IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

1.0

I.I

1.25

1^ illM

1^ IIIIIM

Hi

3.6 =

^ u&

|M
M

2.0

mm

U III 1.6

6"

7

^

/}.

%

•ss

'/

/«^

Photographic

Sciences

Corporation

23 WEST MAIN STREET

WEBSTER, NY. 14580

(716) 872-4503

<^

^?

r

1^

CIHM/ICMH

Microfiche

Series.

CIHM/ICMH
Collection de
microfiches.

Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / Institut canadien de microreproductions historiques

Technical and Bibliographic Notas/Notas techniques at bibliographiques

The Institute has attempted to obtain the best
original copy available for filnning. Features of this
copy which may be bibl'ographically unique,
which may alter any of the images in the
reproduction, or which may significantly change
the usual method of filming, are checked below.

L'Institut a microfilme le mellleur exemplaire
qu'il lui a ete possible de se procurer. Les details
de cet exemplaire qui sont peut-dtre uniques du
point de vue bibliographique, qui peuvent modifier
une image reproduite, ou qui peuvent exiger une
modification dans la m^thode ncrmale de filmage
sont indiqu^s ci-dessous.

n

Coloured covers/
Couverture de couleur

□ Coloured pages/
Pages de couleur

□

Covers damaged/
Couverture endommagde

D

Payes damaged/
Pages endommagdas

D

Covers restored and/or laminated/
Couverture restaurie at/ou peilicul^e

□ Pages restored a>id/or laminated/
Pages restaurdes et/ou pallicuiees

D

Cover title missing/

Le titre de couverture manque

I I P?ges discoloured, stained or foxed/
[JlJ Pages ddcolordes, tachet^es ou piquees

n

Coloured maps/

Cartes giographiques en couleur

Coloured ink (i.e. other than blue or black)/
Encre da couleur (i.e. autre qu» bleue ou noire)

Coloured plates and/or illustrations/
Planches et/ou illustrations en couleur

□ Pages detached/
Pages ddtacheas

I I Showthrough/
b^ Transparence

□ Quality of print varies/
Qualit^ indgale de I'lmi

mpression

D

Bound with other material/
Ralii avec d'autres documents

□ Includes supplementary material/
Comprend du materiel supplemantaire

D

n

Tight binding may causa shadows or distortion
along interior margin/

Lareliure serree peut causer de I'ombro ou de la
distorsion !« long de la marge interieure

Blank leaves added during restoration may
appear within the text. Whenever possible, these
have been omittnd from filming/
II se peut que certainos pages blanches ajout^es
lors d'une re*tauration apparaissent dans le texte,
mais, lorsque cela itait possible, cas pages n'ont
pas iti filmdes.

D
D

Only edition available/
Seule Edition disponible

Pages wholly or partially obscured by errata
slips, tissues, etc., have been refilmed to
ensure the best possible image/
Les pages totalement ou partiellement
obscurcies par un feuillet d'errata, une pelure,
etc., cnt iti film^es A nouveau de facon d
obtenir la meilleure image possible.

D

Additional comments;/
Commentaires suppldmentaires;

This item is filmed at the reduction ratio checked balow/

Ce document est film^ au taux d.j reduction indiqu^ ci-dessous.

10X

!4X

18X

22X

26X

30X

1

J

! ! !

!

1
1

12X

16X

20X

24X

28X

32X

Th« CQpy filmed hart has baan raproducad thanks
to tha ganarosity of:

Library of Parliament and the
National Library of Canada.

L'ifxamplttira filmi fut reproduit grica A
g^nirositi da:

La Bibliothdque du Parlement et la
Bibliothdque nationale du Canada.

Tha imagas appaaring hara ara tha bast quality
possibia considaring tha condition and iagibility
of tha original copy and in l<aaping with tha
filming contract specifications.

Laa imagaa suivantas ont tti raproduitas avac la
plus grand soin, compta tanu da la condition at
da la nattati da raxamplaira filmA, at sn
conforiTiivd avac las conditions du contrat da
filmaga.

Original copiaa in printed papar eovars ara filmed
beginning with tha front cover and ending on
tha last page with a printed or illustrated impres-
sion, or tha back cover when appropriate. All
other original copiaa are filmed beginning on the
first page with a printed or illustrated imprea-
silon, and ending on the laat page with a printed
or illuatratad impreaaion.

