spectively by Mr. T. H. Hart, of Park Farm, Kingsnortii, Kent ; and by Mr. Eeginald W. Christy, of Boynton Hall, near Chelmsford, Essex. On the 31st of May Mr. IJ rt, in the course of special examination of his Pea-roots, found many weevil maggots. Some of these were lying along the main root, which bore marks of channels having been eaten along it, but in many cases they appeared to be feeding on the soft gall-growths often to be found on Pea-roots. These maggots, of which specimens were sent me, were, when full-grown, about a quarter of an inch in length, white, plump, and wrinkled, with a brownish horny head furnished with strong jaws, legless, but using the end of the tail as a kind of foot to help them in progression. When full-fed the maggot formed an oval cell (without a lining) in the earth, about two inches below the surface, in which it changed directly to the chrysalis state. In this state it is like the perfect weevil, only with the limbs folded beneath it. At first it is white, but as it matures the eyes become black and proboscis pitchy. The weevils brought in from the field reached the perfect state by the 6th of July; those left in their natural position in the field did not mature until some- what later. The Striped Pea Weevil, Sitoncs lineatus, is of an ochreous or light clay-colour, with three whitish or cchreous stripes along tho back, and with ten punctured stripes alternately of a darker and lighter clay-colour along the wing-cases ; the horns and legs are reddish. The markings of the beetles only show well on fresh specimens, as they are IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3; /> s>. 1.0 I.I 1.25 lis 118 US u [2.5 |Z2 20 1.8 U ill 1.6 6" "/A ■% > .y- Photographic Sdences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSIEtt.N.Y. 14580 (716) 87i2-4503 « L1>^ \ iV \\ "% v 4> ^ k 'La <& O^ %^ '9>^ A /a 166 fEAS. caused by the various-coloured scales with which they are thickly covered; after a while these scales get more or less rubbed off, and then the black skin of the wing-cases appears q.if^'^^'- Mr. Christy's observations referred to the bpotted Pea Weevil, the Sitones crinitm; this differs from the above m bemg rather smaller, and more of a grey or hn/p «h 'J'^'^'J? ?^'* \^''^' ^^d i" *^e ^i«g cases, which black ^'^ ^ '"' *^^ iy^y^^o^^, being spotted with In this case Mr Christy first observed the weevil-maggots at the roots of Eed Clover, on the 23rd of March. The Clover n WW 7io'-^ 1^^? °^. 24 acres, 12 of which had been ^nii^wr ! ,^® niaggots were much more plentiful on the sohd Wheat land than on the looser Bavlev land. Two. tn i!f '/'' '? ^""T ''^'^' ^' ^^^y ^« five or six, maggots were to be found under one plant. Some of them were to be found extremity of the smaller routs, which showed injury from tZ ?? rT"^'- ^rT 'f *^^ 8^'"^^ ^^re found between the rows of Clover. Like the larv* of the S. lineaius above- fnT!!!'''! * ^^yy^f^ about a quarter of an inch long, legless, and much wnnkled, and of a whitish colour. The head was ochrey and furnished with dark brown jaws. Some of The specimens sent ceased feeding and formed hollow chambers in bednW of T^' '*^ "^ ''"^' ^^^ ^* ^^' ^^^1 «f W aiiS Qfifi nf^ June some were turned to chrysalids. By the Hnll 1 TI*/l*^^ ^^^g^*« ^^ *b^ field at Boynton Hall were reported to have (as far as was observable) changed chrvsS 'if*'*'' r^ *^' ^''^^^«' ^^'^^ *^« e^^'lie^t formed Chrysalids, began to appear about the 20th of June. This were ^n' iZ^ '""^ u '' ^^'J °^ *^' ^^^*°^y- 1^^*^^* ^n there were, m the year observed, great numbers of weevils to be seeii. noted i^niS«*9f? fn p^J^'^^ty' continuing his observations, noted on the 2l6t of October, - The roots of Clover have now no larvae near them. I have examined a great many. On inf. 1 r^^'' ^^'^^ination of a great number of Clover- roots showed presence of Sitones maggots in all stales oJ growth, some evidently just hatched, others nearly oiS mbnV^T^l examination on the 28th of Decembei- and the Lown b,^f n^f ^ following showed maggots, sometimes full- ^ mT ' ^^ chrysalis condition." cnhrZ""!- ^•''' ^^^ l;istory,_the commencement of attack in autumn, originatea by the summer brood of beetles : and Sr^h'^ "^'P*' ^!.f^^ Clover-roots recorded at interval during the winter, until m spring they turn to chrysalids, PEA AKD CLOVER WEEVILS. 167 from which the beetles come out in June; and to this— though possibly some of the beetles visible in March may have developed early— we must add the presence of the hybernated specimens which have lived in shelter through the winter. PitEVENTioN AND Eemedies.— Some little could be done to begin with, in years when attack is prevalent, by destroying the weevils "wholesale." In 1882 Mr. Christy noted they were so plentiful that "at harvest-time the weevils were abundant on the young Clover, the platforms of the ' reapers' bemg literally covered by them, and they could be swept out of the carts when carrying Peas and Beans by thousands." And in the following year Mr. D. Turvill, writing" of the vast number of these pests on his land near Alton, Hants, men- tioned the Peas were swarming with weevils ; they lay thickly covering the floor of the waggons, and in the barn were creeping away from the Peas and covering everything. Under such circumstances, sweeping them down into pails of any sticky mud which would stifle them, or on to tarred boards, would be a simple way of preventing multitudes from flying to the Clover-fields to lay the eggs which start the autumn brood, or secreting themselves in winter shelters to continue damage to leafage early in the following spring. Sometimes they may be found hybernating outside Clover- stacks; sometimes in the fields down the pipes of stubble. The Eev. J. C. Clutterbuck, of Long Wittenham, Abingdon, who gave much attention to this subject, wrote me,—" "We traced the sometimes total loss of Trifolkim to this source, as we found the insects in the top joint of the stubble, amongst which we generally drilled the Trifolium incarnatum without ploughing. We lightly skimmed the stubble, and so deprived the weevil of its habitat and refuge ; and we believe we abated the evil." After a heavy snowstorm early in January in 1888, great numbers of these Sitones beetles were found by Mr. Christy in a torpid state, on the surface of the snow in a field of Barley stubble, where the tips of the stubble were just above the snow. Apparently these had crept out from their shelters during or after the enow and been caught by the sharp frost. It appears very doubtful whether top-dressings would have any effect in killing the maggots in the ground, but they might do a great deal towards lessening the amount of damage from their presence. In the experiments tried at Eothamstead in 1889 (see p. 54), relatively to checking Clover stem-sickness, the applications of sulphate of am- monia and sulphate of potash mixed pushed the plants well l68 PEAS. on past the Stem Eelworm attack, and gave a very good resu t as to p ant growth, although they had no a/paS effect on the Sitones maggot, which remained at the roots in plenty, and this pomt is well worth consideration. These weevil maggots as m various instances recorded in 1882. both 0 Peas and Clover-crops, are capable of causing injury and xt 18 in only some cases that destruction of stubble can be managed m order to clear the beetles (as a preventive mwif '^ ' if ^^^^"°g to standing crops to push them into giowth, and to young crops cultivation and manuring of the land, suited to push on a hearty and rapid growth from the first sproutmg of the seed, are important mefns of ten ng btTefoiXttg'e'"^" ^'^ "^^^^^^ '^^^^^^^^^"^^ - *^' Pea-crops suffer most from attacks of the weevil in their «^'^^+h*T'/^ ^'°''*^' ^' f *^^' t^°^^ the plants are tender and the leafage young, and therefore more Hable toiniurv also the number ol beetles that would do but little harm to a of Sv?r''T.^^rS'?r ^''*'*^y °^^ ^^th only a dozen or so 1^^ ^* Ju°" i ^^ ^"Pt in view that a stunted growth, 1^1 o/ T'^t ^^ !^' ^?*^f' °^ ^^th«^ of cultivation of the soil, or the character of the season, increases the evil by of Irowth "^ ^°' ^ ^°''^'' *^^' ^^ *h^« ^"t^«^^ «t^SO To obviate these difficulties it is desirable to provide a good l1;^'S^''l^^t: ^'^ffi^ie^tly moist, and rich in available plant-food which may be obtained to a certain extent by Peas following Cabbage or root-crops in the rotation. In garden cultivation, besides the liberal supply of manure needed to run on a healthy growth, it has been fo^nd to theTrrriw \l ^' P ' h**^^,,hpken turf and wood-ashes along The attacks of the weevils are noted as being worst in dry weather, and good syringings with water, or any addition thought fit, such as would make the plants distasteful to he beetles and encourage healthy growth, would be serviceable. As Jar as 1 am aware, it was generally supposed uu to Insf year hat the Sitoncs fed by day, and sheltered themselves by ^iSLSi'"; F f ' ""l Tv^'^' ^"y convenient protection. In ?hII f.^^'"^ Insects' he notices that, in a specially bad attack of these weevils, which took place near Hertford at the end of March, 1844, "At this period of the year they issued from the ground from 9 to 10 o'clock in the morningf to feed all day upon the Peas and they retired under the clods of earth on the approach of evening." He also quotes an observation of their method of feeding, when (aff long POTATOES. — COLOtlADO UEETLE. 169 \ waiting on account of their phyness under observation) +hev were then "observed to feed by taking the edge of the leaf and holding it steadily between their legs," whilst thev devoured it as described. "^ In last year, however (1889), the Eev. Theodore Wood, if.l^.b., mentioned to me that he did not think that he had ever gone out with a lantern by night, and examined a row of growing Peas or Beans, without finding the beetles upon the leaves in hundreds, all busily nibbling away at the edges. At such times they are not nearly so susceptible to alarm, and do not fall at the vibration of a passing footstep." ... "I also find that a thick layer of soot is as efficacious as any- thing for keeping them away. Only this must always be renewed after a shower of rain." It was also noted, by Mr. Malcolm Dunn, of Dalkeith, an excellent authority m matters of injurious insect prevention, that a dressing of lime or soot given to the Peas (wetting them first to make it adhere) was an easily applied and genera ly effective remedy." Any dressing that was dis- tastelul to the beetles, which could be thrown on the ground along the rows of Peas, and fill in the crannies down which they hide when disturbed from their work above, would help to lessen the mischief. POTATOES. Colorado Beetle. Ihivyphom (hnmlirn'ota, Say. 1 aud 2, Colorado Beetle, magniHed, and nat. size ; 3, caterpillai- ; 1, eggs. 170 POTATOES. This^ beetle is not mentioned here as a "British Injurious insect nor as one which (from the experience and Imowledffe of Its hfe-history gamed since 1877) can be deemed hkely to be injurious to a serious extent in this country. It is however ot interest just to notice it, as at the above date the steady eastward advance of the pest raised grave fears of this scourge countr ^®"^^" ^°*^*° '''■°P« gaining a footing in this u '^Hu^F' ?^"^^^ P- ^^^' ^''^ ^aid 0" the young shoots or beneath the leaves of the Potato; the grubs are orange or reddish, and change to pupae in the ground; and the beetles are also distinguishable by their orange colour and by havinrr (besides a large black spear-shaped mark on the back) tel black stripes on the wmg-cases— five stripes upon each. Ihe natural home of this destructive beetle is in the Western btates of America ; and from Nebraska and Iowa it travelled eastward, until, in 1876, it reached the eastern shores of America ; and m the autumn of 1877 specimens were found at Liverpool in a cattle-boat from Texas, which were identified by Mr. And. Murray (who was despatched to investigate the matter officially) as the " Colorado Beetle." From what we now know of its life-history (as well as from the fact that, though nearly fourteen years have passed since it was first certainly known to have reached one of our seaports m this country, it has as yet made no settlement) we mav reasonably believe that we are not likely to suffer from its ravages. "^ Should it, however, make its appearance, something (it might be hoped) would be done in the way of Phevention by the Oxder in Council pubhshed in the supplement to the 'London Gazette, August 17th, 1877. By this it is provided that-If the owner of, or any person having the charge of, any crop of Potatoes or other vegetable, or substance, finds or knows to be found thereon the Colorado Beetle, in any stage of existence, he shall with all practicable speed give notice of the same to a constable of the Police establishment of the locality (the duties ot the Police are unnecessary to be entered on); but it is further provided that it shall not be lawful for any person to sell, keep, or distribute living specimens of the Colorado Beetle in any stage, and any person failing to do anything he is re- quired by this Order to do is for each offence liable to a penalty not exceeding ten pounds. ^ . With regard to Eemedy probably there is no other injurious insect attack of which the remedy is so certainly known. The widespread practice of the United States and Canada has ^ng shown the cure for attack of the Colorado Beetle to be Pans (xreen, and if ever we should have the misfortune to be ' POTATO PROO FLY. 171 visited by this pest, immediate and certain measures of destruction could be applied within a couple of days of receipt of intelligence of its presence. ^ Potato Frog Fly. Euptmjx sohmi, Curtis. I - ^ 1 and 2, eggs ; 3 and 4, pupro ; 5 and C, Frog Flies, nat. size and magnified. This insect feeds in all its stages by inserting its sucker into the stem or leaf of the Potato, and drawing out the sap. Ihe eggs (figured above) are white and shuttle-shaped, and are to be found upon the under side of the Potato-leaves. The larva, which is much Hke the parent Frog Fly in shape, but without wmgs, IS green when hatched, and is furnished with six legs, two horns, and a sucker; in the next stage (the pupa) It is green, nearly as large as the parents, but narrower: with black eyes, long black horns, and a stout sucker, by means of which it feeds until ready to change to the perfect insect. It then fixes itself firmly by its six legs to a stalk or leaf, the skm bursts along the back, and through the opening the perfect insect creeps out, leaving the deserted case stand- w& ^^..^^ ^^^^7 insect-skin on the plant, or fallen beneath it. This 'Frog Fly '' is bright green, fading after death to a yellow tint, with short horns, brown eyes, and four iridescent wings less than a quarter of an inch in expanse ; the upper pair glossy, somewhat rusty at the tips, and twice as long as the body; the lower pair exceedingly delicate. The length of the insect is about a twelfth of an inch. Tii^^S.^^^^ ^^® ^^^y ^®^^'^^ ^^^^^^ *<^ *^e common Cuckoo Spit My {Tetttgoma spiimaria), but they have not the power, like the Cuckoo Spit or " Froth Fly," of secreting a mass of frothy matter round them in their larval stages. It does not appear that, as yet, this fly has been noted as causing any serious mischief to Potatoes needing prevention or remedy, and I have scarcely ever received enquiries as to Its attacks, but as it is sometimes very abundant on the plants 172 POTATOES. in tho latter part of tho summer I have inserted the above account, oxtracted entirely from Curtia'a ' I'arm Imsects.' Death's-Head Moth. Avhcnmtio atropos, Linn. Vk^i^s^tsa-"""-- Death's-Head Moth nud cateipillm-. The caterpillar of this moth is sometimes found in great numbers feeding on Potato-leaves, but it seldom docs any serious amount of damage. ^ When full-grown these caterpillars arc of great size, some- times measuring four or five inches in length. They are thick and flesby, with a pair of feet on each of the three segments behind the head, four pairs of sucker-feet, and another pair set close together beneath the last segment which act as claspers. Above this pair, on the back of the caterpillar, is a protuberance like a tail or horn, tubercled, and bent down- wards, but turned up again at the tip. The head is horny, and furmshed mih strong jaws. The- colour is generally yelow, or greenish yellow, speckled with black on the back with seven slanting stripes of blue or lilac on each side : the upper end of these stripes forms a kind of row of points, where they meet along the back, the lower end points forward, and s white or bordered by a white line. When about to change, the caterpillar turns to a lurid yellowish or reddish tint. It then goes down mto the earth, throws off its skin, and turns to a large chestnut-coloured chrysalis. The caterpillars that DEATH B-IIRAn MOTIT. 178 change in July como out as motlis in September and October; thoHo tliat cluin<,'u in the autumn do not como out till the following,' spring. The moth is tho largest of the British kinds. The spread of tho wings is from four to five or oven six inches. Tho fore wings are of a rich brown, varied with yellowish or rusty tints, with black lines or cross-bands much waved and icigzagged ; they have a pale or ochre-coloured spot in tho middle, and are sprinkled with small white dots. The hind wings have the margin slightly scooped out, and are bright orange, with two brown or black bands, the outermost l)eing broadest. The head is black; the back has markings, in its thick black velvety down, of pale ochro and orange colour, (ixactly like a pamtmg of a skull or death's head, whence tho name of tho moth. The abdomen is yellow, with six black bands across; and a line or vovf of spots down the centre, and tho tip of tho tail, are of a bluish grey colour. Where tho eggs are laid does not appear to be noted. When the moth is alarmed it makes a sharp squeaking plaintive cry, not unlike the squeak of a mouse. It is said to enter Bee-hives and rob the Bees of their honey, whence the name sometimes given of Bee Tiger-Moth. Prevention and Eemedies.— The caterpillar usually hides by day, and comes out in the evening or at night to feed. If it should occur in sufficient numbers to cause serious damage, it would be well for the owner of the Potatoes, ov some one interested in the matter, to go through the field carefully at different times and ascertain when these great grubs are feeding. From their large size they are distinguishable in the twilight of tho evening, or in a clear moonlight, so that, when it has been made out at what time they are to be found they might be easily got rid of by hand-picking. 174 BLU08, SLUGS. Sl^^l °a, ^*^^y ^^^^' ■^*'"*^'^ "^''''•''''»' I^inn- Black Slugs. Arion ater, Linn. ; and A. hortmsis, Ferussao. l,L.a9resUs: 2, L. ater (less than life size); 3, L. ater (var. empiricorum) in repose ; 4, eggs. ^ ^ ' Slugs are injurious to almost every kind of crop: therefore hlldZT ''^'''^^ ^ rightly placed under any^spe Lu^^^^^^^^ heading, I give a note of them under their own name and insects'2 ^'''^'' *^'^ ""'' '""^^'^^ ^^'''^' mTheir^nature "o The true Slugs may be generally described (when extended or m movement) as being long, more or less Se's Wd kinTl°' *r ^' ^?"^ prominent, '' tentacles '^(comSly known as horns) four m number, and two eyes placed ^ the tips of the uppermost pair of horns (see figs^l and 2). When at rest or alarmed they draw themselves together into a lump as shown at fig. 3. Kugamer The Field or Milky Slug, L. agrestis, figured above fc « somewhat spindle-shaped lind, about an inch and a third *u *^Y^ H^°?^ *° *^^ Division Mollusca, thus described " AnJmoi ;„ • one or several pieces common? caHed a hell " Tr«nt T''°'\\ ^T'?""^ °^ " Manuel de Malacologie et rConchyLlode '' ^vph fn%n°™ k^? Blamville's gical Manual,' p. 3. The Shell Zaif° Pond sS-- ^""f^'^y^ Concholo- Mussels, are familiar example7of Molluscs wUhsS^^^ Q?"''"^' ^^^ ^''"^ have a small morsel of a kind of Xll iftl f!.^ ♦• ' *^^ *^"? ^^"^^ o"* Lhmcidce Places on ,he ta ^.IVfteValKSrVrrSST^rn.?'^-'^'^ PIKLD OR MILKY SLUG ; BLACK 8LU0. 175 long, greyish in colour, and with milky slime: it is verv common m fields, gardens and woods. The Arions, or Black Slugs, of which one kind is figured in repose at fig. 3 (p. 174), and less than nat. size at fig. 2. are partly distinguishable by the skin being wrinkled and the shield on the back shagreoned. Both kinds are common Anon ater is as much as four inches long; A. hortensia is about the same length as the Milky Slug, but long in propor- tion to Its size. The colour is wonderfully variable, being brown, red yellow, grey, greenish, or black," usually some- what striped along the back and sides, and covered with coarse oblong tubercles ; the foot (lowest surface) bordered with some shade of yellow or red, or with grey; slime yellowish or whitish. o j . These Arions, or Black Slugs, are stated to lay their eggs separately under ground.* ^^ Prevention and Eemedies.— Slugs, as is well known frequent damp spots, and lay their eggs in the ground or at the roots of Grass and other plants, and come out to feed in the evening when the heat of the day is gone by, or, if the weather IS mild and damp, after a shower they may be found during the day. ^ ^ The time when they are out at feed is one important point to be considered in methods of prevention, and so also (and very especially) is the circumstance that the Slug can exude shme, so that it can " moult-off," as it were, a coating of lime or other obnoxious dressing thrown on it, and thus (quite getting rid of it together with the slime) be no worse for one application of any ordinary dressing. This moulting the Slug cjan do a few times successively, but after the operation has been repeated two or three (or at least a very few times) the creature requires an interval to regain the power ; the slime reservoirs, or power of exuding slime, are exhausted for the time being, and the obnoxious dressing consequently takes effect on the skin of the Slug and kills it. Where there is bad Slug-attack in fields, attention is parti- cularly needed to these points. On m-occupied land such a heavy dressing of gas-lime, or quick-lime, or salt, may be put on, that wherever the Slug crawls there is the obnoxious stuff, and it soon loses its slime-producing power and perishes* But very often, where crops are infested, lime is only thrown ill the middle of the day or at any convenient time, just when the Slugs are sheltered from the dressings falhng on them, * The above descriptions are taken from 'British Conchology,' by T Gwvnn Jcftreys, E.K.S., Vol. i., to which the reader is referred for much useful in. formation both as to habits and scientiac distinctions of the Limacida: 176 SliT'Ofl. and aB it soon slacks it does very little towards gottin^ rid of ho infesta .on 1 have soon tho Slug resting as comfcn-tably m the slacked hmo as it would under a stone. Or again, if one dressing is given in the morning or when the Slugs are out at feed, it often happens that it is not sekeT "^ ""''*'"''' ^'^''''' *''" ^^"^" '''''' i''"*°'* ^^'^"^' To do good the dressing should bo thrown in the evening, when the Slugs are at feed, and again the following morning. 1 the b ugs should again reappear next evening, the dressing should be given again, but if it has been properly applied, probably there will be no need. pp"^u, These common pests were reported as being very injurious at various^ places, during the suinmor in the year 1888, and the following observations give an example of the success of this treatment. On July 31st I was favoured with a note from Lord Portman relatively to Slugs, which were causing much harm to his Turnip crops at Bryanston, Blandford. The specimens for- warded were mainly of the Field Slug (Limax agrestis), together with a very few of the Avion hortensis, sometimes known as the Black Slug. The attack, which was to Turnips on land broken up after Clover, which had been mown in two successive years, was very severe. The Turnips had been resown twice, and on each occasion the plant had been destroyed by being eaten just above the root and below the leaf. Salt had no effect, and lime also failed. ' Looking at the points noted above, I suggested that the dressings should be repeated several times, the applications following each other as near together as could be ; and the result, as shown by the note given by permission of Lord fortman, was a thorough clearance. It is nientioned:-- We ploughed a furrow round the attacked plot, and filled it with quick-lime to cut off pest in- vaders. We fed the adjoining land very close with sheep and cured any Slugs therein. We then dressed the Turnip land T? ^ ^'J*"^.? ""/ soot and lime in one part and salt m the other. The first day did but little good; the second doses were effectual, and, bemg repeated at dawn and dusk, killed the enemy. " The soot and lime acted best. "We have now a good crop of Eape, which was sown when the Turnips were devoured, and of Turnips in the parts which were saved by repeated dressings." This plan has been found since then to answer very well where there was bad infestation. "^ TURNIPS. — TURNIP APHIS. 177 ecfs'lnd 'frf ^t^rT'^''? ° • *^^' ^''^""^^ «° ^« *« ^'^^ow out the eggs, ana in gardens cleariiv awav all the diflFfirfinf .•..i.t.;oU amongst ^hioh theyshoUc. Aso slZ^CM^n^l^^f, morning, aie woll-known remedies. "'^ j TURNIPS. Turnip Aphis (Green Ply). Aphis rap. , A. /lor is.mpa>, Cnvtls lihaixilosiphuin dianthi, Schrauk. 1-4, Aphis Jloris-rapa; 6-8, A. rapa, nat. size and magnified. This Aphis is common in the summer on many kinds of plan s, and IS especially hurtful to Turnips, Swedes, and Potatoes It IS chiefly to be found on the under side of the leaves, but sometimes occurs in such numbers as to smother the plants ; and the vast swarms of Green Fly which at times fill the air, as in the autumn of 1834 and in 1868, are believed to have been of this species. ^^cxieveu The Aphis is very variable in appearance; the wingless viviparous female is of some shade of green or yellow, but often of an ochreous-red in autumn ; the winged viviparous female is for the most part black, with reddish yellow abdomen' N 178 TURNIPS. striped and spotted with black; ochreous legs; and wings yellow at the base, with yellow main vuiu ; the insect is, however, sometimes entirely black, ochreous, or green. The variety Jloris-ropce that is mentioned by Curtis as found on llower -stalks of the Turnip is described by him as dull pale green, dusted with white, and with dots and markings of black.— (' ]\ron. of Brit. Aphides ' ; ' Farm Insects.') Pbevention and Remedies.— The great difficulty in field- cultiyation has arisen from the want of any implement adapted to distribute fluid-dressings in the requisite manner at a reasonable cost. This difficulty (so far as trials of experimental workings show) has been removed by the invention of the pneumatic drill known as the Strawsonizer. So far as we see the workings, this implement would be precisely what is needed ior remedy of this attack. The spray could either be distributed gently, so as to coat tfie leaves with the dressing above and below ; or it could be driven with a power which would at once wash oft not only vast numbers of the Aphides (hce), but also the nlth accompanying, to the great benefit of the plants ; further, the refreshment of the plant, from the general moisture of the washings wliich wouM run down into the earth, wou.d of themselves be a great help against the Green iUy which is worst in the hot weather, and multiplies most quickly ok plants failing under drought. Wnerever the state or arrangement of the crop allowed the implement to be drawn along the drills, as good results might be expected in wasliing for Turnip as for Hop Aphis. ,. With regard to the nature of the appHcations, one great difficulty in counteracting Aphis-attack arises from the skin ot the Aphis being often of such a nature, or covered with a mealy secretion of such a nature, as repels water, and conse- quently many of the applications simply run off them, w^^'^hout doing us any good; but if a basis of soft-soao is given, so as to make the wash adhere, whatever Aphis-poison is preferred such as quassia, paraffin, or any other deterrent, will do good' A proportion of twenty-eight pounds of soft-soap, and half a pound of tobacco, m a hundred gallons of water, is a well- known wash for clearing Hop Aphis, and would be likely to answer as well for the Turnip pests. I have myself found soft-soap and paraffin wash answer well, and as the ivcip-^ is one of the surest and simplest that I have met with, I give it as placed in my hands. i„+: M^'"?i'^''^'C?' '"''^ I'^f^ ''^" '^^^"^g were worked out by the late Mr. Alex, bhearer, while at Yester, Haddin«tonshi/e :- ■ '- '■'— 'wts of solt water add ' dim I part of black (soft) soap, TURNIP APHIS. 179 oil, and boil for a m nufe o, fin ?^"' "' ^^^ '''^^''' ^^^^^^1 be thoroughly amaSed ^ Th X^.^Tf t ",'f ""J course depends on the amount of mineral oil! if T^S*-?" ^^ be easily reduced to the proper poTerTv ml "if^^ '^2 water as it is wanted for Sse ''--(A 8 ) ^ ^°^* into„r„r ?t DaJ^„7ti\. ^''■"f- D«t Super. Scotland wherrthotVewaAt"4lv*^^^^^^^ str-teS?SHS^^ and water n any quantity, and^he Se wSl mix t^S!'^? an equal strength throuffhonf TrJf t!!] ^ together of water The bottles are about hllf-fiHed w ?h Ihp lv« °f Ijo, corked at once, and stored aw^y for uso!^ ^^ "" "'"""'S n2 L80 TURNIPS. cation is to be sure that no more than the prescribed quantity of fluid is added to a certain quantity of water. Sopie good may be done by copious syringings with such applications as ammoniacal water, tobacco-water, and soft- soap, the strength of the application being proportioned to what the leafage will bear. One part of gas-water or ammoniacal liquor to ten or twelve of water will kill Green Fly, but the strength of the liquor varies so much that experiment is necessary before use to ascertain its power. Aphides multiply most quickly in dry weather, and on plants which are sickly from drought, exhaustion by insect- attack, or other causes ; so that all measures of cultivation tending to produce vigorous healthy growth are serviceable in counteracting attack ; and where circumstances allow of the application of liquid manure, or of water to an extent to make the plant-food in the soil available, and push on growth that otherwise was being checked by drought, such treatment would be desirable. "Where new growth is not being made, and the juices are being constantly abstracted by the Green Fly, the plant necessarily fails, unless extra food is supplied to start it forward. Variouskinds of Titmice, and especially the Blue Tit, are of service in destroying Aphides ; and the common Ladybird Beetles and their larvse feed on them voraciously. Turnip Ply, or Plea Beetle. Haltica (Phyllotreta) nemorum, Linn. 1—3, 27. nmonim : 4 and 5, eggs ; 6-9, maggot ; 10 and 11, pupa ■ all nat. size and magnified. This is one of our most destructive kinds of insect attack to Turnips and allied crops. The F. nemorum (figured above, magnified, in the act of TURNIP FLV, OR FLEA BEETLE. 181 or i lea Beetle This is from a twelfth to an eighth of an inch «h,-nin2?;^^^"?'°''^i^ '^ '^.^P'' ^^^^^ °^ greenish black, n.J.^i^ punctured; the wing-cases have a distinct broad ochre- or sulphur-yellow streak running down the middle almost to the tips, where it bends slightly inward ; the horns are eleven-jointed and black, excepting the three Ss nearest the head, which are some shade of yeUowfthe thTghs lltef wUW? r^T"^^' J^^* red-yellow'^or testaceout or tipped with pitch-colour But with regard to its appearance mill tTI^^^^!'' ^f'¥ ^"^ S^^^^^^ ^«e' ^e a" know the small blackish shmy beetles to be found in myriads, in fine sunny weather gnawing holes in the Turnip-leaves as long as they are undisturbed, but skipping off as briskly as the fleas with. ^^ *^^' °''' °^ *^'^ ^^^''' ^^ ^^^^g Meddled v.=^l'S'' -l"', ^^TJS''^ *^''^ '^ *he P. undulata, much resembling It but slightly smaller ; the P. concinna, which is brassy, with a tooth on the second and hinder pairs of legs another kind is black, and dark blue above; another is of a blighter blue above ; but these are (as far as we know) alike m their method of livmg, in the harm they do, and the way m which they do it. The same methods of prevention or cure apply alike to all; it is almost impossible to distinguish them unless hey are caught, and however much they may vary in marking, still in the point of view in which we are ZTZt Jifa fte^^' "^^^ -"^ ""^ "^ »--^ *^^'^" During winter the Turnip Flea Beetles may be found sheltered under bark, fallen leaves, clods of earth, and the Ike places ; also amongst stubble, and especially in heaps of long strawy manure left on the fields ; and on particularly fine days they may be seen coming out to sun themselves. On the return of spring warmth they begin work, and, till the crops are ready for them, are especially to be found on weeds of the same family as the Turnip and Cabbage, such a^ Charlock, Shepherd's Purse, and Jack-by-the-Hedge. When the attack begins on the Turnip the female lays her eggs, which are few in number, for successive days on the T^\l'^' -^ *^ T"^^ ^'^^- ^^' ^agg°t«' which hatch from these m en days, are white or yellowish, fleshy, and cylindrical; with three pairs of feet in front, aid a sucker- foo at the end of the tail. The head is 'furnished wfth cutting jaws, and has large dark eyes. Directly they are of f'lIi'lA^'^ T""^. ^^T^""' *^' ^^^^^^ «ki" i^to the pulp ^ ...^ ,v«., anu maiio ihcir way onwardn, forming windine burrows mside it. Here they feed for about six days! then 182 iroRNiPs. they come out and bury themselves (keeping near the Tm-nip) not quite two inches deep in the ground, when they turn into the chrysalis stage, from which the "Turnip Fly" or "Flea Beetle " comes up in about fourteen days. It is in this state that the so-called "Fly" does most mischief. It gnaws the seed-leaves, and the young plant when it first springs, and thus often totally destroys it ; and also gnaws the rough leaves, forming large holes through the leaf. There may be five or six broods in a season. Much mischief is caused by Turnip Fly attack yearly, and especially m dry seasons; but in 1881, the year of the most general and severe attack, ever, as far as I am aware, recorded, the visitation of Turnip Fly was nothing less than a national calamity. The severity of the attack suggested that if, whilst the amount of injury was still fresh in the memory, those possessed of information would give details of the extent of the losses sustained, and of any means found practically of use, either in preventing or remedying attack, suchinformation would be of great service to us all. With this view, and with the valuable aid accorded me by the courtesy of Mr. J. Dent-Dent, President of the Eoyal Agricultural Society of England, Mr. C. Whitehead, Chair- man of the Seeds and Plants Diseases Committee and now Agricultural Adviser to the Board of Agriculture, and other influential agriculturists, circulars were forwarded by myself to various localities throughout England and Scotland, and I was favoured with much valuable information in reply, both as to statistics of loss and measures lying in the common arrangements of good cultivation which' were known to be of practical service in checking the evil. This information I pubhshed m a special Eeport entitled, 'Observations of attack of Turnip Fly in 1881,' and in the following pages I give some extracts, more especially bearing on the measures of cultivation found to press on the good growth needed to carry iurnip-plant m its first leafage past attack of the " Fly." Taking first the observations sent of the extent of the Turnip Fly attack in England, it appeared that in the localities from which returns were sent in twenty-two of the English counties that re-sowing almost invariably took place to a greater or less extent once, in many cases twice, in some three times. The acreage under Turnips and Swedes in the twenty-two English counties reported on, was on the 4th of June, 1881, as stated in the agricultural returns of Great Britain. 1.149.708 acres* a^rl fmrn iha vr-^rv*" "onf i- —. — .-if J! ' i 1. 'm •"~^, ^ " ■^''-' ^-ptfitJD Dent tu my Sell of amount of Turnip Fly infestation, it might fairly be pre- feumed that it was generally present in the counties reported I >>' ItJRNiP FLY, on ILEA BEETLE. 183 from._ If, however, we take half the total of 1,149,768 acrea mentioned ahove, that is to say, 574,881 acres, as the area to be re-sown once in the counties under consideration (a calcu- lation which is probahly much below the real amount), we shall get a basis for an estimate. 1^*- Taking loss on seed alone for one re-sowing ; if we take the price of seed at ^d. per pound, and three pounds per acre as the quantity needed, this loss would amount to ^64,674 9s. Od. 2nd. Taking loss on one re-sowing of the same amount of acreage, including outlay for scuffling, harrowing, rolling, drilhng seed, and possibly some additional superphosphate, we cannot well put the cost per acre under 15s. (if plouf^hing instead of scuffling should be required, it would bo some shillings more, say 5s.) ; but taking the outlay as 15s., this would amount to the sum of £431,163 on the 574,884 acres. If, according to the estimate of some of our agriculturists, much better able to estimate outlay per acre than myself, this should be put at £1 rather than 15s., the loss of course agrees in numbers of pounds with the acreage, £574,884 on 674,884 acres. In Scotland Turnip Fly was present in various localities, or was generally prevalent to a serious extent in eleven counties. The acreage under Turnips and Swedes in these eleven counties, as stated in the Government returns quoted above, was 194,105 acres. Half of this total of 194,105 acres is 97,052, and, following the previous method of calculation, the loss on this would be for seed £10,918 7s.; for one re-sowing at 15s. per acre, £72,789 ; for one re-sowing at 20s. per acre, £97,052. The loss therefore on the amount of acreage named in the twenty-two English and eleven Scottish counties would at the above estimate stand thus :— For seed alone, £75,592 16s. : for one re-sowing, including seed and cultivation at the rate of 15s. per acre, £503,952 ; the same at the rate of 20s. per acre, £671,936. This amounts to just a little more (or considerably more) than half a million, if the larger rate of 20s. per acre is taken; but though the direct amount of money loss on unreturned outlay for seed and re-sowings in the districts known to have been attacked amounts to this enormous sum, and can at least be fairly well estimated, beyond this there is still a heavy loss to be conside? <: i on lesser value of the White Turnip than the Swede crop, cii.i also on the deficiency of the late-sown crops, as well as in some cases the total loss". Also the deficiency of crop afl'octs other points of agricul- tural supply, as want of cattle-food, and consequent lesser 184 fURNIPg. I&it !lli supply of manure, depreciation Of price Of Stock &c • so thnf It IS almost impossible to say how far the loss eitend^ ioltkZlhloTfV '''''''''' .^"^ other' detans by which ferred to bnf T '^^'^^f^^^^^f' are given in my Report above re- IS especially fond of fTini-inM. ri. ''^^^^-'^y-'^iie-Hedge, and ihi^rte S#'? F<-=^^^^ cleared by broad shnrw/^ '' °^."''' small weeds may be ciently to^inducelmmpdl fl^' '''^' ^'' *^"« ^^^^^^^ suffi- regular prolels of cuiti^^^^^^^^^^ TvT^ \'H land and hedge-sides RbmilSoi u ?f °?\ ^^^^*^ spo*s of often overrun with S^^^^^^^ ^' ^* f^^^^ t*^' ^^^ fi^'s* is fested witWhp fall 1^ , ^^'J^^®' ^lie second is often in- w7th whl^otrslJStrl Pl-^ as " Jack-by-the-Hedgo -^ Charlock-blossom, known ye2: rlntefpSf L^tln? «t? '^ ^"^^^^^^"^ ^^ ^^^^^^^y plants through a tack in I ^^ ^ ^^'' ^"^^""^ ^* l^^s* of the Led on^owidle of /h«^. /'^/T'.^" ^^ ^^^^^ to be habits of the Turnt Fly ""^^ ^^ *^' Turnip-plant and the moltr'e^ tl^^J^^'^^'^' ^^^ "^^^^ Plenty of food and attacks of the Turnb Flv'r«^" T P'"^'' on growth ; and the xie iuuiip J^ iy aie most serious in heat and drought, !i! TtJmtP FLY, OR FLfiA BEETLE. m for in such weather the " Flv " or " FIah " p^^h^^ ^ of the Vknf « w?- ^i""^ '^.T"^^.* *°S'*^^^ ^«^P b'^ck the growth fly-ravi?e F7o«f n^ u'' •^'. ''P°.''^ ^'' ^ ^^^^^^ time to Z,; 1 • § r °f, ' °^ ^°^^ ^^*h drought, or cold with rain or Burfaoe of the ground which has been m uLd by e.PoS ^e^^^tZr^f'" '°%r''' 8"'^^ * fi°« '""■- suitable for germmation, retains moisture evenly, and eivea it n.,t oiToj,, Deen all the less food and sheltfir fnr +iin At, ;^ • a , «P™«i 7^ consequently its riKttack.'^ '" '"'" ^"* h,M« % ""itivatim found most mitaUc for vmhim on few hundredweights of good artificial maLrlappl ed e^thpt After a long experience I never saw a failure of a briird nf ^Bfi^^-- ^Te St tesf" '^^- The application of soot, lime, nitrate of soda, or guano, 186 I'tBNlPS. does much to save a crop (although much bitten by the fly) Xt^ntl^L ^r'''''' '^^"- ^^''^i^^^^ S^o^"^ i« of course tlie gieat aim under any varying circumstance8."-(Eobert Vallentine Burcott Farm, Leighton Buzzard.) ^ On slron^ InT""!" ''*'^ '??. '' P^ "^^ ^''^^''^ importance. Un stiong land autumn cultivation is essential ; such soils. ctdSv^ Afir '"^"^'^^^^^^y l^efore sowing, invariably work e^oddy. At this season evaporation proceeds rapidly, and the Iwlv^^nJ' """'' dissipated; henceSegetation tales pla e they appear '^^' ^""^ *^' ^'""^ ^^^^*« ^'' ^^*^" ^^ ^« "When the land is manured and receives a deep furrow during dry weather in autumn, the ameliorating effects of the HlnllowT m^ ^T* 'rY' ^^' ^^^'^^^^ *« ^ fi^^^ tilth, and a shallow scuffling, to destroy the growth of annual weeds ^ro^h n?T^' ^''''V. ^^'' ^"^^*"^^' i^^^^'i^g ^ rapid giowtn ot the young plants. '' On the best Turnip land of the Midland Counties we prefer ffinetfth^i^?d'Vf.*^'f °^^- ?^^^^^' ^^^^" r^duc^ed to a hne tilth, is ridged the farmyard and artificial are applied, and at once covered m, and the seed immediately sown whilst the soil IS still fresh, on ridges twenty-seven inches llZ\^ ^' T^T. ^?'' *^^^ *hree pounds of seedrwe the?n?^dTn/T'^fl*^''i'''^T ^ g^^^* preventive agains? the inroads of the fly. Even when large quantities of farm- yard manure are available we prefer an addition of two to three hundredweigh of artificial manures per acre, which rapidly pushes the plant through the time of its first leaves or cot^ledonous stage. In the chalks and drier climate of the wTlPr Z-irnt' 'T^ -^ *^'-^^*' ^''' ^^have found the watei -drill of great use in giving the young plants a speedy t^lZ^Tf^ '\T'''' . ^''^^ ^^J"^:^ i« often done by rolling Jvll f^ ^'^T t^\T^^'' '' ^"ite dry. and thus forming I crust, through which the young plants have great difficulty in forcing heir way. In short, a fine tilth, pleiity of seed sown at once before the moisture has time to evaporate, the land lightly rolled,_ and the use of a fair quantity of phosphate manures, are, m our experience, the be/t antidotes against the EtttrVal!S//^-''~^^^^^ ^^--^' ^«tal Office, " The Turnip Fly seldom attacks Turnips and the like stale fa low (that is, on land ploughed in the autumn and II om voeao auu. m u, iriaole stale, and are drilled in with Buperphosphate."-(Thos. H. Bakeri Mere, Wilts!) TURNIP FLY, on FLEA BEETLE. 187 As far as my experience goes, the fly does not go on stale mould as badly as on freshly turned-up soil, and is not very troublesome if the wintered or frosted mould is kept for the seed-bed. I have known the fly begin on one side of the field and spread rapidly over it, but I have never known them in anything like this quantity on stale ground (or what may be called Nature's seed-bed). Where land has to be cleaned in the spring, and large breadths grown, small remedies are unavailing."— (Clement Cadle, Gloucester.) The importance of a good fine tilth is especially and re- peatedly dwelt on, as in the following note,— one of many observations on this head : — " A fine tilth is most desirable ; the parts of a field first hopelessly injured are those where the surface is the roughest, the small clods causing the moisture to dry out more quickly, and affording shelter for the fly from breezes which they do not like. All the preventives I have seen applied either to the seedor to the crop when attacked have been total failures." — (Ihos. Hopkins, Limber Grange, Ulceby.) But advice is also strongly given that the requisite tilth or Imeness of the soil should be brought about by measures such as those advised above, which will leave the proper amount of moisture still in the soil " without having to knock it about too much m a dry hot time." ^ Thick solving, from three up in some cases to five or even nine pounds per acre, is advised or mentioned as successful by various growers, who state that thus, in case of hot dry weather, the plants will thrive better for the protection they give to e^ach other (being thus moderately damp, with the roots shaded), and that some may be reckoned on to escape the fly This, however, needs careful looking to, or the result will only be a worthless drawn growth. The importance of a good start to the plant cannot be over- rated, and the effect of a plentiful supply of moisture in helping early growth forward is undoubted. In ordinary conditions, however, it must be the preceding cultivation and treatment of the ground which must be trusted to for this. Ihe following notes give suggestions of what may be done where circumstances permit. "Anything that would accelerate vegetation would be the best means of saving the crop, but the reason the fly is so destruc- tive on bright hot days is because half-a-dozen bites on the tirst sinooth leaves of the Turnip-plant wound them so much that the scorching rays of the sun shrivel the plant quickly and completely; whereas, if the days wcro cool and cloudy, the plant might survive long enough to enable it to I8d TURNIPS. £T''''*/Tvf '■'^'l?^' /eaves Which the fly will not attack so fieely. — (Thos. Hopkins, Ulceby.) " In moist weather the flea is comparatively harmless : it is when dry parchmg weather sets in, just as the Turnips break ground that the attack is most to be dreaded. In such cases I ^f xu- °P,^"ion that a frequent use of the water-cart is the berlandT "^^''^^^^^^'^^ Hornsby, Holme Cultram, Cum- With regard to precise effect of watering on the germinating pJant, I can state, from such experiment as I have been able to make, that at the end of a fortnight from their appearance above ground, the plants from a patch of Turnips which had been watered (m a season of drought) on either two or three evenmgs, weighed one quarter or rather more than the plants irom precisely the same measure of ground close by, and in exactly the same circumstances, excepting that they had not been watered. — (Ed.) "As to the effect of sowing in dry seasons with the water- Una I have always found the water-drill most successful in moist seasons. When the land is very dry, the amount of water put m hya water-drill is not sufficient to he of any service to the limnp-plant and sometimes it is sufficient to cause the seed to germinate, and then, if rain does not come, it dries up or malts m the land.* I have always, in a general way, found the water-drill starts the Turnips much quicker than the drv-drill and they generally are fit to single out a week earlier than if sown by dry-drill."-(Thos. H. Baker, Mere, Wilts.) The following notes refer more particularly to desirableness cultivS '"^ °^ *^^ '""'^ ^^' ^"^^ ^^*^^ *' In the neighbourhood of Ardkinglas, Inverary, only one field IS noted to have escaped ravage of Turnip Flv for miles round. This one field was a stubble, and in a damp locaKty lying along the banks of the Eiver Fyne, with high-lying fields opposite. It was not ploughed till shortly before sowing, a hue and moderately damp mould was turned up, the seed was immediately sown, and a fine braird and crop followed bevera instances of re-sowing proved abortive, but wherever the drills were well harrowed down and set up by the common smgle-plough fewer failures occurred."-(Thos, Wilkie, Cairn- dow, Argyllshire.) " I t^ink that surface moisture is a good preventive, and that tbe seed ought to be sown as soon after the ground is prepared tor its reception as can be, and the land not allowed to get dried."-(Thos. Brunton, Thame Park, Oxfordshire.) it by iSlios^-EB?^"''" "^ "" '""''^ importance tliat I have drawn attention to TURNIP FLY, OR FLEA BEETLE. 189 it is Vanoas viethoch of disturbing or driving away the fly, hu rolling, sheep-dnnng application of dressings, d-c. : the point oj many of these applications being made when the dew is on is v«r^ tm;;o,.^an<, not only because under these circumstances the di essings adhere to the leaves, but also when the Fly or Flea Beetle has Its limbs clogged by moisture it cannot use its hind lens for Its long flea-hke jumps ; consequently, much larger numbers of fly remain in reach of the dressings. Rolling.—" A process which has been practised with marked success by various farmers in the neighbourhood of IlSer ^, when the plants have got their second leaf, and the fly has made its appearance to roll them with a heavy horse roller beti^eenone and two o'clock of a summer's morning, when it is just light enough to see where to go. In some cases thfl process has to be repeated at a fortnight's ?nte?a, bu Z^^:^t:S^eir ^^^^^^•"-(«- ^- ^- ^^-fie^d, NortoiJ "It is my invariable practice, when I see the plants attacked llZl^'r^V ^'^'' ''ri^'''' *J^^^- The operation^ no fentm! Ms!) *"^'^"^"^ -ects."-(Charles Howard, r.ulff!'^^ "'Z^^'' '^^!t ^ P^^'' °^ T"^"^P« ' i* dusts the young plants, and 'firms' the soil to the iniurv of the flv hnf fn the benefit of the Turnips."-(W. J. ESnds LechUo doS nTf'^^/T'T ^'°? observations I fouid that the fly does not feed freely on dusty plants; so I have been in the habit of driving a flock of sheep o^^er the field as soon as the plants appear. This I found very beneficial, as if done ^4 m the morning when there is a little dew on he young leaves the fine dust adheres to them, and the fly will not feTon them until they have been washed. This remedy will not ac^ m rainy weather, but neither does the fly thTwork or if i does the plant soon outgrows the injury. If the sheep are driven about on the land more than once they will do no harm only a few plants will be disturbed. This remedy ?s a veTv (Jabez iurner, Norman Cross, Peterborough.) wi-fb lh«7 i? *° *^' '^"^^ Vy^^'^i^^, I was favoured, in 1877. with the following communication :— , ^o m . " The field of Turnips I drove sheep over was thirtv-seven aci-es; number of sheep, 400 to 500. The fly. when I slw 5 con aTd if bT'/'^'? ''''l^ '' ^' threai^n clearing Th crop and it had almost been decided to plough it up- but this treatment, which embodies disturbing and killing ianv of the insects by the treading, n,nrl whi^h al4 Se? -.^ leaves distasteful- for oviposition both by ruibing of th^ sh^en and the coat of dust scattered in dry weathel saved the 190 Tunrnps. plants and was followod by a Rood crop. This is no new tlUMg, UH I have many times dono ho. and tliereby saved the crop, which IS m no way injured by the treading. The only mjury is to the sheep, as they are not willing to be treated so. and require a dog to be used to keep them together, and at the same time make them take all the ground in turn. We drive the sheep over part of the field one day and part another, as It does sheep harm to keep them long without food, and also to drive them early in the day ; and this should be done at Jivem the morning, when the dew ia on the W."_(R. p. Tanner Ogbourne Maizey, Marlborough.) Dry dressings of various kinds, as lime, soot. &c., have long been known to be of service in checking fly attack, if applied at the right time of day.-that is. when the fly was quiet in the morning or evening or in dull damp weather, rather than m sunshiny times, when either by its powerful leaping legs, or by expanding its large wings from under their horny wing- cases, the fly might at once remove itself from dan<-er. Soot hme, road-dust and others of the usual applications have been found useful, and may all be serviceable if applied when he dew 18 on ; but the remedy that appears the best proved is the one noted by Mr. Fisher Hobbs as having never failed during the eight years in which he made use of it. I give the recipe and passage at length from his statement made before the Council of the Eoyal Agricultural Society, quoted in the lana I'^o ^^^'^^^cle and Agricultural Gazette ' for May 28, "One bushel of white gas-ashes" (gas-lime) "fresh from the gas-house, one bushel of fresh lime from the kiln, six pounds of sulphur, and ten pounds of soot, well mixed together and got to as fine a powder as possible, so that it may adhere to the young plant. The above is sufficient for two acres, when drilled at twenty-seven inches. It should be applied very early in the morning when the dew is on the /•T ■? *i^o^^?f «* machine being the most expeditious mode of distributing It ; or it may be sprinkled with the hand care- fully over the rows. If the fly continues troublesome, the process should be repeated ; by this means two hundred to two hundred and tvventy acres of Turnips, Swedes and Rape have been grown on my farm annually for eight or nine years without a rod of ground losing plants. The above is a strong dressing to be used when the fly is very numerous, and has never failed when a^^plied at night. Numerous experiments have been tried, and cmongst them I recommend the follow- ing in ordinary case:. ... T^ourteen pounds of sulphur, a:i:l two bushels of road-scrapings a few days before it is used, and 1.