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■«• ■ ;•-■*.-•<«.

MICtOCOfY RESOLUTION TISI CH*«T

ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No 1.

jM dgP'-IED INA^GE In

&M

-.'?•:*■«

f-^bk.:

;»f "^y^r

-]ps^'

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

I >cp;irliiu

ll^n. l-ri.T KIliM.n.

Minister ..f .\Kriiulturi-,
\iif<iria. I!. C'.
Sir: —

Aiiriiiiliiirr,
\ ittMria. I!, I'., tih Mav. |:iiv.

I have the h,.n.,ur tn sul.m.i lurewiil, t:„|ktin N... M. whidi is i„
the nature „f a re,„,rt. prepare.l l.y l'n.fes>.,r |!. ,\. K tel.everrv lle„l
nf the Departn.ent nf Irri^atiun. l•„i^ersi,v nf Califurnia '.lealin^
with the result nf inv esti^;atin„. o,n,Iue,e,l l.v Inn, ,„, IrriK'ati.,,,
Systems. an<' Lse ..f Water, in IJritisl. (.-.■lumlna.

I ha.e the liMnour tci l)e.
Sir.
^ iiur iiJH'dient ser\ant.

\\.\l. K. SC'OTT.
Deputy .Minister .,f Aurietilture.

■-T7Af^'

1^^' ^^fiikEi-^ikM^MmM/mm:

■:M^^^<s^imssEmBS!meB^t.4>;^mmm

U • viiV

PRACTICAL
INFORMATION

ON

IRRIGATION

FOR

BRITISH COLUMBIA
FRUIT GROWERS

By B. A. ETCH E\ ERR V

ri!isri:i> n y
Arrih'Uiry <>/• riii: i.i:i;isi..\ti\ /■: .iss/;.i//,7,)-.

MC TORI V K.c
l'rin,...IU W „|,„„ II t-„,|,„ ,>,.„,„,„ „,.. ;^,„^.^ ^,_,^, t^crU.m \bi,sn

niij.

■iS^WKT-Si'ir' ^^Jl-'W

i

I,.

^•■•■^;^i:

J

i:

Practical Information on Irrigation for
British Columbia Fruit Grow ers.

INTRODUCTION.

Ill proi.oniim u, tli,. oxlnil of af;ri(iiltural liiii,l siiicljlc for iniKation
in till' arid or sciiii-arid part <if Itritisli Coliuiilila, tin. wai.r siiiii.Iy avail-
able is inoliably hkiiv abuiulant than ilial of iiid.st of tlic aiiil icf;ioii.s of
tbc stares of tlic iMilfd Slates, but it is also no doubt xm,- that tliefe are
maiiv districts ubere tbe supply is eitlier not stiMlcieMt or else not avail-
able at a reasonable eost to irrlnate all aj;ri(iiltiiral soil whidi iie ds irri-
gation to make i; produetive. It is tbciefore iinporlaiit tliat tlie available
water supply be conserved and used witli rare and eionoinv in order to
cover as inu< 1. land as possible. This may be done by supplementiiiK tlm
natural now of the streams by slorat;e reservoirs and by preventinj,' the
waste of water.

Measurements made in the rnited States slu.w that on most irrigation
systems eonsistinB mainly of unlined eanals ex.avated i„ earth, the losses
in conveyanec from the leaky ditehes amounts to about r,t> per eent of the
water diverted from the source of supply, and of the remaining r.n per cent
-from one tbiid to one half is lost by evaporation, percolation and other
wastes due larjrely to crude methods of irriKation.

Storage reservoirs have been built on many of the streams to increase
the water supply. A few irrisation companies are linlUK their canals with
concrete, or using wooden Humes and pipes for their distrib.itaries to stop
the conveyance losses of water. This practice will increase the water sup-
ply available for new lands, but there will still remain the waste which
occurs When water is applied to the land by a careless irrigator or ,ne
who does not know the practice and methods of skilful and economical
irriKation.

Irrigation in Hritish Columbia with the exception of a few isolated
caees, ,« new and the ntethods of conveying water to the land and of applv-
inK II to the soil are in many cases crude and wasteful. The average
Irrigato,- is not interested to the sante extent as the irrigation companv in
saving the water to use it on new land, especially if he pavs for the «aler
at a hx.,1 rate per acre and not for the „uantity actually used, or if he has
an early water right which permits him to use an.l waste all he de«ires

wate sk.ltul y and economically. First, because if water is valuable and
is sod according to the amount used, the elimination or decrease of waste
Will decrease the water bill. Second, careless and wasteful use of water s
liable to cause water-logging -f lands not properly drained. Third it is

:z'::^::zzr'' " ""'^" """ "" ^'^^-^^ -- "--^ --■-

For these reasons the writer has attempted to put t<,getlier information
wh ch he hopes Will be of value to the new settlers, present fr,. t g ow "e

s.: to;;;r '°" ""■""^'"^- '"- '"^-'"-"•" '^ --> --"' -° <^.-

1. Selection of an irrigated farm and laym.g out oixhard.

2. rmts of ineasurfMient of water and nu-thods of meaHuriiiB water.
.1. .Methods of coiiveyance of water.

4. Duly of water and factors influcn.inK the correct use of water in
irrigation.

•"'. IrriKation and cultivation of orchards.

«. IrriKation of potatoes.

'■ Irrigation of alfalfa.

.*<. The use of small idiniinnK plants for irrlKation

cnlnl','.',"'''"',' '""' '"," ^•""""""' '" ""^" "I" Muestions whi. I, are purely agri-
nit n or horticultural and wherever information alo„« those lines U
Kuen It IS becau.se of thci,- relation to irrigation

During the summer „f 1:.,1 the writer at the request of the Hritish

•; "'"'■•' .overnnict. visited many of the irrigated districts of the prov-

ln<. On two oth.r occasions he has visited the districts in the vieinty of

i^:';:;''f.n;,i"r";;'''!"'"": '""'' •"""■■■'•""■^ ■-« '-- -^ --'"2: ii

sc .t 1,^ fo, tins bulletin mlormafion based rot only on personal experience

tl inited states. Hecause of the similarity in con.litions of the fruit
K ovv,n« leKions of lirltlsh folumbia and tho.se of northwestern Itates o

nact ' r ,r'" ""■" '' '""'"''• ^^•-"'"«'"". "<alH. and Montanrthe

practic, „ ,„„«e «,a„s has be. «iven more welKht. The writer has not

imited himself to his own experience, but has drawn freeh^ro n an horita

ive sourc-s. especially the bulletins of the irrigation .nvestlKrtio 'offlce

u,rTJ ■ • "*■'""••"'""' "f Agriculture and the bulletins of the Agricul-

ed t hasr;::"'- ■'""."" ^,"f "- -^'°- -estern states, for wiifcb due
credit has been given in all cases.

2.
3.
4.

6.

I.-SELECTION OF AN IRRIGATED FARM
AND SETTING OUT ORCHARDS.

SKLK< TI(»X <,K .A.N ()K( H.AUD „K k.AR.M I XDKU IUH,c;atIOX

The intending purchaser should select his land only after he has made
a careful investigation of all the requirements necessary for a go^d Tarm
or orchard. The factors which he should consider are"
1. Climatic conditions.

Chemical composition of the soil.
Texture of soil and subsoil.
Location and site of orchard.
Surface conditions.
IJrainage.
1- — <'liinatic Contlitions.

These include precipitation and its distribution temne-ature win.t
movement, length of growing season, etc. A studv o tl^ "i,^ anrits

.ffiir-^'i.-' .S 'x'^rJ^-

r

Early frosts in the tall ami sudden iriirpascs of Ipiiiperattire in ilir upriuK,
followed by Bcvort" latt- spriiin frost, may lause considtMablc (lainat;.'.

Strong winds arc de striictive to both trees and Iriiit and slioiild b.'
provided against by planting wind breads. Tlie existenre of mroni; winds
may be indicated by tile tr<es bein^ permanently b.nt.

-• — <'li«'iiil«'ul <'iiiii|M)!<ilhiii of llie Soil.

The soil must eontain all chemical plant t(. .1 elements an! decayed
ni>;anic matter or Imniiis. As a rule if the soil is deep, these ar, all piCs-
ent in sufficient quantity with the exception of humus which is olieii lacL-
iiiK . The lack of organic matter can, however, be (orrected by L-iowiiu'
suitable cro|is.

The soil aiul subsoil should he tree ffom alkali salts. This may be
indicated by the cliaracler of the nativ,. plants. Saj;ebrush and biilTalo
Kiass usually indicate that the soil is easily cultivated, well drained, deep,
free from alkali ami fertile in chemical plant food, but some times delicient'
in humus. (Jreascwoo.l and .salt mass in<'.icate the presence of alkali. An
analysis of the soil will be of j;reat value. The soil should be riih in
l)otasli. phosphoric acid, nitrogen, lime and humus.
•*• — Texture of Soil niid Siilis<iil.

The best soil i« one which is dee|), retentive of nu)isture and underlaid
with an open suh.soil. The presence of a hard or im|)ervi()us stratum
close, than ., feet to the surface is injurious and a greater depth i.s prefer-
able. The hard stratum prevents dee], rooting which is essential for fruit.
trees. A shallow soil underlaid with open gravel may not have nutficient
plant food, will require frequent irrisations, and may cause a large waste
of water. Fruit trees will grow in a variety of soil. Apples prefer a deep
retentive loam rich in humus. Cherries will probablv do best on a well
dra.ned, sandy soil or light clay loam, rich in plant foods, but it Bhould not
contain an excess of nitrogen, which has a tendency to produce excessive
wood growth. I'eaeh trees will do best on sandy soil. Pears will srow
best on clay soils and can be grown on the heavier bottom lands Thev all
require a deep, rich, well drained soil.

The character of the .soil and subsoil is best determined bv boring holes
with a soil auger to a depth of 10 feet.

The behavior of the .soil when irrigated is important. A .lav soil or
soil which is very close will absorb water very slowly and is more .litllcult
to cultivate and will probably bake after ea<h irrigation. As a rule a
sand.v loan, irrigate« well and is ea.sy to cultivate but a very porous «oil
wil allow the water to percolate freely beyond the. reach of the plant roots
without spreading sideways when applied in furrows.
4. — Location and .Site of Oiehaiil.

The orchard must have good air drainage as well as soil .Irainage The
best air drainage i. obtained on rolling lands, on hillsides or on the benches
well above the bottoms or lower s^ '.■• of ravines or .icpressions where the
cold air settles at night. A verv -able location is found at the upper

:z:l: ^■''"'■^" '""■" '^ ■• '■ *^ ""■ "^"•^- '"■'"■•""- ^^ --• «"

exnlsurf 'T' '","'' •""■^'''^'■»'"^' "iference of opinion as regards proper
exposure. A southern exposure will usually produce earlier fruit he.ause
of the earlier growth in the spring, but where there is danger of injury be!
<ause of late spring frosts a northern exposure will retard the budding and
- - 1- 1.-... imiii.,r. nr . Hr trt-rs bcinp injured.

n — .Sui-r»i'«> <'unilitlonN.

.radnal rise Lf t l^ "r ,aS an". 'T "T"' "'''"^' "'""^^ ^^•"' '-- «

.onHiirii^Ke" :r:: ''^t- "'" ■"' ^^^ ■''"■"'"• '■- ^-^-- '-^^-t '«

e.ai„,ed r r as a", turr'r' •,',"''' ""' '""■•^- ''"^•^"•««- "«
rise in t„e wate tabU a d ^ ' ? "'"" ''" '"^'"•'^" '^^^ ^ '""tinued
at least. """ '"""'" "^' '»^'"^" ''"• <''■-■' rooted plants

t..^'";';::nr;;:s;a;::rx,.r;::i':^;r,rr '-^-^^ "^^ ^^- '»---

and intrrfere with its d m,n » i t """ "'"^ '""'^'■' *he water

table ,00 near the s.M.la;" "--'=''""' -"• -u.e a ,is,. ot the water

.xa;;;;L';hr:::::L,t:':;i;rT^:;';:;r ";r /-"""'- "■--'w. a„d

' s ^^cll as the top soil by borins derply with an auser

. '■»^:'■"^»Tl<.^ «,i i.\M, ,,,„. oiMHii; )

I. — < Icfiiina tru- Siiiiare

tiuM.ro..ess is al^^V: r/e ; -.hmI ;V" u\ ";'"7^— -- -''>0'>'^. but
'■'ethod With shovels iksnn, 7 '"»«>■ ^e done: Kirst, By the hand
etump pnlle s Th rd Zl \, " '"'" ''"^' '^•""''- «>' '"e "se ot

.nethld whi h .0, i"'o bo 'in ""' "' ,""""""- ''""••^"' ^-^^ '"*' ^'-n-S
-hi..., «,.s are b sLt .^ u V""' '"'"' '' ""^ ^°°* ''f "- «'»'"!> into

^vhioh has been .e.^p^r-J-'ir:. .jr.^-r , .:;;;r---

smT^:^mMm(^mmmiM^-x:.^^MJ^m^m

of removitid sniiiii's in the Stttt- ot Washington hy this nictluMl uas found
to vary from 2". tentH to $1.oo each for mnniiw uh larn«' as 4" iniliin In
dlaniPter. While tho niothod in moat econuiii,. al lor day soil, it was found
that It lould be auiioasfully aindied to sandy koII. Thf nidliod has bipii
fully dcHcrlhfd in (Icnoral Hullelln Ml of the A^jriiultuial 1;x|mm inirnt
Station of Washinjrlon State College at I'ullnian, WasliiUKfcin. Tlio n,M of
rlcariiiK will naturally vary with the density of ;,rowtli at:il the incihod used
to remove the stunipx. It may vary from a few dollars lo tifty or one hun-
dred dollars for heavily timbered land.

Where tho native vegetation Is small brusli oi- grasses, ilie land slmuhl
be |)li)Wed di( lily, tht ii raked to remove llie lar«e brush, wliiili is burned.
This is followed by harrowini; and the pradinj; oiieralion.

Where the vcMitation is tall sat;ebnisli, it must he removed before tho
land can bo ploweil. This may be done in several way«. Wliere the brush
is not abundant it may be grubbed off by haml. Where the brusli is thick
and very dry it may be burned otT while utandini;. A method largely uBcd
in the Yakima Valley is to brciik off the brush by drawinw a railroad rail
or heavy timber over the land, first In one direclion and then in the other.
The best time to do this is when the M;round is frozen. It re^iuires a leant
on each end of the rail. The brush breaks off at or below the surla<c and
is then raked into windrows or piles and burneil.

The cost of clearing off heavy brush in the Yakima Valley varies from
about $2. .-.I. to *:!.ou per acre when done with a rail and teams and about
$3. 7:. when done by hand. The cost of the Hrst ph.wiiiK is about $I..-.u to
$2.(M) per acre. The plowinR is followed by harrowin*; and then the surface
is ready to be graded and prepared lor irrigation. This includes the proper
locarton ot tbe ditches, the pradinK of the land and in some cases the srow-
ing of some crop to improve ihe condition of the soil.

Before Brading the surface the location of head ditches or Humes must
be decided on. They must be so placed that when constructed thev will
Kive the furrows a desirable grade and must divide the field so that the
furrows will not be over 3(Mi feet long for sandy soil and .-,00 to BOii feet
for more impervious soil. Refore the construction of these ditches the
land must be graded to conform with them.

The grading of the land has been usua.^y neglected in the irrigated sec-
tions of British Columbia. This is due largely to the character of the land
Much of u is rolling or on fairly steep hillsid.s which can be irrigated with-
out grading. Hut in many c„ses the land would have been much improved
by some grading.

The mistake is often • de of danting orchards an,l other crops before
the land has been even p -crly cleared in order to give the trees an early
start and sliorten the f. le before they will bear. In tsome cases '.his
result.s ,„ N.aving a field or orchard which is difficult to irrigate and which
van no; be improved by gradiim because of the trees or other crop which
have been plante.l. The time gained by planting earlier will often he more
than halan.ed by the poor growth due to improper condition of the soil
and the uneven application of water. The loss in time necessary to apply
the water on poorly prepared land and the waste of water is often greater
than I lie cost of preparing the land.

.„ P°;'-,1"7T irrigation, which is the method most universally adaptable
to !,r ,,s!, Columbia, the only grading necessary is ti.at the land be given
a uniform slope and all irregularities removed by scraping off the humps

ami flllinK II,,. .It-prc-ssloMH where otI.erwiHe water would colleot Rolling
lan.l ,,r lan.l l.avlnK a steep ,l„pe usually re.iulrea little Kradlng

The ImpIemetilB nee.le.1 for gradlnR are nnually some form of sorauer
and a smoother or leveler. For romovinK large knolls or for .Iroing con
BiUerab e earth the Fresno scraper, which Is a wide steel scrap, !s ex

™ I T"- I"' T" '""'"^- •""' """ ^■"-'' •"" "-" '« «•'"" :,. ,:4"

scraper Is very effective. It Is used extensively In the Yakima Vallcv and

..nearly all irrlgate.l districts. It .onsists of a hoard 10 to "4 fe U^e

so, along one edge witi, „ steel plate, which can he adjusted to anv angle

tloat or drag Is used after the scraper (Fig. 2). "'nmes .ailed

■:^m

l-lK. 1 lUuU. «irii|irr f..r l.trlInK Innil.

iKann.Ts' llull.iin :IT:1. f. fi. |,,,,„. ^j.

l-'llt. !• — l.pvplpr iir Hunt.

t K.inn.r.-' I'.iill.iin :;;,.., i" s. |.,.,,,. .\ u i- p

li.— <;,«,vinK Crops to Improve Condition ol Soil.

Most soils of the arid type are la.king i„ organic matte,- or humu. and
mm s ", K ""'"T^"' ""' '"•^■"'"'"->' <-"l""K ." l.lan,.s which wi ad

cultural CV liege, states that a method which is

Plow the land deep i„ the fall and grade it. ,n the spring following oats

IS. I'rof. Fisher, horti.ulturist for the Montana Agri

l)racticed with success is to

'j^'m-^'^r^^j^^'-irm^imm;

;i.-

liKiililli; lilt' I'li-t- l(iiu«.

Til.. 111'.' II. u>; »;ii,iil,| I,,. !,„iu.,| tn ra. iliiaif ilir a|.i>liiaiU)M oi «at.T.
On »t«'c|( slopoH ;t s iliMiiahli n. run tlu- liiiic.w* oti a trailc nn: hi.tii.t
tliaii 2 r.'.i in 1"M. i: is ii„.|vioiv a lvanlai:..„ns t. 'n air ilw tr... r,.«si>n
n liii.. wlil.h will ni\,. al.Dui this l:ih.I.'. Th,.|.' ai.- ihu M.ninion iiirllKMlH
of lu.vinn ont oiihaid traits, oiw known at* tlic sMiiaic niethod anc' the otiitr
as llif li.xa;;onal or t!:.' <M|iiil.i'ri al trianult' s>^i.-im. The .s.|iiar,. svst..ni is
.■HHi.T lo lay out ami i.s b. si a.laptnl to llir us.- .-.( IUUts, TIi.. h/'xawonal

.Hyslcin lias 111.. aihan^aKf Iliat tli<' fiirn.«s (an U.^ , nn in tin', i- foni-

ilin'.Ti'iit ways and that tlir tr. cs covfr tlic uioiin.l iii.ii.. uniloiiiily. Tli-
two nii'ilioilH nil. iJliiKirattd In tlif a( .oaipanying ..kcti In s. Thr siinai.-
system sliows an apiilc onlianl with lillns Thrs.. sk<.t.h,.s aic lakrti from
Kami, is' lliillrhri 4o4, ,f. s. |),.pt. A^y.l wlii.h nivcs tli,. following- li,.
foiinalion :

rndcr Initiation systiMiis pt aih ti.rs should \„- spai.Ml "ii '„ •'•' f,,,.t
l"ar and ilicny tics 22 to 2s and .'io iVd. appl.> ties :!o i,i liii tv'" On'
til.. I'a.ilH. Toast tli.. t..n,l..n(v toward wl.l,. spa.i.in hnK in. In. ...I nianv
jirow.Ts to liisfit p.a.'h llll,.rs l».|w.,.n ih.. slow..,. >;r.,,viim appl.. tn...s

Iho Hriaimen...nt ot tn .s in a yoiinj; or.har.l in Douglas C.iiintv Washini;-
loM. IS shown In the s.|iiai-.. system shown aboM.. 11. t.. th.. tn...s ar.. Ml
in s.iiiar. s Is t....t .a.h way but in evory otli..,- r..u p.a.h tr....s alt..|iiit<.

with th,. stan.lani appl.. ii,.,.s. In th.. lemainhm ...ws Win.sap ai tro..s

are ns...l I.,- Iilleis. As tl-,. appl.. tivs k.-ow an.l b..iiin i„ ,,„w,| ,|,,, „ I,:,. ,

h.. p.a.h ti-....s an. n.mov,.,l. If ,„„n. spa.,, is n..|iiin.,l tli.. \Viii..saps ,an'
b,. taken out It^avum the ap|il,. tri.,.s In s.|iiai-es ;!i; f,.,.t b.uh wavs ■

*^^ f^<xjt Jp/U

'tJT.ir:. ~

•JbfM»)r Uo^^ian

Kilt. :\ — ■•Ian III iilanlinic aiiplp <irrha

ril nitk llllrrN.

Hu. I.— HrxiiKuiml „r irlniiKiilar plan of iilanlluK ..r.h

aril.

T/f*3i^^^i'^

\ i^m\

10

'I'll.

... m..tiM„|M „r HiakliiK out th,. .,r,.|,ar.|« t.. IcHt,. t(,.. v„»uu,u of ih..
.n...H »M.. ,„.. «..„„.« of ,h.. „....K „« w..,l „« on,..r infornu,,, „ ' .

«row „. „.., «,v..„ in , „„ x,, ,, o„ ..,„„,„.>.. ,„.. A,.,.,.. ,„.,„, ,S

llHli-.l I..V AMln.l.Mral Kx,...,!.,,. n, Station a, .Muh.o«. ,,la„o als

.-n :: on K..,: T,... ,.,a..,in« a. > „n„, ...H.::;', ■■';;;;;;,: I' ^:,. I

lural ( oll,.K, KxiM'tlMi. t station at lloz.nia.i. .Montana.

Ill Mill-

II -UMTS OF ME.ASUREMENT OF WATER AND

METHODS OF MEASURING WATER.

m:< i:.ssii V I <*i{ livowi.iiM.i: oi mi:\si iti:.Mi;M oi w \ ^:n.

Wlo.n «u„,,. is ,.. „|,n,ir„| ,|,a, tl,.. l,nKHt.,i« ran obtain all ti... wator
tlu^> want an.l wl,..n..v..r tf..y wan, it, ,„.„.. i.s no „o„l,l.. ahoui its .IIvih ion
a no n........i,.v ,« r.-U for ,„., n,..a«,„..,n,..nt of wat. r. ..», , !,..«,

m ns .lo n.t ,.f..vuil in tiiany .li^tiiitn an,l w.,,,... ,„.., „o .,x,Ht a Kn w-
.'.!«.• . r 11... ,„..as,.r. nu.nt of wafr will liH,. to ,.,vv..n, tlu- !„,•«,. wa^te ih.n
" .-„.. n...,„o,lH of liiiKation an.l to ow i-i.ri.ati, n wl.l.l. mav . a na«o
..t only ,1,.. ..,oj.H of th.. ..an.„.Hs i,,.i,„,„, „,„ ,,., ,„.. lan.l an,| ."of

•li.> l»t,.l..wn..r.s l„.|ow. l,y ,|„, wat,.rloKKin« of ,|„, ,„i|.