Laa axemplairee origineux dont la couverture an
papier eat imprimte sont flimte an commenqant
par Is premier plat at en terminant soit par la
darnidre page qui comporte une amprainte
d'lmpreesion ou d'lllustration, soit par le aacono
plat, saian le cas. Toua la* autraa axamplairas
origineux sont filmte en commenqant par la
premiere page qui comporte une empreinte
d'impreaaion ou d'iMustration at en terminant par
la darniire page qui comporte une telle
empreime.

The last racordad frame on each microflcha
shall contain the symbol —ifr^l meaning "CON-
TINUED"), or the symbol V (meaning "END"),
whichever applies.

Un dee symbolea suivants apparaitra sur la
demiAre image de cheque microfiche, selon le
gum: le symbols — «^ signifie "A SUIVRE", le
symboie V signifie "FIN".

Maps, plataa. charts, ate. may be filmed at
different reduction ratioa. Those too large to be
entirely included in one exposure are filmed
beginning in the upp^r left hand comer, left to
right and top to bottom, aa many framea aa
required. The following diagrama iiiuatrsta the
method:

Lee cartea. planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent dtre
filmte d das tau.-< do rMuction diff^rsnts.
Lorsqua le document est trop grand pour dtre
reproduit en un seui ciichA, ii est filmi A partir
de I'angle supArieur gauche, de gauche i droite.
et de haut en baa. an prenant le nombre
d'Imeges nteeasatra. Lea diagrammes suivants
illuatrent la m^thoda.

1

2

3

1

2

3

4

5

6

/

[From th*^ Canadian Recokd of Science, Vol. II., No. 2, April, 1886.]

Variation of "Water in Trees and Shrubs.

By D. p. Penhallow.

The amount of water wnich highly lignified plants con-
tain, particularly as influenced by season and condition of
growth, obviously boars a more or less important relation to
physiological processes incident to growth, and most conspic-
uously to thoso which embrace the movement of sap.
Studies relating to the mechanical movement of sap in early
spring, at once suggest the question as to how far this
is correlated to greater hydration of the tissues at the time
when this movement is strongest. It was with a view to
exhibiting this relation more clearly, that determinations of
moisture in a large number of woods, representing growth of
one and also of two years, collected at different seasons, wore
made by me in 1874.' The range of seasons was not as com-
plete as could have been desired, and no attempt was made Lo
formulate a ganeral law applicable to this question. With a
view to extension of data in this direction, I undertook
additional determinations in 1882. The ii.ial determinations
were made in most cases by Mr. W. E. Stone, then acting as
assistant. It is the object of the present paper to combine
all the results thus obtained, together with such other facts

' W, S, Clark ; Agrionltnrp. of Massachusetts, p. 289.

2 Varialion of Water in Trees.

as have come to hand, and to see how far they indicate a gen-
eral law.

Theoretical considerations lead us to infer that it there is
any variation at all, the hydration of the structure must he
crreatest during the period of active growth, and least during
the period of rest. How far this is supported by the facts,
will appear in the folloAving.

HYDRATION OF DEAD WOOD.

Incidentally to the main question, specimens of dead wood,
devoid of the bark, and representing an age of four to six or
eight years, were collected and the moisture determined.
While the branches were dead, none of them were in ad-
vanced stages of decay, so that the contained water could
not be regarded as that of active decomposition, but simply
that which would be readily retained in the lifeless, air-dried
substance as exposed on the tree. The results obtained from
fifteen species of trees showed an extreme variation of 0.4
per cent., the range being from 12.9 per cent to 19.0 per
cent, of water. The moan hydiation obtained from these
deteiminations, was 15.1 per cent. The results appear in
the following table : —

Hydeatiox of Dead Woods.
Determined at 100° C.

SPKCIES.

PER CENT. AVATEn.

A'^er sa( cliarinum • •

Amelanchier canadensis
Betulaalba

" exeelsa

" lenta

Carpinns aniericana

Castai'ea vesca

Cy (Ionia vulgaris

Cornns SBricoa

Finns stmbns ■

Pirns mains- •

Prnnns serotina

Qnerciusalba.

