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Canadian Inatituta for Historicar Microraproductiona / Institut Canadian da microraproductiona hiatoriquaa

1996

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/1PPLIED IIVHGE Inc

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FORESTRY

Lectures by Prof. Fernow

KINGSTON, 190J.

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LECTURES ON FORESTRY

-BY-

B. E. FERNOW, LL.D.,

DIRECTOR OF NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE
OF FORESTRY.

Delivered at the School of Mining, Kingston, Ontario,
January 26th-30th, igoj.

m^

PRINTRD HV
TIIK HKITISII WIIKl, KINOHTIIN, ONTAKIO,

I

INTRODUCTION

Th«ckriMresar<-tl cuicomc of the .•*«, of ( M.v,,', Iniveriitv
...i .ho K,„,.,„n Sohcl „f Mi„„„ ,„ ,„„„ ,,f„,^ „,~ ; ; , /'-'^^
llii- IwuhilK i.nnciplos of foreslrv in such •. w,v .s t ,„ a i

t" 0,1 here at a omf.mav call..! •„, cu„,,i,U.r tho Us. ,„.a„. for .ho „ Jer
va.,o„ ami m.owal of our fore,,,,, for usin, ,hc™ ,o advau.alJ and 7or

; ™~r "^^^'^ ""<••■ ">-P-l a.„l subs,a„ti;.ra~

space lor tlic mw (leparlnient.

The lectures ^hich follov. were delivered dnri:,.; the last >veek of
January, ai.d were atlended Ly tne advanced .u,.,,L i
econonncs and h,olo,y, nZ :.:^:Z\:^T ;^ Z'Z^

<„!, 1 , ,,■ '. P " ""' everywhere recomii/ed that the

cordtd a a 1 is o 1 '',°'' '"'""•' «'"" '" '•■'"•■«'''■ ^-^^ '" be re-

cord .d as a nstoncal -•vent of i^reat significance, n.arkins as thev did the
begntn,,,,. of a new outlook upon one of onr ..ca.est ind^uitries '

frienlof^hfr T " '°"""'""'' "' '•""'■""■en and other

^r trv 'i';,'""^'"'^"' 7^ f°""-l =° =•--' '" ".ahlishins the SchcK>l of
^o^estr^. 1 he names of the committee are u-ivcn helnw tk. i , ' ""

Ihe cuts diustrating Lecture X. were kindK lent 1,^. ,he Western So
ucty ot Enpmeers, Chicago. Jlr il VV Uikr.,', .,... i ""^ "."'"" -^u-

""."Vr^'"""- ' ' '- ""i'i..c c'^U,;' „;: -^r"; r'i^z;

revised the proo, sheets and selece.l a nnn.ber of the illmtraH^ns Th
Cornmut^eedestrestotake this .unity of thanking hirr Ws c'o!

Most of the subjects dealt will, have been treate,l more at leneth in
Pmfessor Lernow s lately pnblishe.l work on n. Eco„oJcsofZf's,ry.

COM.MI-JTEJ;.

Hon. VVm. Harty, JI.P., Chairman.

Hiram Calvin, M.P.. Vice-Chairman Kingston

Edw. J. B. Pense, M.P.P.. . . Kingston

Kingston

0 990547

T. W. Na.h, cm: Kingilon

K. J. CraiR, I'sfi Kiin;*lmi

J. II. llirkfii. \-.Mi KiiiKslon

<i. M. Maciloiiiidl, K. C KiiiKslcm

k, Carr-llarris. C. K Kiin;sl<iii

!■:. r. Siraoy, Msij KiiiKsloii

:. U . Uaihbuii, i:>ci I KxTunl.j

\v C. ( al.l«..||, M.IM' l,a„ark

S. I<u»»dl, M.IM' DcM-rc.'ili)

.\. 1 . I)rumnn.nii, 1.1..U. rurnmn

Jas. Mcl-ailclni, ]•:«! ki-nir.'w

I). C. lalHiTon, M.IM' Um |>,,riaj;f

J..lin litTirain, K.s<| T,m>iii..

John MacLaren. I%si| llnK-kviiU'

M. Avery, M. 1' .Sliarl«,i Lake

W. (.' lOil'.vanls, .M.I' ( mjuva

linn. E. .'I. liions.in i juawa

J. k. liio.n, Ks<i ( i„awa

t . Jackwin Keith, lisi; ( i„aiv;i

I-;. II. K.'cl.v, Esq I „,,,„.,,

Hon. I'fter White I'l-rnbrokt-

Thos. .Mackic, M.i' I'cnihr.ikc-

Henry tarKJll, M. 1' tarttill

(.jillies Hrus , . , . . Uracsitie

John .Mather, K.sq Ottawa

llirani kohjnstjii, En\ ( Jttawa

E. C. U hitncy, ;Csi| i Jttawa

McLaren liros Buckingham

Walter lleatty, .\l . I ' Uelta

.McLanKhlin lirus .\rnprior

E. J. Canipbcll, Es<| ( anaiKi I'aper to.. WMidsor Mills

W . L. I ii«)ilwin. Secretary Kingston

Kingston, Maicli :.'ntli, llMj;!.

CONTLNTS

Lectiirt' I -The t'orest as a Renource, and Forest Itultistrivs. - - 7

Lecture II. --What is Forestry ? 15

Lecture III. — How Trees (Irow. illlu:^' twl). 17

Lecture I\'. -The Kvulution of a Forest (Irowth. (Illustrated). - :i2

Lecture \'.— Silviculture, or Methods of Forest Crop Pro ■ tion. • 37

Lecture VI. -Lumlwrman and Forester, (Illustrated). \H

Lecture VII.— Forest Kcouoniy or Business Methtnls. .... 5U

Lecture VIII.— Wood and Its Characteristics. (Illustrated!. - - (►,*>

Lecture IX. — Forestry Policy. (18

Lecture X. -The Forester an Engineer. (Illustrated). - - - - 74

WHITE fINE FOKEST

LECTURE

THE FOREST AS A RESOURCE.

It may be stated without fear of contradiction that outsi<le of food
products no material is so universally used and so indisiiensahie in human
economy as woikI. Indeed, civiHzalion is inconccivahle without an abun-
dance of timber.

The nomad of to-day, who herds over the treeless plains and prairies,
is still like the Scythian of ancient times; his life, his culture, his attain-
ments are no iiore advanced. The successful settlement and civilization
of our own treeless regions of the west became possible only through the
development of means for the transportation of this most needful material,
So general and far-reaching has its use become that a woo{l famine, how-
ever improbable its occurrence, would be almost as serious as a bread
famine. We may become less wasteful, both as regards food and wood,
but the necessity of wood, so far as we can foresee at present, will always
be second onl\ to the necessity of food, and far greater than that of any
other material used in the arts.

(^ur civilization is built on wood. From the cradle to the coffin, in
some shape or other, it surrounds us as a convenience or a necessity. It
enters into nearly all our structures as an essential part. Over half our
people live in wooden houses, and the houses of the other half require
wood as an indispensable part in their construction, it serves to orna-
ment them, to furnish them with conveniences, to warm them, to cook the
food. More than two-thirds of our people use wood as fuel, and until re-
cent times it was the only or principal means of smelting the ores and shap-
ing the metals with which to fashion the wood itself. For every hundred
tons of coal mined, two tons of mining timber are needed, and wood in
large quantities is needed to mine our metals.

Every pound of iron, every ounce of gold, requires wood in its min-
ing, wood in its manufacture, wood in its transportation. There ia hardly
a utensil, a tool, or even a machine, in the construction of which wood has
not played a part, were it only to furnish the handle or the mould or pat-
tern.

The articles, useful or ornamental, made wholl>' or in part of wood,
are innumerable. Our houses are filled with them, onr daily occupations
necessitate them wherever we are. For our means (jf transportation we
rely mainly on wood. Our 260,000 miles of railroad track (190,000 miles
railroad in the L". S.l, the carriers of civilization, He on not le>s than 700,-
000,000 of wooden ties and need 140,000,000 annually for renewals ; they

8

run over more than 2,000 miles of wooden trestles and bridges, they carry
ihcr passengers and freight in over 1,000,000 wooden cars, and much of
ihe m,ll,ons ot tons of froijfht is sliipped in woo<len lx>xes and barrels, and
stored n, wooden sheds. Ten million telegraph poles are needed to keep
up comminncation between distant markets.

The forest fnrnishcs the cooperage to market our vintage, to store

hLZ" "u- .""■, '^u' '7"' """'"''" "''■ '''°"«^" h'>n'lle and harrow
frame to cnltuatc, the thrcshmg machine and « indmill to prepare the
crops, the cart to bring them to market, the bottoms in which thev cross
the ocean to foreign marts, and even the tar and pitch needed to keep the
cargo safe. \\ hilc iron ships have largely replaced the woo.len bottoms in
ocean travel, our coastwise and inla.ul shipping, which requires m the
L nited States a tonnage twice as large as in the transatlantic trade is car-
r,e,l mostly n, wooden ships. We arc rockcl in wooden cradles, play with
wooden toys, s,t on wooden chairs a,ul benches, eat from wo«len tables,
use wooden desks, chests, trunks, are entertained bv music from wooden
ntstruments. e.digbtened by information printed on womlen paper with
black ink made from wood, and even eat our salads seasoned with vineear
made from wood. *

The iises of w,K)d, multifarious now, are constantlv increasing With
the manufacture of wood-pulp and cellulose, an entirelv new direction of
use has been opened ; originally designed to furnish a cheap substitute for
ln,en paper. Us application in many ways is growing daily, and promises
for the ftuure the largest drain o., our forest resources, the manufacture of
wood-pulp havuig u.crease.l more than three-fold in the last ten vears

To g,ve briefly an idea of the extent of our own wood consumption.

.ncludmg exports), we may say that, if five persons are counted to a

fannly, each famdy m the United .States and in Cana.la as well, uses on

an average atout ;!,000 cubic feet or al«ut 120,000 pounds of dry wood

per year, the annual product of at least (10 acres of forest

fn„Jt "■'"'"",' !"■■ '"' """',"'='' =""'' ™"<^'' ^PPli<-''ti'>n of wood mav be
found n, several < brecfons. In the first place, the general occurrence of
forest growth and the ea.se with which wood can be obtained and shaped
directly to the purpose m hand made it, naturallv, the material of earlier
c.vd.2at,ons : hut there are certain qualitites in addition which will make its
use always desirable, if not necessary. I„ the combination of strength
sttffness, elasfcty. and relatively light weight, it excels all other known
materials. Not only is a stick of long leaf pine superior in strength to one
of wrought tron of the sante weight, but employed as a beam it will bear
without bending a load six to eight times as great as an iron bar of the
same length and weight. .Moreover, the wooden beam will endure greater
distortion than the metals without receiving a "set" or pennanent iniurv

1 he ea,se with which it can he shaped and keeps its shape, the softness
and yet unchangeahleness. but especially its non-conductivitv of heat and

of dectricity, which makes its use more comfortable than that of ™"»f'' *"
a,l.lition to its light specific wight an.l n>a..y other quahties, recommend it
for many purposes in preference to other materials.

But above all things, its cheapness recommends it. We are paying
now, leaving out fancy woods, at the most, «0 cents per cubic tot for the
best wood, shaped, as agah.st $5 to $10 per cubic foot for iron nt sheets «
bars Moreover, it is the only material of construction which we can pro-
duce and reproduce at will, while we know that most other materials now
ui use must be sooner or later exhausted.

Other materials have displaced wood in some uses, but o*""*^
have arisen for wood, and often the substitutes have again been displaced
by wood, when its superiority or peculiar qualities have been more fully
recognized. Even in such nicely balanced structures as the bicycle for
which metal seemed the only proper material, wood has proved itself su-
perior, at least in certain parts. . . . j „r
A remarkable instance of this return to the use of wood instead of
metal is that for factorv and warehouse construction in order to reduce
danger from fire, it having been found that in case of fire "-on beams a»d
posts are twisted out of shape by the heat, causing the collapse of the whole
building, while with wooden posts and beams the chances of keeping the
walls intact are much greater.

Coll has largely displaced wood as fuel, yet according to the census
of 1880 more than half of the population relied still uu wood for fuel, and
there is no reason to believe that the proportion has changed measurably.

In fact, if we may be allowed to consider the figures of the census of
1880 still proportionately true, as far as bulk is concerned, our fuel con-
sumption represents about three-fourths of our tota w«>d consumption
and even in value this part represents nearly one-half of our entire «ior-
mot consumption of forest products of the United States, and exceeds m
bulk more than ten times the iron and steel handled in that countiy.

The development of the cellulose and wood-pulp mdustry with the
consequent extension in the use of paper, made from J*' "^'"'^ '" »"
kind'of purposes where elasticity and durability combined with strength
and lightness is demanded, from collars and cufifs and combs to car wheels,
has given new and constantly growing employment to wood.

Considering, moreover, the very extensive and the very varied e<n-
nlovment of wood, it will be apparent that substitution by other materuds
cannot be readily accomplished, and means inconvenience, and in many
c^e, decrease of comfort. Hence, large wood supplies are, and unques-
tionably will continue to be, an indispensable requirement of our civiliza-
tion almost like water, air and food.

Besides wood supplies, the forest furnishes other material of no snudl
value Of these, two classes at least give rise to industries of considerable
extent namely, the tanning industry and the naval store industry.

The bark of certain trees, notably the hemlock, and the oaks among
uur native species, contain the chemical cumpoum'^ known an tannic aciiis,
uhich serve for the manufacture oi leather.

Thus 1,60U,UUU cords ol" tan bark, worth about $lo,UOU,uuu. which are
used annually in the U. S., entailed iornierly a sacrifice of nearly I,UOU feet
of lumber per cord of bark ; uf this now probably ilic larger part is saved.

The naval store industry, concerned in exiraciing from the living
trees of certain kinds of pine, especially the Southern long leaf pine, and
from other species, the reshious contents, and by distillation obtaining tur-
pentine, resin of various kinds, and tar, is indebted to the forest to the
extent of about $;i0,uuu,uuu per year in the United States.

A similar industry is the tapping of the maple for sugar, which is pe-
culiar to the United States and (.Canada, producing with over 50,000,UU0
pounds of sugar, and 3,UUU,0UU gallons of syrup, values to the extent of
$6,000,000 annually.

Finally* by distillation of the wood itself and condensing of the gas-
eous products, considerable amounts of wood alcohol, wood vinegar, and
acetates, creosote, and other tar oils useful ir. the arts, are derived, adding
another $3,000,000 or more to the annual revenue furnished by the forest
resource in the United States.

While the value of the raw forest products consumed every year in
the United States at places of consumption, roughly shaped for further
use, may be placed at $600,000,000 1 this is enhanced by their further
manufacture to over $1,300,000,000, thus making the result of the forest
industries second only to those of agriculture, the value of whose products
reached in the census year (1890) nearly $2,500,000,000 while the total
production of metals which could in any way replace wood — gold and sil-
ver and iron included — reached only $370,000,000, and the entire mining
industry (quarries and every kind of mineral or earthy product included)
but little over $600,000,000.

As civilization advances so does the use of wood mcrease, and during
the last 40 years this increase has been most remarkable. (Ireat Britain,
having hardly any wood lands of her own. stands first as an importer of
wood, importing last year wood to the value of $125,000,000 (20 per cent
more than her pig iron product). During the last 40 years the amount of
wood used in that country has been increased 2U0 per cent, while her popu-
lation only increased 42 per cent. France in the last 70 years, with an in-
crease of population of 20 per cent., has increased her consumption of wood
700 per cent. Germany is, next to Great Britain, the greatest importer of
wood, increasing its imports by 400 per cent, in the last 40 years, or V/,
per cct. per annum. These remarkable increases are doubtless due in
part to increased manufactures of wood for exportation, but the all-around
increase is consequent upon the demands of advancing civilization.

A.

11

Similar increases in per capita consumption can be shown from the
census statistics in tlie U. S., which is probably the largest wood consumer
in the world, with 'S^O cubic feet per capita consumption, while in Germany
the consumption is only 43, anil in Great Bntaiu about 15 cubic feet.

The statistics of Canada show that the value of the forest products in
18i>l was $80,000,000, of which $5ti,0(K),UU0 was uat-d ai home while she
exported lumber and other products to the value of $5i4,UUO,uuO. This was
an export of $15.60 per capita and represented a consumption of 250 cubic
^ I'cet per capita as compared with Great Britain's 15 cubic feet; moreover,

the wood consumption in Canada is increasing very rapi<lly. Ontario
alone derived a revenue of $l,37t>,000 from timber licenses and dues in
moi, showing that this province can well allord lo establish schools of
forestry as a business proposition. .

Statistics show that Canada has 800,000,000 acres of wood land, but
of this vast acreage probably not fifty per cent, may be considered as forest
land fit for timber production, the rest perhaps able to satisfy domestic and
pulpwood demands, but not to be considered in connection with the timber
requirements, which at the present rate of consumption amounts to 5,000-
000,000 feet per annum ; only under proper supervision will this area of less
than 400 million acres, much of it badly damaged by fire, continue to sup-
ply growing demands * jr a long time. With the decrease of supplier in
other countries and the increase of their needs fur imported wood pro-
ducts, the value of Canada's remaining forest wealth, will appreciate
and readily repay the care bestowed on it.

To sum up : — Consumption of wood is so enormously and constantly
increasing, that, in spite of substitutes, wood will remain a necessity.

Natural supplies, however abundant, must give out unless we can and
do reproduce them.

Nature's reproduction is uneoonomic in character, space and time;
and hence man's action becomes necessary, giving a more rational treat-
ment to forests everywhere.

Forestry becomes the necessity of every country, and especially for
those countries that have large supplies and are bound to be great timber
producers in the future.

The natural forest res.^urce as we And it, consists of an accumulated
zvood capital lying idle and awaiting the hand of a rational manager to do
its duty as a producer of a continuous highest revenue.
j Such management, however, it does not receive in the crude exploit-

/. ations to which it is subjected in all newly developed and developing coun-

* tries ; on the contrary, the wasteful use of the soil is only intensified ; for

these exploitations, the operations of the lumberman, consist in a mere re-
moval of the valuable portions of the growth, a cashing of the accumulated
wood capital, without the slightest reference to future revenues which
might be derived from it in the shape of wood growth. In fact, he does

^:^

12

nut rccogiuze ur tuiisidcr llial tlic lortsl is nol iiiurcl) a iiiiiie, liut a rtpiu-
.lllciiilL' rtsomcc— a living, yrowiin; crup, liic i.r.idiicl ul the soil ami cli
male, winch can be repiocluccd ad libUmii in cuil superior (luanlili anil
qualil) lo what nature alone and unaided has done.

ilis methods of removing the standing timber are not only wasteful,
but ihey decrease the capacity of the land for producing valuable timber.

l:.v cidhtig out the most valuable kinds, leaving undesirable kituls and
poor trees to sliadc the young growth that max have dei eloped, he prevems
Uie reprodtiction of a valuable crop, and hence such culled areas
whde they still appear as forested, have ufu-n lost their entire value I's pro-'
ducers ol uselul material ; the growth on the laud being an encumbrance
rather, to be got rid of lirst, lietore profitable tise oi soil, either for

agricultural crops or for useful wood crops, can take place.

The rational way in treating the resource of virgin woods, fiom na-
tional economic if not from private pocket interest would be as far as pos-
sible to prepare first for a desirable reproduction by cutting out the poor
kmds and the useless brush, then logging out first only the largest trees of
the belter kinds with proper precaution against injury to younger growth,
and against fires, then gradually, as younger trees grow (.u, the older ones
may be harvested and as much as possible in sucli a manner that the young
after-grow th is given room and light.

Ihus, by mere care in utilizing the resource, not only can all the pro-
duct be harvested, but a new crop, increased in quantity, can be secured.
iTom such simple care we come to the finest methods of forestry for
these are only ditierent in the degree of care, hardly in the kind.

By these methods man makes the forest resource produce easily the
treble and quadruple of what it does w hen left alone ; so that merely by the
judicious use the capacity of us-jful production grows.

How much intensive management can increase the yield of the re-
source may be judged from the experiences of German forest administra-
tion. Here the forest resource i are nearly if not entirely brought under
rational management, and are treated as a crop, constantiv furnishing har-
vests, and being reproduced without diminishing the wood capital.

Thus, the rather more extensively managed Prussian government for-
ests, which with an area of (1,750,000 acres are perhaps also stocked on
poorer soils or are less favorably situated, produced as an average for a
series of years 42 cubic feet of timber wood (over 3 inches diameter) per
acre, those of Bavaria 55, those of Baden 59, of V\'urtemberg 07, while the
most niteiisivel\ managed state forests of Saxony, of only J;10,000 acres
■ extent, produced S»0 cubic feet of wood per acre per year, of whiJh 08 cubic
feet was timber wood, the highest production for such a large area.

A further illustration of the increase in yield which comes with proper
management of this resource is furnished by the Prussian state forest ad-
ministration : while during the years from 1829 to 1867 the cut was in-

18

f ■*

^

creased from 28 to 37 cubic feet per acre, and to Ki.T cubic feet in 1880,
nearly double what it was in I8a;i, vd ilu- proiiortion of old timber over HO
vcars.or stiKk of merdianlible timber en hand, increased during the last v'li
years uf the period from ii per cent, to i', per cent., sbowinp that the cut
remained below the production. In the most intensively managed .state
forests of Saxony, the em has been doubled in the last fifty years, and yet
(lie stoel. i,f \v<«.d capital standing bas inerea-ed over l(i per cent. ; while in
l.il."i. i>f the cut per acre of M etd)ic feet, 11 per cent. wa.s saw timber; in
1HI':1, of till' MU -.nbic feet cut. .'.1 per eein. was timber tit for the mill.
The Kross reveiuie increased rluriiiK 'Init time ■,>3 1 per cent., and the net
revenue over .tn per cent. .\ financial calculation shows that the state's
property has not otdy paid 6 per cent, continuously in revenue, but has ap-
preciated in value '.'I per cent, by mere accumulation of material.