^1 one bushel o^ fresh per acre, mixed togii^hci TITRNIP FLY, OR FLRA BEETLE. 191 applied at night, cither by moans of a small drill or strewed along the rows by hand. I have known nuiphur niked w^i water apphed xn a liquid Btate by moans of wlao-^ the nigh and the horse-hoo immediately following the water" cart. This has Bucceeded admirably." ^ Many kinds of dressings would do good, but until latelv ore has been a great need oi some method orapnlyin^ thom oyer a larger area, more rapidly and far more com° p etely than could be done at a paying rate by ha^id ml difficulty as far as could bo judged both hy experiments (made before the public during 1888), and still morTfrom practical tnnl, with regard to checking attack of Cnip pTv appears o be quite met by the working of the imp ement propu-ly Known as Strawson's air-power distributor of pn S- ma ic drJl, popularly known as the Strawsonizer. ^ By the action of this implement, dressings, whether wet or dry. can be dispersed in a mist-like form, of such fineness a^ to coat the leaves delicately and finely, but horougWv and much more effectually than with hand-ch-essings^ ^ ^' Ihe following notes of successful work by means of this distributor in stopping attack of Turnip^Fly on badly! infested he ds, were placed in my hands, at my request resne^ tiyely by Mr. W. George Mount: M.P., of msinrPlace neT; Ne'wbur^i '^ ^'' ^''' ^"^'' '' Mousefield^Flrm; IZ In the case of Mr. Mount's Turnips, the dressing was given about 3 a.m., or earlier, in the morning, and at my reS he gave me result as follows :-- 1 sowed some Swedes on nine acres of land in May last year. Early in June the Fly was strongly upon them. I obtained the use of Mr Strawson s machine, and dressed part of four acres with lime part with paraffin ; both remedies seemed to be equally efe^ nece'ssary/' ' '^'" '''''^'^ "^^ '' '"^'^ *^"« ^^- if At Mr. Budd's farm the dressing was applied in the evening, and was as above, of paraffin oil, or of this mixp^ grounT'^Ther?: mty Xmhlp L 1 .u^ "" ^'"■' •""• *« Heart-and-Darl Moth habTs that tl.p"''" '" °'™''' !""•• '" 'heir appearance and head n,. ^ ""^ conveniently be placed under one TurS .'^ VtVr^^^^ ^^"^^g«' especially to luinips, but the amount of prevalence of the infestation is 200 TURNirS. || ! variable. In 1884 and 1885, respectively, they were at work in i^obruary and March, and were excessively 'injurious later m the year. In 1885 the main brunt of attack was reported during August, and observations sent of severe infestation of these burface Caterpillars at localities in Somersetshire, burrey, Worcestershire, Oxon, Salop, Lincolnshire, Wilts. Cxloucestershn-e, and from Co. Cork, Ireland; also before or after from Kent, Essex, Berks, and Staffordshire, together with notes of damage done to Swedes and White Turnips, Labbage plants (including seedlings just germinating, winter w w' ^°*^*oe«' ^^^^' &c.); and in the same year Mr. W. W. Orlenny, of Barking, an excellently qualified observer, reported : — * " In the autumn surface grubs were plentiful after the dry summer, and greedily devoured food of a varied character. It was diflicult to escape these omnivorous insects, for no field and no crop was free from their inroads. Amongst trans- plan ed Leeks and Cabbage they did most harm, yet they equally bit off, just near the top of the soil. Turnips, Spinach. Onions, Beetroot, Carrots, Lettuce, &c. Instead of describing which plarit tney prefer, it would be easier to say that there is no^ vegetable or herb they refuse. "The late Potatoes were damaged by them, and a fair piece of Magnum Bonums was attacked in such a manner that, though It would have been convenient to have allowed the crop to mature and ripen in the field, it was absolutely them'Tir' ^^ produce to prevent the grubs eating Taking the history of the Turnip Moth first :— The egg is laid durmg the summer, as early as June or towards autumn, and the caterpillars hatch in about a fortnight. These, when lull-grown ai;e about an inch or an inch and a half long, nearly as thick as a goose-quill, and smooth, with a few hairs : of a pale smoky colour, but sometimes pinkish, or purpHsh brown, and with two dark lines along the back and one along each side ; these lines, however, are not always distinct. The head IS horny, much narrower than the next ring, and is w *' '^.r,*,^'', ^•P^^''^ ^'^^' ^^^ ^«^y ' it i« of a pale dingy brown with black jaws ; ochreous eyes dotted with black, and a cross-hke mark on the face. The first ring brown, divided by three pale lines; on the other segments are four black dots (placed obliquely, two on each side of the central line), Axrl ®® ^*^ ^* *^® ^^^^ of t^e thighs. When first hatched, the caterpillars appear to feed chiefly above ground, choosiMg the part of the plant just at the sui- lace ot the eai^^^h (between the root and stoiii), and, thus gnawing off the tops, they destroy the crop to a serious extent; SURFACE CATKRPILLAR8. 201 rLnV/ Tu '*'T^'' *^'^7 S^ ^'"'•^her down* and generally WhZ 7hf^^ ""d^^-g^-^^^d or only come up at night to feeZ n!ii 1 ^ P^'''*' ^'' y^""« *^« caterpillars feed on those near them, gomg on to others as food gets short, gnawing off the tops as above mentioned, or feeding on the leaves, which after having cut through the leaf-stalks, they drag pa -tly down mto their burrows, to be eaten during the day.^ When nsideXT T ^''T^' '^' «^t«^-pi"ars establish themselves Tuvn?n fv,^ ^'' """"^ a«,«^a«y as twelve may be found in one anL^' ^T^ ^1?''^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^"<^ cavities, sometimes going completely through from one side to the other, and continue to feed there till the bulb is consumed, or tUl they nave to leave it on account of frost or some other cause. According to circumstances of climate, &c., they feed during the wmter or pass it in cells formed in the earth coming out to feed again in the early spring. In May «; June they turn to smooth brown chrysalids in the ground from which the moth appears in about a month. ® ' in thp'rTli ^'i *^'' ^?'^ :''''^' ^^ ^ P^^^ ^'^y ground-colour in the male, dark umber-brown in the female, with various markings, as figured ; the hind wings are plarly white clouded towards the hinder edge in the female, and with dark vnrL ,.?^^!t'°^'''''' S^ ?'^ ^""^y (including the abdomen) ,M« itif ^^^^P^^? «°l?ur of the fore wings, with the sex it is lighter in the males than in the females. Heart and Dart Moth, caterpillar, and chrysalis in earth-cell. and Dart Moth are similar to The habits of the Heart those of the preceding kind. This caterpillar is about an inch and a half long when full grown, of a dull lilac colour, with a paler and more ochreous stripe down the back, having one indistinct dark hne along each edge, and a double one aloncr the centre of the " jaws, and the first ring of the body behind the heid is horny 202 TURNIPS. and brown above, -uur n„,e tuberclea ™ ''tteLTof i "ch "an,?"'" ''r^ "T Th? car ' -fr^r'" h^i's a 'wt "dr g owH™ ™urof '« clods or stones, or benealhTe surface l^tfZk,,'" "'?"'''"' available rubbish. Thev cZo T.f^ \u ^°''^^' ""' '" ""y during the niX „„!7„ T °''' '° "''' evening and feed gnawfng the Selves off a the cZ„°"' P'T' '°/no'her and ravages^'n?o°o Tnd 0 trc^^" "'''^^"'r' ''^^^^^^^^ ticulfrly hurtful to root Tf GmsTTm"''?'' "'^P"" generally, — so mnch so tLt ko i * ? i "beat, or Corn •• Turni/koth "Ttl^ ^ll^ L^^^ fe^forXt^H^ fin?Cr;rnce™Thf c;;7'^''T "? ■"»=' -Jiffi™" '» the mischief SVey^h^odTeSd^r'^ '"'"™ ."^ "^^ mpossible to injure them by watS™ or flnf/f "''' "'"'"' application. ^ ^°^^ ^^"^ ''"'^ th" ilisagreeable GuMtrthosrstt-'l?- S"""""^"^"', °^-^^-'™<'^- x-aidsss ss»-r "- and reported thereon as followsl- ^ ^^'^^ caterpillars, reapers: tThs'a""£s? ^nSftal-o'nl^ °' ^"'^.^^f ^^^^^^^^ - witii larval trees, which they sometimes in ure to a sprmnu pvV J/ m?^ ai 210 ASH. after they are developed, allowing' rain or moisture to soali into the substance of the bark and cause decay. The larvre are small whitish fleshy legless maggots, much like those of Scohjtus ; the head is furnished with a pan- of jaws, by means of which the maggot gnaws its gallery beneath the bark, . , , r • The beetles are about the sixth of an mch long, ol various dusky shades from black to ochreous, covered with an ashy down beneath, and mottled with ashy or brownish scales above. The head is short and robust, horns red, lowest joint longest, and the end club-shaped and pointed at the tip ; body behind the head stout, convex ; abdomen short, ovate ; legs pitchy, and feet red, with the third joint deeply notched.* The following notes are from personal observation of the method of attack on trees newly-felled in the neighbourhood oflsleworth: — p » ., in The beetles appeared about the 19th of April, and alter wandering about on the bark for a few days the workings were begun by each beetle boring a circular hole just large enough to admit it. Here it was shortly joined by a companion, and pairing took place. • - j At about half an inch at most from the entrance, instead of cnrrying the tunnel straight forward (as with those of the Elm-bark Beetle), the workings forked, and the two galleries were carried on to right and left, until, in about five weeks they were at their full length, and the working was shaped much like a T with a short stem. During this time one beetle was usually to be found in each of the side galleries, but oc- casionally they were together. . By the 4th of July most of the parent beetles were dead m their burrows, and a few of the grubs, hatched from the eggs which had been laid along each side of the tunnels, had begun their borings ; about three weeks later these larval tunnels were to be found completed, and pupse were then fairly numerous in the cells formed by each larva at the end of its gallery. The beetles began to appear about the 10th of August : each beetle as it developed eating its way out, and soon, from the number of these perforations, giving the bark an appearance as if it had been riddled by shot-holes.— (See my observations pubHshed in 'Entomologist,' 1877.) Prevention and Remedies.— The damage caused by these beetles is chiefly to decayed or sickly trees, or to young trees ; the attacks on felled trunks are only of importance by serving to propagate the pest. *T\a " 3 " of the IMurgus pimin'nU (for reference to this, see Index) gives a good general idea cl the appearance of the Il.fraxini, a little larger than life. ASH-nAUK BEETLE. 211 ventinn Till A 1 I ] ""'""h 13 the beat method of m-n. loam with a iS re o^f uivd"l T* f '?''^-" " ^ ^^^ boggy soil or low ralf "ou„•" " to its continuous heaUhy grmrth "^^ "' ™' '"'"'^ brSriL^j^-St^attr™' "' '■"J-" - -f-'^i on too l^g'SouUu!;!"' ft'suff"""°"\^^ ""o^" '» -» exposure ; and where deaS^i f ?''''\""'<^J from the sudden removed, these Tttraot in JL^f'T ^"^^^ ''»™ "<>' been ruin of the wTolett1ns"r "'''''' ''^"'^ '^'"^^' *"> *"» «ud"tl.erSL:'frtVs:c?:tS^ Whore felled wood is fo, nd tl v. .*' '« •?'«% desirable. for bet f he'°n5"dTerfX'^^^ T'/t *°"'f "^ ™'*^'' found to be throTO out from fltiK °' ^"y, and if chips are ' t p2 212 BIRCH. BIRCH. Gall Mite, rhytoptus (? sp.) Gall Mite of the Birch, mag., nat. length two-hunclreclths of an inch ; egg, also greatly magnified ; deformed shoot (smaller than life). The "Witch -knot, or great bunch of twigs looking like a large bird's nest fallen at random amongst the branches of the Birch, may frequently be noticed ; and amongst the various forms of galls caused by Phytopti this neculiar growth of twigs in the Birch tree is of some interest, from the attack of the Gall Mites producing an increased development of woody growth from the infested buds, instead of— as is usually the case— leaf- galls, or diseased leaf-buds alone. As far as I am aware up to 1876 this special attack had not been studied, and the following observations on the origin and progress of this diseased formation were taken by myself in part from so-called " "Witches' Brooms " growing in Saver- nake Forest, near Marlborough, and also from growths on Birch trees planted by the roadside at Spring Grove, near Isleworth, which (probably from the unsuitableness of the situation) suffered so much from Gall Mite that, whilst resident there in 1876 and 1877, 1 was able to trace the effects of the infestation from the beginning.* The Phytoptm causing the diseased growth is greyish - white, cylindrical, and rarely exceeding one two-hundredth of an inch in length, and a quarter of that measure at its * In the 1st Edition of my ' Manual,' I gave a short note regarding this attack, which was all that space would permit, but now, as Ihe infestation is oi .,ome interest, I reprint by permission most of the information, together with the figures drawn by myself from life, from my paper given in the ' Entomologist,' vol. X., 1877 (No. 107). Messrs. Simpkin & Co., I ondon. GALL MITE. 213 make' t dTm n f ?"' '*' ^'^''V ^^^"S^*^°" ^^^^ contraction Sent V^^W *° g^^'^.Pore than an approximate measure- So;,,I?,'i";f /f '^5^? °^ *'^^ ^^g« to tl^o caudal foot the ^iiytoptm IS marked with transverse stri^i) of such minut(^npc,a as to give about a hundred to the length of thphodv +^1? • ne^KurinVS^^^^^^ ''^'T °^ -«k-- "ot -d tt of A?aS^^t f i • ^PP^^^^,^ges ^« clearly visible. In the act 01 walking the termmal portions of the leg are pressed down Wl \^^ ^^T^^ ^* "g^t angles with the partrabove and xtreS^^^^ ^^ 'r S^*^ ^ ^"^^" enLgement ^t tSe act oTbla V ' ?1^ ""^^'^ *^' ^^S ^« ^^'^^^ forward in the ward aHf «f?l?l/^' appendage may be seen curved back! burstiffZi^' ?h«^l''^'T''*' *^' ^^'y''^'''' ^'^^^ magnified, nX o ' ^ '. exceeding minuteness of the mite dvea ^^^m^ZutV'f'''^'''''- The caudalTxtS; and of free nJ'nf ^""^ fV^}\oi being curved downwards, roll M-I f ^^ ^? ^ ^^"<^a^ ^oot of sufficient power for the On a^ s dVoJI.'- ''^' °5 '\ f ^P!^*^^y ^^-^^ °f C support short dist.1?! *^^« Pa^da foot is a stout bristle, and at a back tC! %r^"'' P^"' ^' '^'^ °^ *^o upper part of the insertion of fL 1 ^'' ?^^''\^'^ placed-one just behind the aW thP 1 ^.'f?' *^^others at short distances from them the casp o f ^ '^ ^^!.^°1y^ ^^^^^ h^^-^ appear, excepting S after death h%'^fl '^'^?^''' *^ ^^ frequently deciduous havfna o i^.i but whether from their absence, or from not I wasLa 1 1?""*^ ^'"""'f^^ object-glass to discover them 01 und^r thP hnT "T^ *^^" ^^''' ^^^ P^i^« of bristles on theTn eit on fl.^ ^^' '°f ^8^*^^ f^^rows beneath, behind long ?ud ml ll ' F'^l °^ ^'8' ^^'^ °^ *^e ^^oad, with their ml movpd ">''' ^f. *^' movement of the mokh, as the d^scernTble *^' '"'^''' '^ ^^' ^"^^' were ' clearly «iwth om^*'"". ""■ }H Witch-knots begins with a diseased swpHp • ?^^te:i^fested bud, which is distinguishable by its Tnd is loosely-opened appearance, fLi the smS an I pointed shape ol the buds in healthv condition • and -ro h&cwe^^rb'v?, Yl ^'\ ^\'^^ '"^^ ^''^^' '^-fis ha4 been dTtiM?,L^^''/i^t' ''^'''h ^" ^^^althy growth would ^^e ocen distiibuted at distances of some inches along it. As Ir 214 iiiRcn. time goes on, re])eatod forkings of the twigs from these un- healthy and infested buds, and from successive growths of the same land, give rise to the knotted and confused masses known as Witches' Brooms. Sometimes these make little progress, and the knot merely resembles a rough mass like an old Eook's nest thrown down and hanging loosely from the Birch-bough; sometimes the twigs regain healthy growth, and pushing on for as much as a yard in length form a pendant mass of some beauty, from the delicacy and grace- fulness of the sprays. Buds of Birch infested by Gall Mite. The infested buds figured above, magnified at fig. 1, may be distinguished by their spheroidal shape, greater size, and loosely imbricated irregular scales, from the natural growths, which are smooth and lanceolate in general outline. A few months later (about the beginning of February), a touch to one of these distorted buds will often throw off all the diseased scales, and at their bases the coming growth will be found in the numerous minute round buds set close together on the common thickened centre, as shown (magnified) at fig. 2. The growth of the knot from these embryo buds is the work of years; but Avliilst the tree is still bare of leaves it may be found in every stage of progress : the shortened shoot beset with swollen buds, as (magnified) at fig. 3 ; the compound form, where many buds have grown close together so as to present a hard cluster, with a few shoots starting from it (figured page 212), and so onwards, till the Witch-knot is fully formed, a mass sometimes more than a yard in diameter. In November I found the four-footed Acaras {Phytoptus) to be present in an active state, amongst the inner scales, in numbers that might be counted by dozens or scores; and about the beginning of February I found numerous egg-like bodies amongst the diseased leaf-scales, from which Phytopti were shortly after disclosed, occasionally perishing whilst partly excluded from the pellicle, so as to give ample oppor- tunity for examination. These eggs were bluntly ovate (as GALL MITE. 216 end n a w^„v h'.r'^T^^^^' «^"«^P^•«^"ced and lobed at one o • hP ,.n. f^ f '''""^'^ con-espond with the caudal extremity V r ely'^HleT n;uT"rf ^m' pellicle .was similarly trans^ rnii M-f N^""^' ^"-'^^'"^ ^^'^ exclusion of the contained Gall Mite, was dragged out of all resemblance to thelnn o an egg and left sometimes with the markings at the two extremities having much the appearance ot" a cast skn except in the absence of limbs and appendages. ' Later on m 1877 I continued the search, and found it the lTZ%f- ^^^'''\7'^^' I took to be an'earher fom oi t le Itn 1 ' T'^ ^^'^ r^^ ^^^« of ^ Perfoctly regular oval shape, larger at one end than the other, and without stS^ iZsure'nffr ^^^Sbtly produced at the'extreS ^VS thlZl nl 1 ! f ."*^^"e^l creature, and sometimes also when the time of hatching was at hand these eggs were to be found Tnwfvi ; ^i^Giytoptus m the act of exclusion. ^ iJnlTnhintt '"'^'^^ ^T]'^ 'Sg« were still to be found of a tenant. ''"^'^ '^'''''' °^* °^ '^^^' ^^ ^he living Prevention and REMEDiES.-Witches' Brooms should be cut oft and burnt, and in cases where the tree is much SowhSlt *^;.-f" g-^^-lly-forming tufts of "is^e giowth It IS desirable to cut it down and bum the mito nfested twigs. The Gall Mites have no powe/ot flvin^r but the wind wafts them about on leaves or bK?twigs^o7birds Z''^U^ " '""''f ^^^""P' ^^^^ ^^'^-" once V en trbiished ^^oS^a^^'''^''^^^'^ ^^-^y^^^t steadily to floweTbuds'or Rfr'l ^r'' ^f f'^' ^^^^'^' *« the leaf and spJnL r? ? ^lack Currants has increased to a very seious extent so as to cause great loss to fruit-growers excessTvetlnl ° T^' ''' °"" ''''''^"- ^"* as (fro'm h ir wwl ,^''^^^t'^;^ess) there is great difHculty in ascertaining whether there is specific difterence in 7%/.;^ infSnf different kinda of plants, the above notes may be of some isf as to the general character of the infestationf 'il 216 ELM. ELM. Elm-bark Beetle. Scolytus destructor, Oliv. Beetle magnified; nat. length, l.J to 3 lines; workings in Elm-bark, showing central mother-gallery, and maggot-galleries from it. This beetle is well known as causing much injury to Elm trees by means of the galleries that it bores between the bark and the wood, mainly in the soft inner bark, but so as also to leave just a slight trace of the working on the surface of the wood. The females may be seen early in June, making their preparations for egg-laying by working their way along the bottom of cracks in the bark, which they widen for some distance before beginning to burrow, so that the real opening of the galleries may bo at some distance from the heap of rejected matter or little heap of wood-dust that marks the first point of entrance. The male is present for only a short time after the burrow is begun, before egg-laying commences. ELM-BARK BEETLE. 217 c, showing Y to Elm the bark 0 as also ce of the Qg their long the or some opening heap of [irks the 1 burrow The burrow of the parent beetle is usually about throe to fivemchcs ong and takes about three weZ to form Tie Srl^ntui' T '''' ^' ^S'^"^ are\\unTrecUnd C observed ^" "^""^ '' ^ ^^""^'^'^ ^"^ '^^^ ^^^« fl.51;! young ,f"b8, when hatched, start at right angles from irndSv* ^^"''^' ^^^ SP^^^ *^^^^ ^^^y ^n^a^-^^«. the burrow^ So^^^rrrV" size and curving to allo^room for the growing size of the tenant (as shown in the fig., p. 216). u.^A °^ *l'' ^^'^^ ^^'^ ^^^" ^^d towards tho end of July when some turn to pupa) at the end of their burrows and the dur n^ Au" t'" Tf"'" *^ '"'^ ?^^ ^^^ our^om'tSe t -e auring August. The greater number, however, of the crubs or^fbi^ °T i' ^^^^\'^^^^^-^> either just wi hin theTood oit a wiw' Y'l t''' ?^y P^«^ "^^ winter, and come out as beetles about the end of May ; thus in case of tlio bark bemg i-emoved or falling from the tTee,al hough the b l^r^f off "bv'f.^^T ?"n-r ^^"^^^^ itaiVexpS, to chambers wf h L ^'-'^'' *^ ^S^''« ^""'^^^ ^^ t^^ir "Sel^fJ^^aTtTcr ^^^^^^' "^ '^ ^^^^ ^'^J^^*^^ The maggot is whitish, curved, tapering bluntly to the tail fleshy, much wrmkled across and legless. ^ ' . Ihe beetles are black, from an eighth to a quarter of an inch m length, with rounded rough hid and reSsh horns l^iltZl^r^^'\^^ '^'' «^^^'' ^^'^ '^^ short a the tip; pitted leng hwise with rows of dots, with irregular punctures between glossy, and sometimes of a pitchy colour or rustv re'dd'ish '""'^ '"' ^^°'*' ^^^^*^^^^ bene'ath/legsp'tehy ,'"f:e^ has\wLl'T ''^'^7''^ *>* ^^"'^ ^^^^^^^ prefer a tree that has aheady been attached rather than a young and vigorous one and it is easy to tell where they are or have been present X e7rsbo?"'rr' '^-}Y'''^' '' theTarifharbeen the WflL ; ^^- "' "^^^^ ^^ ^ brad-awl, and also (whilst the beetles are boring their way out) by the wood-dust otnintfoMl ''', '"■'' "• '^"^^ °^ *^^ ground beneath the openings ol their burrows. The circumstance of Scolytus attack, and sickly growth of the tree or decay of the bark occurring togethel^ has given IZlirf ^'''''''^\^' to whether the^^co^;^ J aSk caused the decay or weakened health induced attack. of fbf .wfT-f ^?^'- ^1^'M^man, from whom I take much H„f .' ±7 l^^^/,t^-.y («ee 'Entomologist's Monthly Maga- zine, lob ;, pp. 126, 127), that healthy growing trees arp supposed to repel the attacks of this genus of ^beetles by pourmg sap mto their burrows. He notes that in the case oi 218 ESLM. the ISndijtiiH pnmi ho had obsorvcl " burrows loss than one inch long, somo of which, contaiiiiug a few eggs ah'cady laid, had been abandoned uncompleted by the beetles, apparently on account of the presence of a lluid which must have been sap, as no rain had fallen to account for it."— (Ent. Mo. Mag. ; Illus. Brit. Ent. ; &c.) Prevention and Eemedies. — One method of remedy which appears to bo worth consideration is that adopted with great success in France by M. Eobert, after careful observation of the circumstances which stopped the operations of the female beetle when gnawing her gallery for egg-laying, or which dis- agreed with or destroyed the maggots, and is based in part on similar observations of the effect of How of sap to those noticed in England by Dr. Chapman. It appeared, on examination, that the grubs died if they were not well protected from the drying action of the air ; on the other hand, if there was a very large amount of sap in the vegetable tissues that they fed on, this also killed them, and it was observed that, when the female was boring through the bark, if a flow of sap took place she abandoned the spot and went elsewhere. It was also noticed that the attack (that is, the boring of the galleries which separates much of the bark from the wood) is usually under thick old bark, such as that of old Elm trunks, rather than under the thinner bark of the branches. Working on these observations, M. Eobert had strips of about two inches wide cut out of the bark from the large boughs down the trunk to the ground, and it was found that where the young bark pressed forward to heal the wound, and a vigorous flow of sap took place, many of the maggots near it were killed, the bark which had not been entirely undermined was consolidated, and the health of the tree was improved. Working on from this, M. Eobert tried the more extended treatment of paring off the outer bark, a practice much used in Normandy and sometimes in England for restoring vigour of growth to bark-bound Apple-trees, and noted by Andrew Knight as giving a great stimulus to vegetation. M. Eobert had the whole of the rough outer bark removed from the Elm (this may be done conveniently by a scraping-knife shaped like a spokeshave). This operation caused a great flow of sap in the inner lining of the bark (the liber), and the grubs of the Scolytus beetle were found in almost all cases to perish shortly after. _ Whether this occurred from the altered sap disagreeing with them, or from the greater amount of mois- ture round them, or from the maggots being more exposed to atmospheric changes, or any other cause, was not ascertained, ELW-nAKK BEETLE. 219 main?« Ti f T^ experimented on were cleared of the maggots. 11)0 trejitment was applied on a large scale and the barked trees were found, after examination by the Com missionern of the Institute at two different periods, to be Tn more vigorous health than the neighbouring ones of which the thttSer*""'^'- ''"^ '''''' '''' thousand fits Verc A somewhat similar process was tried by the Botanic the beH"o/Ff "" ^^'^^ jpf-ted ,by the Scolyti dcsU^Z"^ the belt o Elms encn-chng their garden in Eegont's Park London; "it consists in divesting the tree of its\ough oS bark, being careful at the infested parts to go deep enough to oriZ''Z'r'' 'r^'^i^—^ ^-th'the u^uaTSue ot hmo and cow-dung." This operation was found verv successful and details with illustrations were given in a paper read m 1848 before the Botanic Society. Various kinds of mixtures or dressings have been recom- beetle attack, and anything of this kind that would make the surface unpleasant to the beetle would certainly be of use so long_ as It was not of a nature to hurt the tree, and Tf previously the very rugged bark was partially smootS t would make the apphcation of whatever mixture St be chosen easier and more thorough. Washing down the trunks of attacked trees has not been suggested, but, ooking at the dislike of the female beetle to moisture in her burrow, it would be worth while, in the case 0 single trees which it was an object to preser;e^o drench \t bL'n ^^'^^ ^'°"' ^ garden^engiue for a short time when the beetles were seen (or known by the wood-dust thrown out) 10 De at work forming burrows for egg-layinff. Where a stronger application was needed, some of the various kinds of luanti y of Pans-green (see references in Index), could not ciently thick to settle into and choke the crannies or deen The rHifh'n- ' "'r ^''■"'^ ""«'" «»"™<' '« "-^ ^"""-J ''et' ing tiees or infested limbs depends, of course, on local circumstances ; but whatever care is exercised in other wa>'s .t IS very nnhkely that much good will be done in 16^11 ' cta.:s:i;n!=urs:'.';rk^^^^^ i if > u 220 ELM. — LARCH. attack so long as the inexcusable practice continues of leaving trunks of infested Elms lying, tvith their hark still on, when containing myriads of these maggots, which are all getting ready shortly to change to perfect hectics, and to fly to the nearest groivmg Elms. Such neglected trunks may be seen in our parks and rural wood-yards all over the country, where, without difficulty (as I have myself often found), the hand may be run under the bark so as to detach feet and yards in length from the trunk all swarming with white Scolytus maggots m their narrow galleries. This bark, with its contents, ought never to he permitted to remain. Where it is loose it may be cleared of many of the maggots by stripping it off and letting the poultry have access to it ; or, if still partly adhering, it may be ripped from the wood by barking tools, and burnt, but if allowed to remain s\yarming with maggots it is a tangible and serioub cause of injury; and if our landed proprietors were fully aware of the mischief thus caused to their own trees and tho&e of the neighbourhood they would quickly get rid of it. LARCH. Larch Aphis. Cherum laricis, Hartig. Female, with eggs, winged specimen, and larva; all magnified Twig, with females and eggs, slightly magnified. The attack of this Aphis, known also as Larch Chermes Larch Bug, or Larch Blight, causes injury by means of the insects in all their stages piercing Ae tender bark or leaves of the Larch with their suckers, and drawing away the sap. It occurs on old as well as young trees, but is most injurious to LARCH APHIS. 221 of leaving on, lichen ing ready le nearest !n in our ', where, the hand yards in Scolytus •mitted to ly of the dry have •e ripped [lowed to i serioub ere fully rees and d of it. d. hermes, s of the CfiVCS of 3ap. It rious to the latter by reason of the larger proportion of the tree liable to attack. The Chermes laricis never produces living young: it propa- gates entirelyby eggs, and when the Larch leaves are begmnme to appear in the spring, the mother Chermes may be seen at the base of the leaf-knots along the Larch twigs, laying the eggs which will give rise to the successive generations of the year. These eggs are oval, and furnished with a kind of hair- like stalk ; of a yellow or yellowish purple colour at first which deepens in tint towards hatching-time to a dark violet! ihey are laid slowly (sometimes at the rate of about five a day), and more or less covered up with a kind of powderv down removed off herself by the mother, and gradually are piled round and over her till she is half- buried in them; and m hardening drops of turpentine which she constantly exudes with a kind of pumping motion. This female, the mother of the colony, is of the shape figured (p. 220), greatly magnified ; wingless, with short lees and a strong sucker ; dusky violet in colour, becoming darW with age, and more or less covered with a white powderv or cottony secretion. The legs and sucker are dark, or black ihe young soon hatch ; eggs may be found in the south of i^ngland in course of laying on the 22nd of April, and twigs swarming with young at the beginning of May. These are of the shape figured opposite, with distinctly formed head and horns ; trunk (or thorax) with six legs, and abdomen : at first they are of a powdery black, or violet, with several rows of tuberc es along the abdomen, and (though not showing as clearly) also along the trunk; afterwards they change " to an ohve-yellow or clear olive-green, with horns, legs, and sucker, darker olive-green or olive-brown."— (C. L. K.) These dis- perse themselves over the leaves, and, piercing into them with their suckers, begin the work of mischief, and the infested shoots may be known by the Chermes scattered over the leatage, like little black or darkish specks bearing bunches of white down. Later on-about the middle of May— fullv developed winged as well as wingless specimens may be seen • the winged females of the shape figured, of a yellowish tint! with brown head and horns, and various brown markings • and with wmg-veins of a yellowish green. The reader is requested to notice that tlie long vein forked at the end placed at the loro^ edge of the upper wing, has only two side veins irom It : this veiniug of the wings is characteristic of tHe tribe Chermismce, and distinguishes it from the threa other tribes of tiie Aphididce (for details of wings, see " Aphides" in J. XI vi c3 A ) • The Chermes-attack continues, or may continue, unless 222 LARCH. 9 i Checked by weather or special ch-cumstances, till August or later, and the last laid eggs of the year produce again the large shapeless - mother Chermes," the foundress of the lamily of each successive year, which lives through the winter, and in spring lays her eggs as above described. Descriptions of the male Chermes laricis have been given, but up to the beginning of 1881 our best authorities on the subject considered that it had not been observed, and I am not aware whether it has been discovered since. The above notes are mamly taken from 'Mon. of Brit. Aphides,' and observations by Editor. Prevention and Eemedies.— The following remedies have been of service m checking attack of Larch Bug when already commenced : — ^ j A note is given of a plot of young Larches planted in nursery-ground a year previously, which became so badly infested with - Bug " in May that they appeared as if covered with mould, with the sap exuding over the stems, so that the shoots were soft and supple, and the plants becoming rapidly exhausted. These were watered over head with dilute paraffin, m the proportion of a wine-glassful of paraffin to a watering- can full ol water, and the first application checked the de- predations of the Bug. The waterings were repeated at intervals of three or four days, for about three weeks, when the plants were entirely cleared of the Bug, and assumed a healthy and vigorous appearance. The application was found similarly serviceable in clearing Pine Bug, and in no way injurious to the trees when applied judiciously.— (J K ) ^^ The following remedies have proved efficacious in destroying Bug, and preventing attack on Larch and Silver Fir One method is as follows :-To every thirty-six gallons of water add half a pound of perchloride of mercury ; with this the mtested trees are drenched in the early summer, when the sap IS flowing freely ; a dry day is preferred for the operation, as It gives hme for the solution to soak thoroughly into the bark, ihis has been applied to ornamental trees and plants m the nursery, and it is noted that trees operated on in 1873 continued, at the time of writing (1880), free from the "Bug" and in thriving condition. This application requires to be in careiui hands, hemg poisonous ; Woodpeckers that fed on the poisoned insects were destroyed by it ; and especial caution is given against using it to fruit-trees.— (D. F. M'K.) Another method found serviceable was the use of lime- water prepared and applied thu3:-~0iie hundred- weight of i''n ^'l^'lt^^^^ }"" eighty gallons of clear water : slake the shells in the water, and allow it to stand for a week ; drain off L\RCH APHIS. 223 A.ugust or again the iss of the •ough the ed. ien given, ies on the and I am Che ahove ides,' and dies have n already lanted in so badly if covered ) that the g rapidly paraffin, watering- l the de- >eated at ks, when ssumed a /as found no way K.) 3stroying 'ir. :allons of with this vhen the peration, into the d plants in 1873 I "Bug" to be in i on the lution is 3f lime- eight of ake the Irain off the clear liquid, and wash or syringe the infested trees. This was found to clear the tree thoroughly of the Bug ani eggs. ihe tiees appeared to be a little sickened for a time, b.tall recovel-ed. ' Washing with lime and water was also found to answer trt\"sig\[i7-i%.^?'^i:r '' '"'"'""' '"* "^'^ *'^ «ilf IT^ i'^^ T'?kl'T'- ^" ^ plantation of Larches from eight to twelve feet high, is noted as " very disagreeable, and only partly successful." Tobacco-liquor is also mentioned as being app led for Aphis-attack to Silver Firs, the solution bemg rubbed on the tree and branches ; this was more rpplSl"rLr ''* """ '''""" '"' '^^^^^* '' Looking at the good effects both of tobacco and of soft-soan for general use in clearing off Aphides, it is probable that some ot the Hop-washes in which these are combined (and winch might be easily applied by a garden-engine) would bo very serviceable. h^^^< following recipe from amongst those given under the head Hops is simple, and found reliable for regular use in the Hop.gardens :-To thirty-six gallons of water in a copper add sixty pounds of soft-soap, then add either fourteen pounds ot bitter aloes or two pounds of tobacco, and boil together J^or use add thn-ty-six gallons of water to every gallon of this iiquia. — (J. Vv.) In dealing with the Larch Bug we have advantage from its nocky coat, as washings and dressings, especially those of a sticky nature, clog the down, and thus take good effect. ihe amount of the presence of this Chermes (like that of other Aphides) appears to depend partly on such states of the weather and local atmospheric surroundings of the trees as P'^T^i./lV*'''!'^® ^°'' increase of the insect, partly on the health of the trees, and also on their neighbourhood to such as are infested. Late frosts are noted as being injurious to the Larch, and favourable to mcrease of the " Bug " ; this, presumably, for the same reasons as in other cases of Aphis-attack that late irosts commonly accompany clear skies, with bright sunshine hy day and the sudden alternations of heat and cold are unsuitable for healthy growth, but cause a condition of sap suitable to the Aphides. In 1880, in which year the "BHc^ht " was very prevalent, it was observed in connection with frost in June, and with hard dry winds : and. lookincr hnr-k *o pub- hshed records of former years, it is noticed as "most pre- valent when the frosts were very severe late in the season." ihe health of the Larch depends greatly on local condi- •I. ' '5 i I'" m u .1 m* I! 224 LARCH. tions ; H suffers from drought and from exposure of its roots to sunshine, and also from a stagnant wet soil. Although it re-^uires a constant supply of moisture for its roots, this moisture must be fresh, and free ; and it needs a clear, dry atmosphere, with great amount of sunshine for its leaves. ^ A position amongst broken rock, with plenty of good loam, either on the side of a ravine or so placed that water may constantly trickle by, may be considered the type of what is most suitable for its growth ; in its natural habitats it thrives best on declivities connected with summits of perpetual suow, by the thawing of which the plants are fed, and where their heads are well exposed to sunlight. It has been pointed out by Prof. DeCandolle that the fine slender Larch leaves having less surface for action (that is, for elaboration of sap) than those of other deciduous trees, the action of the surface requires to be greater in proportion, to keep the tree in health ; and from this, and also from observation of the localities in which Larch thrives, he shows the desirableness of a clear dry atmosphere, with plenty of sunlight, and freedom f/om fogs and damp, which tend to diminish the evaporation from the leaves necessary for the health of the tree ; and — to give a single instance — it is noted that at a height near Geneva (not less than that at which fine Larches were to be found) the trees did not thrive near the lake and river, whilst in the dry air of the Alps they prospered. It appears plain that any cause, great or small, that induces a damp stagnant atmosphere, or want of light round the Larches, will produce ili-health, and in such situations the Larch Bug thrives. We may do something to diminish the amount of attack by planting on proper soil, and especially avoiding such flat moorish land as is likely to cause stagnation of moisture in the ground ; and also by thinning Larch plantations in time, so as to allow as much sunshine as possible on the leaves ; and all overtopping by deciduous trees should be carefully avoided. Hopelessly attacked trees should be felled and all the twigs burnt, to avoid spread of attack ; and in nurseries it might be worth while, besides the dressings given when the Bug is seen to be present, to give one or two thorough drenchings with soft-soap towards the middle or end of August, to deter attack when the eggs for next year's '• mother (Jhermes " are being laid. With regard to such connection as n ^ exist between 'LuTcli Blight" and the diseased eanfierons formations kuov/n as "Larch Blister," we have no certain knowledge at present. The causes mainly under consideration as giving rise to this LARCH APHIS. 225 )f its roots Although it roots, this , clear, dry leaves, ^ood loam, water may of what ia ! it thrives jtual suow, vhere their [at the fine )n (that is, lous trees, jroportion, also from , he shows plenty of ih tend to ,ry for the it is noted which tine 3 near the prospered, lat induces round the ations the attack by such flat oisture in is in time, tie leaves ; 1 carefully . the twigs i might be ug is seen lings with iter attack are being \> between 3ns known it present, ise to this Sek ;r r ^-^V"?'^^ ; frost-bite ; " Blight," or Chermes- venturinri nT"^'^'^^^ ^^P' ^^^^ (without rppear?o^o^-nM'%^ ^fl'^\^^}^^^^) many circumstances affectini f^« f ui'''% If *'7^^«h may arise from any cause iSnc^e. «nn] * ' °^ * • ? ^T' ^''^. ''P^^^^"y from weather influences, such as rapid alternations of heat and cold moisture m the air, and want of sufficiency of sunliX as at least very possibly the cause of the blister?^ ^ ' ^* ir'rot. i)e Candolle observes that, as an Alpine tree the ablv h^^'lfT^"'"'^ '!^\''T ''^'''''' ^"d the Ks remark! ably healthy ; and that, though sometimes Larches mav be from s'me LVTTl '^ " ''''''T ^^"^^^'" " «^^^« *' P^oTeed in f^ll C. ^'''^;^*S^ «a"se; s"ch as a blow when the tree was dlppiL^^ 'p^?^H*'' noting that he considers the cause of eice in fb«^J'*^-^' I'T^T ^^^^* °""^^^^« fro^^ ««me differ- Zt^tl^r'^i'^'"''^'''' ^' '^"^"'^ ^f ^^'i^i^h or Alpine- grown rees he observes : - - The want of a sufficientlv ntense light, owing to the obliquity of the solar rays, and to the ffii*^ '^ ^^'' atmosphere ; and the over-damp 'stat of the latter, appear to me permanent causes, which, in your pleThom ^he Larch to a' kind of wa^^ plethoia. —(See Loudon's 'Arboretum,' vol. iv., p. 2384.) It Has also been observed that a form of blister affects SLclrcnhr' 't.^ transplanted, in which else also th legiiiar circulation of the sap is disturbed. from !S;fr '''*'''" ""^ diseased specimens (although this is far from affording a complete view of all forms of the disease) thP 3 ''' V^' ^'^'' ^^y '^^ ^'^''^ backwards from the laige open diseased wound, to the swelling just bursting and not yet burst ; and then (keeping as a guidf the similS ?L. +i;'!f ^l^ spots as shown microscopically) from a patch beneath the bark with no external swelling, to a few small spots connected by a canal, or to a singlf'spot 5^ S orl^Tn^ftKvT' *'""'' "'"' '^''''' *^ "^ ^° ^^ *^' In these spots (as far as observable in all the specimens nouZf ^hT^'f' "^ ^ quarter-inch object glass) there wa no trace ol Mycelium, or of any kind of fungoid presence • after a tnne when the blister has become an ?pen wound it ''hSr''"'!" 'l '''' ''''' ?'''''''"' a,norplnJitl which mniVhl ff"" conjectured to arise), or other fungoid giowths may not be present, just as Peziza or other fungi Siav be found on the bark; but in all the first states of the blS u ^^ "°'' "^^^ any such presence, fvnr^ o cases-that is, where the " blister" was originating horn a mere speck-it differed markedly from the effect of 226 LARCH. — LIME. frost-hite on twigs of the same age, as the effects of the frost- bite which had then taken place a few weeks before affected the cells in the bark over a surface of several inches, and the condition of the many injured cells in this case, and of the one or few diseased ones in the other, was very different. This observation merely refers to the complete frost-bite, not to effect of weather on health of the tree. Observations as to the state of the precise spot where the mother Chermes has been noticed to be attached by her sucker during oviposition would give much information as to whether any diseased state of tissues was set up by the irritation of suction ; when once the disease has taken the form of an open wound it is very probable that the presence of many of the Chermes, sucking on s '' young diseased bark as they may find, would increase tL^ commenced disease ; but the great point is the origin. This appears, as far as specimens show, to be not a growth, hut a death ; a spot or spots joined by canals filled with dead, discoloured and disorganised tissue, which may exist for one, or possibly two or three seasons unseen beneath the bark, until the consequent stoppage of sap causes a swelled growth, and the diseased mass, composed of the discoloured cells and passages, and the tumid swellings, is set on foot ; and may be traced forward in section, increasing year by year from its starting-point.* LIME. Buff-tip Moth. Pygmra bucejihala, Steph. Cat. The caterpillars of this Moth feed on the leaves of the Lime and also on those of the Elm, Oak, and other trees, sometimes doing thereby serious damage. The eggs are laid during June or July, in patches of about * The above remarks on Larch blisler are offered with hesitation, as venturing on a subject where those who have better opportunity than myself for observa- tions are still in doubt, and therefore I take leave to mention that they are mainly based on specimens forwarded for examination, or observations on Larch in West Gloucestershire ; but not having the opportunity of studying the subject in the large plantations of theNorth, with the thoroughness requisite for a knowledge of the different developments of the disease, and the different coin- cident circumstances on which alone conclusions can be based, I merely give these points as all I have at present to offer. BUFF-TIP MOTH. 227 Hat .enea J,wUh\ uISZt^ZISTt^^^^^ Female Buff-tip Moth, caterpillar, and pupa. feed'ret^S"o"^ ^°^^*-!^, ^^^^' and at first of the leaf/ Ifter eight davl f if.^^'S '^^^' ??^ «^ *^^^ P'^'P tail, interrupted bv a fron«l Jo. ^ , *)^® ^®ad to the higher and outetostCnThrL i^bT.ff 'I' ''7^'°' ""^ whole of the tree) bein,, ,tf„„ j ' . P™ a"a«ks, almost the pillara then come dmmVom'^L* ,°' ''' i'^'^'^Se; the cater- any cocoon, thw chaLl 7 fi '";' ""5, ""'°'" ^Pi^iig fallen leave /or on or S below fl,™"''/^ '"'j''fS<'. amongst aa^brwn hry.:,f,^v^V'^o\t "^^^^^^ earth, to a forrgra^T4tr£iet:i"°'-? ™' ^" •^-- The with rusty colour ™a,dbh.lmn ?• P'''"''y i"' l»"-plish grey, "TZ«L::rir;r-or'LnV';^fbtdfi^r*? wmgs, and abdomen are also oc'hZ,* b.M.i^" ,!:^?L«' S:«Sr-1.:^-'— o,^=l?J'2£^ Moths,' &c.) tints.— (' Brit. (i2 228 LIME. f Prevention and Eemedies. — The method of getting rid of the caterpillars that is chiefly recommended is to shake the infested boughs ; it is stated that, on this being done, they fall down " in a perfect shower" (E. N.) ; and when attack is found to have begun, this plan should be adopted at once. Any method by which the boughs or infested twigs can be shaken will answer, such as jarring the larger boughs with a pole, or throwing sticks or handfuls of gravel at such parts as may be out of reach ; but a better plan would be for a man to go up the tree, and, by means of a strong pole furnished at the end with a worn-down birch-besom, to shake all the infested boughs thoroughly, beginning at the uppermost and working downwards, so as to shake off the caterpillars that may have lodged in falling on the lower branches. The addition of this worn-down stump at the end of the pole makes it a much more effective instrument, for, by using it up ight, the smaller boughs can be lifted up sharply, to come do\;n with a jerk ; or a heavy blow can be given that will shake all twigs near without any injury to the tree, whilst in the case of the sharp knock of hard wood on soft bark given by the pole, much harm is apt to be done. Before beginning the operation, a good thick band of hay or straw, or cloth well tarred, should be put round the foot of the trte, to prevent the caterpillars getting up it again ; for directly they reach the ground they start on their return journey towards the trunk, and, unless they are stopped, will soon be once more at work on the leaves. All that fall to the ground should be crushed with the foot, or killed in whatever way may be most convenient ; and where a tree is much infested it would be worth while to spread large cloths or pieces of tarpaulin, or anything that might be preferred, beneath it, upon which they would fall, and from which they might be collected more easily than from the grass. The large size of this insect in all its stages and its habits throws it open to attack. " At the beginning of June these singular moths may be frequently found coupled in pairs on the trunks of Lime, Elm, and other trees, or on the herbage below them ; the truncate heads and closely-convolute wings giving each pair the appearance of a single piece of dead and dried stick." — ('British Moths,' by Edward Newman.) By destroying the moths at this stage many future broods are got rid of. The chrysalids may be collected by children for a few pence, under or near trees where the caterpillars have been numerous ; and poultry also are of service, as they will search eagerly for them. When the caterpillars are about to change, they are so conspicuous, from their bright colouring, large size, and OAK. — COCKCHAFER. 229 habit of straying about everywhere in full daylight that S^'chilS ^' "''^^''""^ '"^ ^^"'^ ^"' above mentioned) As the caterpillars como down the tree to the ground for their change to chrysalids, it might be worth while to throw a lew spadefuls of gas-lime or of anything they would not ZTv, '? ''!'''''}^ ""^ ''^°"* ^ y^^''^ 0^' two from the tree; or a rough band of any material soaked in tar, or tar and oil which would keep wet longer, would stop them from straying oil. It being matter of instinct for these caterpillars to come t^^^u f'^ ^'J'''''^ ^""^ *^^^ "^^^°g^ t« the chrvsalis state, piobably few, if any, would return up the trunk, and thev might be cleared m sufficient numbers as to considerably lessen future attack. ^ OAK. Cockchafer. MeloLontha viibjans, Fab. '^N -^^W^ f^ M 'jijfi ^ \ Common Cockchafer, larva and pupa. The Cockchafer, known also as the May Bug, is injurious both in the larval and perfect state. As a grub it feeds under- ground on the roots of grass, vegetables, and young trees ; as a beetle it feeds on the leaves of Oak, Elm, and other trees, 230 OAK. sometimes entirely stripping tl'.e foliago. The eggs are -whitG or pale yellow, and are laid (early in the summer) about six or eight inches below the surface of the ground, the female bur- rowing down to deposit them, and laying thirty or more, near together among?t the disturbed earth. The grubs are thick and fleshy, white or yellowish in colour, with strong jaws, and three pairs of legs ; and usually lie on one side, somewhat curved together (as figured, p. 229). At the commencement of spring they come up to within a f ;w inches of the surface of the ground, where they feed on roots of growing plants; and at the end of the third summer, when full fed, they again go down into the earth to a depth of two feet or more, and change to pupa3 (as figured, p. 229) in oval cells. During the following winter they develop into the perfect Chafers, but do not come up through the ground until the next summer, that is, the fourth year since they were hatched, when they may be found as early as May hanging half-torpid or sluggish beneath the leaves during the day, and coming out on the wing during the evening, when they fly in search of their mates or feed on the foliage of the trees. The beetle is too well known to require description, but it may be observed it is about an inch in length, densely covered with down on the breast, and more or less throughout ; part of the front of the face and the wing-cases are rusty or brown, the latter having five raised lines running along each ; the abdomen is prolonged into a tip curved downwards, and marked at the sides with alternate triangular patches of black and snow-white; and the horns are terminated by fans or clubs of seven leaves in the male, six leaves in the female. Pbevention and Remedies. — When the May Bugs or Cockchafers appear in the large quantities sometimes re- corded, as when eighty bushels are stated to have been col- lected on one farm (* Encyc. of Agriculture,' 2nd ed., p. 1166), it is worth while to beat or shake them from the trees, preferring noon-time or early on a bright warm day, when the beetles are clinging beneath the leaves and are dull and sluggish. They may be shaken down on to large cloths spread beneath the tree, or may be swept together and destroyed, taking care in either case that the Chafers are collected before they have time to recover from the fall and take wing. Pigs will eat them greedily, and so will poultry ; and, if there are more than can thus l^c got rid of, the services of some boys to trample on or otherwise destroy the shaken-down beetles would p^pbably do all that was needed. !J COCKCHAFER. 