Wli-i- wator is not so .ib.iiulant lli,. ii,....HHlly lor a khowl..,li;,. of il,..

u.a«u.-..„,..|„ of wat..r ,« ivit to a Ktvat... .xtont. An .,„ii,a.., i; „ f

tlu «at..r .an onh- be obtain...! by .„rr,..t n>,.as,n-.Mn,.ntH. Tli,. o,. Hat ist
"'• InUutor .an only know wl,..nu.r bo is «..„inK .1,.. wat.. 1„ ,n i u „
or n<n by nK.a«iMen,..n,« of tli.. wat..,- .I,.liv..,c.,l. ,t i.s on,v „. , ,",

an. from a knowl,.,i,.. of ,„.. val„...s of tl,.. „ni,« of „ow that" t ,.,..„. f
Hater a,.,. he.. ,o ,be lan.l ,h ob,aiii..,l. '..,i„ i„ ..esiiabu. if the o, „ rdist
v^ «bos o lrn.a.e ln...|n«..ntly an.l .letornilne the elle.ts o, .ll,r,.|...n .a,
titles ot wai.r on the anionnt of .roirn pro.lu.e.l. '

Other n.a>ions for whl.h there is a ne.es'.itv for •. l,„ui, i
measiuenient of water are: >"<i''.''lt> Km a Ki..,« le.l^.. ol , i.o

;» .reek or 'he dls-

First.-- To measure the amount of water .arrie.l in
charge of a pump.

Seeon.l.-To know the re-iuir,..! eapa.ity of a pump or of a .lit.h u, u-ivn
a .crtain volume of water on a Kiven area of lan.l ^' *"

.,.":;":.;.r:rri;:n:r:;:s::;s: - --"

IMTS OI-' .MK.\.SIISK.MK\T

l.—TI... (i.l.-ie Foo, IV.,. Se<,„„l ,„• .s,.eo,„| K„ol

i"«'water'in Hnr ^VrV " """ '*'"""'■•" "»" "' "'-"-.ement of How-

a K.a..e as to .ive a velocity to the water of 1 H.le^r^r'irr::;.!,^;::^

II

u carryliiK .aimi liy ..r 1 , ubi. f,.,,; |„r M..„nil In any .a., tli,. .i.ms i.m-
llonal ur.a In H.|imio f....| iiMilt<i>liH<l by ih.. vnlo.liy in ft.-t p..- ;(..r„n.l «||1
Klvc the (llHihuruf In i ubir fj-i't |>ir »eii)nil.
a. — Till- liiiiloli loliinililii Mliii-i-' hull.

Th- Irual sahi. „r ih,. n,i„,.,s- auU m tl,P i mumi... „f Hiltisli Coliunblii
IH III.' .luantity ..r ^^al.■|• that will |.a*H ihiruKi, an orili.,. t«„ |«, |i,,h bUb
l)y lialf an Inrl, ul,l,. ma.l.. In a t«.) Inrb plank, rl... wat.r i,. luiv a ■ .,11-
htuni Ik'M.I „f >,u.n inc b. s nU,n,. rl„. npp, , «|,l.. „f ,h.. orlll.... ami .v.ry
a(|(lil;..nal Inrb <,f u,,i, ,• «hall niran m, nunl, as will pass tl,ioui:l, il,,. ,,abl
orllbc cxtc'inlcil lioi izontally bair an in( b.

In cublr nicaHiii. in..|it on,- hu b of «ai. 1 shall m.an a lb:w „r wiUt
.■.|iinl 10 l..;s .nblr iv..t p,.r n.iniii... Tl,:.- is .qrUalmi i„ ;:.-..; niin.TH-
lii'l.c s I. II- (im. ciililc 1(1(11 p,.f K.cond,

il.— .\<ll' KlMll.

Til- nnit of ni..asiir.Mii,Mt Is lb., best unit for ni.-a«ur..ni,nt .)• la t ^
vo.rnus r.f walcr at yvul and is tl„. I.-Kal unit in Mrlllsb Col.Mnnlft (Wai.-r
Act l!M,;.,. It may be ,l,.|inc.l as llic .|iiantily of water vvbbb will ,ovo/
<>i.- a, ,,■ to th,- depth of on., foot: It is . (|nal to 4;i. :,(!(• iiibi,. iVot

.\n H.T,. iii.J, is ,.,|„ivab nl to 1-12 of an a.iv f.,ot. It Is ..,|iial to tb,^
•inanlity of water whi.b will (..ver • ■ acre one i.idi .1. ,.p.

I— ltel«ll,„i ll,.|«.,.., « ul.l. K.M.i I',.,, s,; „„|. >||,„.,v I,,,.,, , ^,.,.,. , ,„„

Mm. .iibic fool per s.m .,nd and the miners' Inch in.licale .,nlv a rate of
low and to spe.lly any livd duantity it Is n.<..ssary |., ^tate the time o.-
<lnration of How. Kor Instai.c,. a How of I ruble fo.it p. r s..( ond will -ive
m one 24 hour day as many rnbic feet as there ar.. «,.c.mds in that lime or
S'..4Hn ,.„bic f,.,., «hicb is ..(.nat to nearly L- a- re f.-et or 24 a.r.. I.uh, s
In other words a How of I cnbic Icot p..r s...„n(l in on., bonr will ^ve n

-iuantity ol wa,. r siillicient to cover one acr.. to a depth of < Inch

Ih.. nnn.is' :t,. h as ,i, lln,..l by the \Vat..r Clauses Consoli.lation .Act
,,. ';; ** '","";' '" "■""" '•"'' "f ■» '"'"'• f""t I"T secon.l. or one minor,' Inch'
in thirt.y-six lu.urs will K'ive as much as on., eubi.. foot per «e.on,l in a p.riod
<>f on., hour, whicb .luantlty l..'n!,%.,t 1 aero inch. As a unit of m..asure-
n...nt the miners' In.h Is <<,ndemn..d by many . nslneers. \VI il.. ,b..r.. are
«on,e objections the... are als.. many advantages in its ns.. The object
tions usually ralii,.(l are: ^

.J^'^'f'.r"'.'- "\^""'^^ '" '"•"'«'' (•"Inn'l.ia and in >be diff(r.nt w.stern
Btaies of the Tnited States is not uniform

Secon.U-rbat the ut.lt is associated with a n,(.a.surin^ levic and „n-
los the factors .ontrollin^ the n.etho.l of nteasurentent are .orreotly P •"-
-rlhed by law and followo.l in nrnking tho moaBuremont, it s iabl e ,0
g.ve inaccuru.e results. The Consolidation Act of 1,S97 requir.s that it bo
measure., ,l,ro,.,b a boar.. 2 inches thick. This. a« ..xplained fa er il

nomt:;;"ti;:;^^ '^''-"^^ ^-"" "" "-^-" ^- -'- » ">i" "-.-a

Tl,ir.l.-Tho term has o' .n boon .-onrusod with the cro.ss se.t.onal area
.n s.,uar. uuhes of a (lun.o or pipe. For instance if a Hnme is 10 nchos

t .at here are «u nnners' inches, the irrigator not thinkinK that tbo H, w a
Jso ,,op.u.cnt on tho velocity of the water which varies with the Jra.i: of

The main n.ivantaKe of this unit of How is that for small Hows tho Irri
gator has a bettor understanding of its volume when sta.e.l '^110";-

^'T'im^m^'-rM

12

;:;;2J';::;;:;:: "" " '""""" '" "-"^ ■"■ " "» ■•• -'-— ••

'!i;:::i.z:u:r ■" " " """" ^ < «"-

I .Ml.l.. u,„t i,..r «,..., M.l i» ,.,,„B| „. .i.-,.; ,„ rK' Inrh.H

r .Mblr f.m, ,.„,. „..,„„, u „„„„, ,„ ,,.,, ^^|,^_^^^

I . H KiillotiH pir HtM'iiriil. '•

.^^''Ts..r "'"""' "'"''"" "" ■'-■ ' ■•""■"

• MrltlHl. <;..lM.nl,ia ,„l.,.rs' In.,, „||| «„.. I„ ,„in,>i,, lo .-, |,„,, ,,„|.

„,,' i';;!;'"'' *' " "'="'■•■"■ ""■'' ■""■"■'« r.,,- ..i ,« ^n, ,i,,. ,

>ii;riiiti»s III MKAsi iu:>i|.:\TM.

M..H.,u..,„..|,tH „l w»i. r may b,. ol,t«|,„.,l by n.eaUH of:
1. Voliiinclilr iiii'asiinimM,t«.
- Wrii.s.

'■'•■ -Mill, \h' Im li boai.U (II' b()X<n,
■i- Spriial .Irvl.vH «i 'i a.-. (iraiit-.MI. Ii..|| mrt.-i-
__^^__.. M..,.s,„...,n,.n,s of ..,..,,y of wa,..- an,. , ,„., «..,,,on ..r ,a„,.l nr

r.., ';: n.;;;:r::::i''"^"" "■ "•■ •• ''^ ^""^^'"— ^ « • ■■"- •"••

..,,',7. u" ""'""" "'" "■"■■ ""'"■'• "^' ^ '■ "f any .,„„ Mn„. bnt It

»houl.l K,.,,, a . -n(l,n.„UH moid of a|, «,;,.,■ drily. .^,1. '

2nd. in M,a.,y ..as..M It l« .l,..sin,bk. that it Hhoii.d maintain a n.nstant
Mo« ,y|„.n on... It 1h „.., for t,ih .apa.lty or raotlon of full capadl
•tnl. It Hhould b.. abl,. to handle any fra.tlon of lt« full ..apa.ltv

Of ;?:■ nuU;::;:;:: ■"""'" "'"'"■" -""■•"•-"'- - "'-' t....re«u.t»

■-.th. II «honl.! not be ea«lly Interfercl or tan.p,.red with

7th. Thf. cost of the .loyl.P should not be excessive
There is no d..vl.,, whi.h will fulfill all the«o re.,ulremen,s

feasible at a moderate cost for I lye f .aL ^:^'^:^■ ■ J ''7' "" '"°^'
weir box and the miners' inch box. ' '*-'"""■ "" *"«

When ;;;:::";: Jii'mn:::: fLrr'n "^""""' ^'^ "^"- ^"-^ --^ "« -i
"...nt. Of ...e^r«::"Li;^;jvr.:;L -ty'::^sr;io:;r "■''-"^-

meters must be made. ^'"^'^y d> means of tloats or current

I. — \'<>liiiiietric .>leasi:reineiitK.

»- »;: "",',";:;,.ir:.rrr'.™ :r::„';;"r ;r;-, t" "—

M cii to. .1111^ m wiiivh the irriKatiiiK

13

water U .I,.1U..,imI, u,„1 tlu. ilni.' i<. nil n,.. la.ik Ih r.Mor 1 Kn.nuim th..

volunif III rul.l.' f..,.| 11,1,1 II,.. ,|„„. I, , ,,„, ,„,,, „, „„^ „, _,,|,_|_, ,^,^,^

per B.M,m.l may l>,. ,>i,ii,ii„.<i h.v .iui.IImk :tu. iiihi bv ii„. ml,..,- K.ir lii-
•tan.'.'. ir 111., tank u 2 f..,.| wl.i... 4 f..,.t loi.«, „i„l : r....t .l.»,,,. „ (,„|,|h s
rublf r...| of «u„.r i.h.l If 't iak.« |., «..,.„„,|h t., hll tl.r Im,x tli.^ mt.. „r II.. w

la K .uljlr f...r In i>, ^,:„u4^ .,r i-:, .,r a ,„i,i, i„,„ p,., ,„| ,„ „,„„„ ;

niln«*rM' IikIii'h.

a. — W«'lr».

Tl... w,.ir \H II,.. ni.ml i;..n..tall.v iu..,| ni.aH .^ ,1..m, „ i,,„„,l ,,„ hrl-

Kallon H.VHt..n,H. r„r il,.. r..a...n that i, u nlmpl.. ,., ,„nH,r,ut an.l „s,. „n,|
wll Kh.. n..ui'il.. iiKiiltK «|„.n |,n,|i.rl> iMstull..,|. Tl,,. «,.ir Ih K.ii.rallv
limit..'! In ni.Ml,.rar. .|iittnilli.« of «at,.r u,„| r,.,|ui..s .iillh |. nl fall or milI-
for HH InH.ullatIo, ;.| for il„.«,. .-..aHoMH .an n.,t «l«a,H I,- ,....,1, l„n In

HriliHh CohHMhln t... .inanntl.s of «at..r to l„. nu.asMiv.l a,-.. „s„alh Hn.all

and In most .««.■« tl,..,-.. |„ an.pl,. full. Tl...... .„n,lltl.,nK a,-.. v..,v fa*,„al.l,.

for tlif iMMtallatlon of a w. ii-.

Tl... l,.rM> w..|r I,: „„„ii,.,, ,„ „„, ,,,„„ „^ ,,,„.,.|,,^ _^,._.^^^^ 1,^^ ^^___^^_^
over whl.l, ,!„. „al..,- IIowh. ti,.. w..|,h ,.„..| 1,. i,,iKallon ,„nKi»t of a l,oa,-,l

or bar,-!..,, into whi.h a not.l, Ih for,, ,|,ro„K., wM.h ,1,.. vvaf.r Mowh.

Th.. volnn„.»f wat. r paKHing ihronKh tl... nol.l, 1h ..l„ain..,l by knowinu- th,.
Pn«lh or Ih,. not.l. an.l ineaKurlnK th,. .U.ptl. of wafr paHsin^- ov..r It Th,-
forn. of not.h Ih K..n..,ally ..Ith.r trap..zol,|al or r,.,tanKMlar an.l in Hon,.-
oa«..B a triangular or V Hhap, „t,h is „«o.|.

Th,. tiaprzol.lal w,.|r Ih knoNvn an the CIppoL.ttl w..lr an.l Ih in,,,.,, .on,-
n o„ ,|.an „,.. o,h,.r forn.n. It .-onHlntH of a horizontal ,n-M an.l ,.„. two
al.l..H ..a.h slopii.K outwar.l on.. I„..h for ,.v,.ry fonr ln.h,.s rln.. Tho ■ '•-
anKnlar w,.ir has v..rtl,al .i.l,*. Th.. n,«t for,,, has th,. a.lvantaK.. that th..
flow „,ay .... ,.o„,puu.U by ,n..anB of a nUnpler forn.ula. Th.. h, , on.l to, n s
a llttl,. ..anirr to .•onHtru,t an,l Ih „,or,. a..M,at,. bo.aus.. isn torn.nia h, s
been .l..rlv...| fron. a la.Kvr numb,.r of ,.xp..rinu.ntH, In ..i.h.r . an l. „, "
.■an b.. obtain...! by r,.f,.rrlnK to ,h,. tahl,.H ,Mv..n farth,..-.

Tl... •.v,.ir may ,onHiHt of a slmpl,. boar.l pla.v.l a,n.s« tl... .lit.h or of a
boar.! .., .. a Hhort H.-tion of „.„„. or box. in whi.-l, .-ano It ,s ..:,„:, :'.i
box. T h. „ir boanl may be of woo,!. „...,al or .o,..r..t... Wh.-n n.a.l.> of
wo.. I or ..on..re.e it is .leHlrabl,. to uh,. a «„.tal pia,.. „, forn. th , "^
the c.r..Ht an.1 the .i.l..s. Wh.-n no w.ir box or ll,.n„. s,..Hou in ..hS the

**': '"«■■" '" """■' ••■"■> — •"" -anal, an.l ...li.,,. b a . ;., !

poHtB. A v.,.ir box or ll„n„. box in .-.'n-raliy „s..,l. Th.. box .■««",« .".e
Beotion whoH,. l..„«ih is no, !.■«« than ^ ,o 1 2 f...., Tl. width an. ^ h
jnust b,. at lea. ..fl...ient to Klve the n..„.ire,;'illn:,';;Hi: •,;;';';
boar,!, ll.e we.r boar,! shoul,! be pla,v..! at a .lintan,,. from the ..pit ream
end e.,ual to two-thirds the length of the box, the lower thin! f nH .« a
floor for the falling water. The depth meaHnren.en, should be , ,aUe at
east 4 c « feet upntrean. fiom the .rest, fron, a post or s.-a e lixe oj ,hl
Bide of the Mume with the zero point level with the weir .rest To ol^ta ,!

rzr:;e7'" •"^" '"''"^"'' --'- '-^ ''- '■'""-"•- -^ ^he not.',:r:i;;

of S' J'^.^l'^'rf f?'" "' ^-'-- -'"'<•" «'-"" ">■ allowed on the crest
rnV . J u ' "'°''" """' ""•'-""■•" tl'f leuKth of the weir and

the leas, depth 1 Inch. The depth i« usually controlled by the fall avail

14

al.l.v Wl,,.,-.. tiM. fall available is .small, a law l.-n»;th an.l small <U.„tl, are
iioci'ssaiy.

21,(1. Tlu. ,1 .taiuv tn„„ ,|„. ,.,•,«! of tlu> wrir t„ tlu- l,.,tl..n. of tl„. .anal
"■• """■■ "1 tlH. «, M- l,„x slH.uhl |„. at least throe linu-s tlie ,l,.,„h o>. the weir.

■",''• ''' 'i'^l^"'-'- from the e.lnes of the weir m)l,h to the .sides of the

canal ,„■ of ,l,.. weir box should he at least twiee the ,l,.|.th on the weir

111' The ,„.s,r..am .side of both the erest and the ed^es of the weir

t.l sH.nld he bro„,^ht to a knife ed«e or to a sharp ,orn,.,-; the bevelling

sho, Id be on the .lownstreatn s,d,.. With a «harp eorn, r and a thieUness of

<.(.st not greater than one-half the minimum depth r.( water the dLsehar^e

will be the same as for a knife ed^e.

lowed"'"""*' ""' "'"''' '" """'''"" "'*• l"l'""iiiK direetions must be fol-

.liteh'ui ''"',"■""';' '^","" '.'^'"' "" •■' "'"" «I'""M '"■ l'>a-.l in a seetion of the

!■ »l .■>■ ,s s na.Kht ,..r at least r.t feet above the weir and the een.er

e o be .l,t,h shouhl be perp.n.li.ular to the weir board an.l pass

1 ■ tt" ™:'''";. ''""rr """"" '"' '"" '"'"""^' «""""• »- -^ «■"•"-

fa . Ij .am vNafr above the weir. If ,|,e weir box must bo -.la.vrt near -.
lakeout Kat.. th.. velocity must b,. mad,. unir..rm hv nioatis o' balll,.s

sheet'., fn'e'1-..n"";, n'"',"" "" "'"' """"'''' '" ^''" "' "■" "vefdou.nK
o vol .; , u" "; "';""=^"""'" «'"<•• ^^ •■"""•"•" ■•"lo is to n.ako the

hV. . , I ," ; '" """■'""■^'•■"" ■"'"'■ "'^^•"■- «'-' "H- -n.st by not less
hao .,ne-h,,ll ,1„. .l,.plh .,t wat..r on the er,>.st. To obtain the Inv fall it is

best to s, lee, a s..,.,ion ..f ,l,e .ii„.l, wlneh has .•onsi.lerable ^rade

at ihe'l !!' '•■"7,"^"-'' '" " «'i' ""-^ "l"',u,h a Pipe it shouhl dis.harKe
at the bott.,u, of ,1,., „ox an.l ,1,.. .lepth of „„. „ox shoul.l be suMi.ie. to
.■odn.e a <air. body .d' water on the upstrea.u si.l.- of ,|,.. w..i , . „ "

1^:^::; •nr^x."'"' "^" " "^'" '-'-"^ "• "--^ ■'" -• v-.; ,.y'«ru;:

^th. The er,.st .,f ,!„. «eir sh,..,M he level from end t., end

•.III. TI,o measur..m,.u. of hoa.l .shouhl show th.. Tue ..|evali,.n of the

wa or sur a..e above the weir ..rest, l.ire.tly a, th.. ..r..st an. a sho t

.l.« an.v above it th.. water surfa.e curves ,lnwn. This r.. , r. tl r.t tl.e

water be nt.asuro.i a ...rtain .listan.o up.stream. ^

.>leasiii'enieiit of HiscliarKO.

stream fron, the weir .r.-st f..r a sn.all weir, an.l profer.ablv 4 ^o fe't'

b. na^iin, a strip to .,e si.io of the ';;j.' ^;;: ^ ::i:'z:'z:: :':::ii
;:;::n.^;:'r:;b:;;;;;.,ri;;:;:;;..7-r=::,,:r;-^^^

can. enters' rule and rea.lin. the .lepth to U....T::^.Z'i:::; 'n iZ" '
,,,:."";;'"""": '^"'^"' '" ""^ ^^"''- •■■■^t an.l havm^ obtained the depth of

:^::i ^ .r ;nrto\;r;:::rs,;:-r • - --- '-•■- --■ - o-

ir.

''""•' "' • "-'"' '••' » "nr K..,,t < l,.,><.ll.-<il \\,.|r.

Depth of

uuier
on crost.

I ■!,-,'

KlTKi:

Hi'i.th ..r

WMf IT

i»n rrosf.

Inchpa.

I

■ill.i,- trot
•T V, i.n.l.

.MiniT.s*
liuhoii.

lMrllP>.-.

1

.liX

-.ii

1

1 '»

.III
.11

4.0

1 ■,

1 ■'«

.l:i

4.6

1 ■,

.17
.111

.'..4
6.1
6.8

1'-
1',

1 1

1 ■ »

2U

.'^i

7 1
8.2

1 ;,

2* j

.:iii

I".:,
II. 1

."» 1 .

2's

.Ill
.12

IL'.:;
i::,i;
1 l.l
l.'..ii

ll

i: ' ,

3 -4

.4.-.
.17

111 11

17.11

r, 1 _.
11 ■,

..".II

ISO

111.11

3<

:!•■■■,

. "ill

L'O.II

7 ■/■■

:i".

.11:.'
s roiiiputi'

J 1 - 1 1
L'LMI

1 lor il Olio fni

,s

Tills t;i

l)lo

It (''illlW.1l..l

'li.irmi

-s I
.>*7

.:'l

I'll

I. IIS

l.l _•
I.l:i
l.L'i:
l.:;i
1 . 1 J
l..".o
I..-.S
I. III!
1. 7.".
I.S.!

in. !ii>?i.

M,'l

IJ,.",

IS.cl
.M.ll

'!• tlil|ii'Zillil;il Wisr, tl!l*

it may lu. iis,.,l for loiiKi-r wWrs by multiplying tho cmaiil lli..s f;ivon l,v ,l,o
lonsth of llio w..ir i„ foot. For instanoo a two foot woir will ^ivo twi.o tlio
•iKscliaiKo obtalno.l for a o„o foot woir. An IS weir will givo 1>.. tiinos
ll.« valiiis Kivon in tlio tal,)e. For aocura.y a o„o foo, woir slH,ulir„ot Ho
-soil for ilontlis Kioator than about 4 inolios. For laruor ili...l,a,g..« it is
proforablo lo iiso a loiifior woir orost.