According to a conservative calculation based upon these experiences,
ibe forest resource of t.ermauy represents, in round muTdjers. a capital
value of $\.:n per acre ($2.-) lor the soil atid $165 for the stock of wood)
pax ill); a constant revenue of 3 per cent, on such capitalization ; or since
there are somewhat over SS.Onil.nnn acres of forest, their capital value is
equal to $C,340,000,f "), producing a continuous annual income of $190,-
000,000. The state properties are. moreover, constantly improving, and
the revenue constantly increasing.

While, to the casual reader, this showing may hardly appear as a very
profitable business, we must not forget that the result is obtained for the
most part from soils which would otherwise be unproductive.

It is apparent that \\ c are liound to exhaust our stores in less time than
they can be replaced, that we are not living on interest, but are rapidly at-
tacking our wood capital— a process fully in keeping with the development
of any new country, but also one against which reaction must set in in time,
if serious consequences are to be avoided.

Such reaction may be secured first th wigh a more economical use of
the timber resources, for the per capita coMsumption in Canada falls hard-
ly short of 300 cubic feet, nearly eight times that of Germany, and twenty
times that of England, and hence a large margin is left for such economies

I'inally. however, forest management, as practiced m other countries,
will become an unavoidable neccssit\ to secure the continued prothiction
of needed wood supplies.

There is one factor of national importance resulting from the indus-
tries concerned in the conversion t,f ,,ur virgin iVtrests, which does not at
all, or not to the same extent, attach to them in other ctnmtries, and which,
in the end, is of more moment than estimates of stumpagc or land values
or vabies of prodnels can express. Not only does the lumberman with the
systematic development of his business, which h;is enabled Inin to snpplv a
superior article as cheaply as the inferior one is sold in I-'urope, give rise
to many manufactories and industries, and render possible the development

14

■A distanl aKnciillural rigioiis, -.vIikIi in liiril reiiilcrs profitable the build-
ing ol railroads an,l ih>' cmpbimnil ni lal;or, luit he has bc«i ihe piuiurr
ni brnigin^' the vvildi-rncss ils.if within reach .,l civilized iiilhiciices ; and
while this has „ften been .|,.,ic :,t .in ninieccssurilv rxlravaKant sacrifice ..(
iiiuch ot ,.nr nalnral lurest resources, the openinf; up of these back woods
must ncvertheles,- :„■ considered as a potent inlhiencc lor K,»,d. resilltiliL.
from his business.

/Vr ».,^T,/ ,„; „,/,„, i|,r,,„^l, ,o„^;i, „,,rk „, civihzatio,,. is the historv
of the settling of the Ivickwnod., i,hlcb the K'Rer has accoi

oniplishcil.

ClIKDI KOV Ho.il), NOKTH HASTI.NGS.I

:i

Such settleiiienl ,s necessary before forest management can be profit-
ably ^,ppl,e.l to the remnants of uoodlan.ls; and while we niav re.rrel the
wastefulness with which this settlement has been made, we must onsi.ler
It as a necessary step toward an extension of civilized conditions

LECTURE II.

WHAT IS FORESTRY?

lUCl IMTID.NS AM) I'HIMAKV t UM Ll'TlONS.

At this lime, when the lU'ccssily ot prcsurviiin thu lorcst wiallli ot the
worhl arises lo prominencf, };i'iuTaI inttTt>t in lorfstry slumM Ik- aruiiseil
(atiaiia. cm account ol cMniaiic coiuhtitms and ihr t-xii-nt of iion-ayricul-
tiiral land, is, and will continiiu to hi-, ont- of the uri-at inrtst comitrics of
the world, and rational inanaj,'cnu'nt --hould stucird the uutc cNploitation
hitherto practiced in her forests.

The word ■"[■orcstry" in its present sense •• of recent iisaue. hut in its
orif,dn a Latinized leiilonic word, ori^^inally nuaninjf a portion of the land
of a tri''e held by the kin.i,' or first man- the "I'tirst," l-"roni such nse come
the old definitions of the forest as a large, u icultivate*! tract of co-nitrv.
wooded in places, under certain laws— a legal term. Tlie l.nglish kings
thus reserved the right to hiuu on stretches of country, over which forest-
laws prevailed, and in charge of "loresters," who were n;ore properly
the game-keepers of the king and his nobles. As understood now, we
may call "wmKlland" the natural condition, land covered with woodv
growth, whde ui the term "forest ' we aild ecotuniiic considerations, namely
a wo4»dlaiid under man's care f<ir forest purposes and exhibiting forest
conditions.

As they supply different purposes, forests ma> be classified .'is Luxury
i-'orests. ior Farh /'((c/xj-vw, reserved for game protection, Protection For-
ests, tor the protection of mountain slopes and wattrsheds from erosion,
and Siipf^ly horcsts, which furnish material for the hnubernian. This
last forest purpose is the most important and direct one. while the second
finictiMti is i»f moment only in certain locations, -uid all three can be sub-
served .sinudlani-ously.

1.. the pioneer days of a cuumry there is tirst a rapid destruction of
forests to clear the land. but. when the natural timber supply has diminish-
ed beyond a certain [wjint. Forestry — the rational trealnietU of the forests
as timber producers, becomes uecessurx . under wliich they arc used and cul-
tivated continuously for a wood crop as agricidtural land is for food-crops.
The technical side of forestry is hasecl on natural science, the economic
side on mathematics and on j)ulitical economy. The technical art of forest
crop ])roduction. silviculture, calls for knowledge of Inuanv and eispeciallv
dendrology, (.r the physiolo:^y and biology of tries, as well as a knowledge
of soil physics and chemistry to n;ake the art an Impntvemenl on nature's
methods producing the best form and largest t|uantitv of w'>rMl in the

knowZU^r ' ';"«""-'"-"'K "-""^^l-i.- n,n,. l,o a.l,l..,l ,o l„„i,K.„

„"'"'"''• t"'"^^^- "f "•■""■"••'I """-1. ,„ ,1,. »„„ln„ a ,cin,c.-, to the

' ' " '"'"•"> I'''" !«•-■" I'raclHnl in (k'umm over l.-.il v.-,r/ It.

Wu-a fnrcn. i, a „ew w„r,l an,l a nnv art, whicl, ha, cnn. , , "fj,

..H«a ;*;;;::,:' :;:;;;z";';:::, S;,";";;' "■;»■";• ""

condtfon, are exceU-n, for the organisation of a ,v.tcm of foretn

^'

LEriURE

^*

HOW TREES GROW.

' '"■ '"■ '■'' !'•"■' "' 'I"' ■■"■' "I l'"i--ir) IS .all.,! ,Mvi. iill.iri'-tlic an

' .1 |ir(Kliia> ilii- n„„|-,n,|, i,,r 111!' niaiuuMiH'iit <,i il,.. i,.r,.,i.T. |-„r an
MMl-rstaniliin; nt llir Irralninil ,..| im> .„ „,„.,,,■, ilu. i,,r, ,i..r mr,U a

kiinwIclK'f ul ,lciMr K.v. tlu. kiK,«k.,l«i. „( ir.v» in all .l.laiK, an,! «,«■•

lall.v ihf.r lili- hisliirv. in.livi.hial an<l in ass-K-ialiDn. ( )||.ii wn.nyly ilr-
hnr,l n, icrnis of ,!«., ihc^ irw is |K>l,-fiiiallv .viMiiij; alrearlv iti «.c,i an.l
MT.MuiK-il IS a «.»-ly plant, tlu' s.r.l „l whkli is capaM.- ,,f prcim-iriL. a
sni(,'lc stem Irimi ilic (.rmuid uilh a .JdinilL' iruwn.

Tm«. KTuvvinv: in.ni s,,-.l, ar.- hniti np in ,n .-.ll yn.wlh, ,livisi,m an.l
nn,ll,pI,cation like, mho, livinkr ..rKanisnis. anM ihcv have similar reinnri-
ii'i'ius. Unlike nlher plants, llicv have lony.-r life anil .-i lin (;rcat.T
lic'Klu, to lift thnr fulian.' lu tile lij;ht. Thnr mi.arkablo helKhl i, built
up, storey Lvsturo, l,y sIh.hs, «liich push ..„, ir,„„ l„„ls aiul ek.nnale
iron, ,l,e tips ut stem and brand.. Tb. a^e of tli,. tr.v niav tlins !«■ told at
least .11 yonnjT .spe.-..' , i.s, by eoumii.t; li.e animal sI..k .is, « hid. are niarke.l
..ft lr..m eadi other by a swelling of the stem.

Ibids are developed at the en.l of the year's growth, ibe terminal b.ul
or one near the end of the shoot aminalh eontim.i.iR ib>- l„.i,.hl .-rrnvth
•.ad. da.ss ,.f tree has a .lillerent habit ..f l„..| .level..p„K ,11, a.i.l trees can
lie Klentifietl by their bu.ls alone. The C.nifers, with fe.< .t lateral bn.ls
than the .lecidumis trees, persistently develop the main sten: at the expense
of the branches, the shoot from the sint;l.- terminal b..,l ...akini; rapi.l
heiKht growth. If the terminal bn.l of a pine be .lestr,.v,,i, the side h.ids
nsnally carry on the growth and cause forkinj; of the sten.. .\mo..g har.l
vv.....lstllen,,-,,or.ty,.ftlie bn.ls ,l„ „.,t .l.vdop. I„„ ,„. ,i,|„,r |,«t or
.eliian. dormant, .be shape ... the ,r,r k-inj; .h.pcn.U.n, upo.i this bud
.levelopnicnt, so that the .lei.sc crown of the I Iced, from the .levelopinei.l
..f many bn.ls has a .litierent appearance fr..,.. the ..pen cr..wn ,.f an ( >ak
The .lormant buds remain un.levck.pc.l, continuallv piisbe.l .,ut bcvon.l the
wfmd of the surface each year, rea.Iy in case of necessitv or acci.lcnt fiiialK
to develop into shoots.

As the new buds are formed at the c.i.ls of the shoots each year the
tree might grow on forever, if each species ,|i,| not ^rrow within certain
definite height limits, which depend on . .,f soil. clim,-,le and sp,--

etes. The moisture from the soil, the tl 1, r.-iise to ils foHat;e against
gravity, and the height to which the wate. ...n I,- lifted is limited- some
spee.es offering more friction to the water current, cannot grow as high as
others, *"

hknsk hkkch ckown

OI'KN (lAK CKOWN

I»

Light it an irii|iorlaiil (aclur.in iri-c urmMli, ami lliv loriii o( llu' irir
varim with tin- IikIii »u|i|i1>. I" ilw furi>i llu- im. Kum lall. wiili l""i;.
ili-ar lrillil.> '»<[ !■ « liraiuhn, kIiIIi- in llu- i.|kii llu itn i« -liiiit an. I
liraiiillv Willi .1 larm- iriwii. Hit Mki llial llic Kr""lli "I 'I" i"' I'"'''
.■. il» liiaiulu- Innh.i ii|...,i II- inliik i- 1 1 1..11...11. . lli> liarriii-" mI iIk' I"1

cl im' i» raii-iil In llic I <i llii' l"«<r liraiiclif. for «aiil <'t linlil Hu

.,|..ii-(;roiill.! trie nlaili* ll« liralulK- liuvir .m llu- inillk, anil i-.iii»n|iuilll\
.1..,-, mil iiriiillici- as >;.«iil lllllll«-r. lllo lilllli!.. lllal all Man I'rnlll llu- i-t-lllr.
.11 llu- in-.-, .aill M-ars \\i»x\ ti'^mth liiinilij! llu-ir |K-Kiniiiii« ili-i-i>vr an. I

.|,,|,.-i-. 11 I-.. 1 kiili-.l ami -lu-.l larK, |ini.lur.- ki , vvliuli iiilim- ilu

-in-nulll ail'l laliu- ..f llu- -awn IliliilK-r. Ill .li-ii-.i- i..l.-Ms llu- l.uk "t liul"
,-aii»>-> llu- l.iwi-r liniiiilu-> 1" ilii- ami (all ami llu- Iniiik i> l.-il .li-ar. In
l,.r.-«l plailliMt;. im-s an- m-I iU-iim-1> lu »liul mu llu- linl" ami kill llu- L.iv.r
l.iamlu-". ill "rilir l-i |ir.»liia- lali-r. i-liar, \alii:ilil<- liinilnr.

I n-<-~ «l"« ii"l "liU ill lu'i(;lll. Iml alsn in .liaim-U-r, llu- i;ri.v\lli lakiiij;
|,l;u,- in llu- -.-il laniliiiiin lavi-r In-lwi-i-n liark ami himhI. l.\.-r\ -.iirini;
llii- lav.r ..1 liviiij; .1-11. li-Kiii- I" Kriuv ami .liii'U-. al tlr-l \.-rv rapi.lK
»illi ill. ra|.iil liiii;lil-i;iinMli. Inn frailiiall.v ii-t. .I.n.l. a. Miiiini.-r a.l
van-,-.--. II11- lir-1 .|iiu-kli l-nm-.l «i<"l .-.-lU ar. linn uall.-.l Willi lari;.-
..p.-iiini;-. f.inninv; llu- p..n-» ■•i-.-ii in llu- -prinn wi-«l "i llu- ™ikN ami ashci.
I lu- lal.-r >iiiliiiu-r l.iinu-il ..-11- an- i-lii-.-l. ii
llii.-k wall^ ami -mall ■ip.-niin;.. llu' "■"•■I ;

.-,.l,.l-.-.l in.ni Ihi- .-i-.m.l.-.l o.mlili.m .il ili.- .-.-II-. I'lii- -iu-.-.-.sic.ii of ,li(
l.-i.-:il -piniH anil -iinini.-i- U'»"l /"m-- ali >. - ill. -a-. n-.-iiUiiili--ll ami
o.iinllliK ..( llu- annual ia.i.r- ..r riii«- nl vv'il. ami l! .analii.n in lln-
riiii,' -triu-liir.- M-r\.-- l.i i<l.-iilil> \ari..iis >p.'fi.-s -il ir..--. ami 1.' iiiili.ai.-
tli.- .-..mparaliM- -in-iiKtli 111 llu-ir .v.«.il. Alu-r i-lllliii|; a in.-. lli.-n-f..r. ,
II- at;.- .-an In- iinmi 1" .■"linlint-' llu ainiilal rinn- ..11 ill.- -Iiiinp-, ami frulli
■.h.- n-oir.i pi-.-i'rv..l in III.--.- rinw- ill.- Iii-lnrv ..( il- i;r".Mli .an lu- r.-a.l

riu' annual rinj; i* hiniu'il in all .■nniilri.-- wlii-r.- lli.-r.- i- a l.-iiip'
.-.— aliim nf »;nmlli, can-.-il li> disliiu'l siiniiii.-r ami wiiil.r ■
.-.-plinnMlv iri-.-s fail 10 .l.-pi.sil w.-..! ..v.-r llu- wlioU- Iniiik ..11 a.-.-"iiiil .'i
Inss ..f foiiai-'.'. el.-., anil m> rinj; is fimiu-il. nr, .vlu-r.- llu- ^r'UMli lia- li.-.n
,li-liirli.-.l ilnriiiK llu- -.-a>..ii a -.-.-..ml riii^ iiia> nmii. uliii-li .an iii.i-tl> li.
i.-,iliK .li-lilij;"islu-il iri'in ill.' irm- riiij;s.

I'll 111.- for.-l iiiaiiat;.-r tlu- -lii.l) »f riii^ Kr.nMli i- "i ynal iinporlan.-. .
U.-au-t- fnmi tlu- riiiK-. "1 ^nmlli llu- pn.Kr.-- ..I llu- .n'P iiia> l"' «-. " -
llu- anlonilt of ».«.l forninl, aiul llu- liim- wli.-ii il is im.sl prulilalil. 10 liar
v.-sl calculateil. Sine- also ihe proporlion of -priii^ ami sumnu-r w<h„I
larRclv iletermincs llu- cpiality of llie limliir, llu- riiij, f;rowlli fiiniislii-s an
imicx for regulaliuK llio (pialilv of llu- crop, sin.-.-, I.v iiiaiias;.-nu-iit of sp.--
.-i.-s, ami ailaplin- llu-m lo soils, llu- proporlion of llu- -pviii^ aii.l silinln.-i
woo.1 may li.- iliflll.-iu-.il. Il is a inistak.- lo loiisi.l, r lllal llu- linnlH-r of llu-
miire rapiilK (,'rown tn-cs of any sp.-cics is weaker, for il is apparciil lllal

owil.-il ami .-onipr.-ss
app.-arin^f <l.-iiser an-

-.1. Willi
'larker

orar\

21

, thick-walled siiiiimL-r winitl ct-ll^ make siruii^-cr \\i
spriiij; ci-lU, aiul in u \vnv ui lapul ,i;ri'uili ilu •'U

jllllil' >pL

-, uxix'i'ilf in aniuinn ilial Uirnicd ■

m1 tliati iIr-

I lie dense,
lliin-walle
turuKd m
t^ row til.

The food necessary tor a tree to incrta^e ii;- >ulid >^1b^talK■e is ublain-
ed from tlu M)il and iVnin the air. Most uf ihis h«n| sntisiance is
lurnied in ilu- y;retti parts of the plant — the inliai;i,'. In ilic presence uf
light ami air by the union of water with the carlM)n derived frum the car-
bonic acid of the air. I'rom the soil, water is coiisianlly bciii}; lilted b> ilif
tree up into its lolia^-^e ; from wliich a part pa>M's ntV intu ibi- air a> \.ii)'tr,
the anioiinl of transpiratinn \'ar>ini; with the climatic on^liiiuns. water
biipply, season and species. While in a viyorun>'' ^luwiny; tree iherc is
from 10 to (i'( per cent of water, the amonnt j^i\cn off from its leaves in a
season is inan> times j^rcater than that retained, Inii trees require from one-
half to one-ipiaricr of the water which agricultural crups need.

Mineral substances are taken up only in ver\ small amounts, and
mostly of the commoner kinds, such as lime, potash, nia^uoium ami niiro-
yeii. Hence, wootl crops do not exhaust the soil ni iis minerals, and even
improve its fertility, as the greater part of the minerals are rciurnod to the
soil in more soluble form by the annual fall of the leaves and ihc small
brush, in which the minerals are most abundant, ami w liich deconipo.se and
form a rich hunnis layer on the surface oi the soil.

As the soil moisture is the greatest requisite for tree growth, its con-
-servatioti and distribution is most inipor'ant. \o tree grows to best advan-
tage in very wet or dry soil, although some species endure au<l appear
thrifty in such unfavorable situations. Tiie soil most suited for all trees is
a moderately but evenly moist soil, porous and well drained, but capable of
conducting water up within reach of the roi>ts of i)latUs.

For the conservation of the soil moisture, the fttrest (■"lower cainiot re-
ly on the methods of the agriculturist, wiiich are usuall\ i])racticaliie and
too expensive. He can only employ such nietliods as shading and nuilch-
ing the soil — shading by close planting, and by maintaining the crown
cover dense tlirough the life of the crop to protect the .soil from sun and
wind; mulching, b\ the animal fall of twigs and k'a\es, which remain and
decay, forming a rich mold, increasing the absorption and releniivcncss of
the soil, and retarding the evaporation of moisture and the run-otT froin the
surface.

While with a moderate and even supply of moisture all trees thrive
l)est, some like the (onifers, and especially the Pines, endure drier soils,
and others like the Bald Cypress, excessive moisture. This adai)tatio'i. how-
ever, is modified in different regions by drier or more humid climate.

"Jt',. .- -sal»". '♦*^.f«J-SE

LECTURE IV.

THE EVOLUTION OF A FOREST GROWTH.

Last night we touk a glimpse into that part of (knidrologv— the study
of trees— whicll concerns itself with the development of the single individ-
ual. To-night we will look into the communal life— the sociology, as it
were, of trees, as exhibited in forest growth.

for, in order to practice forestry, there is, first of all, need to under-
stand the natural history of the forest. Hi sv does nature produce her for-
ests ? What are ilie laws, what is the progress in the evoliilion of a forest
growth .' These questions 1 shall endeavor to answer to-night.

The earth may be said to be a potential forest. A cover of tree growth
more or less dense is, or has been, the natural condition of at least the lar-
ger portion of the habitable earth, and, of the entire land surface, not less
than GO per cent, may be classed as actual or potential woodland; 1 per
cent praine, and liJ per cent, plains or barrens. U>> -North America the
proportion is about 45-3-50; in Asia, 45-3-52; in Europe, s4-lu-(i;.

In the struggle for existence and for occupancy of the soil between the
different forms of vegetation, tree growth has an advantage in its perennial
nature and in its elevation in height above its competitors for light, the
most essential element of life for most plants. These characteristics, to-
gether with Its remarkable recuperative power, assure to the arborescent
flora final victory over its competitors except where climatic and soil con-
ditions are not adapted to it.