281 ift«o T^l" / ^^^ sometimes very hurtful to roots of trees. In FnH nf Qi n 'f""'^ ^'T ^'' T- ^- Turnbull, agent to the t A I ^^^f^esbury, relatively to the very serious iniury caused by Cockchafer grubs to young seedling Firs In ffi case the young plants which were about 10 or 12 inches high, the b.T^,-n 1* '"^'"^ \^^^'' r^"™^ ^^ ^^'' Srubs removing the bark m arge patches from the main root. It was observed that thousands of the Fir plants had been destroyed by the grubs m the previous year, and they appeared likely r^markpdTnf '"h^' T/°" ?^'" ^^'''"*- ^'' 'J^^^nbuU also remaiked that 'they did not seem to inhabit the black sandy sou but made their home in the stronger clay loam." This preference of special soil has also been observed in clearing Chafer grubs from roots of Coffee-trees in Ceylon ; the thfZu.rTn^7^ ^'^^ 't^.*^''^ '^'^ "°* ''^''^' considered be so "" sufficient reason, and it appeared to Whether it would be worth while to clear out the grubs by hand m infested young nurseries would be for the owners to settle ; but there appears to be no other remedy excepting taking care that Eooks or others of the various a^.h. I. msect-eatmg birds, which will eagerly devour the grubs wherever they find them, should not be driven off. , J/°'", ^ circumstance of the Cockchafer grubs feeding ?aT^'^ /*T*' l^^g^^^"g no signs of their presence till the ladmg of the attacked plant draws attention to the iniurv gomg forwards, it is difficult to find any remedy, excepting by means of the insectivorous birds, which appear to have an in- suSr '''''^^^^^ ""^ *^^ P°«^*ion 0' the larva below the Where infested Grass-land has to be broken up, or other land which has been infested is bare of crop, ploughing or well breaking up the surface to a depth that will reach the grubs, and turnmg on pigs to follow the plough is a good plan. Hand-picking by children is of use, but probably in the fields the pigs would be the better helpers. Their instinct and search?i^s ^^"^^ ^^^^^ *^®^ ^^^^'*^ ^^^ well-qualified Wild birds, such as Eooks, before mentioned, and Sea hulls should on no account be driven off. The Black-headed Orul follows t^ie plough in the same manner as the Eooks, and feeds on Cockchafers both in the grub and beetle stages the Common Gull will go for miles inland to follow the plough in search oi insects and grubs ; and the Night j the point tube, 0 thiol one' e'nd t?m!1 "'^ f.'™' °'/ gutta-percha nnri fl.o ^7i. end was fitted on the nozzle of a svrinffe MmavhP^^'''1V/*"' way up the hole; the es7apelf tl e hoT'^otcrhT^^^^^^ r', ''''f'7 ^rS pressed'into effectLeTv^Mv^M \P^T' 'i^'^" ^^*° *^^ ^ole were found very caternllln v{ ^/l^^i'^^"^ ^^nn^ of Dalkeith, in destroying the tionnr I / *^' ?^i^^'^ ^«*^ ' ^^d P^-ol^'-^bly this applica! .Zl u? • *'.?^ fumigation of tobacco, would be quallv seiviceable m the case of the Goat Moth caterpillars ^ ^ do^ snli^ f! "l Tt ^"'f*^^' ^* '' *h^ l^^^t P '-^ to cut it «^v7v n ^ ' """l^ ^''*''°y *^^ caterpillars within : as many is ^U:Z.:^ ^"'■''"' '"■"- ^"-^' - wS'a^t'et En 'itarEZri'"*- ''T f "f-.^'^'twood (Life-President of the me™ ™, ti" °'?^'"m, ^""'"W- "'»' " the 6'-«™ Woodpecker SoTe^^X^tT" ""• ''"' "" ^"'"'"='' °" di»sectiorhas Marble-Gall Ply. fy„,>, /..„«,„.,; h,„.i_ ^^1 Luivaandpupaof Cynips; Cynips Mlari, mai^nUicd; Marble Galls. r 236 OAK. The " Marble Galls," figured (p. 235), seldom cause much injury, but they occasionally occur in such large numbers that they appear to be the most hurtful of the forty-two or more kinds of Galls which are to be found on Oaks in Great Britain. Oak Galls infest all parts of the tree ; some kinds occur on leaves, some affect the formation of the buds, others occur on the bark, root, and catkins, one kind is to be found in the twigs, and one in the acorn ; but with the exception of the Marble Gall and the " Common Spangle " Galls {Neuroterus lenticularis) , which sometimes so completely load the back of the leaves as to cause premature withering, it does not appear that any kinds are often materially hurtful. The females of these Gall Flies (which belong to the order Hymenoptera) are provided with a peculiar apparatus for egg- laying, by means of which they are able to insert one or more eggs with a small quantity of fluid into the part chosen for attack, and thus set up an irritation in the living tissues ■which causes the diseased growth, resulting in the shape of galls. In the case of Cynips kollari the egg is laid in the young bud when forming in the axil of the leaf, and the consequence is the globular growth of celliiiar tissue which we find (before the Marble Gall is mature), with the grub lymg in the middle ; towards autumn this changes to a pupa, similar to that figured (p. 235), and generally the Gall Fly comes out shortly after, but sometimes not until the following year, or possibly even later. It is furnished with four transparent wings of the expanse marked by the line beneath the figure (p. 235), the body and abdomen are of a rusty or ochreous brown, and the base of the abdomen pitchy. Up to the year 1881 females only had been observed of this species, and I am not aware of any discovery of the male having been recorded since. This gall of the C. kollari was noticed in such great numbers in the south-west of England, about the year 1854, as to give rise to an impression that it had then first appeared in this country; and, from its being especially observed in Devonshire, the name of "Devonshire Gall " was bestowed upon it. Further investigation, however, showed that its presence had been noted previously, and that the appearance was only remarkable for its great amount ; now it is widely spread throughout the country, and is to be found as far north as the hills of Bayndee, near Banff, and Redcastle, in Eoss-Bhire. PiiEVENTioN AND Eemedies. — This gall is chiefly to be found MARBLE-GALL PLY ; COMMON SPANGLE GALL 23? insect witWn^ -t 'nil-grown, and thus destroy the The oper^on would r an effeTlrf™' 'T""S *''^ '^^f- srr s^£FP « s ti— 'vvi?;;? gan and vicZtotite^Sjll 7^!t " ""«'' ''"'^ » «^^ are°X'nl™be"fo7„f t'fh'''" ',r °^ '''^ ^«^ '^■<'«'«". known as ""naailinS" n^in'" ,«5''"' ««'?'"mes what are in small eellsTough' th Sstenc|'o?Vf '''^r ^''^'''"^ parasite larvffi feedmj nn th„ i f '"^".ga": sometimes large centralcelL ^ "'" "' ^"'"1" *"""" i" *!>« Common Spangle Gall. Neiimtrrm lenticiilaris, 01. Common Spa-glo G»ll „n Oat leaf, „»,. .i.„ „„a ,„.,„ifi,j „,,„ section, niagnilicd. •'11 288 j,ii!i! OAK. The gall of the Neurotems lenticiilaris is distinguishable from the four other kinds of Spangle Gall found in Britain by its somewhat larger size, and also by being raised in the centre and hairy. It sometimes occurs in great quantities on the backs of Oak leaves, but rarely to an extent to cause serious damage. _ In the above short notes I have not alluded to the varia- tions of form which may exist, or may be supposed to exist, in alternate generations of various of the Cynipidce, as these are rather points of curious speculation than serviceable for general use. Oak Leaf-roller Moth. Tortrix vimhma, Linn. Tortrix viriflana : Moth ; caterpillars hanging by their threads, slightly larger than life ; rolled Oak-leaf. The caterpillars of this moth cause serious injury from time to time in our Oak woods and forests, especially in the south of England, by feeding in such vast numbers on the young leaves as to strip the trees of their foliage, and thus retard the growth of the first shoots, and injure or entirely ruin the acorn crop of the season. The eggs are laid during the summer or autumn of the year preceding the attack of caterpillars, either on or in the leaf buds, or on the boughs (opinions diifer as to the precise spot) ; but in the following spring, when the Oak loaves are appearing, the caterpillars hatch, and sometimes swarm in myriads over the infested trees on many acres of ground. The caterpillars are at first greenish grey, or lead-colour, alteiwards d " ' ' " ^ . . - - . gr< lead and tail-patch black, and OAK LEAP-ROLLER MOTH. inguishable Britain by sed in the lantities on it to cause • the varia- ed to exist, e, as these iceable for inn. 289 s, slightly from time the south the young retard the I ruin the mn of the 1 or in the ;he precise loaves are swarm in •ound. ;ad-coIour, 3lack, and but meanwhile on alirm „t tv „' .7^ , ,'° "•"'^salids; themeelves do™ by co?eB Jr hundr 1^°' '""'''=^' ^^'^ '»' tubes, which they have formed hv rnir ''^'y^^}}'^' ""her in ^n'&^'t^c^^j^^iirztz ^^thih'rh^' 'I Tf Z^r - ^ "- » tl^e'f-Tedrofte &t^t the tree, and also fromMe e^e pX? LtLk t^T^^' "" times extends over miles of wnndK? „ • **^"'.'' *<""«- intervals without aTprevioTssfens^oJ^™" "'.^"g^'ar approach, it appears i^m^sllble a'fa as if SoZTf , "' "/ to apply any preventive measure of general ^^. '^'''f'"' such as mav be found Jr. tvl »™^a' service, exceptmg birds. ^ '" ** encouragement of the wild tha? ?hr^morc„tT,f ottir '?' " »» *-'-" clearing the catlrpmars tTe'ch?flSX^ Tnd trSi " Sparrows "were indefatigable in search n'f fiT ..""'? poultry searched under the trees for «ti f^, ' ^"^ ^^^ldttws-:vr^SS^^^^^^^^ Leaf-roller Caterpillar to the Oak woods at Tnl In!! "iP^I' bounty, Ireland, in 18ftl Mr THpnir^ ^.^°'^^^ ^^'^^ « spot, mentioned that' ThersVarmed fnT ''""^>' -^^^ *^^ direction and exposure, t^dTaTif no? 1^^^?,^^^ I ,' I 14 240 OAK. attack made on them by the Common Eooks and the Black- headed Sea Gulls, scarcely a tree would have escaped them. Where circumstances allow of drenchings, either of the soft-soap or other washes commonly used, being thrown at mfested trees, this would do much good ; if the caterpillars are still present the operation would clear many; or if the attack was passing away the drenching down of the tree would clear off much that would have started new attack presently ; and also the treatment is of great use in rapidly restoring the foliage, and thus reducing the amount of injury caused by the attack. In June, 1886, by request of Sir H. Verney, of Claydon Park, Winslow, Bucks, I examined some of the fine old Oaks near Claydon House, which had been suffering from severe infestation of the T. vindana, and as on one of these (for special reasons) it was wished to restore the foliage as soon as possible, I advised thoroughly washing down the tree by nieans of the house fire-engine, throwing the water not broadcast amongst the boughs so as to iear or bruise any young leafage that was beginning to appear, but sending it directly at the trunk and large boughs. In this way the stream of water was throM-n about in spray among the twigs and thoroughly moistened every part, whilst the stream directed against the trunk cleaned out much of the insect- vermin that might be present, and the ground beneath the tree was thus so well moistened as to help the coming growth greatly. A few weeks after the experiment, Mr. Sharp (the head gardener at Claydon Park) reported that :—" Through the soaking which we gave, the tree has recovered its foliage won- derfully. On all the parts on which we were able to play, the Aphides and all other insects, as far as I can discern, are cleared off, and I have no hesitation in saying that it is the right thing to do where trees are attacked, a fire engine kept, and water at command." On the 20th of August Mr. Sharp further reported that it was wonderful to see how well the tree was then furniahed with leaves. Of course water supply, and means of throwing drenchings or spray, are not always at hand,— neither could such applica- tion be carried out in woods or forests; still there are cases in which the principle might be brought to bear, and the circum- stance of destruction of moth-caterpillars by sudden wet as recorded by Curtis, in his 'Farm Insects,' many years a^^o • and more recently by Mr. E. A. Fitch, late Sec. of the Entomolo- gical Society of London, on oeeaHion of the great appearance of the Plusia gamma, the Silver- Y or Beet Moth, in Essex in OAK LEAP-ROLLER MOTH. 241 le Black- i them. !r of the brown at )illars are )r if the •ee would resently ; oring the 3d by the Claydon fine old ing from of these Dliage as the tree ^ater 7iot iiise any snding it way the tie twigs, i stream 3 insect- sath the ? growth he head •ugh the ige won- play, the em, are it is the ne kept, i that it arnibhed mchings applica- cases in circum- i wet as go ; and itomolo- rance of Ssscx in ofthf subTe^t!^'^°'^ ^""^ ^^""^ ^'^''^' ^^' ^'^'' very practically The following notes of temperature and rainfall, in connec On on ril^'^r ""^ !^^. ca erpillars, are also worth record. On one of the trees at Claydon, which was especially badly attacked, and especially under notice from historical interest! tHe caterpillars were observed to begin falling off in frreaf numbers on the 11th of June, and lay putrefying beneath and specimens o he putrid mass, as well as of the heauS; te'trsett:^"^ ^^ *'^ '^''''''^''^ ^^' p---^^ Regai-dmg the special weather conditions, I was favoured by Mr. Sharp with the followmg table of the maximum and minimum temperature at Claydon during the time when he observed the workings of the caterpillars T- Bain. Max. Min. une 1 66° 42° ,, 2 74° 41° „ 3 76° 46° M 4 83° 48° „ 5 77° 66° „ 6 63° 53° ,, 7 68° 50° ,, 8 GO^ 54° „ 9 64° 46° „ 10 60° 44° „ u er 34' „ 12 75° 45° „ 13 76° 49° » 14 77° 49° 0-1 0-15 0-05 0-59 o in. >» From this it will be observed that there was rainfall on four days after the max. temp, had risen to 83° in shade; but to continue in Mr. Sharp's own words, " It was on the morn- mg ol the 11th (of June), when our night temperature had oeen at d4 , that I first observed the caterpillars falling off in large numbers." ° The matter of the fall of the caterpillars from the tree is of considerable interest, as an example of the effects of sudden cold and wet in destroying these plant-vermin, which might to some extent be copied artificiallv. The carnivorous caterpillars of the Dun-bar Moth, the Cosmia tra2->e.-ina ^cientUmiUy, have been reported as some- times doing' great good in cleaving away this attack. The Cosma trapezina is a moth about an inch and a quarter m ihe spread of the fore wings, which are very variously marked with pale grey, rust-colour, or brown, with transverse 242 OAK. — PINR. dark and pale lines, the hinder wings of a grey-brown. Th'e female lays her eggs more especially on Oak ; the caterpillars from these, which abound in May, feed mainly on animal food, and are especially serviceable in clearing off the larvffi of the " 7^^j®^,^ot^-" These Cosmia caterpillars are of a general pale dull green, apple-green beneath, and have five pale whitish or yellowish stripes running their whole length, and have also numerous small black warts, each surrounded by a white ring (Newman's ' British Moths '). The above notes on Oak attacks are not offered as in any my giving an idea of the vast number of insect infesta- tions to which this tree is subject ; but in this case, as well as with the other trees or crops referred to, it is not possible in the space of this volume to do more than allude to a small part of the more important. PINE. Pine Beetle. Hi/lurgus piniperda, Linn. 1, 2, Pine shoots piercecl by beetles, in section ; 3, 4, Pine Beetle, nat. size and magnihed ; e e, jaws; fg, chin, with feelers, cfec. The Pine Beetle (the "Wood Gardener" r "Forester" as it 18 called in Germany, from its effective powers of pruning) IS injurious to some extent to standing Pine timber by means of Its maggot-burrowings beneath the bark, both of stems and branches ; but as they appear rarely to select healthy trees if sickly ones are at hand, and chiefly frequent fallen wood, felled trunks, or dead or decaying trees and branches fo^ breeding purposes, this part of their workings is chiefly hurt- lul as bcmg the means of continuing infestation. vn. Th'e terpillars mal food, '8B of the a general five pale igth, and ided by a IS in any infesta- ), as well possible ) a small PINE BEETLE. 243 i. size and iter " as runing) ■ means ms and trees if I wood, hes for V hurt- left^^l' blrS^^^^^ 'r\^« ^^*- ^^ey have sometimes verv des rn.fTvr j^ ^^^ ^^^'^ ' *hen they are plantations;b7bSrthru.h'"tL7dro^^^ 'T^ ^'^^ and eating their way for an in.^ n + ^ *^' ^^""^^^ scoots pith. The injury to syeshoofilwfv*''^ °' ?^°'^ ^^^ng ti^e but in the case of the LSfn ?^ *?'f "^^^""^ '^ considerable often becomes buslyfhea^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^ *^"« ^^«* the tree ultimate value is reduced ' ^''''*^ '' ''^^'^^^> ^^^ its sha'^e^^i^: tt'Sf i!f?h'"^ ^"-^'fj^- 242), a.d of the colour 'when mature bS paler tT^"'^?^ ^^"^^' °^^ P^t^hy with longish hairs aid firSedST^^' '•"^^' Punctured, cases are rounded doTn at th« «tl- 1.'°°^ •'^'''- ^^^ ^^"S" capable of strong fligh? ''' ^""^ "^^^^ ^ P^i^ of win|s tions VXtgThT?^^^^^^^^^ t^hegins her opera- forms a galler/or tunn^i^^^r^^-^^^^^ "■1 I^^J Tunnellings of Pine Beetle. beneath the baTkthnsfoimmri ''"'™ ?^ "'» way forward getting large; to'wards Z"ef t?em£°'aorr ' ^''"'"''"^ near y at rioht annl^a wlti, ♦!,„ c i / ' .sometimes running at others be°S" to v^ • ™ ?7 I-*" ™"'"' ''«'='"^'«) '"Mel! barrows are" , ten out of ?he ^ T""??' ^? ''^''^ ^S^-ed. The show just a tmce o'wolk 'ng on theTuMe' o? t^''' ''",' ?"™ agauast it. The above figu.1 Thows °ot t t^ailet t"f r2 « , ! 244 PINE. the maggot galleries running from it, but they may be found in such great numbers beneath infested bark that a large space of wood and bark is separated by the tunnellings. The maggots pre about a quarter of an inch long, legless and fleshy, and largest in the rings behind the head, which is of an ochreons colour ; the rppf, of t'.>e maggot is whitish, with a light ochreous tint towanta ttie tail. The maggots turn to pupre at the end of their tunr/^;, Trom which the beetles are developed in July and August. Then they pierce a little round hole through the bark, at the end of their burrow, come out through it, and fly to the neighbouring trees, wli*jre they may be found in September in great numbers, boring into the young shoots and injuring them, as above mcutioued. Prevention and Remedies. — These are entirely based on knowledge of the habits of the beetle, and the difference between the two methods of attack should be kept clearly in mind. The beetles tunnel along portions of the pith of the young shoots for food and shelter, not for breeding purposes. For the latter, although they sometimes propagate beneath the bark of growing as well as felled timber, yet for the most part they choose situations for the maggot-nurseries where the sap is not in healthy flow ; that is, sickly alanding trees, or else felled trunks or branches before the juices between the bark and wood are completely dried up. Relatively to injury to the shoots : — In observations sent me by Mr. Henderson, from Tullamore, King's County, Ireland, in 1881, he noted on October 22nd that the beetles were then boring up the centres of the ahoots. Most of the shoots were then quite green, and until closely examined it was not easy to detect the holes by which the beetles entered. Some of the shoots, however, were just beginning to show a yellow tint, and would die and fall off, in stormy weather, in the following spring or summer. Mr. Robert Coupar (Forester), writing from Colenden, Stormontfield, N.B., mentioned that sometimes the beetles only just attack the shoots slightly at the base of the buds, and then the injury is small ; but sometimes, by beginning boring close below the then present year's -,'rowth, or piercing along the young shoots themselves, the leaves are only partially developed, and from their stumpy appearance the attack may be observed at a considerable distance. " The attack may be found going on from early summer, and when once the shoots are tunnelle the wind. they isily i^y At the date of writing (Nov. 28th) large numbers were to be PINE BEETLE. be found rge space g, legless which is ish, with 3 turn to ietles are 3 a little ow, come :iore they I into the based on Jiiierence jlearly in he young , For the le bark of part they ae sap is s, or else the bark 3 sent me reland, in vere then cots were not easy me of the How tint, following Colenden, le beetles the buds, beginning V piercing are only ranee the 3. "The and when ken oil by were to be 245 found lying about in the wood, many empty ; also manv rubbish ^^^"''^^'''^ "' ^^''"'' °^' ^°^«"g«t tl^e "fog" or forest Clearing away the infested shoots, off the trees in summer, or from beneath them in winter, is one means of prevS« TpposeT '**''^' ^"* ^'* '' '^''^^ '^''''' °^^ as St be n\^Jf\?.7Ir' ^''^'''^'^'^T.'"^^''' y°""g plantations of about SIX to twelve years' old are attacked, they may be gone ZfLTl ''' '^r^?' ^''^^' ^"^ *^^ ^"^««ted shoots picked off ; they back ou of th.ir tunnels and fall to the ground, 'i ^ere- tore, after col acting attacked shoots into a basket, the work may prove to have hoen to no purpose, and on arrival at the end ol your j()nrney you may find the shoots quite clear of beetles, these having nil escaped ! " Mr. Henderson, above quoted, noted that "when the attack 18 observed on young trees, the best way of safely getting rid of It IS to cut off the shoot below the undermost siall hole to be seen on the shoot. The person cutting them should liave a small bag, Bomething like the planting-bag used for earryina small trees during planting operations, and into this ba"^ he can pii^ the cuttings, and when filled carry them to the outside or an o^-en part of the w. od, and burn them at once." Kemoval of infested shoots, as above mentioned, from which tne beetles cowc out to propagate, is important; but almost more important yet is removal of nU thinnings, pieces of felled Pine or other Tino rubbish, beneatli the bark of which the ^?t J'l^^'J.'^''^^ ^"'^ *^' ^ ^"^'^ ^^'^'' maggot-nurseries. Mr. W. McCorquodale, of Scone, N.B. (well-known for his skill m foi-esti7), laid down.— "When young Fir plantations are tunned, al! the brush ought to be at once rem ved or ournt on the ground, as the beetle propagates in the d 'u , ma branches in legions. They ascend the ntanding trees, \nd commit extensive ravages. When Fir thinnings are carted irom the plantations, it is a very common practice to dress tlie bark oft, to lighten lie carriage in transit to market. Lbe dressing-off o. the bark should not be permitted within tlu plantation ; in a y. ar after the ground round these Heaps oi bark may be seen covered with brown shoots blown Irom the growing trees, bored by the beetles which .he heaps have nurtured." ^ Mr. Hendfirson also noted ^' with one dark or Dlack band across the segment next in tbe h«ioted, with regard to extent of injury, that the infestation did much harm in young Fir woods ; and also that the damage caused by these caterpillars might be easily known by the straggling appearance and loss of regularity of growth of the trees, from the injury to the buds and leading shoots. The Pine-bud Moth (above mentioned) and the Pine-shoot Moth, Eetinia hioliana (mentioned below), which are species of Tortrix, resemble each other in so many points of appear- ance and habits that it is not always possible to ascertain which of the two species is referred to :n observations of methods of attack. From the descriptions here quoted it appears that the E. turionana is the smallest of the two moths, the caterpillars of which feed chiefly inside the buds, the feeding-season being both in autumn and in the following spring. The caterpillar of the E. huoliana, which is stated to be the most injurious of thf two kinds, feeds mainly in the spring of the year on the growing shoots, under a shelier of threads of its own spinning and hardened turpentine. Pine-shoot Tortrix Moth. Eetijiia huoliana. These Moths are to be found during July about young Pine trees of various kinds. The female lays her eggs between the buds at the ends of the boughs. The caterpillars, which hatch late in the summer, gnaw these so as to cause a flow of turpentine that givcb them a slight coating, and here the caterpillars hybcrnate. Their operations are first noticeable in the following spring, when the trees begin their growth, after which ihe grubs attack the shoots nearest, or one side of them, and are to be found sheltered under a kind of web and the turpentine that flows from the wound. The caterpillars are at first of a dark brown, which changes to a Jiyliter colour afterwards ; the small head and a band on flNE-SHOOT TORTRIX MOTH. 249 the segment nexf. to it p,tg of a shining black. These are to be lound from September to May, and on ceasing to feed they change (at the same spot) to chrysalids of a dirty brownish yellow. l)lunt at the tail, and furnished on the abdomen with prickle-hke processes pointing backwards. They are to be tound in June in tho young shoots, and after iVing in this Btaie tor four weeks the moths appear. These are rather larger than the foregoing species. The upper wmgs are reddish yellow, changing to a darker tint at the tip and marked with light stripes from the base, and silvery spots and transverse wavy lines ; the hinder winces are blackish grey, with a yellow tint, anu yellow-grey fringes. In the dusk of the evening tlioy swarm round the tops'' of the young Pines out of which they have hatched, but by day they rest and are not readily seen, from their similarity in colour to the withered shoots of which they have been the cause. Ihis species is common wherever Pine trees are to be found trom the north to the south of Europe. The infested trees are easily known by the distorted shoots • those that have been injured (and the growth consequently checked) on one side turn downwards, gradually lengthening, till after a while the shoot raises itself upwards at the tip and takes a straigbt course again; but meanwhile a knee has been formed, and a crippled state given to the branch. The shoots that have been destroyed turn brown and die on the tree, many break off at the bend, and stumpy growths, from the number of buds thrown into unnatural development, entirely spoil the characteristic appearance of the tree.— ('Prak. Insecten-Iumde.') PRKVENTION AND Eemedies.— Where the state of the buds or shoots show the caterpillar (or chrysahs) to be present these should be carefully removed, so as not to injure the remaining shoots, and all these infested pieces should be burnt. This will lessen the amount of future attack, and the earlier it can be done in the season the better, so as to push on a good growth in the healthy shoots that are left, by means ot the sap that otherwise would have been shared with the mtested growths. From the fact of the moths being sometimes noticeable in large numbers flying in the evening over the infested trees it IS worth consideration whether washings (see Index), such as ^yould make a light sticky coating over the buds for the short time the moths were about in large numbers, and which would lodge between them, and so especially protect the spot which the Pine-shoot Tortrix selects for deposit of its eggs, would not be of service. II ; 1; ,1* h i\ i I I' ' fi-i if flj 250 PINE. Pine Sawfly. Lophyms pini, Curtis. Pine Sawfly, pupa, and larva, magnified. Pine-leaves injured by Sawfly. The caterpillars of this Sawfly cause great damage to Pines, and especially to young Scotch Fir woods, by feeding on the leaves. In some cases they scoop away the sides of the leaf, leaving only the midrib ; in others, beginning at the tip, they eat the leaves almost down to the sheath. They also feed on the bark of the young shoots, and, as they have voracious appetites and appear in companies, the mischief they do is enormous, and, unless checked by treatment or weather, is continued year after year by successive generations over large areas, sometimes extending to two thousand acres or more of plantation. ^ The Sawflies appear early in summer, when the female inserts her eggs in the Pine leaves by cutting a slit along a leaf with her saw-like ovipositor and laying a few eggs in the opening, which she covers with a resinous material scraped from the leaves, repeating the operation until all the eggs have been laid. The caterpillars hatch in about three weeks, and, like others of the genus Lophyrus, are 22-footed. They have a pair of claw-like feet on each of the three segments imme- diately behind the head, the next segment is footless ; the succeeding seven segments have each a pair of sucker-feet (or "prolegs"), and the tail is also furnished with a pair, known as the " caudal proleg." The colour varies much with age, health, and weather ; at first the grub is green, paler or whitish beneath, with a brownish yellow head, and black sucker-feet ; when full grown it has a rusty brown head, dark forehead, and black jaws and eyes ; it has an interryptcd PINE SAWFLY. 251 eth\"aLeIi?^ Z\ '^VT''^ ^^, '" P^*^^ ^" ^^^^k dots on Xw S i'h 1 1^' ^'!^r^^^^«k' the sucker-feet are mo^ss'and'fpff '^S^^^^^^^s and then form cocoons in the XchthevLpd nr^^r^f^ matter_ beneath the tree upon Thf« .nL ^' ""' ""? *^^ ^'^^^«' 0^ i" crannies of the bark. ZSdanSiT^L-\ *^'/''' °^ *^' caterpillar (which lies t^:^ '' ---k^'^^^ ^- the Ld, com- 0 r, K^u °°^°^^ °{ specimens spun under moss is commonly of Lhlev'Trtrtf *h°«\^^^tened to the tree eXTr^ky Sf rustvM}^^^^ ^ y^^l^^ tinge; a clean white occur somphvi ^1 f ^^*'' commonly with a woolly surface) occur sometimes, but only occasionally."— (Th H ) caterDin.''r'rpl'-'' ^'' ^f^^^P^^^t varies ; in som^ cases the sompHmp. i r ""^^hanged for nine months in the cocoon, sometimes even for a longer time before it turns to the nuna f'perflcf S^^Sr^'"' from the cocoon) ; butthea'ppeaS 01 peitect Sawflies may be looked for early in the summer Sometimes, however there is a second brood, of whlTthe Sawflies appear in the autumn. In 1884 Mr. W E Cattlev of Ederton, Eoss-shire, noted on July 30th, regardit theZ' hlSXt? •: "^'T^^' f ^^^'^ Sak/Stellilto "n ins j^ ir plantations :~" I was absent from home for a fortnight and on my return the caterpillars had completely diLpS' no doubt they had spun and hidden somewheref But where ?" out at r'? ^°*^ ?^ ^''' ^"^^^^^ ^''^ his men did nofflnd out at the time, but later on Mr. Cattley reported :-" On September 0th some of the Sawflies had come out (of the summer cocoons), the males smaller and sparer than the emales, with broad comb-like antenna and black in clur and after these had come out I found scores of empty eases notm the ground, hut in the rank grotvth of Heather " He also noted, on the IGth of October, with regard to differ- ence m method of feeding of the earlier and £ brood - brood-ll'ille!^' "^ ''' '^°'*^ '' *'^ ''''' "^-^^ the spring , These observations of Mr. Cattley are of considerable interest as giving an example of habits of the Pine Sawfly in the north of Scotland agreeing with those recorded in Ger- many, by Dr Bernard Altum, when two broods occur in one season :-- The Sawflies are found at two different times in tlie year-in April jind July. Larva3 are found in May and June when they feed on the Pine leaves of the previous year. Hiey turn to pupit- m the beginning of July, and after two or ?' If u ?, I ! ! i 252 PINE. three weeks develop into Sawflies (or in August or September). The larvae from these live on the Pine leaves of the present season, and (quite differently to the first set, which form their cocoons on Pine leaves, &c.) these go into cocoon in the earth. Here the caterpillars lie i" cocoon the whole winter through without becoming pupae until spring, a period of nine months for the metamorphoses which happened so quickly previously." _ " However, all winter cocoons do not belong to the cater- pillars of the second generation ; it often happens that there is only one ijcucrat'ion, and the caterpillars of this hybernate in the ground in cocoons."* The male and female differ from each other both in colour and size ; the male is black, with four transparent iridescent wings, which are about half an inch in expanse, and the feather-like rays of the horns are more developed than in the female. The colour of the female is whitish, with black head, breast, and horns ; a black patch on the back of the abdomen, and a black patch or spots between the wings, which are about three-quarters of an inch in their expanse, and iridescent with purple and green, varied with yellow, like those of the male. — (' Die Blattwespen,' ' Naturgeschichte der Schiidlichen Insecten,' ' Stephen's Illus. Brit. Ent.,' &c.) Prevention and Remedies. — Clearing aicay cocoons from under infested trees during the winter is the best method of preventing attack in the ensuing season, A large proportion of the Pine Sawfly caterpillars which leave the shoots in autumn bury themselves (as mentioned above) in the dry leaves, Moss, or decayed rubbish beneath the tree, and are stated for the most part to form their cocoons near the stem of the tree, where they are sometimes to be found lying together in masses as large as a man's fist. " The ground underneath Scots Fir trees is generally bare, and covered only with the fallen leaves and tree debris ; so that it is an easy matter to examine the surface of the ground near the base of the trees, and, if found infested with cocoons, to scrape it together and hum it in small heaps, so as to destroy the insects. " Another plan might be useful ; that is, turn over with a spade the loose surface-soil and tree debris containing the cocoons, pnd give it a heavy beat with the back of the spade, thus smashing and destroying the cocoons. '• However nothing is so effective as collecting the surface- soil and rubbish into small heaps, and burning or charring it. Even where the surface is covered with rough herbage or • < V, ?o.v?.i Zoologie,' vnrs T)v. P. Altum ; " Insecten," Tart ii., p. 2C9. PINE SAWFLY. 253 Heather, this is the best plan, as the rough material will all ?M r» ^^^^^'^^'^^ ^^ *^e poil, and burning of the cocoons." With regard to clearing caterpillars off the trees, the fol- lowing method was found successful on a plantation of about eighty acres near Forres, which was infested by the brva of a Sawiiy : — " When the caterpillars were first noticed, a careful man was provided with a pair of strong gloves, with directions to examine the state of the trees daily, and when he found the caterpillars— which are generally in clusters— to destroy them by infolding the branch on which they were feeding in the gloved hand and jn-essing it firmly . The caterpillars (which had not appeared m the whole of the plantation, but in great numbers in some parts of it) were thus prevented from, doing any ereat amount of damage."— (D. S.) ^ J h ^'^^ Near Dunkeld (where Sawflies had been very injurious for several seasons previous to 1879, on a young plantation of two thousand acres of Scots Fir), an experiment was tried on a small plantation of twenty acres, five miles distant from any other Scots Fir wood, which, up to the date of the observations sent,^ had proved successful. The plan adopted was to send a numoer of boys through the plantation, each furnished with a small vessel containing naphtha, and a brush roughly made of feathers, with .vhich the clusters of larv^ were slicrhtly sprinkled or touched, when they immediately fell downt and by this means the plantation was almost cleared.— (J M'G ) In the case of a bad attack of Pine-leaf Caterpillars 'in Koxburghshire, after various means of destroying them had tailed,— such as dusting the trees with quick-lime,— the use of hellebore in solution, applied by means of the syringe, was found a deadly application to the caterpillar and an effective cure.— (C. Y. M.) In the ease of larger trees, mudi go-"" -aay be done by shaking down the caterpillars and destro mg them before they have time to creep away. They fall in great numbers (especially when chilled and slightly torpid in the morninfT)on the tree being shaken or jarred ;. and in German forest°T it has been found that one man to shake the trerj, accompanied by two women or children with a sheet for the cateri)illars to tail on, from which they can bo collected and destroyed can clear hftouu trees of twen*;, '^ve years' old before nine o'clock 111 the morning.— (Tii„ iL> U some fresh Pine bou-hs are strewed uiuliT the trees before they are shaken, the fallen caterpillars will collect immediately on the sprays, and may be trampled on, or more conveniently shaken on to the cloths to be Jestrovftd than by simply letting thorn drop on the cloths from the tree. {> li 254 PINK. It IS also desirable, before shaking, to put a band of some nature that the caterpillars will not cross on the ground at the foot of the tree, to keep all that may have escaped from making good their return up the trunk. Quick-lime would answer this purpose, or gas-lime ; or a hay-band (or pieces of any old rags twisted together into a rope) well tarred or soaked in a mixture of tar and oil that would keep wet and sticky for some time, would be a sure preventive of traffic of the caterpillars across it. When the caterpillars have consumed the leafage on one tree, they migrate to another; and where tracts of forest are affected it has been advised to dig ditches not less than two feet deep and two feet broad, with the sides as perpendicular as possible. Looking at the clinging powers of the caterpillars it does not seem likely that this plan would do more than delay progress, and also afford a clear space where the caterpillars when they occur in the myriads described by Hartig and Kollar m the German Pine forests, might be duly dealt with by regular_ watchers ; bui, generally speaking, a broad band of something which they would not cross, laid on the ground appears a more practicable remedy. ' Sand or ashes, or dry earth, well sprinkled with paraffin and water, would probably check the onward progress more effectually at less cost ; or a band of fresh gas-hme would be effective. Quick-lime would be of little use in Ibis case as something is needed of which the effects would last for at least a few days. When infested and uninfested trees are mixed to<^ether it may be worth while to isolate such as have not been Attacked, have where the boughs touch, the caterpillars can only reach them by crawling up the trunk, and a large number mi-^bt be protected at a small expense by placing rings of any deterrent the forester might choose at the lowest part of the trunk or on the ground round it. A band about a foot wide of fish-oil soft-soap, mixed to a thiok consistency and laid on with a large brush would cost little beyond the wages of the operator, and probably be a preventive. _ Something may be done just for a few small trees by picking cocoons off the leaves, or clearing them from crevices on the bark, or by removing the leaves that have e^frg aid m them; but these operations are not practicable oS^a large scale. Ungenial iveathcr acts powerfHlly on this insect.— Ln the autumn of 1880 it was noted that the first frosts, comhi- suddenly, destroyed many of the caterpillars that still re*^ mamed on the trees at Earlston, in the south of Scotland and the absence of the Sawflies from the Athoi forests, and'also ;K I PINK SAWFLY. 255 ■■I therr almosttotal disappearance from the young plantations tezrr'T^"^ their loiri/rxtis tz/c cold, mmeir young state and when theyl^e cha".^' thrir biri;n7thn:.S SaSsr'Xo'dte ^^rss kinds Jays, Cuckoos, Titmice, Hedgesparrows and ^wIliT are of service in destroying the perfe rSawflL and I& cocoons with the contained caterpillar; but they shun con p£seTieM V^«th"7:htot £«^dSl aJp'',?.T'"t';°'^' of prevention of these pests, however appear to be m talang advantane of their i.,ftt„ !,<■«• ' heir coeoons in large Sumbe»rb°e„eath their foottrte/Z' of fanmg irom the branches on a sharp shake bring gf,^'ntoae yorr^if 'jiry^,^e"siSr ^^^ mmal sucker-feet and abdomerbe low.'^yd ''"•. J^f "^i°: beneirS fegs if "it tt Sf'" f"^' ™'^ "en high, were notTs^^Lsi^y' aXklrallh^r.-^l^V-' A * s I i' 11 fi 256 PINE. Giant Sirex ("Wood Wasp"). Sinw rjir/ns, Lhm. Female " Wood Wasp " and masRot. Jaw of maggot, with four sharp, narrow teeth ; and jaw of fly, with three broader teeth, both magnified. The splendid insect figured above is not usually credited with doing much mischief in England, but from my own observation I incline to think that this " Fir-wood Wasp," as it is called in Germany (as well as another kind, the Steel Blue Sirex or Sirex jiivcncus), is more often at work than is supposed. The injury of the S. f/igas is caused by the large maggots boring galleries in the solid Fir timber. The female Sirex lays her eggs in various kinds of Pine — Scotch Fir, Silver Fir, and Spruce — which, though not decayed, are not in full health ; such, for instance, as trees past their prime, or that have been uprooted, or broken by wind or accidents, or are sickly from any other cause ; and it has been considered, by some observers, that even an insignificant local injury to the tree may afford a point for attack; that the females lay their eggs on such damaged spots, from which the brood spreads, and thus in a few years an otherwise healthy trunk is destroyed. The eggs are also stated to be deposited in felled Fir trunks left lying in the woods. The female (as figured above) is furnished with a long ovi- positor, by means of which slie bores a hole through the bark of the stem of the tree for the deposit of her eggs. The maggots from these are whitish, soft, and cylindrical, with a scaly head armed with strong jaws ; a blunt point on the tail-segment, and ibey have three pairs of very minute feet. These larvae feed in the solid timber, and are full grown in about seven weeks ; and then or later (for how long the larvtU and pupal state last seems uncertain) they change to GIANT SIREX. 267 chrysalids in the tree. The pupa resembles the perfect insect indit!' '''*' '"' '"'"''"' ""^^'^^ ^^""^ '''^ ^'^"^^^^ ^''^ The further change to the complete insect may occur in a month, but If the maggot has not turned to the chrysalis tiU autumn the fly will not appear till the following summer or even a much later period. ^ ^^mmm, or The female 5irea,- is usually an inch and a half lone cylmdncal, and with the head and the rest of the body of the same diameter. _ The colour is black, banded with yellow on the first two rings of the abdomen (the first of which is ll7T ''^^ *^' ^^1'^' ^^' ^^'* *^^^^ "^g« of the abdomen are also yellow, with some amount of brownish at the base of It fe/'^?.''*-! /^''' i' ^^'^ ^ y^"°^ «P°* 0^ each side of the head. The abdomen has a strong blunt point at the tip, and undernea h it is furnished with the ovipositor, which JL fi"f„^'',^ ^oJ.' '' Z^ ^i?^ ,^^ *^^^ y^"°^^ sheath shown in the figure (p 256). The thighs are black, the shanks and feet ye ow, and the four large membranous wings are of a brownish The male is smaller, with the abdomen flatter and yellowish excepting the first segment, which, as well as the last segment (or end of the tail) and its appendage, is black. The hind pair of shanks and feet are b ack or dusky; pale, or with yellow imgs at the base. The horns are yellow ; those of the male are nearly as long as the body, those of the female are rather more than half that length. Prevention and Eemedies.— The best methods of prevention are to clear away trees that are in a condition to attract attack— such as trees that have been injured by accident or Ill-treatment, or that are weakened by disease or attacks of other msects, and also those that have been blown over or that have been felled, as the Sirex lays its eggs in felled as well as in standing timber. Any trees which are found to be infested (either by the Sirex being seen escaping, or by the large holes in the trunk showing the escape to have taken place) should be felled and disposed ot accordmg to their condition, so as to stop further spread of the insect Irom them. If they can be taken to the saw-pit and cor. verted to anv rough use it is best, for thus the infested parts may be cue off and burnt, and the sound timber preserved; bui, if th-s cannot be managed, something should be done, bof.h with trees m this state and felled trunks lying in the woods, to prevent ihc msects escaping. If nothing else occurred the tree might be split for firewood II 258 PINR. to be used at once, or it would be worth while to heap up any rubbish near, over the trunk and char the outside. Sometimes the insects appear suddenly in great numbers. I have seen twelve to twenty specimens captured in a few hours, as they came out of one Larch trunk lying by a Fir plantation in "W est Gloucestershire (Ed.) ; and in such a case a child with a net could easily catch and kill them. Generally, however, they appear singly or a few at a time, often over a period of several years from one trunk. "Steel Blue" or "Common" Sirex. Sirex jtivencus, Linn. Common Sirex and maggot. The Steel Blue or Common Sirex is a most variable insect, both m its size and colouring. The female is commonly blue- ] ack, with rusty red thighs, and reddish shanks and feet : » lack homs, and somewhat transparent brownish wings with xusty veins and spot on the fore edge. The male blue-b'ack : abdomen, with margin of the third and the whole of the four followmg segments, red; the hinder shanks and feet dilated and compressed, and dark blue. Both sexes, however, vary in amount of red or black on the legs ; _ also sometimes the prevailing blue tint is varied by greenish colour,_and also, in the case of the male, the abdomen is sometimes bright red, excepting the two rings at the base : or again the six lowest joints of the horns may be red, and many otner small differences of colouring also occur in different specimens.* R,:I ^L^^ff .^.f^'iP,*^""^ Of ^"tish species of Sirex, see Stephens' IlUi«. nf ent, Jiint. Vol. 7 (Mandibuiata), pp. 113-110. ■•'^■.^t-*^ (( STEEr- I R" on tl The CO /MON " aiREX. 250 quarters of a" .:,. ..* , K".i"J?"«"'/ ""'? f™«> "bout tin of the W! f^s. influenced 7 favourable ir a n to .1 htuo above two inches in the snread I his variation aj^poars to me to be much tho condition, of t,., maggots having ^een as the case mav be) nnrl wifif +v,^ ^stanaing or felled, In an estimate sent me in 1889 bv M i^'^e borings. ideSia"d)i:' ometoKres^at ^'f* ^^^'^""'"« ™^^ haven, he reported as follows-- ^' ^"«''"°°' "'="' ™»o- e.ees3orf™.tff5 ^'l™' ^"'^ ™ "^'^ S^^-xla is slightly in loss of ^SolrmCey ™t^ ?' saTSifJoiT^ "^.^^'^^^'^ ^ to the appear.nc„ of the woods aKofes°-(wT7 """" tre^ll??^'' ^^,P'r?«™ of Sirex-ateck to old iter Fir other circnmsSceTthe o,2r Lrk 3 Zvf "'i'?'"..**^ °'' described in Selby's ' BrSFo^e^t Trees "n° "IA^^" ^^ newly-exposed cuticle. ' P' ^^' '^"""S " Where the thin under-bm-k ."a fn.,^ i ., presumably be particS; Inviting tX^Xd.' andT'^' lew favourite trees it would be worth whL to rvb.^ff f % a good smearing with soft-soan prepo.v'l ^ o ^'^ °f which would be likely to protect the ti^"e (where ' ' ^"^"^ sonlPfl nm /!„,.• 7r "" F-^^cv.. iiiB tree ^wnere the bar scaled off) during the time when the " Timber Wasps >) s2 : had are ii !!•' i •I ' l| i > ^^'m^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 4 #' /, {./ /. An ^ ^^: 1.0 I.I 1^128 ■ 50 ™^" IL25 III 1.4 M !.6 m '^i ""* %''.'>' '..»* / ■9^^ ^ / Pnotographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ^ V iV '^NV \ Ui 260 PINE. about in summer, and would gradually wash ofif without harming the surface to which it was applied. For general purposes, the only reasonably practical way of preventing spread of Sirex-infestation appears to be as previously mentioned, timely removal of infested timber, whether in the form of standing or felled trees, or fallen trees, or infested limbs. Pine Weevil. Hylobhis ahictis, Linn. It \'- 1, Pine Weevil, magnified : line showing nat. length (snout included) ; 2, 3, Larch twigs injured by weevils; 4, head, with snout and horn and fore leg, magnified. The Pine Weevil is injurious to Scotch Fir, Spruce, Larch, and some others of the Coniferae, by feeding on the tender bark of the young shoots. It mainly attacks young trees, especially plantations formed on ground from which a crop of old Fir has recently been removed, and eats away the bark of the stems, sometimes completely stripping them upwards. It also eats the bark of the shoots, and destroys the bud ; and, in the Larch, it gnaws at the base of the leaves so as to render the shoots bare. The beetles appear early in the summer, sometimes in May, but chiefly in June and July. In unfavourable weather they remain under shelter of the leafage, but when it is warm and sunny they are more active, and pairing then takes place. The females deposit their eggs, which are transparent and whitish, in rifts of the bark, in logs, root-stocl's, stumps of felled trees, and on exposed parts of roots. The maggot hatches in two or three weeks, and may be found from June onwards throughout the winter. When full grown it is about half an inch long, fleshy and white, with a brown head, which, as well as some portions of the maggot. WNE WEEVIL. 261 ff without cal way of to be as id timber, lUen trees, it included) ; Lorn and fore ce, Laroh, the tender ung trees, 1 a crop of he bark of upwards, bud; and, 3 so as to letimes in le weather it is warm hen takes )arent and stumps of d may be When full fhite, with le maggot. s beset with bristles. It is either legless, or with mere indications of legs on the three segments behind the head «nd Zf^fl '^^^' '''''^^^'' «*b«r weevil-mag^^^^^^^ that the three segments above mentioned are sSCch enS as to give a swollen appearance to this part of thrmaS which is also much wrinkled transversely), for figs oTwhfch see references to " Weevil " in Index ^ wood breith*flfT more or less winding galleries in the soft tTfi Inwfi. /?!? ' ""^''^ gradually increase in size with root^Ti''^ **' maggot and, following the course of the loot, go down to some depth below the surface Tbp«fl The pupffi resemble the beetles in shape, but with the le^^s and partially developed wings and wing-cases and nll+S ong snout or proboscis, folded under Sfmf the rtgs of the abdomen are slightly saw-like at the sides. These pupl are ?«?! ir^-^ 'P^'T^/^ *^^^ cocoon-like nests, andTnth 8 h^LlZ '' "^""f ^'' ^^'""^ ^^^^ ^^^ks, when the young beetles develop and come out, whilst some of the beetles of thf previous year that have hybernated are again to be found These twts or"' r'1?i^'-^;S*^^ in Moss,'or fallen Sge and sSv «i^Iif •'' ^°t'' "" the earth, or roots under the trees, or simi ar sheltering places, and may be known from the freshlv developed beetles by their more faded and wornTppeafance Lio b^ ^-.l""' ^'' ^^^'^^ ^^^f ^^ i^c^ in length, of a duU pUchv behtdTh^ n' ^'u^r^ ^.'^' ^^ *^^ h^^d 'and on the body Pts ottinkTes'^^^^^^^ thickly roughened with smaH nil if wnnkles. The wmg-cases are rounded at the sides shaped W^T*'^ i ^^\^^^ (^^ ^' *« ^^ «°^^^l^at boat-' surfrce^ionl T' ""^ T^ ^' .'^"^'^^^ punctures and the surlace rough; they are also variegated with irreeular fmnQ verse bands of spots of yellowish hairs. The legs are black" The beetle IS especially distinguished by its long fnoXr nro^^ boscis, wi h elbowed horns, of'which the long lowest jdnt^fits into a hollow formed for its reception in the sX of the pro- boscis (see fig. magnified, p. 260). ^ Prevention and Remedies.— One of the chief points to bn observed in the habits of this beetle is that it frequents fores? clearings, that is, spots where Fir trees few or manv bo v« recently been felled. Here it harbours undlr p ecTo^'bark eto^edTol."^"' '"' '""'^ ''' '''' ^" *^^ logs! rmps,'S It is therefore desirable that all such points of attraction uu 262 PINE. should be got rid of out of the wood. There is no occasion that anything should be wasted, for the fragments that are only useful as fire- wood may be burnt long before any eggs laid in them can develop through all their transformations, but they should not remain in the woods. Fragments of roots left in the ground should be thoroughly covered with at least six inches of earth, and no logs (which are an especial haunt of the beetle for oviposition) should be left about, unless some of them, or of the fragments of bark, are used for traps. This has been found practically useful in German forestry, and if these traps were regularly examined, and the contents des- troyed, they would probably be an excellent means of getting rid of many of the weevils, which will frequent a clearing so long as it is in progress, and the air pervaded with the scent of turpentine. Bark-traps are made by laying pieces of bark with the inner side downwards on the ground. Pine bark is said to answer better than Spruce, as it remains fresh longer. The pieces should be well weighted down with stones, and examined early or late in the day. The number of beetles caught is greatest in dull weather or during soft rain. Log-traps make a good decoy to attract the female beetle to lay her eggs ; in this plan thick pieces of logs with bark on them are partly buried in the ground. The beetles resort to them, feed on the sap, and lay in them, and numbers of beetles may thus be caught and the brood from the eggs got rid of afterwards by burning the logs when convenient. _ Brush-traps are made of Pine or Spruce twigs, tied together m bundles, about the size of a Birch-broom; these are scattered about infested spots, and attract many weevils, which may be easily shaken out of them and destroyed. It cannot be too strongly insisted on that all such places for propagation as dying trees, waste timber, broken bark, stocks, roots, &c., that cannot be removed, buried, or utilised as traps, should be carefully gathered together and burnt. The neighbourhood of forest saw-pits should be similarly attended to, and any logs of felled timber, whether in or out of the woods, should be observed relatively to their serving for breeding-places. In the summer the beetles may be found pairing on planks, cleft timber, &c., far from woods. It is, however, not worth while (unless special circumstances should pomt out otherwise) to meddle with rubbish under Pine trees, such as Moss, dry Pine needles, small twigs, and such like ; the weevil does not feed on these, and does not lay in them (for they would not afiord food to the maggot) ; it only shelters itself in them for the winter, and the small number that would be destroyed would scarcely repay the labour. PINE WEEVIL. > occasion 1 that are any eggs rmations, ;s of roots h at least ial haunt [ess some 'or traps. 