Tsuga canadensis

TJlnms americana

18.8

19.0

15.1

15.9

13.7

13.8

14.0

12.9

13.6

11.9

12.9

17.4

15.5

18.6

13.5

MEAN.

15.1

Variation of Water in Trees.

HYDRATION OP WOOD FROM LIVING TREES.

d

The specimens, upon which t lie principal facts of this? paper
are based, were collected as sections of living trees, repre-
senting on the one band, branches of two years growth, and
on the other, branches from two to four years old. For the
obvious reason that the bai-k could not be properly separated
from the wood with any degree of uniformity, it was left on in
every case, so that in all the determinations here given, the
results show the combined percentage of water In wood and
bark. Obviously, this gives a result v/hich differs materially
from that which would be obtained if bark and wood were
considered separately. Also, while ca: :. was taken not to col-
lect specimens in which the dead bark was strongly develop-
ed, thus securing as great uniformity as possible, the very
fact that the bark was present, as well as the certainty of its
being variable in structural character and thus also in hydra-
tion, as collected even from the same species at different sea^
sons, rendered variations in the results unavoidable. This
will doubtless appear upon examining individual cases, but
the error from this source is reduced in the aggre-
gate, so that the mean results, in view of all the precautions
taken, may doubtless be accepted as correct.

From an examination of the results that follow, it will

appear that, comparing the younger with the older wood, the

percentage of watei- is sometimes greater in one, sometimes

greater in the other, apparently conforming to structural

peculiarities of the species. The mean results, however,

show clearly what we might infer upon theoretical grounds,

viz., that in the youngest growth, as also in the sap wood,

the percentage of water is higher by two per cent, than in

the older growth whe)-e the heart-wood is in relative excess.

This is found to hold true in the mean results, not only for

each season, but also for all seasons; in the former case,

however, this difference shows a variation of from 0.8 per

cent, to 3.3 per cent, of water.

"

^ 'A.

U

w
o

bi

e
S3

>>
as

■<

m

■a

Variation of Water in Trees.

to

•a

l-I-H

O

2S

o

rHOJ

■^o5

«

S5

53 !5

to S3

00 O)

s

00

IS

o
5S

IS

o

^

w

a

3
o

^

3

H

-a

o
o

03

pq

a
o

|1

a"
CO a

O bD

BE

• «
■ p

0,0

Ml a

CO 60

O li

>«0»r-l

^

cq

>.

to
i-s

a ^

a2«-a

On

as
u
o

p

s
o

u

O

•c

'C

a

e3

s

S

.a

a

<
o

•<

<

<

"5:

68

II

CO

So

ea 3
£ ft

3 H

O

<!

01

■<

69
'A

M
o

p

B

•a

n

«

QQ
CO

5
J

bi

a

I

a

cS 3 3
to fc.-g

Variation of Water in Trees.

S

^^ ^r* ^* ^'

iccoi-o

0 3lr-i-*

s

irt -*" ■^ o

«0(Mao

90

o

^

IN— "-^

^Jl

CO ri si

2S

ciio

^

CI

§1

-5=1^

'J

03

o
1^

CO

o
o .

too
o o

ts i

g^ a
PhcoH

ao

00
ci

O-.-^QO

4i^

a
o

P3

s
."3 3

^ w ;

s ~« (

"3 "'

r^ -ft

■<£

3 S =»J
1 to M 3

3 en

"wo

2 o
5 c

'J 01

^ o ^ ^ tt

^ 3.,

UPh

s '-^

S .2

a
a

Si

O

O

o

!= O

^

•3 i5

5 ®

O 4> 3
3. =

O S v.

Ill

7.

a

7^

3

3

3

5!

•^

VJ

k

s
o

-3

S

.a

K
O

■<

o

t— (

OS

I

B

Scsg

=£|

^'■St3

3 -* "*

2 a^

C <3 N

Variation of Waiei' in Trees^.

u

Q

S3
i5

in

e
u

ca

Si

u

CO

•8

5

1^

CO

88

MS;

5v ^

Jg

t-

i

00

»
as

.a

13
o

o

1^

^iss

3

d

00^*00^

00

OS

0
O

a

ooo
55 C5

•tj

^&

ag£

a 05 a 3

rr, a o S

Ed

•<
E£

U

S
i-

n
c

a

n

S

o

65

55
C

'3
o

a

3
u

a

*S

•21

00

IrtI

s^

N

s

SSm^

^

03

3

a

"S-g • :3

. '- - 3 t-

ts-g.SM.S

Ed
O

0^

■32

C< 05

£3

a-

2

OS

Ed
O

Q
is

CO u

a
o

3

a

s*".