The entire absence of the tree growth from some localities, such as the
northern tundras, the high peaks above timberline, and the arid plains, is
due to temperature, moisture and soil conditions, either one or the other or
the unfavorable combination of them. Un the high peaks, the two charac-
teristics, of perennial life and persistent height growth, become unfavor-
able, since the extreme winter temperatures above the snow cover, drough-
ty winter storms, and frosts every month in the year can be endured only by
those plants which have a rapid cycle of development, or are sheltered near
■the ground by the snow cover. The wet soil on the tundras, frozen for
most portions of the year, or the thin soil on the /Vlpine peaks, add to the
difliculties for deep-rooting species in their contest with the lower vegeta-
tion. Again, in the interior of continents and other localities unfavorably
situated with reference to the great sources of moisture and moisture-bear-
ing currents, dehciency of water, scant rain-fall or low relative humidity,
or both, and excess of evaporation, are inimical to tree growth, occasioning
plains, which although not always and by necessity treeless, do not permit
any forests to establish themselves unaided.

l-lccasioiially, soil conditions, especially with ret'creiice lo drainage,
may be more favorable to the graminacioiis vegetation, at least fur a lime ;
giving rise to pampas, prairies and savannahs ; or else all the unfavorable
conditions combine to give rise to deserts.

In addition, there are hostile agencies in the animal world, which i)re-
vent the progress ol forest growth, and lend to preserve (he prairies; lo-
custs, rodents, rnniinants, like the bntfalo, antelope and the horse, iinpe.le
ihc growth and spread of the trees, anil especially where compacl'soil and
deticiein moistnie conditions are leagued with these animals, the change
Ironi prairie to forest is prevented, at least for a time.

Woodlands arr the most unfavorable form of vegetation for the life
uf rimimants, .md, i . fore, for the support of the largest number of men.
1- ■ food productii for agricultural pursuits, man must subdue and re-
move tree growth, lience, forest devastation, forest ilestruclion, is the
beginning of civilization in a forested country, its necessary requisite, and
the persistency with which in forest regions the forest tries to re-establish
itself calls for continued effort to protect pasture and held against its re-
establishment.

So impressed was Ur. Asa Gray with the persistency of individual tree
life that he questioned whether a tree need ever die; "hor the
tree lunlike the animal) is gradually developed by the successive
addition of new parts. It annually renews not only its buds
and leaves, but its wood and its roots ; everything, indeed, that
is concerned in its life and growth. Thus, like the fabled
Aeson, being restored from the decrepitude of age to tl- ■ bloom of youth—
the most recent braiichlets being placed by means ot Jie latest layer of
wood in favorable communication with the newly formed roots, and these
extending at a corresponding rate into fresh soil— why has not the tree all
the conditions of existence in thousandth that it possessed in the hun-
dredth or the tenth year of its ^ j r

The old central part of the trunk may, indeed, decay, but this is of lit-
tle moment, so long as new layers are regularly formed at the circumfer-
ence. The tree survives, and it is difficult to show that it is liable to death
from old age in any proper sense of the terra."

However this may be, we know trees succumb to external causes, in-
sects, fungi, tire, windstorms, etc. Nevertheless, they are perennial enough
to outlive aught else, "to be the oldest inhabitants of the globe, to be more
ancient than any human monument, exhibiting in some of its survivors a
living antiquity, compared with which the mouldering relics of the earliest
'Egyptian civilization, the pyramids themselves, are but structures of yes-
terday." The dragon-trees, socalled, found on the island of Tener'iffe,
off the African coast, are believed to be many thousand \ears old. The
largest is only 15 feet in diameter and 75 feet high. The sequoias or Big
Trees are more rapid growers and attain more than double these dimen-

24

siuns in ;l,n,.(l lo l,„„„ y,.-^y,, which n.uy I,.. ,1„. l,iy|„sl ujje of liviuy o„cs.
I li>-u- long lilc IS nnJonUclK .hit- lo the iacl ihal ihcv arc not Hahic to at-
tacks by insects, iniiyus, and liardly hv lire.

W hile this Insistence of life is one of the allrihutes which in the hat-
lie lor hu- tmist cum as of int.neastirahle a.lvanlaKe, Uie other characteris-
IK nl arl»,real .levelopnn nl, ns elevation in lieiKllt al,,ve everv hvillg thing
IS no less an atlvaiilage over all conipeiiiiors for 11^1,1. vvhicli is file source
ot all hie : ami in this competition, size imist iillimatelv Irininph.

l-.ndoHcl with these «eaiK„is of defensive and offensive warfare for-
est growth has endeavorel, and ni, doubt to a degree succeeded through all
geologic ages, during which the earth supported life, in gaining possession
ol tile earth's surface.

As terra Hrnia increase.l, emerging in islan.is alK>^e the ocean, so in-
creased the area of the forest, changing in composition, to he sur.^, with the
change of physical and climatic comiilions.

As early as the Devonian aye. when hm a small part of ,,ur continent
was lormed. the miul Hats and sand reefs, ever increasing hv new accumu-
lations uiulei the action of the waves and currents of the ocean were
changed from a ban^ and lifeless world i.h,,ve ti.le-level lo one of forest-
clad lulls and dales with quaint forms, like the tree rushes and the proto-
types of our pines, the Uadoxyloii.

The same class of llowerless plants, known as vascular cryptogams
with colossal tree ferns ami the Sigillarias ad.led, became more numerous
and luxuriant in the Carboniferous age.

This vegetation probably spread over all the dry land, while other
lorins made the dense jungle in the marshv places and lakes with foating
islands ; the thick deposits of vegetable remains from these forests were
finally, in the course of geologic revolutions, turned into the great coal
fields.

During these gjologic revolutions some of the Moral tv|H„ vanished al-
together, and new ones originated, so that, at the end of Alesozoic times a
considerable change in the landscape is noticeable, fn a.ldition to conifer-
ous trees, the palms appeared and the rirst of Dicotyledons, such as Uaks
Dogwood, Ueech, I'oplar, W illow. Sassafras and Tuiip tree. Species in-
creased in numbers, adapted to all sorts of conditions, the forest in most
varied form and luxuriance chiiibed up the mounlain sides to the very
crests, and covered the land to the very poles with » Hora of tropical and
senn-tropieal species iii profusion, and large mammals roamed over the
open spaces.

Then came the lev elliiig processes and other changes of post-Tertiary
or Quaternary times, the glaciation of mountains and nothern latitudes
with the consequent changes of climate, which brought .bout correspond-
ing changes in the ranks of the forest, killing out manv species around the

u.irci Ml ,1 M-nlal)lc' rent In lllc icv blusls

"!!r' ,?'"'' It' '™" '"''"''"' '" ^' '''■«'■•■'■• ""■ ^'•'""•■'- "' •!"■ '"-es,

as as s„rc as before, h„t .he battle nr.ier was s„mewhat cha„^^e,l ,„ suit
the new con, ,„o„s „f .„i| a,„i climate. , ,„l.v ,he har.lier tribes cot,l,l re-
Man, the northernntos, ,x,s,s. an,l of those who followe.l, tnanv f..nn,l their
in er places ot,^c„pane> chanKe.l by th.vial an,l lacstrin'e fomtations

nns ,^"""1' '■'""'•■■'"'■ '^^ ^'"^''- "'"''^ -"-• '" "--
-■ns.,„n„n, were ,.,mrel> nnh.le.l fr,.,n cKa^inK i,. a northern canmaiR,,

.. onn, ,„s„r„..„,,able l.rriers in ,he refn«era,e,l easfwest elevatt^ .
as ni l.iiropc and \\ estcrn Asia.

t'ETklHEI) THICK
In a.l,Iition. there ha.l co.ne new tniubies from volcanic ernpti.ms
winch w,ml,l aKan, an,l ap,i„ wres, the reo.n,|„ere,l Kn.un.l fron, ,l,e pe,'-
Mslent a,lva„ce Rnanis of the arb.„-eal anny, annihilating then, afjain an,l
aj^aiii.

Finally, when the nioie seltle.l ..eoloRic a.i.l elititatic co„,litio„s of the
p. .sent era arrivc,l,an,l the snn arose over the world, ready f,,r Innnan

2«

hab.lalion. man loniul what wi.- iirv |,k-a«-.l l,. call ihc virgin Inrcst-a pro-
.lud ol Ic.M^'-conlitim.l evululicnan chaMtrw-,,caipviiit; incM, if iim ;,ll.
rlif <ln land, aii.l evfr iiitnil iii,..ii .■xn-ndiiit; i(s rrahii.

I may iim, leave il.is prcliiMi.iic sl..rv of ilu' lialtl.' ,.l ilif fi.r.sl Willi-
am KiviiiK M„,u- hisinric ,;uW;m-s .11 il^ irmli. raU,.l,,ia,iis,s have uii-
larthed the raiiiiants .,1 ihc circi,mp,.|ar ll..ra which |,'ivc evidence that .1
rcscmWcd that uf th, preset Irnpic a.id semi-ln,|,ic c.imlries ; ihcv have
also shown that S«|noias. Magnolias. I.i,|,ii,lamhars am! Hickories existed
in Europe and on onr continent in regions where thev arc now jxtinct. We
have also evidences of tlie r,-peated successes and reverses of the forest in
Its attempt t.i estahlsh itself tlirouKh l.mK Ki"l"Kic transformations,

line ,,l the most imerestiiiK evidences of these vicissi'n.les in the
strngules ui the forest Ki eslahlish itself is preseilte.l in a section of Ame-
thyst Monillain in the Yellowstone I'ark, which exhibits the remains of i;,
loresl ^'rowths, one ahove the other. I.nried in the lava. .X^ain and atfiin
suhdnniK I'le iiiliospitahle exn.rialions. a^aiii and anain the forest had to

yield to superior force. Tlie face of the mountain inclmles over S.l feet

of strata restin.i; upon Kranite. The trees, or rather parts of them, stand
npripht and lie prostrate in i;o.«l preservation. 10 to .-,11 feet in leiiL'th and
not a few as imicl, as .-, and !i feet in diameter. | .Vote the ancient and
modern vegetation , coin|>aiiy. 1 The largest, nncovere.l In the acli.in of
water and soil movement, rising 1-.' feet aliove the enclosing strata, is 111
feet in diameter, and bc|onj;s to the Sequoia tribe.

Anion),' these petrifieil witnesses of foritier forest glorv, .Magnolias
( laks. Tulip trees, .Sassafras. Linden. Ash, have been ideinified. aceom-
paiiyniR the Se.juoias. while now only the hardiest growUi of pines and
spruces find a congenial climate here.

Reversals of this kind are takinir place even in our own lime, liefore
<nir ver>' eyes. In Alaska, and elsewhere, glaciers carrv large masses of
soil and rock, riepositinp- it in moraines at lower levels, rin these mor-
aines vegetation soon establishes itself, and finalh the forest grows to the
very edge, nay, upon the very back of the mighty icesheet, P.tit as the ice
river ebbs and Hows, recedes and pushes forwanl. the existence of the f<,r-
e,st cover is precarious and <if temporary duration— s.ioner or later it will
be pushed over In- the moving ice and bnric<l In the moraine material
Again receding, the glacier river carrying off the melted ice in a raj.id
stream, this .stream cutting through the moraine, mav uncover the buried
forest, as is the case near the celebrated Muir glacier, exhibiting to us a bit
of the earth's history and of the methods of making it, and the forces at
work in past eras.

.fust as the forest formed and sjircnd thus during the course of ages
so d.ies it form a.ul sprea.l lo-day, unless man, driven bv tJie increasiu"-
needs of existence, checks its progress ami reduces its area bv the cnltiva"-
tion of the soil. This natural extension of the forest-cover takes place

27

rc-.-..hl> wluTcvcT s,„l ami cli.nale an- lavoraLU-, lu„ ,, is accon,„li,l„,d i,,,,

z ;::^ : :;:t """ "'■"" "■ ""■ "■"■ ''^>- "'--•'"" i-ii-™-

["r H . , T "■*■""■■•""" '•' '•'■'""'■'"'■ •^'»-""'- 'i"-'''--' '"—

.had,,,, ,he^.n„„„l a„.| j;ra,l„alh runlcr i, rt, for ,|,. alK^k- „f ,|,. fores,

3"„ ^^"""^ "'-■' ■™^— 'i -il '.roakers. .h.- , ,. J . s

uc-re. of ,1,0 for,.s,, ar.- a hard, racx, ,„aki,„, loss ,|..,„a,„, f„r „,eir . ,p,»,

Ml'lK OI.ACIEU 1■•(JKJ•:^,T

ll-a„ those «1,„ are ,o follow. T,„,- ,o„„ fro,,, ,liHere„t tribes, aeeordl,,;;
o the el.,„a,ie e„i„i,„o„s i„ ,vl,ieh they have ,o cotnbat. As soot, as the^

''"s^'m'^'m ""■""^''^^' '^ '"•«'" 'heir cuitivatory activitv, uhiel,
umM ,s ,„ „,th,:,-au,nK lro,„ the ,-„ek or soil a„.i fro,,, ,1,, air the „i„ri-
t,ve ele,„e„ts, re,i,n„„,. the,,, to the soil whe., thev .lie a„.l ,leeav in a for,,,
.Jinch „,ore s.„tahle f, . the support of the higher pla„ts. Xot onlv are
th l,y the re,>ea,ed growth a„d decay „f these p,o„eers, the „„tritive ele-
l,H„l.s o, the s„,l „„prove,i a„,I a„(-„,e,„ed, l,„t also the phvsieal properties •
the s„,l ,s , leepetted ■■„,] hecon.es ,mdlow a,„l its eapaeitv- for n,oist„re i,,-'
crises. I he veaters. eharyed with earl»,„ie aeid deriVed fron, the deeav
of the vegetable h„..,„s, haste,, the deeo>„pusi,io„ ot the „„dcrlvi.,t; rock

2H

inul thus also the fertile snil layers inerfaM'. until ilie tnore faslidiims plants
fail stil»>ist. I'lie hiinilile'it workers. alRae. '' hens, eacti aii<l nutsses, arc
foJIo\\e<l In sedges, dry j;ras:*e«.. hcrl)s ami >liriihs. or, in tlic drier and
warmer climates, by a^.'a\es and vuccas; then enme t\Tns and other repre-
>eniative> ul the Kmer ve^elalion. siicenleiil );ra»es and lurh> ^.-radually
cnverin^' the s«til with a meatlow or prairie, the shrnlis Iieinnie more nunier-
cuis. by de^J^ree^ elnsiiii.: up. Nhaiinii^' ihe ^jronnd and i'ver>had"u in^; the
firasses and tnially the time is ri])e tnr the ariioreseeni tlnra. Nor does then
the forest aiiptar at onee m ii- inlbuss ;-.n<l varieiv ni form. Sin^de in-es.

IKkNS. SCICI.KKAT LAKK, AIa;(J\(,iI IN I'AKK

Stragglers or skirniisliLTs in small numbers, and >hrub-like. and stunted
forms hrst arrive, j^radually increasing in number ainl improving in form.
These, by their shade and by the f?ll and decay of their foliage and litter.
improve the soil for their betters to follow.

The .'\spcn is one of these fore-runners, which, thanks to its prolific
pr(jduclion of light, feathery seed, rcadil\ wafted b\ the winds over hun-
dreds of miles, readily germinating and rapidly growing under exjMisuro to
fnll sunliglii, even now in the .\ilironilacks. the Rock\ Moimtains and clse-
wiiere. i|nick!\ takes possession of the areas on which man has rnlhiessl)
destroyed all vegetation by (ire. This humble, ubi(piituus, but otherwise

.%

llu-buniliiiiiiitil.iici NJ.Ii', IhcnHli »li,,rl linil, »illi its briuhl miiiiiimt i'hI
iajfi' Miniint; iiilo l.rilluint aiiluiiiii lun's, it k'ivw u'rali-iul ^li.i.li- ami \m
^rrvi-s I'nmi ilu- thirsty "ittii ami witid sotlH' imii^tiMr inr llir l.ittfi- kiinls tn
ihrivc and laki' its plaii-, when it has fullillivl it~ iMssiuii.

Ill DthiT ri'KioiK, as i.ii the prairies <if k)«.i .iiid MliiKii,. lui/i'l luishi-s,
.ir. Ml ihi- iiiMnnlaiii. nt I Viiiis\ Ivaiiia ami llu- AlliKllaili.s in K'-niTal. fri-
laio.ns slnnl>~. Ilk, iliv l.annl. ami Khi.il.iikn.lrnns, ,,r llawlluirn. \ i-

III*

ASHEN .I.AKK. UTAH

burnum and Wild Clierry are the first comers, while along the water
courses Alder and \\ illows crowd even llic wattr into narrower channels,
catching the soil which is washed Ironi the hillsides and inoreasiiiK the land
area.

Une of the most interestinfj soil makers, wresting new territory from
the ocean itsell, is the Mangrove along the coast of I'lurida. \ot only docs
it reach out with its aerial roots, entangling in their meshes whatever litter
may tloat about, and thus gradually building up the shore, but it pitches
even its young bre. rd into the advance ol the battle, to wrestle with the
waves and gain a foothold as best it may.

Not less interesting in this respect is that denizen of the southern
swamp, the Uald Cypress, with its curious root c.\crescenses known as

1 ypros Km-i-s. which an- .1 hvlpiiil m ,'s|«.iiiMit; iIuuik.' ..i wui.t int..

land suffick'ntly .Irv to tw . ipahl.' ..f Mi|i|«.riiii>; ihf iii..r,- i;,sii,li,.ii, i,i 1,
1,'arii 1.. iii..isiiirc L-oiuhtiiiti^.

Ilcrr we shi.ulil iioii' ihc reniarkahlc a.laplalii.ii ti. ilivirs o.n.hlii.ii> ..f
some lift hi- im- >|.iTii-s. TriTs ,'f the 4«ani|i, .ir at least niaii> ..f tluni
sceni to inilicate thoir iiiile|irnileni'e ..f iiioistiiri' ooiichtioin liv the raiide ..l
climate anil .-oil in «hich tlH'\ are funii.i. In fact, they nr.iw in the >Hain|i.
not because it is their most siiitalile loiality. hut iHcaiise lhe> are the oiii-s
that can ilo so. to the exclnsimi ..luilur .■..iii|ietitors. The llalil Ivpress.
in Lake Dnilnmnml itself, nil! ^;r...^ in il:, ,|r> m,iI ar.i .jn.iijjjitv atmos-
phere of Texas anil .\le\io.: the 1 hiKs, uliieli ass..eiale uith il in tin

THli SKIKMISll I.INE OF THE FOKKST. AKIZUN.A

swamp, will occupy almost any soil or site; the Reil or Sweet (ium or
I-iquidambar. which has lately become an important lumber producer, is
found in similar ranges of habitat; the same Juniper or Red Cedar
which in the swamps of I'lorida is a large tree and makes the soft material
for our pencils, covers also the driest ridges of the Rockies and Interior
Basin west of the Rocky Mountains, with a gnarly growth and hard tex-
ture, supplying the most lasting poles and posts. Thanks to the taste of
the birds for its berries, it finds ready dissemination over a wide field of

SI

hmIs ilie \cr)

cllslribulwu iruiu .\r« Kruiinuk u. I lun.la ami «.,i«ar.l U>i..ul lliv
l<.Kku», lolllllin; »nll iIk- ulllaili ullKai .\-.lHll all.i I o
f'liri'iMuMl ailiaini' i;ciarcl ul the luicsl.

llK- .kniiii,-li Ini,' ,.1 hr.sl i,,iii, r,,, .l.liiTciil ..iii> ni .iHiiTtiil climalw,
ininal JM ilu .r n^^■cl^, iiiq..,ri.- llic luiiiliiioii.-, ii.r llif mure laalulious liinhoi,
>liii>, maples, ashi^ uak, liukorus,, niaunulias, >iinui!>, lir», imics, and lllc
uli..l.' Ii,.,,i „i tlu. larini h.ivM II,,,.,. U|„di ,,| ili>>,' «ill ,,aii,) cvrlain
iiTrii(iry,lcii«icl»jiuh.'riMiilaiv,,ii kiiip.-auin- >„ii,Iiik,ii,, ami in the
>«ond plai-i; .,ii ni„[,i.iri- ioM.liti„M.s .,( air ami »,,il ami the lariuil. coinbiii-

alluli. ul llic.i; lai;lur>, Hhich d,uriiinn.ilic nc.a'i'l'l'i'^al di.,irilHilioii ol
!»pucic».

A» iar as ujiipeialuri- i> o,i,iui,i,l, ilnr. ,. i,„ liij;hc,l liiim, pruvidcd
-ulliccm inuisliiR- l,c- preM,,!. 1 1„. |,.iv,i ,,i ,l,>^ i,„pK, y,ii, ev,dcm„ of
llu» lael. 1 ,][ the uihir haml, low unipeiauiri- ■, Mn-im» »ii a liiiiit lu in-e
growth, as llle l,orlhfln lundras ami the \M-l|-kiiov\ i, liiiil„;iliiie ul" hiyll
liiouiitains show, varyiiij; in altitmle af.urdnig to lalitcuie, i.e., icniperaturc
conditions.

As regards nioi.sinrc, we have Meji that inan> s|jceies live in the
swamps ,,i the South, will, their ieet in water lor months, and their heads
in a hnniiil atmosphere all the >ear, while the plains and deseils, dcticienl
111 soil moisture and lummlit) ul" the air, ale treeless, or at least ioreslless.
W illnn these e\t,eme. we liii.l .speeies adapu.l u, ever> elime and site.

As we go from the tropics to tlie [lole, tilere is a ehauye in the t)pe of
the lore.^l w nil eaeh ellanne of elimale. Irolll the everyleeii, hroaddeavcd
forest of the iropies and suhtrupics, we may journev northward through
the deeidnous leaved forests of the C'aroliiias and i'eiiiisylvania, of oaks,
hickories, chestnut ami tulip tree, or traveling along the Pacilic (.'oast,
through a mixeil forest of lirs, s|.rnce5, pines, in most magiiilicenl develop-
ment. 1 hell (c.iitiminig imr journev on ihe .Xlhmtic side) we reach the
Xorthcrn forest, in which iiia|.le, lieech and liirclt arc preiloniinant, with
s|>ruce anil white pine iiitermi.\ed. lleyoml, the number of species de-
creases, and genenilly coniferous growth preiloniiuates ; Hnally only eight
hardy species can take a stand against the frigid lireath and icv hands of
Boreas.