16

T.blr ..r l.l„.h„r„ ,„, |„ot»n«ul., «Hr, «l,|, ,.„„ ,,.„,„,.„„„,.

— .

—

--.

. __

P<^Pt)l of

Wat IT

f.,r ,,„..

r. r.r

'iscliarsi'
t wii fimf wctr.

fur 11

ilsi-
iri'f

larpe
foot weir.

itn cri-sf,

Inrli.s.

I'tll.lc' ....

I Mln.r-
1. inoh.'>

CiiM

■ fii-1 .Mili.r--
■<-iinc|. Imli.-s.

Cul.l

I'.T ..;

■ l..i
pcrin

t Miners'
1. Indies.

1

.1*71'

.'.S

.!.-;(

, _

_

1',

1'.

.0!t t

.no

'■•.'.t

.1S!I

t;.7.'i

.I'-Ill
.L'8.-,

8.S
10.2

1 ■-

.i.'<;

(,-",

.___

1 . .1

,.".:;

12.0

' ':;

.11 1

■" 1

._....

:i.i

.::s

13.75

1 ■■',

.i.;i

'•.X

■-';'

I". 1

11.7

.1 1

1S.6

1"S

.ISO

t;. (

. '■>'*

. !:■

17.«

1 -^

Jll

1 ::.it

19.7

. . 1

. Ill

u..".

.i;i

21.8

-"s

.-'i

s.n

. 1.".

. 1"!

If.. II

.07

24.0

-\

-.,;

1 1 ..>

.7 1

26.3

- *'s

.-S

u*.\

..'.s

1 II.O

i''',-"i

.^11
.87

28.7
31.0

,;:m

Kt.S

,i; J

- '"'h

1 i.ti

j.:.*i

.'.' t

.13.5

- ■'

1 ' ■*>

■ ' '

l.iil

36.0

- 's

!:::

i;j.;!

'.'.

-'y'

I. IIS

3 8.5

. hi

1 l.i

.H\

-' ' ■ -

1 . 1 r,

41.2

■■■■'4

;: 1..

.11

]:.,«

.'.II

;:_'.♦:

I . L' .':
l.:;'.i

44

50

. 1 '•
.-" 1

1 T.t!

l.iil'

:;i;.4

l..".t

1

.tin

1 !'.-"i

1 . 1 ::

111.:'

1.71

61

4 1,

L* 1 .')

I.IM

1 I.I

I.SS

67

1 1^.

.7 1

1 .::i;

is.i

J. mi

73

■i',

.^_'

J''. 4

J. 17

1 "*'

'■':'■>

L'.J4

80
87

■ 1,,

.\t;
.1' 1

::i

I.Sl

0 1

liii

J. 01
-•..SI

!13
100

. .,"

1 .!I7

7ii

:;.iMi

107

! .itii
l.tlij

:;s

-Ml

7.-.

::.L'ii

114

2. .18
2.51
2.65

s.-,
90
11. ">

■■■.i\
:!.o:;
.■;.87
4.06

122
130
138
145

7 ^•»

2.80

100

4.2;i

153

8

it

'J 1 ■»
10 '

10 '.2

n
n<.,

1 2

:i.oo

107

1.47

160

3.40

121

.'i.20

186

3.T0

131

."..65

201

4.00
4.30

142
154

6.15
6.64

220
237

4.64
3.00
S.32

.").6.T

166
17«
190

202

7.15
7.71
8,24

S.7S

255
275
295
314

6.00

215

',1.34

333

The above table is for rectangular weirs witli crest 1 foot, 2 feet, and S
feet long. It will be noticed that for this type ot weir the discharge' is not
exactly in proportion to the length of the weir cre.st, especially for the
greater depths of water on tlie crest.

The form of construction ot the weir will depend on the conditions
where it is used. It may be used on a ditch or a tl.'-ue in which case it is
Placed either as a weir board or a weir box across the canal or Ilume as
shown in the accompanying illustrations (Fig. ,-., C, 7, S, 9) or it may be
used to measure the water taken out of a pipe in which' case it is placed
around the takeout valve as shown in Fig 11.

w

FlK. s HertanKular «elr box.

(<-"ourt-sy of IrriKaiiun Invi-niKuilons oiliie, V. S. I)fi>t. of Agr.)

KiK. 9. — llrrlaiiKular weir In miaerrie llnnl canal.

(Courtesy of IrriKatlon lnv«"stlKatlons Ufflce. V. S. Dept. of Agr.)

^>«

17

Wl'il' 1 liKI'll :ll ;i ,lit( ll.

-n^r ..,.,l,„l „|- „la.:„« a .,a|./o. „„i, i,,,.,.! a,,n.> a ,l,„h ,s sh„«„

^' ,"■','■ "siMfMu.nt „f ,l..|„l, „r uat.r is tak.-n iron, ih,. ,„„ ,„• „

stak.. .l,n.„ !..v,.| win, ,1,,. ,,•...; of n,.i,-. Fi,. .; shuu. a na,.,./„i,lal

w.'ii- b.mr.l i,lar,Ml in a .lil.-li vvl!l, an ap,,,,, aa.l si,l,. ui„i:s
tiiiK or tic .aith si,|,.ii anil liotKiiii (,r il;.. raiial.

pii-i i-rit

'-'f.7— TRAPSZOIDAL IV£-/R BOX rOR
S TO -40 AJ/N-CRS IMCHCS

IS a ilrawiiif; of a trapozcicial uci

Weir Im>\.

FiK. 7 ,. a ,>.^u,„K' or a trapozcidal uvi,- box. Tlio weir cvst is 12

c.t> of ., to 4n Lnt,«l> Cohunbiu miners' incbes. 1, ..an bo use<l for as little

on
1

as :i minors' in..„es. For 4.. n.inors' inrbos it roanires a .l.pth of wato o
for v-.j a,-,„ral,. rosult.s a lar::or woir would be prclVrablo.

Win^s aiiil

Pn,l of n , "'"'"'" '"'" "■•''^'''^•'' "" ""• "Pstream an,l .lownstream

en ot IK. box ,o proven, the water from waslnnj; aronna or under the box
A wooden s.r.p ,s nailed on one .ide of tbo box witb its top level w tb tTe
we.r orest. Iron, wbi.b the mea.suren.onts of depth of water will be taK«,

PiK. s IS a plloto.^ra|.ll ,ir a similar weir box install. ,1 to
from a pumivmik idant.

Tbe method of installinR a rertanRulai
shown by Fig. H. In this cap.,- thr v.eir br-i-.i ,d-r-, ,- t

measure the How

18

-9^Y

Conoiet.- weir bov iiiirl lak.oui li,»,i „ .<.-■(■,,.(,. Iliiiii,.. (Vi^. 1(»).

foi takeouts fon, ron-rHe IImmkv.. Tl.o form of constiMotion is equally
wen adaptea ,o takeou.s f.ou, woo.lou Humes o. ..o,u..-ete lined ea al' Tl e
flow ,s resu a.ecl by woo.lcn ^ates wl,i.h coufol the .low in tl,e canal aua
In tl e we.r box. To forn, a still body of water in the box grooves are p.o-
vtded for the insertion of baffle hoards. The ^vater which passes o^ri.e
^se.r d,s,.|,a;ws into the private Hume of the orohardist.

19

t-fc' .

r— II'— .

I » 1 I.--

! -* - J ; "
>-U? J .'='

' ,0

K T Orchard V a/^e (■ .

Trans terse' seciion

'-orj<^,iud/na/ sec6ion

Isometric slietch

FiB. lI._T,j.l,.al «,l, |,„, ,„, valve Inke «..t

from prrwKure pipe line.

t. . «o

:::::'::::::"" " — -

-*:r:;.,;;'r {■'-{■ :,*;,:•;:■:;: r-; «-

"'- "'ia.-i a ' ;;"■;"■ '"""""■"- " .'.nil * ;;"'"""'"' "■'•'^""""

^"«'""''- >' is ...„..„"""" '■""■"<-.„ .Manwra, „' , "■ ''"" ^■"'*«'
fh.. „..« i., „:.. ,,. X T "'■ " '""" '"' '" "'♦• -wn 1 """""' "' '^"«

"f KalvaMi..,,, i,, ' "',""■ *"''<• "alls an,l « ,.,.,,'' '"' "'""'■ ^

ov,.r „... . «, 1 ' '"""■ '"*"' ••'« "'- "•..,,• ,• t r' ' """"•"""' '"- «•'■'■•

-'"-" ...;:',': ::;:r ""- "■•■ -■'««'".■•: :„..i::,:,r"" """■" '~

">• •"<• Tallin, ua „r r'\ ';' '"'"■""' '■'■-'"" " "^1 : .; " "'"*■ "' «"
«'»iiilar boxes ar ("-ofcMinK

•"t "1 tile .i,,,„.r part

■■t—Miu,;s- I,.,.,, „„„.„ ^,,. ,j^^^

Tile initiers' infh as a

fairly accurate if , ^'"''" 'o nieasuiiiig small v„i

3rd T, „ '"""■''■ '•^'■'•''^•^ ""t- '""' "'■ ^^■^'e'- anu Is

•""■ 1 lie flo'A- throiiirii „

•••IB..1. — Tmiirsoldal nrlr hiinril iilai-ril acriiaa ■ illlfh.

(Cuurti--y „t Irrlnutiuii liiv.:siiKail..n» i )||1. <•. L". S. Ii..|,i. ,,f Akt.)

KIk. «. — Traprxtildnl »rlr buard nllk iil<lr nlnitx anil apritn.

(Courtesy of lrrlHati..n InvL-stiKU! i..ns "Hi,-,; [■ s. \>^ia. of A(,'r.)

SI

Tlip illRAilvaiitaKPH ar(>:

Ut. Thf il.vlc,. iM iK.t ailaptabU' i,, Uik.. voliinit* of wmcr b.'.aiiHi- the
rp(|iilml l.iimh III tlit> orlllci- may bt- ton Kfoaf.

ilKl. liilcwH til,, roiidltlolia iHc-cKsary fur uiniru;.' iiifUMunMM.iitK nv
(arilfil out. the rmultit olilaliU'il may hf »iiy ItiiK niralc.

The (levl..- lotiHlntH of u boanl .t thiii wall In whlih Im iiin.l.- an oiltl.,-
whirh .onr-irini, with th.. ...n.lltloi.s ti... ssuiy to kIv thr xoli.in.. aH ,l,.tin..,|
i,y law. Til.- boanl may !..• nvt .llr,.. tly „, iohh th.. ,lli( h m It mav b.. plac .mI
In a Bhorf hc( tlon of lluiiir or In a Ixtx.

Th.. ..iiitiollInK I'onilltionH to uis,- ni..nHii|-..|n(.|il.s In Miltl«h foliuMhiu
niituiK- Indit.M ai». kIv.ii In thf Wat.r Claiisrs ('(^nHondiiiiMn Act or In'.'T.
Ilil.tly »iat|..l Ihi. inhu'iH' ln(h oillli.. ruiHt b.. 2 In. hrs* hiKh an<l th.. limM
on iht. uppor !iiil<> i.r th.. orlfic.. nuiHt h,. T ln<li..s: thin hIv.h s in.h.H on th..
renter of the orifice. The Act states that the orlll...H must be mad., in a 2
In.h bour.l, TIiIh thl<kn.»« Im liable . nlve Inaiiural.. r. bmII.s. miiLsk th..
four ...iK.s ..r the orlllr.. are bev..|l,.,| „„f -.r.lH so n« to Kive sharp rornerH.
To obtain a.cura.e r..»ullH the j..t .•oTni..K tlirounh th.. orlll.e must ton. h
on'y the upstr.am .•.!>;.•» an.l clear the ilownair..am eil^:..s ho as to ilischarn..
ficly Into th.. air. With a boavl l iu.h thick, if the < orio.rH are sharp. It
iK i:ot n..ci'ssary to bevel th.. ed^.'s r„r the water J.-t will . |,.ar the outer
edKtx. It is, how..ver, pr..feruble ,> ,i|h,.r b.vel the edRes or use thin
metal plat.K. The orlllc.. nuist 1... made of .such l..nnth that It will measure
the maximum amount of water desired. For instance If this volume of
water Is lu.i miners' inches, the orltl.-.. 2 iuch.-i blwh numt be .".u inches
lonK. To obtain a «mall.-r volume the orllice must be adjustable hv means
of a BlidiuK Kate.

Tl measure a lar^e volume of wat..r the l,.n>;th of the orifi.-.- will be
excessive. To avoid this it may he .leslrable to use an oritl.e 4 inches hl^h

instea.l .,f 2 inch..«. This will make t i.^ccssary lenKth only one-half the

length req,iire<i for the 2 inch height and the accuracy of th.. devi.e will
not be afffcted to any jircat extent provided the orifice is made in a thin
plate. In either case the head on the center of the orifice must be S lnch.>8.

To obtain accurat.. r. suits at l..a.st « inchi« must be allowed on the up-
stream Sid., of the board from the lower edge of the orifice to the bottom of
the ditch or lloor of the box into which the beard is placed, and at l.'ast 2
to 4 inches from the ends of the oritlce to tbe sides of the ditch or box. On
the downstream side the jet should dlscharRe freely into the air.

The form of construction of the miners' inch measuring device will de-
pend on the purpoee for which it ig used. It may be used to measure th..
flow in a ditcli or flu.ne in which case it may be Riven the form shown in
I e. 1.". or It may be used to mea.sure the water carried by a pip., under no
I)ressure and is then built as shown in Fig. IB. Where the pipe is under
pressure the miners' Inch box cat; be built around the valve in the same
manner as the weir box shown in FIr. 11, using a miners' inch orllice plate
in the place of the weir plate

.Miners' inrli Imiv (ilaceil in canal or ditcii.

The form of miners' inch box to use for measurement of water carried
by a flume or ditcli is shown in Fig. 1.-,. This box consists of a short sec-
tion of flume with the miners' inch board placed at the downstream end.
The box may be made ua (' „• weir box shown m Fig. 7 and connected with
the earth ditch by simi' ..• wings and cut off apron. The miners' Inch ori-

sm,M

22

fl.,. I, a IM. Ii,« l.lKl. nixl II. 1. ..Kth «.|jM«tat.U. by a n tIip , ..iifr of tho

orlll... IH H in.hr. frnni ttu- i.,,, of tli,. l.oar,!. ,hv lovvr ..,!«,. nf ,|„. ,„ni.-.. i»

•■' '"""" "'•"*" ""• "'""• ''•' «<■" of tU.- orifl... «,■,. 1,HV..1I..,I on il,.. ,|.,w,,-

""'»"' *'''" ''■'"■ "" "•""-•- '>' « 1 ">. X -i in. PI..-,, whi. h „«r.,.H .hrcml.

a ho!., of ll„. «,„„. «U.. nil tlin.MKli tlu- hI,I.. of Ihu box. Al on.. ,.|„l of thU
pl.TO l« H.r.v.,.,| tt Klioit blo.k whl.h tllH into tl„. b..^..|le,| oiKl.v ai„| whirl,

has on.. i.,lK.. b..v..||..,l to ronroim «ttl, ih.- oih.r ...Ik.« ,.( orllh,. To

m..a«,n.. ih,. wnl.r Ih.. «||,|,. in |„ih1,..,I Im or p,.ll.,l out Miitll tl„. ,„.,•

liUll.lH I..N..I with th,. t >f ,h,. boanl; wh.i, Ih.. hII.I.. Is push,.,! In loo mr

tho xvat...- ov..,llnwH tl,.. t,,,. of ih,. bonnl; wl„.„ tl„. .nlll... Is , n.'.l too

wl.l... thi. wnt..r lov..| iliopH b.-low ll„. to,,. Th,. tnin.b..r of inln..rH- In.liPH
pasKlni; through Ih ...jual to lli.. length of lli,. orili,,. niulllpli..,! by two. T.)
fa.llltul.. th.. ni..aHiir..ni..nts ih.. oiKl,.. may b.. gia.l.int..,l will, Inch ami
<|Mart,.r In.h nmrUs., .an, half Inch r..p,-..M..ntinK a How of 1 ininfrs- inrh.

r«6' SMe

Block to fit

IS"

KIk. ir. MlDrrx' lurh menaiirliiK Imi:

\ f- i Usi,<U

KlM. la- — Weir lio% itikr *iu| %Nltr. |iu. i.i.^ — Urlr Imi« In |iMMl||.»n,

I-'Ik. i I.— \t rlr bus nnii inkr nnt frnm prrK!<iurr
pipr iiMpil h> (iMKe t'nnal To., KUrrHlile^ < si

(II. !■:. S. Ilutlftin Il:t. r S !•♦■(. t. Ai^r »

^.f^i/£:«ar.iw!^ 'iM 'r.^'^ZLL^^^^.i-'niw^^-^w^fm.

. >-'tA'j

.Crmai of a¥Tflt

4ilL-

5-6'

(««=«♦=•

i.bn,)iludinal Section

■^ (^reti of overt'lcn „gji

Vartical Sreiion

horn^^TK, ikm*Kf,

tMUiilf nf n.ntrt inch

plote

Typ,o»L m^e^s ,^ch boa roit r„K[ out

I Ik. 111.

.Min.Ts- i.M h iM.v a„.l ,ak....„, f,,„., „i,„. „„„„, „ .,.,„„,,

Wlu.,-.. a |,i,H. li„.. i.s „M,l,.r no i„vs»,nv ,1„. .oiuli.ions of How aro sinular

1 X::.-;' ;;";:,:'""• '■'"•' """ """ '^ """•■■' -• ---^ »"" ^ ''^"o

va . : "•;•'««'"■>• •" ">''u a .ak,.o„. Imx by nioans of whirl, the

tlH iinf,.,to>. J hKs ,s somowhat similar lo tho .■li,.,k satos which -u,. >,lar..,l

a.ro.s an o,...„ ,.„„«, whe.v it is .uH-.-ssary ,o rais. ul wat' .I.: .' "ue

a ...l,v..,y u.,o the h..... of ,„.. ini.a.or's n„n,o or ..I,.,.. For a , i',. itL

u taK..,,„ a,,, ,„.,as„ri,^ .,..vi..o ...,. bo for,,,,.,, in one strn-Unv J 'Jh "

.it,:L;:;::;^rx''"';rrr-;;-.-:;.:— ^

^m4.!A^

24

.111,1 l.y iiicaiis (if Ilic j;iUc in ll r ovi-rncu wall i an Ix- iiiadi. t.: iIm' li'Vi'l
witii 111.' ()Vi.|-llow en si ami tlic ,|iiamity .Iclivfii' I is rri;iilaiiMl liy a.i.iustiim
the orilU;<'. Thi' pn'S.^iii-c on ;'n' oiiliii' is i, nula:.'! aiul licp! ni(iri> or loss
.oiistani liy tl;o ovorllow wall, Tl o ox.oss walor pass.s in i i- llio ■•rllow
wall anil also lluoniili liio i-o,L:iila'iim j;ato into tlio ilownsniani ■ npart-
niont and from tlicro into ili.- iiipo. Ii> piopoi- adjust lui'iit of tho .;a;o tlio
waior loved nia.v lio liopt faiily onssani. Wlion the >:aio is ciiiiioly ilosod
till' cxross watrr will pass ovoi the ovi How and imioasr tho inissiiro on
thr oritiio and tho acruiacy of tie > oa.suroniont will do|ionil on ;ho iiuaii-
lity of wator passing over and tl o lotii;tli of tho ov. rll.iw . n si. A niodoiato
inrvcaso in piossiiio will not ■ t tho armraiy vi i-y f;ioatly. for iiistamo a

1 inih ill, Toaso in incssuro a ;. inn, as,' tl;,' \olniiio ,l,div,Tod liy i'. \>i'V fi-nt.
It would bo f,'asili!o to us,' a wimt i>laio in plar,> of tho inincis' inch plato,
hilt with a wiir plat,' tho iiuantity i',di\on'd could not ho ail.iiistod ami tho
acuiacy w,hi1,| li,' affoctod to a much Ltfoator .'Xti'tit hy an im nsi^u in
di'pth of watiT on 111,' <rost.

Fiy. IS shows a similar box us. d in s,nithoin California. If diffi-.'s from
th,. previous on,' in that instead of dolivorinK tho wat< r tlirongli an orilico
adjustable in siz,' by a slido, it is doliv.'rcl throUKh a nnmbor of openings
varyini; in sizo ami each clos.'il by a slido Kate. In th.' illustration tho
throo smalli'r orilhcs are opi nod and tho fourth .m,' closo.l. Th,' wator
imss.'S throiiHh iho orilii'os into a basin formed by two half sections of pipe
commtod to the box and ((innoit.'d at the bottom to th,' private pipe of the
on hardist.

Minns' inch 1:<)\ ami (iikiMiiK linin pn'ssun- |ii|.e line.

To deliver water from a pipe nnib'r prissure ami inoasur,' it by miners'
inches tho same form of conslriictioii cnubl bo used as f(U' a weir box i Ki.L'.
in, usinK a miners' inch plate instead of tbo weir plate. This form of
miners' inch box is shown in Fij;. T.' which illustrates a box used in .south-
ern California. In this case the oritice is .'. inches bif;h and is reijnia
two slides. The prissnre on the center of the oritice is 4 inches, wliici,
a depth of water of only li .. inches from the ui>per edge of the oriti,-
the water level. The lieisht of the orilice is too Rreat in proportion to
the pressure.

Miners' inch liov with ovei'll<i« «JiU loi' canals or Humes.

The use of an overflow to res;ulate the head on the openinn <an be ap-
plied to miners' inch boxes installed in earth ditches or in flumes very
much in the same manner as for pipe lines. Fin. 2ii illustrates the con-
struction of the device. It consists of a section of flume divided into two
compartments by the parall.l overllow crest wall in between. The compart-
ment which forms part of the supply ilitch is open at both ends and the
How can be checked or n'^nUHcd by llashboards. The other compartment
forms the box from which the water is taken out throiiuib the orilice in the
side wall. The How into the box is regulated by a .nate and the excess passes
over the crest id' the overllow wall back into the canal. The crest of the
overllow should be s inches above the center of the openins and must be
of sulticient length to disposi' of the excess without increasing the depth
of water !o a gft-at extent.

TTv

Flu. IN — >lln<-rM' ln<-b anil lake mil Ihix

■loril at ( otina, I alirornla.

h '■■ 'V ■■.■''- A'jA'-

wmm.

*^»w««

'"" '"■" ■ - "m.'r;:;..;::^ :r -••"• ■ «.