3stry, and tents des- of getting [earing so the scent the inner 0 answer he pieces examined caught is beetle to , bark on resort to mbers of gs got rid together scattered 1 may be h places en bark, : utilised %rnt. similarly in or out rving for be found nstances h under figs, and 3 not lay ?got); it le small e labour. 263 succoLm .-"« ""'"""■ " ''^^*""^°' •>=»= b^en thoroughly tl ?n 1 ♦' i'° ^'^ '•'""g rather the whole is burned so warm seasons?-(W M'C ) ' " ""'" ''^»'™'=«™ i" dry "three or foir years^' livl H^^^^ The following remark is also valuable.— I strongly re- wisVeS JoTee^ S^StL^'^ ctnneS ^^Y^1 «I-cestershire that it was custom yeaVto " skSn •' ('' . rouTh , o.^^Ti,'^ Pleasure-grounds, it was the scythes, and fire the rubbish in a KennShS f'^^'^'^/V'^ ^"^^" °^ <^°°^°>on the trees, and, where contenient on^f l« T "^ ''^'^^ ^'^^P^ P^^d amongst attention was'paid the Sre did not run itT^u^^ ^ ^f''^ ^'"■- ^^hen proper with the general slight smoke "ron the «L,^M '■"'^''f treatment, together plantation, was accompanied by fK did nnf no ^1"°^ ''^P' throughout the which some years befofe ha^^ a^JL^dt^ ^e^^^^^^^:^!'^ ii; 'ii,- 264 tlNE. commend surface burning when successive planting is com- temjt^lated. This is the safest method of destroying the Fir Weevil in its various stages. If for special reasons the surface cannot be burned, it is well to delay planting for a few years until the weevils are exterminated." — (D. S. S.) With regard to remedies that are applicable when weevil- attack is present in young plantations of limited extent, hand- picking is a sure but a tedious and expensive cure. The beetles may be gathered into wide-mouthed bottles (J. M'L.), or they might be shaken down on to tarred boards (see " Otio- rhynchus "). Quick-l!me has been found to answer well, when thrown on the ground round the trees, and, from the observations of the beetle-attack commencing at the ground level and gradually stripping the trees upward of their bark, it would appear that any deterrent thrown round the stem would be useful. Ashes or sand sprinkled with diluted paraffin, or gas-lime scattered round the trees, would probably do much good, but, though the beetles occur to a certain extent on the ground, their low and short flights exactly suit them for attack to the young trees, to which they are mainly hurtful ; and mere isolation at the roots can only be looked upon as a partial remedy. The plan of painting over the stem of the young trees with a mixture of paraffin and red-lead has proved fairly successful (up to the date of the note of observation), but was not con- sidered by the experimenter to have then been tried long enough to be certain of its success or its effects on the tree. — (W. W. E.) It has been found that young trees dressed with a mixture known as Messrs. Davidson's composition, used to keep off rabbits, have been free from weevil-attack.* From these notes it is plain that direct applications to the stems of the young trees are serviceable, and it would be well worth trying whether applications of sof soap and sulphur, or of gas-water, soft-soap, and sulphur, w«j. laid on with a brush, would not answer (for recipes, see references in Index). Pro- bably smearing the stems with a mixture of cow-dung and lime would do good, or in this case, as the application is not to a food-crop, there would be no objection to using some of the regular insect poisons. One important point yet remains ; it appears that the young plants are most attacked after transplanting, and probably in this case, as in many others, the temporarily altered state of • I refer here to Davidson's composition, made according to the original recipe, which, as far as I am aware, is only procurable from Messrs. Dickson & Sons, Newton Nurseries, Chester. Since the 1st edition of my Manual was published, I have been given to understand that a slightly altered form of composition has been issued, which very possibly may answer as well as the above, but I am not myself acquainted with it. — Ed. torLAR. — russ moth. 266 y 18 com- g the Fir le surface few years n weevil- nt, hand- he beetles ), or they e "Otio- hrown on »ns of the gradually pear that il. Ashes scattered t, though their low he young isolation aedy. ;rees with mccessful I not con- ried long le tree. — ssed with 1, used to ms to the Id be well ilphur, or I a brush, x). Pro- iung and on is not g some of ;he young obably in i state of the original 1. Dickson & Manual was red form of well as the the sap attracts the insect feeder, and (as in other cases) all possible care to avoid what would prolong this state, or cause a sickly growth, should be given; and when a large extent of ground is covered with Pine plantations, a very strict super- vision of the method in which the labourers put in the voune trees could not fail to do much good. Note.— In the above paper, as well as in some others (more especially some of those bearing on forest management) I was favoured originally with much information by Mr. Malcolm Dunn, the chief superintendent of the Duke of Buccleugh's gardens at Dalkeith, and by other chief Scottish foresters and gardeners. I acknowledged these contributions in the 1st edition of my Manual by appending initials, and giving names in full in the List of Contributors appended to the vol. ; and *\- u .f"^ ^. *?°^ ^ ^^^® preserved the same arrangement, which thus distinguishes the contributions of information to the 1st from those to the 2nd edition, which are for the most part acknowledged together with the note given.— Ed. POPLAR. Puss Moth. Dicranum viniUa, Linn. ; Cerura viniila, StepL. Cat. : Puss Moth (male), and caterpillar (life-size). 266 POPLAR. PnL Mn??f ?^ and very peculiar-looking caterpillars of the Zil'. 7 ?^^i»JT°"'' ^^'^^^y- ^y devouring the leafage, mrt of th?«?l^^ 1^' ^fr^f *^^y «^"«^ *« *^^ l>^rk at the In 1885 especially, I had notes from Mr. J. Low forester ?he^1d^r'^f ^'*"*'' ^'t' °^*^^ caterpillars being at vok^^^ thPv W 1- 'TT- °^^^J«a°l Poplars, from some of which nlnif • Jlf' '^ '^'•PP''^ *^^ ^^^^^«- These trees had baen feet hth° «n'^ ?''"''?. 'P'.^°^' ^""^ ^''^ ^^-^^ fo"r to five ll..ar'-u^? ^''°*^^'' instance the rapidity with which Dnrfnh'r"^'' ^'r^''^ *^" ^'^^'' ^^« ^P^^ially mentS t^^p^ftn^^f •'''' ^l^.' ^ ^'^y ''^"^^^ ^^«^^^c« ^a« reported to me from Lmcolnshu-e, in which the little trees were so Ck'removeTb^^r^* the quantity of woody matiSlnd DarK, lemoved by the caterpillar for its cocoon, had so weak- wtn'off''Tnfb/''^-''^* *^^ y^^^g Poplar' Vant had comDletelv b«r J nfTTf ''""^ '^'' *^^ slender stem was hT^ZoIJ A^L^^'^ ^"""^ '°^^ ^^**le distance from the p^^'ticX dest^^^^^^^ ^^^^^ P^-*^*- was reported to be fisure^d^n^i'filf i';i''^'\^""-^^fwn, is of the size and shape figured (p. 266), and may be easily recognised by the nosition it js fond of assuming with the fore part%aised7as if^gSCto Befment «nd^\^'•^ ^'^^ .^^"^^^^^ ^ack 'into the neS itftT\^ ^'\T^^ V *^^^ *^il of the caterpillar ending in tlxenf akrm f iH^'^^^^^^^^ '^°^ ^^^^ '^ ^vhich w'hen jexea or alarmed, it has the power of protruding a lone Sroi our?o?^^^^^^^ rose-colo'ured silke'n thread' ine colours ot the caterpillar are purplish brown streaked lengthwise with white lines above the white bTd whLh is &'?a fiffi ^'T' ^?.? Bharply-curved courttom RreenLV^ V^^^^^ *^/. ^^ite band the colours are chiefly fhf ?fv7 ^^^^ *1^^ l^pad IS withdrawn into the next segment st e'^hlt'^TSs." '' ^^^'' ^^^^ '^' ^^-^ - <^-^ "c^« tha?thf WW "^i^? ^^^ ^''^' with black markings, so t^^M^^^ '^^^ortl^r^^^tnt^^^^^^^^^ I^ie^Xn rhe^ml^fi^^^d. ''' ^^^^^^ -thTcrdU'b^ pZ?oI "^"l^^^^i their eggs on the leaves of the Willows or Poplars which they mfest. When the caterpillars are full grown they form an exceedingly tough cocoon of a Mnd of SPRtCfi FIH4— SPRUCE-GALL APHIS. 267 their!*?-;.! ^^:' ^?Z ^' "^^^^ ^^*^^r ^» ^ hole gnawed in the bark a little above the root of their food-f -ee with wnoi dust and chips or, if nothing else occurs, Sey whrl^^^^^^ thing accessible together; in captivity I have found a bftnf thif * ''' *^l ''''''' '^ ^ ^^^1-bo- «"^tB them per?ec«y In this cocoon the caterpillar changes to chrysalis, from which fZ\'.''"'' '?* ''' ^"^ «^ J"°« «^ the folloLg Lr readXaot ' -f nfi T "/ ^^.'?' caterpillars they Tay be readily got rid of by hand-picking on low trees in nurseries appearance '\''' '^ '\ ^''^'' ^^« 8°* used ?o thef^ appearance. They are not easy to detect at first from the form and colour of the markings much resembling tS st«lT' ^''^^'^^?u•■ ^^'^^" first hatched the catZX are ba k ' Wh?* n?f*\\'"'r^ ^P^^^^l ^^"^«««' toCalmos? hi mo^n • ^^**^'^ ^""^ heen prevalent, examination should on Tfn theTarTn'f ?b *' f f 5? ^°^°°^« ^''^^^ ^een formed shVuM be destroyed. '"'''*'^ *''"'' '"^' ^' ^°' *^^ ^°^°°^« SPEUCE FIR. Spruce-gall Aphis. Chermes abietis, Linn. Winged female, pupa, eggs, and horn, all magnified. Section of r;,.,™ gall in dried state after departure ol Chermes '""* The Spruce-gall Aphis, known aleo as the Spruce Adelae, or Spruce Chermes, causes the .mall bright g?een! ortS and rosy, galls, shaped like miniature Pine Apples (or soC? I 268 SPRUCE FIR. what like Scotch Fir cones furnished on each of the divisions with a short leaf), which may be found not unfrequcntly in the early summer forming at the ends of the shoots of the Spruce Fir. The mother Chermes, from which the brood of the year originates, is very similar in shape to that of the Larch Chermes, but rather smaller, oval, wingless, and woolly, of various shades of green or purple, with dark legs, and may be found in spring with her sucker inserted in the base of a Spruce bud, thus causing the irritation which starts the diseased growth known as the '• Pine Apple Gall " or " Pseudo Cone." Sometimes the shape is perfect, but often only one side of the shoot is swollen, and the other is merely stunted. The first growth of the gall and the first egg-laying of the Chermes begin in May, or sometimes in the later part of April ; and deposit of eggs goes on slowly, the Chermes never stirring from the spot during the time, till, having laid a mass amounting to about two hundred, of various tints of yellowish green or grey covered with wool from her own body, she dies. The larvae, which hatch shortly from these eggs, are mere specks in size ; when magnified they are seen to have six legs, and a head with horns, and to be in shape much like the pupa figured at p. 267 (at first without signs of the future wmgs). The colour is greenish, or of a red tint. Meanwhile the growth of the gall— the " Pseudo Cone " as it is called— has been continuing, and the young Chermes larva spread themselves, soon after hatching, on its surface, drive their suckers into the soft substance of which it is formed, and, according to various observers, become buried in it from the continued enlargement of the base of the unnaturally swollen leaves, of which the gall is chiefly composed, gradually over- lapping them. This point is one of much interest." With regard to the larvae that were hatched outside presently be- coming tenants of the inside of the gall, there is no doubt; but, according to my own observations after long and careful watching of the growing specimens, I believe that at a certain stage of the growth of the gall a minute slit opens along the upper part of the sutures that mark the divisions of the swollen leaves of the gall from each other, and through these openings the larvae creep into the chambers within. On this point enquirers may satisfy themselves by watching the Chermes galls at hatching time, with the help of a strong magnifying glass, especially on the afternoon of a sunny day, and noting (should the process coincide with the above ob- servations) the larvae spreading themselves along the lines which divide the galls into diamond-shaped scales, apparently SPnuOE-OALL APHIS. 269 piercing into them with their suckers, and then cUsaDnearinr, into the chambei-s of the gall. When this ' P eToSe ^ has reached i . full growth, which may bo in four to six- weeks it hardens, the cells split open, and the containpd Z^f^^^'T 'T' °"*> ""^»^^^-« The pup^ are pow^^^^^^^^ ead-coloured, and margined and greenish at the sX from the indications of the tint of the coming wings When fn^W developed the skin cracks, and the pSfy wingeTin"^^^^ reT^WtrfcL^'f li^'/."* ?• '''^^'^' natural lengS a rest with the wings folded, is about the eighth of an inch) The colour IS of a yellowish green, with wh!tish creen winSi* transparent green legs, and five-jointed horn alfo of Iran ' parent green ; sometimes the cobur of the insect Ts reddish The wmged females disperse themselves and begin to la; and soon may bo found dead by their little hpnn«nfni^: C^ts^^ofTe atWci ofThVc^^^^^^^^^^^ *^^^ -^^^ Wingless male.— In Mr. Buckton's naner on r ni: .,- published in 1883, in his fourth volZe of ' BHt? ApWdcs ' he mentions having searched in vain for winged males amok J^^? the thousand forms he had reared under bell-Sa ses and un to that time the records of observation of the male appear to have been very doubtful. In July of that year howeve^ amongst a number of galls or -Pseudo Cones ''wkcri had myself been so fortunate as to forward to him, M?. Buckton nrolf f^i^'\l* ""^'? ^ ^^"^^' ^ «^^gl« apterous 'insect whiSh proved to be the sex long missing." This was " exceedTn^lv o"^Zlr^.HT' blind, apterou8,°antenna3 rudimSy anS composed of three joints only. Eostrum very short Head broad and joined to the body without the interventTon of anv ^^";^^^^f ? «^.f a-x. Abdomen large and deeply rnged'' &c^ —(Vol. oi 'Brit. Aphides,' above quoted, p. 31.) Prevention and Eemedies. - When Spruce trees in vouna woods are much infested they should be felled, and if cut down m summer whilst the galls are ereen ^11 ^nl L? shoots should be cut off and' burnt In winte S^t caution IS not needed, as the old galls are empty! and if ^th^ mother Chermes should lay on the felled shoots the buds before the Publication^^T.'BLI on"'sta'Ll^d''^^^^^^ S^-« 270 flPRUCE FIB.- -WILLOW. would not develop enough to nurse up the young brood Ihis clearing of mature, much-infested trees is very important' --cure 18 hopeless when they are in this conclition,— and wmist each year they become more unhealthy under the attack, they form centres to spread the Chermes all around VVhere young trees only a few feet high are attacked, it is desirable to go over them and remove the galls carefidlu, so as not to bruise or tear the other shoots, and it is well to do this as soon as the galls begin to show. The sap that would have gone to the distorted growth is thus preserved for the healthy shoots, and hatching of the Chermes out of the galls is prevented. When growth is more advanced their removal is best performed by a man furnished with an apron with a large pocket ; into this each gall should be put as it is cut and the collection should be most carefully destroyed. An apron is more convenient than a basket, which requires the use of the second hand ; but if the galls, save in their earliest stages, are merely thrown to the ground, the Chermes will develop within, and probably be in no way checked ^y the operation. j " « How far soil and situation affect the amount of attack does not appear to have been fully noted, but probably they have influence as in other cases of Aphis attack. The worst in- stances of gall-presence that I have seen were on trees of about thirty years old, which were somewhat overcrowded, and in a damp locality, on a cold, stiff clay; and also, after removal, on some line young trees about three or four feet high, which had been planted in a space in a Fir wood so sheltered by the neighbouring trees and hedges, and also by long rough grass and weeds, that there was no free play of air. Where there are only a small number of young trees to be attended to, drenchings with any of the Aphis washes in July or when the Chermes were seen to be hatching, would be use- tul in clearing many from the trees. WILLOW. Willow Beetle. Phmtora vitellina, Linn. The Willow Beetle, Phratora vitellime, Linn., is a small oblong-oval, shmy beetle about the sixth of an inch long of a bronze or green or bluish tint above, more brassy below WILLOW BEETLE. 271 These beetles come out in the spring from their sheltering places, , :d feed on the leavoa of various kin.ls of Willows. I Phratora vitelline: Willow Beetle, catorpillarB. and eggs, magnified ; lines showing nat. length. o u , fromlf pSi^J'V fi.^^*'f °?,' ^^'' caterpillars or grubs hatched Thi« S-1*^'-' },''*!'' '°^*^"^e *he mischief. Ihese whitish spindle-shaped eggs are aid m small patches on the surface of the «nT!r''^'*^''x^ invariably on the under surface, as m the case of those sketched above I do not know. The eggs are pro- tected by a loose transparent membranous mm. ihe caterpillars which were for- warded were half an inch long when fulK grown pale yellowish or whitish, with black head ; the segment next the head nearly all b ack above, and a squarish black mark above the two last segments of the grub: •fu^'ur'?^^'^*^ segments variably marked with black amongst which a more or less btr^^in ^e^^^«?f blockmarks down the back and black spots on the sides, largest on w '?-''^m'''*' ^"'^t *^e bead, were the most noticeable. These grubs feed on the under side of he skm of the lea , working right through until the upper surface is only a film, whiSh dries and cracks away. When full-fed the i caterpillars f«r« to chrysalids in the ground, and from these a second attack of beetlpa wuiow leaf partly eaten come up in autumn. scenes by Wiiiow Beetle. In some years the attacks of Willow Beetles are excessively 272 WILLOW. injurious, and this was the case notably in 1884, in Willow beds at Lymm, Thelwall, Warrington, and other places on the border of Lancashire and Cheshire. On about fifty acres of Willows grown in the Lymm district it was con- sidered that, unless means had been taken early to suppress the beetle, the whole crop, estimated on an average as worth about ^eiOOO, would have been lost. This sum, however, means only the loss of the crop for one year; and if this should happen, the old stocks would not live ; consequently the land would require trenching, paring, and burning and replanting the following year, the replanting alone costing something like ^615 an acre, and still the risk of being eaten up afterwards. In the district between Warrington and Lymm, a distance of five or six miles, the Willows were reported as being affected pretty much alike, and on the 29th of May, Mr. H. Cameron, writing from Lymm, Cheshire, informed me that the Willow growers in that district, who were suffering from this insect scourge, had formed themselves into a society for mutual protection and interchange of experience. Of this society Mr. Cameron was the chairman, and the following notes are mainly from observations with which I was favoured by Mr. Cameron, or other residents personally interested in the matter, whilst we were in correspondence how best to stop the attack. Prevention and Kemedies.— It will be seen by the following notes that one of the main points to be worked on for preventing attack is that of the beetles ivintering under old or loose Willow bark, or under rubbish on or near Willow grounds and, in short, like the nearly-allied " Mustard " Beetle, in any snug shelter, but especially such as is formed of the rubbish of the plant which f.s its summer food. Mr. W. Worthington, writing from Wigan on the 28th of May, mentioned : — " It was noticed that there were two visitations of the pest — the first in May, when the old beetles leave their winter- quarters; the second later in the season, just before the Willows begin to ripen. The insects then settle in vast numbers on the tender leaves and shoots of the plants, and in an incredibly short time do an immense amount of damage. " When the beetles leave the Willow beds in autumn they conceal themselves in old fences, hay and corn stacks, crevices of old buildings, &c., where they pass the winter, and emor" '" " ' ' " " to _ lence tiieir deijrcdatioiis in the foiiovviiig spring, when the Willows have got into leaf." Relatively to the sheltering of the beetles during winter WILLOW BEETLE. 278 numberless quantiSs ' ■"'"'' ™'' wintering there in un^tTh'etri'^roKl'i'fosfs^ o^^'boSei^-r '"'T^^ ground under the flood-line &c' '" '^"^ "^ ""^ rs^h^^ete-ztsS.''^ «^^^ s.stL«:sX"i repTil^d'ofth'e 29*^X1- ' '"''""''""^ ''^^ "''"'^'°" ,.r ^''.f^^^iio^ '"fterto tried (but so far with little suceessl are dusting the young shoots with hellebore powder soot ummming a small quantitu of paraMn nil Tliia «iov, i, dtL;'u"''"r Tff-Z Vr-yi the WmoVg.owts duung tiie last fortnight icith marked success- but unfm tunately a few people take little or no notice ™ I T fo.. H, neg ected lots will 'pollute tl,e surround ngs." '''' "'''' several expenments for the extermination oi p ovention of the spread of the Willow Beetle, amongst othLs tried the T ii Ir 274 WILLOW. effect of dusting soot on the plants, but the e.^rly part of the summer was so dry, with so little dew, that the' soot did not remain on the leaves. He syringed them and dusted the Boot, but this also was of no use. Hellebore powder was used with the same result, the leaves being too dry to receive it; but even when the effect was tried of putting the beetle into it (in a vessel), in a quantity beyond what could be put on the Willow plant, it took some fifteen minutes to destroy the beetle. "^ Paris-c/reen " answered much better:' Mr. Leigh mentioned that he then tried Paris-green, with about half an ounce to three to four gallons of water. The Willows by this time were grown three feet high ; therefore he could not apply a good spray, but the application to the plants on the compass of ground sprayed with Paris-green 7vas successful. It scorched the leaves a little, and made them curl, which he believed was the cause of the beetle removing itself- but "it did not injure the main shoot." Also, it is noted, " I cannot say It killed the beetle right out, as it immediately dropped to the ground, being always on the alert when anything touched the leaves." *^ ^ Mr. Leigh added:— "J am of opinion that all rubbish brought by the winter floods should be destroyed, or buried deep enough so that the beetles could not harbour on the banks. "I am also of opinion that Paris-green, if used early, would prevent, if not completely destroy, them ; and if it was more used with a good spray it would destroy it in the early stage. *' At the conclusion of the reports of the summer the Paris- green had been most satisfactory of all the dressings which had been tried, and Mr. Cameron remarked :— " Indeed I believe by applying this dressing early enough the beetle might be kept fairly wel under, the Idifiiculty at this season of the year bemg to get the wash distributed; the Willows grow so thickly on the ground and so high, that any spray distributed cannot be used. I find the Willows are easily damaged if Pans-green is used stronger than the quantities given by Mr r. Leigh m his notes. / think our safety is in early spring work and trapping of some amount in early winter"; and in *. fx7i! """^'-r^ ^^T^i' ""'} ^''''' 2^<^^^' ^'^ ^^^^-tlier observed .— \\ here diligent hmd-picking was attended to, the crop of Willows has proved an average one ; and where the Paris- green dressing was applied they have also proved a good crop. Where no remedial measures were adopted the growth has been small, the Rtnnks sho-'vinfr /jovp^^^ \^j : ?-_ Z ■ - — ^~ e.s.j„,u^ Utiiaagc, auu lu. luauy cases, I fear, they are ruined." .r «°> ^ WILLOW BEETLE. 276 For application m \yillow grounds, the method of opera- m.'^riT^ '" Prof. Riley's 'Seventh Missouri Eeport ' 8 L fniliwJ ^^^w?r *^ ^^' ?''^°^ *^^ ^°«<^ convenient and ow -l^'-^T ^^^9'''^'*^ ^^ ^ can capable of holding on ?hff^*l?H^°^^'•^^^^?!^^.' ^^'^ «o formed' as to rest easHy o^;„ x\^^^/ *° ^^^9^^ 1* IS fastened knapsack-fashion by adjustable straps, which reach over the shoulder and fasten two°rnbh«w!f • \'•*^ ^°^^' P"^* «^ *^^ «^" -re attached snrinktrf T^f '• "^^^^ fZ ^°°^^?t«d with two nozzles or sprinklers. The mside of the can has three shelves, which help to keep the rnixture stirred. There is a convenient le^er nntflL f "^i ^^^f P'^ef 68 on the tubes and shuts off the outflow at will, and two hooks on the sides near the top on which to hang the tubes when not in use. On the top is a small air-tube and a capped orifice. Two bucketsful of water are first poured into the can, then three tablespoonsful of good green well mixed with another half-bucketful of water, Ind ttr^ll-''"^^ a funnel-shaped strainer, which accompanTes the machine and the use of which prevents the larger particles of the greenfrom getting into the can and clogging ZinkldTJ"^^'"- ^'''-^' fJS^* ^'''' ^ day can readily be sprinkled by one man usmg the can, and from one to one and Slprfti S^iT V^ f °i ^'''''' according to the size of the plants, will suffice to the acre." In the observations given under the head of Winter Moth (see also Paris-green in Index), which have been made in this country during the present year, there will be found details regarding proportions which it is safe to apply, and inform- ation as to apparatus, &c. I'l' j. » « miurm The chief points are to try, on a small scale, what amount leafage will bear, and to bear in mind that the green acts by Ff'S^Ai ' ^ r*^.' °' ^'f'/"?} "^'"'^y ^y contact, therefore It should be applied so as to fall and rest in the finest possible spray on the leafage, nsver dnp. When dripping begins operations should be stopped. Also, it should allays be remembered that Paris-green, being arsenite of coppei^ and consequently a deadly poison, requires to be kept and also mixed under careful supervision, especially if there are children about, as the beauty of the colour is very attractive All requisite cautions and warnings are given under heads referred to, but superintendents should always see that their workersdo not carelessly expose themselves to drawing in the powder in breathing, whilst mixing or .veighing it out. There is not the slightest occasion for this, for the powder may be purchased damped, or weighed out in nnnnrl pa'^kages °- that it can be put in water by measure as needed. With common care the green can be used with perfect safety ; but if workers will not t2 ? i!' :. " hi Ifi "1 !•! I I 276 WILLOW. attend, and will inhale the powder in quantity, it will cause illness ; and if much is inhaled may he fatal. Other washes, such as soft-soap and paraffin or other mineral oil, are very likely to be useful ; but one great point of prevention is doing away with winter shelters of the beetles ; and amongst these one which I have myself observed, but not seen mentioned, is a thick loose covering or thatch of peelings of the Willow rods on the roof of sheds in the Willow grounds. Where this practice is followed, and these piles are left through the winter, they would be a fertile source of infestation. will cause or other eat point e beetles ; I, but not ' peelings Q Willow piles are source of PART III. FEUIT CROPS AND INSECTS THAT INJURE THEM. am (If >>k PART III. FRUIT CROPS AND INSECTS THAT INJURE THEM. APPLE. American Blight (Woolly Aphis). Sehizuneura lanii/era, Hansm. Woolly Aphis; infested Apple-spray, nat. size; wingless viviparous female and young clothed with cottony fibres above, and small egg-bearing female beneath the spray ; pupa with little cottony growth ; all magnified.* The attack of the Apple-bark Plant-louse, or Woolly Aphis, commonly known as American Blight, may be easily detected by the woolly or cottony growth on the insects, giving the • The above figures are acknowledged, with thanks, as after 1 and 3, Plate CV., and 2 andjj, Plate CVI., in 'Brit. Aphides,' vol. iii., by G. B. Buckton, F.R.S. The Si2e of the wiiigluss viviparous female is given (p. 8'J of same volume) as 1.77 X 1.39 millemetres, that is, something under a twelfth of an inch in length by rather less in breadth. -Ei.. |i, ' 280 APPLE. in lenalh v.aA T ? ^^^png down m pieces several inches the attaSis not onlvf ' '?u°'''''' ""!" "'^ J""™ ''^"'od hy from thfi U.lf^' ^ '™? "''' quantity of sap drawn away dead part an A^ic Jf i-'^^ "^ ""'^ S^^^*^ ^o^^^s round the Thus ^?rnm f ll n""^* 5'.''"' ^^ ^^^"^^ ^^^ ^^e young Aphides A hidesTnSvr^'ii''' ^r^'^^ growth caused partly by the ■ ^tge^^roffi^ attempts of the t'iee t^o rValr shelters tL?ncl!f-^ increasing diseased mass arises, which 1875. milieux m Comptes Eendus ' for April, from AmeTcf L" !'4^' '.' '^'''"r'.^''''^'' '''''''™ h^^^PO'ted eo^ewbrt uncertain tV''"' 'f"^}"'' *'^ ^^ " &"' Wears common AbXa;?i;;. ■''^}^ 'i?"™ *' « Slance from the "Woollv Anl,,-o " ov,^ ifom wmcii It takes its name of the American Blidit or Wn^i a ^""^^ ^'S' ^^^^ °"^ ^^^^ "^ «mm«, trwhich divisiol ?t f.in^^''- ^J- !!"^ *^^ '^^^^■^«- tho 4„;//^,-„^ X V.^vf ^°^ " belongs, are distiniiuishfid from m., Aphidzncc, which have ^..o forks to this vein (as in Hop AMERICAN BLIGHT. 281 Aphis) ; and from Chermisinrp., in which this third vein is absent (as in Larch Aphis and Spruce Aphis). Winged Woolly Aphis, magniiied. The Woo ly Aphides are without honey-tubes (or have thorn in rudimentary form), and underneath the wool are mostlyTf a yellowish, reddish, or reddish plum-colour. The winded specimens are described as pitchy between the wines and green or with the abdomen of a chocolate-brown S wind- less females may be found packed closely together in the cottony masses, with the pale reddish young moving about August * ^^'"^''^ specimens may be found in July and Prevention and EEMEDiES.-The great harbouring points of this Aphis, and the nooks from which the broods come forth m spring to infest the trees, are crevices, especially such as are formed of young bark sheltered unde^ old dead masses It 18 therefore very important to keep up a clean healthv well-trimmed state of the branches, such as wiH not allow of lurking-p laces, or, if they do exist, will allow of these poTnts of attack being carefully watched. Boughs must be removed m pruning sometimes, and where the Woolly Aphis exists it IS certain to try to effect a lodgment under tlL rCofToung bark that comes rollmg forward over the stump ; but an eye to tins matter, and a few strong soap-suds brushed on the first bit of wool seen will keep all right; whilst on trees with the boughs maimed by beating the crop off, bad pruning nieces torn off by the wind, &c., the Aphis gets suchThdd ' iftl e rough bark as can hardly be got over. It is also very desirable to keep the trees from touching eac^ other, to keep the ground below them in decent order, at leas^t not totally overgrown with weeds, and to have the soil properly i2nt^' -^^^^^^ ^?^? ^^Sht will be let in, with a freehand healthy circulation of air, and the insect-feeding birds will have a chance at getting at the " Blight " ; wheilas in mrny ■i?A ?/'f^^^^«, i",*lie west of England, where the principli IS held " ti^es should touch," the tops look well enoughTo the passer-by but there is a different story beneath. Hefe a pale green light struggles through the thick canopy of leaves Nettles and rubbish arc often knee-deep, and tffiimbs of the ♦ For S. lanioera and other species, see liuckton's'Brit. Aphides,' vol. iii. n I \lh k i 1J 282 APPLE. Apple trooH uro c liBliguml witli tJio blight and tumourg of many yoarH growth, and liunR witl. tassols of the wool of the v,il!n I \ '^Ti' '*" presence in (loHtroying hostn. Clean, healthy bark, with proper allowance of air, and light above and draniage below, are the best of all moans of prevention. ^ With regard to remedies :-The colonies of insects remain m one place, and soon die if their food is cut otT or their breathing-pores choked ; so that anything which will give such a taint to their harbouring-places that they cannot feed, will (10 good, boft-soap, tar, or, in fact, anything oily, greasy, or sticky that can be well rubbed on, and which, by adhering for a time, will choke all the Aphides that it touches, will bo of use, and amongst these applications tar, being often at hand ready for use, may answer the purpose whore nothing else would be used. But it should always be remembered, though this application may not do harm where old thick bark prevents It oozmg or melting (in sunshine) into the living tissues of the tree or, again, might be perfectly safe on the blight-tumours ?Lf i'''^,;V'^9"'*^ probably be rcn/ injunous on young bark that was still living and in an active state. i or washes, or mixtures to be laid on as paint, the following applications have been found of service; but it should bo observed that m the case of tobacco-water it is desirable to try what strength tender leafage will bear without injury :— lake a quarter of a pound of tobacco, infuse it in half a gallon of hot water ; when cool enough dip the infested shoots m it for a few seconds, or wash the infested parts in the liquor, liepeat this ma few days, if necessary, after which the plant may bo washed with clean water. Then dissolve one pound of soft-soap and one gallon of lime in enough water to make It about the consistency of thick whitewash. Apply this with a painter s brush to the stem and all the branches that can be reached, and sift some lime on the ground. An application is also recommended of half a peck of quick- ime, half a pound of flour of sulphur, quarter of a pound of lamp-black, mixed with boiling- water so as to form a thick pamt ; t ns to be applied warm. In winter, when the leaves are off, the branches and stems may be painted with this, all loose bark hciuii Jirst removed. It is very desirable to remove the soil from he bottom of the stem, down to the main roots, and pamt that part also. ' ^ For special applications to nooks and crannies anything that IS oily, soapy, or gi;easy will do good, but, as far as killing the insects IS concerned, the thicker it is the better, so that it may fairly fill up the ci^yices in the bark, if possible, and not run oft the Aphides till it has killed them by choking up their pores; but at tho same time earo should be exercised not to AMKRIOAN UUallT. 288 oil or RroaHo i/oitnf/ bark tlmt miiy bo biirt by tlic application. A simple lather of yellow Hoap, laid on witli an old slmving- bruHh, Hometimes dooH all that is needed without fear of hurt- ing the plants, and soft-soap, well rubbed in, would probably bo a very effective and lasting remedy. It is also recommended, on good authority, that about the end of February the trunks and large branches should bo scraped, excrescences cut off, and the whole well scrubbed with soap-suds, after which a good coating of lime and water 18 recommended. Probably the form of " whitewash " that has somo " size " in it would be better than the simple lime and water, as the " size " makes it stick bettor, and thus it is moro injurious to tho Aphides. Ammoniacal liquor, diluted with ten to twelve parts of water, will kill Ajihidos, but (for the reason of it varying in strength, as mentioned elsewhere) experiment should bo made as to the quantity of water to be added to make it a safe application to such leafage as it may touch before it is used on a large scale. Apple trees that have the shoots and leaf- stalks infested may bo well cleaned for a while by means of water sent from a garden-engine with a flexible hose, or, whero the water supply is laid on with a good pressure, tho use of a hose with a spreader, throwing tho water with considerable torcG, IS better still. A strong and steady stream of water should be directed against every part ; and this I have found to wash out the crevices, and knock off many of the Aphides as well as help to keep up a healthy leafage. If the attack reappears, the treatment should be repeated. Various kinds of soft-soap washes are, however, probably the best applications, for references to which, mixed with mineral oil, &c., see Index. Amongst these tho mixture known m South Australia as " Burford's soft-soap and sulphur compound " might probably be very useful. This consists of soft-soap to which one-fourth of its weight of sulphur is added; this IS used as a wash for bark at a strength of 1 lb. to 1 eallon of water.* ^ A careful watch, and something done as soon as the ivool appears, is what is wanted ; but if the small tufts are left alone, as of no consequence, tho insects will soon spread far and wide, and a thoroughly infested tree is an injury to a whole neighbourhood that ought not to be allowed. With regard to the Woolly Aphis on Apple roots, doubts have been expressed whether it is of the same kind as that infesting the trees, but it appears now to be considered to be so ; and, excepting in the matter of stopping passage down to IllKllO * Hot) ' Keport on FuKiclacliiiiiia, CoJlin Moth, Ac.,' by Fnizur K. Crawford ^wctor under the Vine, &c., rrotcction Act. Adelaide, 8. AuBtralia, 1880. ' 11 284 APPLE. the roots from an infested tree, this question does not affect Te roots it^rT-'"n W^^^^e Woon/ Aphides are found on as mul ni L -n''?^ ^/u ^'^ ^^''^'^' *« ^^'^' '^W the soil floan ml 1n^ '"i!"^' ^^^^ *^^ ^°^"«^^^^ ^"^^t^' '^"^^ PO«r strong or Tin ^ sufeciont quantity to soak into all the crannies ?t wil^f !V^^''; ^°^- ''"^f ' *« '^"^^^^ *^« °I^^ «oil and replace It with fresh, or to mix ashes with it. Another observer recommends partially laying bare the d'l''^^'"'''^^ ^^'•' "P>y the application of night-soU A^hidef In n!f r^n ' \' '""^ \' ''''' *^« ^^"- As the root itni.niT ^ ^^^^^\^^ood pass down from the trunk, it would «noi.Li ^ ^'^ "" great preventive to put a loose rope of hay r^f '?i*^', '°'i'''^ "^" *''" ^* '^' J"««*ion with the grouni. bark ^"^ ""' ^'^ '*''^' ^'''^^''^^ "^^^ "°^ injure tender Besides the above applications, so many others are mentioned as being used ^ylth more or less success, it may be worth while to give the list in some kind of order. It inclucles tar, kero ne! Tan^ oVvlfnt "5;'' f '^ P"* ^'^ ^'^^'^) ' °^^« ^f various kinds ; soaps of various kinds ; ammoniacal liquor from gas-works staLrrvf^''"^ r^'^ .^"^^^ ^^P^^^^^y drainfngs Lm stables ; tobacco-wa er ; paints of lime and soap ; lime and sulphur; whitewash; oil and soot; and also^'plaX of graltmg-clay to s op up chinks with the blight enclosed. UJ tfns vast collection of means of remedy, probaUy the most IZS tZ' '^'''T!i ^''^'f^^Osif some o/ the soa'p-JasZl, apphed by means of the garden-engine to the tree directly the attack is noticeable, accompanied by special applications of thick Zch7£'^?\^' '^ T^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ *° ^' desirable to kill cre^Ves of the^^^^^^^^ ^' ^^^ ^''' ''"^'^'^^ «^^"ered in Apple Aphis (Green Ply). Aphis malt, Fabr. in-ud^^^ Aphides infest the leaves, aad ,no sometimes very n,-I«\^?^Ir'''^ notes are taken froat the excellent account given of the species by Mr. Q. B. Buckton, F.R.S., in his Monograph of British Aphides,' vol. ii., that being the only hfe-history I am aware of giving information up to the present period and to it I refer the reader for full details :- ^ The black eggs of ^. maU may be found deeply buried in ■^e c. .,ices of the bark and these hatch as soon as the spring -"«"»«»• i"'= J wuii^ ApuiUes puncture APPLE APHIS. 285 the backs of the thick fleshy leaves, which pricking? caiiaes them to curve backwards from their points; and in tliis manner safe retreats are formed, and shelter from the effects of rain and hot sun." "The winged insects abound most in Julv, when they spread tlieir colonies so much that sometimes the vast orchards of Devonshn, are wholly robbed of their fruit through shrivelling of the leaves. The bark of the trees sometimes is blackened hy the glutinous secretion voided by these Aphides." This species of Apple Aphis is stated to be very variable both in form and colour. Of the females that produce living young, the wmglcsa ones (hatched from the egg first in the season, which may be called the mother- Aphides of the suc- cessive generations of th« year) are globose and soft, lar-^er than those born from these Aphides afterwards, of a dark slaty grey colour, mottled with green, with short dark grey horns and legs. The latter viviparous broods are variable in colour as green, yellowish, rusty red, &c. The winged female bearing hvmg young {viviparous) has the head, horns,' and body between the wmgs black ; abdomen green, with dots on each side • legs yellowish, with black knees and feet. The wings are long, and pale green at the base. The wingless egg-laying female is almost globose, of a brownish green colouV, with a rusty stain on the head and part of the thorax. The tail and rings next to it are very hairy. In the case of this plant-louse, there are wingless males • whether there are winged ones also, appears not to be certain' The wingless kind is described as " exceedingly minute, per- haps one-eighth the size of the female " (of which the greatest length given is about the tenth of an inch) ; legs long ; horns longer than the body, and sucker almost equal to it in length The early stages of this species of plant-louse much resemble each other in form ; the pupa, however, has reddish wing-cases ; also, it is usually of a paler yellow in colour than the larva, and has three green stripes on the abdomen — (* Mon. of Brit. Aphides,' vol. ii.) ^ I have not a figure of this Aphis, but that of the winged viviparous female of the Hop Aphis at p. 119 may be taken as a fair general idea of the appearance of the winged viviparous female of the Apple Aphis described above, and the number and amount of forking of the wing veins is similar.— (Ed.) Prevention and Remedies. — The soft-soap and other washes, customarily serviceable for Aphis prevention, for which see " Hop Aphis " and references in Index. In the case of this Aphis, which blackens the bark and mvna the tree a sickly smell from its excretions, thorough "and 1 286 APPLE. hoots are St 11 f^^ ""'' ^r^'^'^'^^'^y "«eful. Where are rui^d t^^^^^^^ stages of attack, before the leaves thl L? ' ^ • rtrenchmgs, applied powerfully bv means of teS.= ss:^s'A S;r/.£ •■ ^pmues, ana tlie Cole, Marsh, Long-tailed and rJrpnf T.-f NuThotU"^'' *^^,I^«l^^^Spotted Wood'pX/th Cr^^^^^^^^^ Ihe Nuthatch, and the Warbler, are stated to be serviceable in Insects/ for 1879, pp. 38 39.) ' ^ ' ^'^''* '^ ^"J* Codlin Moth. Carpocapsa pomonella, Linn. .oS".." A*"'?'"" ?■ ^''■^ ™°"' "'"■1^8 what are called " worm The method of attack consists in the moth (when the young CODLIN MOTH. 287 Apples are beginning to form in the early summer) laying one egg in each fruit, usually in tho eye of the Apple ; from this thecaterpillar or maggot hatches, and gnaws its way onwards taking a direction so as not to hurt the core. The caterpillar is about half an inch long, and slirrhtlv hairy with three pairs of claw feet, four pairs of sucke? feet beneath the body, and another pair at the end of the tail • whitish with a brown or black head, and dark markin-s on the next ring, and about eight dots on the others ; the food- canal sometimes shows as a dark line along the back. As it grows it continues its gallery towards the stem, or the lower side of the Apple, where it makes an opening through the rmd and thus is able to throw out the pellets of dirt which could not be got rid of by forcing them upwards throu-h its small entrance-burrow. After this opening is made it turns back to the middle of the Apple, and when nearly fuU grown pierces the coi^ and feeds only on the pips ; and as a result of this injury tlie Apple falls. After this the caterpillar leaves the truit, and in common course of proceedings crawls up a tree, and, when it has found a convenient crevice in the bark gnaws a little more of it away so as to form a small chamber' where it spins a white web over itself. ' The caterpillar may, however, avail itself of other convenient shelter Mr. Frazer S. Crawford, in his exhaustive official Eeport on the Codlin Moth in S. Australia (referred to pre- viously and below), mentions a case where some Raspberries grew under an infested Apple tree, and when the Codlin caterpillars fell they took refuge in the pith of the old cane- tak^^^' °°^ ^^^ °^ *^®^^ "^^^^^^ *^^^^*^ caterpillars were In its spun-up chamber (according to German observations) It turns to the chrysalis immediately, from which the moth comes out in a few days to begin a new attack on the fruit • or (as recorded m this country) it lives still as a caterpiPar for several weeks, and then changes to the chrysalis, in which state it usually passes the winter ; and from this the moth comes out in the following June. The moth is about three-quarters of an inch in the spread of the fore wings. These have a light grey or ashy brown ground, with delicate streaks, and broader markin^^s of a dark tint, giving a kind of damasked appearance; and at the hinder corner is a large spot of a brownish red or gold-colour with paler markings on it, and a border of coppery or golden colour around it. The hinder wings are blackish. Prevention and Remedies.— The main points of prevention are— Istly, all such measures as will prevent the caterpillars V ''.i 288 APPLE. going up the stems of the trees to establish themselves under the rough bark, for their change to chrysalis state ; 2ndly, such treatment of the hark as would prevent this furnishing the caterpillars with suitable lodgings for the change ; and Srdly, the use of such washes or dressings as would destroy any chance caterpillars which escaped the preventive measures. To the above should also be added disinfecting baskets or packages which may convey infestation in caterpillar or chrysalis state to Apple grounds or stores. In the first edition of my 'Manual' I offered various suggestions on these points, but the necessary details are so much more fully and clearly given by Mr. Crawford, in his Eeport previously referred to, that I have exchanged my own observations for those of Mr. Crawford, as follows :— " Scrapi7ig the trees.— All Apple, Pear, and Quince trees in an infested orchard should be scraped, and all loose bark removed." " Spread any old sacks, or other suitable material round the tree as far as any scrapings are likely to fall. Commence on the tree as far as there is any loose bark and scrape it carefully off. Examine and scrape all crevices in the bark, or those formed in the forks of the tree. Continue scraping until the ground is reached. Next gather the scrapings care- fully off the sacks, and burn or otherwise destroy them immediately. This scraping should be done annually early in the winter." " Washing the trees, — After scraping the trees a wash should be applied for the purpose of destroying any larvee or chrysa- lises remaining in the crannies of the tree." For this purpose applications are advised of which the equivalents in this country are soft-soap and mineral oil wash or " emulsion," mineral oil soap, and "Burford's soap and sulphur compound" (mentioned at p. 283), strength 1 lb. to one gallon of water. These may be best applied by a force-pump, with various kinds of cylone nozzle, or "if these are not attainable a whitewash brush may be used." "Banding the trees. ~Fov this purpose, old sacks, old clothes (if woollen all the better), or brown paper may be used, but the latter is not so good. These should be cut into strips about eight inches in width, and of a sufficient length to go round the trees. Each strip should then be folded in half, and the folded edge again turned down, so as to make the double fold about an inch and a half wide. The band will then be about two and a half inches wide. Insert a piece of cord, or what is better, wire, in the double fold, and tie round the trunk of the tree, about six inches from the "round taking care that the folds are at the top, and the second fold Ives under e; 2ndly, furnishing nge ; and Id destroy measures, jaskets or rpillar or d various ails are so •rd, in his d my own 36 trees in oose bark 'ial round Commence i scrape it e bark, or scraping ings care- roy them ally early bsh should 3r chrysa- is purpose iS in this mulsion," mpound" of water, h various ainablc a acks, old • may be B cut into snt length folded in s to make band will % piece of tie round ! ground, icond fold CODLIN MOTH. 289 fruit, IS yet giwing near infested trees with fruit on lf«a« or paper should be fastened in the forksTftheSes in orde? to trap any caterpillars that may leave the f^uit withonf gathered as soon as detected, and all wLS shouW be picked up as soon as possible, lest any caterpmars tliev mav :?be!?gta^^^^^^^ *^ -le or pig^' cases containing fruit from an inLted district before taS into the orchard."* This may be done by dipping the casef for two minutes m a lye of caustic soda, of a sken|th of Toz orprfbarthir*'? '' ^^ ^^^T^ *^^ solution Into hem ;' or probably the simpler process of merely thoroughly scaldinJ tne cases out would do all that was needed ^ ^ As a remedy, spraying when the fruit is formed but still very small, is recommended. A wash of soft-soap with a little sulphur may be applied warm, or any othei of The regul^ tree washes at discretion ; that is to say, it is best to S a srnall quantity and try the eifect on one tree first and S a mbrvTfruiritV' ^"^^r-^^*^^^"^ '^ ^*« '^''^ on'fdiaglld eTp^Sic^^i^* tK^pSn.^ --' -^- «- ^-fr has Pans-green sprayed as a liquid mixture, is recommended n« a good remedy by Prof. F. U. Webster, o Purdue UnTversity P t-i^'" sS in1r.%''"*"""""^^iP^^-^' - -B-SeJ; hundred and fm^v r/;?'"^' n""' ^T^ ^^ ^^'^ P^i^o" to one iiunarea and toity or fifty gallons of water, if applied in thp It ISe enVra ^^ ^^' "^^ '^ ^"^ ^^ ^^' machined mentioned Codhn Moth an7nri' Y'l^' '?^"^ '^'''^' against the v^oaim Motii, and all leaf-eating insects which aifeet tbA Apple, provided such application be made aft!r the bloom las ^^ Tf ^'^^'\^\^^^y^ end of the friut has turned down waids. It may also be used in this way to destroy leaf-eatSg Hon. Commissioner of Cm wnLan, . A '' ^"^^//hed by direction of tlie tuilitt, 1880. Price Is. ^"'^'' <^°v«rnracnt Pnntci', Adelaide, S. Aus- U ( I ' !i 'I II 290 APPLE. insects infesting other trees and shrubs, provided the fruit, if any, be not more than half-grown." "For the Codlin Moth trees should be sprayed with this mixture for the first time just after the bloom has fallen. The second application should follow in about ten days or two weeks ; and the third about ten days after the second. This late application may safely be dispensed with, however, if the season be dry, and few showers fall during the periods between applications, or soon after the second. Only enough of the mixture should be used to wet the foliage without drenching it, as it has been found that, with this amount, enough of the poison will become lodged in the calyx of the apple to destroy the young worm as soon as it hatches and partakes of its first meal. Great caution must be exercised to keep this poison well mixed, as, being heavier than water, it sinks rapidly to the bottom of the vessel, and there is danger of some of the mixture thereby becoming too weak to be effective, and some of it so strong as to kill the foliage. No attempt should be made to spray the trees after the apples have changed their position and the stem end is upward, as the poison will only collect and settle in the cavity about the stem, and render the use of the fruit dangerous to human life."* For further references regarding proportions of Paris-green which it might be prudent to begin trials with, at |- a lb. rather than 1 lb. to 150 gallons of water ; also for cautions in use of this poison, especially as to non-inhaling the powder in mixing ; and for information regarding engines or apparatus for distributing, see paper on "Paris-green " and references in Index. "Blue Head" Caterpillar of Figure-of-8 Moth. Diloba caiuleocephala, Linn. Figure-of-8 Moth, and-(" blue-head") caterpillar. Specimens of this fine caterpillar are now regularly sent yearly amongst samples of tho various kinds which arc doing * '' Insecticides and tlieir Application," by Prof. F. M. Webster, extracted from Indiana Horticultural lleport.' FIGURE-OP-S MOTH. 291 jrences in at distances) run^ Sona the Wk on^ "" '^,7^' (^"^^rrupted eachsidebeLthlSes T^^^^^^^^^^^^^ pillar are spotted with black (see fi<^ur^ ^290) f1^« i. • '^*^''" The Figure-of-8 Moth is about an inch and a ouarter in ih. miniDer «, which gives its name to the moth The hinrlpr wings are brownish, with darker rays and dark Patch at thl hinder angle, as figured (p. 290). The eggs are greefLdS singly on the stems or branches of the t?ees. tbp^fTf '''''?'' ^^Jr ^^?.