Fil,t,llv, we reach beyond tlie Hi" of lalitmie in the iiiteiior of Canada
—in .\laska, much further north— the last outposts, short, tousled and
dwarfed, the li,\quiinanx of tree growth. Ihen the treeless tundra
is reached, where ice and snow aboumi all the year, the home of
winter. ere the soil is frozen for all but two months in the year, when
only a low vegetation of willow and birch and of ll<,wers can subsist. Just
,is we observe these changes in a long j.inrney. we can trace them in a , lay's
ride, if we were to ascend sonic mountain in the tropic or sub-tropic regions
c, Mexic, r Jamaica. We begin our journey under the palms. Again
we pass t,..ough the evergreen tropic forest, compcaed of an endless var-

■^i

11-1} ol liwuriiuil .t«xic.. A. wt a«:iiid i.wni or J.ixin i«i the cuimim*..
lu.ll dLili^. . uii.l ttc- liav.' .ollk.' lii.w llK. .Uri,|ii„ii. Ujuil l,;i.-,l, iiul uu.llli
liar 11, Ki-i„n,l .i.|„vi ,„ ,|i.„ ,„ ,„„. ,„„|,||,. ,„„„„|„. \^ ^. „._.^|, ^ ,.,,„|^

pl4lcauaiiJiiii.l,i„:ciipua«,il,p,iu.. aiul .aw laliiiaiu a. uiiacrl.tu.li.
JU.I a. wc .« 11 ,11 ihc l..aruliiia.. A. vvc a.tcii.l lu 111,- n.iiiHj tM kvd, «.■
ailer iiilu llic iluiuuiwi, „, .pruct. au.l lir., and «.: iiia> hii.l llic open iilca-
.lo«. «ii 1 a proluMoii ol lloM.r.. 1 1,i-,l- uiKiiiiig,, in ( olorado ami olhc-r
l.un» .„ 111.. |<,Ki,u.,. ar> d,ar;ia.ri.luah.> ..illol p.rU. ll.i. ., ,lq.r..„„n
han lllkd np wilh water, loriinnK a U,vd> lllonntaill lake, v. nil the ,priiee»
anil lir, ni ,piral .hape. .urrouiuliiiK ihe chores, ju,t a, )on Ini.l iliem in
Urill.h Loiuinlua at lower level,. ,\notlii r i.nnn lo ,-.,imii uel, and Uu
iure,t upiii, a» 111 uiir iiortli«ar,l jonriie) , the tree. ,taii,l in ^runp.,, and the
lira.«an.lno«er, oeeni- nitervennn; .pace,, eoinpelin^. lor the groniid.
A. wepa«ontol ihi, lovely park-like region, «e omie m „kI,i oi the peak
and Ol the skirnn.h hue ui the forest , .intjK and m .mall t;ruup, the irec.
try to brave the hla.l, hustjinn the srouinl ami each other lor protection
tousled and dwarfed a. their iiorlliern counterpart.. Ice laden with the
trozen Innindity of the.c high attiliide. for month, the branche, break
Tin, lead, to nn^sl upen lorin. liiiallv we Inne |.a-,ed ,he linincriuic
where ley blajis and hard frost, occur every month in the year and hence
no persistent life can cxi.l ; and, if we are quick about desccildinij, we may
again rot undei the palms at night.

U iiile, Iheii, certain territory is assigned to the different tribe, of tr.-
s-pecies, which are adapted to the climatic and .oil conditions, struggling . ,
occupy the ground ami to wrest it from the lower vegetalion, there is by no
means an end to the evolutionary struggle, for, as ,oon as the soil is con-
quered, the lattle begins between the conquerors themselves. Ihough not
louglii witli claw, and teeth, the struggle is as Herce. as persistent and a*
disastrous to the one or to the other species as in the animal world, each
trying to occupy the ground to tlie exclusion of the other. Ihe weai»,iis
and the wartare are offensive and defensive, but relative endurance of one
or more unfavorable conditions, adaptation to surroundings, insure mostly
the final victory and secure the survival of the fittest. The characteristics
ol development from the seed to old age nitlueiice the character of the dis-
tribution,

Prolific and frequent production of light-winged seed, carried by the
wind to all open spaces, germinating readily and growing rapidly, gives an
advantage to the one species. Ihe heavy nut of the walnut or acorn must
wait for squirrels, mice, birds and water to extend its territory.

The seed of the willow loses its power of germination within a few
hours or days ■ hence it is confined mainly to the borders of streams, where
favorable opimrtunities for sprouting exist. The acacia and others of the
legiiminous tribe, like the black locust, preserve their seed alive for many
years : nay. the seed of the former will often lie buried in the ground for

r

.M.l.a...lrd...,..,lu-,...,|„„l, «l,.„,ir.-,wl„.-|, lu, i.rolMlK ,|.Mr.„..,l
. li >u,.,p..,„o,„ „|,..,„ ,„..„, 1 1„. ,,„„lur,.i,., .„■ ,1,.. '„.,!, ,l,n, j. „ ,
lur rnin.li Mulu. ,luinbm.,.ii ui ,,l;uii..

^ ,. , ""■ ' *"'""■ '""'" '""" • ■■ "'™ '"'■''- -'«■"• 11..-

U.e iI.kU. Kr,™,,,^; a,,..,, cwv.r, larK. area., I,m ,t, n.^n i, „ ,|,„r. Jur

K. V,,,,, ,,,n,cv „r „„. „l,id, o,ul,l ,up,K,rt „>d,- un.i.r >lu- l.^h, ,l,a.l u
.hc^a»,cncr.cp,,,,,a,,,,m,,a,„,o„.hc.hcl,l, .lu- vk.,. ,, ,,'„ ,,,,!,:'

^i'"''" '■"l"''' l"^^'-»i»'"'> linnht-Krowll, cnal,l.> ilicc ,o .scape- llic

. r cold, a,„l o< shad. Uvors ...hcrs ; „ ,„dstor,„s a,„l d..ay, ,„ .„„■ , rn ,cva

.orcsts aa,ng a, aili.s now iu „n.., n„« ,„ ,1„ ,, .„, „„, , ^ ;'

'"« Ihg balance ..l ,x,«cr a^'ain and ayain. ''

1" this slruKsk for SLprcnucj hc.wccn ll... di.i.r.nl arl„rc,c„,L „..-
uis the con,pctn,on ,s hnally less lor suil than l„r li>.hl ,hc ,n.,M inn,, r

-. ..c.or ofliu., .spccndiv for ..... ,r„w,l,. „ ,s und. ' ,

.«^. ha, ,oha,c dcvelc,,s and ,|,.n ,...., «.rc,sc thcr mnc,„ ^ .
I.e irce 1» assnn,Ia,n,K ihc carl,.,,, of Hn- air a„,I ,ra„sp,r„,,. ,h.. /a, c
ro„, ,hc so,l ; .hc ,„„r.. folia,.. an.I ,1,.. n,orc li,l„ a, i,s ,li po..| a re H t

tlH.- niore v.goronslv i, will grow and spread „sclf.

.Now. Ihc sprcad.ny oak or beech of ,l,e open field finds close ncLd,

burs n, the torcst, a,„l is narrowed in fro,n all s„les and force, l.olen'.h,"

^h ^, :: r':;:r "t^ r ^r" "" '-^ '"='"• ■' ■' "-'-j "-p"^"k

ovcrsludowid. snppressed and perhaps finally killed bv n,ore liwerful
clensely-fohaKcd co,„petitors. !• ron, the shape of the tree ad of ^s^rl
we can jud,e whether it had to wrestle w.th nel^hlJr t iTO,'!
Ut winch predicts the issue and the final result, if that the var.ou" Cell
are hrterentl, endowed as regards their abihty to tolerate the shade or'^
' '^ ^'"'"""' "' I'Kl" which they need for their existence

or pinej, tamarack, etc. P ' ^'"^

34

All iRvs MiliuiaU'l) ilnlvc hisi hi full unj,.yiiR.iii „i ligln a„a then only
ik-vi'lupilK-ir cl.;ira.-niisiic Ic.rni. l;m, just as soiiu' spt-cics can a,lapt
llK-iiisilns 111 cxi-i'ss or ilctK-inio in uKiisHirc ciiiHliliuns, su suinc can sub-
sist and even llirivc w.lh less liglu ilia.i ,.ll,crs, an,l wc- can classilv anil
Kradc llic specus accordniKly inlu lulcram or shadc-cnduring and intoler-
anl (;r liglit-nccdin^;.

I he dense si>rnce and ti- turesl slii.ws by llie number of tri-es that can
occupy an acre ihe capacity oi the species to llirivc in the sliaile of neigh-
iK'rs. winle the ope., pine forest gives a., i.idieation lliat tile spcx.es re-
(|uires larger amounts of light to thrive.

The dcnscly-foliaged crown of tliehe.iilock, with the branches iKset
with leaves ...to the vciy interior, attests its extre.ne shade endurance,
while the liglit-foliaged, open-crow.icd larch or poplar, asll or birch, or
even pine, show their extreme sensitiveness to the absence of light b> the
very openness of their crowns, by losing their lower branches early and by
the inability of their see.llings and young proge.iy to e.nh.re the shade of
neighbors or even of their ow.i pare.it trees.

To utfset this drawback in their co.istitution, they have usually so.ne
advantage in the character of llie seed and are inostly endowed with a rapid
height growth in their yoiuh, so that, at least wlie.i the competition for
light starts with even chances, they may si'cure their share by growing
away from their would-lx; suppressors. They can keep themselves in a
mixed forest only by keeping alKa<i and occupying the upper crown level,
as the White I'ine does. The tolerant species, on the other hand, able to
thrive in the shade of light-foliaged species, usually increases more slowly
in height; but their capacity of shade endurance assures to them a perma-
nent place in the forest.

Many of them are characterized by a height growth which, though
slow, is persistent ; while the light-needing species, by falling behind in
their rate of height growth, often lose in the end what they attained in their
youth. As a result the shade eiulurers tinally become dominant and the
light needers occur in the mixeil forest only sporadically, the remnants or
si.igle survivors of groups, all the outside members of which have perish-
ed ; and only when a wi.idstorni or insect pest creates an opening of suffic-
ient size is a chance for their reproduction given.

Thus the composition and general appearance of the mixed forest is
largely i.itlue.iced by this difference i.i light requiranents of the species
present and its numerical make up also depends upo.i the require-
ments by each i.idividual and its capacity to get ahead of its neighbor.

Just as in the mixed forest the species are distributed according lo
their shade endurance, so in the pure forest of one species, or of species of
equal tolerance, will the differei.t-si7..-d or different-aged trees develop side
by side according to available light, each crowding the other, the laggards
being finally killed by the withdrawal of light.

35

Ihe viclor> comes lo lhu=,c, «iiu lj> value c.l ml.cniLd superior viyur
or ownig lo Ihe duuce ol tiuduiy bcUer »o.l, donuuter Ihe omuuuiul,, ju,l
us in llic huinun worl.l ;, ,,,..!eM ^rc driven lo llie ^yM.

liul.lmMy,- ll«e >.;•!., v,sl give wa), lor, as Uercules, the
unconquerable, »ue l.i.KJ ... U„: p . ,on lliat pellelraled lo Ins bones, so
■' the nnghlv g,, v. , ,|k l.,,;eM mil a pre) u. liie n.Mdious uork oi ro.
anu ungus and ins.-. <■■■■■ rni.. U |,en ils heart i., riddled and weak-
ened, hrsl Ule dry branches cninibte and gra.hiallj gue upportuniiv lor the
young allergrowth ol shade-enduring kinds, wailn.g pulienllj lor light to
slrenglhen; then break the large limbs and ilic drv top, and, having
weathered the onslauglil ol the storms lor centuries and the guerillas ol the
luugus tribe lor deca.les, Hnally theg.aiil tails, with its dccaj.ng substance
enriching the soil lor luture generalions. Into the breach rusli llie xoung
epigones, each struggbng lo supplant their i,rogeniior and lo preserve the
torest.

It is in consequence ol these changes in hght con.lilions that the alterii-
alions ol lorest growth lake place, oak following pnie, or pine folluwing
oak; poplars, birches, cherries, apearing on the s'lnny burns, and spruce
hickory, beech and maple creeping i,no the shade of these hglu-ueeding
species and, in lime, supplanting them.

While, in the Eastern forest, under natural conditions, the rotation of
power IS accomplished in from Mil to JIHI years, the old monarchs of the
I ache, lowcnng above all competitors, have held swav ■i.mo or more years
And, in this warfare, with changes in climatic and soil conditions going on
at the same time, it may well occur that a whole race is crowded out and
exterminated. Ihe virgin forest, then, is the product of long struggles
e.xtending over centuries, nay, thousands of years. Some of the mighliest
representatives of old families, which, at one time of prehistoric date were
powerlul, still survive, but are gradually succumbing to their late in our
era.

The largest of our Eastern forest trees, retiching a height of l.-.iJ feet
and diameters up lo Vi feet, the most beautiful and one of the most useful
—the Tulip tree (Lirodendron )— is a survivor of an earh era, once widelv
distributed over the world, now conHncd to Eastern Xortii .\merica doom-
ed to vanish soon from our woods owing lo maii-s improper partisanship
Others, like the Torreyas and Cnpressus. seem to have siiccuinbcd to a na-
tural decadence, it we may judge from their confined limits of distribution
1 he colossal Sequoias too, remnants of an age when things generally were
of larger size than now, api^ar to be near the end of their reign ■ wh'iie the
mighty Ta.xodium. the Llald Cypress, the l!ig Tree of the I'last, 'still seem
vigorous and prosperous, weird with the grey Tillandsia or Spanish moss
being able to live with wet feet without harm to its constitution.

So far we have considered the evolution of the forest only from the
geographical and botanical point of view, and the history of its struggle for

;<ii

■ MMiK.v ai;:,iMM il„. ,k-inn;ls ni»l .-iKainst tlu- Invv.r vcKclalinii and other
I'Tii^ ,,1 i.aliirr. A ,„■„ iliaptiT .,1 ics lilV liiMon. a new rdalL.Ti, a new

I " "' ^'>'»- l"~.i» "l"M mail caim- m|,..ii iIr. «-.-ik'. and liiialK man l.as

iKri.mi' 111,- m<.M inlhicntial tactur in tlu- <-v.ilnti..n ,,f tlu
il ill a.iii|..,Mii,,ii aii.i (.-hanuter ..f l.-vi-lnpnu-nl.

■St. clian^in^r

1-E1,LIXG TIMULK.

LECTURE V.

SILVICULTURE, OR METHODS OF FOREST
CROP PR3DUCTI0N.

The mam Inisim-ss and concmi o." the silvicullurist is nimaincil in thu-
rcprcduoticiK.fllK' wcHMU-rop, ami liisoncohlijiatioii i« ilial li.' nmsl rc-
loiluce tlif cnip wliicli lie has harvoslcd in any vear.

As ihc I'arnuT so« s anil reaps sii the forester harvests and replaces.
allhiMifjh the methods of the two have little in common ; nor are the meth-
o.ls appllcahle ivhich are used In the orcharilist or the landscape Rardener.
I he tree which salisties these does not at all satisfy the rccpiircmenls of th.^
lorcster, for his point of view, his aim. is a dilifereiit <.ne. and hence his
methocLs are his own. In fact, single trees are not his .ihject any more than
the single grass-hlaile is the object of the fann<T ; the larijesi amonnl of
wood in the most saleable and prolitahle form is his aim. lo(;s rather than
trees, and the financial restilts from their harvest. The final aim of the
silviciilturist is, therefore, attained oidy when he has removed the old trees
ami replacerl them hy a yoiini; crop. He ijrows trees in masses and for
their snhstance, .\ot (.nly does he deal with trees in masses, but with trees
ill natural conditions, l.eiu); by financial considerations often limited in the
use of artificial aids and methods, such as the other tree cnltnrists and the
farmer in his crop produetion iiia\ eniplov.

Restricted as he is, or finally will be, to the p<«)rer soils and conditions,
those least favorable to agricultural production, he is forceil to the most
conservative management of the natural conditions in order to secure a de-
.sirahle result without too much expenditnre, which his loi
cannot repay.

In everv productive industry there can be recogii
namely, the business branch and the technical branch.

The silviculturist is the one who handles the technical branch of the
business, namely, the iiroduction of the crop or material.

The technical branch is ilivided into several sub-branches, the chief
among which are :— Silviculture, I'orest Protection, I'orest H.\|iloitation.
Silviculture is a branch of arlxiricultiire. Forest Protection is the art of
protecting the forest from adverse agencies such as fire, storms, pests, etc.
Forest exploitation is the art of harvesting the forest growth to the best ad-
vantage.

It is incumbent upon the silviculturist to secure conlinnitv of favor-
able conditions in order to secure continuity of the crop. The forest man-
ager who looks after the revenue may often be found at odds with the sil-
viculturist, the pocket interest preventing the ideals of silviculture.

long-maturing crop
lized two branches : —

38

The characcer of tlie wood crop differs from Ihat of the agri-ultural
crop, i-spcc.alli in tin- tact that il lakes many years before it ca.i lie l.arvest-
eil. If the a>;ricullnrist makes a mistake in plaiitiiiK' one vear he can rec-
tify his error the next year, whereas the forester can neverVectifv aiiv sncli
error until the next crop. Ihereforc it is necessarv for the silviciiltii'rist to
make closer study of the life history of his material than the aKriculturisl
needs to make. He must lie more eircnmspect in piai.niui,' his crop, so that
it will hecoine self-siistainin>,'.

i he silvicniturist, as before noticed, imist make a selection from the
mill to .■.110 species of trees Ihat occur naturally with us. to grow, lie must
Krow those varieties which are reasiiiiabl> sure of a market when they ma-
ture. 1 hese .•.111) species max be diviiled into those which are useful and
those which are but tree wercls. W hat is a weed r It is a plant the use of
which has not been f,.nud out yet. In order to select those species which
we are p.mg lo reprndiice we must have a relative value of the various
species cstalilislie.l. .\ gUmn at the market reports shows ns that not more
than ;il of these .Mill species are being use.l and sold. Changes; however
will occur. .Simc species will fall into disuse, and oilier species that are
now in disuse will become their siibstitules. The case of the I leml.ick
might be cited as an example. The silviculttirisl must therefore forecast
the future. ( )iie thing we are fairly sure of is that the timber at present in
use 111 largest (|uainily will be sure of a market in the future. Among this
last class we can place the conifers and especially the white pine, which
furnish the bulk ,,l our lumber. We must also suit our trees to the clima-
tic conchtions of the country, there being little chance for acclimatizing
them, hence native species are mostly preferable. The choice of soil must
also be considered. The trees rely less n|K.n llie mineral constituents than
niK.u the physical conditions, and hence we relegate the best .soil to the
agncnitnrist. W ater. however, is the important factor, and thus the silvi-
cniturist tries to secure favorable water conditions, the depth of .soil being
nf much impurlauce in this resiled, especially with deep-riMited sjiecies.

Other considerations also intlueuce his o|ieratioiis, such as the pre-
servation of soil and moisture, which is the most essential contribution of
the soil to tree growth, and which rer|uires the soil to be kept shaded.

In fact, there is nothing that a forester guards so jealously, next to the
light conditions at the crown, as the soil conditions: A soil free of
weeds and grass and covereil as amply as jKissible with a heavy mulch of
dccaving leaves and twigs, and this best protection of the soil moisture
lie deficient, a cover of shrubby undergrowth which requires less water
llian weeds and grass— this is the character of a desirable forest floor.

.Mtogether it will have appeared from the prexinns studv of tree
groHlh and forest ilcvelopmem that the entire silvicultnral operations with
ail established crop resolve themselves into one. namely, proper manage-
ment of light conditions, which is secureil b\- the judicious use of the axe.

3'J

hrcs,
stand

llnis replace
sprouts t'lom
lopriidiiclidii
a|)-

I.et us now examiiu. ilu- livsl way ul Ic.rniinj; a f(in.-sl. A mixcil staiul
IS Lest for all p»r|Kisos, Inn it re(|iiires tiii.rc skill in its iiianat.'em>-iit. In •
mixed stand we comliiiie the tolerant and intolerant varieties, the deep-ri«it-
ed with the shallow-r,H_.ted Varieties, thus llsin;; all the available r.wt and
airspace, litis arrangement is also a protection aKainst insecti
winds, snow and other destnielive agencies, and, moreover, such
furnishes a varied prodnct.

Ihere are two methods of starling a crop: arlilicial re-forcslalion and
natural regeneration, .secured In the proper use .,l the a.xe. In hare sling
llie old crop the new crop ma.v h ■ reproduced.

Most of our deciduous trees will sprout ami
llieir fore-runners In a ciifl'uc growth, consisting o
;he stumps. Ilie simplest and crudest method of
which results naairally when the ol,| hard hihbIs ar
I-licahle .)nly to the hroaildeaved trees which are cajiahle of producing val
:al)le shoots in this manner. 1 he capacity for sprouting is possessed in
different degrees hv the different species and is more or less lost hv all in
lid age ; and espcciall\ after repeated harvests the stunii)s hecomc exhaust-
ed and die, .so that the forest is apt gradually to deteriorate in coui|)<>sition
as well as in density, unless fresh WchmI is ad<le(l hy reproduction from
s.ed. Thus in l'einis> Ivaiua. where the system has lieen in vogue for a
century or more to furnish charcoal for the iron furnaces, the valuahle
white oaks and hickories have been crowded out hy the chestnut, which is
a superior sprouter.