I't. 'it Am. I

FiB. :50.-MI„er»- In.h ho, .vUh „vern«„ „„„. ,,„ ,.„^^^

••*^'"

<• — H|H'<I«| Mcusiii'iim IWiiiK.

ll«. .l.-..r,.„,-,„.fc..,. .,.,„r.. ..=.„.,.,„ ..„„:.. ,..,, ,.,,, „

The Grant Michell met, r is known as the Australian meter liavine
origtnate, in that country. „ ,.„nsis,s of a four blade.l fan fa t .„e.i o e
lower e„,i of a vertical .„in,lle .hic-h transmits the revolution of the an to

bracket cmr a wroUKht non orific ■ plate placed below the canal bed and
pa sbv a bli ";,'"'" ""■ •'"^■"— ' "-' "f a "o" ''ivi.led into two
sur ace The ! T ""*■" '^ "" """"" ="'' ^'"^■""■"''' ''''"^e the water
IJl n . ""''^^ "°^"' ""■'"'»^'' """ <'l"'>'i>'K formed by the

baffle wall and the box. then .lows upward through the orifice and in par s
a ro ary motion to the fan. The gear box forms the recordin,^ devic which
con«„,« of a series ot dials giviuK a continuous record in acre inchelan
fractions or :n cubic feet. The fan, spindle and .err box are ren.ovable
and portable and can be used for several boxes. The discharge depenc^s on
the s,ze of the orifice plate and on the ditTerence in elevation in the water
su face UPS ream and .lownstream. The size of the meters is Reneralh
based on a ,S u.ch loss of head, but tuay be .lesigned for less. The o ih,e^
range from » to 4u inches in dia„,e,er a„d are used for discharge cf 1 to "
cubi tee per second. The serious objection to this meter is the h gh cos"t
rang.ng Iron, ,^,;o for the smaPer one ,o |2.-,o for the large ,!neT esc

"-s!:-™;";:;.::.';:?::;^;. '" '" « — ^ <" - <•-

wnt^'when'n" " 'Ti', "'"""' •" "" ■"^■«-"--"-" "-■ large volumes of
v^Me. ,M,en the .nstallafon of a weir is not feasible because of lack of

pr.nnple that the discharge ni cubic feet per second is equal to the area ot
eeVprs:::7 ?he'f ■:,"*"'" '" ^"""'' ^*^^" -■•♦i"Ho.i\y the velod;: n

.^ ;." n::Sof';;;:a;;;:::.::^.""'-""^^ ^^"' >^''^ ^ ^^-^ understanding

smoothness of the sides and botton. and the grade. <"«""^'. the

2fi

211(1. Tlie velocity varies In different portions of the channel, being
smalleHt near the bottom and the aid** and isreatest on the center line of
the channel just below the mirfaie.

:ird. In a given cliamicl the velocity increases with an increased voliinio
of water In the channel. Koi' Inslanie a flnine :! feet wide carryliiK water
to a depth of 1 foot with nn average vel city of 2 feet per secnd gives a
di8<iiarge of ti cubic feet per second. \\", n It curies a depih of 2 fi'ct the
area of cross sectlun is doiibleil and the velocity will be lncrea«e.; to about
2..'i."> feet per second giving u discharge of l.'i.Mi cubic feet per secoiid which
Is more than double the first amount.

To obtain the velocity the following iuetr,ocl.s are coiiiiuonly used.

1st. Surface floats of chip.s or other mateilal.

2iicl. Kod floats of bottles, tubes or lods.

3rd. Current meter.

To obtain the velocity wiili surface floats or rod floats the firoceduru i.i
the same. It is carried on as follows: Select a straight section of canal at
least ."M feet long wiu-re the cross section is uniform and the flow not affect-
ed by obstructions. I,ay off the course by placing two wires across the
canal or .simply stakes at the desired distance apart which may be '<» or
10(» feet, riacc the float above the upper wire and time the float for its
travel over the course. The cliMtance in feet divided by the time in seconds
gives the velocity of the float In feet ppr second. When a rod float is used it
must be weighted at the lower end so that it will float vertically. This may
be done by placing weights In the bottle or tube or by wrapping lead or
wire at the lower (nd of the rod or simply tying a stone to the end of a
stick. Rods 1 '/i to 2 inches in diameter should be used. The length of
the rod should be such that it will nearly touch the bottom. The velocity
obtained vvlth a rod float will represent the average velocity, but the velocity
obtained with a surface float is 2u per cent, greater than the average
velocity and must therefore be multiplied by S-10 to give the average
velocity.

To obtain the discharge accurately it is necessary to subdivide the cross
section into i)artlal areas bounded by imaginary vertical lines extending
from the bottom of the canal to the top of the water surfaco and obtain the
velocity for each one (Fig. 22). The widths of these areaa are marked by
tags placed on a wire or marks on a plank spanning across the canal and
the depth of water at each tag is obtained by soundings or measurements
with a graduated rod or rule. The width in feet multiplied by the average
of the two defitlis for each section will give the number of sfiuare feet in
the section. This product multiplied by the velocity in feet per second will
give the discharge for each partial area and the sum of discharges of each
partial area will give the total discharge.

^_M

S^,P**''"

KIk> •-.•^^•iiltillvlMlitn iif fnunl «tiinh HeellitD f tr menNurement of clUehnrKe.

•1

Tl R. ve o. i.y in obtained an oxplaine.l «l,„v,. by „la, i„« ,h,. Iloals ho ,1.ot
w. 1 travol a« nearly an praHhabl.. be.vv....n ,h,. ,a,.s „r n.ark" , u IHU
"..It to K... the .loa.H ,„ ,..av,l «„.alKb, .,.,«„ ,1,.. s'rea u In , ir,. , „ „
ao.nra..y . ue to tblH .an no, be av„i,le,l. When n,,, „oa,« „ , ' ZJot

different 1. n^ths are ..Hiially nere«sarv °

For an ordinary trap.^ol.lal .e.tion a lesH a.vura.e bu, nu.re ev,,..,,ient
roeedure >. to obtain ,),.. ,o,al area ot the . ross .....ion of the ,„«,!'
■"." Il'ly."*; tl,e depth by the av, ra,e uid.h .whi.h is the «„ n ., I . ,1 ,

w,d, an hotton. .id.h divided by tuo, and , ni.ip,; l^Z:,]! 2

a . ed. b> the a era«e velo.ity. Ti,e a^era,^.. velci.y is fonnd as explained
above. nsniK either surface Moats or rod (l.-ats < ^P^lln. ,i

In ease the ^vaterway is a Ihnne the width in IV..t n.uitiplied bv ,he ,i. idh
of xvater in leet will glv, the . ross se.tion. '

C'uriTiu meter.

The enrren, n.eter ^en.r,lly nsed to n„.as,ue the How in .anaN ,onsists

.^vr"Thi. ':;';""■"" r '^r^ "■• '"-^ '"" '•••' •" ^ ■•"" ^^'^z^'^

loolves. I he wheel «hen pla(.-d in the llowinK water is s,.t in motion
b ■ the a.„„n of the enrn nt and the revoi,..,,,, are transn i e / to a r^^Z

mnnbe. of levolufon., per seion.l are obtained. The velocities eorre., o„ l
ine .0 the ntunber of revoln.ions are Known ior ea.h eJr'elt n... '

A enrrent meter is expensive and is no, likely to be possessed' bv the
crd.na..^ ,rri.ator. Kor that reason a detail description of^ i,s nse";!

KatiiiK slutioii and lalinB Hiiiiie.

e d,s..har.e a, any depth. The rating .„t,on should be sell' . w 'e
the wa erway has a straight r, aeh of nearly nnifortn eross se,, o. abo e
and below and th.re shonld he no obstrnetions to interfere with e flov
s.Kh as .at.« below i,. The selected section should have a ne whi h"

not l.able ,o ..han.e by seonrin^ or siitin.. To insure a p,.rn a net, e '
tlon a rat.nK nun... which is a short section of „„n,e. is of en ns Tie

depth 01 water ,s indicated by a ,radua,ed rod placed on one si le of tie
••anal or by Kradua.icns n.arked on the side of the Hume.
Aiitoiiiutir i'e)ti>|).| s.

The volume of water ,lelive>ed ovr a weir or ,!:e discharge of a ditch
..n.e or creek obtained by mea.suren.ents at a ratin, station rrai,^

tZl ^ -.t.nnous record of the quantity of water, auf^matic

egisters have bee.. .,sed. These .e.isters are of different tvpes T ev
can however be classified in two ,las«es. They all .onsist of a clock a
loat and a cylinder or dr,.n. to which is fastened a sheet of paper on wti'ch
the depth of water at diffe,-ent times is .-econied by a pencil or pe.,

W.th one class of register the cylinder is pla.ed vertically and is totaled
by a clock which gives it one revolution a week. The p.-.-cil is on ec 1
to the float Which is placed in a well or box built on th le .f 1 weT

box or ,at,ng flume and connected with the water through an oriti e The
.U.ct,,at.ons in water level cause a ,-ise and fall of the float a,' !■ a CJre'
.pond.ns n.ovement of the pencil which is .ecorded on the sheet placed on

28

till- drum. KiK. 2:! kIioh* a Himpl,. roriii of reuliiter of iIiIh claHN used In
ioiilliprri California, the cost of wlilili u ahoiit Hip.

The othor clam of reKl«l<-r .'IttViH f.oni tin- tlixt iIbbb In that Ih.- ryllmler
Is plac'd horUoiiially and i« rotiit.d l.y tl,.. Iloat ln«t.a,| of by the clock an<i
the- pei.rll |8 cairl.-d parallel «iil, th,. cylinder by connections with fho
clock. In each case the record obtained Ik the reHult of two iiiotU.nn which
give an IrreKular line wliowini, the (luctuatlonH and Kivinn the de,itli of
water at any time. The varloii,. lypeg of rpulHt.TH are illiiHtrated and dt-
Rcrlbed in Hiilletin Kt;. part 1, .,f tli- Otilce of Kxperlnient Stations of tho
I . S, Department of A),Tliultiire, WnshlnRlon, !), C.

The cost of leciKleiH rniincB from about $4o upwarda and for that roaaon
they are seldom nsed for tlie measurement of water .lelivered to IrrlKatora
Tliey are. however, o' much value in ll eratlon of a B.v»tein when in-
stalled at the head of lat"rals.

KIk. T.I. — liitomntli- rrKlalrr iixril il KlvrcMlilr, <'Hliriiriila.

(II. i;. S. Hiillctin »«, I'art I., f. s. |i

Alt)

^i^^m:'

29

m.-CONV EYANCE OF WATER FOR THE IRRir.A
TION SYSTEMS OF BRITISH CoIuMm A

TVI'KS OK ilil||(;\TION HtsTKMls

ir,:\;;r':i;,,;:;::.;:;:;: ;■■"■•■ 7^'' '"-■"'"-

'uqu.nHj I, ,„„„, ,,„„, ranyons .„• ,l..|,r<.«sl,>ns ()„..„ ,,,,al« .,L ,

tl.« irriBatIo,, s,«tem r„.,l„ be .>h..,1 f„r .,on.oH,l,. «, ,• a« wel,

water „«„allv r.rr , . ■" • , , ''''""'*' '" """ •"■""' "'^'""-<^ "'

« , ;'^.nn;;: "'" •"■'-^"->'>- ^ -> .... ,„a...... ,u.„,.,,.ai, o "^ :

"m:.:;nl;''"''''''''-''^^''''^ "•"''■•■■•'• ""■"-—,., a.. „.,„.,: as a

-l-lu. .sysfms or Ilritisl, C.l.niihia < ;„ 1„. ,.la.siti..| i,u„ rh, r n
t.vp..H .,aso.l .„ „„. rorm of ,.o„.sfnM.,ioM „s,.,l. """•""'

1st. Tl,os,. whi.h .onsis, or an op..„ ,„ai„ ,anal an,! or o,. „ lateral,
Ml,.., op,.n u.tCus or Humes.. a,„i to win.,, .las.. h..lo,„ ,u/r>-«a i.",'
. « ems at Keretneos. ..enti.ton, a„.l Walhachi,,. a,.,l partn .,f th ■ , t<t
of WInte Valley Irrigation Company. S.tnnnerlan.l. .Varatnata '

2n<l. Tl,o.^e wlii.h .onsist of an open main eanal an.l of pipe line ,Ila
rib„tar,e.s .su.l. as the Kelowna Irrigation Compauv and .^ F, u t at^ds

J^^^rr =; s;. ^^'"'-■- •'■^- '-•- ~- - » '-^^ "" =

3nV Tliose whlel, consist entirely of pipe lines, both for -...,„ .,.,,.
!.tera.s suol, a« tl,e Kaleden system and part of tl.e Sumnu-rland'^vstem.'

.■cjii

30

An r.'KanlH III., vnnl i.f liislalliiildn llic l)i«t t)|... han tli.. n.httnlMKi' tliat
ttif ("Ht iHT a.r.' of \Ur illHtrlliullon h.vmImii Ih Uhm tliiin ihut of u ^o.-.U-n
l>l|if Hymriii. Koi ordiiuiry idn.lltiotiH It In roiiKlily i Htlmntrd that a

*■'""''•" "' ".vtlvrii will .•.mi oh..|.iilf aH inii.h aM a w.mxI.ii pip,. HVHt.M.i.

For M'ly KiiiMli lull, I i,.,|ii|i||i^, a ^,.,.,u ,|,.a| „f ||„,„i„^ „„ i,|j,|, i,.,.h(|,,«. the
ioMipHilH,iti II .,.H| «,,iil,| Mol I.,. .„> fiiv,.inhlr to wooili'ii lliiiiif. Ah far as
.lilllil.lllly Ik ,,.n.-..rii.-,l, ||„. hr. „r a h..|| , ,.iiiilrii.l,.,l ».,,.,l. ii llinn,. hIm.iiUI
»... I...l«.-,.ti s i,ii,| li> y,.iir«. Tl... Iir.. „r 11 tt,.,),l,.i, pip,, whiii, iH lull only
part of III,, liiii,. Is prol.l.iimiical; it ilipiinlM Hoiii,.\vlial ,)ii ili,. Klii,l of wood
nii.l r.ii i|„. Hoil ill «l,i.|i ii irt pla...,l. Ill l.lalio I m. x 4 In. v ,„)cl, n poHla
iiw.l toi I,>| loiii.i.s, II, a, I,. „r ||„. iM.Ht Mr an, I paint, .l. Iiavo Wru nlmoxt
.•oni|il,i.l> ,l.,|i,.>.,l i„ , i„. >.nr. 'IIhi,. ai.. a niinihir of Instun.. s vvluTe

wootlw, pip.s liau. i;,„„ |„ pi,.,.>s in I ■ ,„ lit,. >,.arH or ,\ «.v ||o\v-

fvrr. ir III,, pip,, is made, ni k I s,!.., i,.,| i„ai,,ial, (rvr from sap \vo,i,l, th..

llf.. sli.Milil Im. linn, i,.„ I,, iii,,.,.„ ^,.,.|,^ ,„r a Ho,).|,.|i pjp,. ,.„ip:v part of
th«' y..ur. Til,, lii,. ol \v.mi,|. ,i j.ip, ivhi.li is Ui.pt i.onKtnntly I'lill an. I Imrled
toBuili ,l..|iili as n. pi, will ii,,.ziiiL'. uiiiil,! |„. .^.nshU.iulils Mi«ai,.|-. prob-
ably 2'i to :io y,.aiH i,i,ni,l,.,| Hi,, muI m nliidi It is |.itrl..|| ,lo.« not ,'ontaln
Injurious sallM. \V, i,. it nm n,.,, ssan to pn.v,-!,: Hi,. ual..r In tli,. pipe

from rr,.,/iim, ii is my op mon that :lu. lit,. ,,r a vn |,.n |..p,. k,.|.! ,„nsiant-

ly full iiii.i iiiHl.r siiHiri,.|ii l,,.ail lor Hi,. w,,o,l |„ i„. Haniratcl, \v,,ii|,I bo
lnir,.a»,i.cl If it «as lai.l ah,>\,. >;i,.iiihI not in (■onta..l wllii tlio soil.

Ak lar iis til,. |.| SI ,.' iiiaint,.nan,,. is < (inccriuiil. a w.n„|,.n lliini,. Kyslem

''•''I"'''''* f' "■I.I i'|..'iiH. larriii!.;, anil .alklnt;. Hi,, cohi of wlil. h woiiM be

(trcntfr tluin lli,. iiialnu.iiaiiie of ii jiip,- »<y»t,.|ii

It is inipossihl,. lo r(.pr..H,.nl mini, .ri, ally I.,,, ahovc siiin ni.nis will, any
lU'iivvr of ar.ura.y l.,.,aiis,. of tli- varvinn c.nclitlons. Koii^lily tli..y may
h,^ r.'lir,.s(.|il(.il as liillows:

Annual insi ol »i,iil,.n lliiiii,.s imkI \mioiI, n pip,.s niv,.|i in p,.,- ,-,.ni. „f
tiifit lost :

For wooili n lliiii.s. lit,, s i,. | ;; y,.;,,.^ _

Amiiial iiiiiint,.iiani.,. ami ri.iKiirs ,listriliMt,.il ov,.r ,.|itir,. lif,' . :. • ,-,-nt

SiiiUiiii; I'liiiil for rfii.wuls ;, ■• •.

1 1 '<'-'*t ,.11 ( apital iiiVi sU'il !!.]!•; '■

•I'.'tal '.,„ .. ..

For wooil, II p.p. s I'liipty part of tli,. linn., lif,. Id to 1.", y,.ars

.Mainiciiaiic,. ami repairs •> ■■

Sinking; tiiml for rcni'wals 7 •• •■

liiti'itst on lapital iin,.s;, ,\ ■■■■■■.......... '. I'l

Toial J. ., ..

For w. .oil, .11 |ii|i, s always full. lit,. :>o to ;!o v,>ars--

.Mainioiiaiif,. anil r,.p.iirs ... 1

SiiiMnj,' fuml tor r,.ii,.«al .'...[....'.].... 4 ■■ ••

''i'*'r,.st aiiilal inusi,.,! .'......'......... ,; •■ •■

''■■"«' Tl - ■•

Tlif.s,. li.mir.s show tliat ilic annual lost uhk-h must 1... provhieU lor to
maintain and renew a system and pay interest on capital inv-^sreil is 2li per
cent, for a wooden Mume system, l.", per cent, for a pipe 'vstem ; art of the
time, and 11 per cent, lor a pipe system always full. Tlies,. <usts are in the
ratio ,if l.s, 1.:! and 1. Therefore a Mume system is more ,.,.,i,omi, 1 ,i,pn

Liit9r.

» »o<Ml..,. „(,... HVM..m, whi.h .an I,., k.,,, full ,.r «»t..r ,.„ly part of ,1... time

1.II.O. >.....,. „„„.,■ «...,««.. .„„,ll,...„. wm ..,., .„..„., ,«l... „H „",. ai a

«..o,l..,. M.UM.. KVHM.m IH .....r.. ...o„„„,l,al I,,,, ,h..r.. a,-,. „h.., .- a u"

a.lvuntaK...s aii.l .llHu.ha.itaK.H « 1,1.1, hIi„uI,| I „.si,|..,,.,|

TIm' third fvhc of Htcni thui lu ih. ,. i
k.pt r„II an tl... >,.,., arcmul «l,h.,„t .>.■../;„« |„., „„. a.lvai.-at.. tl, „ t,

wa vr 1« o.,,aln.... ,„a,v .... fn.z..,, In „,.. win,..,- „r „ n.ay 1... s.. p..ll .. , S

1 . «o. .1 I,,. v,.ry .„„„. ,.,„„„„,>. t„ hav.. ,.. p,„.,fy ,„.. Irrmatl.,u wafr as
«.l as ,1,.. .„n„.s,i,. „„,..,. whi.l, an. .arrl,.,! in ,1,.. nnn,.. pip., „ „ . "'
.■<m.ll.|.MiH -.xlHt a H..pa,a!,. ,l.„„....i,. «.vs...,n U pr..r..rab!...

••i:i{\n\i:\T < itvsiiiK riov.

The 8h„r. Ilf,. o, w.,.,.|..„ n„nH. an,| vv.;,.,|..„ pip.^ „„„ „,.. i,„.n.aMin«

ron«„ ,H ,1,.. „,.|,1 .■..«!.,„. \v.....l..„ ,,„„„.« „„ ,r,.«„,.H ar,. b.-inK r..plar...l
h HU..., MM„,..„; w..,..,..n ,lnn,..s ,..«,in. .,n .1,.. Kr.„„,„ .,r Uen.h Hnn.... whi ■

Bronn.l, ar,. Mu^ r..p,a,...l by ,..„.,r..t,. tl„n...« an.l ,„n.T,.t.. line.l .hanneln

^'::";: ;;;"" "*• r':"^ ••""""'"■'-' ^"-"-- '■■•■ — -- ■-- -" "■

• a. ...,l t,, a..j„..,.„t ia„,i by th. «....paM.. wafr (•„„,.,.„., „i,„„ ,..„„ ,„"^ ,
an., rolnf„r.c..l, whi.b a fow ,.arH bko w.-r.. „nly .,«..,. l, k„ . ■«

use b, KrowinK. The „s« „. plain .onrr. l.. pip,, is, l,„w..v,.r. lin.it..,! ,., ^nall

111 '''fr'"' "^'- '■'■"•"'-■■' «"•' --> -. only 1 ;,.„ f„; '„:,.;.!

ea «. so far rom.,.,,,.,, .-on-r pipe has b...n „«e,l .,nly wh,.r.. pr.ssnro

IP., wm'' ,"" '. , '•""■ ""' """" —""•-••— "-• -info,--..,, .,„,.rl
PIP" ^v.ll «.ianu,...,. th.-m for h, a.ls as lar,.. as i:,,. f..,., ,„>t it .an not I,.
exp.,.t.., that ...,„..n, pip., win ropla... w.,o.l..n pip. wh.. . p .I" «
an..-, an., as n.u.h of ,„e lan.l .ov, ,..,. by irrigation .vs,..n,s in .,ri, 1 cZ

nnbia ,s nr, .nlar an., ,1,.. surfac has a s,...p slop.. w„i,.„ „■:,.„ , lo u ■ ^
^-h ..r..s..ur.«. ,h,. „«, of r..i„f„n.o.. .on..,.,., pip., .-n,, ,„„ b.- a,l . , ,
.en..ral K..- s„rh locations wooden pip,.s. ,.«,„., ,a,l> ,r ,h..v .an ! L..
full an.l p,ot.<„.,. fpon. rreeEln,«. «,.■ ,„o b, s, s..„„ion. On sfe, «!., ,
U..h are fairly ntufortn with no .1o..p „..pr..ssions. i, is possib!.. ,. o • 1^ ,
late the prr-^snre that cenu-nt pipes .an b,. „s...I.

rolun,'".'"; ,!1';' '"",'"■'] T'" """"' '" •"" i"'*^"""" ■".ni.ani..s of British
< o un,„ a ha^.. ,..al,ze.l the ...ononiy of in.prov,.,. n,..,ho.| ..f ,ons:ru.tion
an., so,,,., of th.. work which has b..en .Ion., an,, i. b,.i„. „„ne is V a,

K""tr,'.'':.'';7 •'"■'* "V"'" '^'"--•^ '■■'•'*--•■"" f"-"..any an,, th,. South
Comnanv J.i"T' '"' ^^'^'■'""'- ""•' "'" ^'n-tlands Irrigation an,, fow-.p
Company, near Kamioops. Some of th,. systems installe,! a, thers which

! '■

4l|j.