^«,l

ti In

^'^"^-

c:

I «

. - o eS

iisga

■"3 a 03

Pi

I

if

4

i

Variation of Wafer in Trees.

~. •eo'ca'. •Ciuiooioxiocv

1*

1;
J

C O C. W « ■««• I- rl M t- CI '^ "ft

"^ :: i !:■'•■* •''

« ; f

r^ '.'.'..'.'.'.'.'.'. '.l^

n ''•'■'•'•'•''•'•'• '■•^

■»•••; 1/5

t> : I 1 : : : . I ! t I ^

^ :;::;:: i ; M :
(M • I • • '• ! I '. : : : :
^ : : ; : ; : J • ; M i

1^ 'o-^dor-. !:Decwto?OiCc<o
00 •ooaj^i-^QO'cioeooo-soj

« ^•^tn

Sips

C5CU-.IM

(Rico CO ^

C5 .r-HC5

♦ iC

'CO

is

1-1 00

S?S8

• 1(5

is

CO

is?

•OUO

irairi

UOiO

• 'O 00 N 50

o

•^ 5 5j^

O O'

*r2 r- rf r-

■ r I, a

-co

13
m o p. g 4)

to It

coco

o

o

too
cosg

uo»o

00

to

•A

s

COS

o

:2?

CO

la

?<5

■ H ■ g.S

=s 5 *J — s^

+

ft.

"E
o

o

\

-.2 »j

•<1

u
5

.^ 5 _-s :

^ .^

1^

pa

I. — r 3 .

CO s

O t«

"a,

S
C
-^
A

S
C

^3•

3

a.
; a'

^1*; e

3^

5 cjja

X 3

:=: a

O

SO

3 3 s'SiB

• w ^" QIj ^ ..

8 Variation of Water in Trees.

If we next inquire into the relation which seasons bear
to the contained water, we shall obsei-ve that (he percentage
continaally rises from the midwintei- period until ; pring, and
that it again falls from the close of summer to the midwin-
ter period. The extreme variations as exhibited in our
figures, show, between February and September, aditference
of 8.4 p. c. for the youngest growth, and 7.1 p. c. for that
which is older.

Mkan Hydration of Woods.

Months.

February —

Maroti

April

September —
December . . .

Mean

Per r^nt. Water.

1st Year.

44.7
47.2
51.7
5S.1
48.3

49.0

2nd Year.

43.9
44.8
•i8.4
51.0
47.2

47.1

No. for Average.

Ist Year.

2nd Year.

37.0
59.0
6.0
19.0
61.0

36.4

38.0
60.0
7.0
18.0
58.0

36.2

Our figures also indicate that the maximum hydi-ation of
the tissues must occur either in September, o:* at some
period intermediate to this month and April. By gra])hic
representation of these results, it will become possible to
determine with approximate accuracy the true period at
which this maximum is reached. The figures show that,
fro-.n February to April, the i-ate of percentage increase is
much more rapid than the rate of percentage decrease from
September to December. A curve which will show this,
should also show the peiiod of maximum percentage. By
reference to the chart, it will be seen that the curves for
both young and old wood run nearly parallel, but that they
tend to approach at their greatest depression, and to separ-
ate more widely at their greatest elevation. It is also seen
that, from midwinter to spring, the curve rises rapidly and
reaches its greatest elevation about May 18th for the
youngest wood, while that for the older wood attains its
maximum a few days later, or about tlie 22nd. P^rom this

1

t

Variation of Water in Trees. &

time on, the curve descends at a more gradual rate until
December, when it suddenly drops to its minimum depres-
sion, which evidently occurs in January.

PERIODS OF CESSATION 01' GROWTH.

As, upon theoretical grounds, the Mssues contain most
watar when the gi-owth is most active, data which will
enable us to fix accurately ihe limiting periods for the sea^
son's growth, will have an important oearing upon this
question. Mr. W. E. Stone, ' accepting the completion o^
torminal buds as marking cor-nletion of the longitudinal
giowla for the entire year, has cained the following data,
as establishing periods limiting gro\7th in trees for the
latitude of West Point, I^Tew York, 41° 23' N. :—

jTUN'ii 1ST.