.\nother disadvantage of this coppice svstem. uuiler which the w(h>iI-
laiids of decidtious trees in almost all New I'.ngland ami .\tlantic .States
are produced, is that, although the sproms develop much faster than the
seedlings from the start, they six.n fall off in their growth, and are capable
merely of furnishing small dimensions and firewiH«l. The coppice, there-
fore, is useful only for certain purposes, but eain;ot he relied uiKm to fitrn-
isli material for the great lunihcr market.

rite deterioration conse(|uent uixm the continued aiiplication of the
coppice is best studied in Italy anri in certain ]iarts of I'rance where ser
\iceable timber is almost unknown, and fagots of siuall firewoo<l are |>re-
cious articles.

All other metliwls of regeneration, lK>th artificial and nattiral, depend
ultimately upon the use of seed. In order to rcprtKluce with any degree of
success the silviculturist must secure good seeil. good seed bed. good light,
and good protection for his seedlings. The choice of method depends ttiwii
fitlancial as well as silvictilttiral consitlerations.

In iirotection forests and Itixury forests in which the recpiiremcnl of a
continuous .soil cover may he |)aramount. methods in which the old crop is
very slowdy removerl and replaced by the new crop are itidicaled. even if
financial and silvicultural results would make other methods desirable.

40

In supply forests Ihc cheapest method which secures desirable propor-
tionate results ill the crop is to be chosen. This must vary according to lo-
cal conditions, such as climate, soil, species, cost of planting and of log-
ging-

The clearing process followed by artificial replacement entails a money
outlay for the latter from year to year; the gradual removal methods with
natural seeding avoid, to be sure, this outlay, but since, to secure the same
amount of harvest, a larger territory must be cut over, they entail large in-
itial investment for means of transportation, which must be maintained for
all the years of removal and they occasion also otherwise greater expenses
in the harvest than the concentrated logging in the clearing .system, which
may be doi e over temporary roads.

Over H(l [wr cent, ol the forests of (iermany are managed under a
clearing system and rapid removal systems, and only -.'o |)er cent, under
slow removal and other systems.

\\ here, as in our culled forests, the valuable spivies have been removed
and the weed trees have been left in possession, it stands to reason that no
regeneration method will re-establish the better species ; Ihev must be res-
tored by artiticial means.

These slo.v reiioval methods consist in opening small spaces or nar-
row .strips so as to prepare the soil and let in sufficient light to cause the
germination of the seeds which fall from the trees left standing.

Trees seed only in periods, for example, the white pine seeds only
every three or five years, and we must know when the seed year is going to
occur. Soine species have seeds every yea.-, and if the>- are not desirable
we must cut so as to get rid of them.

In our virgin w.K,ds the seedbed often is undesirable. The litter must
be decomposed to funiisli a gixid seed Ix-d so that the tin\- fibrous roots of
the seed may reach mineral soil. Some species recpiire more light than
others in youth. an<l hence the parent trees must be removed more or less
rapidly.

One of the simplest metlKMis of regeneration is the strip method. This
consists in cutting a strip of trees from the land in such a way that the wind
will blow the seeds from the trees standing on to the cut part. Anothe/-
strip is cut the next year, and so following. Another of the crude methods
is an improvement on the lumberman's method of cutting old trees here and
there and thus giving light to the young volunteer aftergrowth ; the so-
called "selection' method. The lumberman culls, to be sure, only the trees
he can use, but ll c forester works from the standpoint of the young crop,
i.e.. he cuts with a view to the best interest of the young cro|i. The best
inetbofl, where [iracticable, consists in the gradual but more ra|>id removal
.>f the whole crop so that the young crop will have a clear new field to
start on.

-*

c\

42

In this so-callol ""nursc-trfe" niethnil ilu- pfritMis nt culling must re-
Cfive considi-ratioii. A pn'paraton cut sccun-s Ik-iut swil pnxhK-tinn aiitl
uIm) a In-'tiT M-Lil U'll and bfitvr lij^'Iit ; till- iii'xt cut is uiaiK- to strurc full
swd |)n«luctiuu ; till?. i> tollowtd liy two or luori- rcuu'val luttinj^s, as tlic
VHUU^' crnp dnuaiids ; until riiiall) . iu :t to -.'u years, tin- wlmli- old crup is rc-
luovi-d.

Iu (ifniiauy. ()vcr .'iii por ci-ut. of the rfpHHluctiim is doiK- hy artificial
nu-aus. auil t!iis is fnuud til Ik- lUdst satisfactory. After tlie crop is pro-
duced there is still a chance of improvitij; it hy accelerating its development.
It is possible to increase the production -.' to .1 fold hy a proper use of the
axe.

.\s in the natural methods the axe is the only t(Hil wliicli is used to se
cure the regeneration, so is the axe the oily t(H)l which cultivates ihe youn^:
crop, such cultivation consistini^ in the judicious removal of surplus tree«

GERMAN SPRUCE FOREST.

4S

A^

by the so-cilleil tliiniiiiij;s. by which the (|uantity and cuialily of the crop is
iiicreasccl. To inukTstancl this, it is necessary tn kinm- that trees form
wi^mI liy the function of tlie foHay:f nnder the influence of lipht.

Hence, a tree with nnieh foliaj^'e an<l unitnpeiled access of hj,^ht is
bomid lo make tnucli wood, 'I liese con<htions are fidfilled when the tree is
allowed to j^row in open stand, as on a lawn, without cli>sc nei^^hhors, wlu>
would cut off some of the lijjht supplv.

Rut trees un<i such conditions f;row mostly into branches, the crown
1)einR- developed at the exjK-nse of the bole, which remains short and more
or less conical in shape, of little commercial or technical use, except for
fire wmihI, When the tnmk is sawn into ln)ards. every branch appears as a
defect, known as a knot, which makes it unfit ft»r use in the better class (i
work, and thus while the total rpiantity of wood in the tree is increased
by the open stand, it Is done at the expense of quality.

The object of the forester, however, is not simply to ^^row wood, but
to produce wood of such form and ([uality as ts useful in the arts. The ideal
tree for him is one with a lonp. cylitidrical. branchless tnmk, bearing its
crown hij;h up. which when cut into lumber pro<luccs the largest amoimi
of material clear of knots, of straij^bt fibre, and pvin^-^ the least amount of
waste or fire wood.

Tlis aim. therefore, nuist be to >o place his trees that, while the lar^esl
I oRsible amotuit of wood shall be produced, it shall be dejMisitcd in the most
useful form also.

44

lly acliisi' |«>sui<>ii, whni «k1i ircc cms oil iliv side li>;hi from in
lidKlihors, lllf fiirriialinn of hmiichi's is |irfvfnlfil. or the lirainlus whitli
wiTi- fi)rinnl. iH-iiij; ovi-rsllailimul, smm iiisi- llieir vitalilv, ilic. ami tiiiallv
break off, leaving tile sliafi suhkhIi. anil, if this clfaritiK was eflfwleil U-fnn-
the braiiclws had rcaclioci coiisiiUraMc size, the aiivjiini of elear liiinbei is
increased.

lint auaili, if llu- trees are kept ti«. close, if Iimi iiiaciy trees are allowed
to (trow on the acre, each otic haviiiK tlr sinallesl amount of foliage and
liRht at its ilis|H>sal, the amount of wikhI pn»luced hv the acre may Ik- filllv
as large as it is capable of produciuK. but it is distril>t".d over so mane in-
dividuals that each develops at the very slowest rate ., id hence .Iocs not
Krow to useful size in the shortest time.

To .secure his object. pro<lucini; the lar(;est ani.>unt per acre of th.
most useful wixxl in the shortest lime, ihe forester must know what mini-
her I "es to permit to (;riiw so as to balance the advantajjes and disad-
vantages of close atid oiien |)osilioii.

This number differs tint only accurdiny to the species com|K>sin(; bis
crop, but also according to soil and climatic conilitions anil to the ajje of the
crop.

Some trees having c- ■ ^: 'erabic capacity of endurinK shaile, like the
beech, suijar-maple. or spruie, ina> reipiirc many more indiviiluals to the
acre than the more lidbt-ncedini; oaks and pines ; on richer soils fewer in-
dividuals will produce satisfactory results, when on |KKirer soils more inili-
viduals must be kept on the acre. The question of the proper number of
trees to be allowed to Rron per acre at different ajjes is one of the most dif-
fl\.ult, on which practitioners differ widelv.

In general, however, the practitioner has recoi;nized the necessity of
preservinK a dense |x)sition for the first twenty to thirty years of the voting
crop, sacrificiuR quantitative development to (|uality and form. The close
stand secures the lonp;, branchless, cylindrical trunk, which furnishes the
clear saw-log.s of Rreatcst value. Then, when the maximum rate of height
growth has been attain- d. a more or less severe IhiniiiiiK is inilicated. in or-
der to .secure quantitative development, and these thiniiin(;s arc repeated
periodically, to Rive more light as the crowns close up. and also to utilize
such of the trees as are falling bel'ind in this woorl proiluction.

As a result of judicious thinnings, the rale at which the remaining
crop develops may be doubled and quadrupled, the heavy, more valuable
sizes are made in shorter time, and, where the inferior material removed in
the thinnings is salable, a much larger total pro<luce is in the end secured
from the acre, for many of the trees which were removed and utilized
would have died, fallen, and decayed in the natural struggle for existence.

In fiemian forest management the amount utilized in thinnings
amounts to '.i,') per cent, and more of the final harvest yield.

^

4u

VVIlilt the crop is divcluiuin; il i», ul' tuurai:, ucccsKiry tu pixrtctl it
ajjaiiisi daiiia^ic uf varioii. kiiuls. Hit juuim sttUling. ol' auiiic »p«:in
art apt lu sulltr Iruiii lro»i or Oromli, whitli it avoidtd by growiin; ihtm
uiidtr shtlltr oi oWtr Irttn. b) UrainiuK wcl placts, stcurmg opporluillty
li.ri-.,M air t,j draw oil, tit.- inosllj prtvtiilnt intaMirts. In prairie
ami plain il iila> Ix: possibit to aasi>t jlltir rt.-:slantt to until daiilaijc by
tultivatnig lilt ^;n.und afl llit larnitr dois, liiit in ilit rtal lortsl country
siitli iiitans art cxtludtd by ilit tliaratltr of tlit grouiul and the cxpeiuc.
Animals, and tspctialiy insects, arc frc<iutlltly injurious to the new
tr.ip, and in»ttls also to old irtts, by llltir dtfoliation. This damage, too,
tan lit largtiy obviattd i:) prtvtntivt mtasurts.

Since many, if not most, injurious insttts fttd on one species, or at
bast one genus, mixed forests resist their danger better, since the number
of host plants is redtctd and tlit inttrmixed trees impede progress and de-
velopment of the pest.

V\ ind-stornis are a danger to older limber, especially of shallow-root-
ed species, like the spruce, and on soft soiU and exposed slopes or mountain
lops. Here, tare must be taken in kttping the stand well lliinned, so that
the trees may get accustomed to tht swaying of the winds in more open
stand. Ill this way thty are iliductd individually to form a better root sys-
tem and become wiiul-lirm. while in the dense stand their strength was only
ill the union with neighbors.

The greatest danger to forest properties, however, is fire, and the pro-
tection against this most unnecessary evil resulting mainly from man
cartltssness, absorbs a largt part of tlit tiitrgy of lilt forester. I'roper po-
lice, but also silvicultural measures, reduce the amount of danger ?nd dara-
agt. Voung crops, during the seedling and brushwood stage, are readily
killed, while older timber may stand scorching without much or any
damage.

A damage even greater than the loss of the crop is experienced in the
loss of the soil cover, the litter and duff, which is the foresters manure.
This loss may become irreparable in localities where only a thin layer of
mineral soil overlies the rock, and the opportunity for starting a new crop
may be entirely destroyed. The fire danger in Canada, while much re-
duced, is still so great that in many localities it almost prohibits the practice
of forestry ; for who would want to invest money and energy in a property
which is exposed to extra risks from fire by the absence of proijer legisla-
tion, or by the lack of police and moral support on the part of the commun-
ity in enforcing it, by the unpunished negligence or malice of incendiaries,
and by the populational conditions of the country, which prevent the econ-
omical disposal of the debris from logging operations ?

Partial burning and piling of the brush reduce the danger somewhat,
but hardly in proportion to the expense. The readiest remedy, where for-
estry is to be praticeu under such conditions, is to make a clean .sweep, that

4A

is clearing, burning up tlu- tk-brn, Mild nplutiiiiig, ur i-Uc, it nauirul tl
gtria-rutiuii t» to be relied upwii, inloiiiiiig tin strii) n^nti-ni, vsticii lliir opikur

tiiiiii) ..I iMirtiitiK till- dtbri. tuiull) i^ Miil iK^Mibk-.

iliioiilx hu|H.' here, Ml the alisimc ui a ia>mK iHiiiu iiwirket lur fuel
iruin the iiileriur tnuiL-nal, i.s in t-Mabh^li ehi-iiiual uurks j..r its ei«iiver»iori
'-u u larye nale iiilu eliurci.al, aeeiiw aeid. ui«h1 alohol. im.l other iikVlul
inanulucturen.

Ill iaei, the appheutiun uf sllviculiure. i.e., the s>stenuitic pruduciimi
ol wtKjil erui>!. aii a l)U»ineHS prujiusition in uiir eullcd, ini!.iiuiiaye(l wcxkI
lands throujjhuiil Canada is, in must eaMs, [wvsible oiil) where the ineaii-'
exist t»l utilizing this inferior material; fur the ri^ks from tire are too ureal,
or else the eash which wotil'l utherwisf have lu ht .spent in niakiiij; riKnn
for the >ouiig crop will surel> exceed rea.sniiahle pnj|H»rtii)nit. < »nlv the
state ur uther kmydived curi^jraliuiis- can allunl tu >penil muiie) iiuw in the
hope of adequate returns in a distant future.

i-uresl crop pruductioii as a husines>, silvuidture, will hecuine practi-
cable and protitable in this cuuntry unl> when reasonable forest protection
is assured by proper exercise of .state functions.

Until this is secured, lutnbertuen will cgntinuu tu exploit the natural
forest without much regard to its fate after tlk:> have secure<l its present
valuable stores, for they cannot afford to assume the hazard of the tire dan-
ger.

Ilefore iM.^itive silvicultnral meiluMls are ajipli* il In them, tluv may
Ihul it advantaKt'i^ii-'i to cut the virgin ft>rest mure emiservativel) ; thev ma\
find that it pays in the long run better not to cull too closely, that it i.s ad-
vantaj^tHins to leave more of .smaller sizes, i.e.. tu tiniit the diameter to
which they remove trees, so that the\ may return .siKJiier for a second cut,
and also tu avoid unnecessary damaj;e to the younj; vohniteer crop. At
present the limitation of size to he cut or to hi- U-ft uncut is based upon cal-
culations of immediate profits to he deriveil, and duts iu)t take into account
any futuri- considerations, .since the lumlKTman d«K's imt cut with a refjard
to the future, hut attempts to secure the lar^rest present Kain. He views
the forest as a mere speculation. To curtail his present revenue for the
sake of a future revenue liy abstaining from cnttinj^ all that is marketable
is the tirst step toward chan^;ing this point of view, introilucing the idea of
continuity, and treating the forest as a permanent investment.

It must he underslo»Kl, however, that the limitation of the size of trees
to he cut or to be left uncut has not necessarily any hearing on the replace-
ment of tlie crop: it is not silviculture. It is in the main a financial meas-
ure, it being demonstrable that it pays better to leave small sized trees to
accumidate more wc)o<l before utilizing them ; or else a device to prevent
over-cutting of a valuable species, so that it may not be eradicated too soon,
a wise measure whenever systematic attention to positive silviculture can-
not be given.

.4

LECTURE VI.

LUMBERMAN AND FORESTER.

All the great diversity of activities, of industries, of commodities, of
sources of wealth which characterize the modem civilization and give em-
ployment to the millions, have their origin more or less directly in that uri-
niary source of wealth and comfort, nay of life itself, the soil.

And next to it stands water ; Water is the best thing, sang i'indar ot
the Greeks.

But without soil to use it, it is of little avail. And yet again, soil with-
out water to support useful plant production would be an empty treasure
for It IS water that makes the sod available. So ultimately are soil and
water connected that the one cannot be disassociated from the other. Just
as in a chemical compound, inert and separately useless or obnoxious ele-
ments, combine to form active, most valuable and beneticent bodies, so
does water and soil impart, each to the other, its value by their combin-
ation.

Soil and water, then, are mans richest treasure, and if he be rational
he would guard them more than any other sources of material wealth and
use them with discretion ; yet in all countries and in all ages man has been
careless and wasteful of these most important bases of his well-being. He
has squandered them lavishly, has allowed them to dissipate and to slip
away or to be destroyed, seemingly in utter ignorance of their important
bearing; whole peoples have been impoverished, practically wiped out
through mere neglect or abuse of these primary sources of wealth and
through ignorance as to the conditions and relations influencing their pres-
ervation.

"Man goes over the earth and leaves a desert behind him." "Precise-
ly that portion of the earth's surface which about the commencement of the
Christian era was endowed with the greatest superiority of soil and climate
is now completely exhausted," says Geo. P. Marsh, in his classic volume,
"The Earth as Modified by Man." "A territory which in bygone centuries
sustained a population scarcely inferior to that of the entire Christian
world at the present day has been brought into desolation almost as com-
plete as that of the moon."

Nor is this destruction of naturally favorable conditions confined to
that portion of the earth and that era. We can trace it over the globe and
through all ages, progressing only less intensely and now arrested here and
there by intelligent man.

4i)

4

It baa been reserved for the present era, wiili the ilcvclupmciit oi na-
tural science, to find and appreciate the reasons lor this loss and Uuleriora-
tiou ot our great sources ol wealth ; and hiidnnj U'c reasons, to suygest llic
.-enied> and prevention of further loss.

We have learned oul> ui modern tunes to appreciate that all thiuijs aic
111 relation, that, therefore, we cannot take awaj anything from the com-
plex conditions ol nature, that we cannot destroy or niouily one condition,
without ahecting more or less all other conditions.

W ith regard to the soil, we have learned that its stabUilj and its fertil-
ity are in most direct relation to the water conditions and the topography
of the land. Uut a third important lactor that enters into the problem ol
the conservation ol the soil and of water is its cover. 1 Ins was perhaps
most detimtely expressed by that great exponent of natural philosophy A
V. Humboldt, when he exclaims in his Cosmos; ■ iiow loohsb does man
appear in destroying the mountain forests, for thereby he deprives hiniseli
of wood and water at the same time" ; and he should have added : Uf soil
alsol '

The importance of the forest cover of the earth has only lately been
fully realized, not only as a furnisher of a material most needful to civiliza-
Uon, next to food, but because of its relationship to soil and water con-
ditions.

Last night we learned how forests form and change in their aspects
under the laws of evolution without the interference of man.

To-night we propose to take up the history of the forest at the time
when man came upon the scene and became a lactor in Uie further evolution
of forest growth.

The history of the forest in ill parts of the world has been the same.
During the age of the hunter— and these ages are not separated by
long distances of time, but occur simultaneously in different parts of the
world— the forest served as a harborer of the game besides furnishi.-' the
small amount of fuel needed.

Perhaps, too, portions of it were carefully burned over to subdue the
undrgrowth and facilitate the pursuit of the game without destroyine the
shelter.

When the hunter became a farmer portions of the better soils had to
be cleared of their forest growth for fields and pastures, and increased de-
mand for wood materials to construct barns, sheds and stables, and for
family use necessitated further inroads upon the neighboring forest. Fires
used in the clearing of farm lands probably often ran beyond their bound-
aries through carelessness and harmed the forest more than the hunter's
fires.

Finally, when the age of modern civilization arrived, cities were
built and demands for wood materials arose beyond the needs of domestic
uses, the first lumberman found his calling, cutting and marketing the crop
of timber, which he found accumulated in the virgin forest.

6U

At lirsl carritil (pii in .-i criiilL' iiiatnicr, tlif exploitiition w;is confiiifd to
till' woods along llu' waur .urscs and aloiit' tlic seashore, where read)
lucaiis of iraiisiiortalioii were al hand, bill wilh Ihc growth in iR.pulalion,
ni civilization, in iiidnstrial acliviu, the develupiiieiil of railroads
anil improved means of lraiis|iorlatioii, llic need for forest products grew,
and the art of the lumberman and the wood-worker experienced the won-
derful development we know to-day, so that in magnitude of interests the
business of exploiting llie forest, nianufacturing and purveying its pro-
ducts is next to the business uf producing and liandling food materials, the
largest in all fully civilized countries.

1 have dilated \fsterda\ on the enormous and ever increasing needs
for wood materials in our modern civilization. I)nt in order to accentuate
the great importance of the business of the lumberman, the necesshy of his
existence, 1 am templed to acid just one way of staling what the lumber
business means in coinpari.son with other interests, at least to the peojile of
the L'liited States, and 1 dare say a similar comparison could be made for
(.aiiada. a comparison which was made on the basis of the fensiis of ISSil
by Prof. James, but holds probably still approximatel\ true :

LUG JAM. .VIAUAWASKA.