.".111.

1, . ,. . ""•"'"" " " '"■ «'""''" l'll"'«. will l-rfor.. v,.ry

x,,..,,,,;r : ::::,s::::';i::::::r';;r;;;,i;;;:,r;

I HI. h<'<'|mK<' Ins.srs ill cailiil.s

-Nil. faiiHl liiiiims I., |,n.v,.|it ;k, niiinr Icssr-s

.-^ll'i'l llliill(\s.

I'llllll lollrlcic pipes.

Kclllfiirn.d (iiii.i-,.!,. pipes

«<»\\i;v\\< i: i.issis oi \v\ii.i: in r\\\i,s

v.'vhll w.;^"'';;:;;;:;,"'''' t"""'""" """ •"•• '"'•• """ ""■ "— - -"-.-

,,„,, , , " ""«""•". «.VKl.„,s will, „nii,„,.| nu,al« llirso h.ssrs nsii'illv

r:„ ■;;:;:, ,;,': " ■■ ■""*■ -' • """■ "'-"■<' -'" '»'-. i" ". : ; ^

£:;;;;:;;:';;.;;::; :-:;~;:v:^^

= , E=

:n.::'^>::.;./::;:;j::::;'':::: ;:■:;:;...,: ::.:^;" « -• -•-

..K.^'l'iianniVo';"'..;::;';;'''"''' :''"''''■'■"" ""■""'^" -^ •■ " '«'■"" -i-

.^. .-:r^n;i::..:^;:ri.::.ii ''';•;; r t" ■ "■■"•^

alkali «„!,„ o„ ,!,.. snrfa.v Tl is , w, '. """' '"' "■'""""^"i-' <"

l.n -n ,1,.. ..a„s,. of !,; „. , , . Z '■';";"■';•■'-"" -■''"■f"' -IK...!.....

n.r,«,,M ;;;;"'■",'''''"'■• """ ■ '■■•■>" - "

;:;-::;:;;;,:™;.;;:;.-:.'.t';:^:;;;-;::;r:-:;:'r';;;;;;,„,z

I.— 1:\». Ml ..I S,,.(,aj,. |.„ssi.> in ( „„„|s

-"""V ..r -low. ,.,:,;;':,;::';;;•„::::;::";:;;. ""^'" '■••-

,li.>l„s i„ ,1,.. ,v •-"""""• ■'""" ><"'"■« "I ..i-as„,-..,i,..|>ls „„ ■...v,.„.v-ll,,.,.o

." .lu. I vr :.";:: ":;rn,""^ T:r "■ ""■ "^'"— "- ■'••'• ••

« .i,»Mi„„ ■,'',,,„,'"".".■;"'■" "'"'■ ""• ■"— — ...s ian«.. from

nilials ill tcrii-iMi Icsr l..<s in |>r.>|.(ii ion il,aii smull (.:ir. T. ,■ iiusi^uic..
mpiilH H.,c.w thai 111,, less |»T mil,. ai,.iii>;.s aJMHii I |„.,- ,,.|,i i„r nuials
carrying Itm , „;,i,. i,.,.; p,,, sr, unil c r ii,.,i... „i„mii :; u. ,„ , , .-iii i,,r ,„,ii,is

■carryil.K .".n |„ i .„|,i,. r, ,.( pn- sitimM, l ', ,„.,■ ,..„i l„r ,aiia!s .ari^iiiK

25 to r,(l ■iil.i.- iv,.t p,.r s.M„,„l, j.n.l n > , ,,.„, ,„,, ,,.,„.,, ^ larivin^; Irss

than :;ri ciilii, ||.,.| p,.|- sicniiil.

Koi- HdiMc |)iii-|,(is..« il is j.n Ifiahl,. lo U,i,,w ih,- .xlnii ,,l s.cpav.- <\-
|iro«s..(l In .iibi.- IV.. I „f u.-iUT p,.,- ,|a.v p,.,- s^uai,- ln,ii „r w,.li,.,| aivi ',,1 lli..
nuial. 'I'liiM ls,.,|.iixal(.Mt : n slalinmh.. .l,.pili „l wai.T in IVn lost . a.li ,la.v

A nuinl),.|' ,.|- ni..asiii.. nis have li,.,.n niacl.. in ^aii.uis pails of lli,. ,„i,iiirv

anil S..111.. „r ili,.s,. liav<. !•,.. ii as-rnibl,. I l,.v K. \V. Ilaiuia. Pioj,.,! Kn^ii r

of Itnis.. I S l{,..laiiiali(.ii S.-ii... I'loj..,!. in |,|,.,li„. wlio slal.s thai lioni
• arcrul roiiMid. .ration ,.r ili,. ,|ala a^!^..nlhl<.cl. it wmild aiiihar lliat a sl...|lil^;,.
lonHoro.:.. I anil I..-, I'liliir f... t per s.|iian. In,,| w..||...l suila.-,. pmlav inJulii
l).> assiini,. I r,„- ,anal lossrs icBp. rlin.l.v r„|. ialli..r inipci* mils, nirj unily

pervious airl lallur prrv i soils. Has.d on lli,. aliov,. limir.s ami as-

8nniiii>; a (oniiiion form of < ross .soclioii. I liiaiiis lli,. lull.iwiiiK irsnlts as

lh<> Hci-paKO losM PIT mile <>xpr<.ss,Ml as p..r ronl. of How.

,..,,,,,1 I-'-- I" l"i- "111. "f II.. I, |M r null..

rul.l.. f..,.. K..r r,ll„.r i,„i,. , M,.,li„.„|, |„.,vi..,i, i::,il„-, i„rvl....s

IM.r SI, vl„i,s ..,.il. ..,,11 ^,,.|

'" "■■ I'— I N !• -

" "■ -■ -■-■ ,.:. T

26 II. r,i) I..-, ., I .

f.l ti> -,:. ,1. ■.

"•> •" I"" .::■ I , '.'.'.

Tin- al>o\<. tal)ii. j;iv,.s n stills wliiil. ami-., with tlio.s,. ol.lain.nl l.v th..
IrrlKation liiv,.sl iKalions Ollii,. as ilosrly as lan b,. ..xp,.,t,.|| bi'iuns.. of 111,.
nuini.roii.s fanors iiuolvni.

U- — Kvupoi-alioii I.OMN I'loiii WiiliT Siii'liK'c of Ciiiijils.

Tho losses al)o\i. slai. il iiiilmlc sci.pano am! ..\a|iiiialion. Inii iniinar.v in
tbo KoiU'ial belief, th,. losses of ..vaporalion from llowiiiK water in a eaiial

aro inslmiidiant v\lieii rompan-.l with ihose of seepai;i. Ii has 1 ii shown

that llie losses of se,.pai;e ailil evaiioralioii per ila.v iiiii;li| h,. assiiineil at
0..S. I anil I..". I'libii feel of water pi'r «i|iiar,. fioi of wetu.il sin fare, ie.p,.i--
lively for rallier iinprrx ii.iis. ine.ljimly peivieiis ai'l lali'er p iv mhi i w,;i.

'''''*"«•' "' nivaliiil to losses of water II. 1:; anil Is mihes ileep. .\s .om-

par,-il to Ihe.se liKuri-s. Ihe evaporation from water siirfaie for the iiriv.al iiin
soason will generally be abi.iii >, of an imli |i,.r ilay. «hi,h is fioiii H.-. to

7r. tim,.s less tlian the above «eepaj;e losses. Seepai^e anil ,.va alioii

nu.nsiir,.|ii,.nls iiiaile at T«ii, Kails. I.labo. ami reporleil by Dlias .Velson
(Ilull,.|iii .-..s. lniv,.rsity of lilalio) show that th,. ,.va|ioralioii raii>;i..l from

loBs than I |ier eeiit. lo l,.ss than 1! per leiil of tl,,. i„ial loss i e laiials.

On one of the lar>;,.sl sysleins in 111,. San .loaiinin Vallev. California, the
total leii;;lh of lanals is li;.". miles ami the total .se, paj;,. loss was I's per
cent, anil :!ii linus mealer than the evaporation loss. TIk.s,. ami other

nnnieroiis ..xperii.i,.iiis .show that tl vapi. ration losses in ilie lonvevame

of wat.M- are f.,. small as lompareil with the se,.pai:e losses that Ihev are of
no Iniporlame,

i'iii:M:vrio\ or .sKKivviii-: missks in rw.vi.s.

To pri.v,.|il the loss of water in eonveyame lininp: th,. laiials with iliffi'r-
cnt materials has bei.n trieil. Those iih..iI or ,.xp,.rinien:e,l wiili are eon-

V «vfflr ' 1 1\' vi

34

^ntrts::::::;;:" 'ni:;;;:. r ::. \rr "--'^ ^-°""' '-«" ^•■•^

weeds. «lop burrowing animal«h! f '^'"' '"■''^*"" '"« «'-<»^t'> of

affected b/.he traCi„rof a tie pZ'inT h " h"*"' ''"" ""•^^^'''""^ ""^
m 1908 and from more recent exnnZn *'''''°"' '""''^ ''^ ''■« ^r'ter

-erene ..... „. ^^n..s:';^\^i::--^^z^::^^^y °' -

Will stop .0 to 60 per cent, ^f JLetpage ' ''"""' ""' ^""^'"^ ^"'''
oi.'nn,n«.^ """ '•'"■«"•-'-' ''^^ puddle linin. is as efficient as a good

ce.n;nt .X:: ::':::! zz!:::^^-''' ' •"^'' ^'^^'- -<'^ -^ -e part

4th 4 fi . , prevent , ., ptr cent, of the scepaRo.

-men; ^o^:T::r:;z::ij::':^-:j:TV'T t" " "-^ "-^ °'

seepage. s:ra\el. will stop 9., p.-r cent, of the

af.;:'.ot^r:';;a:;';;;;;;:; "z i^zr''-"' -- - '■^^'"''^^ ■'-'-• •»•'

item and by the end of eSt „ '"'"''"'" ''"' ''"'■°'"" "" '"'Portant
renewal. ^ ' "' "'" ^'""■«' '^ will necessitate complete

.ah;;;: T:::i:i2::;'z::::ni"'' r '- '-"''' ^^ ^^'•"^-"^ "-'-

lining 1 inch thick cos s L t n 4 ""' '"""'" '""'■ ^'""'^"' "■">■'"
n-ete 2 inches thick col.bo t r . \ ". T"" '""'■"" '"'"■ ^^"'""^ •^O""
siuare foot. These priceV'o o ' 7, , , '"""'' "'"''' """"^ ** ^«""» *
the ditch before the ing i , t on ; , , ' "■'"""""^ «"" P-'-Paration of
per snuaro foot. The "st of a clay Sn'!' d" V"" '^°"' "" '° ^ '^ ^-*''
of the canal ,o suitable clav ,f luv " , '"","' ^'''''''' "" *"" "'^^'-''^^
spread on the canal then eithpr. I'' "* "^"''' '' ''^^ "^^ J-^-Ied and

«ing over it, at a '0!^/ ^ ,. Tl I "' '^"'^ "' "''^'^''" '" ^^ •>-«-
localities Where the w iter has en enon. "" "'""'"'' '°°'' •"" *'"•■•« «■•«
pay for a good concrete linin' Woo^ ^,' "'°"''' '"'"' "" ^'^^ ""'"'^^ *«>
cases and the cost of Ich a 1 ^ing hnm^V "","' 7 h"" '""' '" ^''^^ '^'^
«i.le yokes wilt not be less t la^ tJa of a 2 in' """" "'""' °" ^"'« «°''
nearly as durable. ^ '"'^'' '""crete lining and not

-.1. it probably \virnot'':re^^njTowtr;ft::^j'/^"' ^^^'- --'-

season unless a high velocifv >« ,,0/ f^™"/" "f ^^eeds for more than one
burrowing animals Tno er e ious oh ' "'" ""' '""' '"*" «'''""«« <"
be hard to obtain in nri"is Colnmbia.^ '' "'^' """"•"" "'' ^•'"•<J

not been sufficiently tei;:; tn^;;™!:: ~-:^-;; "'• '^-- »-

prevent the eroding or washing ot the I'i^nr'^'" ""'' '" "'"" '" °^'^^ *•»

re^^iZr .;rnr n^s.";,:;^: r'::^-'^-^ ^"" '^ -- -

a higher velocity atldT'sm rcrori^^ro^n ':,;: "7°'--^^^< ^^ -'"g
excavation. Where an ofd canal n us^ llTu '^^'•'•^««">g tl'e cost of

wffijssi ?r

I

i

i

3.'>

«f the smoothness of the channel, or by increasing tlie < ros.s section bv ex-
cavation. The cost of extra excavation, espe( ially on si.le hills throimh "hard
material, may be greater tnaii the cost of lining.

Concrete lining will usnaliy prove to be the most economical tvpe of
llnInK to use in Uritish Columbia. However, win re Kood clay is available
and where it is not liiianc ially feasible to use concrete, clay puddle may bo
used to advantaKe in improvinn leaky earth canals when the velodly of How
is under 3 feet per Becond.

1. — Conerefe liniiiKs.

The earliest use of concrete linings was in southern California about
1880 when the increasinR value of water made it necessarv to do away with
losses. Since that practically all of their canals, which are compara-

tively small, carrying less than loo cubic feet per second, have beon lined
■with concrete and in some cases replaced with concr te pipes, Intil re-
cently very little concrete lining had been done outsi.le -f that region, but
durInK the last few years concrete lined canals have been (onstructell on
many of te projei'ts of He Initel States Keclamat^oii Service and on
numerous private i)rojectK. There are now several examples in California,
Oregon, Nevada, Washinston, Idaho and other states and during the past
two years Kome excellent work has been done in Uritish Columbia. The
Pruitlands Irrigation and Power Company near Kamloops has lined about
6 miles of its main canal which averages :i 'a feet in depth, 4 feet wide at
♦•■<^ bottom and 7 '2 feet wide at the top, with an average thickness of con-
crete of 3 inches and when the system is completed there will be about 1.'.
miles of concrete lined canal. (Figs. 24, 2.".). The Kelowna Irrigation
Company, near Ktlowna, has lined the upiier .". miles of its main canal, 2 "J
feet deep, 3 feet wide at the bottom, and ."1 U feet wide at the top, with .5
inches of concrete (Fig. 2(i). The remaining 7 milee of the car-l, which is
l.r. feet deep, 2 feet wide at the bottom and 4 'i feet wide at tiie top, is
lined with 2 inches of concrete.

Form of ero.ss section, <.ii(i tliicknesK of lining.

I'nlii^e:! canals In earth are i.sually constructed broad and shallow wit.i
the aide slopes varying according to the character of (he soil. Tliis may be
as steep as '/„ horizontal to 1 vertical for liardpan or very tirm soil, or as
flat ES 2 to 3 horizontal to 1 vertical for loose sandy soil. Vov a lined canal
it is more economical to use a comparatively narrow deep section and fairly
steep side slopes. This reduces the excavation and the amount of concrete.
The side slopes must not be much steelier than the slo|)e on which the
ground will stand or tl:e earth pressure may be sullicitnt to push the sides
in and break the lining. The side slope and the thhkness of the lining are
dependent upon each cither and they vary with tlie depth of the canal, the
character of the soil and the method of construction. Generally the flatter
the side slopes, the thinner can the lining be made. In southern California
fairly satisfactory results have been obtained on many systems with linings
1 inch or lets in thickness. Hut because of extremes in temperature and
the low winter temperature, it is probable that such tliin linings wcjuld not
be very satisfactory in liritish Columbia. Tliere are no good . vampks of
very thin linings built where the winter tcsii|ierature is low. Tlie writer
has seen four miles of canal in eastern Washington lined with 'o to 1 U
inches of concrete. The lining was rather badly cracked, but this was
largely due to poor workmanship. It made it possible, however, to carry
water ove'" t'"'o i..»n)fi, -if ..r.*.-] ..■ 1. ,...,-, .■,,.. ■! i 1 r ■

^ •■-' ' '" '""^1 ' was :ii:iios:;iblc before Its ror,.^rru(;iun.

I

1

1!

3fi

Kor llii' iiriliiiaiy <()iiilit'()Ms in Uritisli Columbia ilic followiim iliickiiess
111' ciiniicii' linjiif; ami siilc slopi's slioiild lie used. For a canal :; to 4 feel
iltii) cxcavaicil in an onlinuiy llrin soil uliidi will slanil luUiiially on a
k1o|)i' not llatti r than 1 or 1 '- l:oiizontal lo 1 vertical, nso a coniiftc liiiinR
not less than :'. inclics thicl; Iniilt on a slope of lo lioiizcntal to 1 vertical, or
a linin.n -.lot Ic^ss than - inches thick Imilt on a slope of 1 horizontal to 1
vertical. Foi- loose soil whic'h will stand naturally on a slope of 2 or 3
horizonial to 1 vertical use a " iiicli lininK placed on a slope of 1 vertical
to 1 horizontal. Kor cana's 12 to Is inches deep use a mininniin tliicktuss
of 2 inclii s.

When side slc:]ic s of 'j l;ciiizo]ital to 1 vertical are >iscmI, the form of
cross section icc|uiiinu the leiisi concreie u'li have a holtoiii width ociiial
to |i|-lcMi of ihi. sc|uarc> rcioi of ilie area in scniare feci and a deptli eciual to
Til- 1 mi of il;e scinare loot of ti^c^ ana. When tlio side s'opis are 1 horizontal
to 1 vci'lical. the Ijottoiii width and depth will be c;i-1ciii atid Tl-loo respec-
tively of the scinare root of aica.
Slii'inka<;<> iinil cviiiiiision.

Xo ina'ter what the IhicKiiess is. unless the ccincrele is reinforcod with
steed, i-v expansion joints iirovided, cracks are to bo expected because of the
contraction or slirinkase in the winter. Tliese cracks will usually h.> fine
cracks occiirriim at inore> or Ic'ss regular intervals and the leakage through
them will be small and often sill up. Kor better aii|>c>araiKe and to die-
tribute the cracks at uiforiii intervals. tlic< lining slioud be laid in sections
or strips cl to S feet long.
F.fl'ect of liotit.

Krcst should have no effent on the lining if the soil is well drained. Rut
when the soil contains water, freezing will produce heaving of the soil which
will not be resisted even by thicker linings than those recommended.
I'siially a canal which must be lined is located where the water drains too
readily from the soil, but if the canal is located where water is liable to
collect behind the lining, a drain should be provided. The drain should be
a 3 or 4 inch tile i)!aced below the floor of the canal lining in a trench 12
inches de^ep, located along the center line of the canal and the tile covered
l)referably with loose rock, gravel, sand, or other porous material. To dis-
charge the water collected cross drains should be placed every 400 or .lOO
feet or wherever there is a drainage channel. The tile may be omitted and
the trench tillc>il entirely with rock or gravel but this is not as etliedent.
.\lelho(l of construction iil' loncieto linings.

The details of construction in lining canals usually vary with the ideas
aticl judgment of the men in cliarge of c-onstruction. Theie are twci getieral
methods of construction.

The lirst method of construction reciuires forms behind which tlie con-
crete is |ilac-ed. The> se>coiid method lecjuires no forms, the coticrete being
spread on the bottom and sides of the canal much in the same manner as
for sidewalk work. The lirst method is used when the side slopes are
steelier than 1 horizontal to 1 vertical. Tlie second method is used for side
slope s of 1 to 1 or llatler.

< oust I'iKt Ion of concre(<> liniiii: b.V means of forms.

This metliod has been u.sed by the Fruitlands Irrigation and Power Com-
pany, nea! Kamloops. by the Kelowna Irrigaiioii ("nmpany and the South
Ke'owna Irrigation t'ompany. It has also be>en iifed extensively on a num-

KIk- • I<^< tincri'lr lined <-iiiihI (if l-'niltliitiilM ii rlunllitii iiiiil
Towfr < i>ni|iiiii> . l\iini|iM.|>M, II. ( .

r»n. -' — I „p.

■f»-*t- Htiftl •'»»*»* '•( ("f *iM t«i»»I- lrrtKHll*>H t»i»»l
*»«%fr (oiitpHiit, l\aiiih*<i|i>t. II. < .

iJor*--i

"S^'apf

iijj» "

jBSBamsvmap

^

Kl«. za— TuBf-rrtr llnr<l ranal uf Kriiiwna IrrlKalion Cii
Krionaa, H. (.'.

^_

-c'JKji II I II iiwii I I mil' iiiiii V

I

37

bpr of caiialH in miiilluTii fallfornla. It is well ailaptiMl to ranals I. sh tliau
S or 10 foot will"' at tlio top. Tlie iiiotliod is ah loliowfi:

For a new canal tlio excavation i« nunlo about >> inclios iainor on i acli
side than tho tlnisliod t art!i »4Mtion wlicn ready to roioive ttio lining'. Kor
an old earth canal all vegetable matter is removed and If necessary more
material taken ont In llie same manner as fur a new canal. In en<'i "as •
tho bottom is brouslit carefully to urade. To shape the canal ready for tho
lining, the means used on the canals of Friiitlands Irrluation Hvstem near
Kamloops were wooden forms i; feet lonB. These forms are placed In posi-
tion In tlie excaavted section as sliown in KIk, 27, earth is iSirown in be-
tween the form and tlie eartli bank and wtdl puddled witli plenty of water
which was pirmi>ecl for tills purpose-. This was found much better and moro
economical in labor than tampinn tlie eartli. Kven when usinc a very wet
mud, the ground drains sulllc ieiiliy to allow tlie removal of tiie forms next
morning. This leaves a very smoolli ditcli with moij' banks ready to
receive the concrete lining (Fig 2sK The wooden form is a trapezoidal
trough with no bottom; tiio sides are tonuiii' and groove or siiiplap boards
nailed to frames luade of 2 in. x 4 in. scantlings cross braced for rigidity.

To place the concrete form« similar to the earth forms are used (Fig.
29). This concrete form is smaller than the earth form by the thickness
of the lining and is built so as to give a greater tiiickness of concrete at the

Concrete form
for carta/

ncTMOD or coMcucrt Lin/na canals \ ith re -s
Hi u.sto or mutTLAHDS ililii<iMT:'..f- aND

POViCR CO.. LTD

38

roriiiTB Hlicri' iIm- tloor ami Hl.lrH loiiic loKctliiT. The loricivte work follows
Miiorlly iiftt'i- tilt' cHith foniiH wir taken oT wli.ii Ihf liaiikH uif h:||| liioiHt.
Till' cciiKi-i'tc riMiiis ail' placcil In pixtltli'-i In Ih.. IIiiIhIicI cart:! illicli, bill
ilmtrail of iilarlliK llii'in roiitiimoUHly uh tin- caitli fmiiiM. only I'M-ry alt(-r-
liati' lorni Im put in plan, i KIk. :I(I); then tlii' concii'ti-, wiil.li |h iiilxi'il wi-t,
Ih plaiiMJ bi tvMi'ii the form ami the furtli and well Mtliii'i'. or nit with thin
baiH. To prott'it the earth NJope when poiuliiK tlie loinri'if niixliirf. It Im
well to rover the earth slope with thin ^alvanizeil Ir .n nlieets. whirh arc
pulled lip HM the conirete is poiii.il in. The sid< .-i and hnttoiii are put in
Bt the same lime. Ti,js ^-ives ;• neoil i oiiiiei tlon at the ( iirtiiTH wliiili is very
de.siiahle. To ilo tliiM it Is tiecefsary to block the forms above fh|. uroiitid
by .1 inrlies (the ti'likiiess of the lininm. To hold the lotiiiete at the
eiidii of the sidi 8 and i,lni to hold the form the riclit distance away from the
earth nide. L' inch by :! mch pieces are placed eildi wise betweeti the earth

Klo|ie Hiid the wiioileii formt.. When the Hertioiis have harde 1 the forms

nre ri iioveil and movid ahead to the .-idjaci lit section In order that the
endw of the form will rest iii the two adjacent compleii d sections tlie lorms
should bea little louver than ti feet I the length of a se-lion). pri ferably «
feet (1 inches. After the removal of the forms the concre.e must he pre-
vented from ilryiiiK out too iiiiickly, this tnay be done by protecting it with
burlaii kept wet by HprlnkllnB or by letting water in the completed section
as soon as possible. It is preferable to keeii the concrete moist for several
days after the removal of tlie forms.