^EDiES.-It is stated by Dr. Taschenbera that the caterpillars have such slight hold flmf ,-r«o ?^ st^rm occurring they fall off in gS um^ei^'^'Thir .'ct o'f their loose h.ld may be very serviceably turned to a co nt l^v shaking the trees well, and also by heavy wasS and ground"' '"' ''^'"^'"^' '''' "^*^^-i^^^-^ tLrctp'to the Amongst measures of prevention, scraping and cleanincr the Catching the moths by means of lamps.-The moth may be u2 !:[■ li >l 292 APPLE. 'MIH found from September onwards in the latter part of the year ; and on Noveml)ev 18tli Mr. C. D. Wise reported to me from Toddington, " We have found and are now catching, by means of the lamps, the Figure-of-8 Moth." The arrange- ment used in this case was by placing a lighted lamp under an open shed, the underneath part of the roof or boards being tarred and groased. The various kinds of washes or sprayings used to destroy other orchard moth-caterpillars (for which see Index) would be equally serviceable in the case of this attack. Lackey Moth. liomhi/x {Gdstcropacha) ywHtilria, Linn., CliHiovmnpa nemiria, Curtis. 1, Cluster of eggs ; 2, caterpillar (about one-third longer and wider than natural size) ; 3, moth. The caterpillars of the Lackey Moth are injurious to the leafage of Apples and other orchard trees, as well as to White- thorn, Sloe, Oak, Elm, Birch, &c. They are very easily known by their gay colouring, from which they take their German name of " Livery Caterpillars," and the moth, the name of " Lackey Moth." When full fed (which is about midsummer) the caterpillars arc about an inch and a half in length, and hairy ; of a bluish grey colour, marked with two black eye-like spots on the head, two black spots with a scarlet space between them on the next ring, and three scarlet or orange stripes along each side, between the two lowest of which on each side there is a blue stripe ; these gaily-coloured markings being divided by lines of black, or black spotted with blue. The eggs are laid in the summer or autumn of the preceding year to that in which the attack takes place, and LACKEY MOTH. 203 they may bo found in winter and spring arranged in a comnnof mass or rather ring-like band on'the hvigs, Sac^'asS (p. 292) From these eggs small black hairy caterpillars hatch about the beginn ng of May, and immediately spiii a web over hemselves, which they enlarge from time to time al needed lor their accommodation. In these web-nests they live in companies ot from iifty to two hundred, and from them the caterpillars go out to feed on the leaves, returning for shelter m wet weather or at night. When alarmed they ktliem- selves down by threads, either to the ground, or else Sr hanging in the air till the alarm is past) they go up again by «ieir threads to the tree When full-grown, wliidi is^ aSit the middle of the summer, they scatter themselves separately, and do not go down into the ground to turn to chrysalids, but spin cocoons anywhere m reach of their food-treesf as on leavesfor even on the top o walls where each caterpillar spins a silken cocoon, mixed with sulphur-coloured or white powder and with t'TJlZ *^' '^l'' """T ^^*" '^' ^"'^ ^^^^ "^^ ^rown chrysalis m this cocoon the moth comes out towards the latter part of summer. ^ Mnih' %T ^^•/'^^^•^ '^'?''' *^' '.^^P^ ^^^ ''^^ Of the Lackey Moth. Ihe colouring is excessively variable, but the fore wmgs may be described as of some shade of rusty-fox yellowish, or dark brown tint, with two transverse bars, these being sometimes of a pale tint on a darkish ground, or some' times on the contrary, the ground colour is the paler, and the bars dark ; and m one specimen before me there is atransverse band between the two bars, of a deeper colour than that of the brtlltCf • ''' ''''''' ^^"^^ ^^-^ ^^- ^' -- ^-t 0? It is stated that the moths, and especially the females, for the most part remain concealed by day under leaves and in long grass, and come out at night. The caterpillars seldom do the enormous quantity of mis- accoLw Jn ^* u7 ''''r^''^ ^^ ^^"«^°S in France, where, accoiding to the o d law, it was compulsory on proprietors tJ have the webs on the shoots cut off with shea . and destroyed! in consequence_ of he ravages of the caterpillars (if lef unchecked) ruining the Apple-leafage over an eitent of miles of country ; nevertheless their attacks are often the cause of much loss in this country, and need attention. Prevention and EEMEDiES.-Some good may be done by .^AA^ . ■ • "^ '.\"^' "^ ^-S*^ ^'^ *^^« «^^oot«' cutting these oif and destroying them ; also by destroying any yellow silken cocoons that may be found about the trees, or near them, bu" itimt 291 APPLE. these methods are tediona, and, though thej' are of nso where just a few trccH can be carefully tended, are of little service in orchard treatment. A far better way is to watch for the wobFi, and, as soon as they are seen, to carry out the old French method and cut the shoots through with a pair of nippers and destroy the web- nests and their contents. But where the plan of destroying the caterpillars in their webt? is adopted, care should be taken that this is done when the caterpillars are within them. It should be done on an overcast, wet day, or early or late, and it is best for two people to carry out the work. One man should have a pail with some fluid in it,— water and paraffin, or fluid mud with a little parafHn, or anything, in fact, that will prevent the caterpillars that fall in rambling away. If the pail is held by one man, so that the web-nest cut off by the other falls into it, this is an excellent remedy for such part of the attack as may be in reach. In any case, measures should be taken to prevent stray caterpillars returning up the stem of the tree to the leafage. A less troublesome but less complete method is to shake the boughs, or strike them smartly, so as to make the cater- pillars drop, and sweep those that dangle by their threads in the air down with the hand. These may be trampled on, or gas-lime, quick-lime, or anything that will kill them, may be thrown on them ; but it should be done at once. Spraying the infested trees is of service with this as well as with other orchard caterpillar attacks; for observations on which see notes under the head of "Winter Moth;" also references to " Paris Green," " Soft-soap Washes," &c., in Index. The Lackey Moths harbour in long grass and leaves on the ground, and, therefore, keeping the trees clear of a neglected undergrowth of weeds and rank herbage, such as is too often seen in uncared-for orchards, is a useful measure of prevention. To what extent birds should be encouraged is a matter for the consideration of the orchard-grower. It is certain that some of the mainly insectivorous kinds give help by clearing out eggs and small grubs from nooks which can be got at in no other way, and that these should to all reasonable extent be preserved ; but at the same time bird presence should by no means be encouraged to such an overwhelming extent that they demolish the very crops they were meant to protect. In the case of Lackey Moth, a special word may be said for the Cuckoo as a helper, for this bird is particularly partial to hairy caterpillars. The attacks of the Small Ermine Apple Moth are placed next in order, as they lie to some degree under the same SMALL ERMINE MOTH. 296 means of prevention and remedy as those of the Lackey Moth. Small Ermine Moth. IJyponomeuta padellm, Linn. ; II. variahilis, ZoU. s?^n/-) Small Erinino Apple Moth, caterpillar, and cocoons, life aizo, and caterpillar much magnified. The caterpillars of the Small Ermine Moth are very des- tructive to the leafage of various kinds of orchard fruit trees* Hawthorns, &c. In 1888 caterpillars of the Small Ermine Moths swarmed to such an extent on the trees in the Fruit Grounds at Toddington, in Gloucestershire, that in the early part of the summer Capt. Corbett (the Superintendent), wrote me they collected the cocoons by bucketsful ; and the same kind of caterpillars also did much injury in that year to orchards in Herefordshire, some trees being completely stripped. The moth lays her eggs in roundish patches on the small twigs, and covers these patches with a kind of strong gum, which is yellow at first, but gradually changes to a dark brown, so as not to be easily distinguishable from the brown twigs. The eggs may be found hatched by the beginning of October, but the caterpillars (which are then little yellow creatures with black heads, and only about half a line long) remain sheltered under the patch of gum during the winter, and do not come out till the leaves begin to unfold in spring. Then it is stated (see ' Trans. Ent. Soc. Loud.,' vol. i., p. 22) that they burrow into the young leaves and feed on the soft matter within, until they are strong enough to eat straight- forward at the whole leaf, when they come out from their workings and thus make their appearance suddenly in large numbers where none have been noticeable just before. This part of the attack I have never myself seen, but (without !i 1 1 hi] 296 Atl'Lli. going into mmuto details of tlicir earliest life) in the spring or nHnJr/r'' *^^^ ^lit^^"l>iil«^^-« appear on the leafage of «ie attacked trees, and these continue feeding on the leaves and spinning webs, in which they live togetherin largo companies of Its foliage, and eft hung over with a kind of sheeting of the diHy ragged remains of their deserted webs. ^ it chaZi" o fh.'^'^' caterpillar spins a light cocoon in which iiiimine Moth caterpillars are of a dirty ash or ashv ^v]lifn coour,^ spotted with black; when full ^ownrthe 7ro^^^^^^^ colour IS dirty yellow or I id-colour. ^ The moths, which come out towards the end of Juno are about thi-ee-quarters of an inch in expanse. The foi" wiZ are usuahy hvid or M'hitish, dotted with black; the S ""T. kl'' "•^t"^' ^"t tl^ey are very variable aie distinguishable by the fore wings having the black snots on a pure white ground, and by the cocoons Lin opamie was at one time considered more especially to SuSo ^naliioiella, or 'Small Apple Ermine Moth"; but for all mav r fE? the treatment of the attacks ^vhetlie th re may be a slight difference in the nature of the "Small Ermines or not) may be considered together mlihU^r^c oT J?J^^^iE«-As the caterpillars of this Tses if web tb^''^^^'''r^. ^^ their large nests or Skck is to c^f off 1?"^^''* ?'*^'^. f prevention of future cocoons within nL • '' ^^^' ?"^ ^^'^^'^^ *^^^^ ^^^th the cocoons within ; also, m an earlier stage, if the web-nests ^"l Istt?!^'' T"" ^' ^"* '^ "^*^ ^ P^^l of anySitg that Motht or ^^ fh^ ^^'i ''TV^^'''^'^ With regard to Lackey very^esiable L?" ^ '^.f ''^ ^°^i^ ^^^ '^''^'^y^^^' t^s i« rcateSais 'nrpw •??'"]''! •?¥'.^ ^'^^^ '^"^^ ^^a" P^^'ties 01 cateipillais are widely distributed over a tree it is verv difccu to manage these arrangements. Wheie a Vartv of caterpillars aij collected together on a bough where the mass carry out completely, but I have myself thiVe^SirdLd cleaned a tree verv satisfafiorHv ^ ^^^'^^^^ ^^^^ The various washings recommended for remedy of Lackey SMALL KRMINE MOTlI ; MUSSEL SCALE. £07 Moth attack would bo as servicoablo for that of tho Small rnkTas^hlvn^" '-t^^ 'Tf^ coed drcnchings of sift sip Si ^\f'^y.^^ \t could he applied (with a little paraffin S effect '^''"^' '^ '"'^ '''^■"'^*' ™'^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ry hafch ^l^.nmTl.°^'?''''^-^'^l*l',' '^^°^' '^^'^^^^ °*" «^oths usually lolm r ^„? M '^"'^'^ /' ^* *^^' «^"^° *^^<'' ^vhen their light colour makes them easily seen, and they are sluggish by day- -, ., . Mussel Scale. Mytilaspispomomm, Bouchd ; Aspidiatus comM/hnnis, Curtis. Infested Apple tXive?"^^Wth^n'H '^°1"« '^"^^ ^°^ ^«««' ^"^^ ^^^^^ ^^'"-le Bnrivellecl within the Scale ; much magnified. The Mussel Scales are so named, in this country, from their resemblance to very small Mussel shells. ^ Ihe infestation is very widely distributed. It is found in ?8K;f • ^""TTS ^Z ^^^^^"^' ^"^^ Tasmania, but up to 188(, was reported by Mr. Frazer Crawford officially as not having then been noticed in S. Australia. The Cocc./ infests i^Sn iff ^? *r'', ^''^ '^''"^'' ^"* '''^^' ^' it is especially injurious to the Apple. "^ rJZl ^'i"'^' ""r "^T. ^'""^^^ ^^ ^*t'^^'^ ^^'^'^ others, and in m^,ip?Mn f-''''*;T.-^'^'''r/f"^''^ the Wellington especially subject to this iiilestation. The injury is caused by the little Cocn m the eady part of their lives inserting their rostrum or proboscis mto the tender bark, or shoots, and thus sucking away the .juices, and also doing harm to the tissues. iliese bcales " are not the true insect itself, but are shields or pvparta composed partly of fibrous secretion, partly of the femaT"f "''" '"''' ""'"'^ '^'^''' '"^^'*^^ ^" *^^ "^^^^ ^^^^ e ' <1 ■■ '1 : i i IP TU 111 "I 298 APPLE. m Iho feiniilo Scales are about the tenth to tho eighth of an inch lonff dark brown, of the ahapo figured above by nivHelf Irom Lnglish specimens, that is, elongate, slightly curved, and rounded at one end, much smaller and of a rusty colour at the other, and wrinkled across. The male Scale is noted by Mr. Albert Morgan as differing from the female "only in being smaller, and in having one instead of two exuvite." * Prof Comstock also notices the male Scale as being " much smaller than that of the female, straight or nearly so, with a single moulted skin, and with the posterior part joined to the remainder of the Scale I)y a thin portion which serves as a lunge, f _ The perfect males of the family of the Coccid^e (to which this Mussel Scale belongs) differ greatly from the females, as they possess one pair of wings, and have no mouth or rostrum. Whether the perfect male of this species (the Miitilaspis pomorum) has ever been seen appears very doubtful, lor the most part the Scales adhere firmly to the bark of the infested tree, and on lifting full-grown female specimens f !u o' ^*^®^^' ^^^^ ^® ^°"^^^ inside, towards the smaller end of the Scale (sheltered by it, not fastened to it), the larger end of the Scale being filled with fifty or more white oval-shaped eggs. The female resembles a fiat, fleshy maggot of a pale greyish or yellowish colour, globular, somewhat flattened, and with lines across showing a division into rings, that is, segmented, each segment having, as noted by Dr. Signoret, on each side a lobe with two or three strong spines.: After depositing her eggs she dies, and may be found shrivelled inside the Scale. The young Scale insects .hat hatch from these eggs are very small, flat, and white; furnished with eyes, horns, six legs, and a sucker. These run about with great activity for a few days, but after a while fix themselves and begin to grow, and gradually change in appearance and turn to pupae. (Under the heading of " White Woolly Scale " will be found figure of larvse of another species of Scale insect.) _ Prevention and Eemedies.— Scale may be removed at any time of the year, but the best season for destroying it or applying dressings is in spring, so as to clear it away before the young insects which creep out in May from under the old dead shells have appeared, to begin the new attack. It may be removed by thoroughly moistening the surface of * " Observations on Coccida:' by Mr. Albert Morgan, No. 1., p. 46 (1888), reprinted from 'Entomologist's Monthly Mag.' vol. XXV. + ' Report of Entomologist, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture,' 1880, p. 325. t For furt.hfir infrirmatinn nn Co^r''^"' """ " t^ — ..{^ «„_ i-,_ n..\ ^■ii-.. >« eitraits des ' Annales de la Sooi6t6 Entomologique de France,' 2 vols. Paris. MUSSEL SOALK. 299 tho infosted bark with lathers of any kind of soap (or any droHsm^r that may bo proforred), and tiicn Hcrai)in<,' tho surface with a blunt knifo, or rubbing' it with pieces of coarse canvas, or well briishnig it, so as to clear off the Scale without hurtini/ the bark. ° Scraping with a blunt knife is a good plan, as in this way the Scales, Moss, and everything on the surface, are mixed up in a plaster with the soapy lather, and got thoroughly rid of together ; if brushing is preferred, good drenchings of soap and water, or of dressings poisonous to the Scale, should be given m addition to tho first thorough moistening, so as to wash down or kill all that may have only been disturbed or may be lodged in crevices. Soft-soap or common coarse household soap are useful for this purpose, and the following recipes for dressings are mentioned as having been found serviceable, and might be varied, in proportion of tlie ingredients, as thought fit. One ounce of soft-soap, one pound of tobacco-paper, and four handfuls of sulphur, to one gallon of water ; this is to be applied with a painter's brush, taking care to rub thoroughly • use plenty of the liquid, and flood every part of the\-ee! ihree applications in this way are stated to have been always found a complete cure. As a means of clearing the Scale out of crevices, it is advised to scrub the trees well at the proper season (that is, durinf^ April or early in May) with soft-soap and water, and then brush them over with the following mixture :— Two pounds of soft-soap and one pound of flour of sulphur, well mixed in about fourteen gallons of water. The following mixture haa been found serviceable in destroying Scale insects, Thrips, and other plant-vermin :— One hogshead of lime-water (use half a bushel of lime to this quantity of water) ; add four pounds of flour of sulphur, six quarts of tobacco-water, and four pounds of soft-soap. This mixture is to be well stirred and incorporated together, and applied by dipping the infested boughs or by syringing. The composition may be allowed to dry and remain on for about a week or ten days, when it may be washed off with clear water. It is also said to answer to get some tenacious clay, dilute it with water to about the consistency of paint, and to every gallon of this add half a pound of sulphur ; mix them well, and paint the trees all over. It is advised to apply two dressings of this, allowing the first to be thoroughly dry before the second is put on. It requires a fortnight to kill the Scale by this application, and when the clay drops off it will bring the Scale with it. r' h: f 800 APPLE. For Apple trees on walls, it h advised to un-nail the trees, prune the young wood back as far as can properly be done (and carefully burn the cuttings), and then wash the wall with cement water, and also clean the branches of the Scale insects with soft-soap wash or any other application preferred. Apple-blossom Weevil. Anthonomm pomorum, Curtis. 1 and 2, Apple bud pierced by weevil; 3, maggot; 4, pupa; 5, weevil; all magnified, with figures showing nat. size. These beetles attack the flower buds of the Apple before they expand, and in some seasons do much harm, especially m the cider-producing counties; such was noted to be the case as far back as the years 1816, 1831, 1832, and 1838. In the present year I had notes of them from various localities, and as destroying a large p ^portion of the Apple blossoms before opening at a locality near Hereford. They also attack the flower buds of the Pear. The method of life of these weevils is for the female to make _ a small hole in an unopened flower bud by means of little jaws placed at the extremity of the long curved proboscis or snout, with which these "long-nosed weevils " are furnished. She then lays one egg in the hole, and with the help of her proboscis she closes the opening ; she then goes on to another bud, and may continue egg-laying for two or three weeks ; but the date and amount of attack depend much on variation of the season influenced by the weather, for the buds must be formed before the eggs can be laid, and immediately the petals begin to unfold egg-laying ceases. Hatching may take place from the beginning to the end of April ; if the weather is warm the eggs hatch in about six or seven days. Meanwhile the bud grows and the petals are of their usual colour, but presently, instead of opening, they wither, and inside, in place of the stamens and germ, which have been cteSwroyoa, wiii wS lOund a curved, fleshy, whitish, wriiikied APPLE-I3L03SOM WEEVIL. 801 few hairs, and a black horny head maggot, legless, with a (see fig. 3, mag., p. 300) The maggot turns to an ochry or rusty coloured chrysalis of the shape of the beetle, only with i'js limbs still folded beneath it (see fig. 4, mig., p. 300) in the injured bud ; and here, under the shelter of the brown unexpanded blossom- leaves the weevils develop from the chrysalids in about a month from the time when the eggs were laid, and disperse themselves over the tree, where they are said to injure the leafage, but the most important damage is that which they cause to the flower buds. These beetles are of the shape figured above, of a reddish brown colour, with three indistinct stripes of a paler colour on the body behind the head ; the wing-cases have a large pitchy-coloured patch, with a pale oblique stripe on it, and two ochreous spots towards the tip. _ They pass the winter in chinks and crannies, or under loose pieces of the bark, or under clods of earth or stones, and come out when the flower buds are swelling in spring, when the males may be seen flying round the trees, and the females are mentioned by John Curtis as generally crawling along the branches, although they also are furnished with wings.* Prevention and Eemedies. — Much good can be done by clearing away all rubbish round the trees that may serve for shelter during the winter, and also by removing rough, useless bark, and generally keeping the stems and branches of the trees in a well-tended condition. _ Where the bark is clean and in good order there will be few hiding-places on the trees, and it would be of service to syrmge a mixture of any deterrent wash that would not hurt the bark or leaves on to the trees when the beetles are beginning to move about in spring. This would lodge in the crannies where the weevils especially hide, and kill them if they were there, or if they were moving about on the boughs would clear many oflf. The weevils fall to the ground on being alarmed, and at egg-laying time many might be shaken down from the trees on to cloths spread below, and thus got rid of at an expense which would certainly be remunerative in garden cultivation, and worth a trial for orchard ground in cases where seriously bad attack was known to be going on. Where trees stand in bare ground, stirring the surface in winter so as to turn the weevils out to the birds would do good ; and there appears to be reason to think that sticky- • For history of .4. pomorum by John Cnvtis (Rnrioola), from which part of the above is extracted, see ' Gardener's Chron.' 1844, p. 55G. !•, :!« f r^i 302 APPLE. — CURRANT. banding the tree m spring would very likely be of use in pre- venting some at least of the female weevils creeping ud the trunk for egg-laymg. It is observed by John Curtis that "from various statements it seems that the females will not readily fly, and as they creep up the tree their incursions may be stopped, and the crop saved," by the use of proper bandages. In the past spring I had notes from one observer, suffering much under attack of this weevil, that he thought the femalei dtciny, and therefore banding was considered by him to be no good. It would be therefore well to band a few trees in good time so as to secure some of the very earliest part of the attack (m case it does come on foot up the trunks) ; and if on examination the little weevils are found in the bandages, then at once to band the rest. ® It will be noticed that the weevil lays no more eggs after the flower.buds begin to expand, so that in fine sunshiny weather the time of egg-laying is much shortened; also she lays on calm days, sheltering herself from wind or frost : and. reasonmg practically on these habits, it would appear that trees so placed and managed as to have plenty of sunlight and air around them and amongst the boughs are less likely to suffer, than where close-growin- trees (even so early as the flowering time) keep sunlight and air from circulating pro- perly, and where, though the buds on the upper parts of the trees expand in their due season, there are many others w^uf^ ""^ fu %^^}!^^lT.f r*^^ "^^^^' *^e liead of " American S^ 1 f^?i^- ^"^^-f ^^'"'' ^"^^^ ^^ «^ «e^'^'i«e in preventing attack of thio weevil. ^ CURRANT. Currant Gall Mite. Fhytoptm ribis, Westwood. ThePhytopti^ or Gall Mites, are, as mentioned under the head of Birch Pifoptus" excessively small creatures of the shape figured, which live together in large numbers, and mve rise to diseased plant-growth, often in the shape of galls on the leaves, but sometimes, as in the case of the Black Currant and Nut, causing an abortive growth of the leaf buds They are not true insects, but, like the " Spinning Mitea " (the so-called "Bed Spiders" so injurious to tCHop^f^^ge), CURRANT GALL MITE. 303 belong to the order of Acanna, or Mites. The subfamily of the P%top^if?r6 are distinguishable by their peculiar long, somewhat cyindrical, shape, and by having only two pairs 3 legs placed close together beneath the fore part of the body, which ends ma kind ol conical projection containing the mouth-parts The details ot those of the Black Currant Gall Mite have not been described (as far as I am aware), but those of «t fiH ''^^^^^ Mite consist ol excessively fine sword-shaped jaws fittingr on each other like scissor-blades,* these being con- tained, with other minute apparatus, in the somewhat conical proboscis. ^ge), Phijtoptm (species?) : infested buds; Gall Mite enormously magnified.t The skm IS much wrinkled across, and the mite, besides its two pairs of legs, is furnished with various large Ivistles, re- garding the nature of which there has been much discussion. ihe creature being excessively minute (so that the smallest dot visible to the naked eye would be too large to convey an Idea of the size), there is great difficulty in saying with any certainty whether various attacks to various plants are caused by one or various species of the mites. Where I have traced the life-history the mites hatched (in t ne same shape and with the same number of legs with which tney continued through their lives) from an egg (see p. 212) which was of a perfect egg-shape at first, but which became! towards hatching, very irregular in form, l)eing pushed out by the pressure of the mite inside, which I saw in the act of coming out. As the mites grow they cast their skins, and tnese empty cast-skins may be found among the living multitudes. ° The injury to Black Currants consists in the mites, which baume^^vVn PaS Sorau'ef ''' ^''' ""''' ^''''' ''' ' ^^^ "^^'^^^^^^^^ ^^^ Sim- on B^iS &nf s^r.^sl^ot^^E^'Ss;;;^ J^?* " Gall Mites," pp.' ?.55-36ir ^^^^"-"'"SJ • ^lUera, by A. Murray, article 804 CURRANT. She ter thrmse ves in tlio buds, feedino- on tlie outer surfaces ot the embryo leaves, and settinn; up a diseased growth, which hrst causes a swollen condition of the bud, distinguishing it very plainly from those in a healthy state, and at last renders the whole, eaf-bud and Hower-stem together, abortive, and is sometimes known as the "Rose-bud" Currant Gall. Amongst specimens sent me I liave found as many as seven diseased leal knobs, which coulu hardly bo called buds (from a quarter to three eighths of an inch across), on one Black Lurrant shoot only about three inches long. From notes sent me in 1887, by Mr. J. Le Tall, from Hackenthorpe, West Sheffield, this mite disease had been noticed on Black Currants for fifteen years before that date, but during the last few years it has become much more prevalent. It is now regularly reported yearly as a serious wf- J''^^ *? ^^f i' ^''''''''^ g^'^^^«i'« in various localities both in England and Scotln,nd, and when once established is found to be most difficult, if not impossible, to be got rid of bv anymeasures except thorough eradication of the infested plants; but from notes sent me, and from my own observations, I should say that the infestation establishes itself gradually, and that by keeping good watch severe settlement of attack might be forestalled. A fif'T^w ^ND REMEDiES.-On May 7th, in 1885, Mr. tfrZ l^ ^<^™r<^f d me specimens from the neighbourhood of Cottenham, Cambs, with the information that there was about half an acre so affected, and " the attack had been coming on for two or three years." When attack is first obsei-ved It would be very desirable to cut off attacked shoots and to burn them ; or if there are only a few galled buds noticeable, to break these carefully oflf and destroy them ; or If only a veij few bushes were attacked these should be cut ofif at ground-level and burnt, the stumps dug up and burnt !al' ri T'i'' T^^'"^^ °'' quicklime thrown about where each bush stood. This would answer at first, but afterwards as the mites stray about and shelter under rough bark or in crannies near he ground, and are almost certaiii to come out again from them to cause new injury, it is excessively difficultto deal M h them. The most" hopeful remedies seem to be mixtures su'h as those used for Red Spider or for Sca^ Insect, especially mixtures of sulphur and soft-soap applied as syringmgs ; these run down the shoots and lodge in the rZ'' ^f ^'-T^l *li' ^''^' ^""'^ *^^ «*«^' and°thus clog up the nooks which shelter most of the mitos not in the buds. Ihe followmg recipe, given by Mr. Arthur Bull, would probably be very serviceable, as boiling the sulphur wih some hme would make it dissolve ;— x^ lu. eumo CURRANT OALL MITE. 806 poured m thick condition on the stems about a foot oi twn stood, 80 as to kill the mites that may roLfn They oaS b^'cmwC^^^ "''''^ "" ''"'' """^ by the^LToJ „«o?f "^^ i"^- ""^P '," sonsething that the Gall Mites will not attack 13 obviously desirable where there has been infel ation and /or aU practical purpom, as far as I am aZe all oS plants may be considered free from this attack There i« .•nfesTed' Z\miT "?^"'^' i^« "^ Cm-Lt c^ be iniestea. in 1888 I was favoured by a specimen of a shnnt ?f,nM ''n''"™?^' '"^'^'^ '"h bud gallsTke those of our druf Gothr ' .''" '"".'^y Dr.Friedrich Thomas of Ohr' diut, totha, a most eminent authority on Phvto-natholo^v mh the information that he had observed them fofS IZM ^a\ °™ 8"'^''™' ■'"' »P to "«" time no notic" o" the attack had been practically taken in Germanv wrin,!,/ mentioned that the identit^of the GaU MSrwhic^ ca' e™e respective attacks on Black and on Bed Currants had no* vet iwZ?.-''' ™'- ^'"' "."" ""o desirable to wa h wh a^el mfestation appears on the Bed and White Currants Tnd in Ko'Zslot" "'■ P'""'^ '-" «--"^. "- M Z J^^'^JZ ?t*-i" - '- ■"'' ™/5r -"^ "'» sround with the rrw™,ifr/„ " ^u" ""J^' ""^ ^''"'"' «» autumn, and burnina It. would do somethmg towards preventing spread of infesta tion, takmg care, of course, to work well il round tt neck of %\ hi ffi! f;.' Bit 1 11 ^( 806 CURRANT. the branches at ground level, so as to get out all harbour for the mites ; but the matter is very difficult to meet, and as in the experiments on the Phytoptm of the Orange in Florida, the best results given wei'e those of treatment with whale-oil soap, it rnay be hoped that thorough application of Mr. Arthur Ball's recipe above given, of soft-soap with 8ul])hur, might be of service. White Woolly C^ 'cicale. Pulvinana ribesia, Signorct. Pulvinaria ribesia:: 1, female and woolly egg-eac, mag. (nat. size given at p. 308); la, female Scale, mag., with line giving nat. length ; 2, larva, mag. The accompanying sketch (see p. 308) is taken from a photograph f a Currant-bough infested by the White Woolly Currant Scale, the Pulvinaria ribesia, Signoret, a kind of attack which is known in France, but which, although we now find that it has been present at various places in England and Scotland during the last few years, has not been scienti- fically identified and recorded as present in Britain until June, 1889. On June 18th, specimens of the attack were sent me from the garden of Mr. George Parkin (by whom they were first observed at Wakefield), by Mr. S. L. Mosley, of Beaumont Park, Huddersfield, with a note that it evidently " seemed at home where it was established, and that the Bed Currant bushes were terribly affected by it " ; and he drew my atten- tion to the very great number of eggs in the cottony matter surrounding the Scale. The specimens were submitted by Mr. S. L. Mosley to Mr. J. W. Douglas, of 8, Beaufort Gardens, Lewisham, S.E., for authoritative identification, who reported on them as fol- lows:— "The Coccids you sent are Pulvinaria rihcsice, Sig- noret ('Essai sur les Cochenilks,' p. 219), a species found on Bed Currant buslics in Fra,n?n, and which I have long ex- pected to hear inhabited Britain, but until now I have not seen it." As this kind has not yet been brought forward WHITE WOOLLY CITRUANT SCALE. 307 hore I append in a note* a translation of Dr. Sicnorefs scientific description. My own more KoncnU descSn lon7e? than'hS //r ^^' '"' ^'' ^^^'^ ^^^^ grey-brown, rather longer tnan broad (the specimens measured from one-ei"hth in InTch'r widtf,r„r'' '" '^"?',''' """, o™' ™«-'«'* of nil men m width), of a squarish oval, with tho binflflr stlT&f '"I T Iioart-slapod, and inThcir then'S state the lore part turned up so mucli as to be rrflexed • flip keel along the back was still partly observabLS slight ridges running down to the edge of the Scale ^ ine white cottony or woolly matter (figured at i n SOfi^ which forms the nest of the eggs, and of the young Scales in cZSft r ^^?' 'r "!' f'''' ^' was\nfisSed, a compact tuft on the front part of which the Scale itself was raised, sometimes almost vertically. Whilst fresh, the Scale Ld Its whi e wool formed together a somewhat ova mass which presently became drawn out in all directions; so X' in the distance the infested branches looked as if they were scattered oyer wih whitewash (see accompanying figuref p. 308 from a pliot^o kindly taken for me by Mr'T/p. Newmai,V54;HXn The almost overwhelming nature of the infestation, and the serious amount o injury caused by it is better cciweyed by wi^« fA*^^''' ^'°"' ^".' °^ *^^ ^^"«^« ^^"n^les of attack sent me, than from mere description. ^Jl^^j^^^'^'t ^^^^'', T *^° '^^^^' ^^^^«" examined at this date (Jmy 2). proved to have hatched, and those orange- coloured larva) wore dispersing thomselves in vast numbers m the box in which the spray of infested Currant sent me by Mr. Mosloy was secured. •' nnrl p" ^^ '^"^ '"?/" '^'^^'^"ced stagc, this spociofl, which is nearly allied to P vith observed on the tibia in ainiol a I tt./^^;' Srv 1^^^^^^ 3n^'\H-"'=^ '' the antenna,, almost of similar form TaJo e S infl a S thus il^^fb ' embryo of Fulvinaria vitis <,ix arc observable wl ilst i w/ /. n H"" five, of which that of the third article and Sat he dTth'^ "od'iSV'l? '°"^t^*' *'^? «--*A"^^-^* the^xt^en'tVof thl aW,l ?bS:?: nwlv!. f V •"""■ '"'!" ''''^^•. ^^"'' '"^^^'-^ to the cottony matter wSi'a at that 0? P wJ-^ ' p'ri-"* "\t»"«,fP--«. and entirely Ji t^ same nat e ja/sr s^i^cfe^r s^i;:?;:s^?:o?r^y^s;^ K;r" "'"''' "°"^' x2 ' hi p ! *l ^^•j Ml 111 It" \ 808 curhant. ■Ill Currant branch infested by White Woolly Hcalc. These very active young Scale insects (fig. 2, p. 306) were whitish or orange in colour, of n flattened oval shape, broadest near the head, deeply cleft at the caudal extremity , with a long hair or filament on each side of the cleft, that is, one long filament placed on each lobe caused by the cleft, and in the centre of the cleft a long cylindrical pro- cess. The body somewhat raised along the centre, with slightly indicated cor- rugations along it, and side ridges from it, and the sur- face slightly sprinkled with white or woolly morsels. Eyes dark or black. One of the special characteris- tics by which this species is known is the number and length of the hairs on the antennae, but in the size figured I have only been able to indicate that hairs are present. The attack occurred on Black, Eed, and White Cur- rants, and on the orna- mental kind commonly known as the Flowering Currant ; possibly also on the Mountain Ash. Al- though the first duly iden- tified observation of the appearance of the P. rihesice in this country did not occur until the past season (1889), yet an attack which is now recognised as the same was obp : ved so far back as 1880; and notes from various places accom- panying specimens sent WHITE WOOLLY CURRANT HCALE. 809 mention tlio sonilcrs having known of the presence of the in- festation for two, five, or six years previously, though they did not know its name. Tiicso Currant attacks, willi the exception ot the infestation at Wakefield and Iludderslield (and that at Uallator, which is not very far inland), were observed on or near the sea-coast on the East of Scotland, namely, in the neighbourhood of Banff, Aberdeen, Stonehaven, Arbroath, Edinburgh, and Berwick-on-Tvveed. Prevention and Remedies.— The plants, or parts of plants, most aftected (wheio specially reported) were bushes nailed to walls, or not fully exposed to light and air, or the under side of branches ; consequently, all measures of good cultivation adapted to keep the branches or the bushes from being crowded up together or overshadowed would be useful, as also keeping a watch on Currant branches nailed to walls, where any infestation which especially affects the sheltered or under side of branches has every chance of establishing itself With regard to remedies, on July 21st, Mr. William M Kenzie wrote me from the gardens under his charge at Glenmuick, Ballater, Aberdeenshire, that in 1880 the garden was visited by this Currant pest, and, as he had never, after a long experience, seen it before, he first tried the common application of soft-soap as a remedy. This proved useless as also did dilute paraffin-oil, which, as Mr. W. M'Kenzie justly remarks, is an application not generally to be recommended as it may do much harm if not judiciously used. These appHcations having failed, in the following year (1881) Mr. W. M'Kenzie " applied a dilution of hot lime in the autumn* going over the bushes with a brush (the same process as whitewashing), occasioning the bushes to shed or throw off the bark, and thus effectually curing them of the pest, without in the least injuring the bushes." The proportion used was " two pounds of lime to one gallon of water, being of the same consistency as is used for whitewashing walls." This application Mr. M'Kenzie found to be an effectual and permanent euro, and later on he forwarded me e::cellent specimens of both White and Red Currants, gathered off the previously-mentioned bushes, to show that the remedy hacc proved thoroughly effective against the infestation, and done no harm to the plants. Where only a little of the infestation appears, it would be desirable at once to use the above or some other serviceable application, for if soft-soap alone did not answer, probably some of the common soft-soap and sulphur 'ppiications would not fail to kill the minute larva) straying in crowds over the bushes. But where remedies could not be brought to f i H "1 ] ' I '1 I aio GOOSEBERHY. boar, it would ho best to cut off and burn tho infested branchcB, or to destroy and burn tho infested bushes if it could be done without serious loss, and thus stamp out this newly- obscrvcd pest in good time.* GOOSEBEEEY. Magpie Moth; Currant Mo+,h. Abraxas (jiussulariata, Stephens. Magpie Moth, and larva. The caterpillars of the Magpie Moth sometimes do a great deal of mischief, both in gardens, and in fruit-farms, by stripping the Currant and Gooseberry leafage. The Magpie Moth is widely distributed, and the caterpillars are injurious from Kirkwall, in the Orkneys, and Poltallock, in Argyllshire, to the south of England, and, besides the leafage ij\.l ^?' ^"'^ ^^"*^ Currnnts, and also of Gooseberries, which they habitually feed on, they are sometimes found on that ot Apricots and Plums, and especially frequent Sloe or Blackthorn hedges. In 1885 the attack was very prevalent. Mr. b L. Mosley, Beaumont Park Museum, Huddersfield. reported to me :— " The Magpie Moth has been more numerous than for many years before. Here it has been abundant in one or two places, and has entirely stripped the bushes. I have also seen it commonly in Cambridgeshire, Lincolnshire, Notts, and parts of Yorkshire, and I have notes of its extreme abundance near Bradford, Ilkley, Pickering, &c." InseltI""/43-4y'" "^^'^^v^^io" "^'^ given in my 13th llopoit on Injurious MAGPIE MOTH. 811 The ogg-ono or more— is laid on tho loaves during mimnior, and the caterpillars apijoar towards August or Heptombor, nnd feed for a while. Before winter they secure themselves either by spinning themselves up in leaves, which hang by spun threads from the boughs, or by dropping with tho leaves and sheltering themselves at the surface of the ground. Next spring the caterpillars come out again and food on the new leafage, till towards May or the beginning of June they spni a ligh.: cocoon, in which they turn to chrysalids, trom winch the moth comes out towards the middle of the summer. The caterpillar is one of tho kind known as " loopers," from the pecuhar looped shape it assumes in walking (see fig., p. 310) ; the head is black; body cream-coloured, with a reddish orange stripe along tho sides, and large irregular black spots along the back ; the whole of tlio second ling, and the under side of the third and fourth, and of the four nearest tho tail, are also reddish orange. The very gay colouring distin- guishes it plainly from the greenish or green and black-spotted caterpillar of the Gooseberry Sawlly, which is still more common and destructive, and as the Magpie caterpillar has only two pairs of sucker-feet (in addition to the three pairs of claw feet near the head), being therefore obliged to raise itself 1^*0 an upright loop when walking is another distinction. vVhen full fed it spins a light transparent cocoon attached to twigs, or palings, or in crevices of walls ; and in this it changes to a chrysalis, yellow at first, but afterwards shining black, with orange-coloured rings, from which the moth comes out about midsummer or rather later. Common form of Magpie Moth. The moth is very variable in its colouring, but when regular in its marking is easily known. Commonly it has a black head, yellow body between the wings, with a large black spot in the middle ; the abdomen also yellow, with five rows of black spots. The wings are white, spotted with black, and the fore wings have a yellow blotch at the base and a yellow band across them. There are, however, almost endless varieties of markings, from black of different shades, to white ; £ 1 !! iHl 812 aooflKnKnnv. ho hinl tllf '"'"'^ '^ ^V'l) .Vf^"ow; and in Homo ca«08 tlio Hinder wuigs aro stripod with black. nff^nr?""™/! ^""'^ I^f w^?rcs.-Tho boat method of provcntinfi "vSnst Zn^^r ^'^ '^'I^illarH in tho nprinR is to dentroy thorn of o 1 on^r f ^^''ir ;*"'•»!« "^0 winter. There is a diitorenco fallenZv M nn"" h'''*^'"' ^H' ^'^terpillars winter beneath tho In ml f -Z fl.^ '", ^'?r"^^ ^" ^"^^^^ ^" ^t« f«'^^«^^ leaf-cradle ?.nf • ''°*;P''-. "owover thiH may hv, they may easily e Ko r d ot by ga henng the fallen leaves togethef from under hem «o'n;"r"''^'"'« "^' •'"'* '' ^""^ of tho'^eurface-Boil with picking off any haiigmg leaves that may be seen. foodbuibi«// *''^«^t«n»"^,ii- of wintering on or under tho but t. f . rt' "f *^ ^' '^'^'^ "1^°" *« ««* " NUT WEEVIL. 819 to follow on the maggot-attack. It then buries itself, forms a cell in the earth, and "frequently rests there during the winter, and only changes in the following spring or later" to a pupa or chrysalis of whitish colour, like the future weevil in shape, but lying quiescent with its limbs folded against it. The weevils are described by John Curtis as of a tawny brown colour, densely clothed with short depressed hairs, the proboscis polished and bright chestnut-colour, the wing-cases clouded or variegated with ochreous and reddish brown trans- verse marks, and with ten lines of punctures on each, wings ample. Other writers describe this weevil as being clothed with greyish or yellowish down, and with a whitish or yellowish scutellum, but it is very variable in colour. The very great length of the proboscis is one distinction. The weevils may be found as early as May, at which time development from the chrysalis has been recorded, but it is stated that some of these beetles do not develop till July or August, and it is still open to observation whether some of these do not hybernate and appear with those newly out of the chrysalis in the following May. Prevention and Remedies.— In this case the befit means of prevention lie in the regular measures of good cultivation. It is stated the Filbert likes a Hazel loam of some depth, "which should be dressed every year, as the Filbert requires a con- siderable quantity of manure."— (' Enc. of Gardening,' J. L.) It is also mentioned by Mr. C. Whitehead that "in J^ent the Nut grounds are well-manured every other year with rags, shoddy, fish, or fur waste, and are always cultivated by hand', and kept scrupulously clean." This course of treatment, that is, treatment which involves stirring the surface-soil as well as additions, is suited to expose some of the chrysalids and bury others deeper, and is generally useful for insect prevention, but especially as regards the Nut Weevil, which (in instances observed) has been found to be so tender at the time of its transformations as to require eight or nine days to gain its colour and hardness, and also strength enough to force its way up through the ground. Looking at these points, it seems likely that if the chrysalids were buried a little beyond the natural depth many of the weevils from them would not be able to come up at all. Where weevils are very abundant on the trees, it has been advised to beat them down, but this should not be done on a sunny day, or they will speedily take flight and escape ; and (saving for treatment Oi a bush or two) probably the only way to carry out the plan of beating scrviceably would be either to put tarred boards, or for one man to tlirow a sprinkling f t •f 320 NUT.— PEAR. of quick-lime or gas-lime under the Filbert trees whilst his companion beats down the weevils. It is desirable to remove all Nuts that fall before their proper time, that the maggot inside may thus be carried away before It has bored its way out ; and also, looking at the powers of flight of the weevils, it would be well not to havo many Hazel JNut bushes m copses adjacent to Filbert ground. PEAK. Wood Leopard Moth. Zeuzcra cbscuU, Linn. Leopard Moth. Female head of male, and caterpillar. ^ The caterpillars of this moth feed in the live wood of many kinds of trees. They are to be found in Pear, Apple, Plum, and Walnut; also in Ash, Beech, Birch, Elm, Holly, Lime, Oak, and others, besides Horse Chestnut (Msculus hippocas- tanum), from which the moth takes its specific name, though not appropriately, as it rarely attacks this tree. The pggs are laid during July, or later in the summer, in crevices of the bark, and on the branches as well as the trunk of the trees ; these eggs are oval and salmon-coloured, and as many as three hundred have been seen laid by one moth. The caterpillars, which soon hatch, feed at first in the bark, but not long afterwards they make their way into the live wood, where thcy bore galleries rather wider than themselves, and as much as a foot in length. When full grown they are about WOOD LEOPARD MOTH. 321 an inch and a half long, whitish, or yollow, or ochry, with a black horny plate on the segment behind the head, and the tail segment also is partially black and horny. The other segments have each four raised black spots on each side, and the head is black, or has two black spots. They feed (or feed at intervals) through the winter until May or June (statements are made that they live for two years), and, when full-fed, they spin a web, or form a case of wood-dust, in which they change to an ochreous brown, long, cylindrical chrysalis. This web is usually woven just inside the bark, near the entrance of the boring, so that when the time for development is come the chrysalis forces itself through the opening, and, by means of the fine prickles with which it is furnished along the back, it is held firmly in the web whilst the moth frees itself, and leaves the empty case projecting from the tree. The moth is large and handsome, the female from about 2J to 2f inches in spread of the wings, the male much smaller. The Avings are somewhat transparent, and arc white with blackish or blue-black spots, the spots being darkest on the fore wings, which also have yellow veins. The body between the wings is white spotted with black, and the abdomen grey, or grey banded with black. It is stated that the female moths appear somewhat later than the male, and may be found until the end of August.* Specimens of this attack, chiefly in caterpillar stage, are not unfrequently sent me, but it is very rarely mentioned as being prevalent. In 1879 it was more common than usual near Maldon, in Essex; and, during severe weather in the winter of that year, a few specimens of caterpillars were brought to me in small boughs, or rather in thick twigs, at Isleworth (near London), quite uninjured by the cold. In 1880 it was noticed as very numerous at Craighall, Blairgowrie, Perth- shire ; many empty pupa-cases being observable in young Poplars at the water's edge, and it was also observed in that year as very injurious in fruit and timber trees at West Ham, in Essex (so that measures were taken to destroy the cater- pillar), but excepting these observations no notes have been sent of it as a serious infestation. Peevention and Remedies.— The caterpillars may be des- troyed (like those of the Goat Moth) by drawing them out of their burrows with hooked wires, or by running a strong wire into the hole, and thus crushing the caterpillar within to For descriptions sec paper on Zeuzera ccsculi, by J. Curtis, in ' Gardener's Chronicle.' Vol. for 1810, p. 2150 ; and Stephen's ' Illus. Brit. Ent.' Haustel- lata, vol. i., p. 8. i uA f 1' lit li t ) 822 PEAR. death. If the wire, when withdrawn, is found to have wet whitish matter on it, such as would result from having crushed the larva, or again, if gnawed wood should have been passed out of the burrow up to the time of the operation and no more appear afterwards, it may be supposed the creature is killed ; otherwise the operation should be repeated. ^ Syringing is also of service in getting rid of these cater- pillars. For this purpose a gutta-percha tube with a sharp- pointed nozzle may be fitted to the syringe, and thus, by placing the point of the nozzle well into the hole, it may be filled with strong tobacco-water, soft-soap, or any mixture that may be preferred, such as will make the hole too unpleasant or poisonous for the grub to remain in, even if it is not killed by the application. The fumes of sulphur blown into the holes are also very effective in destroying the caterpillars (M. D.) ; and tobacco- smoke has been suggested for the same purpose. This moth is preyed on by bats. Common Vapourer Moth. Orgyia antiqua, Linn. Caterpillar (alter Taschenberg). Male Moth. abortive wings. Female Moth, with The pretty and easily distinguishable caterpillar of the Common Vapourer Moth is not so well known as it should be, on account of its destructive habits. In the words of Edward Newman ('Brit. Moths,' p. 40), "it feeds on every tree or shrub in the garden." Hawthorn and Sloe are especially frequented, but it also feeds on the leafage of Pear and other kinds of fruit trees ; of Eoses and other garden plants ; and sometimes on Fir. The caterpillars are very noticeable from their peculiar tufts and bunches of hair. They are dark grey, spotted with small red tubercles, and the four large tufts of hair on the back are whitish or yellowish ; those at the head and tail, and the two long tufts at the side, are dark. When full-fed the caterpillar spins amongst the remains of the leaves on which it has been feeding, or in some exposed place, as on trunks of trees, palings, or the like, and there it changas to a dusky COMMON VAPOURER MOTH. 323 r yellow chrysalis, from which the moth comes out in summer at the end of about fourteen days. The male moths are of various shades of brown or chest- nut, with the fore wings clouded with darker colour, and with a white, somewhat moon-shaped, mark near the hinder angle. The females are grey, and have only abortive wings. When they come out from the chrysalis they creep on to the outside of the yellowish grey somewhat oval cocoon, and there pairing takes place. The female very soon begins depositing her eggs on the surface of the cocoon and in the immediate neigh- bourhood, and then dies. It was observed by Edward Newman ('Brit. Moths,' p. 40), " that these eggs do not hatch all together, like those of moths in general, but come out a few at a time over a period of tea weeks, so that the caterpillar, chrysalis, and moths, are all found together throughout the summer and autumn." The eggs of the late moths which remain unhatched through the winter were seen, when under special observation by Dr. Taschenberg, to hatch out their caterpillars about the 23rd of April. This infestation is found both in town and country, and I have had specimens from various localities, some from Porchester Terrace, London, where the infestation had done much mischief. Prevention and Bemedies. — As the female moth cannot fly away, the attack may be expected (if once set up) to continue and to increase yearly. Careful measures to get rid of it at once when observed are therefore well worth while, and the fact of the moth laying her eggs on or near the webbed-up leaves or the cocoon may be turned to good account. Where bad attack is noticeable, all the webs that can be reached should be cut off and burnt, and walls (where infested trees were fastened against them), and boughs, and any places where webs with eggs on them are likely to be, should be searched, and the webs or cocoons destroyed. Syringings with soft-soap and other applications, such as are used in the case of other moth-caterpillar attacks, would be of use when the caterpillars were attacking the leafage, — also for preventing the moth developing from the chrysalis, and coming out of the cocoon, — and also for clearing away the infestation from the branches, or trunks, or neighbouring shelters, \m it y2 324 PEAK. Slug- worm of Pear and Cherry Sawtly. Selandna atra, Westwood ; Tcnthredo renisi, Linn, (of Curtis). Tenthredo cerasi ; Slugworm and Sawfly magnified, with lines showing nat. length ; cocoon. The Slug-worms feed on the upper surface of the leaves of the Pear and Cherry, clearing away the whole of the soft substance of the leaf, so that the veins and the skin of the lower side are all that remain ; they are also to be found on Plum, Hawthorn, and Sallow, from the middle of August until October. For all practical purposes the Slug-worms may be known (when at their work of destruction) by their blackish or bottle-green colour, together with their peculiar shape, and the covering of slime or moisture exuding from their skin, which gives them something the appearance of a Slug, but still more that of a lump of wet black dirt fallen on the leaf and run together at one end. They appear also to be known by the sickening smell observable whore many trees are infested. In respect to the scientific definition of the species there has been much difficulty, from some kinds of Selandria being nearly alike in their perfect state (and probably in appear- ance and habits whilst still " Slug- worms ") ; and consequently, whilst there are many synonyms for one species, there is also doubt whether two species are not given under one name. Therefore, for clearness, I give the followin,'^ note entirely from the observation of John Curtis, attaching to it the name he applied of Tenthredo cerasi, and quote the description of colouring of the legs of the Sawfly in full, as this is one of the points requisite in determining the species. The Sawfiies appear in July, and deposit their eggs on or in the upper side of the leaf; these eggs are oval, juid hatch in a few days. The larvos are of the lumpy shape figurGd above, much the largest at the back of the head ; they are furnished with ten pairs of feet, that is, one pair on each of I f 8LU0-W0RM. 825 the three segments next to the head, and a pair of sucker- feet on each of the other segments, excepting on thr; fourth from th'^ head and the tail-segment, which are footless.