Pholii hy Iloiiihtori W. Wit

51

"It to the value oi the total niitpiit of all our vuiii^uf gold, silver, copper,
lead, zinc, iron and coal, were added the value derived truni the petroleiiin
wells and stone quarries and this sum were increased hy the estimated
value of all steamboats, sailing vessels, canal boats, llat b(jats, and barges,
plying in American waters and beUtnging tu the citizens oi ilu- L'nited
States, it would still be less than the value uf the annual forest crop by a,
sum sufficient tu purchase at cost oi construction alt canals, bu. at par all
the stock uf the telegraph companies, pay their bunded debts and construct
and cfjuip all telephone Hnes in the L'nited States, ji exceeds the gross in-
come of all the railroads and transportation companies, it would pa\ the in-
debtedness of all the States, counties, townships, schiKjl-distrlcts and cities
included, excepting New Vork and rennsyivania.' \\ hat do we conclude
from these considerations and facts? That the Inmbennan, the purveyor
of these forest products, is a most necessary and important factor incur
civilization, that the Arbor-day oratory of "Woodman, spare that tree,"
with opprobrium thrust at the wood-ehoppers is puerile and inappreciative
of the proportions which a reform in metlv ds of forest exploitation must
assume.

J~>

m

-TT. -N: - - i^w-

m

"-

" ~- - — -^tM. ^-rr<^^' ^

■

■'r-.?";*&

KATCHEWANOOKA LAKE.

I'lioto liy n..ii«lilon W. Wib

62

J hive shown yuu these illustrations of the activities of the lumber
trade to unpress >ou with the fact that forests grow to be used, trees must
be cut to supply our needs of wood materials, w.jod-choppers and lumber-
ntennuisi be active; only one other activity ,s to be added to theirs; tllat
of the forester, modifying their manner of cuttuig and of using the forest,
iioth forester and lumberman are in the business of providing our rcouire-
ments lor wood materials, both are concerned in the utilization of the for-
est, both are harvesters, but while every forester must be a logger, the log-
ger does not proceed in the same manner as the forester.

The difference between the logger and the forester is that the former
IS a harvester oi nature s crop, an exploiter of the natural resource, cash-
ing the accumulated wood capital, a mere converter into useful shape of a
crop to the production of which he has contributed nothing and to the ro-
production of which he does not give any thought, while the forester is a
producer of wood crops, just =s the farmer is the producer of food crops ■
when he harvests the naturauy grown wood crop it is with the view of re-
producing agam and again systematically another crop from the same
ground. The main difference, then, between forester and lumberman is
their atlitv i towards the future.

The lu ..berman treats the forest much like a mine from which he re-
moves till i...,-ore, leaving the less valuable rest to its fate and nature's
care. 1 o him the forest is not an investment but a speculation from which
he tries to withdraw as soon as possible both capiul and profit. Hence, all
his appliances, his camps and shanties are only temporary structures which
he allows to collapse or which he removes when he has cut out what will
pay him at present to take.

His roads, if he makes any, intended only for temporary use, namely,
until the present harvest is secured, are made as cheaply as possible. In
many parts they are passable only in winter time, when snow "has covered
the uneven ground and by means of water sprinklers an ice road ca . be
secured.

Even the railroads, the modern means of conveying the harvest to
main lines and to mills, are only roughly built, for they are in a few years
to be abandoned or shifted, unless their location is such as to warrant their
change into regular carriers.

The harvest is made without regard to the fate of the young growth
present or any possible aftergrowth, the interest of the logger being only in
the present. There is often little care and thought given to a thorough
utilization of even the valuable parts, but certainly whatever is not saleable
at present, is neglected, despised, destroyed. We do not say ruthlessly, or
recklessly, which implies absence of all reasonable consideration, for the
logger reckons and he has ruth or regret— he reckons, however, only from
one point of view, namely, that of present profits, and he regrets merely
that there is not more profit to be had from the part destroved. Whatever

68

curtails profits must be avoided, cheap production of the harvest is his only
hoiw of satisfactory margin ; his business is to reap the ,)resent harvest, and
only that part which pays ; the future must take care of itself. Tlie sland-
|)omt of the logger is properly and consistently chosen, whatever may be
the point of view of the economist.

The lumberman, like any other business man, chooses first of all or al-
together to consider hi. private pocket interest, which lies in the present;
he cannot afford or does not choose to include a distant future in his cal-
culations, for the future belongs to others.

What is the result of his operations in the forest ?
Since nature produces mostly mi.ved forest and does so without any
economic consideratiotis as to com|iosition, qualitv and .piantin . priHlucinu
weed trees with the valuable, ol<l and young, large and small, tlie merchan-
table with the unmerchantable, in careless mixture, and ' -ce the lumher-
n-n takes only the desirable kinds and the best sizi utting here and
ti.cie, his operations may leave the forest in such a coiub.ion that a layman
may not even see a change has taken place— the forest cover is hardiv inter-
rupted, the few trees taken are not mi.s.sed. the <lebris soon drcavs and
seemingly no damage is done. This is often the cas^. where a hanlwood
forest contains a few conifers, and these alone are taken. If the desirable
k-inds are more frequent, and hence the openings larger and more frequent
the debris more plentiful, the interference becomes more readily visible
linally, where, as in the pineries, in thi Redwoods, in the coniferous forest
generally, the mercantile kinds and sizes cover the ground nearly entirely
the lumberman's selective cutting becomes almost or entirelv a clearing.'a
real denudation.

In each of the three cases, there is one <lainagi; that is likclv to result,
namely, an undesirable change in aftergrowth.

If. as is customary, he culls from the mixed forest onlv those specie*
which are useful to him. and leaves in |x)ssession the less desirable, the
weeds, these necessarily provide for the succession of their own kind.' If
it he a shade-enduring species which he values, like the spruce, its repro-
duction may still be possible, provided the openings are large enough, and
enough seed trees are left to provide the new progeny, although neces.sarily
the amount of the useful reproduction must he curtaile<l. If it is a light
needing species, Ike the white pine, that he has culled, its repnvluction is
practically prevented in many cases by the mere presence of the unuseri
|)ortions of the stand. In the competition with other, especially shade-en-
during, trees, the light-needing .species is placed at a disadvantage and dis-
appears from the woods, unless mar himself actively assists in its re-estab-
lishment.

If he clear the entire native growth, but leave a neighboring stand ilii
touched, the species with light-winged seeds and cnp.ible of developing in
full sunlight without the protecting shade of molher trees, will soon re-
cover the bared ground.

If he remove all ihat lie desires and destroy the rest b) fire, the rc-
estabhshnient must pass ihrollKh nearly all the phases of evolution, which
>lle virgin woods had to pass. W here the deiu.Jatioii had been complete,
the lower vegetation of wei-ds and hrusli must occupy the ground first, and
only after long struggle can tree growth re-establish itself.

Thmisands of acres are in this condition ; wooded, sometimes densely
wooded, hut the value gone, from the supply point of view. With the tini-
l>er of present value gone, the interest of the lumberman is gone, and with
the slash lelt on ihe ground and the carelessness to which our people are
bred with tilings that are apparently useless, the almost unavoidable se-
cpiencc in such slashings is the forest fire.

While the direct damage to the future which the luraberinan inllicls by
his harvesting process, in reducing valuable aftergrowth, is considerable
It IS altogether small in proportion to the much greater indirect damage
which IS the consivpience of these fires. ,\nd here again let me impress
.von with the thought that, from the stamlpoiut of the communitv, the lea.-t
damage of these fires is the destruction of the standing limber, although
many millions of dollars worth of timber are aunualK destnn ed ; the much
greater damage is that to the future, to the coming generations. .\ lighl
fire running over the ground, if it were confined to the slash itself, during
a season when it is burning with the least fury, as in the earlv spring when
snow is still on the ground, might be even a benefit in reducing the brush
and thus giving better chance for an after-growth. I !ut usuallv these fires
start at the most dangerous season, dry and droutin . and are not confined,
but run into the green timber. In the <leciduuus-leaved forest thev run
.slowly, injuring the mature trees at the base .111(1 causing deca> to set in
which m.iy finally result in death. In the coniferous forest, scime species!
with a thick bark, will withstand a light running fire without injury, but
usually in dr>- sea.sons the timber is killed outright, and if not cut at once,
insect pests, the secondary result of forest fires, will finish it. In many
cases the first fire does only ,)artial damage, but a repetition is then so mtlch
more disastrous, and finally, with windstorms throwing the damaged
trunks, the repeated fires not only clean up all the timber, but burn up the
surface soil itself, at least the fertile ..urface |>ortioii of it.

'llie carelessness of hunters aiKl farmers continues, burning over
again and again the scanty vegetation until finally the bare rock is reached
and nothing grows — a man-made desert is the result.

In Wisconsin at least S million acres have thus been rerluccd to wasttf
and now cfl'orts are being made to recover the land bv reforestation.

ICrosioii of soils, landslips filling rivers. n,«Hls, and drifting sands, are
some of the coiise<|uences of this rlevastation.

One evil which has hardly ever been |ioii,|ed <,iil is the increase of
windfalls. liy opening up the forest, the trees which had learned only
stand up in union, become eNposcd directly to the sweeping winds and :
laid low. Insects follow.

• to
1 are

MAN MADE IlESliRT.

MAN MADE DESERT

56

SOIL EROSION

That all youtiK aftcT-Rrowth falls a victim to the forest tire, be it ever
so shRht. staiiiis to reason, and, with the changes in condition of the soil
the soil cover, and the lifiht conditions in the crowns, a growth of valueless
species, shrubs and tree-weeds occupies the ground.

The liimbernian, then, in so far as he supplies us with the necessary
wood materials, is a legitimate factor in our civilization ; in so far as by his
methods he destroys, indirectly or .lirectlv, the soil, the after-growth' and
the chances for re-habilitating it, he is from the stan(l|)oint of political
economy a dangerous element, at least to future generations. We must, to
be sure, admit that pcruliar economic conditions have forced his methods
upon him. and he is left without proper assistance in reducing the danger,
by lack of i)roper appreciation of the damage inflicted, on the part of the
public and the state authorities which alone are the representatives of the
community and should especially guard the interest of the future.

Xot until this appreciation of the duties of the communitv has led to
pro|)er efl^ort in reducing the fire ilanger, is there hope in changing the
methods of the logger materially ; not until forest properties are rendered
comparatively safe from incendiarism will it become rational and practi-
cable to apply forestry methods to their management.

The forester also is a lumlx-riTiau : he. too. harvests his crop ; Ins busi-
ness, too. lies in supplying wckkI materials to the community, as you may

tv

67

i

*s

x-i' 111 111.' C.rman f^ r,>i. I'l,,. ,,,,lv ,|itr.rnu-c between luiiiliernian an.l
lurcsliT IS thai ihf latlir jitiist pruviilc lur a luw crc.|) as vallialili-, ur mure
Ml. than nature made it.

iou will see that the lurester Is not alter the beauty, but after the sub-
stance of the tree ; he, hke the logger, uses llie axe to liarvest the crop, liaj
he utilizes tlie liirest even more closely than the luinberinau ; lor he must in
some way make use of the inferior kinds and parts, tlie tops and branches,
and even, if necessary, he must spend some money in inakiug useful or else
removing the brushwood. I his is olteu impracticable, and by so much the
forester is impeded in his main business by the economic and market con-
ditions, lie must do some -dead work, ' in order to create conditions fav-
orable for his main business, and his main business is to secure a new and
better crop of wood from the same soil lor tlie luture. He is not satisfied
with the mere harvest oi wliat nature has accumulated, leaving it to nature
to do as It pleases in replacing the harvest ; but he feels himsell obligated to
provide systematically for a tuture and better crop than nature alone could
produce.

The forester s song is not ■Woodman, spare that tree," but ••Wood-
man, cut that tree judiciously," so that a new generation may arise where it
stood.

Under the lorester's care, then, the trees will be cut and removed, but
the forest will persist, lie is the preserver of the forest, not in the manner
111 which the public is often made to believe, namely, by preventing the use
of the wood, but as all life is preserved, by removing the old and fostering
the young growth. He is a sower as well as a reaper, a planter as well as
a logger, for forestry is, with regard to wood crops, what agriculture is,
with regard to food crops. *

He may secure this new crop either by cutting off and removing all
the old crop and replanting the ground, a method which is often the only
possible one with our mismanaged virgin woods, where the useful species
have been eliminated or where fire has destroyed all the old timber. Or
else he may secure it from the seeds of the trees already on the ground, by
skilful management of the light conditions, gradually removing the mother
trees and securing what is called a natural regeneration.

In the latter case, before he utilizes the kinds for which he wishes to
perpetuate the forest, he culls the inferior and leaves, until they have repro-
duced, only the more useful; he gives direction and assists in the struggle
for supremacy the most fit; he substitutes artificial selection for natural
selection, assuring the protected survival of the most useful. The forester's
forest, then, differs from nature's forest, developed under the laws of
natural evolution ; for he introduces the economic point of view And when
he finally gathers the harvest, he secures not only a larger total and' more
valuable product for the present, but a reproduction of only the best kind
for the future.

68

By the« m«n. the U-r,„an f„r, ,is ot lo-daj have b«..
l.ro,h,ced, „huh, while .he, „,a, lack ,„ „ic.ures,,u.,Kss arco"
supenoreconcmiic vah.e. |.r.xh,ci„«, „„ soik which are not h. fur aKria.l-
ture,., half the t„„e,d,u,ble the useful material that natures forett ha,
produced. Ih.» ., done by reserving the soil for useful species only by
thinumg out frotn time to titne.aud thus benefitting the reniainin. stau.l
securing, the lart-esi anionni i„ the most useful form on the smallest num-
ber per acre. And, finally, the harvest is uta.le, as thorouRhly as the fartn-
er makes ,1, to make room for a new crop, an,l thus successive crop, are
harvested aud reproduced. f • >;

On this continem for the present, and fur some time to come still-
own,g to our peculiar economic and populational conditioni^-our na-
t^nal forest resources will he to a ^reat e.Mc, nu-relv exploited ; the lum-
betman will continue, for some time, to treat his forest property as a., ob-
ject of speculatton, ,«ssibly treating it more caref.illy. The forester who
looks at the forest as a.i investmetn, to be per|«tuated and renewed forever
comes when cvilized permanency, stability of conditions warrants it, whe,.'
ne can make his home in the wotxis.

The first step towards making his business possible is ade(|uate protec-
tion of forest properties against fires, a subject of legislation and morals
I he next step is the possibility of a more thorough utilization of what we
cut, and care in not utmecessarily .lestroying young growth, a matter de-
pending on the .levelopment of cheap means of transportation and distribu-
tion of population.

Finally, the application of the skill of tlu^ forester is called for sue"
you propose to educate in this institution.

f V

LECTURE VII.

.-' »■

METHODS OF BUSINESS CONDUCT-
FOREST ECONOMY.

As in every technical hnlu!.trj conccrucj in prixluclion, so in torcstry
tlic niclhuUs of iht itchnical art arc distinct ironi ilic nictliuUs ui ilic bu»i-
iic»» conduct, "ijnviculture rcprcbcnts the tcdnncal art oi iorcstry;
winic under tliccomiirclicilsivc term lorc^t economy' »c may jjioup all
that kiiowlcJue and practice which is necessary lor the proper conduct oi
the business of forestry.

Besides the purely technical care in manat[ing the productive forces
of nature to secure the best attainable production of material, best ni both •
•luantlty and quality— the hi(;hest gross yield— there must be exercised a
managerial care to secure the most favorable relations of expenditure aild
hicome— the highest net yield, a surplus of cash results without which the
industry would be purposeless from the standpoint of private enterprise
and invesuuciit. Moreover, an orderly conduct and systematic procedure
to secure this revenue is necessary.

It is possible to practice the art of silviculture incidentally, as tlie
farmer does, or can do, on his wood lot, without special business organiza-
tion and elaborate planning, the owner harvesting and reproducing and
tending his crop whenever needful', but the case is ditt'erent if forest grow-
ing IS to be carried on as a business by itself with a view to continued and
regular procedure, to continued and regular revenue; in that case more
elaborate planning becomes necessary.

The one peculiarity which distinguishes the forestrv business from
every other business is the time element. The forester ca'iinot harvest an-
nually what has actually grown (the current increment; ; the forest crop,
as we have seen, must accumulate the accretions of many years before it
becomes mature, i.e., of sufficient size to be useful; hence, unless special
provisions are maiie m the management of a forest property, the crop and
the revenue would mature and be harvested periodically only, and that in
long periods ; from twenty to a hundred years and more would elapse from
the sowing to the reaping.

The farmer may be satisfied to practise on his wood lot attached to his
farming business what is technically called an "intermittent" management,
harvesting and reproducing from time to time without attempting to se-'
cure regular annual returns. But when forestry is to be practised as an
independent industry, it becomes desirable, as in any large mercantile es-

«u

labliiluiK'iii, lu (ilun, urjjaiiUL, amj inanauc ilic I,u>iijl» mj m tu .ccurc,
tuliliiiuuu.l; ami .^.iciiulicail;, .1 iigmai aiiniul Miaani; nearly uju'' ut
iiicri-astiig )t:ar b) >L-ar.

llic luuibtrman or luri.»l cxjiluiur also ^ilans ami urnain/.c.- Iiia biisi-
m:». lor aiiijual rwiurii., not, lioivcitr, lu in: utrincl tomuiuoujl> iroiii tlic
»aliiuj(rouiiJ, 111- .ccksa ncn litlil, he tliainjts liia lotalloii a> »oun a» lie
IMS iMiauMiii ilu accuimiLinii >i.,ri» oi in» iori»i iiiuinii). tthitli hi; llicii
abamluii> and ikvuiia lu oihcr |iur|<o>c> ihaii wooU tri" piinj,

rile former > buaiiicsn is haseil ii|Kjn llic toiitei':!. .| ol »hal 19 ueliiii-
lall) taiieu ilu »ii»lajii«l \ iilu, a iiiiiiiinii.i ^)»l. iiiaiii: ii,e ol lliu same
pruperl) lor mnjii-erops, lile ksl m^' . .^.^m possible, Ihia is secured b>

l>ioper alleiition lo silneuiliire, rei/io.. j; >) ■.uiiialieallj llie harvesled

crop. J-iiiali>, when llie imluslr) is lull) .slahhshtil, he is annuall) lo de-
rive thin 'suiilailied )iehl as iar as practicable 111 eijual or nearly equal
aiiluunti lurever, under an "annual siistaineil jield inanaijeniem. ' I'hi*
is secured by menu ol /ucm/ irgulaliun, die principal branch 01 lurest
economy, which .oniprises the imlhods oi regnialnn; the conduct of the
business so • , lo secure finally the ideal ul the luresler— a forest so ar-
r;mi;e'l : -a annually, forever, the >anu 'niuniil i.f wooil [)nMinct, ii,nni*K .
that .■., icll grow?, annually un all ln> acri-s, nia> be h;ir\i'^ted in tin- most
protiible form.

As ill every business, there is an ideal, a ^talldard in conduct and con-
dition, which the manayer more or less consciously recogni/.-s and follows,
or seelis to establish, yet, on account of uncontrollable circuinslances can
never quite attain, so is the ideal of the forester never quite attainable, al-
though it is his obligation lo attempl and appro,i. li il as far as practicable.

The ideal conduct of the nianayenient " lur annual suslanied yield" is
possible only under the ideal condilion, n Inch the forester nciij^nizes in the
"normal forest," the standard by which he iiieaMircs his actual forest and
to which he desires, as nearly and as quickly as circumstances permit, 10
bring his actual forest. The latter will usually be found abnormal in some
one direction, or in several directions, and hence makes the ideal conduct
impossible. The object of forest regulation, then, is to prepare for the
change of an abnormal forest into a normal forest.

In simplest terms, the normal forest is a forest in such condition that
it is possible lo harvest annually forever the best attainable product ; or 10
secure continuously the largest possible revenue.

While we have assumed, for the sake of simplicity of conception that
the stands of dillerent age, the age classes, are separate in area the one
from the other, it is readily conceivable that all, or some of them, may be
mixed together, on the same area, as in the selection forest, where all age
classes, from the seedling to the matured timber, are mingled ; and if there
are enough trees in gradation from the older to the younger, allowing for
losses, so that the younijcr age class can rcpLirc in amount the older as it is

Ill

removed or ii growing omul ii< c|j»., »c wi.iiM Imvc arriveii u normal
aiiiilJilun lor ihv tileciioii furcat.

In ihf actual luri'tl soim: lint' I'uiiillliiiii ur all >'unililii>n» will nsuallt
Ih; linnul abnimiial. Tin- normal .m rttu>n ina> Ix- ildWa-i'' ' iu»f tliv
arm i» n<a Inllv »ti«ki-il or ilii- llnilK-r !•. \a>t il> prinii', olil n ., . jwing
M an nitVrior rate, or r..| ull-«-iiniK imri-nn-nt. I'lii- aj-c fla.-.v. „ri' n«ual-
l> 11"! pri'snit in pr : ir Krailalion aiul atmiufil ; wnni- <>l lliiin an prohahli
rntir.h iac-knii;, i.llu-.., arc in i xci--. .iiiur i.n, many ■.tanil. ..l uUlir .ir
1. 1' >"ininrr limU'r, mi thai I'vcn if llic nurrnal >l..i'k i.l ».khI i umoiiiil lie
"M hanil. il nia> In- in alinurnial itlslnlnilmii.

1 ho normal aicrtlion van. dI o.Mr>f. lie islalilislK-il .mlv li) siUicilltur-
al nulhi«ls. lllcoihcr lin.cuniliiicjM. arc allaincil i.r appruachcil by rcj;n-
laliny ihc I'cllini; IhuIkci in area an.l amouni, >ci iliat uraduallj llle h^k
classes an<l ihc rmrma! sUxk arc cstalili-shctl.