The proper handling of the forms cspei iaily on roiiuli side hill work
will materially affect the cost. When the liniim is started from tlie iipppr
end of a canal and the work iiro^iresses downstream, pi<d)ably the most
economical mannei is to place the I'ornis in position for a leiiKth of canal
whicti ciMi be litieil in one day and hej;iii the lonciete work at the down-
stream end ntid « xtend it u|)stream. The concrete at the diAvnstream end
hardei's liist and this allows tie removal of the downstream lorms which
are carried downstieam in the ditch and placed in jiosition at a distance
from their previi-iis liosition ecinal to tl'.e lent,tli of canal lined in one set-
tine "f the foif.i.--. Thi!^ ociilnre allows i ontiiiiioiis woiK mid docs away
with tie ii"iessily for ci .iif; the forms around tlie side liill.
•lolnis,

'il:e liniiiK is done trips in order that all contraction cracks will occur
at the joints which are places of weakness. To sejiarale t!ie sections more
distinctly the edKes of the sections may be iminted witli oil or a strip of
tarred paper may be used. Ily usinK short section., the io:itraction cracks
are very sm.'.ll ai- ! tli • seepage throuKh tiiem is mf;lif;ih r. It is pndiable
that the cracks in most cases will silt ii|i.
K\|miiviiiii joints.

Onlin iiily i-xpansion joints are not necessary hut tlieie are some classes
of soil in which any seepage througli cracks will cause tl f settlement of the
soil and destroy the lining, in which cRse it may be desirable to do away
with all oi)en joints to inevent si epafje by nsins some form ol expansion
joint, This, however, is iiiiite uncommon but occasionally occurs where the
soil has probably been formed from the coarser material carried by the
Hood waters of a heavy clotidbinst and de|)(:sited in small fan shapei'. val
ley or benches. The lack of rainfall and of the occiiiience of further
cloudburst, has left the soil in an tinsettled condition and any • eepa;;e
watei- in'.stiiiK ii ii>uj;ii liie loiiciiie lining; may carry olf tlie liner soil par-
ticles into the subsoil belc.w and cause a i-^ettleiiieiit.

3

FIk. •7.— •^IplhiMl of iiNlniK riirniH fur hHi-knilInu tu iirrimrr «<Nn«l fur

t'ODt'rrlr llnlnic* l-'nilllniiitH Irrliciillon ^>Mtrm,

Kiiml«Mi|>«, II. ( .

Ik

^^

^M

1^

^^K •>'<■:'!

J^

-i. _t„., - J- .

^^^H

■-■,--- r- -^

^ — ^— — -

- ' : -■

KIK. <EH.— Kartk cnaai rrad> for eobrrrte IIbIbk. Priiiilaniln IrriicaUua
<4>alrni. KaulmipM. II. C.

1:1^^/. l^PBi

$

m^m^

llR. :w>. — I'lirniM hi iMmiiltm fi.r foni-rfit* iImimu
«>«lrili, l\iiMil4Mt|(«, li I,

tHittU lrrluiitl«:ii

I'Ik. :tl. — < 4iMHlrti«fl*in ut vitnvrrtr llultiK. l\ftt>%%BM lirUrMioii
■ ••nipnii>. Krlottna. II. « .

39

B^or these ronditlons it may be advisable to use expansion joints spaceil
about 12 feet apart and omit all other joints. However, the writer belleveB
that tiie soil can be thoroughly settled by running water in the excavated
canal prior to the construction of the lining. The expansion joint, if de-
sired, could be made by imbedding in tlie edges of the adjacent seitiou a
metal tongue about 4 inches wide. This tongue may be of galvanized iron
well painted with oil to prevent adhesion of the concrete.
Metliod iisetl neur Kelouna liy Kplowna Irri);atiiin <'<iiii|taii.v.

Tl>e method was very similar to tlie one described above. The main
difference was tliat no separate eartli form.s were used. Tlie concrele forms
Were placed in position in tiie excavated ditch and paUanlzed iron metal
plates were put outside of the concrete form and held away from it by
pieces of timber of the thickness of the lining ( Kig. :U ). The earth ba( k-
lilling was placed against these plates and the concrete was poured In be-
tween the plates and the concrete forms. The plates and piei <■« of timber
were pulled out as fast as the concrete was poured in.

The above methods of lining by means of forms are limited to side slopes
steeper than 1 to 1, because when using a wet mixture even with side slopes
between Vs to 1 and 1 to 1, the forms will tend to raise. Bolting the forms
together will help to Tieep them in position.
Const met inn of concrete lininK without fnrniN.

This method of construction has not been used in Ilrltish Columbia but
it is used extensively on Irrigation canals In Calllortna an<l other slates
where concrete lining was necessary. It is the method to use for side sloi)es
of 1 to 1 or flatter and is well adai>ted to large canals. While thi' tlrst
method is usually preferable for new canals on side hills, because steeper
side Blopis can be used, the second method may he preferable in the valley
or in level land and especially in loose sandy soil whicli will stand naturally
on slopes of 2 horizontal to 1 vertical or more.

The method used in preparing the excavated earth canal for the lining
and in applying the concrete lining varies. One of the best methods which
has been used by the (iage Canal Company of Riverside, California, is
as follows:

Preparation of earth canal (Fig. 32). Place the gra le stakis 2u feet
apart along one side of the ditch at a distance of 1 foot from the top of the
sloping side. Hold a level rod or cross section rod across the ditch with one
end resting on the grade stake, set the corresponding grade slake on tlie
other side and put the bottom stakes in position by measuring down from
this rod. My means of these stakes the bottom is cut to grade. To trim
the side slopes, iron strips I inch wide, '4 inch thick and of suitable length
are <lriveu edgewise In the sloping sides H feet apart, and extending up aiul
down the slopes. The lower ends of these bars are placed In line by means
of a line str( t<lied between the bottom grade stakes and the proiicr slope
Is given to the bars by using a specially (onstructed slope level, which 1011-
sists of a wooden rod on which a level bubble Is jilaced, the bubble coming
to the center when the roil is on the desired slope. Tie lion liars when In
position, are guides for a sharp iron straight edge with which all irregu-
larities are shaved off and hollow places filled in and well tamped.

A modilication of this method would be to locate the top and bottom
grade stakes by means of a templet of the same form as the linished ditch,
the templet being equipped with a plumb bob or spirit level will indicate
when it Is in position 1 Fig. ;i:!). 'I'hen stretch longitudinal lines between
the stakes and grade approximately to these lines and finish the dressing

40

i

S/oo» raJ^

METHOD or" TRii-iMina a»/vi>L lyc^,. ,. _

V\K. Wl

'.ma atrtichtd Z'

MLTnKNMTiy^ MeTHOD OF TKIMMINO CAN»L

a

i

i

3

FlK. 34 C'onrrrlr llnril ranal, (taicr laDHl I'limpan.t, Hit rrxlilr, Cal.

.ti^

Bk ' »i

■'." *•*?

i * '

41

by iilaiiiiK llalwisf 2 inch hy 4 iiii-li tinilicis aiross the slopfs at llic ilis-
taiicc liisiicd ami with a stiainlit ciIkc tamp and level the earth between.

It is impoitaiit to remove all deposits of vonetablo iliaiaiier and the
sides and bottom must l)e well settled to prevent the crac kinn of the lining.
It i(i well to iMii water in the ditch before tlie ditch is preparp<l and lined.

The |>laciiiK of the lomrete should follow tile triinminj; as soon as pos-
sible and if the cliaiim I is <lry it should be thoroughly moisttned by sprink-
ling. The concrete liniiiK is built In alternate strips or panels. To place
the concrete wooden guide pieces of the thickness of the lining are laid
across the «l<le slojies at the required distame apart which may be :t feet
or more. The concrete is spread between these stiiddinps and raked to
about a uniform thickness, lamped and made smooth and level by means
of a fitruJKht edge restini; on the guide timbers. The floor is finished in
the same manner. Fig. :!4 shows the completed ranal.

Cost of coiicrelo litiiiiKN.

The <ost of cciK rete lining varies a great deal with the accessil)ility of
the canal, the material through which the canal ie cut. the planning of the
work, the efliciency of the construction force, the price of labor and
material.

The cost of linitig with forms is given by the following examples.

The Anaheim Inion Water Company of southern California, which has
many niili s of concrete lined canal, obtained the following unit cost for
1,000 feet of ii canal !» feet wide at the top, C feet wide at the bottom and
3 feet deep, lineil with average thickness of concrete of about .'i to 3'i
inches, with the corner at the bottom made thicker.

.Mal.Ti.Tl. ''""■ 'f"

1000 feet.

170 lMrr<I^ "f c .Mi.Mi :it *L'.7'i s .iiiii.ini

170 culii.- yards ..t «rav.l at (;."„• lin.iiii

I.al)nr of liaiklillimr usini; oartli f-inii 2.'i4.no

f.,lliur I if iilarini; u ilh c.inrriti' f nil 212.011

Jl.ii.'.iJ.OO
i''ist ip.r lin.Ml fiiMi. inilu.liiii; l.a. kiillinu:. Jl.n.lfi.
I'osi t"-r .-.|ii:ir.' f'.'ii. inrlii.lini;- l.a, kiillinu, J0.118IS.

For 4.0T0 fee: „f a siiial' anal 2'i feet wide at the top. I foot wide at
the bottom and 1 ',. feet 1! . lined with 2 inches thickness of concrete,
the cost was:

M.il..rlal.

IKii liarr.l- ..f I .rii. lit ai JJ.Im

IKil iill.il' yai.U ..r ulMV.'! at .Slj:.

■J''.lal lal.i'l- r .r ha. ktillili:;. iiiiNillL; ami |i!aiin^

T..tal .i.st

fnr
4'170 f,.,.t.

.■$i:i2.iMi
. 2.'.".. Oil
. 2711.111;

r..-i |..f l.n.al 1 ...I. iiihii.inu l..i.klini!ia 'a, 22s.

1'".-! I'll- -.|iiai. r. .1, iiiriieiiti:;- i,,i. kiiliiiij. .'ii.iir.2i;.

Tile wa,m s 11a id were:

$I.T.'i per day idr nun using eaitli foiiu and backlilling.

.■fi.i.ii i.er liiiv lor men mixing and |ilacing concrete.

So. on inr day li.r Ion man.

These cosi.s im liide only tjie i ost i-( materials in tlie c

increte and the

42

labor, but ,Io not huln.le cost of c-ngln-erinK'. .ieprerlatlon and lnterci,t on
cost of forruH an.1 plant. Tluse iteni« would be snmll for the work was
done .inder the supervision of the superintendent of the .cnipanv who Is
paid largely for other dntleB. and the <o8t of fornm and plant wn, smal."
The waKes and ,ost of .emcnt are low and the < -.nal wa« ea«ilv arr.ssible
makMiK the -ost of linlnK lower than rould be obtained in Uritish Columbia
On the system of the Fn.itlands Irrigation and Power CornpaMv, near
Kam oops the cost of linluK 12,0m, feet of ranal 4 feet wide at the bottom.
3% feet deep, and 7 >^ feet wide at the top with a inches of .oncre'e aver-
aRed as follows:

'•".r"f !.';z"!u''"^.'^,'^'.'^^^^^

I'list .if sanil and uravcl ' j^ ., " ||

•■MstMf|,h,,.lntrr,,n,-n.to forms. mixIn^jan.lplarlnKr.mir.'.t.'. .':!„

fiasollnc fr.r iMincri'it. mlx.-rw n,

It 25

( i>.«i |„r lln.-al foot. IndudinK haiktlllintf, »l.jr,.
•"'""' I'<T s.iuarr fuoi, Including ha.ktilllna, $0.10.-,.

The concrete used was a mixture of 1 part of cement to 3 of sanTan^
4 of gravel. The cement cost $3.40 delivered on the job. The abov« cost
was obtained where the canal was easily accessible along the foothills and
the forirs and concrete mixer could be easily moved along the banks of the
canal. The cost of engineering, administration, interest and depreciation
on cost of plant are not included in the cost.

On several thousand feet of canal where the canal was excavated on a
steep rocky side hill, it was very difficult to deliver the concrete and the
total cost of the above items was $1.72 per lineal foot or 14 u, fent« per
square foot.

On the system of the Kelowna Irrigation Company, which has about 12
miles of lined canal, no separate form was used for backfilling the earth-
Instea.l metal plates were held away from the concrete forms hv studding
of the thickness of the concrete inserted between concrete forms and the
plate as described above. The cost of lining 24.000 feet of main canal 3
feet wide at the bottom. 2% feet deep, and r, i^ feet wide at the top gave
the following average cost:

Makinu r... k drain l„low lliK^iThu'uTlnK form.«. idaclni; forri.s ^""^ '

and liaiktilliiiK: , ... ,, , .

,. , , , , ? .-1 |MT lin.M foot

I osi of lioioni and h.\ drali'J linio i" ■■

Cost of sand iinil rnisli.'d rock ,[] ,,'j ..

.MIxiiii; an.l placum: (on.r.'ic ' ,,| ..

Misc. 11, ,n. -oils ..[........ ,'■ '..

''ost I'cr lineal f ...i », TT

, . . , $ I ...h

• ost |„T s,|ilan. foot J.J

The concrete was a mixture of 1 part of cement to 3 of sand a-id .". of
crushed rock. Cement cost $.'5.20 to $4.10 delivered. The wages were
$2.7:. per day of Id hours for common labor and $3.r.ip to «:,.00 for skilled
labor. The .o.st of engineering, which included location of the canal and
the co.st of (l»preciation and superintendence, brought the total cost to
1 .. , :t cent.s p, r s.maie loot. As the cost of lining only is considered here the
co.st ol kKation should not be added. The higher cost per 8<|uare foot ob-
tained 111 tliis case was diie i,, the hiL'lier cost of cement, the nvceasity for
building roads to <leliver material and move forms and nii.xer along the

43

-1

1

canal and to tlic placing of a loik ilrain inult r ilic lldni of tlic raniil. It
was alsi) ntci'ssary to nm'i ilii' work aiul tliis inobalilv iiK ri-asi'il the lost.

Tile South Kcldwi.a wystclii has slai'tcd ilmiii« tins .•iiiiiiiucr to rxcavatc
and liiH' the upiicr part of their main canal which j.s in \,.|> ilill.rult ki-ouihI
on very rocky and K:cei> hillsjlc, in sonic pl'iccs tlic i'Xca\aiion alone cosiiiiK
over $:) a lineal foot. The canal was very inai ccssibh . rciiniiiiiK the iiin-
struclion of expensive roada to deliicr the material and mow the niixcr«.
The forms were carried considerable distance around the bInlT. This and
other ditllcnltics as well as the IiIkIi c<ist of cement, oronnht the cost very
hlKh. Cement cost abonl $.'i.2.'i a barrel delivered at the mixer, ami waH
mixed with 4 parts of sand and ."■ j aiis of crushed rock. The canal was H
feet wide at the bottom, :i fee' I! Indus deeii and H feet '.'• inches wi.le at the
top. The llnint; :!• Iih hes thick coet about $2.1.'. a lineal f(,ot or about 21
rents per scjnare foot.
Vimt of liiiiiiK without I'oi'iiis.

The main canal on the fJa^e Canal system near Hivereide, California,
has a bottom width which varies from .'. to In ft. and a depth from ;! '^ to
4 feet and side 8lo|>es of 1 to 1. The contract cost for triminint; the canal
and placing the liniiiK of cement mortar ■% to I inch thick wiis from A'U
to 4 cents i)cr s(|nare foot This work, however, was done many years a^o
when labor was cheaper.

The Iliirbank I'ower and Water Conii)any of WahliiiiKtoii has recently
lined 4,100 feet of the main canal which has a bottom width of li feet i\
inches, a depth of 2'i. feet and a top width of 14 feet. The lining is 2'-
inohes thick for the bottom aru! ': inches thick for the sides. At the toi)
of the sides the linins; extends horizontally for ti inches to form a copinK.
The coiK rete was mixi il in the proport.on of I part of cement to 2 of sand
and 4 of graved. The lining was linished by painting with a thin mixture
of 1 part of cement to 1 of sand. The contract price was .$12 "••! a c iihic
yard or about 11 '/i cents a scjuare foot.

The r. S. Reclamation Service has lined •! miles of the Main South Side
Canal on the lloise Project in Idaho, with a conci. -e linin;; 4 imiies thick.
The canal is 40 feet wide at the bottom, H feet decj and t«4 fe<>t wide at the
top. The concrete mixture was 1 part of cement to :{ of sand and •! of
gravel. A flnishinR coat of cement mortar was floated over (he concrete to
give it a smooth surface. The work was done at a cost of a little less than
10 cents a scjuare foot excluding the co«t of I'teparing the foundation.

These and many other examples show that for either method of con-
struction and with average conditions and average prices, a c oncrete lining
3 Indus thick should cost from 10 to l."> cents, including cost of backfilling
or trimming the ditch to i)repare it fc»r the concrete lining an ' >8t of

engineering, depreciation and interest on the ecinipnuMit nee nv t- ■ the
work. A concrete lining 2 iiulies thick should cost from .' ■< 11 Mits.
The lower cost in each case should be obtained with very fa ■!.;,'. con-
ditions.
Kcononiy of coiiciete linings.

Willie concrete linings have many advaniagcs. it is not an economical
proposition to line canals indiscriminately without coiisiderng all the fac-
tors upon which a decision should be based. The problem resolves itself to
a comparison between the cost and the benefits de'ived. The factors which
must be considered are (1) cost of construction, (2) cost of maintenance
and operation, {?,) damages due to waterlogging and alkali, and (4) value
of water loss.

.s

I

i

i

rr;;:;:;,, —■-:::■::::;-;-.: ™;™.;™^^
: r;:, ::;:n sr-, -- :-■;,-: .;:,-,::=

>... aM,o„„, .., .x..ava,:M , ..„...1„„, on «l,l.. „i,l work. «:i, .,,,'l. ,?":,:
or ,.u. .omn-t.. ll„.,| ,.a„al ,l,an r..r ,1,.. „nll„..„ .anal •• n« w 1 w '

a al ..„ „K. «an„. K-a,!., an,l .iuTef..,-,. a .smalUr ,roBs «..,.„on am . Ju
l.il w..k ,„ har.l ,.,a,..rial ,l,o saving in .oBt of .-x.-avatio, w u 'il

of n.„M,u.,,a,u... ana op-ration and ,l,e Kroate,- safety. '. . a • n . .1
to .on,..,,! wi.h, no b,..aks „, n.end an,l ,o„sc,„H.n, v ,he .0,0 , 1 ,0 | „ "
.. ..|in„Ma,..,l To thi« nu,s, be addo.i ,he value of , ,e wa.Jr sa l u e
•"■'■vwmon „f waterloKKiMK of .he lan.i below a leaky ,li..l, ' Ve e '
<an no, be closely omin.a.ed when a new eanal i« ,0 be .ons.n e 1 i ,
«l.oul, b,. ..on.si,le,-e,i before de.UlinK .he ,Va«:bili,y of a .• n ' • ,in'
\ Ub ex,.„n« ..anal« the p.oblen. is ,0 ,„ev,n. ,ho .eepa.e Isses .';
ease earry.nK .apa.l.y by ei.her enlar«i„K the ,ana b^- , , , ^
^Mth eonere.e. The ex.ent ..f .he seepage losses <an be ob,a ne,| , '
uremen.s, .he dan.a.es done ,0 adja.ent land below and , u- li e , .J
of he .anal are fairly well known and will furnish swm.ient If o es
.na e what can reasonably be spent in .on.re.e lininK. When h elpa, v
« . e canal nn.st be increased, the choice is between n,akin" la m , , -
hncd canal or to nse a lined canal of «nmllcr cro«s section w „ch t m ha e
a In^her velocity because of the smoothness of .he sid.s and I ed T.ero
are n.any cases where the value «f the water loss alone will ,s i v th „,
m.venu.nt ot the canals by lining. This is obtained when the va e of 1 e"
wat.r loss w.U be e„ual to or larger than the depre-iation and interest on
the cap.ta .nves.ed. As an illustration, if a ca.a! carrviuK To c .,' "
per second throUKhou- the irrigation of 4 u.onths or 12.; davs lose 'I Zl

1.. ubu feet per second or I! acre feet. wh,. h sives a total of lUU, acre
lee whose value at $1..,0 an acre foot is $,",40. For this cave w- ^Maud b e
jusfhed M> s,,ending per n.ile a capital, the interest of whi,), plus d e
atuv .s c.ual to ?,-,4u. ,f ^ve assu.ne interest and -I, p.e, ia. o at . per
..•nt he capital is ahout Sfl.Tno. m n>ost cases this Jould be u <• 1 ,
.■.H,u.h ,0 build a concrete lined cnnal of that carryi,,. ca,. ' " , ..„
on tl:(. velocity which can be ..sod. 'i< |.. niinu

l. KLIMKS.

I»"H>« the p.s. ,w„ season. ■ cral n.iles of steel llun.c. have been u=e 1
•" the „r,gat,o„ sys.en.s of the Celowna Irrigation Con.panv an . , , ,
I-ru tlan.ls Irrigation and Power Company, near Ka,nl..„ps. The ,1 , „ s v
se.iu-.,rcular an.I are n.ade of ,n,.tal sheets curved in ., se„u- ic „ 'n

-m, a b.ad or corrugated groov rolled in each edge of the he T

1U1U«_^^

3

I'llt. :i.1. — StrrI fliimr In |iri>fr»» of ciinMlriii'tliin, rriilllnn<l« IrrlicHlltin
null i*ii««rr i ti,, I\hiiiI(m>ph, 11.4'.

tiliiTisi till' put Iruillirr l»y liii'ati.<< of an Imi i loi Km;; jnuii lour. I >, ovi r
lapping Ilif tilKiH Hhlih (it over ••»' li Dllur, I'lji. joini ih in..! inlii 1,>
tiu-niiM of a <iii»«'(l mil whuli (itH (in thr uiiInuIi' nf ih. 1.1111^; ,;i >;riiiHf
and a rurn'il liivi'llt'il bar or Hinall rliaiiiicl on ilu- inxi.li Tiic Hin'l hhIh
carry llif wtlulu of lIu- IIuum- Tin- cikIh ari' tin. a.l'il lor ihhh himI |iuii»
tliroiiKli llic rarriir or tli' Ittainx ulilili air kiiipimhIi:! en stnnniTti iixnally
about l<! fift lotiK. I'll'' stiinKim n • on ticKllr li> niM o whitli iIkv art'
coiHHMi.il Ijv holis ll> !.rii«li:>; till' iiiitri till' oiitHiilo 10. 1 IS (h'HUii lirnily
aKaiiiK. tlio tliiiiic Biiil II..- iliaiiiicl or liar iirrnMH on ili.' irisiili- iriiiKinj; a

wait r 'Ik hi Jol. 1. Thr nrctim'l of 1 onsino lion 11 nil ihr ipliiiil Ilu ari'

aliowii liy KiMM.