Acer saccharinuiu. Wang.

" rubrum. L.
Amelanchier canadensis Torr d- Or.
Carj'a alba. Nutt,
Fagus ferruginea. Ait.
Fraxinus americana. L.
Hacaamelis virginica. L,
Kalmia latifolia. L.
Populus treaiuloides. Michx.
Quercus alba. L.

bicolor. Willd.

" coccinea- Wang.

" prinus. L.
Sambucus pubens. Michx.
Tilia americana. L.
Ulmus americana. L.
" fulva. Michx.

JiMi. 15th.
Betiila lenta. L.
Carpinns americana. Michx.
Castanea vesca. L.
Juglans nigra. L.
Liadera benzoin. Mcissner.
Morus rubra. L.
Ostrya virginica. Willd.
Prunus cerasus. L.

' Bull. Torrey Bot. Club., xii. 8,83.

1

10

Variation of Water in Trees.

July 19th.

Andromeda ligustrina. MuhL
Alnus incan . Willd.
Nyssa multiflora. Wang.
Staphylea trifolia. L.

Indeterminate Period.

Ampelopsis quinquifolia. Michx.
Celastrus scandens. L.
Khus. Sp.
Vitis. Sp.

This, therefore, gives us the following percentage quanti-
ties, showing cessation of growth at ditfercnt periods :—

May 1st, commencement of growth.
June 1st, cessation of growth in 51.5 p. c.
June 15th, " " 24.2 "

July 19th, " " 12.1 I'

Indeterminate period " 12.1

Growth in length having ceased at these periods, the
energy of the plant then becomes directed to the lignification
of tissues and the deposition of reserve material for growth
the following year. These changes, however, involve of
necessity, a continual decrease in the contained water. The
data above, also, show that the majority of plants complete
their longitudinal growth within the tirst six weeks of the
growing season ; that most of these complete their growth
in from three to four weeks ; and that, as the season advances,
the number of plants still growing rapidly diminishes until
the middle of July, after which there are left but few, those
being plants like the grape, which coiitinue to gi-ow to the
very end of the season.

A graphic representation of these changes will enable us
to institute a comparison with the relations of seasons to
hydration of the structure. The lower figure of the chart
is the curve expressing this decrease of growth with advanc-
ing season. A comparison of both curves will show most
conspicuously, that that period, during which growth for

T

Variation of Water in Trees.

11

the season is most rapid is coincident with the period of
maximum hydration of the tissues.

T

L

\

soy,

ss^

y

'•»..
">.^

scy,

/

/ "J

■*—...

^-

^^^^n

^

<^

^^

40<Y-

/

I

MV^

/

\

Of,

/

V

1^

\rm 1

^ppr..

J(.'.'l£.

H'.r

OCT.

Tt is evident from the facts stated, that the amount of
water contained in trees can have no direct relation to their
bleeding when punctured. Indeed, it is a well-known fact
that the bleeding of trees, such as enables us to collect maple
sugar, is a purely physical proce.o, wholly dependent upon the
effect of external temperature in producing variable internal
tension, hence in no sense connected with physiological
processes ; that this bleeding may occur at any time during
the rest period, provided the conditions of temperature are
favoi-able; hence, that it is most pronounced when there is
the least water in the tissues: that during the seasons of
most active growth, when the plant contains most water, no
bleeding occurs.

CONCLUSIONS.

From the foregoing facts, we are justified in the conclu-
sions .'^hich follow: —

(1.) The hydration of woody plants is not constant for
all seasons, and depends upon conditions of growth.

(Z.) The hydration reaches its maximum during the latter
part of May or early Juno, and its minimum during the
month of January.

-1

12

Variation of Water in Trees.

(3.) Hydration is greatest in the 8ap wood ; least in the
heart wood.

(4.) Greatest hydration is directly correlated to most
active growth of the plant,— lignification, and storage of
starch and other products, being correlated to diminishing
hydration.

These conclusions are Lo be undere ■;ood as applying only
to latitudes lying between New York and Boston. For other
latitudes, certain modifications might be necessary.