* When feeding, they keep the end of the tail a little turned up. In four or five weeks these Slug-worms arrive at their full growth, which is about half an inch in length, cast their dark bottle-green skins, and appear as yellow or buff caterpillars, free from all shine, and transversely wrinkled, instead of being perfect'y smooth. In the instance noted this happened at the beginning of October, and the caterpillars shortly after left the leaves and went down into the ground, where they spun an oval brown silken cocoon covered outside with earth, from which the Sawflics came up in July in the following year. The female fly (figured, magnified, at p. 324) is of a shining black, tinged with violet ; the wings often stained with black, with dark nerves, and a dark brown mark (the stigma) along the fore edge. " The four anterior legs are brownish ochre, and the others are more or less of that colour, but generally much darker ; and the thighs, or at least the base, are pitch-colour, "f This species of Sawfly was considered by Curtis to be the Tenthredo cerasi of Linnaeus, but from subsequent record by Prof. Westwood, of the nature of the perfect fly reared by him from larvte of the kind described above, it appears that Tenthredo cerasi, Linn., is not the correct name, but (from his own observations) Prof. Westwood became convinced that the Sawfly under consideration is the Selandria atra of Stephens.! These points of nomenclature, however, do not appear in any way to affect the practical matter of the life-history of the infestation, and how to get rid of it. From the notice of " The Pear-tree Slug " published by the Entomological Society of Ontario, it appears that the Saw- flies are double-brooded in Canada. The flies appear in May ; the eggs are deposited singly in little slits cut for them in the skin of the leaf by the ovipositor of the female, and these produce a brood, coming out in the perfect state in July ; from which a second brood arises, whicli is full-grown in September or October. These remain in the ground * From other obsevvntions of the Selandria (the genua to which this Sawfly is now considered to belong), a small pair of caudal prolega, making with the others in all 22 pairs, were overlooked by John Curtis. t See " Slug-worm," by John Curtis, ' Gardeners' Chron.,' 1842, p. G92. t See ^' Sawflies of the Pear," by Prof. J. 0. Westwood, ' Gardeners' Chron.,' 184h, p. o2i ; and lor further notes under the synonym of Eriocmnya iimaciiia see ' Brit. Phytophagous Hymenoptcra,' by P. Cameron, p. 224. Observations are also given, at pp. 220 and 228 of the same work, as to involvements of nomenclature. IF 1 0 820 I'fcAn. during tho winter, and for the most part appear (as above mentioned) fully developed in tho following May ; but some remain in the ground unchanged till the following year.— ('An. Rep. Ent. Soc. of Ontario,' published by the Lecis- lative Assembly, 187-4.) The attack is of frequent occurrence in this country, and in 1887 I received an unusual amount of applications regarding the injury caused by the "black leech-like caterpillars" or jelly-like grubs " to the leafage of Pear trees as far north as liawtry, m Yorkshire, and Cherry trees at Hexham, in North- umberland. It was also reported in one case (at Bridgend, Crlamorganshire) as attacking Quince leaves. Prevention and Eemedies.— The Slug- worm attack can be checked by dusting or syringing. The caterpillars, if annoyed by throwing a caustic powder on them, such as quicklime or gas-hme, can throw it off at first by exuding a coating of shme, and thus, as it were, moulting off the obnoxious matter; but they cannot keep on continuing this process ; therefore a second application of tho powder (of course soon after tho hrst) takes effect and kills them. If a good time is allowed to elapse between the dressings, they will have regained the power to produce the slime exudation, and the dressing will do little good. Heavy syringings of the tree with strong soapsuds, applied by a powerful garden-engine, are very effective in getting rid of this pest. Tobacco-water will destroy them ; and lime-water has also been found useful, in the proportion of a peck of hme to thirty gallons of water ; it is noted that if two pounds of soft-soap are added, it will imnrove tho mixture. The Sawfiies have been found to fall to the ground on tho tree being shaken, and to remain for a short time motionless; conse(iuently it would be a good plan to place boards covered with wet tar, or cloths, beneath the trees, and shake the flies down on them early in the morning or late in the evening (or at whatever time it was found they were collected on the leafage), taking care that they were destroyed before thev could escape. ^ The recurrence of the attack, which, when once established IS a very common circumstance, may be prevented by skimming off the surface of the ground and removing the cocoons. These may lie below the surface at from one to about four inches deep, according to the state of soil. If the earth 18 stirred over by a competent observer, little balls, probably much resembling the colour of the eartL they are in, will be found, and may at once be identified by fust tearing the spun case open, when the caterpillar or, later on, the -U PLUM. — PLUM APHIS. 827 chrysalis, m\\ bo found within. When onco the observer has found how deep these cocoons lie, it is easy to have the surface-soil removed to just below that depth, and by re- moving this and dcslroymj it, with the cocoons within it, the in- festation may bo fairly carried out of the place ; but care must bo taken that the cocoons are destroyed, or otherwise the Sawflies that hatch out of thorn will fly back to the trees and begin tho attack over again. Where this plan is care- fully carried out, there will be little damage to be expected from recurrence of attack. PLUM. Plum Aphis ; Plum Green Fly. Aphis jmmi, Reaumur. " Ajyhis pruni is exceedingly destructive. Multiplication takes place by millions, and the insects close up the pores of the leaves by their tenacious excretions and the mealy exuda- tions from their bodies. By the constant irritation of their rostra [suckers] the leaves roll up, and under this cover from the weather both the winged and apterous forms live over- spread by the before-mentioned mealy powder, which probably to them is a protection." — (G. B. B.) The wingless female bearing living young is of various tints, from green to slight olive-brown, with three faint green stripes on the abdomen, short olive-brown horns, and brown eyes ; the winged viviparous female is apple-green, with head, horns, body between the wings, and feet, black. The winged male is small, dingy ochreous, with the head, part of the body immediately behind it, some markings on the back, and the feet, umber-brown ; the fore wings are large and broad ; sometimes the insect is black. It has been found in November in company with the wingless egg-laying female, which is small, pale greenish yellow, and transparent; and usually shows the mature eggs within, which are ready for laying. The Hop Aphis {Phorodon huimdi) may also be found in great numbers on Plum and Damson trees, and trees or bushes of the Plum kind, aa late as May or June (that is until it takes flight to the Hops) ; and it may be found again on the Plum trees in autumn. The two kinds are so much alike that they might be mistaken at a glance, but they may be readily distinguished, with the help of a magnifying glass, fv\ ■ ■''" n 1 i \ t 'i;;te }f llli ' 43' 11 328 PLUM. by the Plum Aphis— the Aphis pnmi— never having the large frontal tubercles (figured, much magnified, at p. 119) which are characteristic, together with the lowest joint of the horns being gibbous or toothed, of the Hop Aphis,-the Phorodon hmmlL The difference in size of these very minute insects is indistinguishable by the naked eye. Peevention and Remedies.— Washes with a foundation of solt-soap are the most desirable, because they have the great advantage of sticking in some degree to the Aphides. When tnese insects (as before noted) are covered with a kind of mealy powder, many of the washes used simply run off them at once ; and unless the application sticks to them, so as to kill them, or is given so violently as to knock them from their position, the labour does little good. Washes or regular " swillings "-down, applied as in the Hop-grounds by means of a large garden-engine fitted with a gutta-percha tube and jet, or rose, or spray- syringe, so as to send the mixture under the leaves, as well as over and round the whole of the tree, and thus drench it down completely, do good in many ways. They knock many of the Aphides off', they cleanse the leaves of the accumulating dirt which is choking them, and also make the surface distasteful to the piant-hce for a while; something might be done in the autumn or wmter or early spring to lessen impending attack ot the next season by destroying the eggs on the Plum-stems or branches. Some kinds of Aphides hybernate, and of some we cannot be sure whether they do so or not ; but in the case of the Aphis prmi I am not aware of there being any record of the Aphis !w?i, '^"^^ -the winter, and we know (as mentioned, p. 327) that the eggs are ready for laying in November. Washings and syringings with soft-soap mixtures, with anythmg mixed with them that would coat the egg and poison the embryo, or poison the young Aphis when it hatched in spring, would be very serviceable. This course is recommended in German orchard treatment ; and for these purposes that is, to destroy Aphis eggs, or Aphides harbour- mg on the trunk or branches, the soft-soap and mineral-oil eiQulsions, and washes mentioned in Index and also under the heading of "Wmter Moth," would be serviceable. mel. of J bf'" •'' ?i'"-/w ^^^^'r r^'^^^ ^* ^^^"^^' '-^nd also means of throwing it with force, I have known much benefit come from sending even this, with no additions, strongly Whpfh^t'^' ^""^ bmnches; fairly «' swilling" the tree down. Whether the quantity of water thus running down to the roots would be injurious in late autumn or winter would be a PLITM APHIS. 329 point for consideration, but at growing time it is beneficial, and, by means of a good strong current sent at the more solid parts of the tree, a most serviceable amount of clearing of spring insect vermin may be effected. For application to kill Green Fly on the Plum trees, the following mixture was reported on the 17th of May, by Mr. C. D, Wise (Deputy Superintendent), as found serviceable in the Toddington Fruit- grounds, namely: — Quassia and soft-soap in the proportion of two ounces of each, to each gallon of water, and Paris- green added in the proportion of one ounce to ten gallons of the decoction. On the 20th of June Mr. J. Masters, Secretary of the Evesham Fruit Conference Committee (to which I have myself the pleasure of acting as Entomologist), favoured me with the following useful notes regarding Aphis destruction : — " A strong solution of soft-soap and quassia and paraffin oil, in the strength recommended in your ' Manual,'* I have found the best remedy. But it if very difficult to get at them by spraying owing to their being coiled up in the leaf. " The committee consider that the trees should be sprayed early, before the post has developed. " I had a row of trees last year, and the foliage was severely injured by the Aphis. This year, before the trees had bloomed, we gave them a good syringing with soft-soap and a little paraffin oil (according to your report), and this year we have no attack of the Aphis in these trees ; but other trees near, that did not suffer from the Aphides last year, and where we did not dress the trees as above, we have found are severely affected this season." A decoction of quassia chips and soap, or soft-soap, has been found serviceable both for syringing infested trees and also on a smaller scale for dipping shoots in. One recipe for the mixture is — one ounce of quassia boiled for ten minutes in a quart of water, and a piece of soft-soap the size of a small hen's egg then added. Quassia is a well-known " tly- poison," but, having found that sometimes flies which appeared to have been killed recovered afterwards, it suggests that the different amount of success from the use of this remedy may depend in part on the strength, but also on the Aphides being well washed down by syringing, or otherwise cleared from the shoots whilst they are still stupefied. Very many different kinds of washes have been recom- mended for destroying Green Fly, of which recipes for some * For refeionco.s to soft-soap washes and emulsions, see Index ; details regardiv.g metlioda of mixing, proportion of ingredients, etc., were given, and also cautions about experimenting as to strength before using the applications on a large scale, as the strength desirable or safe for use varies sometimes with tho nature of the plant, and likewise depends much on the age of the leafage. S8() tLtJM. of the most well-proved as serviceable will be found noted under the headings of "Prevention and Eemedy" of Hop Aphis, and other kinds of Aphis attack, and some under the heading ol 'Winter Moth." but the same principles of appli. efthPvwl! *^^'°"gl^«^^f' na^^ely. to get rid of the Aphides either by heavy syringings that fairly sweep them, or many of them, down ; or by poisoning them, or coating them with sticky matter that will kill or injure them ; or by making the surface ol the leaves and shoots distasteful to them. With a toundation of soft-soap, and a small addition of anything poisonous or deterrent according to fancy, each cultivator may mal^e lor himself at a small cost a thoroughly serviceable " Shot Borer." « Apple-bark Beetle." " Pear Blight " Xvle- bonis chspar, Fab.; Bostriehus dhpar, Fab.; Xy&o,^ pL, Peck (ot American writers). "^ £.0 Xylehormdhpar: Male and famalo beetle, magniiicd ; lines showinpnat lencth Plum-Btems, showing horizontal and perpendicular gaileries ^ The following observations refer to the serious, and oftpn rapidly fatal, injury caused to young Plum trees by "the Xylchorus d2spar,oi' "Shot-borer," a very small dark brown beetle, which until last year (1889), had been considered to be SHOT-BORER. B81 one of our rarest species, although on the Continent it has been recorded as occasionally doing enormous mischief to various kinds both of young orchard and forest trees. The injury is caused by the beetles driving their tunnels, so as in the case of quite young trees to partially ring them, and also to clear out an inch or so of the central pith ; in the older, though still far from full-grown, trees, although the borings were not so regularly placed, still, from their large number, they interfered with the passage of the sap and did great harm. The first observation of its presence was sent me from the Toddington Fruit-grounds on September 1st, by the Deputy Superintendent, Mr. Charles D. Wise, who reported as follows :— "I enclose a portion of the stem of a young Plum tree, in which you will see a small beetle, which has bored its way into the wood, and killed the tree. We are losing several trees from the same cause." On examination I found that the cause of the injury was the " Shot-borer" Beetle (as it is called in America). These beetles are of a pitchy-brown or pitchy-black colour; the wing cases are of a redder brown in the male than the female. The fore part of the body behind the head is granulated ; the wing-cases have alternate rows of fine punctures, with flat spaces still more finely punctured, and rows of hairs. The horns are clubbed at the ends, and, as well as the legs, of some shade of yellow or reddish tint. The great peculiarity of these insects is the difference in shape and size between the male and female (the disparity), from which the beetle takes its name of dispar. The female is about the eighth if an inch long, narrow and cylindrical, with the thorax (the fore body) large in proportion, and raised in the middle so as to make a kind of hump. The male is only about two-thirds of the length of the female, and much wider in proportion, and the back is flatter. The wings which I examined in the female were well developed, and thickly sprinkled with very short, bulbous-rooted bristles. The reason of the singularly rapid and complete destruction of the stem of young trees attacked by these beetles was plainly shown on laying open their tunnels. In the specimens of these from Toddington which I examined (figured life size opposite), I found that the injury began by a small hole like a shot-hole being bored in the side of the attacked stem, from which a tunnel ran to the pith, and a branch about the eighth of an inch across ran horizontally about half or two-tliirds round the stem. Sometimes this tunnel was about midway between the outside and the centre, but in one instance quite at the outside of the wood. From these horizontal borings i ''III i • i! U * [ . in I H 8S2 PLUM. other borings were taken straight up and down the stem; these might be certainly as many as four (perhaps more in one stem), and were from half an inch to upwards of an inch and a half long, and of these tunnels (in the pieces of stem I examined), one ran along the pith, which was completely cleared away. The great injury caused by these galleries lully accounted for the death of the stem. At the time of examination, that is, on or about September 12th, the tunnels were filled with beetles ; where the width only was enough for one, the beetles were arranged in a row one after another in procession, as it were ; where the tunnel was a little wider (as where the pith had been cleared away), thoy were less regularly arranged, but crowded in, so that there scarcely seemed to be room for another. In one length of wood of about two inches I found, as near as might be, thirty beetles. The work of destruction was still evidently going on, for in some instances I found that, instead of being as usual black and discoloured, the sides of the tunnel or the extremity were white and moist, showing the beetles were still feeding. The instinct of tunnelling was so strong at the time, that a quantity of beetles which I secured in a tube buried themselves so rapidly in the cork, that between the 10th of September and the morning of the 12th they had already bored five tunnels into it, and it contained at least seven female beetles. A great peculiarity of this attack has been considered to be the extreme rarity of males compared to the number of females, and amongst from about fifty to sixty of these Shot-borers which I took out of their borings in Plum stems in September, I found only one male. Subsequent search, however, made me think that in winter the difference in proportion of numbers would be found to be not nearly so great, for amongst some specimens I examined early in December I found a larger proportion of males, and about a month later, amongst specimens I took (on or about January 10th) from a p'ece of Plum stem two inches and a quarter across, about seventeen males to six females. The borings at this winter time of year only contained a sprinkling of beetles, instead of, as in September, being so crowded up that there was scarcely room to inp'^rt another beetle into the row that filled each boring. The method of attack is stated, by the' well known German observer Schmidberger, to be for the beetles to choose a spot, usually on the main stem of the tree, making no distinction as Lu Liie tree being sickly or healthy, young or old, so long as it IS thick enough for the purpose,— at least half an inch in diameter. (The attacked stems sent me from Toddington were SHOT-BORER. 333 from a little under to a little over three quarters of an inch across. — Ed.). The female then proceeds to bore passages, and in a small chamber at the opening of each of these she is stated to lay her snow-white, longish eggs. The first-hatched larv8B are recorded by Schmidberger as being noticeable about the end of May, and these are considered by him to arrange themselves (in the same manner as the beetles we noticed as above described) one after the other in the tunnels so as to fill them, and to feed there on a whitish substance with which the passage is encrusted, and there the maggots, according to the observations quoted, turned to chrysalids and thence to beetles.* The method of feeding of the maggots is more fully des- cribed by Herr W. Eichhoff, Imp. High Forester in Muhl- hausen, Alsace, as follows : — " The disjyar only uses the wood which is still fresh, and full of sap for the brood ; this sap soaks (* sweats ') so constantly out of the walls of the breeding galleries, that presently this thickens into white-of-egg-like coagulations (called by Schmidberger ' Ambrosia ') ; and from these the coatings of fungi which have been so often men- tioned develop, whereby after a time the surface of the circular galleries become stained black. These coagulations, and occasionally the fungoid growths, serve exclusively for the nourishment of the young larvae. t As yet the only observations which I have received of severely injurious presence of the Shot-borers in this country have been from the fruit-grounds at Toddington, near Chel- tenham, and from various localities not far from Kidderminster, and the only trees which suffered in these cases were Plum trees. In Germany it has been recorded as seriously injurious to young Apple trees, also as breeding in the stumps of felled Oaks and Beeches, and in fallen trees ; and in America this same species of beetle, commonly known there under the scientific name of the Xijlchoriis pyri, — popularly as the " Pear Blight " or Shot-borer Beetle, is recorded as injurious both to Pear and Apple, as well as occasionally to Apricot and Plum. Prevention and Remedies. — Where the trees attacked are still young (that is still only, as was the case at Toddington, about three-quarters of an inch across the stem), the only ■ ;i.' 11 ft. , , i.i k ft * Bostrichm dispar, Schmidberger {Apate rfwjJrtr, Fab.) ; Xijloterus dispar, Erichson. See ' NatargeBchichte dur bclnidlioheu Insecten von ViuceiiL Kolhir,' pp. 261 — 273, and English translation ' KoUar's Treatise on Insects,' pp. 254 — 262. t ' Die Europiiischen Borkenkafor,' von W. EicbhoU", Kaiserl, Oberfiirster in Mulhausen, Elsass, Berlin, 1881. 334 PLUM. course to be advised is to cut them down as soon as they are found to be infested, and to burn the part containing the beetles. It is no waste, for in the case of young trees the beetle-borings are rapidly fatal. For treatment to prevent beetle attack to the growing trees, the only generally available measures appear to be those suggested by Mr. J. Fletcher, Dominion Entomologist of Canada, for use m the Nova Scotia Apple orchards, namely, of coatmg the trees with some wash or mixture which will not hurt the bark, but will prevent the beetle getting in or getting out. One application advised for trial is a thick coat of white- wash with some Paris-green in it. Another is the thick soft-soap wash known as the ** Saunders' Wash," thus noticed :— " Soft-soap, reduced to the consistence of a thick paint by the addition of a strong solution of washmg-soda in water, is perhaps as good a formula as can be suggested ; this, if applied to the bark of the tree during the morning of a w-rm day, will dry in a few hours and form a tenacious coating not easily dissolved by rain."* Where infestation is known to exist in a district, just the same class of measures are useful to prevent its continuance \yiuch are in regular use by foresters for prevention of infesta- tion of Pine Weevil and Pine Beetle in woods and plantations. I take the information from Herr W. Eichhoff's paper above quoted. The Shot-borer frequents stumps or fallen trees of the kinds liable to its infestation, for breeding purposes, and prefers these (where attainable) to healthy growing material. There- fore it is desirable to remove all such material and burn it early, that is, by the beginning of the warm season ; and later on, at the time of summer felling, to remove and burn all infested wood. Further, it answers to set trap wood. These traps are poles of any suitable kind of wood, having one end set m the ground so that they may keep fresh all the longer These are to be set from spring till autumn, and examined every few weeks, and (if found to be pierced) burnt. New pieces should be set from time to time, as the beetles require wood with some degree of freshness of sap for their breeding purposes. ° Where wood yards are near orchards it is important to be sure that the timber lying in them is not infested by the Shot- borer, for m such case it is sure to be a centre .of fresh infestation. * Keport of ' Entomologist' Department of Agriculture, Canada, 1887, p, 28, MARCH MOTH. 385 March Moth. Anisopteryx asculana, Schiflf. March Moth ; winged male, wingless female, and band of eggs. The " March Moth " is a common kind, and, as described by its name, is to be found early in the year. In 1889 specimens of the wingless females, together with bands of their down-embedded eggs, which they were then laying on Plum twigs were sent me on the 29th of March. The moths were rbout three-eighths of an inch long, brown or fawn- colour above, shading to grey below, with darker head and eyes, and dark pencil of hair at the end of the tail, and might be generally described as thickly pear-shaped (the pencifof hairs at the end of the tail answering to a broad, short fruit- stalk— see figure). The hairs were long, the six legs very long, and the moths, though sometimes quite quiet, were able at pleasure to walk very rapidly ; one that I timed as to speed walked the length of six inches in twenty-five seconds. The wings were to all appearance totally absent, and the downy coating of the moths very smooth and silky. The twigs were quite small (none of them as much as a quarter of an inch across), and the bands of eggs which were then laid (or being laid) varied from about a quarter to half an inch in breadth at the widest part, but did not always quite encircle the stem. They were deposited with beautiful regularity, and showed to the naked eye as if laid in almost precisely parallel rows along the twig, and were embedded in down supplied by the parent moth from the pencil at the end of her tail. In the largest band I counted twenty-nine rows, and as each of these rows (as nearly as I could count or estimate) was composed of upwards of eighteen of the bright, shining eggs, the whole number in this ring would be well over five hundred. The "looper" caterpillars which hatch from these eggs are of a light or whitish or clouded green, with a white or lighter line along the side, and (lower down) " a brighter and more distinct pale line in the region of the spiracles." These caterpillars food on many kinds of trees, but are noted by German observers as being particularly injurious to Plum trees. When full-fed, they turn to chrysalids "in or on the ii 336 PLUM. ground," and, according to Dr. Taschenberg, in a loose web. The moths appear in March or April. The male moth is winged, and of the size and pattern figured at p. 335; the upper wmgs marked with various transverse bands or lines of brown or paler tints ; the hinder wings paler, with a zigzag line. Prevention and Eemedies.— For prevention of attack of this moth, it might be hoped that as the chrysalids lie in or on the ground, thorough disturbance of the surface during winter, or before developing time in spring, would do goodt In this way they would be turned out of their self-arranged shelters to alternate cold and wet, which is an excellent method of lessening amount of insect vermin. Another means of prevention, in the case of trees where the end twigs are in sir/ht and in reach, is looking towards the end of March or in April, to see whether the ends of these twigs are infested by the bands of wool-embedded eggs, and if so, having these cut off and destroyed. On large orchard trees many of the twigs would be too high to see or to reach conveniently, but in very many cases the use of a light, long-handled pair of very small-bladed shears or nippers would get over all difficulties ; a small hawk's-bill pair of nippers, with light handles about six feet long (such as I have myself been in the habit of using), would reach to a fair height, and do the work well and neatly. Two or three feet more at least might be gained, without going to the expense of any special apparatus, by having a bit of board laid across the top of a little hand-cart, which the operator could himself move without difficulty round the trees. This would furnish him with a stage or platform from which he could easily reach to about thirteen feet or more from the ground. The prunin<^8 of course should be burnt. '^ Mi ill Mottled Umber Moth. Ihjhcmia defoUaria, Linn. The Mottled Umber Moth; male, and wingless female;' caterpillar after Taschenberg. MOTTLED UMBER MOTH. 337 The caterpillar of the Mottled Umber Moth is a "looper " like that of the Winter Moth noticed in the next paper, but 'is somewhat larger, and may be easily distinguished by its peculiar colouring. It is of a clear or reddish brown above, " this area is bounded on each side by a very distinct but narrow waved black stripe, and IS also adorned with grey markings;" "below the boundary the body is bright yellow ; the spiracles are white, and the region surrounding each spiracle brown ; the belly is greenish yellow ; legs urd claspers pale." _ Like others of the caterpillars specially known as " loopers " it has, instead of four pairs of " sucker-feet " below the body only one pair besides the pair at the end of the tail ; so that m walking it cannot progress forward continuously, but has to bring the sucker-feet and tail-suckers forward to where it is held firm by the claw-feet (as shown in figure, p. 336), and thns it forms an upright " loop," whence the name of " looper." The caterpillars are very abundant, and very injurious to leafage of various kinds of fruit and forest trees, and have been especially noted as feeding at times on unripe cherries gnawing away one side of the fruit. ' When full-fed, which may be during June, or even a little later, the caterpillars turn to chrysalis on or a little under the surface of the ground. From these caterpillars the moths come out in October or November, about the same time, that is, that the Winter Moths appear. Like them, the male moth only 18 winged. This is of the size and appearance figured, that is, about twice the size of the Winter Moth ; the fore wings are usually of a pale brown or reddish yellow, with dark transverse bands, and "between them is a dark spot in the middle of the wing. The hind wings are rather paler, and have a brown spot near the middle ; all the wings are more or less sprinkled with brown dots." Sometimes, hoTvever, the wings are merely of a reddish brown freckled over with minute dots. The female moth is of a wainscot-brown colour, with two very conspicuous dark spots on the back of each segment. The wings are so abortive as to be almost invisible.* The caterpillars are often sent me amongst other orchard pests, and are very easily recognisable by their gay and peculiar colouring. The female moths also are easily distin- guished by the brown spots on their backs from the females of the Winter and March Moths. All the measures which are recommended in the following * The above descriptions of the appearance of the moths and caterpillar are almost entirely taken from Edw. Nrwman's ' Brit. Moths,' p. lOo. 'I j 1 i • 1 i i: 1 ! , 'I z 838 PLUM. paper, for prevention and remedy of infestation of Winter Moth, are equally desirable for prevention of damage from attack of Mottled Umber. Wintf^.r Moth; Evesham Moth, (luinuitohia hmmiu,, Linn. Winter Moth {Cheimatobin bntmata) : male and wingless females. The "Winter Motli " is not quite accurately described by either of its English names, for though it may be found in great numbers, still going up the trees towards the end of JNovember, yet precautions against it (if they are to bo of real service) should be taken fully five weeks earlier ; and though a notable pest in the neighbourhood of Evesham, it is by no means confined to that district. Also some amount of appearance of the moths is to be expected about the en 1 of March. It is perhaps the most injurious of all our orchard insects. ihe caterpillars prey on the leafage and buds of Plum, Apple, Pear, Cherry, and other fruit trees, and during the last few years have been recorded at the Toddington Fjuit-grounds as hkt arise infesting the Currant bushes planted beneath the orchard trees. The male moths are of the size here figured ; the fore wings ash-grey, or of a grey-brown with an ochry tinge, marked with several transverse bars or bands ; the hind ,vin"s pale or of a greyish white. ' The female moths are dusky grey, not absolutely wingless, but furnished merely with abortive wings too small to be of any service in flying. The fore pairs are marked with two cross streaks on each, the hinder pair with an indistinct streak. The abdc^xiien is very large in proportion to the fore body, so as with the long legs [o give the insect xery much the appearance of a spider. About the middle of October (one of the earhest observations of capture sent me was the 19th of the month) the female Wniter Moths come out from the chrysalis eases beneath the trees, where they developed from the caterpillars that went down m summer, a creep up the stems to lay their eggs. WINTER MOTH. 339 The moths are moBt active from Hunset, or rather before it, till late in tho evening, and tlie males are stated to appear a veniiTn^t'' ^^r^^^^'- If this is so, it would be a con- venient guide as to time beiu- come for sticky banding. Ihe female moth creeps up the tree and lays her eggs on buds or twigs or in crevices of the bark, and from an enormous colecti m of trimmings from Pear trms (the result ?mrn?M'"f T'i^"'^"7 *^"'^° ^°"^«' ««"* a l^t'^^e after the i?! p r?' '^y ^'; ^- ^'^ Campbell, of Glewsfnne Court, neai Ross), it was made very plain that the moths piu licularly selected the little turrow between the wood and the bark JuZL^A A}'''^ ^T. ^"i* ^'''^ ^""^ egg-deposit; at the trun- cated end of these cut back Us .gs, or small boughs, the Winter Moths had laid their eggs in such numbers that the little specks could be seen with the naked eye, arranged so as to term a ring more or less scattered just inside the bark, which Had healed since prunir-:, and so made an outside line of protection to the eggs. Tuis will be found excellently figured m a paper on - The Caterpillar Scourge," in the ' Journal of Horticulture for June 5th, 1890 (Fleet St., E.C.). Ihe eggs when laid are stated to be greenish white, but to become orange and subsonuently brown before hatching- mv own observations began m the second v/oek in March, when the eggs were changing from their reddish colour to the tint that mmediately precedes hatching. On the 11th of March Mr. J. GaiTood, of Ledbury, had kindly furnished me with a small bundle of Apple twigs, which had been placed in a box in the autumn preceding, with a number of Winter Moths male and female; the eggs deposited on the spurs sent me i)eing the eggs of the Winter Moth. On the 26th of March many of the eggs had hatched. These e-gs were bluntly oval, or cylindrical, ' lunded at each end, about the 32nd ' an inch in length, am the width about two-thirds of the lei. 4 The skin was pitted over the surface ; with the help of .i moderate magnifier it had the appearance of being shagreenod ; under a one-inch power tho markings showed as circular depressions so r-gularly placed as almost to give a honeycomb-like appearance. Soni o of the eggs wei-e still of the pale reddish tint of which they all appeared to be when sent m> , a few were of gveen tint, this apparently from the colour of the caterpillar within, now ne development showing through the lilmy egg-skin ; and th. many empty egg-shells were now (when seen through a magnifier) mere i) descent lilms, almost glassy in brifrhtnesa. Tn thf> nnked eye they gave the appearance of the parts of the \wig"^on which they were placed being beset with little pat.hes of z2 •I I m 840 PLUM. greyish or bluish mould, or of the down natural on some kinds of Apple twigs. At this date— that is, on the 2Gth of March— the caterpilars from the eggs sent mo by Mr. Garrood on the 11th, were perfectly active, moving about characteristically in loops or placing themselves erect on their sucker-feet. The colour was dingy green or groy ; heads black, thus agreeing specially in this point with the observation of Dr. E. L. Taschenberg. that after the first moult the caterpillars have black heads (as well as a black spot on the nape of the neck). Thus, with the guidance to identification given by Mr. Garrood's specimens, clearly known to be eggs laid in confinement by isolated specimens ot Winter Moths, we make the great step omvards of being able to distinguish whether there is acSrdii^'l ^''^'''"* """ ^^'"^ ^°''^^'' "^"'^ *^ I'^^P^'^^ With the guidance given by these specimens, I examined portions of the very arge collection of egg-infested cuttings from Pears above al uded to kindly plactl in my hands b; Mr. C. Lee Campbell, and found the eggs to be precisfilv smnlar m every respect. The eye was similarly attracted by the little bnght or whitish mould-like spots, and (similarlv) I ^SS^'^^tf,^ egg-shells, and greenish eggs and some Jill reddish. The eggs had similar inequalities on the surface and the little looper caterpillars were similar in appearance and, though hardly the sixteenth of an inch in lengS S TeN^s b "" ''^^ *° ^^'"^ ^ ^^'^"-^ *° ^**^^^ *^^^- ihttTi ^r^' later-on the 31st of March-I found many of this collection of eggs were changed from the reddish colour to a variable iridescent tint grey or bluish, or occasionally greenish, according as the light fell upon them. "^"""-"^ One of these eggs I punctured, and watched the caterpillar emerge ; and this larva, and another that I watched in natuml process of emerging, appeared to me indistinguishable from young Winter Moth caterpillars; and at this date I fS many little caterpillars, apparently almost all little Winter Moth -rubs, on the paper on which I threw out the twiss these varying in tint, as is frequently the case with this variable kind. Some were of different shades of greyish or greenish grey and one little larva was almost black , . -^his kind of caterpillar is described by Edw. Newman in his 'Brit. Moths.' as being very variable, sometimes gree^ '"Tho^^'LTJjy ^^'°^"'. ««,^etimes approaching to blackish.' ih^^%^rXa^ '"'''• '^^'^'^'' ^" <2^i<^ur one from another but they also change m appearance after each moult. The WiNTEn JtOTH. 841 or following is just a short general note of these changes, taken from Dr. Taschenberg's more detailed description. When hatched they are greyish, afterwards of a yellowish green, famtly striped with white along the back, and with dark head and mark on the neck. Afterwards the dark colour 18 thrown off, the green is of a clearer tint, and the white stripes plamer, and after the last moult the caterpillars are of a yellower green, with a light brown shining head. A stripe of darker colour down the back is probably (or, at least, in part) from the food showing through the skin. When full- grown they are about an inch long. Whilst still small and weak the caterpillars attack the most tender part of the young growths, but gradually (in bad cases) sweep everything eatable— buds, flowers, leaves, or growing fruit— before them, until the ravaged tree, with the remams of brown spun-up knots of leaves on it, looks r.s if it had been scorched by fire. They prey on many kinds of tree8_ besides the orchard trees, where they are especially injurious to us ; and when full-fed, which may be from the middle to the end of May and sometimes as late as June, they leave the trees (as far as is recorded, by letting themselves down by their threads) and go down into the ground, where they turn to chrysalids near the surface, from which most of the moths come up in autumn. Some of the moths, however, remain in the chrysalis state during winter, and do not come out until the following spring; and the brood from these spring moths coming later than the otheis accounts for the succession of appearance of ^'•oung caterpillars sometimes observed.* '' The reader will please to observe, that the following lung observations on means of prevention and remedy of damage from Winter Moth, are placed under this heading because not only are those named of service in counteracting this attack, but also the different classes of treatment mentioned are serviceable with regard to many other kinds of attacks, and are therefore given in detail here, icith references to them throughout the volume, to save repetition. The "greases" or "lubricants" are of use in stopping traffic of ivingless pests ; the various kinds of soft-soap and mineral oil emulsions are useful as " washes " or " sjmiys," in many kinds of attack, to leafage or branches ; and the Paris-green, as being neivly introduced as a satisfactory caterpillar remedy {when used Insekten by , Gardeners, Foresters cfec' III 342 phm. Tnt t .■P^^^«"^'<';*« «'»^ iw the exceedingly small proportion named) 18 entered on in detail, in order to give all requisite information from the Reports of the Departments of Agriculture IfT America on this subject, of ivhich Bibliographical r£erenc,s are given at the end of this paper; and the recent fZJS 1 ^-^ ''"^ '''^'^ Fruit-groivers' Conference, at JLvesnam, are also appended. lie^,fnZT.y''''-^T'^^i'='--'^^^^ P°^^*« *« ^^ considered WW ' '*^' '^''''' ^eads:-lst, how to keep the wingless moths from gaining access to the trees for egg-laying ; 2ndlv befoffwT.^- '^'^^ *°o^lf*^^y *^^^ «^ ^^««'' their numbers tfSiritTit""'' S.^ly'i^c^terpillars appear, how best infested trees! '"'^'''^ *° *^^ ^'^^^^^ °^ *^^ fiif^vf '^^'^ ^""-^^^^ *^? wingless moths from gaining access to Wh ^'"'r^'^^''^^' ^'''^! ^^ apparatus have been recommended; both m Germany and America, for stopping the moths,- -butfhp?p'f; "''^' '^ ^'t^'^l- '^ *^^ ^^^^^^ i" ^^^i«^« ways, so it nnnp .« 7''''''?' objections to the use of these (at leas tnkl fF ' t^""?.^' P^'*^y ^'°^ *^e «are that has to be mrtlv fZ7hf ^^^?°"^^g^ «f egp' &c., beneath them, and ^11 m-vp ?J ^'r^*^' '?''''' ' ,^^^ '^ ^^^^^' are desired, I will give information and a working drawing of the mist approved form as noted in the U.S.A. reportVlow lefeTred rS n.^ 1? £ • -^'^T ^j^°'* ^^^ry PO"^t appears to be sfX to tat n?'^ ^'w-T'H'r ^f.^ Vreveniiou of attack similar to that of oar Winter Moth, and ^^arious stickv mixtures are mentioned and methods of applying them but Anything that is sticky enough to keep the moths from going up the tree, and which can be so applied as not to huHthe iar/c will answer, whether it is tar, tar and oil, res n and o eke TnW^Tw • ^f< ^^^^^f^-^ '^'^'^^'' or anythSg hi Pffpp^fvj'- 1^*/' ^^^''^^ "^'^P' ^^d ^^« I^een proved to thetxf n BWr r* '■ tf ^'" ^r ""' ''^^'^'' at present, none of the extra-.British methods of preventing the wingless moths gaming access to the trees are to be prefen-ed befoi? the methods of application of the plan of gLase banding or of sticky^banding, which have been worked fo™d 1;y the attention of some of our cwn leading fruit-growers so as to be easy and cheap of application, effective fofpuTpose ne'ded and also (which is a most important point), so managed in the lO'ymg on aa not to injure the bark. 'i"cij,eu in ine Winter moth. 34d I ^'° ^-f, *^^ "^^** importafitpoirits to be considered in " Sticky banding trees are -.-{Ist) What material is best to use in or ier not to hurt the trees, or {if it is of a hurtful nature) how best to Z.Tl fi "'f^'"^ 'n*^.^^^^ ^«^^- ('^«^^^) ^^«« «»w^ or times of year the " smear " should be applied. cv,5'*il''!^^''^.*° *^^ material to be used, the following notes snow that car -grease answers the purpose] of catching the moths thoroughly well, but also that (what is called) ^cart- grease may be so mixed with tarry or other matter dele- ter ous to the health of the tree, that it is requisite for all L madetr^^^^ ascertain what the application sold them On December 1st, 1888. I was favoured by Mr. Charles D. Wise (Depu y Manager of the Fruit-grounds at Toddington, Wmchcomb) with the following note regarding commence' ment of operations. This report shows the large scale of the operations, and their success in preventing the ascent of the moths, and likewise warns against the use of tar. Mr. Wise ^^° ?:~ .J-*^^"^ y°^ "^^^^ ^^ interested to hear that we have caught millions of the wingless moth this season. As many as 500 have been counted caught in the band of grease on a single tree. As we have something like 100,000 trees, it has been a great business putting the bands on and keeping them sticky. We have tried many different mixtures, but on the whole I have found cart-grease by itself, put on thick, answers best ; It IS cheapest, and, I think, does no harm to the tree." Where tar has has been used, I have found the tree alive u^ 5^ ^ 1^. ^^^'^^ *^^ ^^"^ was put on, but above the band dead. And in another letter Capt. Corbett (Manager) further wrote on the same subject :— " Please note I have dis- carded tar, for I have found instances where, even when mixed with grease, it has, on drying, formed a tight band round the bark, and destroyed the tree." The following valuable observation on the subject of nature of grease or material used for banding, and necessity of pro- tectmg live bark from being choked by smears, was also kindly placed m my hands by Mr. J. Masters, of Evesham. Hon. Secretary of the Fruit Insect Conference Experimental Coramittee ... "It is most important to be guarded in buying grease. Some dealers offer you a cheap article, and it IS a vile compound of injurious mixtures. Get a good article, free from tar, if you pay more money for it, is my advice. " I should recommend in all cases where there are young trees, and where the bark of the tree is smooth and tender, txiat grcasc-prooi paper should be first banded round the tree and the grease put on the paper. But on old trees where the bark is rough, I do not think that grease (good) would be ^fl I '-*!' 'I "* 'it- t IjS.. ' II I ill 51 '!J 844 PLUM. f-i:-ii i i '^5 • i injurious. Trees should be daubed not later than the middle of October. A good daub should be used, and looked after tnat It IS kept moist and adhesive, otherwise moths will cross over It. — (J . M.) These points need very careful attention, for though it is very possible that on old trees (where the thickness of the bark protects the vital layer of young bark and wood forming beneath almost as effectually as if a cradle of pieces of cork was fastened round the tree) there may be no damage caused by earring, this is very different to making use of it on young trees where, as it has been very well described, it fairly tvaterproofs " the sodden tissues, and I believe myself that tar should not be used on young bark, and in any case should be used with care and caution. With regard to cart-grease itself, so far as a regular form can be given It appears to be usually compounded of tallow, palm oil, and soft-soap, or, what comes to the same thins, tallow, palm oil and water, and caustic soda. The following notes of the ingredients of some of the mixtures or prepara- tions common y made use of or sold under the names of waggon-axle or "railway grease" may probably be of service m showing the ingredients of the oi-dinary compo- sitions and alsothat some of the additions or special makes lor suitable special machine use are by no means what can be tfs^suTs^*^^ spreading at haphazard on living vegetable Of two kinds of railway or waggon grease mentioned in the work below quoted, one consists essentially of a mixture t ^,^o^^o^ less perfectly-formed soap, water, carbonate ot soda, and neutral fat, whilst the other is a soap of lime and rosm oil, with or without water. Frazer's axle grease con- sists 01 rosin oil of various numbers, saponified with a solution ot sal-soda in watet and softened lime ; and these two rosin recipes are apparently very similar to a composition used with success at Toddmgton. Some other mixtures are merely of greasy or soapy com- rxenfirV' '{ *""°.7 ^"^^ 1^^^^ ^^^ ^^" togeth^and tTp flrir '°^'' '.*''? °*^^'''''^^ «^ P'-^l^ oil and tallow for «ork nv f,-!^"' mixed respectively with sperm oil and caustic soda, or with rape-seed oil and soda; another, the " Austrian railway gi-ease," is of tallow, olive oil and "old grease.'' bo far, there would be nothing deleterious to bark beyond Ln P«Tn{ '"''^ ""''Z ^'''''l ^'^""'^ gradually soaking into the on or nini. ^''""'^'Ji^'^'' ^r ^fle grease," composed of black oil or petroleum residue, animal grease, powdered rn«in nrlcU.l WINTER MOTH. d45 to so-ia-lye, and salt, would be highly undesirable to smear on unprotected bark. I have had notes of Davidson's composition being very serviceable for smearing. Guarding the hark.