Tliiri' arc two inak< h oi M 11 110 on ihc iiiailicl. oiif known as iii.- Miinmnin
KalvuniZfil (idi'l lliiliu', sold liy ihi' .M:ii;iiini» Kliiini' Co., Iilcal Huililin«.
Dt-nvi'r, Colorado; Die oiIht Ki;owii a.s ilif lli.ss lluini'. ^^ol(l li> ih.. IIckh
Kliimi- roniiiaiij. Kirsi Nalu al Maiik liiiliitinK, Dcnur. Coloiuilo 'I'lo
llrnt lyiH' of lliinu. Ims Ihiii ut.cc| in Itrlllxli Cohinil.la. The mioiid lypi' lias
IxM'M di'H'lo|>i(l only riTcnily. Tlif c tiiiMti lo Hon in mtv Klinllar, dillirinn
only in tlio inclliod of fonnlnt; lli»' intcrloi kiiit; joint. Ihc .ManinnK. Iliiini'
liati a Hinall ihaniul wliiili liis on tlic iiiHldi of llir lliiinc at <'ac ti joint.
while llio Mi'itH lluiiic lia« u licvi lied liar wlilili litM In Hi.- (jrooNc Tiif
iloHH (liiiiii' iH made in sI/.cm raiiKiHK rroin a dianutcr of 1 "> '4 Inilifs to 12
feet !• iMilu'H, the Maninnis lliinii' in sizes ranv;iiin I'roiii 1". ini lirs to In feet
2 Indus. Tlic laiiailtiiH tivcii In tlic <'nlaloKnis arc for iIh' IIiiiiiih iiinnlnK
full «itli no fire lioaid or cliiiran(t> liilwfin ilio water li vol and tlie cilm s
of tli<' shi'cis Tile pun hascr should (ciiisidcr lliis and (d)laiti a lluinc of
aniplf (apaiily. 'Ihc Hiss lliiine lins a K":ilir lapailn lliaii the same s'v/.f
MlltilliniK tliiiiie liiiaiise of thi' loriii of Intel lorkinu joint. The insiile ilian
nd of the Ma>!liini« lliinie projeils ahine lhi> inside sirfaie of the nieial
Bhoj'ts. while the ciitside snrlaie of the In billed liar of the Mess lliinie Is
fhlHh with the Inside tmilaie of the slieets

Tlie metal nsi'd is either n.'ilvatilzed Iron or steel slii-eis or s.nne inelal
sue li i!s liiKoi Iron or Toman 1. Ml. Tin se lasi two nieials are a uraile m'
iron in whiili all itupiirities finiiul In ordinary sleel or iron have been eliin-
Inaleil ,is far as possible. The result inj; metal liaa the prop.rty of resist int.
riiHt or rorroslon murli better lliaii ti. eomiiioii or Kalvanizeil iron and
steel The idst of the hetter jirade of melal is no: irnoh higher ami It
Hhoiild lie iist'il in all caKes.

As regards eiononiy, the lirst ccisl of a meial Ihinie will he liiKher than
that of a wooden Hume, but its Hiealer iliirability as well an its water tiyht-
iii'Bs will make ils ultimate 1 ost lowir.

I'l..\l\ (KV) Itl^lTK I'll'K \«ir ItKIVKOItri-.l).

Diiriim the past thirty years . eiuent pipes fioni tl to ;;i'. iiK lies in diam-
eter lia\e been used very extensively in southern California wlieie the
seareily ami \alne of water ban- tci i -;silated its nii;-! leononiical use and
have jiislitied the c xpeiise of pu: 111; it. i'm' best fcirtn of iiinstriK tion. On
many systems i' •jieti ditidies. i:.peci.^ \ the laterals, lave bei'ti etitirely
replaced by ecu ,upes. Se .'ral Inmln-.i miles of ci uieiit pipes an- now

in use and It will not be man- >caiv 1m '01. open ditihe.s will have disap-
peared with the exciption of some of the lar'-.r main lanals. The ;nl\:in-
tafres wliicli have le,l to their adoption are:

1st. They eliiiiimi'" tlie losses of conveyance.

2ml. They do not cnii'- any bu d which < an not be cultivated.

4«

•■!"' IIn.v ,|„ „„( ini..rf.r.. «|,|, (raffl,. j.n I .iilthMfi.,.,

■".111.

••'" (»n the-

Wli

'lll.A llliMHllU,. ||„. ,„„, „r l,lillnl,.flHI..

■'...■ . ";,:^:::;;; ;';:;;;:::'j'7 "■""" "" '^ ■" '- -

■•l"IH III (III' IHIMINK III lllHIlllIni llllilli; -I'lll. li».. ,.f

;'"-- ->,.. „.«, ,..„ .a,. „„H , ,. ..,...,1.,..,, lo oM ,.:;,:, '';;■'''''•

""« ".ur.v mil.., .„ „i,.., „„ ^„„„. 11.1. ,,,""■"''"

«)r,.«..„, ..„«„.r„ vv«Hhl..K„.„. an.llilal., „r,' I, '■"*"'"

....mI;;::;;::",.:;";:," "n:"":? r*;" "■ """• " '■""""^'*" '« ""•"" •"

lap Joint, TliiH f.,nn of joint i« ......J... . , , iV "■'" " ''••^'•"«">

also r...,,.!,... ,..H ni„,..r,„, t .,„„:, n*^! "",,': '::r'. i' "• '"'■ 'I

niLtal nioulilH in wlij.i, a inomt mi,,,,, V ''* ""•""" »'

KravH IH v,.fy . an f i ' tarn ^ '"''"'"V" '""""" """ «»»" "'■ --'-.nt and

r;;:.;::;;::;:,r'--:w;;^;rr;S£~:3f':.::::
:;;;:;:-;;;::;i::i:\;:rt;;,, ,::;;■ r:;,""""'"^^*'.-

Ilif s(/rH Mirilltlolily i's,-i| j,,,. i; ^ .,„. ,

I'liv..,- .ll.rril n^ I,,,., „„| , ,; ;„ ; " '"" '""" '•'"■'■' '■•'

m.„, l,no. ,„ ,„„ h,l,i,.„ ;,,,,. Thr.r, ', """ " """"" '■" '"•

- '';• "«- ■-.•"".:. .";™r,;: ,r ,;:,r,;,r- —

Tl„. wnt.M- f..<otnn,rn,l8 the following maxinur.a vaiiu-s aTLfe
">r p||,,.s nianiifa<tiin.i with ,aio: »"»■•"» as safe

H

Uliirn.'tir ,,f |.l|.e

in 111. Ii..-.
1 I.

12 Tr

14

IB '/' '

1 H

_'(,

:l

.',{>

.MiixlriiiiiM I'r.'s.Mirr 11,..,, I In F,
I'll

III
18

ii;

1.-.
].■.
1 1
1 1
I:;
III

8

' iiilxiure.

I.'
U'
III
111

8

H.v

utaiKl

Til
prt'ssu

iisiiitc untiNiial caip, ex

sal.'i.v ;!o p,.|- (

.•a.o, ..xperion,- p. ,„..„ ,„„ .j.^;,,.

."'. ^-Toatc,. li..a.ls than tlio.so ^iv,.,. i„ ,„o abov. tab c

... an.1 «r.a, .an- must bo i,h,.., ,„ p,.,,,,,,,,,. „„„ ..„„„,„,,., ^'^^

;«t=-

47

lllitl III urilrr lliai Ihc xali' prrstniriH rt'(ti,iii iMiliit hIjux- Ih' not t-Xoi'liil
jii il all miilili'ii KU>-i!«»» iir imlsatioiia »slni li ii c llkc-ly to mc iir wlu'if mr l»
allowt'il III «i'i iitt>u!H'<' III llic |ilpi' hiic iiiiii-t Im- iM'i'M'iitfMl l» iinividliiK
aiiipie air v nta iir air inli-i- ul all tiiiiiinillM in ilii' |il|i)- Iiik' 'riii'Mc air In-
Ivti luii he roriiH-il liv I iitlii u a liiilc in the |ii|M' ami rt'iitiiitiiiK In il a \i-r-
Itcal . iiiil |i||i<' iiiuila- II »('\'ral ri')'||i>:ih ni oiiK'til iiipiH. the liiwcr •■ml i>i
wliU'li IH rill In ttuiltUi- iiiiiiiiiil (III' liiili ami tlii' ii|i|»-r 4'ii<j I'XIi'iiillliK nliiivi-
lli«' lifiKlit til wliii'l wait r will rlii(>

I. — Mniiiirai iiii'Ihk Mhiki '|'uiiifM-<l (t'tiit iii ri|H-i>.

MI\tiirfH iiK)'<l.

Tilt' lii'H' |Mii|Miriiiiii lo iiHc ili'iiiMiilk (III till- iiiHltTla! avallaliU' Willi
Kooil I'li'Dii |iil »:ruM>l roni.tiiiliiK aliiiiit ■■<• to >'>ii |>i-< cit hbiiiI. Ici^ i ••incut
can bf iiHfil iliuii with HUiifi aloiuv 'Vhv iiilxiiircH loni.iin.iiv um-iX art' t part
of it'iiii'iit to 4 (larlK of |i t Kravfl anil Hand fur pliit-n up in IS iiii'lii« m
ilianiflcr, anil I part of i fim-nt to :i luirli of inrAvcl iin<l naml for larger
pipe*. If cninhfil roi'k or Hirj-i-ni'd n'avcl la iihimI, a kooiI niixliir^> Ih I part
of rciiuMit III 2 of aanil anil 3 or 4 of Kravil or roi k. No K>'avi>l or rork
larger tliuii iin<'-li')lf the lliiiklitiia of the pipe Hhoiilil !!•' iiRcil. To make
tht pii'i- iiiiirc waltT llclit .'i per iiiil. of \]tv w^-luhl of rt'iiirnl In hytlratcil
liii.r I aildpil. 'Fill' HHiiit anil Kravi-I naiHt be fiec from ilirl or orKanli'
niutlcr.

MixltiK niatcrlalK.

lilt' mlxiiiK lt< very Iniporlaiil. It Ih iiHiially ilniie by liaml aiiJ In Miiiall
batiiies, (riit for a lart;e plant lonrrele niixerH an- ailviaabli'. The ma-
terials are niixeil by liirunH iif a hoe or with a Hl:ovel. tiiev hIioiiIiI be niixC'l
three linns itry anil llin'e linici- > ' While ii la ileslruMe to ii»e uh tiiinli
water as [iosaible, only BulBiieiit . ii'i-. i.i eiUleil to tlie iiiixniii' to >;i\e the
c'onslateni y of ilunip earth -.vliu!. v ■ leiiiin ita ahaiii- when si|iit«'Zeil in the

.' '' ' .1 > e mix will nliik m the niouhl

■I. ii.', I", .ui 18 renioveil. In oHler to niake
I • :)■.'• >■ for the emls a linir ami riiiier
• I I '• L ■ : ( ■ :l of BcreiiuMi saiiii

. vhliii are lieielli'il In form the

• iket, u iiiniielleil ulieel iron

'' :iMiiinil the iiiHiile (ore and

.( ii'i.l a feeding scoiip. 'liie |ii|ie

vi lleil aien. To xel the iiKiiild in

hand. W hfii too iiiii- h ' ' ,- i-
and the pipe will lolla'is .'!, i'n; m

tlie ends ifiiiootlier, 8oni"- . a':.] • :)..'
mixliiri' made of 1 pa > . ■ H' i i '
I'roet'Ns of iiioul^lliiic. - ' ' '■'•

The iiKiiildii conhiitt 'a i

base of the liipe, an l..sit( ■ i.
hopper, a rimnier or east i.' ii • i ■■ a
bev>>lleil (III the IliHide ed^e, a . .
is usually made on a solid platiciiti .i
poeilioii tiie inside (ore is pla(t(l inside of the bai-f liiiK and i lamped ti^ht
to it by liirniliK a lever, the oiitnide Jacket in plaie'l around the base riii);
and (■ontraded by turning a levei The liopjier lits on the top ol Ihe i iil-
sido jacket. The mortar Is fed in the niiinlds and siiicad in iliin layeis of
one to two inches thick. Ka(h layer must be (anriilly and uniformly
tamped all around the insiilc ( (iic in order that ilic ((iie be not shifteil and
the pipe made unei|ual in thiikiuss. Winn the last la>( r has been lamped
a little extra nialerial is jilaced all around the to|i and ttie liiMi|ier is re-
moved; the rimmer is then lilaied ninnnd the ieside (die, is Jammed dinvii
and revolved, at the sanie time pressing down on the piiie . The inside (iire
Is now ((intracted and removed; tlie riuimer is taken (i(T. If the pipe has
been made on a iilatroriii it 's now larried by means of lifliiiK hooks wiih
the Jai kel s'lll (lani|ied on the base r.ii^ and placed on level hi'oiiiiiI. TIjc

48

ja,k..t is now nloas,.,! ..w,,! ,....m,.v,.,| „„,, ,„.. „i„.. IH, .,„ „„. 1,,,.,. ,,n. „„„,
11 s ha,-,l..,„.,l. K„,- Un„. si... pi,,., „. av,.i,, ,„Mn. a,„l ,.,,.,„.' ^

111.. Ii;isi' llll;;s ill.' Iiliii-.Ml nil i],.. I.,...ii I .■ •>■ 1 . nil, 1 i.( jlipc,

.... , " "" I'-*"!''''' «i"Mr„l n>si,.,„| „r „„ ,1 ,, plan-,,,.,,,.

:;;;;;;;;;;«-:;;;.:-;;.;,;;:;;;.. ,..i„,,..;;;;:;,;,:;,;;:^
;;;;;;;;; - '"•- '■• - ....:'':i;;;:;;r-':"r:tr:' rr

« iiiiim lilt- |ii|i<'.

Wlu.i. Il„. p,„..,.s.s ,„• ,„.„i|,|in« is ,,„„pu.,p,, ,,„,

<'<>ii(iiit; llic |iip)>.

nH:;r';:'';,';;:^:;:::--;:j-— -^;^ n--«in..

Kil'.'s, .; t„ li! i,i..|i... i„ ,. .. : "•"■n^ ol III,. s!,„.i:,T ,.,/,,.s „f

.1,.. nil. F,.,. .„ :";':;':'v^'""'"""'^''"''""> 'ii"i'i"^th,. Pip.. i,.

'•> I - iiirlii.s in ih

■^- ■■ • , ,' ' : •"" ^,'" '"•'^ " '"'i'"-' J'-"'>"l whiil, ,i,.s ar.MMPi ,ho

"'"^ "'"■" ""■ I' i>< liri'Nl. is .,n,-n us.il.

I'lpi. :iii.|

•'">>l of |l|(l|||(I,s.

...:';:;:;,;:;:rr,„;;:;;:,;;;,;;";,:r:: :r,;:.::i";v" "-r- «
"•" '■■„>.... ,.., „,,; „;":;,: Tr::::::'. "■"■"::' •:. "■■■ '■ »■

'" ■""" '■ > '" l.'i" A„„.|,,, i-„iir,„„i.,

.-I' on sn„„. „r i,,, p,„j„,.,s is ,h,. K..||,.,r i.rhl
I'll' ir lisi piir,. in caii.

" ";r"r""^ Ms r,„. ,; ,„i.„ Pin.. wi„. , .s,: h „. :■ ;

si.,.s i„ pnip'nion, "" """ -• "■■'''■ '•'"-• ''"'-"■ -" .'.h-

:»i,„..„M..„s ,.| ., ,„ I ,„, ,„;„„„;„, ,„,i„^

'I'iii' l:ilil.. ^;i^,.|| |,,.|,m ^n
'"";'"'"'■ ''•"'"l"l "M,,,,!, III,. nmnhirorMM'N iii',

•■'ii'l III,, iiiinilii I- (,r I,,,. I ,,|

"'""''''""•^^'"■""■l >l..' iinnilM.,„,r,...,

|ii|ii' malx'i'.M,

liiailf. p. |. ,|;|

;:;,::;; ;-■. ••- ^-.n,..,,.: ;,::.■ Ti:::;:;:;::;::':::',::;';:::;:;;'

:;::i::::::::;:''';:;.'7;:,T:,i':;,;;''': '-;-"- ^.^■.•-.':'.;;;:^

' ' ' •• "' I \ M ( I' 1 ( Ml 'I I I I ■ -I lij .11 ( '> 1 1 >

I"'.' ..ll.:. v.inl ,,l .,,„, |-,„ ., . ' ■■''""" - ■ ''^""■1-^ ""■Ml

"'■!■ ' '!"■ :-.iiil :n,. V liiv.i.

" ""■ ' '" ' '•''^'^1" I . iKun.i.. „l ,,.„„,„,

I'Ik. ;W. — lloiiltiM rur I'HMiInu hniiil-lnni|tril |»l|ir. mHomIiik IiimIiIi-
*<urr In iMmllltiti.

I'llt. :t7. — l*r*i<>«*nM or tHiHitliiu.

ijir

riu. ;i>, — Itrmutal of Inoldr iM.r*.

4»
Onirni |>i|ir ImiH.

I.,,....- .hum...... |,,,..K„..„ >„„,.,.., „ff...., .,,„„„. ^ .

i"i'"'..> i:',;;*;, ■"'"'- »i>i.ii,..r....i,',, »i..„,. .,„„ •^;.;;" ;-:,"'

'""""'» ..••miMil mil. |.||.H '•.'•I ri.iHl..
; l:liiiixtnr.. l;:li„lMi,r.- I"T .li.v

8 ',[] I ,^ J:.' •■'■ I rins.r. I ,,r HuT]^

1» l:;, ,- ■■" - " I'I'l-. ::,-.n-4lMI

'- 1'. A ::; ' ""'^"•■'- ^""' ^^""-•"'-

- li..||...i.. i'.-..i-::.-„i

•< |.\ :•.

18 I :..| ., -- ' •"' - Mn\..r< :'J."..:; T,

IS 17' '.' "* - "■■"ii,i,.r, jihi..-:.-,

I'M ,/ ': '■ I rinMnr I.-,,.-..-..-.

■:■: .J ,. " .'(i.i ii'.-,-i7.-,

" ' ii..i|„.i.. iiiii-i.-,,)

^«.'.. '..'.".".'.'. ■:',' {p* ""^ ■• "■• ' "Hv.rs |iM..|;i„

■Ml -.1., ,, - 1' - "I'HiM. i :"i-ii'ii

36 ;. ■ .,, '. ' lirii..|i, r .111.1 ..i-llii

* " lii.||..r. ,,,

<<Wt Hf IllllkillU |»i|M>.

"..":r ;;;-;;,;;;: ,*:;,-- :::;:»;;« <■ - « r,.

I'ortla„,l ,.em..n,, $,!..-„. .leliv,.,-...! „„ ,1,,, ,,,„„„,
(.ravel, $1.00 a ciiblo yard

I.al.or: Tam,».r.s $;!. ,.,>; ,„ix,.,..s an,l sprinkl..,.., $■• :.0 a ,lav

Til.. liKon.H f;,v,.„ i„,.i,„|,. all mattrials aii.l lab,,,- -in 1 .. „i.

'"" '" ""'-'"« """•'" '■'"'.■ -....,. ,.,r l..„,.„ ,...„,.

I'i.iiii..ti>r

"f "'I'" ^""' '">■ ' - '•••■'t fur 1.3 r..., t„r ,.,

_ '"""'""-• mlvl.ir... rnix.nr... Miiviur...

'" ;.. :

1.' ... '•' II

" ::;:::::::::; :;; ;? ^■■

It; .... — :'rj

"* i: .,-

-*" XT -- •■'

'■'•" ,,. '■' (i:i

■■!« ■■■ ,:,,', »■• r.i

'■•" ".•■ J,:.

::. — ('<inNt|.ii<ii..ii ,„„■ LajiiiK <>r l'i|.c I.i,,,..
Kx.'avalioii ni' ii,.|,|.|,.

■I'l"' I'il"' x''-'nih\ |„. lai.l sMHi,.i,.Mih ,1,.,.,, l„.|,,u ||„. siin-, , 1
l'as..,l ... an Is Im.I, ,|,.p,„ „r ,„,,„ .■..mt,,,. Tl, ,,,,', ■ ''

60

< •Ml

Stia of
I'iiie.

10
12
14
1(
II
20
24

ze

30
31

«f K.r.,.il,.. tor <>«,>| |.|p, ,.„„ „, „,,,^

»«r Llaeal Kuut.

Kppili of trpnoh. Wl.lth ..f tr^n.li. <i.hl<- yrt,. , ,.r ' '»' "' Pxcava-
_ Iliii>al font. '" '" <•>•'»'<•

I'ti Inclii s

31
33
»

3S
40
42
47

r.i
■ I
mi

:■() iiichi'.s

27
29
3:-
34
3«
41
43
48
64

.16

.."iO

.8.1

3.0
3.2
4.0
4.0
£.4
t.4
7.0

Iii.o
1 1.1)

16.6

(FiK. 39).

I^yiiiK tlic j,||M..

.^n^v^""'T "■■' ';,'"'''"' '" ""■ •"■'"" """"""« "" •^"" «"" t"« 1''^" *•"! or
feroo ,1 end up. lo lower ,1,.. lar«e pipes more easily they may be slid on

has alrcad.v h..en laid, and ,he bell end of the pipe to whl.h it is to be

n h mT ^M- "■" '■'*"*" """ "•'" "♦'"^'' ^"" =» "•>- •"•"«"• About a.!

and a tro«e full of mortar i« Bpr.a.l in i,s ,„«.« to f.,rm a bed of mortar.

lortar in"!' . '"' ".'"" """" '" '"''""""^- •'" """ '« «"-" «"" ^'""ent

mortar and is januned a^ainnt ilu- taper en.l of the previously laid pipe.
The mortar xvl,,. 1, m s.iueeze.i ,.u, on the inside of the joint is wiped with a
frl s'f "■ 7" " ""'""" ••"""■ ■''" '""""'■"• "- J""" '^ "an'l "f "'ortar
of the pi"u' '" "■' '''"" """ '^ '" '' """ '""■'* '"^ '"""^"' "" ""• ""•""J*
It isalways preferable to lay the pipe uphill t„ avoi.l .l.e «hrinkaKe at the
o.nts due to the pipe pulling away. 1, is well to pro.e.-, ,l,e hands from
tht action of the sun for about 30 minutes before backlillinK bv using wet
burlap or pla.ins a board over them, To raise a pipe and holdi. on ^rade
. o no use .loda but slu.vel in dirt .ud .-ompa, , i, by lanipinR. Tlu- hands
should bo welted before ba.klillHiK: this must be done .arefullv bv shovel-
inv: the earth, free Ironi lo.k.s. around ll„. pipe and tampinK it until the
pipe 1.S well ,ove:ed. Witli loose sandy soil which pa.ks easily very little
tampiUK i« iier.n.sary. The pipe .should not be u.^ed f,ir at least" 2 to :! .lavs
especially if under pressure, to «ive suHi.ient liM.e for the i.ands to harden'
in the aceompanyiuK table is Kiven inforuuition reRardiMK the lavins

and haul.UK of cement e. based on the wapes and .ost of material uiven

above, let! per cent, has been allowed for siipervisi

iliK of i,i|ie and iiii.scellaueous.