I he Mmplcsl mi'llhul wc.nlcl Ik- m iliviilc ihc ioroi iiim a« many arras
as there are years ur periixls in the rutation, anil cm nne, or the cf|nivalei)(
in mlmne. evrr> year "r ilurinj; everv perioil, when after on.' r..tation the
a>;e classes arc established. If proper attention has W'en >;iven to the re-
prrHlncliun anil to keepini' the repro.|iiceil areas fnllv sn.ckeil. the normal
conditions are atlaimd altir the forest has been once cut over, i.e., dnrin^'
the first rotation, llin this woidil Imr len the present L:eniTalioii with the
entire ctjst of secnrim; the normality ; at the same time necessitatin(j not
oidv nneipial fellini; bnd|;els, a.s better or iKmrer stands are cut. but also
reipiiriiij; iliat the harvest of timber past its prime be deferred, if the forest
is lart'cly com|i<.s.-d of old aye classes, or that immature I'niber be cut pre-
maturely if yoinn;ai;e classes predominate— in either cas, a financial loss
Indeed, the greatest practical dit>icult> which confronis the fc.rest regulator
is found ill t'aH(,'iii|; the sacrifices which the present must make for the sake
of the future.

Altogether, the principle of the "owner's interest" must Ik' the piidinR
one in the manat;ement nf any property : and it would first have to lie de-
monstrated that a siistwiied \ ield maiiat^ement. either animal or intermit-
tent, and sacrifices of revenue in the present for the sake of a fntnre im-
proved revenue are in his interest, l-'or it must always l.c remembered that
financiall\ forcsfx mean.i- /nrc(.('(i(t; /TiMt'ij/ rc:i'niic or nulirriit^ f<ri\u'iit
c.rpcnilitiirc for Ihc sake of /'"'iiri- nivniic,- it involves gauKinj; present
ami future advanlatres, ,'ind the time clement, as we ha\e seen, is the prom-
inent element in its finance calculations.

Before an annual sustained yield manat,^-meiit will apjiear profitable
in Canada, many changes in economic conditions will have to take place.
amoiiL' which we in:i\ single ^>iit reduction of ilan^jer from fire: opporlini
ity for ntilizint: inferior material : iprriasc in wood prices h\' rcflnetion of
the natural supplies on which no cost of production need be charped : the
drvclopment of lU-sire for pcrniiuient investments instead of speenlativi-

«2

ones ; an extension i>f (jovernniint fnnctions, leadintj to the practice of for-
estry by Kovcrninenls on a large stale.

Meanwhile, all that caTi be expected from jirivate forest owners is that
they may practise mne conservative anil careful lo(;f;inj; of the natural
woods, avoidini.; nmiecessarv waste, and as far a.s [Hissiblc paying attention
to silviculture, the reproiUiction of the crop, leaving; to the futnre the at-
tempt to organize a sustained yielil niauaj,'cment. ( )nly (jovermiicnts and
perpetual cor|xiratioiis or larjje capitalists can afford to make the sacrifices
which are necessary to jirepare now for such a management.

In order to secure the data upon which the felling budget may be reg-
ulated, a fori'.sl siinry is ncccssar\ , which will embrace not only an area
and topoRraphic | geometric ) survey, .serving for purposes of subdivision,
description and orderly inanageinent, but also an aseertainiuent of the stock-
on hand in the various parts of the property, and of the rate of accretion at
which the different stands are growing.

After having determined upon the general policy of management, with
due consideration of the owner's interests and of market conditions, gener-
al and local : and alter having decided upon the silvicultural policv, includ-
ing choic' of leading species in the crop for which the forest is to be main-
tained, and silvicultural method of treatment, as coppice or timber forest,
under clearing system or gradual removal or .selection system— the most
important and difficult (|iiestion to be solved is that of the rotation, the time
which is to elapse between reproduction and harvest, or the normal felling
age, that is, the age, or, so far as age is in relation to size, the diameter, to
which it is desirable to let the trees grow before harvesting them.

There is no maturity of a forest crop as we know it in agricultural
crops : wood docs not ripen naturally, and trees do not even die a natural
death .-f a given period, but death is with them a gradual process of decay,
the result of exterior damage, of insect and fungus attacks ; trees actually
die by inches in most cases, and it may take hundreds of years before the
trunk is so \.eakened that its ov^n veight or a wind-storm m,iy lav it low.

The qirestion of ripeness, or the proper felling age. wherever forest
growth is an object not of mere pleasure, as in a luxury forest, must be de-
termined by economic considerations.

There is .sense in the pro|)Ositiou that the felling age be detennined bv
a diameter limit below which timber is to he considereil immature: in fact,
the forester bases his calculations of the rotation in part, at least, upon size
of crop. But the proposition, frccpiently advocated, to restrict a forest
owner to an arbitrary diameter limit, below which he is not to cut his crops,
anywhore and everyw here, is not only unsotiiTtl as an exen isc of state pol-
icy, but also mistakes the economic i|uestions involved in the determination
of that limit, and cutireiy misjudges the value of the limitation as far as
silvicultural results, tile perpetuation of a valuable forest, are concerned.
In fact, from this last ann most important point of view it might be wiser

63

r

under certain conditions, to imi>osf uiMjn the owner the cutting out of ev-
erythintf below a ^'iven diameter. I 'ur, as we have seen, in natures mixed
forest, vahiable timber and weed trees are j^rowiii}^^ side bv side, the dia-
meter restriction iniliscriminately appHed mij^bl prevent the removal of the
objectiimable portion, the weed ^jrnwth. putting' a premium on the decima-
tion of the more vahiable jmrtion, Without silvicnUnre, i.e., attention to
systematic reproihiction, a (Hanieter restriction is of little value. With sil-
viculture it is not necessary, for even the entire removal of the whole, crop-
denudation, and its replacement by planting; or sowing, would accomplish
the object sotij,'ht. namely, the contiiuiity of the 'urest. and in many cases
tiiij^^ht be preferable to other methods.

In other wonls, the detennination of the rutatitm or fellinjj ape, or of
the felling size, is larj^ely a matter <tf financial calculation. This calcula-
tion is. however, inthienced by silvicultnral and technical, as well as purely,
financial, considerations.

An estimation of value rerpiires numerous niathcmatical calculations.
The fore.ster must know the current accretion or increment of each year
and f'lOm this determine the average accretion, that is, an averajje of sever-
al current a. -retions. The value of a stand depends upon the size as well
as the volume and qnantitv amnnp other thinps.

The forester must a larpc way lie a prophet. Tie must forecast
what wood will have the largest sale in the future and also predict if the
price will increase at all. The only basis upon which he can iudpe is the
history of the past and he will be tolcrabl\ correct unless some unforseen
accident occurs. In Prussia for fi.^i years back the prices of wood have ad-
vanced V/2 per cent. i»er annum. Tn Canada White Pine 'jold for Wj-r^^
cents per cubic foot 50 years apo, whereas in T'Oa it sold for 1fi-42 cents
per cubic foot and to-day commands fiO cents per cubic foot. This is a
very larpe advance.

Besides capital and time there nuist be present an economic spirit such
as no other business requires. The product can be differentiated from the
capital, but forest management is dangerous in private hands especiallv
with little capital behind it. Hence, from the '^landpnint of the future this
is a business which rather belongs to the state or a persistent corporation.
Tn Gennany. forestry has been practised for over a hundred years, and the
statistics of the German states will show the financial results.

T.et us take a glimpse at the results of forest management in Paxouv
from a business point of view :

189.1-3,1 Ifi.lJ-fi.S 1RR1-93

Gross Revenue, .$1.7^ per acre S-'l,7l per acre Sfi.(17 per acre
Expenditure. ... RO " ^^n " ^.m "

Net Revenue. ... ^^ " ?.5!> " 4,37

Saxony owns nn.OOn acres, so bv muUiplyiu-: 1:^0,000 hv l.n? we can
find her net revenue from forests rtlone. P.esides this we find the fcliinp

64

budget to be an average of (iO cubic feet per acre in the first period, 70 in
the second, and lt() in the third, and while 17 per cent, of total cut was ser-
viceable for lumber in the first period, 79 per cent, was serviceable in the
last. These figures show what forestry when carried on properly can do
for a country.

I'russia can show similar statistics, and we find that in this State
the revenue has also risen in direct proportion to the expenditure, and con-
sei|uetit better management. Ihere is no belter investmem to be had.

In (icrmany often the towns or villages own forests, when to be a
citizen, means securing a divideiul in.stea<l of paying la.\es.

LECTURE VIII.

i

/»•

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOD.

Till' forester's business is not so much to produce trees, or cvtn for-
ests, but the chief material which tliey furnish, wood : and nut only wt«>(l
merely, but wood of certain i|uality, fit for use in the arts. 1 Ic must, there-
fore, not oidv Ix- able to recognize the different woods and know their qual-
ities' and their applicability for various uses, but more ! he uuist know how
ililfcreuces in (|uality are produced and ap|)ly that kuowledKc in the produc-
tion of his crap. .Ml the technical (|ualitics— weifiht. hardness, strength, ap-
IKarance, and even color to some extent, and the behavior of wood can be
more or less directly tracxl to their variable structure— the varying com-
bination of the cells, with thinner and thicker walls, lart;er and smaller
Inmina ( openings I . and cell systems, which make the woi.d.

Without going into details and microscopical distinction, a mere mi-
croscopic inspection with the magnifying glass of the gnoss features re-
veals much of the characteristics of the wood. .\ cross section
faeross the bold serves the purpose best although tangential sections
I parallel to the central axis) ami radical sections ( in direction of radius of
the cross secton ) reveal also special features.

Comparing cross sections of our northern trees of various kind, we
finil that they can be classified in three classes differing dearlv in appear-
ance of structure. The distinction is found by examining each annual ring
in itself, and the change from one ring to the other.

This examination reveals that in each case there are two zones defined
in the ring of the year's growth, in most cases recognizable by color dis-
tinctions, namely the lighter colored interior |)art — the spring-wood, so-
called because it is the first wo«l formed in siiring — and the summer-wood,
the last wood fonned in the sea.son. The former is lighter colored, because
formed of thin-wallcd cells with wide lumina, forming a loose, open struc-
ture, while the latter is dark colored, because of thick-walled cells with
small Inmina, which reflect the light differently, forming a dense, compact
structure. The wide-lumencd cells or cell fusions may become so conspic-
uous that they appear like larger or smaller pores — cut-through "vessels"
— and according to whether such pores occur, whether thev are found dis-
tributed more or less evenly throughout the annual ring or whether thev
are more or less distinctly groupe<l in the spring-wrKid. the distinction is
made into non-porous, diffuse porous, anrl ring porous woods.

The ring porous womls. like the oaks. ash. elm, concentrate their large-
himcned vessels or "pores" into the spring-wood so that each ring is prom-

66

inently visiblo. Tliese wootls are mostly tht hard wixids of tlu- broad-leal
trct's, their compact -nmmer-wcxjd l>t'ing the hard part. The ditTuse-iK>r-
ous \vot»ds, whivli hiiv'-' their vessels and iKjres of smaller size but larger
number, more or less evenly distributed, are mostly the soft wood like pop-
lar, 'iSpen, tulip tree ; the suninicr-\v(MMl being also porous, and tmly the last
one or few layers of cells being made up of thick-wnlled, small-himened^
compressed cells, making distinction of the annual ring difficult. The con-
'ifers represent the non-]x)rous woods, that is to say, they have no pro-
nounced large-lumened vessels or "pores." Their structure from begin-
ning to end is the most simple and iniilurm. The only difference between
summer-wood and spring-wood is that the former has the cells (or tra-
cheids, so-called i thicker-walled and compressed in raclial direction. Here,
too, we will find soft and hard woods. The hard woods bcmg represented
by the Yellow pines and the Douglas fir, which form many summer-wood
cells — the harder, dark-colored part of the animal ring — while others, like
the White pines, cedars, etc.. have rily a few such compressed summer-
wo<^ cells, the annual ring being less pronoiuiced.

The varying distribution of large and small pores in the broad-leaf
trees permit not only further distinction of' genera and species, but also
judgment of qualities. It stands to reason that a larger percentage of the
thick-walled elements, ceteris paribus, means heavier, stronger wood, so
that by mere physical inspection at least a comparative judgment of the
value of wood may be formed.

Since according to species the proportion of summer-wood and spring-
wood varies with the rapi<lity of growth (width of ring) and since the for-
ester can make trees grow faster or slower, he has it partially in his hand
to produce difference in quality.

Another feature of the structure which are both used for purposes of
identification and exercise an influence on technical qualities, are the so-
called medullary or pith rays. While most cell tissues and wood fibres He
with their longest diameter in the direction of the length or a?tis of the tree
or branch, the pith rays, aggregates of cells, lie with their greater diameter
in radial direction interrupting the straight course of the wood fibre. Tliey
are, therefore, points of weakness. On the cross section they appear as
radial lines, finer or broader, sometimes so fine, as in the conifers, as to be
hardlv distingnishihle. again so broad, as in the sycamore and the oak. as to
form a most prominent feature of the structure. Tt is especially in the rad-
ial and tangential cuts, which are the ones mostly exhibited in structures,
that the pith rays play a role, appearing as different colored plates in the
qi; --ter-sawed maple, beech or oak, and as narrow indentations on the tan-
gential cut. The absence or rather scanty development of pith rays in con-
ifers is one of the reasons of the imiform quality and behavior in shrinking
of these woods, while the diflRcnltv in seasoning oak without checks is
largely due to the presence of many highly developed pith rays.

67

)**

In seasoning, the wtxxl loses the water stored up in it ; as it evaporates
iroin the cell wall on thi- (mtsi<li: it is supplieil from the cell-lunieii on the
inside — no shrinking of cell-walls takes place nntil the water of the lunien
is exhausted and then the eell-wall must give up its water, the molecules
comixjsing the ci-ll walls draw closer with the water molecules removed hy
the dn," air — the cell or cell-tissues shrink. The thicker cell-walls of the
summer-wood coiUain of course the most water and hence shrink also more
than the spring-wixxl cells. Hence, the ring-iKjrous wotxls, like the oak,
shrink more unevenly, antl are liahle to warping and checking. The pith
ray cells lying in uitfereiit directions also shrink in ditfereiU direction more,
and other source of season checks is due to them.

While then the coinplicatetl structure of the ring-jwrous woods fur-
nishes greater strength structurally, it also imposes greater care in their
handling.

In general, the lieaviiT wiwicl is also the stronger, and the (luality of
the wotxl, with trees of pronoimced sunimerw<K)d zones, varies
from the centre of the tree to the periphery, according to the
rapiditx' of its growth. Since, as a rule, the rate of growth in diam-
eter is greatest hctween the Inth and Htith year, the heaviest and strongest
wood would lie in that part of the tree. And as the w(xxl d(K's not change
in structure it was also strongest when it was still on the oiuside of the
tree. i.e.. when it was "sap-wood." In old age, to be sure, the tree growing?
slowlv makes i>)orer wood and hence in old trees the sap-wood, not because
it is sap-wood, but because it is old wood, is weaker.

HL

LECTURE IX.

PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF
FOREST POLICY.

The furtst cuviT is of mure itii|K)rtaiui.' to tlic hoiischohl of a nation
than inanv other of its resoiirees, it bears ;t peculiar relation to national
prosperity, und its nianaj^a'mcnt for continuity offers various uni(|Ue and
peculiar aspects, which call fur special active interest hy the cotnmunitv at
large and hy its represcntati\e. the state.

Briefly summarizing the arguments for such special interest and exer-
cise of governmental activity, we recall that the forest is a natural resource
which answers sinuillaneously three purjwscs of civihzed scviety ; it fur-
nishes directly materials used in very large (piantilies and almost as needful
as f\K>d : it forms a soil cover which iulluences. directly anil indirectly, un-
der its own cover and at a distance, conditions of waterllow. of soil, and of
local climate : it has. in addition, an aesthetic value, furnishing pleasure and
recreatioti and henetitting health.

The exploitation of this resource for private gain is apt to lead to its
deterioration or eventual ilestructioii, especially in a country where [xipula-
tion is relatively small and unevenly distributed, when only the best kinds
aud the best cuts can he profitably marketed. Hence, since profit is the ob-
ject of private enterprise, exploitation un<ler such conditions must be bv ne-
cessity wa.steful. Uy the removal of the u.seful kinds and of the desirable
individuals, leaving the ground to he occupied by tree weeds and runts, the
reproduction of the destral)le and useful is prevented, and since the forest,
by changing its composition and cpiality is deteriorate<l in value, the future
is injured as far as material interests are concerned.

Since, with the removal of marketable timber, the interest of the individ-
ual in the forest is gone, it is naturally neglected, and conflagrations which
follow the wasteful exploitation, with the accumulated debris left in the
wo(k1s, kill or danuige. not only the remaining old timber, but more espec-
ially all the youiig growth, h'ven the soil itself, often formed only hv the
mould from the decay of leaves an<l litter accunuilated through centuries.
is destroyed, and thus, not only the practicability, but the iK>ssibiHty, of res-
toration is frustrated.

In many localities the conse(|uences of such destruction are felt in dc-
ler-'oration of climatic eondiiions, and In luu-ven waterflow. flcKids and
dnKigbts being exaggerated : in thi-; way damage is inflicted on portions of
the communitv far removed from its cause and unable to protect them-

m

A

MK

selves. The private indiviiliial can liaruly be expected lu appreciate llie>e
(lihLuiil iiiLeresiii ui tiib uun iiiuliuii in me iiiaiia^eiiieiit ui his lureat pruper
L} ; hence the stale niusl guard them.

The desire lu get the largest present prutit truni hi.i lahor, whicli i> the
only incentive ui private emerprise, will he also a cuiiatant niceuiive tu cur-
tail the wolkI capital necessary lur a susiaiiieil >ielU niauagemeni, and lu let
the tuture take care ui itselt.

llu- iiitere.li in tile tuture hes w itli the state; ihu niate iiuial interieri;,
wherever tne interests ot the lulure clearly uemaiid ii.

The :>tale is lu pruteci the bruad interests ul llie many m the cuiinnun-
it), against the iiicuiisiderate use ui pruperty by the lew ; and special stress
IS tu be laiU upun the necessity ui inciuunig tlie interests ut the luiure eum-
munity in this cunsideratiun, calling lur the exercise ui proziUculial tunc-
tiuns uii the part ul the state.

There is, huwever, une great generic difference between Uu lureslry
business U11U an (Jtitcr prudiiciive industries, which places il alter all on a
different luuting as lar as state interest is cuncerneJ ; it is the time element,
which we have again and again accentuated, ajid which brings with it cun-
sequences nut experienced in any oilier business.

The result of private activity w hich is supposed to conie from self-inter-
est is closely connected with the working uf the well-known econuiiiic law
of supply and demand which regulates llie efforts of the producer. This
law and the self-interest can be trusted to bring about in must cases a pro-
per balance rapidly, but in the forest business this balance works sluggish-
ly ; before a shurtage in supplies is discovered and appreciated, stimulaliug
to productive etiort, years will have elapsed, years which are needed to pre-
pare for a supply to become available in a distant future, llow ditihcult it
IS to get conditions of forest supplies recognized and appreciated, we in tht;
I niled States have experienced in regard to our White I'ine supply.

We must, then, admit that, even with regard to supply forests, the
position of the slate may be properly a different one fruni that which it
would be proper and expedient to take toward other industrial activities.

When, in addition to the more material fnnclion, the immaterial bene-
fits of a forest cover enter into the question or bcconie paramount, there
can be no doubt that both principle and expediency call lor timely exercise
of state activity. The so-called protection forests, therefore, which b) vir-
tue of their location on steep mountain slopes or on sand dunes, (jr wher-
ever their intluence on soil conditions, waterflow, and climatic factors can
be shown to be superior to their natural value, must claim a more intimate
and direct attention by the state,

There are three different zvays in which the stale can assert its author-
ity and carry out its obligations in protecting the interests of the commun-
itv at large and of the future against the ill-advised use of property by pri-
vate owners : namely, by persuasive, ameliorative, or promotive measures.

w

i-xcrcisuig iiiaiiily its 11; cJucaUoi,^ luiiclions ; bj nmricuvc iiKinburcs or
imlircct cunlrol, exercising (■•) folic; imuImiu; alij by dirccl comrol, i.e.,
(•i) oz^'iiirs/iif and maila^cmcnl b> ils own agcms.

I'lrsl, vvc have to discuss eUucauonal measures, t:ixalion and larill du-
ties, bounties, and oilier aids in promotion ot private industry.

T!le educational function ol the slate is now recognized as one oi the
most prominent and beneHcial in all civilized nations, although the degree
and generality of its application still vary.

We be;ievc tllal hiially, in each country, il will be considered a part of
proper lorest policy lor sonic public institution of learning to luriiish
inslruclioH iii /oreiliy.

Ihe only danger is that inultiplicatiull in numuer rather than increase
m ethciency of a lew such institutions will be the rule of the day, when the
lever sets in.

in the iiuropean forestry literature a lively discussion has continued
for years as to whether the higher education in forestry should be given at
separate special academies or loreslry schools, or whelher these should be
connected with universities, lliere are advantages and disadvantages in
either arrangement; but the better facilities vvhicli can be had at a univer-
sity, with its concentrated intellectual and laboratory apparatus, give the
preference to the latter.

Besides the establishment of schools, there are other means open for
the Slate to exercise its educational functions. The endowment of scliolar-
shlfs, especially travelling scholarships, has been of greatest value in in-
creasing capacity and intelligence for promoting communal interests.

Next, no more efficient means of education in practical arts which,
like forestry and agriculture, rely still largely on empirics, can be devised
than the establishment of experiment stations.

If, as has been practically conceded, experimentation in agricultural
lines is best done by state institutions, this is still more true in forestry
lines, on account of the time element involved in most forestry experiments.
In agriculture the answer to an enquiry may be oftei^ secured in inexpens-
ive ways, and may be given in one season; while in forestry, years of pa-
tient waiting and observation, wholesale methods of measurements, large
areas, and a large number of cases, are required to permit generalization.