— Where bark is thick and dead on the outside, as on old Apple trees, or where dressing is chosen of some kind which will not sodden into the tree in the heat of the sun, it may (as above mentioned) do no harm if smeared on to the unprotected bark. But where year by year the smear must be kept on for weeks in autumn and winter, and very possibly have to be applied again towards the end of March, to stop the ascent of the spring brood of the Winter Moths, and also the wingless females of the March Moth, some protection is needed. If this is not given, the grease will soak into the cells and stop the passage of the sap, and the tree will die. At present the simplest and cheapest, and also most suc- cessful, plan that I have notes of is that which was largely used at Toddington last autumn. The material emploj-ed is the kind of tough paper which is made use of by grocers for wrapping up butter, lard, and the like, and is known as "grease-proof" paper. This is applied by a band as many mches wide as is thought fit (the wider the better) being passed round the stem of the tree. The band should be cut long enough for the ends to overlap well, and these are fastened by paste, and the whole is made secure by a piece of bast-mat or anything that will not cut the paper, being tied round the paper near each edge. This work can be rapidly and well done by women. On the paper bands the grease or application may be spread in any way preferred, but the best way is considered to be to lay it on with a thin, flat bit of wood, and plentifully, both as to width of band and thickness of layer. In this way (when I saw the managers in the autumn), 80,000 Plum trees and about 40,000 more ol other kmds were being treated at the Toddington Fruit-grounds, near Cheltenham. A slightly different method of banding was tried, also with good success, by Mr. E. R. Cheesman, of Bough Bridge, Ede?i- bridge, Kent, of which he gave me the following noie : — " Now the course I have followed is this : I have first placed bands of impervious paper (such as is used by grocers for butter and other greasy substances) of about seven inches in width round the trees, a foot from the ground, first removing loose and rough bark so that the bauds should lie quite close ; on this I have placed a similar vvidth of glazed lining-calico, and tied tightly with strong string at an inch from both top and bottom of band, so that wind or rain cannot move it in T> U6 PhVii. lB^H 1 soap ' mi^ed tVeZ ?• ''/ "'"'■"" "^ ""^t «'-'<^ ""'' ^"'i- way evHv week ince so n.^nV^'''''.^'" f '""^ ^" *^^ «^^^e few of a much larger sort of wf i ^ •? Cheimatohia, a (probably Mottled Umb^ -En 'h^^f^i^''^^^ °' "^^^^^^ «° and this is a very ta'flSo outhv^f ?„ '"^ very large ones, this means. "-(E. K c )* ' "^^ '' " "">» ■=«■" ^e saved by tfi!" "-^ '"■'"' ''"^'"'■""''^'' '" ''^^''« "« Orca^clnndina in good Stakes and tree-nnards need nttp»iin^, wtu are fastened to stakes somethtrnf t"." ''"^ 7?""? *'^^« would be difficult to RDDlv an V tv«ptr^eii+ +L . - ^^ ^"'^ *""* '* troublosome to the ^^^^if^^'i^^^^^^,:^ Winter MoTli. m above the sticks, or the attachment of the guards, is the safest course. By means of the grease-banding, vast numbers of moths were stopped in their upward traffic, wherever the plan was properly carried out ; still the difficulties have to be watched for and remedied, which were h 'd before me in 1889, hy Mr. Sutherland, chief reporter to the 'Worcester Herald,' relatively to passac/c of strmj moths across the sticky hands, and passage of caterpillars in spring over the dried hands. " It is_ now suggested that a wider band of the grease- composition is necessary, and that it should be supplemented by lime- washing the trunks in spring. One grower te]''=< me that he captured thousands of moths on the grease-b i . .ds last autumn. Some, however, were quite on the upper edge of the band, which may be taken as an indication that some others got over the grease altogether. On the other hand, other moths, after going a short way in the grease, turned 'jack, and laid their eggs on the trunks of the trees below the band. Tiny caterpillars have been discovered on the trees over the grease, showing that they must have been hatched in the upper part of the tree ; and again it is suggested that the fully-developed eggs in the dead bodies of the moths cap- tured on the grease-paint may be hatched, notwithstanding their position." Capt. Corbett also mentioned:— "We put bands of grease in the autumn round our Plum trees (we do not like tar), and killed thousands of moths ; still a few eggs are to be seen on the branches, and a good many heloiv the band of grease. We are dealing with thep now in this way : we mix up a quantity of clay (as the basis), well tempered with soot, lime, cow- refuse, and water, and paint the whole of the stem of the trees with it, working it well into the cracks, and we hope that thip will ' -oy the eggs." Capt. Corbett also placed in my hands a sligu Jy different recipe, which wa,s used similarly to the above, that is, the trees vere painted with it in March from the ground to the branches. This consisted of well- mixed clay, 4 parts ; cart-grease, 1 part ; and soot, 1 part. Soft-soap and mineral-cil washes and emulsions.— On appli- cation to Mr. J. Fletcher, Entomologist of the Dominion of Canada (requesting his advice as one of the very best author- '"3, as to prevention of caterpillar attack), regarding the surest way of destroying eggs left as above noted, he wrote as follows : — "For washing the trunk, to destroy all eggs which may have been laid during the winter, a kerosene emulsion nin.v ho nspri. Thia should '^6 flo'io in tl'O op'^ ••>( MnvnU " T i? The following recipes give directions for preparing the emulsion, and with us paraffin oil may be substituted for kerosene oil throughout : — i i } t ;■■ f: - ■ I: iM 1 B46 I'LUM. Kerosene and Soap Mixturp--"T^ »v,oi i-l- ■ fourth of a pound If C^.a . ^^^^ ^^^^ ^ "se one- and one qua^^of water TlT^' r^rf'k ''^^^^'^^ «°^P. solved, when one pS of k J. ' Seated till the soap is dis- agitated till a permanent m?Z? ''^ '' f^'^'^ ^^^ *^^ ^^^^^ agitation is easiirsLure? bt 1 ^r^ ''"^ ^' ^^^^ The the liquid with force baokinfn u ^^ '^ {orce-pump pumping add water, so tha there sia? ill ^"'"'^ ^-^'^'^^ '^' ^ *^«^ of one toVifteen ''- P^of f j'co^^^^ proportion Agricultural College, MLtgt, U st) '" ^""'*^" '' °^ *^^ Ba4a^i^SioX ^'^^T^ri -*f - a ^^;:^ c^in^aTba^ t^^i^^'^^^^ mind that the Leng i and amoS'T'^*'"^ ,^^^^^^^ ^^^^ in be well considered, fnd the saTr«L T"'"^ ^^^ "^^^ ^^«* all parts of young trees or nn^n ?? ^ "^"'^ ''^* ^^ ^^^^ ^^ AnofhPr recine is for - T^ ^" conditions of leafage. strength 0 oeC8la\.nlSr^ " ^^ the°ordinary oil, 1 pint ; common ht^'^'fo.T^ ^'^'°''"? ^^' ^'^^"^^ ^^^^ The soap ^as boM in thl wnf«^+^,^n"' ^^^^'^^ter | pint, the boiling soapsuds were i^nrntf • */^^ ^" ^^' dissolvecf, then i»S the WosenrandXned wifif 1° ' 7*^""g-Pot contain- emulsion was coSe t1^ garden-syringe until the minutes, but sometime'^' longer ^' wf ^ A'^'' ^^'""^ ^'^ made, it can be bottled un^m a , ^^^"^ *^"' emulsion is either as a wash L spondn. f/^ '' f '' ^^^^ "^^^g i*. be diluted with nine times Ihe^ouanitv'/r T'^^' ^* ^"«^" oil in the emulsion af S a timi'T "^^ of water. Should the and by violently shaking ih^Tnt^^l'^^ '* ^^ ^^" *» warm it, use. In d lutin Ahe pin^^^ '^*"' '* ""^^ ^^ain become fit foi- culture, Canada,^ 1887 ^''''*' Department of Agri- ^^"^"^^Slt^^:^ t^^ of Ag,. dissolve'd, boiling^or hot, toTo .aK IT^TP ^'^' ^^^^ mmeral oil. The mixture mfbpfli. / petroleum oi other by means of a spmv-^^^^^^^^ for ten minutes, Ke^fo^f Sffh^p' '^-"l^^^'-^'^^^^^ P^mp are so thoroughly^oSed tW . °'l' '°^P' ^nd watei^ into a cream-lL'^coSrnt and tes";o1"lf% '^ has boon properly nerfnrmr.^ cl V .' ^* *"® operat on diluted with sCf thi?e 01 four Ti T*-. '^' ?" ^""« ^« ^'^^ watering; if requiml L . ?vo.i "^f^ '*'/"".^^ of water for a is ne--^^'! ., ? j^^ ,/°^ ''' wash, at least nine timr.« u. i.„]n ne_.-,,,, ,,, three guJions of " Emulsion;''" a^iT is WINTER MOTH. 349 a termed, make thirty gallons of wash. Warning is given that care must be taken with each new crop to ascertain the strength that can be borne by the leafage, and this eqiiallv applies to all applications to live bark. Soft-soap and paraffin oil wash.— The following recipe, which wa8use(U)y Mr. Ward, Superintendent of the Gardens at Stoke Edith, Herefordshire, in 1883, as a Hop-wash, is a much simpler form. As this was found to kill the Aphides without injuring the Hop plant or the burr, it might be considered quite safe as a bark application, and more of tY- ingredients might be added, as thought desirable. The proportions for large quantities are 12 lbs. of soft-soap and half-a-gallon of paraffin on to 100 gallons of hot water; the nearer to boilin«- the water is used the better the paraffin mixes. This mixture should be stirred well together, and used when cool. The above applications may be used so as to destroy the eggs laid on the bands or below them, and, without doubt would also be of use in preventing ascetit of much insect vermin; but there are two plain reasons for possibility of some amount of "loopers" being present in spring on the trees, notwithstanding careful autumnal banding. One of these is that some of the Wintei' Moths may develop in sprinn instead of autumn, and consequently, though few in comparison to the autumn numbers, they need watch to be kept by an examina- tion of trees in the evening or after sunset, or by banding a few experimentally, and, if necessary, grease-banding again. Ihis operation would also prevent ascent of the so-called March Moth (for fuller account of which see reference in Another point is the transportation of the ivingless female Winter Moths to the trees by the males whilst pairing. This point was not sufficiently observed, until within the last two or three years, to ba taken into practical consideration, but it bears to a very important extent on presence of attack The only method of meeting this difficulty appears to be the plan sometimes used of placing a light at night under an open shed, of which the lower part of the roof or boards are tarred or greased. This so far attracts the mothy that it has been found to answer in some degree, and more elaborate arrange- ments on the same principle have been suggested ; but the plan appears to ac open to many objections, on the score of bad use that might be made of lights left unguarded at ni*-ht and at best is but a palliative. ° ' Skimming off the surface-soil in autumn, and burning it so as to destroy the contained chrysalids, is a good remed^^ where it can be carried out, but unfortunately it Is only now^ and then that this can be managed. 860 PLUM. ' >l Plums which hn,! 1,1? '•, ?^, mentioned a plantation of broast-pTongh^r^hrf t "^^^^ land adjoining, where no thousands. " ^'''" ''°™' "°"'^ ™re found by waf a* m^dlt^ZtrZl'fir " *""" °"' ""^ »'''y-"^=. Imp. & Koval A0 S! „f iT ^^ y^"" "^ '"»'•« aS". l)y the sdfSlr'^^^^^^^^^^^^^ special kinds of cropping, it is difficult to carry it oiX ^ iftfto ? "" ""17 ?^°^ "°*® °" *'"s subject, on February Mh 1889, from Mr. C. Lee Cnmnhfili «f r^^ T ■^^"^'^^v "tn, the eggs\ave been'd^postd and burnfngXt" ""rh"" iound that an enormous Broiinrfion nf ti, '"; ^ ''*™ at the end of evervTanchTruned ?, h ^'f "" deposited as 8% eggs bei„^oZd oro::'Ccir"Ara'rorf bro" hi tTbTaf rt neZ?raSXSs" ^'"1 "^i^ "^ alike, whether loopers, or web-nest maHl''.lL?Lt^'^;-Pl»»';f Ermmes, or "Xortrix " caterpillars, "or "an^- otter oTIhe !:..'iimrm by WINTER MOTH. 351 many kinds of pests which are alike in their habits so far as destroying the leafage of our orchard trees is concerned, and to destroy these surely, without injuring the foliage. Jarnmj, that is, shaking the boughs so smartly that the answers 11 down, is a simple operation, and sometimes wJr^' ^\?";°}*' l.*he Weald of Kent College of Agriculture, wrote me that m this way five bushels of small green cater- pillars could be collected in a day on a large fruit-farm. Capt Corbett wrote from Toddington, " that by shaking allons ^^^^^P^^^^"^^ '"*° ^ ^^^^^> o"e man collected two .i,^^?,"^'?^^^*^^^.*^'^ P^^" ^^ ^^0^ *he chance of some of the dislodged vermin creeping away and going up the stem of the tree, or returning up their threads to the boughs. These points are met fairly well in the following method advised by the Entomological Commission of the United States of America, 1880-82 :-"J«mn^ and Imrnino.-The worms should not be allovyed to reach the ; aves, but, where this has been allowed, it is best to strew the ground lightly with straw on a calm day, give the tree a good jarring, which will suspend all the worms in mid-air, cut loose the suspended worms by swinging a pole above them, which breaks their silken threads and causes them to fall to the ground, and then set hre to the straw. A Canker-worm holocaust will be the result, and if this is done on a calm, clear day with a little care, the tree need not be injured."* The caterpillars may be prevented going back up the trunk of the tree by a hav- band or rough rag-rope with some tar on it being placed on the ground round it, or a circle of tar might be dripped on the ground or short Grass. ^^ These, however, and many other remedial measures tried up to the beginning of the present year, have proved anything but wholly satisfactory. With orchard insects, as well as with other kinds of crop insects, it may be almost surely laid down that where the same crop is constantly grown, the insect- leeders on that crop may be expected to be there also in gr^at numbers, and in the constantly increasing spread of the fruit- growing industry in this country it became a matter for very serious consideration of fruit-growers what course was to be f°^t ?• > ^^^^ *^^ regularly recurring orchard What is required is an application cheap, sure, and which can be brought to bear at once, when the caterpillars are observed on the trees,, and which will destroy them without 1880-?2!p!'lCl^"*°"'''^°^'"^' Commission, U.S.A., Department of Agriculture,' If f iff 7 Jm 1 - f j m 852 PLUM. I hurting the leafage ; and for this purpose spraying with i very weak mixture of Paris-green, when applied accordTnAo the plan which has now for many years been in regular use in the Lmted States and Canadaiias b. on fomuUnC^^ tial given it during the spring months, to answer vei-ywelUn me^otX^L/r-^^^^^^^ '''' ™^"^ ^^^^- ^-^^' The use of Paris-grecn was first brought forward by Proi Eiley (now Entomologist of the Department of AgricuIHire of . Un- 1 .^.t'jtesof Amerieu), at the National Congi ss o he United States m 1872, as a likely means of destroJin^ the in?urv'?7Z y H ' '^^''^'f^' '\ ^ ^°tl^ ^'^'''^^ ^'-^"^es I'el't S-^^i- ' Cotton crops), and the results of trial fully V^^tZ r?''^*",^^ '■ ^"^^ ^^'' S^"^^* «"^«^'^« ^Wch brought Pans-green before the American agricultural public, and gave It a place as a serviceable insecticide, which it has held tver since, was its effect, when other special measures failed fn destroying the hordes of the Colorado PotaTo Beetle ' Spraying with Paris -, i:jreen :- On application being made, early in the present year, to Mr. Fletcher, the D^niiZn Entomologist of Canada, for advice regaiYling the best SS ofpreyention of orchard insect-attack (a being ^^^^^^ acquainted both practically and scientifically with tirextent to which the use of Paris-green had been alpted bothTn Canada and the United States), amongst otheVpo nts o iS reply Mr Fletcher mentioned :-" In this country we have a moth with similar habits to your ' Winter Moth,' and dec dedly the most success ul treatment has been spraying the trees early in spnng, when the young caterpillars are ju^st hatched and again two weeks later on with a weak solution of PaiS 1 ^^^'".' '"^a^?.-?®^ P^^'* °^ *^e same letter, Mr. Fletcher observed:-" With regard to the Winter Moths Uich 1 ave been so injurious m England this year, I am under the impression that the most satisfactory niode of treatmen will be to spray or dust the trees ^ith some f the preparronro arsenic. For my own part I prefer ' Paris-green,' a bein' of more uniform strength than ' London-purpll ' and othei- c?ni Cd' L l\t '' ' '^"^^ '^ '' ''''''-' "^ '- ^^ inf fL?''f^n^V'^'^'ii'n''^''' ^^'' ''^''°''^* recommended for spray- mg for Codlin Moth or young "looper" caterpillar is not more than from 2 to 4 ozs. in 40 (forty) gallons of water or i to i oz. m a pail of water (4 gallons, E. A. 0.), to be ai phed as a fine spray by means of a force-pump. The folia^TS not be drenched, but the sprav should onlv h. al oweft^-H upon the trees until it begins to drop from'the leaves. * '] III ■ » 1:1 IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) /> ^ 1.0 I.I 1.25 2.8 12.5 2.2 2.0 1.8 U ill 1.6 V] <^ /] A A /A v/ w Photographic Sdences Corporation #^ .\ ^^ O '^ v •^X^^ 0 ,A ^<' \^ ■1; 23 We5T MAIN STREET WEBaTER.N.Y. 14580 (716) 87i2-4S03 , f 1 lai! 368 PLUM. however, one ounce to twenty gallons of water is sufficient. London-purple in the proportion of one part to twenty parts of water was considered by the Committee to be destructive to the caterpillar, and while slightly scorching the foliage did not materially injure it." By the time of the next meeting the benefit of the treat- ment was so obvious that applications were coming in from gardeners of the neighbourhood to the Committee, for in- formation how they also could save their trees. On appHcation to Mr. C. D. Wise, Deputy- Superintendent at the Fruit-grounds at Toddington, for a short note as to progress,— in order that I might report results of our work up to date,— on the 3rd of June, at the meeting of the Seeds and Plants Disease Committee of the Eoyal Agricultural Society, he favoured me with the following reply : — "We have as you know tried all sorts of mixtures, and I don't think it is worth while troubling you with all particulars of them, as they were all useless or nearly so. Paris-green is the only thing which we have found really efficacious. For Plums the proportion is 1 oz. to 10 gallons, and for Apples 1 oz. to 20 gallons. We have also used the former strength for Currants, but as the foliage is within the last few days becoming so much stronger, we have been using it at 1 oz. to 8 gallons. Neither of these solutions has damaged the fohage, but killed the caterpillar. ... As regards the Eiley nozzle, we have tried it and found it very similar to that on the French pumps ; in fact, there is very little difference between the two, that is, in the way the liquid is distributed." Mr. Masters, also, the Secretary of the Evesham Experi- mental Committee, replied, still continuing the previous in- formation as to the efficacy of the Paris-green in de^ oying the caterpillar, and also considered there was confirmt»,tory proof that the Paris-green might be used with perfect safety to foliage at a greater strength than that mentioned above. I also requested information from Messrs. A. Salmon (Fruit- growers), near Hounslow, with whom I had been in com- munication relating to orchard use of Paris-green, in order to obtain a report of the effects of the application, on a regular scale of working business independent of our special experi- ments, with ordinary garden engines. Messrs. Salmon re- ported in reply, on the 31st May :— " All we can say about it IS to its advantage. It has succeeded admirably. The trees look healthier and better, with as much (if not more) on, as anywhere else. They are beautifully clean. It has not in- jured them in the slightest degree. We shall always use it in case of blight." PARIS-GREEN. 859 The following note on the subject from Mr. John Biley, of Putley Court, Ledbury, also shows the serviceableness of the application, even without any note of the use of special spraying machines : — " We tried Paris-green, London-purple, and chrysoline, for the caterpillars. We began late, when the caterpillar was strong. Paris-green we found by far the best ; it killed the caterpillar in a short time, and did not damage the foliage at all. It was used as recommended by your Committee."— (J. E.) On the 20th of June Mr. Masters added a further satis- factory note, with the following information and useful hint regarding mixture of flour with the green : — " When the foliage of trees is young and tender, I do not think it safe to apply the Paris-green stronger than in the proportion of 1 oz. to ten gallons of water. But when the foliage is matured, and the caterpillar is full grown, a solution of 1 oz. Paris-green to 6 gallons of water may be safely used ; for every case it would be well to use about 2 lbs. of fine wheat flour to every pound of Paris-green ; it thickens the solution, and prevents the particles of Paris-green from settling at the bottom of the vessel, and, when it is sprayed, helps to secrete the preparation on the foliage." The point which, at the date of writing, appears to be the chief difficulty, is the risk of bright, hot sunshine occurring after spraying, and causing mischief to the leafage. On June 26th Mr. Masters wrote me that some of the trees syringed with Paris-green then showed injury to the leafage which had not been noticeable until the last few hot days. This appeared to be attributable to the action of the heat where the Paris-green mixture had been applied stronger than was recommended, or where the syringe used did not deliver it properly on the leafage, but so that it remained in excessive quantity. It is of great importance not to exceed the proportions specified in the preceding instructions; also not to spray fre- quently ; a fortnight should elapse between one application of spraying and a succeeding one, unless there are special circumstances pointing to some difference being allowable; and also to have a spraying apparatus which will deliver the spray as a fine general mist, not as a wash which will drop from the trees. When the form of " Strawsonizer " especially arranged with a view to orchard use is issued, this may be expected to be of much service as a spraying implement. Meanwhile, as not only our own but other experiments were greatly held back at first for want both of proper apparatus nnd also want m 860 PLUM. of knowing where it was procurable in England, I add the tollowing information, which was kindly sent me during July, by Capt Corbett, from Toddington:— "The Knapsack Pump, or No. 1 'Eclair,' used at Tod- dington plantations, will be to be had of Messrs. Chas. Clark and Co., Windsor Chambers, Great St. Helen's, E.G., solo agents. One great advantage is, that the movement of tho man keeps the liquid agitated. It is an admirable instrument. and we like it better than anything."— (R. J. C.) All those who desire to study the instructions and infor- mation m detail regarding the methods of application of Paris- green., by which it is found to act trustworthily and safchi, will hnd them in the publications noted below ; and I have entered at such great length on the subject, as it is of vital importance to the fruit-growing industry to have some means at hand by which the caterpillar plague can be exterminated; and at present, excepting mineral oil and soft-soap wash,— which also has dangers to leafage— we do not know, either by published documents, or by our own experiments with most of the ordinary applications, of anytliing which answers as well elsewhere and gives liope of doing so here, when the manage- ment ot it IS properly gained, as Paris-green. For many details regarding composition and method of use of Pans-green, see "Paris-green as an Insecticide," ^irst Annual Report on Injurious and other Insects of the State of New York,' 1882, by Dr. J. A. Lintner, State Entomologist, pp. 25-34 : Albany, U.S.A. ; " Notes on Paris- green, pp. 8—16, in ' Seventh Annual Report of Noxious and other Insects of the State of Missouri,' 1875, by Prof C V Riley now Entomologist of Department of Agriculture, U.S.A.; Pans-green," 'Fourth Report of United States Entomological Commission, U.S. Department of Agriculture,' 1885, pp. 143-148; and other reports quoted from in pre- ceding paper. ^ RASPBERRY. — BLACK VINE WEEVIL. 361 RASPBEPtliy. Black Vine Weevil. (Hiorhynchm sulcatus, Fab. Clay-coloured Weevil. O. pidpes, Fab. {sepWutnotm, Steph. Man. ) 0. picipcH and O. sulccitus : 1—4, 0. sulcatiis, maggot and pupa, nat. size and magnified, or with lines showing nat. length; 5, O.picipes. The two kinds of weevils — scientifically Otiorhynchus sukatiis and 0. picipes of Fabricius— figured above have an enormous capacity for doing mischief. In beetle state they feed on leaves and shoots of various plants, amongst which Vines, Baspberries and Strawberries may especially be men- tioned, though unfortunately the list might be much length- ened,^ and sometimes includes field root-crops, of which an especial instance came under my notice in 1885, when the two above-mentioned kinds greatly injured twelve acres of Mangolds. On June 10th Mr. Warner wrote to me from the Nurseries, Leicester Abbey, regarding an attack of brown beetle-Hke insects, which appeared, as he said, to be " almost omnivorous," and, after giving a list of attacked plants, further noted, " They arc now materially^ injuring twelve acres of Mangel Wurzel." From the specimens accompanying these proved to be Otiorhynchus sulcatus and 0. picipes. I have also had twigs of Eed Currant, Cob Nut, and Damson (as well as of Easpberry), sent with specimens of beetles' accompanying, to show the "sad havoc" made in fruit plantation by the Otiorhynchus picipes : as many as 105 of the beetles were reported by the sender as having been found on the stem of one Cob Nut tree. The two species mentioned above as well as the 0. tenehri- cosus, or Eed-legged Garden Weevil, are exceedingly hurtful by feeding on the shoots, leaves, and buds ; sometimes also on the fruit and flower-buds; and in the larval state they are injurious by feediug on the roots. 862 RASPBERRY. The larvjB and pupas of each of these tbx'ee species of weevil are very similar to the others, and so are the remedies and means of prevention ; therefore I place them under one heading. The O. sulcatus takes its popular name from being especially injurious to Vines, and is also hurtful to Strawberries. The cffgs are laid a little below the surface of the earth. The maggots are legless, whitish, somewhat hairy, and are to be found from about August until the following spring at the roots of their food-plants. The^ pupa, figured at p. 8G1, is yellowish white, with brownish hairs, and is to be found in April lying three or four inches below the surface, where it is stated to remain only fourteen days in this state before development. The weevil is a little over four, and sometimes five, lines in length, is of a dull black, with a short snout or proboscis ; the body between the head and abdomen is granulated, and the wing-cases are rough, with several raised lines and spotted with pale hairy tufts, and, like the other species of Otiorhynchus, it has no wings. The O. incipcs, or Clay-coloured Weevil, differs from the above in being smaller, and is reddish brown or testaceous, mottled with ashy scales, so that when only slightly magni- fied it looks of a mottled, dusty clay colour. This species is also very injurious to wall-fruit trees and Vines in hot-houses, and was identified in 1879 as being the species which caused great damage to Easpberry plants in Cornwall. A third species— the 0. tenehricosns, or Eed-iegged Weevil —is also mentioned by John Curtis, in the 'Gardeners' Chronicle ' for 1842, p. BIG, as being very hurtful to garden- fruit trees. The beetles feed on the buds, young shoots, bark, leaves, &c., of Apricots, Nectarines, Peaches, Plums, &c.; and have been found also, in the maggot state, doing much harm to the roots of Easpberries, Currants, Gooseberries, Straw- berries, and to vegetables. This weevil, when recently developed, has the wing-cases dotted over with spots of delicate yellow down ; these soon rub off, when the beetle appears to be of a shining black ; it is sometimes of a reddish pitchy colour, whilst still immature. The wing-cases are united to each other, and the legs are generally bright chestnut-colour. The specimens which are most commonly sent me are the O. sulcatus and 0. picipes, but in June, 1883, Prof. Allen Harker, of the Eoyal Agricultural College, Cirencester, forwarded specimens of 0. tcnehncosiis, which were then doing much harm by eating leaves of the Strawberries in the garden of the College I'arm. BLACK VINE WEEVIL. 868 The weevils were in such numbers that thiity of them wore secured in a few minutes from their daytime shelter around the Strawberry roots. A female that was dissected contained eggs fully developed. Prevention and Eemedies. — The habit of the weevils of sheltering away from the light during the day is one great help towards keeping them in check. They feed by night. By day they hide away, either buried in earth by the walls against which their food-trees are trained, or underneath small clods round the stems of the trees on which they feed, or in rough bark ; crevices where mortar has fallen out of old garden walls often swarm with them, and generally they shelter in any dark nook near at hand to their nightly resort. Where the attack was bad enough to make it worth while to " sticky-band " the trees as for prevention of Winter Moth, this would be a good plan, as the weevils, being wingless, must travel on foot. But this plan would, of course, not be of service for bush fruits such as Raspberries, nor where the trees were fastened to walls. In such cases (looking at the habits of the weevil of hiding during the day in any crannies, or under clods of earth, stones, or rubbish), it would be very desirable to keep fruit- walls well pointed; also that all clods of earth, &c., should be cleared away that might serve as lurking-places. As they especially go down close to the wall, it might answer to run a line of ashes sprinkled with dilute paraffin, or with carbolic acid diluted ia the proportion of one part of acid to a hundred of water, just along the junction of wall and ground. A band of any land of rough, cheap, cart or axle grease, run along the lowest part of the wall, would isolate it from attack, if the trees were also properly sticky-banded. In the case of attack on Strawberry plants, and on the larger scale of plantation fruit-growing, it would be easy to find what kind of shelter the weevils preferred; and by placing some of this, whether slates, tiles, odd bits of thin turf, or morsels of old waste sacking, on the ground by the stems of the young trees, these would probably form excellent traps, which might be cleared" daily with little trouble. The best method of remedy is based on the habit of the weevils of dropping down off the bushes on any disturbance when feeding at night, or if a light is flashed on them. In 1878 the Easpberry plots in the large fruit-gardens in Gulval and part of Madron, in Cornwall, were injured by weevil attack, the loss being estimated at many hundreds of pounds. On two acres of Easpberry-ground at Gulval the loss of crop from injury to the canes was estimated at one ; ! 864 nAflpnKTinY. II II 1 !■ !n"ifl7o^ ^'""""'l"' AV'\ '1^^^''"^"« forwnidcd from this ground m 1879 were idontjliod as O. picipcs dawn'lnTT''' ^'^"l^;''', '"'"''^^ ^'.V "'f^'^'t' ^«^^ towards l?n nn^fl V '"'l^ ^'^'^ thoDiselves bciKath the Hurfaeo of i,vw?i ' ?■ ""'^'' '^"V"'' ^^'''- ^« ^^^1 tl'" romedicH tried l.ad Flo^-nL-r f""','\"""'^^'' "^ W)odeu trays were coiiHtructed, the inside of which was smeared all over with tar; and afto^ kin.Tho'^'r ^''^\^ tray beneath an arch (ar'ch- training being the ran used); another, whilst carrying a lantern t'rtan. nil ' '"^'^'^ ''''' f ^^ '''' ^->-^^« ^^"11 into the tnvy: tho tar held them prisoners for a time, and after tho tray had HI ed^t'r^ ""^^''i ^^"'^^ "^' ^^^-^ *^''' weevils collected\vero lulled by pouring boiling water upon them. Thirty or forty hJee"thnr ^^a"' ''^^'^'^''^' ""'"'K'^'^' ^"«^ ^^'^^ «^^^« treated tmee times. An immense number of weevils were cnu-ht estimated at lundreds of thousands, and it was hope" "by contmuing this plan, to avoid much future loss.-(J.T ' ^ net hn« wf f""*'?*. °^ gi-ound the use of a common sweeping- net has been found to answer for clearing bushes after dirk. Ihe commonly-adopted method of destroying these weevils in vineries and peach-houses is to spread clSths below le boughs, and shake the beetles down on them at ni^h tl en faier' il^'T ^'^'''''l '''' ''^''^y *^-- with boihig wffh . m ^ ''"^ '' '^l^^l^^ applicable to standards, and, with a httlo management, to wall-fruit trees; but it should be borne in mind that, as they drop when frightened onera tions must not be begun until the cloths are pfaced reac? It 18 recommended by Mr. Malcolm Dunn, of Dalkeith that a white sheet should be laid under the boughs the lay dbe and a large and bright light used, so that when he Ses fall they inay be easily noticed; otherwise, if no sheet las been spread and the light is dim, many of the be otles are otre giwnd! '" '"'^"' '^'°" '''''' '''''' ^^^"g - ti^'tS Another method is for two people to hold a sheet below the boughs and for a third to shake and then bring a 1 ght to rtfW 'f ''f "if' ^"* "^' above-mentioned pla^n is bettci' (jettmg rid of the maggots is a most difficult task, but it "^h.nlr'\ P ^H- ^^''^'''^''' ^'^^^ that watering 'with a tnv.7 in -^^T ?^ ^?^^«"ia«al liquor and common agricul^ m.l tf '^''*'T "' preventing the increase of this pest." Where the ground was empty, a scourging dressing of fresh iTeiv tLrl^ ?'t'^/^ '\'^\ ^^'' pests; but commonly they ment ^^^^^'P^^^ts which would be killed by such trcat- foof '^tnn^f '5f ih' "l^l^,f ^^««t {^}'\ in^i^es of soil for about a foot, m fiont of the walls on which the trees were infested, BTnAWnKUIlY. — OREEN ROHR rilAFER. 3G5 would l)e worth tr (!;» as an experlmont, to bo carried out furthor if many masf^ots wore found; by throwing some of the removed earth into a largo tub of water it would be soon directly whether there were either maggots or beetlo3 present. Small plantH may have tlioir roots washed out, and thus be saved ; but the ground on which they grow should bo thoroughly dealt with at once. A good handful of fresh gas- lime put into each hole at once is a good cure for what evil may remam HieHo pests should be looked to on their very first appear- ance, for thoy are most dillicult to get rid of, and, as in many other cases, even severe cold has little effect on the maggots. From experiments in my own garden I found they would stand a temperature as low as ll-S", that is, just over twenty degrees of fro,-)t, without being (as far as could be seen) in the least injured. I STRAWBERRY. Green Rose Chafer. Cetimu miratd, Linn. 4 Larva ; back of pupa ; cocoon ; and beetle. This chafer is injurious both in the larval and perfect state. In the iirst— that is, as a grub— it feeds on the roots of Straw- berries, Grass, and other plants; as a beetle it frequents many kinds of flowers, including the Rose, from which it takes one of its names ; but is more especially injurious by its attacks on Strawberry blossom, and to the flowers of Turnips left for seed, where it eats off the anthers from the stamens and thus renders the flowers abortive. Ili 1 1 5fi 86G STIIA WHERRY. ' Tho eggs are laid in the ground, where the maggots hatch and feed for two or three years. When full-grown they are upwards of an inch and a half in length, thick and fleshy, of a whitish colour, with an ochreous head armed with strong jaws; the pairs of short feet are of a rusty ochreous colour, and the hinder portion of the gruh or maggot is enlarged, curved towards the head, and of a lead-colour. These grabs are much like those of the Cockchafer, but, amongst other points, are distinguished by having a horny rusty spot on each side of the segment behind the head. When full-fed they make earth-cases "as large as a walnut," at a considerable depth beneath the surface, which are smooth inside, but covered outside with pellets of soil which have passed through their own bodies ; and in these cocoons they turn to ochre-coloured pupas. The figure shows the appear- ance of the hack of one of these, the legs and wings being folded beneath. The Chaffers, which sometimes appear as early as the beginning oi May, are of the shape and size figured, of a rich metallic golden green above, with white or ochreous spots or streaks looking like cracks running across the bright green of the wing-cases; beneath they are coppery, with a rose-coloured tint. The horns are much like those of the Cockchafer, excepting that the club is formed of only three leaves (see fig. of horns of Cockchafer, p. 229). Beneath the wing-cases are large brown membranous wings, by means of which when they have finished whatever is eat- able in one place they can fly with ease to another ; it may be a Strawberry bed, or may be a field of Turnips in blossom; and thus, if the weather is fine, they continue to attack what- ever may attract them throughout the summer ; in wet weather they die earlier in the season.- ^John Curtis in ' Gard. Chro-.' for 1841, &c,) Prevention and Eemedies.— The beetles are so large and so sluggish in dull weather that there is then no difficulty in taking them by hand ; during sunshine they may be taken with a bag-net, and destroyed in any way that may be moat convenient. Where the maggots are numerous, they should be got rid of by turning over the soil, or by spreading neglected heaps of rich earth, old cucumber-beds, and similar places which they frequent, and hand-picking all that are seen. Poultry will help very much in clearing the grubs, if driven in whilst the ground is being turned over. Where the attack is on the roots of growing plants, it will be found serviceable to have a few tame Rooks or Sea Gulls GREEN ROSE CHAFER. 367 in the garden, as they can dig down with their bills amongst the roots which could not otherwise be meddled with, and clear large numbers of the grubs without harming the plants. The Rose Chafer when about to deposit her eggs will sweep round on the wing until she see? a suitable spot, and— hardly pausing from her flight— will disappear at once down any crack that may be open in the ground, or into a nook amongst boards, or otherwise ; and the grubs may be found in the decayed wood-soil that accumulates within old hollow trees. It is therefore desirable to remove all wood-rubbish, and also heaps of decaying sawdust that may attract the beetle or shelter the grubs. For other remedies, see *' Cockchafer," p. 229. For notes on Otiorlu/nchus (weevil) attack to Strawberry plants, and regarding Jiihis pulchcUus (the Spotted Millepede), which is excessively injurious to Strawberry fruit, see references in Index. I m '1 I n LIST OF INSECTS OP WHICH OBSERVATIONS ARE GIVEN IN THE FOREGOING PAGES; ARRANGED ALPHA- BETICALLY UNDER THE NAMES OF THE ORDERS TO WHICH THEY BELONG. TO WHICH IS APPENDED A LIST OF A FEW OTHER KINDS OP CROP PESTS ; ALSO WI1»I NAME OF ORDER OR FAMILY. COLEOPTERA.— Beetles. Anthonomiis pomorum. Apple-blossom Weevil. Apion apricans. Purple Clover Weevil. A. assimile. Clover Weevil. Balanimis nncimi. Nut Weevil. nnichus rufimamis. Bean-seed Beetle. Cetonia mirata. Green Rose Chafer. Ceutorhynchus suIcicolUs. Cabbage and Turnip-Gall Weevil Crioceris asparagi. Asparagus Beetle ; Cross-bearer. Doryphora decemlineata. Colorado Beetle. Elater {Agriotes) lineatus. Striped Click Beetle. E. (Agriotes) obscuriis. Dusky Click Beetle. E. (Agriotes) spiitator. Pasture Click Beetle. E. (Athdiis) riificaudis. Red-tailed Click Beetle. Haltica (Chcetocnema) concinna. Tooth-legged Flea Beetle H. (Phyllotreta) nemorum. Turnip Flea Beetle. Hylesinus fraxini. Ash-bark Beetle. Ilylurgus piniperda. Pine Beetle. Meligethes ceneiis. Turnip-blossom Beetle. Melolontha indgaris. Common Cockchafer. Otiorhynchus picipes. Clay-coloured Weevil. O. sulcatus. Black Vine Weevil. O. tenebricosus. Red-legged Garden Weevil. Ph(Bdon betulcn. Mustard Beetle ; Black Jack. Phratora vitellincB. Willow Beetle. Scolytus destructor. Elm-bark Beetle. Silpha opam. Beet-carrion Beetle. Sitones lineatus (and other species). Pea and Clover Weevils Xyleborus dispar. Shot-borer Beetle. THYSANOPTERA.— Thrips. Thrips cereaUiim. Corn Thripp. 2b 370 LIST OF INSECTS. HYMENOPTERA. Bees, Wasps, Ants, Sawflies, Ichneumon Flies, &c. Athalia spinanm. Turnip Sawfly. Cephtis pyt/maus. Com Sawfly. Cynips kollari. Marble-Gall Fly. Lophyrus pini. Pine Sawfly. Ij. nlfus. Fox Pine Sawfly. Ncmatm ribesii. Gooseberry and Currant Sawfly. Neurotcrus lenticularis. Common Spanglo-Gall Fly. Siirx ijigns. Giant Sirex ; AVood Wasp. S. juvenciis. Steel Blue Sirex. Tenthredo (Sclundria) ccrasi. Slug-worm ; Pear and Cherry Sawfly. LEPIDOPTERA.— Butterflies and Moths. Abraxas grossxdariata. Magpie Moth. Acherontia atropos. Death's Head Moth. Agrotis cxclamationis. Heart and Dart Moth. A. segetiim. Dart, or Turnip Moth. Anisopteryx a:scxdaria. March Moth. Bombyx {Clisiocampa) ncusUia. Lackey Moth. Ca)pocapsa pomonella. Codlin Moth. Charaas graminis. Antler Moth. Cheimatobia brumata. Winter Moth. Cossus Ugniperda. Goat Moth. Depressaria cicutella. Common Flat-body Moth. D. dancella. Carrot-blossom Moth. D. depressella. Purple Carrot-seed Moth. Biloba cmndeocephala. Figure-of-8-Moth. Orapholitha pisana . Pea Moth. Hepialus humuU. Otter Moth. Hybemia defoliaria. Mottled Umber Moth. Hypononmita padella. Small Ermine Moth. Mamestra brassictc. Cabbage Moth. Noctiia {I'ryphaina) promiba. Great Yellow Underwing. Orgyia antiqua. Common Vapourer Moth. Pit'iis bmssicai. Large White Cabbage Butterfly, r. napi. Green-veined White Butterfly. P. rapce. Small White Cabbage Butterfly. Plusia gamma. Silver Y-moth. Pliitella cniciferarum. Diamond-back Moth. Pyga:ra biicephala. Buft'-tip Moth. Pyralis rostralls. Hop- vine Snout Moth. Petinia buoliana. Piue-shoot Tortrix Moth. 7i. turiunana ~ OrthoUmia tunonana. Pine-bud Tortrix Moth. Tortrix viridana. Oak Leaf-roller Moth. Zeiccra (mcidi. Wood Leopard Moth. LIST OP INSECTS. HOMOPTERA/-— Aphides, Scale Insects, &c. Aphis brassica. Cabbage Aphis, or Green Fly. A. (Siphonophora) rjranana. Corn Aphis ; Dolphin. A. (Phorodon) humcli. Hop Aphis. A. mali. Apple Aphis. A.pruni. Plum Aphis. A. rapcB (Rhopalosiphim dianthi). Turnip Green Fly. A.rumicis. Collier ; Bean Aphis. Aleyrodes proletella. Snowy Fly. Chermcsabietis. Spruce-Gall Chermes. G. laricis. Larch Aphis. Euacanthus inteiruptiis. Hop Cuckoo Fly. FAiptenjx Nolani. Potato Frog Fly. Mi/tilaspis pomonm. Apple Mussel Scale. Pulvinaria ribesia;. White Woolly Currant Scale. Schizoneura lanit/era. American-Blight Aphis. 371 ? ■: I r I ! I DIPTERA.— Two- WINGED Flies. Anthomyia (Chortophila) bette. Mangold Fly. Anthomyia brassicce. Cabbage Fly. A. ceparum. Onion Fly. A.Jhmlis. Radish Fly. A. })latura. Shallot Fly. A. radicum. Root Fly. Cecidomyia destructor. Hessian Fly. C. tritici. Wheat Midge. Chlorops tccniopus. Gout Fly ; Ribbon-footed Corn Fly. Dilophus vuhjaris. Fever Fly. Hylemyia coarctatn. Wheat-bulb Fly. Oscinis frit. Frit Fly. Phorbia cepetorum = A. ceparum. Onion Fly. Psila roscB. Carrot Fly ; " Rust." Tipula oloracea. Daddy Longlegs ; Crane Fly. Tephntis onopordinis. Celery and Parsnip Fly. Besides the accounts given of the insects noted above, mention is also made of the following : — Tylenchus devastatri.e, or " l]^. "v, Eehvorm," and Tylenchus tritici, or "Wheat-Gall Eehvorm," w-Jch belong to the family of the AnyxdlluUdie of the Xematades, or "Thread-worms." Jididce, or " Snake Millepedes," of various species, and Fuiydesmus _ • For observation regarding Ilomoptera =: Hemiptera-HomoiHera, see note, in list of Orders following, 2b2 372 LIST OF INSECTS. cowplnnatus, or "Flattened Millepede," belonging to the Order of Myriapods. Tetmniichiis telanus, or "Rod Spider"; Phi/toptus (? sp.), or " Birch-Gall Mite " ; and Phytoptus rihis, or <' Black Currant-Gall Mite" ; of which the first belongs to the section of the Tetmmjchidai, or •' Spinning Mites," the two others to the subfamily Phytoptidw of the Order Acarina, or Mites. And also, Arim ater, or "Black Slug," and Uwax terrestris, the "Field or Milky Slug," belonging to the family Limucidoi of the great division Mollunca. in APPENDIX. i I I' INTRODUCTION TO ENTOMOLOGY. WITH LIST OF ORDERS OF INSECTS. In the foregoing observations on Insect Attacks, references are given to many standard works, in some of which the student will find full histories of the insects referred to, and m others will be able to find full information regarding method of Classification of Insects generally; or again, if he desires to study any special order in detail, he will find references to standard monographs on these subjects. But for general working purposes it may be convenient to have a short account at hand of such of the main points of distinction between the different Orders of Insects, as will enable the observer of a crop attack to tell at least what kind of insect is before him, and also, what is of great importance agriculturally, how to distinguish generally between the different kinds of larvcs which are commonly most injurious to our crops, so that he may be able to tell whether the crop pest under consideration is a fly-maggot, a beetle-grub, a moth-caterpillar, or possibly not an insect at all. In the following pages I have, therefore, endeavoured to give (in the Hst of the Orders of Insects, following the des- cription of methods of insect life) notes of the most observable of the characteristic points by which the insects composing these different Orders may be distinguished from each other m their early as well as complete state. But in the small space available it is only the broad general distinctions, such as most commonly are noticeable, that it is possible to enter on, and the reader is especially requested to observe that this Introduction is only intended as a guide to the main points desirable for notice in practical study of British injurious insect attacks. For those who wish to study the subject in detail, I know of no work superior to that on * Classification of Insects,' by infi 374 INTRODUCTION TO Prof. J. O.Westwood, Life-President of our English Entomo- logical Society, to whose works and to whoso almost life- long friendly communication I gratefully ascribe the foundation of most of such technical Entomological knowledge as I may possess, and who has been well described by his distinguished follow- worker, the Entomologist of the department of Agriculture of the United States of America, as the Prince of Entomologists. In the lists of Orders I have endeavoured, by adding many figures, to convey the information more clearly than could be done by words ; and for explanation of the special Entomological terms, which it has been impossible to avoid use of, the reader IS referred to the Glossary appended to this Introduction. Introduction.— Insects begin their lives either by being hatched from eggs, or produced alive by the female; commonly they are hatched in the form known as maggots, caterpillars, or grubs, but they are never generated by decaying vegetables, putrid water, bones, carcases, dung, or any other matter, dead or alive, excepting their own insect forerunners. They come out of these matters constantly, but, if the observer will watch, he may often see the arrival of the insects, the laying of the eggs, and be able to satisfy himself as to the gradual development and the method of breeding, and that the progeny IS produced by the female insect. The eggs are usually laid soon after the pairing of the male and female, and are deposited on or near whatever may be the food of the larvaB. They are laid singly or in patches, and are sometmies attached by a gummy secretion to the leaf or what- ever they are laid on ; occasionally they arc fastened by a short thread, or raised (hke the heads of pins) on a stiff foot- stalk of hardened viscid matter. Such insects as insert their eggs in living animal or vegetable matter are furnished with a special egg-laying apparatus or ovipositor, such as a borer, or organs enclosing bristle-like points or saws, by means of which the female pierces a hole, and passes the egg down into the wounded spot. For the most part insect-eggs hatch shortly after they are laid, but sometimes they remain unhatched during the winter; and it is believed that, where circumstances are unfavourable to development, they may remain unhatched for years, but this point is one of those subjects on which more information i8_ needed. They have been found to endure intense cold without injury, and, besides some special and extraordinary instances, it has been found by experiment that insect-eggs may be exposed to a temperature lower than that to which they are usually subjected in this country, and cold enough to solidify their contents without destroying their powers of hatching. ENTOMOLOGY. 375 I I In a very few cases insects are partly developed before birth, otherwise, after hatching from the egg, or being produced alive (in the same first stage of development) by the female, insects pass their lives in three different conditions or stages successively. The first is that in which they are known as maggots, grubs, or catcrpilUars ; in the case of Grasshoppers, Cockroaches and some other insects, where the jioiing are very much the same shape as the parent, only witJiout wings, they usually go by the parent's name ; the young of Green Fly are some- times known as " lice." In this state they are active, voracious, and increase in size ; and in this first stage all insects are scientifically termed lame. In the second stage some Orders of insects are usually in- active and cannot feed, as is the case with the chrysalis of the Butterfly, or the mummy-like form of the Beetle or Wasp with its limbs in distinct sheaths folded down beneath it ; some, however, are active and feed, as Grasshoppers, Cock- roaches, Aphides (or Green Fly) and others, and resemble the parent insect, excepting that their wings and, for the most part, their wing-cases are not as yet fully formed ; and in this second stage all insects are scientifically termed pupa. The third state is that of the perfect insect, in ^ which (whether male or female, or of whatever different kind, as Moth, Beetle, Cricket, Aphis, &c.) it is scientifically termed an imago. The term Larva is from the Latin, meaning a mask or ghost, and signifies that the insect in this stage gives a mere vague idea of its perfect form. Pupa signifies an infant, and is fairly appropriate to the second stage in which the insect is forming into the perfect state, but is not fully developed either in its limbs or functions. Imago signifies the image, the likeness, or an example of the perfect insect. The appropriateness of the scientific names for the first and third stage does not seem very clear, but there is no doubt of the convenience of having some one term by which each different stage of life of any insect may be described ; and these are the words that have been adopted ; in the following pages some detail is given of these three successive stages of development. Larva (Maggot, Grub, Caterpillar, &c.).~If an insect-egg about to hatch is held against the light, or examined as a transparent object by means of a strong magnifier, it will be seen that there is a speck inside which increases in size and becomes more regular in shape daily, until it is too large for the egg to contain, when it breaks through this thin film 376 INTRODUCTION TO i 11..8 IS the u-va. It is usually Latched from nn oJ, hut sometimes is produced alive (as some fly- ots, or Aphidos during the summer mr.«Vi.c\ 1171 ^.v. ""^"^K lue summer months). When it is coloured and has many IpIv f' "'"^"^, '^"'^^ ^ caterpilhir ; whit^ fleshy larvjD, such as those of many Beetles 01 l^hes, are commonly known as grubs or maggots; such as resemble the parent insect are usually known by the name of this insect; but the term of "worm" or -slug'' 18 objectionable, as it leads to confusion. some'nTn ^ f' '''T T'^' ^" appearance : tn7 nn^ f ^^'•'' cylindrical, or blunt at the bPnrl/'wi, •?•'"'%/'* ^^'° ^'^^'^ «»^' with the hfrv J are e^r^eS^ ' 'TVj^^-'^^Sgot, are of this kind. Some on ::ch"of St'r'ee rhi 'sthr th"f "^ ^^ 'i ' P^"* '' '^^^ the tail, and furn shed wff^^ r r ""J'^^^' ^^^^^^ smallest at some ki^d^o Beetle and W^*'"'^^'^^r^^ ^^''' ' '^'^' ^''^ fat, a few inchL n tnZ^^^^^^ others are strong and de;eloped-aTthe CocS;. gTubV^ ^^"'^ °^ '^^^^^ EggH (mag.) of Turnip- blossom Beetle. Caterpillar of Goat Moth. The caterpillars of the Butterilip^ nn/? Ar^+i to have, besides tiZlZe parof 1 1^ f£/r*"'' ''^'=^'"'=* pairs of sucler-feet, and "C tVe pa r Ir'hee'irof "tLT^! (known as the caudal pro-leg). "' "'^ '"'' lUPf^diri" DTfrpc a,->i 1 "^^^'^'rf °^. yifeects m their various ota"r° p;-f=n --r. m>- ji-uui pages, ana also in iho lollowinLr iilnatm*^,! 1 - ,o';C''en m diu tmctions between the different OrdSs of InsectS. °* *^^ ""^^^ '^'«- ENTOMOLOGY. 877 Soraotimes, as with Grasshoppers, Locust, Aphides or Green iMy, Flant Bugs, &c., the young in the first stage— whether producefl ahvo or hatched from the egg— much resembles the parent, that is, has a distinct insect shape, of head with horns, trunk or thorax, furnished with six legs, and abdomen; and differs mainly in size and in being wingless ; but, tvhcther in tuts shape, or tvhat is known as (jruh, magyot, or caterpillar, or whatever kind of insect it may hclony to in this first starie, it 18 scientifically a larva. Larva of Locust. In this larval stage the insect feeds voraciously and often grows fast : the skin does not expand beyond certain hmits and when this point is arrived at, the larva ceases feeding for a while ;^ the skin loosens, cracks, and is cast off by the creature inside, which comes out in a fresh coat, sometimes A-S .1 P^'^^^o^^^ one, sometimes of a different colour or ciitterently marked. This operation is known as monltinq, and occurs trom time to time till the larva has reached its full growth, ihe duration of hfe in the first or larval state is various ; m some instances it only extends over a week or r/^iiJ"/?"^® ^^^ ^^'^*^^ *^^° Wireworm and catcrpirar of the Goat Moth) it lasts for a period of three, four, or five years. As far as observations go at present— that is to say, with such kinds as have at present been observed— larvae are not injured by an amount of cold much beyond what they are commonly called on to bear in this country ; but they are liable to injury from over supply of moisture, whether from sudden rain in warm weather or from full flow of sap of tlieir food-plant, and in this point of their constitutions we have a principle that may help much towards getting rid 01 them. ° When the larva has reached its full growth it ceases feeding, and in the forms known as caterpillar, grub, or maggot) it usually either goes down into the ground and forms a cell in the earth, or spins a "cocoon" (that is, a web) round itself ot threads drawn from the lower lip (as in tlic well-known bilkworm-cocoon), or in some wav it makes or sof-ks a nhnltcr in which it changes from the state of /amt to that of ^w^^rt. Ihese various changes are not mere matters of curious I ai I (if B78 INTnonuOTlON TO I etKiuiry, but cnii l)o upcd very eorvicciibly, in prevention of rcciirrcincc) of attac-k. Pupa (ClirysaliH).— It is iniicli to bo rcRrettod that wo have no uonovally-adoptcd word, oxccptinp; " clirysalis " (which is commonly used in tho case of Jiuttorllios or Moths), to doscribo the Hocond atago of insect lifo in which it in changing from the state of larra to that of the completo insect. Whilst in this condition it is for the most part without power of feeding and perfectly inactive, lying (as in tho case of Beetles,— the common Cockchafer for instance,— Bees and Wasps, and some others) with the limbs in sheaths folded beneath the breast and body, or (as with Butterflies and troths) protected by a hardened coating secreted from tho pores of the creature within, when it casts its last larval skin. The method of this change may be easily observed in the case of tlio caterpillar of the Peacock Butterfly, which fastens itself by tho tail, and then (after its black and silver- spotted skin has cracked) by inlhiite wriggling and struggling passes this cast-off skin backward, till it is pressed together Larva and imim of Cockchafer. at the tip of the tail ; and the creature from within ai)pears in its new form as a bright green chrysalis, or piqm. It is covered with a moist gummy exudation, which quickly hardens and forms a protecting coat, and in due time (if left unharmed) the Butterfly inside would crack through this and appear from within the case ; but if it is wished to observe that the beginning of the change to the ButterHy f- rm has taken place already, one of these chrysalids may be drowned into a little warm turpentine, or turpentine and Caiiaut balsam, directly tho caterpillar-skin has been cast ; this will soften the gummy coating just mentioned, and the limbs of the future Butterfly will be seen. In some cases the change takes place (as with various but not all k^idy of Flies) in the hardened skin of the maggot, which ui.<.y be caHod a " Fly-case " ; and in some (as with riant Biuz, .p', ies or Green Fly, Grasshoppers, and some otheraj -rjis i-tate of pupa is an active one, in which thev move and ieed, and resemble the perfect insect, excepting in having more or less rudimentary wings or wing-cases. ENTOMOLOQY. 079 When tlio tinio for dovclopmcnt lias oomo, tlio pupa (if it in ono of the active forms, iw of a Grasahopper, for itiatanco) may bo Hcoii looking heavy and stupid ; i)roHC'ntly the skin of tlio hack splits lonr,'tlnviHr, and tliroiij^di the opening the porfoct nisoct slowly m ikes its way out of the i)upal skin, carefully drawing one h"ml) after another from its precisely- iitting case, the long hind legs the last, till (in the instnnc,. observed, in twenty minutes) th(. [x-rfcct (Irasshopper stands l)y the side of the iilin of its former self. Flies press out one end nf the Fly-case, or crack it open, or leave the sheaths of the limbs !ind body ludiind, and JJeetles and Wasps cast the li.m from their limbs; liutterflies and Moths crack onc^n the chrysahs-case, and after a short time (during which the win-'s that had lain undeveloped are expanding) they appear of thJir lull size. The insect is now fully formed; it will grow no more; its intei-nal, as well as (>xternal, structure is complete- and it is what is known scientilically as the iinotio. Imoiio (lieotlo, ]3uttcrlly, Wasp, Fly, c^c.).— This is de/hicd as an animal formed of a series of thirteen rings or sef^- ments. breathing by means of tul)es (trachea}) which convoy the air from pores in the sides throughout tho system and divided into three chief portions. Of these the lirst is the head, furnished with horns (antenna)), a mouth (differing very much in form in different kinds of insects), large compound eyes (wluch consist of many small ones formed into a convex mass on each side of the head), and frequently two or three simple eyes on the top. The second portion (called tho thorax, or sometimes the " trunk ") is formed of three rings bearing a pair of legs attached to each, and having usually a pair of wings on the second and third of the rings; but sometimes the win<'s are wanting, sometimes there is only one pair. "^ The third portion (called the abdomen) is formed of the remaining nine rings, and contains the organs of reproduc- tion and most of those of digestion. Insects in this perfect state are of two sexes, male and female ; in some instances (as with Wasps and some others) there are imperfectly-developed females, known as "neuters." After the insect— whether JJeetlo, Butterfly, Fly, or other kind— has come from its chrysalis or Fly-case (that is, from the inipa), and its limbs have expanded, it is complete, and its remaining work is to support life until it has propagated its species. Usually imiviiuj soon takes place, and the male dies ; but the female has great tenacity of life until she has laid her eggs. The length of life, however, is various ; in some instances a few days, or even hours, is the extent : in others the insects "hybernate," that is, find some shelter in 380 INTRODUCTION TO which they pass the winter, and from which they reappear with the retiirn of warmth and sunshine. Classification of Insects.— Opinions of dififerent writers vary much as to the most desirable form, but the method appears to be the most simple and comprehensive in which they are divided into thirteen Orders, arranged aecordiuf^ to general similarity in the early stages, and also in the general appearance of the perfect insects composing each Order; also according to the number or nature of their wings, or the method in wnich they are folded beneath the wing-cases. ^ In the following table the Orders are arranged accordingly m tlie classification given in Prof. Westwood's ' Introduction to Entomology,' these thirteen Orders being formed into two great tribes of Mavdibulata and Ilanstellata, according to whether they feed by means of jaws (mandibles), as in the case ot ±5eetles, &c., or by means of some kind of sucker (haus- tellum), as is the case with Butterflies, Aphides, &c. These Orders are placed in succession aoco -ding to the nearest resembhmce which the insects of one Order bear to the one preceding or following; and the reader will notice that the two last syllables of the name of each order are Ptera meaning '' wings," from the Greek word Ptcron, a wing The preceding part of the word signifies the nature of the wing. MANDIBULATA. CoLEoPTKKA. — Sheath-wiiigcd. Beetles. EupLExoPTEKA.— Tightly-folded winged. Earwigs. Oethopteba.— Straight-winged. Cockroaches, Crickets, Grass- hoppers, &c. Thysanoptera.— Fringe-winged. Thrips. Neuroptera.— Nerve-winged. AVliitc Ants, May-flies, Dracon- nies, &c. ° Trichoptera.— Hairy-winged. Cacldicc-flics. Hymenoptera.— Membrane-winged. Saw-flies, Gall-flies, Ichneu- mon-flies, Ants, Wasps, Bees, &c. Strepsiptera.— Twisted-winged. Bee-parasites. HAUSTELLATA. Lepidoptera.— Scale-winged. Butterflies, Moths. Homoptera.— Similar-wiuged. Lanthorn-flies, Cuckoo-spit Fhes. Aphides, Scale Insects, &c. Heteropteia.— Dissimilar-winged. Plant-bugs, &c. ApiiANiPTERA. — Imperceptible-winged. Fleas." DiPTEBA.-Two-winged. Gnats, Daddy Longlegs, Gadflies, Bot- nietJ, J^lesh-flics. &c= ENTOMOLOGY. 381 COLEOPTERA (Aristotle).— Beetles. Field or Garden Chafers : 1 and 2, Anisoplia agricola, mag. and nat. length ; 3, A. Iwrticokt, nat, size; 4 and 5, the same, and grub, mag. The upper pair of wings, which are called wing-cases or elytra, are usually horny or leathery, and thus form a " sheath " for the large membranous under wings which are folded beneath them. The head is furnished with large eyes, jaws moving transversely, and with horns {antennce) of very various shape. In the Water Beetles the hinder legs are often flattened to a somewhat oar- like shape, and fringed with hairs. The larv8D are usually fleshy grubs having scaly heads furnished with jaws ; sometimes they are legless, but com- monly have a pair of short legs on each of the three segments next to the head ; and the last segment of the body (or end of the tail) has often a fleshy foot be- neath it. crn333CLCCcca=. Dijtiscus marginalix, Water Beetle. Wirevvorm, nat. size and mag. The pupae are inactive, of a whitish colour, and resemble the Beetle in shape ; with the head bent forwards, and the legs and wings laid along beneath the breast and abdomen, i'or illustrations of various kinds of Beetles, see Cock- Larva and chrysalis of Clover Weevil, nat. size and mag. 382 INTRODUCTION TO Chafer; Ladybirds; Turnip "Fly," or Flea Beetle; Weevils ofvanous species; and Wireworm Beetle.* vveevus 2. EUPLEXOPTERA (Westwood). -Earwigs. Ml Earwig, with wings spread, magnified. rfltfvpl, ^1 T°^ ^""^ ''"'''^^^ ^"^^ leathery, with the compa- tiaAolZ\ ™^' (^« th^ "^^^ implies), an L^S f^f?'^.*^; .^^' ^^^^^*^ ^« furnished with >«.. and the end of the tail with pincer-like appendages. Derfeet TZt^""^ ^f'^ ^'' ^'^^'^'' ^^^ ^^^^^ resemble the S caseror w- "" '^^P,^vf^«ept that the larv^ are without winged!) ^'^'^^'' '' sometimes known as Dermaptera, skin- 3. OETHOPTEEA (Olivier). Cockroaches, Crickets, Grasshoppers, &c. Tln^^nr'''^' ^f -^l'''^ '''' parchment-like, very ending in a knob (see fig. p. 389) ; also m. li j'^i ^"d ^^^Sant shape, and beautiful colouring. They mostly fly by day, and when at rest car.^ their wings erect. Lobster Moth {Stauropnsfagi), male. The Moths are distinguishable by the horns ncrcr bein- club-shaped, but generally thread-like or with side branches^ and they commonly rest with their wings expanded, and are of a heavier make and more sluggish in flight than the Butterflies ; also, though not exclusively evening or night-fliers many of them are so. ^ ^ ^' The family of the Clearwing Moths (Scsiidce) is very peculiar, and differs from the other Lcpidoptera in the win4 !2S,^'7 f'J' less transparent or '< clears and withoitt ^^■fnA ' \1 ^"^T °*^?'' characteristics resembling those of this Order it has been placed in it. Currant Clearwing (Scsia tipuliforvm). ^ The larvjc of the Clearwings feed and change to chrvsalids m branches or roots of trees. J'»'i"us For examples of Butterflies, see Cabbage Butterflies- of Moths, see those of Cabbage, Turnip, Apple, &c ' ENTOMOLOGY. 391 10. HOMOPTRRA (MacLoay). l^RoonoPPERS, Apiudks, oil Grken Fly, Scale Insects. &e* 3^ Potato Frog.fly : 1 and 2, eggs ; 3 and -1, pupa ; o and (5. Frog-fly, „Rt. size and magnified. Wings usually four (but sometimes two, or absent), entire! v membranous, slantmg downwards, the upper largest, and not overlappmg when at rest. Head with a mouth formed for suction and placed far back beneath it. Horns often short LarvsB various ; pupae usually active. Bean Aphis: 1, Bean-shoot with Aphides; 2, male, mag.; 3, nat. size- 4, wmglesa female, magnified. ' This Order contains such various forms of insects that it is convenient to take the sub-division, as given by Prof West- wood, into three sections, of Trimera, Dimcra, and Monomera ^^^Yl^Sjeajyechvely three, two, and one, joints in the feet. * ihe first includes many large foreign insects, as Lanthorn .,.*■'^^^^ i"^^°l^ included in this and in the following Order by Prof. Westwood nl^lff "^ /^', l"''",""* '•^y ^" *^° Order Hemiptera (or Ehynchola of Burmeister), and classed respectively under the Sub-orders of Heminfpra Svpn'hv Pr1;'f w ;i'^'""l'l'^^a-Homoptera. I have retained the distinction 'as g^ven by Prof. Westwood, as the separation of these divisions seems to me to make the subject clearer. m INTRODUCTION TO fti'^%tf' ' ""^^ »"^o"ffst our own the Ciickoo-Bpit, or Froth- ^y,^Uttigoma spumana, and the Froghoppors (see pp. I7I, The secoml section includes the Aphides, or Green Fly of which the Bean Aphis is figured at p. 391. iCJi or Jumping Plant-lice ; and Aleyrodcs, or Snowy-flies ' Ai>i.le MUS80I Scale : female and eggs, magnified. Twig with Scale, nat. si size. Male of ..Cottony Cushion Scale" (Icer^a pnrckasi), nat. size and mag. (Alter rrof. liiley). The third section is of the Coccidce, or Scale Insects • hero the females are usually fleshy masses furnished with suckers but without trace of articulated limbs; the ma7es have oS pan- of wings, but the mouth is obsolete. For descriptions and life-histories of the above insects see references m Index, and for history of Iceryapl^S see 'Observations on some Injurious Insects of S. AfS,' by Ed! 11. HETEEOPTERA (Westwood). Plant Bugs, Water Scorpions, &c. Wings four, the upper pair or wing-cases the largest nartlv lapping over each other when at rest, and with the mrtfp nearest^to the body leathery and ''.z/.SJ/'^n tenure t" the xuou ui uie wing, whicii is membranous: under wines membranous, sometimes wanting. uiiaer wings ENTOMOLOOY, 898 The head is usually broad, with horiiB commonly of modor- but placed m front of the lower part of the head. 1 and 2. Potato Bug (Lyons solani) : S.'and 4, pupa, nat. size and magnified ; 5, Hop Bug, nat. size ; G, ditto, magnified. fnrllTf "'"""n^ so^iewhat thread-like. Legs various, chiefly frf^nnl o ^r^u-""^' ^"* «o^etimes in the aquatic species with irmges on the hmder pair. nfw?nr'''''°'^^'.A^^^f^'°* insect, but without rudiments disringuishaWe* ""^""^ resemblance, from these being One section of this Order lives in water, and contains the msec s commonly known as Water Scorpions and Water Boat- men the other, besides the " Water Measurers " common on rni^p'l'^''fT ''^"°"' ^"?'^^ °^ ^"g« P^ey^ng on plant and Tr^r!u i' ^^ "^^^""l °? ^^^'' «^«^e^-«' and characterised generally by a power of givmg out a scent on being alarmed, which IS usually, but not always, of a disagreeable kind. 12. APHANIPTERA (Kirby) .-Fleas. Flea, maggot, and pupa, maguilied ; liuea giving nat. length. Four scales, which are ''imperceptible'' to the naked eye, 394 INTRODUCTION TO take the place of wings. The legs are long and formed for leaping, and the mouth for suction. The larvfe are minute worm-like, footloL? grubs; the pupa* are inactive, with legs enclosed in sheaths. 13. DIPTERA (Aristotle).— Flies. Various kinds of dipterous Plies (see pp. 31—34) : 1, 6, and 7, larvro ; 2 and 3, pupaj, nat. size and magnified ; 4, 5, 8, and 'J, Flies, magnified, with lines showing nat. size. Wings 'Uwo," membranous; in the place usually occupied by the hind wings arc a pair of slender lilaments with a knob at the end, called "poisers" or " halteres." Head usually distinct, and horns generally inserted near together on the forehead. Mouth formed for suction. Legs long. Daddy Longlegs (Tipula olcmcea), eggs, grub, and chrysalis. ENTOMOLO(?Y. 895 The grubs are fleshy and (with few exceptions) footless-;^ Svfnni ^"'^"r^^^ r*^^ nippers or jaws ; but often they are cylin- head extremity, which contains a soft mass which answers for t; r!v wT"^^! ^'^""S '■ ^^'' of ^^^^^ instead of jaws, be f^edkig ^^ ' """* *^'^ ^"bstance in which they may nnJ"ir r''°"'' '" 'rl ''''''®' *^e skin of the larva shrinks whlh thif 1' '" T .*" ^?'^ ^^" ^^^- °^ cylindrical case in which the change takes place, and out of which Fly-case the of IhTSdtr^ when developed; but in some inlir^s, ot the Daddy Longlegs, hgured p. 894, and some others is in SCiW ^' S' ^'i"^? ^^^*^^"' ^'^'^ ^*« limbs folckd. Ov w ff^% ""^i^^ ^strida3, which includes the well-known Ox Warble Fly Horse Bot Fly, and the Sheep's Nostril Flv^s i?e htn/" '^1'''"* ^'"1^ '^ '^""^^1«' for special 1 tafs' of ^^^^X^^""' '' ^'"""'^" ^' theLt-named, see i, Ox.Wuiblo Fly ; 2, maggot; 3, chrysalis. Ii| Ostrich Fly {Ilippohosca styuthionh) and cgg-like pupa-case, nat. size and mag. • foot and claw magnified. In the family of the Hippoboscidte, of which some arc known as - Forest-flics," the insect passes the larval stage and au from above the damp or nmddy places in which the maggots L 896 INTRODUCTION TO ENTOMOLOGY. changes to the pupa in the abdomen of the female before being deposited. The figure, p. 395, was taken from specimens forwarded to me trom b. Africa, by Mr. Bairstow, of Port Ehzabeth, as being injurious to Ostriches, and on examination for me by M. iiigot (Pans), the well-knowndipterist, they were consid ered by him to be of a previously undescribed species. GLOSSARY. Alee.— Winers. Alate.— Winded. Alula.— Small membranong appondaj^o to the base of the hinder ed'^o of tho wings ot Dijitcra (two-winj^ed flies). ° AntcincB.-^^HomH" or " cranial feelers " placed in front of the head- eibowV.''iT' 'TT^'IT *'"'^'^^V^il^<=' ^»inds of insect-mouths formed for suction. ^"io« Horns.— Antcnnce ; organs of various shape placed on front of head /m/r,7o.— Insect in periectly-developed stage, as butterfly, fly, beetle,'&c ' Labium. — Lower lip. "^ ^^i wi/. Labrum.-Vi^Y.er lip; this is placed vertically over the lower lip. with the two pairs of jaws placed horizontally between the two lips ya..— I'lrst active stage of insect-life, as caterpillar, ma'^n'ot. &c' Larva. Legs— In tlie perfect insect, formed of four chief pieces?-hip (coxa) thigh (/6.»iMy), shank (Ubia), and foot itarsus),-mth a small piece! called the trochanter, oetween the hip and thigh. In larvs, short legs of various foiuis, and sucker feet, or pro-le"-s ilfaHfZ|6/es.-Upper jaws, placed horizontally opposfte each other beneath Maxilla;. -Lowev jaws, placed similarly to the above, just below tlie " mandib es, and furmshed with feelers ; thence called feeler-iaws. Md^z/tory^aZ^n.— Feelers on the lower jaws, 398 GLOSSARY. I Mouth.-Fotmed of six pieces, an upper lip (labrmi), lower lip (labium) with two pairs of jaws opposed horizontally between them, of wS the upper pair (mandibles) are often strong, and serve for wS with; the lower vo.%s -Sucker-feet, whereby caterpiDars and other larvie hold firmly to the substance they arc placed on. "^ PiiZ^i«i.-Cushions beneath the feet of flies and some other insects. ^S.T.r'' r'^Ti ""L 'T'^-^^'' ^^ ^^^^^^^ it i« inactive, as with the chrysalis of butterflies, m some Orders; and active and imich resembling the parent excepting in the organs of flight notSg developed, in other Orders, as with grasshoppers. "toeing iJoa^mm -Sometimes called snout, when applied to the prolonged front of the head of some kinds of beetles ; also used as well as proboscis for the altered labium of Aphides. l"ouoscis Scutellum^A name sometimes applied to a portion of each segment of the tha,-ax, but especially to the triangular shield-shaped plate between the base of the wing-cases in beetles and bu-s. ^ ^^'Xti;^Sdingt:l:i^^^^ '' composed-considered to be S^JtmcZes -Breathing.pores, for the most part placed along sides of insects, or at the end of the tail, by means of which the a"? is Swn mto or expeUed from the trachece, or breathing-tubes. ^'^Ta^^^Sf oSeS' '''' °" *^^ ^^^"* ^^°- «^ *^« ^- w-g of ''''tf:::ig7^i::!ZL!^^^^^^ ^-- ^^^^ ^-^^ to rars^-Feet, the fom-th chief division of the leg, being that on which to five!" "" '' ^^^Po^^-i of a variable number of johCup Telum.—Laat segment of the abdomen. ^^'%Z'Z^r}'^ *^"''^ segments next to the head, known respectively as the pro-, meso-, and me a- thorax, of which in perfect insects the vSTt^J^^t ''''' ■•' '''' ^' '''-' " '^ «^^- *- -*- ''^':;irfoor('i, *';;)' ^^-^ 'l--- ^^ ^^^ leg between the thigh (fonur) Tmc/ic^.- Organs of respiration communicating with the air bv breathing-pores (sp^u-acles) in the sides of the iiisect, and conveyiZ It by means of smaller tubes throughout the body conveyin^ ^nsrMes.-Clavvs or curved hooks at the extremity of the foot. Ft-ytpa/'OMs.— Producing hviiig young. LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Tu the First Editiun uf « Manual: jfl In the First Edition of this volume the names of those to whom I was mainly indebted for special information were noted by iS fl.f^' il;^ ^''''?* Edition I have not altered the arrangement, as thus these notes first given are distinguished from the more recent observations with which I have since been favoured n wTiS I have given the name of the contributor together with his report Anderson, Alex., The Gardens, Oxenford Castle, Dalkeith, N.B. Bairstow, S. D., Port Elizabeth, Cape Colony. Boyd, Thomas, Callendar Park Gardens, Falkirk, N. B. Brown, Geo., Watten Mains, Caithness, N. B. Brunton, Thomas, Thame Park, Thame, Oxfordshire. CouPAR, BoBERT, Colcuden, near Perth, N. B. Dewar, D., The Gardens, Beaufort Castle, Beluly, Inverness, N B Dickson, J., Arklton, Langholm, Dumfries -shire. D'Urban, W. S. M., Exeter. Dunn, Malcolm, Dalkeith Gardens, Dalkeith, N. B. ^'"'"'shSe'^ ■ ^^^''''' ^'''*^' ^°'^^^' ^^^tlemilk, Locherbie, Dumfries- FiTCH, E. A., Brick House, Maldon, Essex. FiTTON, S., Cheerbrook, near Nantwich, Cheshire. Forbes, Alex., The Gardens, Skibo Castle, Dornoch, Caithness. Grierson, Charles, Torloisk, Tobermory, Isle of Mull, N. B. Hart, Thos., Park Farm, Kingsnorth, Kent. Kay, James, Baroiie Cottage, Bute Estates, Rothesay, Bute, N. B. LoNEY, Peter, Marchmont, Dunse, Berwickshire. Long, James, Old Field, Ilenlow, Biggleswade. McCoRQuoDALE, Wm., Jeauic Bank, Scone, Perth, N. B. ^^'■"^OrSv n'T"' ^^'^ Gardens, Balfour Castle,* Kirkwall, M'Gregor, John, Ladywell, Dunkeld, Perthshire. M'liENziE, D. F., Chapel House, Murthly Castle, Perth, N.B. 400 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS. ^'^FifcIiiiSr''" ^^^ ^*^'<^^n^' Kilconqubar House, Kiloonquhar, M'Laren, John, Hopefcown, South Queensferry, West Lothian Mathison, John, Addington, Whislow, Bucks. ^^""TudshSe ^^^ ^^'^^^^' Duurobiu Castle, Golspies, Suthei- NoRGATE, Fbank, Sparhatu, Reepham, near Norwich. Parfitt, Edw., Exeter. Robertson, W. W., Blinkbonny, Earl'^^cn, Berwic'.shire. Russell, James, Poltallock, Lochg: . Argyleshire. Scott, D., The Gardens, Darnaway v . ; «, Forres, Morayshire. Scott, D. Sym, The Glen, Ballinacourte, Tipperary, Ireland. bERvicE, RoBT., Carberry Nurseries, Maxwolltown, Dumfries N B Shipman, W., West Ham, Essex. * * Shearer, Alex., Yester, Haddingtonshire. Simpson, A., The Gardens, Brahan Castle, Dingwall, N B Sutherland, John, Langwell, Berridale, Caithness. Webster J., The Gardens, Gordon Castle, Fochabers, Banffshire Wilkie, Thomas, Ardkinglas, Cairndow, Argyleshire. Whitehead, Charles, Barming House, near Maidstone. Whitton, J. W., Coltness, Wishaw, Lanarkshire. Upton, .John, The Gardens, Sedbury Park, Chepstow. TheiuitialsJ. C. ; J. F. S.: J. 0. W. • Th H onrl P t ti r respectively to information o^ quotaL' from^j;>hS'ctd;'i;S in Ins 'Farm Lisects ' ; James Francis Stephens h' iff of Bnt. Entomology ' ; Prof. J. o. Westwood in ' Classification nf Insects' or other works; Dr. E. L. TaschenWg S 'prakt'sche HoT'X?n''r;ir^^^^^^ '^- llattwespen und tioizwespen. i^ ull references are given to the chief ouotation^ but to others of just a few words or lines initials onl7aLrmeime3 appended to own acknowledgment.— (E. A. 0.) sometimes INDEX. Abraxas grossulariata, 311 Acherontia atropos, 172 Agriotes, 109 (see Elater) Agrotis exclamationis, 199 segetum, 199 Aleyrodes chelidonii, 33 proletella, 33 American Blight, 279—284; method of injury of, 280; applications of tobacco water ; soft-soap and lime M^ash ; greasy matters, &c., to desti '', 282, 283 ; "Burford's soft-soap iuidsulphm- compound," 283 ; at roots of Apple ti-ees, 284 ; list of applications used to des- troy, 284 Ammonia, sulphate of, 54, 103 Ammoniacal liejuor, 283 Anbury, 38 Anguilluliduj, 51, 99, 104 Anisopteryx ffiscuUiria, 335 Antler Moth, 58— Gl ; area of ap- pearance of in Glamorganshire in 1884, and in Selkirkshire, N.B. in 1885, 59; map of attacked area in Glamorganshire, 69 ; other great attacks noted, 61 Anthomyia (Chortophila) betaj, 144 • brassicae, 25, 26 ■ — ceparum, 157 • — tic ralis, 25 ■ — - platura, 157 radicum, 25 — 28 tuberosa, 28 Anthonomus pomormn, 300 Aphelenchus avonae (fig.), 53 Aphides, washes to destroy should be adhesive, 178; recipes for soft-soap washes, 178, 179 ; mul- tiply most quickly in dry weather. Aphis (Chermes) abietis, 267 avenae, 01 brassicae, 16 Aphis (Siphonophora) granaria, 61 (Phorodon) humuli, 119 (Schizoneura) lanigera, 279 (ChcrmeK) laricis, 220 mali, 284 pruni, 327 (Rhopalosiplinm) rapae, 177 rumicip, 3 Aphaniptera (Order), 393 Apion apricans, 55 assimile, 55 flavifemoratum, 55 Apple, 279—302 Aphis (Green Fly), 284— 28G ; kerosene and soap mixture, to destroy, 348 Aphis, Woolly, 279 bark Beetle, 330 blossom Weevil, 300—302 Moths, 287—297 Scale, 297—300 Arions or Black Slugs, 174, 175 Arkwright, Mi-. J. H., of Hampton Court, Leominster, reference to reports furnished by him in 1881 on Turnip Flea Beetle, 192 Arsenite of copper, see Paris-green, 354 Ash, 209—211 Ash-bark Beetle, 209—211 Asparagus, 1 — 3 Beetle, 1—3; 13-spot- ted, 2 Aspidiotus conchiforiuis, 297 Athaha centifoliae, 194 spinarum, 194 Athous ruficaudis, 111 Axle or railway grease, 344 B. Balaninus nucum, 318 Banding trees, method recommen- ded by Mr. Frazer S. Crawford, 288 Bark, injured by tar in banding, 343 2d 402 INDEX. I Bean, 8—11 • Aphis (" Colliers "), 3—5 ; cutting oif tops of Beans to des- troy, 4 -seed Beetle, 5—9 ; remedies for : (lipping in boiling water, 8 ; dressings for infested seed, 7 ; exposure to fiimes of bisulphide of carbon, 8; soaking in water, 7 Bee Tiger Moth, 173 Beet, 11—16 Carrion Beetle, 11—10 ; not known to affect other crops than Beet or Mangolds, 14 Birch, Gall Mite, 212—215 Witch-knots, 212— 215 ; for- mation of, 213, 214 Birds stated to be useful in clearing insects from Apple trees, 28(5 Blister or Blight of Larcli, 224 — 226 Blue -head Caterpillar, 290 (see Figure-of-8 Moth) Bombyx (Gasteropacha) neustria, 292 Bos, Dr. J. Ritzema, on Tylenchus devastatrix, 52, 100 Bostrichus dispar, 330 Bruchus granarius, 5 rufimanus, 5 Buckton, G. B., first observation of male of Chermes abietis by, 269 Buff-tip Moth, 226—229 ; to shake down caterpillars of, 228 Burford's soft-soap and sulphur compound, 283 Burning straw or haulm to destroy infestation, 154, 164 ; to stf o insects iu transit, 155 0. Cabbage, 16—38 Aphis or Green Fly, 10— 18; effect of state of plant on, 17, 18; to destroy, 17; soft-soap and quassia wash, 17 ; soot, 18 — — --; — Butterfly, Green - veined White, 23—25 — — Butterfly, Large White, 18—22 ; chrysalids of not killed by severe cold, 22; Ichneumon rly parasites of, 22 ———-Butterfly, Small White, ^2, 23 — ~ Butterflies, distinctions between above kinds of, 24, 25 Flies, 25—28 Cabbage, Club in, 88 Moth, 28—31 ; lime and gas-lime as remedies for, 80; chrysalids not killed by frost, ;jO Snowy Fly, 38, 84 and Turnip-Gall Weevil, 35 — 88; gas-lime as preventive for, 37, 38 and Turnip-root maggots, 26 — 28 ; attack of increased by use of rank farm manure, 26; lessened by use of lime, lime- water, gas-lime, and also nitrate of soda, 27 ; by proper rotation of crop, 28 Carpocapsa pomonella, 286 Carrot, 38—48 — Fly (" Bust "), 38—45 ; ap- plications to prevent or check attack, 42—44 ; cultivation, mea- sures of, to prevent, 39 — 43 — ; Moth, Blossom, 47; shak- ing down as a remedy for, 47 — ; Moth, Flat-body, 45 ; shak- ing down as a remedy for, 46 Moth, Purple-seed, 48 Cart grease, application of, 843 ; various recipes for, 844 Caterpillars, effect of sudden wet on, 21; effect of cold and wet alternately on, 205 Cecidomyia destructor, 79 tritici, 89 Celery and Parsnip Fly, 48—51; dressings to check, 60 Cephus pygmseus, 94 Cerostoma xylostella, 192 Cerura vinula, 265 Cetoiiia aurata, 865 Ceutorhynchus assimilis, 156 sulcicoUis, 85 Chafer, Green Rose, 865—367 ChiEtocnema concinna, 130 Charaeas graminis, 58 Cheimatobia brumata, 338—360 Chermes abietis, 267 ■ laricis, 220 Chlorops taeniopus, 75 Chrysalis, 378 Click Beetles, 109 (see Wireworms) Chsiocampa neustria, 292 Clover, 51—57 Stem Eelworm, 61—55 ; can be transported in earth, 55 Stem-sickness caused by, 5i,, 53 ; eliemieal applications to prevent or check, 54; prevention and remedy, 54, 55 INDEX. 403 Clover 1 aar-shaped Weevils, 65— 57 Club, 88 Coccinellida?, 126 Cockchafer Beetle, 229—232 ; to beat lown, 230 ; grubs hurtful to roots of trees, 231; birds that feed on the j^rubs, 231, 232 Codlin Moth, 286—290 ; means of prevention by scraping trees, 288; and by washing with soft-soap washes and mixtures, 288; by bandir:g the trees, also by re- moving infested fruit, disinfect- ing fruit-cases, &c., 289 ; spraying with soft-soap and sulphur, 280 Cold, ordinarily severe, cannot be reckoned on to kill chrysalids, 22; chrysalids not apparently killed by, 80; non-effect of on Daddy Longlegs grubs, 71 Cc'^^optera (Order) definition of, 381 Colorado Beetle, 109—171 ; penalty for keeping or distributing live specimens of, 170 Copper, arsenite of, see Paris-green, 854 ^ Corn and Grass, 58 — 118 Aphis, or "Plant-louse," 61— 64; observed as hybernating in other than egg-state in U.S.A. Sawfly, 94—96 ; measures of prevention by collecting and des- troying infested stubble, 96 Thrips, 97—99 Cosmia trapezina, 241 Cossus ligniperda, 232 Crane-flies, 65 (see Daddy Long- legs) Crawford, Frazer S., on methods of prevention of Codlin Moth attack, 288, 289 Crioceris asparagi, 1 Cuckoo destroys hairy caterpillars, CuckooFly (Hop),126— 128; caught by tarred boards, or trays, 128 Curculio nucum, 818 Currant, 302—310 • Gall Mite, 302—306 • White Woolly Scale, 306 —310 Cynips koUari, 235 Daddy Longlegs, 65—72 ; measures to prevent eggs being laid, 66; to destroy egg or grub, 67; to check attack when present, as rolling, 69 ; effect of different weight of pressure, 69 ; hoeing, 70; manurial applications: guano, and mixtures of guano with salt, &c., 70 ; nitrate of soda with notes of special effects on grubs, 71; cold, non-effect of, 71; im- morsion, power of bearing, 72; want of food, power of bearing, 72 i>avid8on's composition, original form of where procurable, 264 Death's-Head Moth, 172, 178 Do Man, Dr., on Tylenchus devas- tatrix, 53, 100 Depressaria cicutella, 45 '■■ daucella, 47 ■ depressella, 48 Devonshire Gall, 236 Diamond-back Moth, 192 — 194; remedy for attack of caterpillars of, 194 Dicranura vinula, 265 Diloba cseruleocephala, 290 Dilophus febrilis, 129 Diptera (Order), 394 Doryphora decemlineata, 169 Dun-bar Moth, caterpillars carni- vorous, 241 E. Ear-cockles, 104 Eelworms, 51—55, 99—105 Elater (Agi-iotes) lineatus, 109 (Agriotes) obscurus, 109 (Agriotes) sputator, 109 (Athous)ruficaudi8=hiEmor- rhoidalis, 109 distinctions between above species. 111 Elm, 216—220 bark Beetle, 216—220 ; treat- ment of bark to check attack of, 218,219; importance of removal of infested trees or branches, and especially felled trunks, 219, 220 Emerald -green, see Paris -green, 354 Emulsions, 847 (see "soft-soap," and also soap washes) Entomology, Introduction to, 373— 396 Euacanthus interrnptns, 126 Euplexoptera (Order), 382 Eupteryx solani, 171 EveshamExperimentalCommittee, m INDEX. y^O ; work uiul reports of, regard- ing caterpillar destruction, 857 — 339 ; proportions of I'aris-greon • found servioeablc for Rpraying ■ with, by mornburs and others" 857, 858 Evesham Moth, 888 (seo Winter Moth) Experimental Committee (Eves- ham), 856 F. False Ergot, 104 Felled wood, attracts inpcet-attack, 211 ; importance of removal of when infested, '220, 246 Fever Fly (Hop), 120, 130; remark- able appearances of, 129 Figuro-of-H Moth, 200—202 ; to catcii by means of lamps, 291 Finger-and-Too, 88 Flax-seeds (Hessian Fly chrysalis cases), to destroy in screening from infested straw, 85 Flep TBeetle, Brassy (Hop), 180— ]S2 Frit Fly, 72—76 ; attack as recorded M-orst in 1888; early sowing a preventive, 74 Frog Fly, Hop, 126 ■ Potato, 171 Or. Gall Mite, Currant, 302—306 ; sul- phur and lime mixture to destroy ; also sulphuret of lime, and soft- soap mixture, 806 ; similar attack found (in one German garden) on Red Currants, 305 Galls, Spruce Fir, 267 Gas-lime, as a remedial or preven- tive apphcation, 37, 43, 112, 114, 117, 316; directions for use of, 37, 38, 117, 118; Mr. Fisher Hobbs' mixture of, 190 ; poisons land where heaps remain for a length of time, 27 Gas-wnter, mixture of with sulphur and soft-soap, 141 Gasteropacha neustria, 292 Glossary, 397, 398 Goat Moth, 232—235 ; caterpillars desh-oyed by passing wire up tunnels, 234 ; by injecting washes or fumes, 236 Gooseberry, 310 — 317 • —-■ and Currant Moth, 310 (Phyllotreta) undulata, Gooseberry and Currant Sawfly, 818 Gout Fly (Ribbon-footed Corn Fly), 75—79; why name of Gout given to attack, 76; early sowing a preventive to attack, 77, 78 Grapholitlia pisana, 168 (Jreaso-banding, 348—847; recipes for different kinds of grease, 844; methods of application, 846, 846 Grease-proof paper, 346 Great Yellow Underwing Moth, 31 — 88 Guano, and guano and salt, 70 ; with superphosphate, and with soot, 115 H. Ilaltica (Chtetoenema) concinna, 130 (Phyllotreta) nemorum, 181 Hand-picking as a remedy, 20, 204, 231 Harrow'ng,todestroySurfaceCater- piUars, 204 Heart and Dart Moth, 199 (see Surface Caterpillars) Hemiptera (Order), see note to Homoptera, 391 Hopialus lupulinus, 9 ; — humuli, 132 Herpiu, M., on means of prevention of Clover Weevils, .57 Hessian Fly, 79—89 ; first obser- vation of in Britain, 79, 80; localities or amount of presence of in 1886, 1887, 1888, and 1889, 80, 81 ; method of distinguishing badly attacked straw, 82 ; flax- seed like shape of puparia or chrysalis cases, 83 ; appearance of young infested Wheat plant, 84 ; means of prevention by des- troying " siftings" or light grain contannng flax-seeds with other rubbish, 85 ; burning infested stubbles, 86 : kinds of wild Grasses subject to attack of, 87 ; parasites of Hessian Fly, 88 Ileteroptera (Order), 392 Hobbs', Fisher, mixture for stopping Turnip Fly attack, 14, 190 Hoeing, 117, 118, 206 Homoptera (Order), 391 INDEX. 406 Hop, 119—144 -Aphis, 119—126; miKrati..n of bptwoen pliuitH of riuiii triho andllop, .1'2(), 121; pamflin oil with ashes, &c., as a preventive of attack, 123 ; washes, soft-soap mixtures, 124, 125 Wiroworm, 142—144; to trap, 142 ; treatment of hind to prevent, 143 ; use of paraffin and sand to prevent, 144; Kape-dust to attract, 144 Ilybernia defoliaria, 380 Hylemyia coarctata, 100 Hylesinus fraxini, 209 Hylohius abietis, 200 Hylurgns piniperda, 242 Hymenoptora (Order), 380 Hypena rostralis, 134 Hyi)onomeuta padelhis, 295 variabilis, 295 I. Iniapro, observations on, 375 Ichneimion-flies, 22 Insects, classification of, 380 ; des- criptions of different stages of, 875 — 380 ; scientific names of those noticed in work, 309—371 J. Jarring, to throw down caterpillars, 21, 47, 135, 228, 253, 294, 351 ; to throw down beetles, 304 Julidoe, 147 Julus guttatus=pulchellug, 148 londinonsis, 148 terrestris, 148 ; apparent power of migration of, 151 K. Knapsack pump (used at Toddin^^- ^ ton), 300 Kuhn, Dr. Julius, on prevention of ytem Eelworm, 101 Kurrachee-cake, 110 L. Lackey Moth, 292—295 ; web-nests of, to destroy, 293, 294 Ladybird Beetles, destructive to Hop Aphides, 126 Land, treatment of for Turnips. 184 —187 . Larch, 220 —220 — Aphis, 220— 220; propagates by oggs, 221 ; washes to destroy, 222, 223 ; effect of frost on. 22;j ; effect of health of tree on, 224 ; " Blister " or "Blight" of Larch, 224—220 Larva, observations on, 375 — 377 Lopidoptera (Order), 388-390 Lunax agrestis, or Field Slug, Lime, 18, 20, 27, 112, 113; and paraffin (as remedy for Turnip Flea Beetle), 191, 222, 223 ; hot, to prevent Pino Weevil attack, 204 ; wash of, to destroy Woolly Currant Scale, 309 (see also Fisher Hobbs' mixture) sulphurei of, 139 -water, 27, 222; with sul- phur, tobacco-water and soft- soap, 299 ; with soft-soap, 820 Lnne-treo, 220—229; and Hop Red Spider, 140—142 Liquid manure, 161 Lophyrus pini, 250 rufus, 255 M. Magpie (Currant and Gooseberry) Moth, 310—313; "looper" ca- terpillar of (fig.), 310 Mamestra brassicte, 28 Mangold, or Beet Fly, 144_]47 ; first recorded attacks of in Eng- land, 145 ; salt as preventive, also superphosphate, 146 Mangolds, 144—151; sliced, good trap for Spotted Millepede, 150 Mfuble-Gall Fly, 235—237 March Moth, 335, 3?6 Moade, R. H., description of C. destructor by, referred to, 83 ; of Hylemyia coarctata, 107 Mehgethes asneus, 155 Melolontha vulgaris, 229 Mercury, wash of perchloride of, Merisus intermedins and other British parasites of Hessian Fly, 88 Microgaster glomeratus, 22 ^Millepedes, Flattened, 147—149 - _ Snake, 147—151 ; ni- trate of soda, or salt in strong solution fatal to " Spotted" Snake Millepede, 150; Cottoa-cake at- 406 IKDEX. tractive to, also Mangolds attrac- tive to, 15U; also bone refuse, 160; power of migration of one species, ICl Mineral oil and soft-soap, or com- mon Roap mixtures, or washes, Ml—Md (see also paraffin and soft-soap and soap washes) Mottled Umber Moth, 886—888; " looper " caterpillar of, figured, 886 ' o < Mussel Scale, 297 (see Scale, Mus- sel) Mustard, 151—156 Beetle, 151—156 ; first remarkable appearance of, 152 ; identification of larva, 152 ; where spring attack comes from, 152 ; burning straw of, to destroy, 158, 154,— to check advance of, 166 ; jarring or shaking down, 154 ; ploughing in, 155 Mytilaspis pomorum, 297 N.' Nematus ribesii, 818 Neuroptera (Order), 884, 385 Neuropterus lenticularis, 237 Niggers ("Blacks" or "Black Palmers "), 194 Nitrate of soda, 27 ; effect of, on Daddy Longlegs grubs, 71, 116, 147, 150 Noctua (Triphsena) pronuba, 81 Nut, 318—320 Weevil, 318—820 0. Oak, 229—242 Leaf-roller Moth, 288—241 ; birds which destroy caterpillar, 289; "washing" with water to destroy, 240; effect of weather on, 241 ; carnivorous caterpillars, 241 Odyneri, 46 Onion, 157—162 Fly, 157—162 ; different species of, 157, 158; trenching to prevent attack of, 158, 159; earthing up bulbs, 159 ; clearing infested bulbs, 160; fluid appli- cations to check, 161 ; dry dress- ings to check, 161 Orthoptera (Order), 382—884 OrthotBBnia turionana, 246 Oscinis frit (? vastator, Curtis), 72 Otiorhynchus picipes, 861, 862 sulcatuH, 361, 862 tenebricosus, 802 Otter Moth, 182—184 P. I araffin oil, mixtiuro to chock Carrot Fly attack, 48 ; with ashes, Ac, as preventive for Hop Fly, 128 ; with soft-soap, as a wash, 125 ; with sand, as a preventive for Hop Wireworra, &c., 144, 161; and lime, 191 (to destroy Turnip Fly) ; dilute, 222 ; " emulsions " and washes of, or other mineral oils, with soap, 847—849; and red-lead, to paint stems of young trees with, 264 Paring and burning, 68, 114, 148 Pans-green, 852—860; proportion recommended for use in spraying caterpillars, 352—854, 857—869; spraying apparatus, 864, 859 ; method of distributing spray, 868 ; nature of, 864, 866 ; cautions to be observed in use of, 855 ; fatal effect of great carelessness, 865 ; cost of "green," 856; spray to check Codlin Moth, 289; method of use recommended by Prof. Webster, 289, 290; spraying with, to destroy Willow Beetle, 274 ; proportions and cautions as to method of using, also desir- ableness of procuring the powder damped, 275, 276 Parsnip, 162 (see, for attacks. Carrot and Parsnip ; and Celery and Parsnip insects) Pea Moth, 163, 164 - and Clover Weevils, 164—169 ; description of larvas, 166; numbers can be destroyed at harvest time, 167; on surface of snow amongst stubble, 167; seen feeding at night, as well as by day, 169 Pear, 320—327 Moths, 320—323 (see Va- pourer and Wood Leopard Moths) and Cherry Sawfly, 824 " Slug-worm," 324 Peas, 168—169 Phorbia cepetorum, 157 Phorodon humuli, 119 Phratora vitellin£e, 270 INDEX. 407 Phytoptus (? ap.), on Birch, 212 ribis, «02 Pleris brassicfiD, 18 napi, 2;} — ; — rapte, 22 Piffa, useful to clear gruba in land, 205, useful to clear Cockchafer grubs, 281 Pine, 242—265 Beetle, 242—246 ; method of of tunnellinpof, under bark,248,— in shoots, 244 ; removal of Pine rubbish to check increase of, 245 240 ; traps for, 246 Sawfly, 260—255 Sirex, Giant, 256—258 Sirex, Steel Blue, or Common , 258—260 bud Tortrix Moth, 246—248 shoot Tortrix Moth, 248, 24<) Weevil, 260—265 ; methods of prevention of attack of, by de- stroying infested timber, and by traps of logs, bark, and brusli, 262 ; by treatment of land before planting, 263; by throwing quick- lime, 264 ; by painting with paraffin and red-lead, 264; by care in putting-in young trees, 265 Plasmodiophora brassicie, 38 Plectus granulosus (fig.) 53 Plum, 827—360 Aphis (Green Fly), 327— 880 ; soft-soap washes with quassia, or with paraffin oil to destroy, 329 Beetle (Shot Borer), 830— 834 ■— T- Moths, 335—360 (see March, Mottled Umber, and Winter Moths) Ploughing in infested crop, 155 Plusia gamma, 14 Plutella cruciferarum, 192 Potash, sulphate of, 64, 103 Potatoes, 169—173 Polydesmus coraplanatus, 147 Poplar, 265—267 Psila rosffi, 38 Pteromalus brassicfe, 22 Pulvinaria ribesite, 306 Pupa, observations on, 375 — 378 Puss Moth, 265-267; pecuHarly formed caterpillar of, figured and described, 285, 266 ; position of cocoon of, 267 Pyralis rostralis, 134 Q. Quossia and soft-soap washes, 124, 829 ; also with paraffin oil, 329 B. Rape-cake, 116 ; Rapo-dust to at- tract Hop Wireworm, 144 seed Butterflv, 23 Raspberry, 861—365 Red Spider, 135—142; prevalent in dry seasons, 137 ; washes to destroy, 138, 139; sulphur and soft-soap applications, 189 ; to render sulphur soluble, 189 ; huL phuret of lime, 189 of Lime-trees, 140 — 142 Rotinia buoliana, 248 turionaiia, 246 Ribbon-footed Corn Fly, 76 (see also Gout Fly) Rolling, to destroy grubs, 09; as remedy for Wireworm aitack,116. 117 Rubbish, removal of, for prevention of insect presence, 20, 115, 245 Rubbish-heap,infe8tedplantsshould not be thrown to, 87, 50 Rust, 88—46 S. Salt, 70; non-effect of on Daddy Longlegs grubs, 70, 112, 113, 140, 150 ' » . Saunders' Prof. W., wash of soft- soap and soda, 334 Sawfly, Gooseberry and Currant, 313 — 817 ; removal of soil contain- ing cocoons, beneath bushes, 315 ; dressings of gas-lime and quick- lime to prevent, 316 ; hand-pick- mg, 317; soap-suds with salt, and soot, and also dustinj; with soot, 317 Pear and Cherry, 324 327; caterpillars of called "Slu"- worms," 324 ; moulting off of dressings by, to obviate, 326 ; skimmmg surface soil to get rid of cocoons, and description of cocoons, 326, 327 Pine, 250—255; clearing away cocoons to prevent increaso of, 252 ; crushing caterpillars with the hand, 253 ; effect of weather on, 256 ; birds which feed on, 266 408 INDEX. Sawfly, Tiirnip, 194—199 ; great appearance of, 195 ; sheep-driving to destroy caterpillars of, 198 Scale, Mussel, 297—300; wide dis- tribution of, 207; soap lathers for use in clearing, 299 ; sulphur, tobacco, lime-water and soft-soap ■ washes, to kill, 299 ■ White Woolly Currant, 306— 810; first record of British ob- servations, 306; description of, 307; localities of observations of, 308; lime-wash to destrov, 309 Schizoneura lanigera, 279 Schweinfiu-th ■ green, see Paris - green, 354 Scolytus destruetor, 216 Segging, see Tulip-root Selandria atra, 324 Sewage carbolic, Calvert's, 7 McDougall's, 7 Shaking or jarring to tlirow down caterpillars, 21, 40, 47, 135, 228, 253, 294 Shallot Fly, 156 Shearer's, Alex., recipe for soft-soap and paraffin oil wash, 178, 179 Sheep-driving to check attack of Turnip Flea Beetle, 180, 190 ; of Turnip Sawlly, 198 ; treading by, to destroy infestation in ground, 112 ; to compress the land, 117 Shot Borer Beetle, 330—334 ; first , recorded as seriously injurious in England, 331 ; difference in size of male and female beetles, 331 ; method of larval feeding, 333; trees attacked by it, 333 ; methods of prevention by soft-soap and soda wash, " Saunders' wash," also by trap-wood, 334 Silpha opaca, 11 Silvertop, 99 Silver Y Moth, 14—10 ; special appearances of, 15 Siphonophora granaria, 61 Sirex, Giant, 250—258 Steel Blue, or Connnon, 258—260 ; variable size of, 259 ; estimate of damage from grubs of, 259 gigas, 256 juvencvis, 258 Sitones crinitus, 166 lineatus; 164, 165 Skim-conltcr, ploughing with bury infestation, C4, 80, 92 to Skimming surface-soil to destroy, chrysalids, 350 Slugs, 174 — 177 ; successive acrid dressings to destroy, 175, 176 Slug- worm caterpillars, 324 Small Ermine Moth, 295—297 ; . web-nests of, to destroy, 296 ; to wash down with water, 296 Snout Moth (Hop- vine), 134, 135 .. Soap-suds, 161 ; with salt, soda, and soot, 317 Soap and kerosene mixtiu-es, 348 Soft-soap washes, with mineral oil, 348, 349; with paraffin, 125, 178, 179 ; with quassia, 17, 124, 138, 329; with sulphur an'' -'as-water, 141 ; with sulphur, ume-water, and tobacco, 299 ; with tobacco and sulphur, 299 ; with tobacco or bitter aloes, 124 ; and paraflin oil (Shearer's recipe), 178; and soda (" Saunder's wash "), 334 ; and sulphur (Burford's com- pound), 283 Soot, 18, 20, 50, 115, 194, 317 dusting with to kill cater- pillar?., 317 Spangle Gall, Common, 237, 238 Spinning Mites, 135 Spraying apparatus, " Eclair," 360 Spruce Fir, 267—270 -Gall Aphis, 267—270 ; life- history of, 268 ; first observation of male of, by Mr. G. B. Buckton, 269; methods of prevention of, 270 Strawberry, 365—367 Strepsiptera (Order), 388 — Sulphate of iron, 54 of lime, 118 Sulphide of lime, 118 Sulphur, with clay, to paint bark, 299 ; to combine with fluids, 139 ; fumes of, to destroy caterpillars in their tunnels, 235 ; and lime mixture, 305 ; with quick-lime and lamp-black, 282 ; with soft- soap and gas-water, 141 ; with soft-soap and tobacco, 299 ; with soft-soap, tobacco, and lime- water, 299; and soft-soap (Bur- ford's compound), 283 Sulphuret of lime, 139 ; with soft- soap as a wash, 305 Superphosphate n5, 116, 146, 147 Surface Caterpilia .., 199—205; dry api...icatious which fail to kill, 203 ; salt possibly serviceable . INDEX. 409 soft- 203; hand-pickinf]: a successful remedy, 204 ; harrowing also serviceable, 201 ; pigs useful to destroy, 205 -soil, removal of, to get rid of Sawfly caterpillars or cocoons, ^ 252, 315, 310, 320 Sweeping with boughs on scufflers to dislodge caterpillars, 198 Swift Moth, Small or Garden, 9—11 T. Tar injurious to bark, 343 ; to check advance of beetles, 155 Tarred boards to catcli insects in large numbers, 128 ; to beat caterpillars on to, 317 ; to shake beetles on to, 364 Taschenberg, Dr. E. L., on Apion apricans, 56 Tenthredo cerasi, 324 Tephritis onopordinis, 48 Tetranychus telarius, 135 tiliarum, 140 Thomas, Dr. C, on Corn Aphis, 64 Thrips cerealiuui, 97 physapus, 97 Thysanoptera (Order), 384 Timber, infested, to destroy, 257, 262 Tipula oleracea, 65 Titmice destroy Aphides, 180 Titmouse, Black-headed, and Blue- headed, destroy Marble - Gall maggots, 237 Tobacco, with soft-soap wash, 124 ; liquor, 223; with soft-soap and sulphur, 299 Tortvix viridana, 238 Traps of logs, bark, and bnish-wood, to attract timber beetles, 246, 262, 334 Trenching, or burying down, to des- troy caterpillars or insect infes- tation in the ground, 31, 49, 143, 158,291 Trichoptera (Order), 385 Trypeta onopordinis, 48 Tuhp-root, 99—103 ; description of, 100; caused by Tylenchi.s devastatrix, 100 ; deep ploughing as a remedy for, 101 ; infestation spread in earth from infested fields, 101 ; crops subject to in- festation, 102; chemical applica- tions found useful as remedies for, 102, 103 Turf-heaps, to kill insects in, 118 Turnips, 177—205 Turnip Aphis, 177—180 (for washes to destroy, see " Aphides ") blossom Beetle, 156 Flea Beetle or Fly, 180— 192; statistics of loss from in 18HL 182, 183; weeds fioin wliich tins infestation spreads, 184 ; methods oF cultivation and treat- ment of ground to prevent attack, 184—187 ; thick sowing, 187 ; rolling, sheep-driving, &c., to cheek attack, 189, 190; reports of Mr. J. H. Arkwright on Flea Beetle referred to, 192 Gall Weevil, see Cabbage and Turnip-Gall Weevil, 35 or Dart Moth, 199 " Surface Caterpillars") Sawtly, 194—199 seed Weevil, 156 (see Tylenchus devastatrix, 51, 99 — obtusus (tig.), 53 tritici, 104 V. Vapourer Moth (Common), 322. 323 Voelcker, Dr. Augustus, directions by, for use of gas-lime, 37 W. Wasps, Solitary, 46 Water, applied tlu'ough a hose to destroy caterpillars, 296 Web-nests of caterpillars, to destroy 293,294; with chrysalids, 296 Webster, I'rof. F. M., method of use of Paris-green to remedy Codliu Moth attack, 289 Weevil, Apple-blossom, 300—302 Bean-seed, 5 — 9 Bean, Clover and Pea, 164 — 169 Cabbage and Turnip-Gall, do — 38 Clay-coloured (and Vine), 365 Clover (Pear-shaped), 55— 361 57 Nut, 318—320 Pine, 260—265 Bed-logged, 302 Turnip-soed, 156 Vine, 361—365 2k 410 INDEX. Wet, Hudden effect of on caterpillars, 1^7? ' ^^^''^ °^ ^^* "•""1 cold, 255 Wheat, Ear-cockles, or Eelworm Galls, 104, 105; method of for- mation of, 104, 105 ; prevention of by steeps, 105 • — — -bulb Fly, 106—109 ; area ot bad attack in 1888, 107 ; specially observed as attackiner Wheat after fallow, 108 -— — Midge, 89—94; observa- tions of by Mr. Russell Swanwick. 90, 91 ; (? C. tritici) in Foxtaii Orrass, 91,92; prevention by de- stroying chaff or screenings in- fested by " Red Maggot," 92, 93 ; by ploixghing infestation under, White-eared Wheat (? caused by Thrips), 99 "^ Willow, 270—276 — - Beetle,270— 276; estimate oi loss through attack of, 272 ; prevention of, by removing winter shelters of, 272; and trapping, 273; shaking off into paraffin oii, 273; by spraying with Paris- green, 274 ; cautions and direc- tions as to method of use of Paris- green, 275, 276 Wireworms, 109—118 ; grubs of the Click Beetle, 109; age they live to, 110; distinctions between different kinds of Click Beetles, 111 ; preventive treatment in breaking up ley, and dressing •with gas-hme, hot-lime, salt, &c., 112, 113; with gas-lime, 114; paring and burning, 114; manures to press on growth, 115, 116; Eape-cake, 110 ; rolling, treading by sheep, &c., 116, 117; hoeing, 117 ; rotation of crop, 118 ; turf- heaps to disinfest, 118 Wireworni (Hop), 142—144 Winter Moth, 338—360; description of eggs of, 339, 340; methods of prevention of attack of by sticky banding, 343—347; recipes for cart or axle grease, 344; method ot apphcation, 345, 346 ; grease- proof paper, 345; soft-soap or common soap, and mineral oil washes or emulsions, 347—349 • transportation of female by winged male moths, 849 ; skim- ming off snrface-soil to destroy chrysahds, likewise late pruning to clear egg-deposit, 349, 350; jarrmg to throwdown caterpillars, 3ol; Paris-green, 352—360; pro- portions of, and methods of spray- mg with, advised, 352—354. nature of and cautions to be ob- Iflfr'^^''^ «f' 354-356; cost ot, d3b , Evesham Experimental •VrT"^'.*^^^' '^"'■^ *"^ reports of, dob— 359 ; proportions of Paris- green iound serviceable by mem- bers of and others, 357 ; spraying apparatus used at Toddington, Wood Leopard Moth, 320—322 ; to destroy caterpillaivs of, by crushing them with wires, 321 ; by syring- ing or fumigating them in their burrows, 322 WooUy Aphis (Apple), see American J5iight, 279 X. Xyleborus dispar, 330 ~ Pyri, 330 T. Yponomeuta, see Hyponomeuta, 195 Z. Zeuzera aesculi, 320 WEST, NEWMAN & CO., PRINTERS, HATTON GARDEN, LO.^N, E.C. OTHER WORKS BY MISS ORM^ROD. A GUIDE TO METHODS OF INSECT LIFF • .. Prevention and Remedy of TMQ,=.nt r)7 ^T • ^^^ ^ AND price 2s. 6d. (This "ork contZ; fh«% '° ^J i l}istrated, crown 8vo on Australian Bu^Kr pjifeS'??^ Edition of Observations of print). ^ ^* ^urchasi), the Fust Edition being out EEPORTS OF OBSERVATION op INJURIOUS INSFPTQ Royal 8vo, lUustrated. For 1879 and 1 Rsn i o i, t:, . ^ -'^^• Special Report on WireworS iS SS' l^' ^^"S" ^°^ ^^^^ (^^'h 1884. (witl? Special R™ ?A WARilfFL^rtft^"? Hop Aphis); Special Report on Wahblf Vt ^,\. a -i o^Jh ..^ (^^*^^ Second with Special Report on wJrb^e pfv^^-' ^T'.^,°'^ ^^^Q, each EEPORTS for 1878^and ?881 arfout of prinr^' '" ''' '''^' ^^« THE HESSIAN FLY IN GREAT PiPTTATM ^ „ Illustrated; with Mean^ nf Pvn "T- ^ J^RITAIN. Fully WARBLE OR OX BOT VT.v i? (from ' Report on Injurious Insects f^issf f P ^^^^'^^ ^^P0^<= 28. 6d. per doz. ; 16s. per lOo! TmRD and Fnr U T^ ^•''°' P"«« ^d. ; Warble Fly (respectively fr^mRenortsii' ? ^P?"^^ ^"P and 1889), same p^rice. SZlpSS Be^SfsZt'TX^ '''' price 4d. Crown 8vo ' ^ "® ^^•' ^«^«ii>^ or Bot Flies! London : SIMPKIN MARSHALL, HAMILTON, KENT, & Co Ltd Stationers' Hall Court, -" ' '' E.C. Royal Agricultural Society of England. COLOURED DIAGRAMS OF INSFPTQ iMTTTT^r^. TO FARM CROPS, suitable fnv pi . ^"^S INJURIOUS by Miss E. A. Ormkr^^F R SiS'soc Tnf fr^'^^^^^- ^''^^^^ the Society. A ^mWo/SiSwrnJ J2^*'"^r ^"*°??«logist to bage Butterfly ; Turnip Fly or Fka Si?- iTf^p^^" ^7^^*^ ^ab- and Click Beetle; Hop Aphis or Green Flv ^.w^i^/ Wireworm LonglegsorCran^Fly^ In wiL stal^ wT/v,'''*^.u^^^^^^"^ 5 I^'^^Wy On paper, 5s.; for^each S-'rm ^T^ ''^^'^'^^*?,^' '^^P^'^^ention. varnished, 8s. ; for each Diagram, u! M. °"''*''^ °" ^^''^ ^^^'^ Procxirable from the Secretary, 12, Hanover Square, London. W.