The advantage of connecting such experiment stations with institu-
tions of learning needs hard!'- an argument ; the mutual increase of educa-
tional facilities and opportunities is patent. These educational means can
of course, be extended by proper methods of publication of results, by or-
ganization of meetings for their discussion, by so-called university exten-
sion, and, finally, by the primwtion of associations which have for their ob-
ject the increase of application of knowledge in the actual forestry prac-
tice. Such associations give opportunity of impressing and driving home

71

wliai It tlvurabli: iii praciicu, uiiu iu»u, ui iinuni^ oui wiiai arc tlic iictui ul
ilic priviiti: uwiKr, auu wlwi uit scale siioum uu lu luniici Ills uucrcsu.

*^ luori; uiicLi ana lai-rcaaiun; uuiucucc upon piuaie acuvu^, sun oi
ail cuucalioiiai cuaractgr, is pruptio txcuiscu uj iiit sun: ji> stem my auu
IJUbllslliiig j/ujijjiiu( mjoimatwh.

ill uic well urUcrca stale liic sous musl lii lui- agiiculiuie slioiilu ue
devoted lo sy^ieiiiaiic louu piouiiciion, uiu ju.-.i su suoum me uuii-agiicui-
lural sous, me ausuittit.' loresi sons, be uevoieu to liie s}sleiiiaue prouuelioii
OI woou-crops; moreover, as we liave seen, liie loresl in cerlain silualions,
exercises a poleiit niUueiice on cultural colidilioiis. Hence tlie kiiowleUye
ol llle extent ol loresl area ol a country is b> ilaell nieaniinjless ; tlie char-
acter ol tile son tile loresl occupies, its lopograpliical location, ana us rela-
tion to llle lljilrot'rapliy ol the country, must be known to perinit an esti-
iiiale of cultural conditions, to prognosticate likelj change in area and the
desirability ol interference in its use.

lo get an idea of the amount and value, present and prospective, ol
the existnig resource, tliere must be known llle cuniposition, i.e., relative
occurrence or niercliantable kinds and conditions as lo density, age, and
character of growth, damage by hre, etc., and, most difficult of all to ascer-
tain, conditions and stages of development of the young crop.

lu addition to these educational methods which incite private activity
Ul the right direction by indirect means, namely, by increase of knowledge,
there are more direct aniehorative or promotive measures to be found in
bounties which are given to aid private endeavor in the pursuit of private
industry.

These may take the form of assisting by money gifts, by furnishing
plant material, by giving land as in our timber claim planting, by making
working plans or otherwise specifically assisting in private forest manage-
ment beyond the'gifl of general iiiformatiun, and finally by tax release and
tariff duties.

Within the last few years the federal Uovernmeni of the United
States has inaugurated through the Forestry Bureau of the Department of
Agriculture another method of encouragement which is also practised in
the old countries, namely, to give to private owners specific advice as to the
management of forest properties, the government bearing the larger share
of the expense of securing the data for these so-called working plans. But
for the educational feature involved, this would be a violation of our prin-
ciple that the state should not do for the private citizen what he could do
for himself. If, however, the benefit to be expected for the community at
large is thereby secured, expediency would lend countenance to such a
method. The probability, however, is that in the absence of an obligation
to follow the working plan, and in the absence of technical supervision in
its execution, the results will be hardly commensurate.

72

1 he uiif pruiiiuiivc ailioii ol llic >iau-, which ii> prciiiiiiiLiitly raiiiircil
II. .^lai.hsli a pri.pii lunsl iwhcj, Ihi- prupriil) ul which caiiiiut In- .|ll«-
liuniil lur a MMiuiil, and » Inch arises imiii ihc iiniiiaij liincliuii ul the
slate, us iKjlicc luiiclion, IS to allorii frulcction lu /ur.'^l fiuf^rly, at least
ecjual to tiKii .illorileil to an) other i.ruperlj anil ailn|nate to the peeuhari-
lies and needs ol such lorest property.

Such protection is the nmiuestioiud right ol tlie lorest owner, and
without it lie cannot be expected to maintain a -sustaineil yield" inanaijc-
nient which requires iiiaimainence oi a laige wood capital subject to depre-
dations and to destruction b) lires unless properly guarded.

It is nut sullicieiii lor the state to legislate, but, at least wherever broad
coniiiuinal interests are at stake, it must proviile the machinery to carry out
this legislation.

I lie principl. s most needful to keep in view w hen forinulating legisla-
tion lor protection agahist turest lires are ;

UJ. A well-organized machinery lor the entorcement o£ the laws
must be provided, in wllich the stale niusl be prominentlv represented, since
the damage dune by lorest tires extends in many cases lar be)oiid immed-
iate private or personal loss.

(■ij. Kesponsibihty for the execution of the law must be clearly de-
fined, and must ultimately rest upon one person, an officer of the state; but
every facility for ready prusecutioii of otleliders must be at conimaiid of
the responsible officer.

I,;IJ. Aone but paid officials can be expected to do efficient service,
and financial responsibility in all directions must be recognized as alone
productive of care ill the performance of duties, as well as in obedience to
regulations.

(i). Recognition of common interest in the protection of this kind of
property can come only by a reasonable distribution of financial liability for
loss between the state and local community and the owners themselves.

Generally speaking, restrictions and supervision of private forest in-
dustry have proved themselves mostly undesirable and impracticable; their
only justification would appear when protection of neighboring properties
or of general communal interests demonstrably require them.

The recognition of the fact that the removal of the protecting forest
cover may give ri.se to shifting sand and sand dunes, which may encroach
and despoil larger areas beyond, is sufficient call for the exercise of the
police functions of the state'to prevent such damage, if we admit the provi-
dential character of such functions.

The experience that the deforestation or even bad management of the
forest cover, forest devastation, on mountain tops and hills, leads to excess-
ive water stages, to destructive (IckkIs, filling channels, thereby impeding
navigation and silting agricultural soils, damaging neighboring or distant
interests, again makes the exercise of the police function of the state, in a

73

wilier sense in wl.icli 1 liave .liliiu,! ,i. ,„w,>ar» in ..r.ler to prevelil the
e(JiiMc|iieiicis ui iniMiiaiKiKiincm ..I ilu' i.rcitftiv.- (oresi cuver in audi par-
liciilar situations.

The siinar planter in Liinisiaiia. whose erop is .ii.lanRere.l or ilMtroy-
etl hy overflows ,liie to causes a ihousan,! miles a«a», has a ri^;ht t,) protec-
tion throut,'!) llle ([oviTTiment.

I'lnally, however, it will be louiiU that control and supervision of pri-
vate property is an unsatisfactory, expensive, and only partially effective
method of securing conservative forest inanaBement, where the necessity
ol mamtainnit' a forest growth ma. exist and the rtnancial margin that can
be had from it is but small, lixperience in the ol,l countries has shown
that, 111 spite ol the much more perfi-ct machinery for enforcing laws, and
111 spite ot the much more ready disposition to submit to laws, than we are
accustomed to see in this country, the attempts to control private property
have been largely without the desired result.

It then becunus preferable for the commuiiitv to own and manage such
lorest areas.

Such ownership may rest either in the stale or else in tli. .mntry the
town, or other political subdivision which seems most nearb .nterested in
the maintenance of the protective cover. To obtain possession, if it cannot
be had by purchase, the necessity of exercising eminent ilomain is now re-
cognized 111 most civilized states where public objects, public safety or pub-
lic utility require it ; usually, however, the objects for which this pow er may
be called into requisition are definitely stated by law.

Finally, when the ideal, the socialistic, co-operative, most highly or-
ganized state will have developed, the policy will be that the community
shall own or control and devote to forest crops all the poorest aoils and
sites, leavmgonlytheagricultural soils and pastures to private enterprise

LECTURE X.

THE FORESTER, AN ENGINEER

...0 fl':.';';!:;::' ::;;:;■::::::,;: ■" '"- "^- ^t^ ■" "-"

producer ,,',„? , ', '"'""'' T"' '""■*'""''^' "" ""• l- "' > ■•

".K...i»inHHn,H::«;::: ::~:;'''-:; ^""';'"-'"^-

OIK' in whidi 111., ruvl „f cn.,i>, i '''""'■ ' '" '""-"IT s liiisints,, j..

v.T.nn, ,:ir«.,i„„ :, , , ,^ rz^""'"'''''' -T'' ""'"'•■"»•"• ■^">-" "■
a»Kci„,i...en,in.o^„;i•;:t,t.m;:^T'r^'""'"■:'^'^^" '

'«'--.</ a hn„.lre I ^ear^ , "c T i , ""'■' ™"',' '"''' "'"' '■'""'"'""'
planning, entail, economrn I , r ■ *';';'"'' '''■"'*"' '■"'""'^ •^"'f'"

an.l fores.er differ in objects a iVlV f , "*''"" ""= '""''«™an

" "» - a ^p-"i='ti.."!aX r~;c';'''t'';,''''' -'" •'^■"■^ '•'-

:^=;r''-"'----''--"*of!::^::;:r:'^^

a» well as of i,. content.. Snrvnw' 1x1 r "'':'»-"■»"''> •■""' '^'■aracter,
ing, are requisites of a con^^p te, ^^^e te ""u'; ,'"'"T'"''"' ^"-^-
m.ght be ,nadeb, regular snrv'^vors, as tt wo I 'f T / ''"' '""''
progresses and needs recording on Ik maps it w^ll . f 7"' '""""^"
can do his „«n surveving, and therebvXcl ""'' ""'''' ' *>'

readily topographic maps^ Such s urtevt bei„ """'T'™' "'^^ "" '"^"P^'^
IK-ses but with engineering work . ew ' m t' bT ^df" "!' ^^ """
and on a larcer srale th=T, • i . ™™' "'"'' more care

.hoseof a GSo;^al St'r":: '^"' """ "^"' ^"^ "'• '" ■-""■«-

75

niamiicv from tl,,. ,iari rv,,, . , , • ' . ' '^ """''" ''"• P""

which ..n ,™ o,.i,..„ ... „„ :,:; -;, Ir-^ ;'-'-; ■;--^H

rmi«ion. >otifv of We»iern Kngint. r<

;u>n a., .CO... „.„e„ . ri„ Jo,:;;!.^^ ^^ ;^ r ^i::

na ,. I p ,, „ res no mi-ar fnKi„..t.ri,n: ^kill.

Ihc removal of a bulky crop, of which much is infXr LuiTT
arrange ,his harv,,, ,h„, i. ma, ho „,a<,c .ra,,:::!^' „ ^ ' Sf t™
(fiiiR over Ihc same area for a ni.mbiT of years * ' ^'

Here in the harvest, log^^er an,l forester have similar, vet not i,lentical
mterests, for the loKRcr lacks the recp.irement of lo».Wne-„." U
area Kra.iual' ., ,; co„„„„a,ly, of havin, ,o rentove »;dTo:::i:Ue:i,r;

'-> «NI ..,NES. C.KSON LAKE, <■ A. K,. keNLKEW Cu.

HI."..!.. ]l„„si„„„ «•>.,,,

n

I>AM AN,, T,N„.K,< SLM.E. McGM.UVKAV ,.AK,.. .ol'U.NGF, n, ,,
/^h-'her .1.0 ,r.,„sporta.io„ is by rail or water, or bv slcH or' ivLl,'

78

lim-lni. I'liKiiio-riiit; slniciiiri's aiul

'■' '"t.'i;"iK"|i<T.ilic)ris, ;,s MOW a
"pcralKms arc amstaiitlv c'm|,I„«.,i

Tl\.H<il< Sl.lliE. HIC.H FALLS, \HIIAWA

The present .«•««,-.<:„/,/„,. svs,e„L lirs, s„««.,l.,l livMr'TH ^1!^' '
...M,,,, rel.es upon a stationary hoisting enKine, .wi l,rin!s ,.;. I„ ' f
shorter or longer .Istances to the carsT„ L- rope ,H ,. v ,

the ropes ben,,, dispose,! in varions ■„a^s ace, ,li, " L in ?'T'
Rrotntd. , ,„e ofthc essentia, .ie.iees is the cast li^Z ^c.^ t^
s patent) wh,ch caps the lo,, anto.natieallv when the rope is , le, ' '
an,l steers ,l,e lo,, over any stnn.ps. stones, or other i„,pe,li,ne, t '

!i^SSiBSS

■m

a-'-&-

lATAKACTAND TIMBER SLIDE. WHITEFISH RIVEH, M.tJOMA.

^^fS^^^P^SS^^SSHiml^

80

There are now four different methods of steam skidding used. The
simplest, applicable to flat lands, consists in snaking the logs over the
ground and assembling them at the cars by means of a hoisting engine and
drum, a horse returning the rope with a grappling hook or tongs at the end ;
the loading is done by a separate rope and drum.

The distance to which this skidding may be done is, of course, depend-
ent upon the length of rope which it is practicable to wind on the drum or
drums and to have the horse return. Usually this is not more than 800 to
1,500 feet, when the machine may make from 150 to 250 pulls per day, the
cost on the average with a crew of eleven men and three mules being about

m

Hy permission, So.:icty of Western Kngineers.

$.14 per day, and the output, of course, dependent on the character of the
timber and the log size, which determines the number of feet coming with
each pull.

Wl'cre the ground is less flat and simple in contour, and where it is
preferable to return the rope and grapple automatically, the "slack rope
system" may be employed. In this system a wire cable is strung from a
head tree near the engine to a stump in the woods, on which travels a car-
riage (Miller patent), with a specially designed l>lock (Butler's patent)
through which the skidding rope with logging tongs works, so as to allow
sidewise extension ; an outhaul rope, running over a separate drum of the
hoisting engine, returns carriage and tongs to the woods, where the tong
men pull the rope slack and attach the tongs to the logs lying along the line
shorter or longer distances.

mr.i

81

The loading on cars is done by a separate set of drums and rigging.
To use this sjstcm, which may extend to a longer distance than the snak-
ing system satisfactorily, the ground must be tolerably free from rocks and
obstructions. According to conditions and distances, from 80 to 130 pulls
may be made in a day. A later improvement provi<les for a number of
side lines working simultaneously, by which the efficiency is greatly in-
creased ; otherwise horses or mules gather the logs to the pulling line.

In the cypress swamps, where this method is largely used, the machine
is placed on a large scow, moving in canals prepared to float the logs. Here
the distance to which the skidder works is '■i.SOO to 4,000 feet, the ponder-
ous logs moving at the rate of TiOO to 600 feet a minrte, breaking through
the timber with thundering noise. Such a pull boat is capab'c oi landing
;iO,000 to fiO.OOO f^et per day in the water.

In more mountainous districts, where narrow valleys and coves with
sleep slopes are to be lumbered, the log-gathering system finds its condi-
tions. In this a cable is stretched from slope to slope across the railroad
track in the valley, and the logs are gathered to the track by the skidding
rope and carriage. The distance to which the s> stem may work, depend-
ing somewhat on the degree of slope, may be up to 1,000 feet, when from
r^O to 150 pulls per day may be made.

In these last two systems up-hill skidding is, to he sure, as easy, or
even easier, than down-hill. According to conditions, either of these sys-
tems, or any combination of them, or a combination of skidding by horse
and steam, or a relay system with several engines placed one after the other
reaching out long distances, will gwe the best results.

The first steam logging railroad was built in Michigan in lft7fi by W.
S. Gerrish, who was called a hnre-brained enthusiast for his innnvation.
which, however, proved successful. Ten years later many such logginp
roadsof 25 and even 45 miles in length: and altogether over 3,000 miles
were in existence ; in Michigan alone over 720 miles. Now the logginjr
railroad has become so general that the mileage may be estimated to exceed
g.'i.OOn miles.

There are still three different kinds of logging railroads in use ; The
pole road, the tramway with sawed wood rails with or without strap iron
capping or flat bar iron rail, and the iron or steel T railroad. Each road
has its merits and advantages of its own in given situations, although
the regular steel T railroad, all things considered, seems to have found
most favor.

In the Cornell College forest a standard gauge with 10>pounn steel
rail has been used on spurs, and a 4fi-pound rail on the main road, with a
27-t(in engine.

The economical construction of logging roads which are designed to
serve only a temporary requirement is one of the engineering problems
which more and more interests lumbermen, and even to a greater extent

iT"lTT '"'"■*' '" '""''■ "'•" '''™'" ^■'■•"-n.v, since ,he „«r-
uc , reads cms an,l hlls must bc' avoi.k-.! as nu.ci, as p,«s,ble «i,i!.. I.eavv

.iBan.s, los cs ,n n,ai„te„ance an.l .fficii-ncv, such as uu cULMuecr ,s ca «l
s cur. the. least c-xpc-nsno loBgi,,^, r„a<is, the main effort n,„s. be n.a.ie n

V h r, r r^ ?''" ■"" "'K"'^'^'""*? K"m|,ti„u must determine

W here w,«i ,s chea,, and ri^ht at hand, it is often in,licated t,. use i,n r

^

Sx::

-.iJ;:;^«!:r:,'b :n::!n^:r'^:r 7Cr,:ri7 -"' ""''"^''

a forester, and is laid withou ^,s. Th^ " l^f^ "^ t'" 7T' "'

with a 1,40,, feet eUnation. I, dehvers ,.,. , eor!i ' " d.'v ^ '""

AltORether /„,„/,„,., /,/„,,,, and terminals nn,s, he locate,! with cireum
specfon, ,o take care of .he bulk, n.aterial and secure the cheap::! haldli,;"

of It, which, with corilwcxxl nm more Ihiin with lofjs, dcpcTids u|miii thi-
character of the landings.

There are now very generally employed steam loailers; hoisting en-
gines with onthaid ropes rwmiing over ilrnms, which pick up the logs
alongside the track. \ arious devices arc resorted to to facilitate the pass-
ing of cars and to locate the loader with reference to cars anil landing
places.

In the ■llarnharf" and in the "American" Loader this is accomplished
by having rails laid on the cars on which the loader (ravels, pulling itself
along as needed, the latter on two short |)ortablc sections of track, the for-
mer on |)ermanCTit track. Such a loaderof the liarnhart type as used in
the College fori-*!, will pick up anil load from (loo to simi lugs per dav, the
logs being hankeil to within 1(10 feet or so from the track. It is able In
move on ii pivot ii all directions, and the character of the landing place is
ot little inlporcance.

In the "Uecker' log loader the clearing of the track for bringing emp-
ties to the loader is accomplisheil by allowing them to pass underneath the
loaikr over a three-rail sertiim of track, which rises from the main lr.nck
anil IS earned by the loaiirr m its lower story.

tn lorestrx work, whtrf the care for the young aftergrowth must Ix'
taken into consideration, moilitication of the methods of procedure will be
retiuireil. rbe\ are. however, directly applicable where clearing with arti-
iiciai planting is practiced, or where the strip sy.steni is use!, which con-
sists 111 clearing strips ami securing the reproiluctiuri by seeds from the
iieigbbiiring old timlx-r which is lefi standing. W hen the forester shall be-
a lull\ reco.urueil ai.il estallished instiluliuii in ( aiiaila we ma\
expect thai he will develop these methods of exploitation to suit the addi-
tional requirements of silviculture.

Ill UK-chanical engineering, also, there is still a wide tieW unoccupied,
the developniem of which would aid the business ot the loro-ter. We arc
still relying on brute force for felling trees, sawing them into lugs and cul-
ling and splitting cordwixjil. .Attempts to appl\ steam ur electric power
in tree felling have so far failed to bring out am |ir ictical iiietliod. Ihere
are now on trial cordwooil cutting machines, but the) are so far only ap-
lilicable for very siiecial conditions which can be rarciv met.

In entirely different direction i engineering skill demanded, and a
special line of fciresi cii^inecriiif^ lias developed in connection with the re-
clamation and reforestation of sand dunes and denuded mountain sides.
This has been especially develo|)ed by the hrencb foresters, the Irench
government having spent many million dollars in covering the lands and
sand dunes of (iascony, and in safeguarding .Sonthein mountain ranges
against torrential action induced by deforestation. This forest engineer-
ing is now practiced in all countries where fori .irv is developed and the ne-
cessity for this work has been recognized.

84

.Miiusi D(^,in ,, I" '"pnl the imimtans, whore the witpi-Q „,.!.„
their momentiim h.tn 'o-cnfi wlii,-li e=rr,. . :i i it *'^'"""

growth ,s plante,! and the eq.,iHhrM,„ of natt.re's forces wh 0!™, ha I

need of a c,..MerahIe amount of e„,i„cer!„, kU'woTan .™p in,',"
u ,ch ,. tn he apphed „nder conditions in which i, i. ™, „s„ lly pra ,^
able to employ an engineer •' '"^'"^■"^

,''«\."ira!i ^«.t^^-i'J::^:

iPii' w^ .^eweKmiER^^j

So

While for itiaiiia,iislriicliun» it iiia\ bf advisal.lc u. i-.ill in an oirL-i
Mivr at tel i„ «„,s„llali„n, i„ -mMcr o,Msu.u-li.,n» an.l u, onoialin,.
roails, railria.l,, clr, llu- h.riMir can har.llv affonl n.,| i,, l„. Ins mvn cniji-
mvr. I h ninst have the knowlolfjc « liidi will make him in.iqxn.k.nl „i
Mu- pn.lcss.onal cnsjiiarr. Slnil.nls ,,l lorcslry, Ihor.l,.,.., nir.l a o.nr.c
iMcnK„,ecrinK which will nmkc- ihcn, ac.|nai„(ni wiih principles an.l iiicth-
(.1 s of constructum „f special iiilm-st lu them in their hnsiness ( m the
other han.l enpiicers iiM.v tin.l a tiehlin snlvinK- eilKine, rin>; pr.ihlenis f„r
the f.iresler. ami ni iniprovii,^ his iiielli,„ls, >.iili,„it hec, lining prufessi,.iial
foresters.

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