• iKanizatlon, br< ak-

I''IK. 3U.— M«lliu<l ■•( la.tlaK ■»<! JolalOK •■riJirnl |>lpr.

1

iii

If

r.i.i .,r LaHaK a.d llaHlLs • rmrai l-l|.r iln ri-a«.i prr l.l.ral K....«.

WViirht of
IvtaitiPtrr pli'** in
ill itichfv imiiiikU

PIT flM)l.

«
10
12
14
IC
ID

:o

24

x«

3«

20
.12
42
.'■!>

8!"

H.".

mo
no

160
17B
220

.120

NiifiilM>r itt

ffct lulil

Mf r hill.

of i>ritt«*iit.

500
400

2.'.0
300

200

1 .-,0
100

(A

7B

«0

NiiriilM>r of
nifii ill
layiiiir
rrew .

:i
;i
:l
:i

N lliiitxT 'il
t.»r lull
|»-r ilttv

)iOO
6011

riiiii

4.-.0

too
;ioo

.100

;:oo

20U
250
200
200

fimf lif lii> lii4f
«>\rlll»i\c iif
trt*liriiilitf iilitl

iiMllllllir. Mi
pi'Tif'it |n»r flint.

4.00
■00

8.60
10.0

12.0
14.0

IT.n

<'ii*l i»*-r

f.M.I iif

iiiiiiUiiir

- lilllc^.

It

l.;i

:i.l
t ..".

14.4

The con data given In the precedliiR table are asiiembled and Kivf
below.

r«a« uf Maklnic, l.a>laK, TrrapMas <>ail llaiiltaK <>.

■ •laral K<mi(.

I'Ipr lia <-rali>i, prr

Dlamfttrr

of pilMI

In iiirhei

<
8

10
12
14

16
18
20
24
26
.10

Coit of makltiB

l:Spl|H> l:4pl|ie

10 7

12 !i

1.-.

20

11

30
4 1

i:,
11.-.

,"iO

6;i

TO

iir.

Com of

Co«t f

layliiic.

trviii'li

2.2.^

2.6

2.r.o

.'1.2

:i.oo

4.0

:i..-,o

4.6

4.00

."..1

.■i.iiii

6.1

6.2.".

7-0

6.60

7.6

Iil.l)

Iti.il

12.0

II. 0

14.0

ri.2

17.0

16.6

-'nut of
nilliiit;
iiiilrx.

1.4

l.;i

."■.11

Tiitiiirii.t

7.11

1i.li

It.t

l:.1|il|M<

1."..7,".

i;i.io

22.110

:io.6o
117. .■.I)
t.'..20

62.20
87.20

10.-,. ao

122.10
l6;i.o

l:t |il|i«*

12.7.".
16.10

I'.i.ao

.'.-..60

;;2.so

10.20
17.7.".
.".4.21.
77.20
'.I.I.IIO
"17 10
112.011

These co8t value* agree quite closely with those given below wl.kl. are
those obtained for about :, miles of pipe on the irrigation system of f.o
Frultlands 'rrigation and Power Company, near Kami oops. The r(..Krctt
mUtuie ...,.; was compoaed of 1 part of cement to 2<4 of sand and 1 lA
of Btone. which corresponds to a 1 to 3 mixture of cement and pit gravel
Cement cost $3 a barrel, sand 7.". cents a n,-.' •, j .! crushed rock $2 .".0
a cubic yard, common labor I2..-.0 per da.'- .,k!. , ! •. l r $3 to J3 .".0 per
day, and teams )6 per day. The co., ;;.•.,: iu.;,K;,..s n i materials, labor
supervision, and depreciation on plant.

Coal ..r MafclBK aad l.a,I.B Cu.rrrtr Pipe ..a IrrUatl. . :«.«(,«
IrriKatlaa * Powrr Co., >irar Kami .up,.

Krultlanda

Ipc.

Coat of

- — — — -^

_-_._

Ci..; .f iu.ir,.

■r.ital

niametcr of |i

mak

ne.

''i.i^.

8 Inches
10
12
16
20
24

11.1

15.7
20.

2a.r.

54.7

contH

11. ci-ni.s

ia.5

20..1 ■■
23.3 ■•

u'l. .

4,"i

r.ri.8

7>l

i;h;«

_.

irii

u2
Sl.^ttliii MillioiN of Miikliiu (Viiifiii |'||„..

Tl... lu.k of unllMiuno m tl,.- ,,i,„. „,a.lt. will, a .lr> mixluro inmpcj l.y
han.l aH U.-h. rlb...l al.ov,. a,„l th,. „.,n.«,iy of tl,,- |,i,..., I,av.. I..,| ,„ .„h.-,

j.ro..,*H.H „r H.aklnir ,„,,. ,„„.■ of whi. h «i.. «tll| i„ t .M»Tln,. mUiI Mbm

I wo iiK'llin.lM liuvr h.M I, lis.'.!, iMii.hiii,. tari]|,nii; niiii ilu. wet |.r h«

Marliiiic li)iii|H-<l |.i|>c.

Maciniu. lamiMMl |.||„^ Is i„a,lr l,v a rnn,.!.,.,- „( ,,!„„,„ |„ ,|,., \v,.si i,„ lu.l-
iiiK ..iir at IVa.hlHMcl, Tl... |,i,M. iH ,„».i, will, a .•<.n,i.arath,.|> ,|,v u.ixunv
l.MU-l. it, tl„. sa..„. manm.i- as l,a...| ,„a. ■■ pi,,,., l,„l .1,,. mlxtu,-.. i« ll,„nM,vl.-

'•■ '"" ' '•>■ " i"-'l'at,i.al lamp .,i Hmall , ,„,s ,.,..i|o„ ^,Uu■U ,«„,,-

rapl.lly a.i.l kIwh a l,i*tl, ,|, i;,-..,. , , nrnpivxHion. Th,. .nsl, ,,. aim. ro-

tat..s .luiliiK ||„. iai,ipi„K luo.v s.« aii.l iI,Ih j;h,.„ n,,, i„„i, ,• n,, „| ^

v.M-y »m,.,.,iI, s„,ia.... Tl,.. ,,Iin. „l,tail,...l by ,l,|s i„„....h I.s a v, r. ,|..„«.
pip... II Kl,„„l.| I,., ^,,■y ui.ir.irn, hi,.| «„|„ ,i,„- to tl„. haiMl ,„a.l.. pip,.
.■sp,...|,.|ly «!„.„ a Pip.. ,.s ,|...„,v,l „„• p,-,.ssu,v l„a.l. M,-,.at..,- ,i,.,„ ,|„. h„„.l
II, ad.' pip., will .'ami.

''■'"■ '•■* '"■■ ^^i'li •' '»'ll '"'l HliMilar to s. w.r pip,, This r.-n »

'""'■" ""*"''''l '•'" ""■ « ap .n.l ol.,aii,...l will, tl,.. I,ai„l ma.l.. pipe

will. '■ il, CI-,. uses the lost

l'l|n- iiiailc h> Ufl |ii'iM<.s>.

To M.ak.. pip,. 1.. II,.. „,., ,„,„..ss, a u..t n.iMu,.. „f ,,.„H.t,l ttto.ta, or
.•pi„..„t .on.ri.t,. iH po,„-,.,| i„ ,i„. „„„,|.| aii.l alt.,- ,l,.. ,„nt,„.,, |,„s |,af,l,.M..,l

iho ,. .ul.lH :,,,. r...„ov..,l. A.s ,l,i. lak.'H s..v..ral l,o,i,-8 v a f..vv ptp. ^ ,an

b.. nta.l.. |„.t .lay. K.,r a lart,. o,.,p„t M.v,.,al ,„o„I.Ih uo„|,i b,, ,„.,.,|,.,, .„„,

(be ,„sl ol til,, plant woul.l I,,. |,i^;|, How,.^,.,-, tl... „„„il,ls , ,| „, , i,.. .

Kti-oi,« a.s ihos,. „«,.,! for ban.l lanipitiK aii.l , i |„. ol,tai„..l ;,, a i„„,h

KU.all ,■ .est. Tb.. Incr..a«.,l , est of plaitl »o„l,l l„. ov..,bah,, , ,,1 ir ■,
larM.. .piantity of pip., ^^as n.a.l. . I,v th.. saM„. i„ lab,,,- an.l also bv il„.
saviMK In .ost of mal...-ial l„.,,,iis.. a pip,- ...lual ,t, sii,.|,j;tl, an. I itt,,,,.,,,,,.-
ability coul.l b.. .iblniin.l with l.ss .■1111..111.

To rclii.-i. th.. n,in,b..|. ,.( , is i- ,, j,,.,.,, ;,,,,.,„,„,.,| ,„ ;,,,,, .,„, .,,,.

har.leninK of ,h,. niixtu,,. by h..alii,. , with s„,aiii. This pro- . how-
.■v.r. is still in an ..xp..iin,..ntal s.a^, . Th.. r. s l...pa,t,n,.nt ... AKVi.ul-
niro, thn.MKh tis I.Tisaiion lnv,.stmai.i.,ns Olll,,.. is it, wm isatinu the w..f
itutho.l of n.akmj; pip... Tl„. r. ^.. l{..,.laii,atioi, S..rM, ,. has al :. .lovise.l

oK.tho.l.s of n,al,;„K a w..t ntixi,,,-,. ,.,.n,..u. ,, „, a i.asotiabb^ ...st for the

li.'ton irnKation proj,.,-! it, Kast..in \Vashin.i;ton. and for oth.T proj.Mts
llii.il- r.. stilts ltav(. not y..: l,,.,.!, ptihlisliiil.

KKlM'DiEri:!) rovrKini; imim:.

Th..,-,. ,s a Kivat li..hl t, r ;, ,„„,•,„. ,,i,„. ,,,,;,„ win ,,„„ „|.,,„,„

prr.ssur,. and ran b.. mat,,ila..n;, ,-,1 at a , ost whi.h >^ill .-ompa:,. «,.|1 with

'"" "'■"'-'"'"" -I"-- -I H. 1 1 tntttp,.,! plain ,„nrr..,.. pip,, has s,im,.i..nl

str..nKlh only lor low pn.ss.fs. ami ma.hin,. tai 1 1 r pi,,,. n,a.l,'

by th.. w..t pro,,.ss has nor l,..,.i, siiirKi..ntly t<.st.,l ;„ know what li<.a,lH if
will stand. tltoitU, ll„.y an. probably saf,. for at l..nst tui,-,. ti„. p,,.ss„r..

r..si»t,.,l «ar,.ly by ban.l ma.l.. R..inror. .,1 ,„„,r,.t,. pi,„. |,as b,...n iis.^.l

suc.Pssftilly for pr...ssui..s abov.. l„o f,.,., and Is ,„arant,.,.,l bv so,,,., pip,.
n,aii,ira,.t„,-..rs for pr,.sstt,-,.s as lai-L... as l.'.o f,.,.,. K..infor.v,l .o,,,,,.,,.
pip., .•-.nstsis -.1 a sk.M..t,.n ..f iron or st.v.l imb. d.|..d in ll„. .omivi.. sl„.|i
of th.. pip... Th.. r..i„|-of.v;.i,.„i is inado of rods .„• bars of nioials or ^<,i,i,.
lorm of ..xpand..,l t,M -■ ,r wi,-,. m.-sh. For small pip..s th.. , ii-.timf..,.. ..i-,!
'■'■inlor.-,.n„.nt is o itatlo as a spiral of wir... For lar«,.r pipos -I,., r.^.

Uk.

••■In. M. — lluulda (or •■■■■IIiik l<l.|ii<-li rrlafiirrrtl niBrrrlr ptpr,
I nialllla ■•rojrrl, OrraiiB.

KIk. II— i>r<irrM u( raxlnii plpr. I

matllla l*r<' i. Orpic»n.

'^T^.:^S^i^^A

MICTOCOFY »eSOlUTION T€SI CHAM

(ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No 2l

1.0

i.i

^ Ih 112.2

IL25 i 1.4

u 1^ ^

u ..„ mil 2.0

1.8

1.6

_S APPLIED IM/1GE Inc

'b'hi E^st Ma.n Street

Wjc'^ester, Neo 'j'k 'h

^■6) ^82 - G300 - Pnone

■ "''fc) 288 - 5989 - Fq,

1

^r-^.iim '•

'r "iJ^fiiiiiga^^^i^v;- ^■■MMsm

63

inforceiuelit is bout into lioops by means of rolls and the inde a-.e Wfldeil,
or overlapped and tied togetlier witli wire, or bent to form lu)ol<s ;M.d a
longitudinal rod passed tlirongli the eye of the hooks.

The pipes may be made in short sections east in moulds as the non-
leinforced pipe described above, or tiny may be built continuously in tlie
trench. The latter method has the advantage that it does away with the
joints which ar, usually the point of weakness, but it requires a thicker
pipe and is only used for the larger sizes of pipes. For pipes up to 4 or
even ,". feet in diameter the first method is generally used and the pipes
are cast in sections 3 to S feet long. Tlie thickness of the shell seldom
exceeds 2% to 3 % inches. When the reinforcement consists of a spiral,
the wire is wound by machinery and kept to the proper spacing by means
of longitudinal rods tied to the spiral wire. When hoops are used, they
are also tied to the longitudinal reinforcement.

Two comi)anies in the Tnited States make a specialty of tli istruc-

tion of reinforced concrete pipes. One is known as tlie Meriweilier pipe
m„de by t!ia Lock Joint Pipe Co., of Xew V'ork, with branches at Wln-
i-.Mieg and at Seattle, Washington. The other is made by the Reinforced
Concrete I'ipe Co., of !,os Angeles, California. Tliese manufacturers make
pipe up to 72 inches in diameter, from 2 "i to 7 inches thick, in sections 3
feet long. On the I'matilla project, in Oregon, several miles of reinforced
concrete pipe 30, 46 and 47 inches in diameter have been constructed.
The sections were made 4 feet long for tlie 30 inch pipe and H feet long for
the larger size. The Koswell park project in Idaho has four miles of re-
inforced pipe, some of it resisting heads of 70 feet.

I. — .MellKxl of CiiNtliiK Iteiiiforced Conri'ete IMpe. (I'matilla Project,
Oregon.)
The pipes are usually cast in moulds wliich consist of an inside c.il-
lai)sible core, an outside sectional jacket and a base ring. The process of
casting used on the rmatilla iiroject is a good illustration of tlii.s fori.i
ol construction. For tlie large size pipe cast in sections 8 feet loii;.'. the
inside core is made of two main pieces of curved steel plate 'A inch thick,
held together by a vertical hinge, and a third narrow closing piece ov wcdpe
which fits between the other two pieces when the core is set up and is re-
moved when the core is collapsed. The outside jacket is made of twelve
curved parts, each 2 feet high and 1-3 of a circumference in length, which
when joined in sets of three form a section of the jacket 2 feet high.
These parts are made of 's inch steel plate and to the edges of each part
are riveted angles by means of which the parts can be bolted together.
The base ring which forms the bell end of the pipe is made of cast iron.
(Figs. 40, 41).

To set up the moulds the inside collapsible core is placed in iiosition
fitting inside the base ring, and the lowest section of the outside jacket is
formed b bolting the three parts around the base ring. The reinforcing
skeleton is placed around the inside core, tlieii the concrete, which is a wet
mixture of 1 . ut of cement to l.S parts of sand and 3 parts of gravel, is
poured between the forms and worked down by means of thin tamping
bars. (Fig. 37). The outside jacket is built up in sections, eacu being
filled nearly to the top before tlie next one is bolted on. To fill the last
section a funnel shaped collar is jilaced around the inside core and bolted
to the top of the section. Wiior. filled the collar is removed and the upper
end of the pipe is flnisiied by hand. The forms are removed 24 hours

^mMf^kmMi^^- 7i.

I

al'ti'i' 111!' liipc lias bi'i'ii iiHMildcil iiiiil till' |ii|ii' is lilt slaiiiliiif; (;ii the liaso
riiiK i(ir oiKlit (lays.

Foi- the I'.iP iiicli reiiirorciMl pipe tlic liiniis used aii' 4 li I't loiif; ami
made of liinibcr IIiumI uitli slit ft steel I Fif;s. 4 2, 4:1 1. Tlic iiitcridr < oi't'
coiisiMls of two main partf aiul a \veilf;c or closiiiK pioii'. 'riic oiitsidi' form
is made of four parts bolted toKetliei-.

Tlio reililoictMiient is made of wire wound into spirals 4 feet lonj; by
means of a reel on wliieli are liint;<'d spacinK bars Willi notclus wliicli give
the wire tlie proper spacing. (Fin. 44) After the wire is wound, loiini-
tudinal rods 4 feet Ioiik are plaeed on he outside of the spiral and con-
nected to it by heiidiiiK the ends over tne wirfs of the spiral at the two
ends and by tyinj? them together with wires. The spiral can then be re-
moveil from the reel by turning; down the hinged spacing bars, and is mado
more rijiid by cross laciuB with wire.

2. — >letlio<l of Joiniii);.

The pipes, after they liave hardened siilHoieiitly, are placed in the trench
where they are joined. The best time to lay the pipe is in cold weather, for
a rise in temiierature will produce expansion and make the joints tighter,
while if they are laid in tlie suiumer time, any contraction due to lowerinK
of the temperature will tend to produce Khrinkane cracks. The joints may
be made in three ways: (1) hell and spifiot, (2) collar joint, and (3)
lock joint.

Itcll and spiKxt .toiiit.

The bell and spif;nt joint has been \ised on smaller pipts wliere the pres-
sure is not great. On the I'matilla project some of the ;{ii inch pipe has
been laid under a pressure head of 2:i feet with this type of joint. The
pipes are similar to the non-reinforced pipe previously described and have
a taiicr end and a bell tiid, the joints being made in the same manner as
the joints for non-ruinforced pipe.

Collar .fojiit.

This joint is used for larger pipes and greater pressures. The joint is
made with a reinforced collar from 4 lo .S inches wide, whose inside diam-
eter is slightly larger than the outside of the pipe. The collar, which has
been slipped over the i)ipo last laid, is placed over the joint and the space
between the interior of the collar and the outside of the pipe is filled with
a rich cement grout poured through two holes in the collar and prevented
from running out by means of a mortar paste spread around the edges of
the collar.
Lock .join*.

The lock joint is intended to make the longitudinal reinforcement con-
tinuous. It is used by the Reinforced Concrete Pipe Company and the
Lock .loint Pipe Compai^v.

3- — Method of Making; and I/ayhiK IJeinforeed Concrete Pipe on Koswell
I'l-o.ject, Idaho.

On this project the reinforced pipe was made with th.e dry mi.xture hand
tamped pipe around which wns wound the reinforcing steel wire wliich was
C(>V(>red with a rich cement ntortar. The method of winding the wire,
applying the plaster and laying the pipe is descrihe<i as follows by Zenas
X. Vaii.!,'han, the engineer in cliarge:

"Two movable bulkheads, with craiik-lian<lles attached, are so arranged
that the pipe length can be firmly clamiied between them. At a distance
back of tills device a steel slialt, into which is cut a screw groove, works

iio^'jis^'^w'ti^Brr

■ — ^1

— i

.m

» 4

« 1 .. -'^

' ^^^^^^^^^V^^^^^^^^l

2^^f^f5^^^r*ii

FIk. lli.-^lnMhl«> «>or(> an«l Mplrnl rrlnlorremrnt In poMltlitn for cnntliiK
lUUInt'h rflnf«trt'P«l (MiniTt^te plpr« I malllln I'rojrvl, Orruun.

Fltf. 4:1. — I'laolutf i*OBc>rete In iuouIiIh, I malllla I'rojecty Oreicikn.

■Biniiii^'j^fr#

i i

! ■

^ ■^mfi^'^^S^'^'''m^''^^-^^;^ERei^.

FliE< 44.-^KFel for maklUK Mplral rrtDfiircemrnt, I mallllfl
I'rojeotf OreKon.

M

l?»JE««--V«Sif*^

r*. ->'rf:: - ■£

freely l;')i-IZ()iitally. Hiick of tills, and hoilzonial to It. a wooilcii shaft Is
IilaciMl for ifniilatiiiK the tciiHU.ii of the wirf. and still bark (if this is a
vcrtlral HpiiidU., fidiii wliiili wire uiiwiiiiU aiit(iiiiKti( ally. The wile used
for reilifoiciliK is a .No. 12 Kaii^e, Kalvuiiixed wire. ha\iliK a tensile streliKth
between .Oil and tlim poiinils. A coil ol this is placed vertically iiiinn the
spindle, the wire is passed around lie linsion sliafi, tlieiiie into the screw
Kfoove, and is linaliy lirnily attached tci one end of the piiie leiiKlh by
Holderlnn. The pjjie is then revolved by two men at the crank handles, by
which procesx the wire is wound upon the pipe under a hitili tension, the
spacing of the laps of the wire beinn made even by the screw groove.
Variation in siiaciii); for cliff<>rent heads is hi c iiniiilisliecl by usii.j piilleyg
of differi'lit dlameteis, to tovern the rate of revolution of the grooved
shaft an compared with that of the pipe lennth. The leinforelnK is stressed
the same as that in the main pipe.

When the reinforeii.t; reaches the end of the pipe leimth, the la.-.t two
or threi' laps beiiiK made parallel, it is a^aln scildered, and the wire ii
severed. A steel trowel curved to eonform to t! . shape of the pipe, and
suspended abo e it, is then clro|)|ied into place, and then cement n.ortar
l'a-1. is run upon the pipe as it r.volves. the trowel smoothing this down
to a uniform thickness. The .ulkheads are then niiclamix'd bv a lever at
oni' side, the pipe is remoned, and is carried away to he properiv cured.

■In the trench the bell and spijtot ends of the pipe are litted tonetlier, as
in the case of sewer pipe. Aroiiiid the j.iint is placed a Hexible form, made
of very heavy canvas, attached to blocks of wood, sawed out in such a way
that a space of about one inch measured transversely to the pipe, and six
inches lonBitudinally is left vacant for the receiition (if the mortar. AIouk
each edne of the form is run a IL'-nau^e wire. termiiKitinK at one end in an
iron riiiK, at the other in a tonsue pin, curved in shape, so that when
clamped throiiKh the rinj;, it draws the wire to a liiKh tension, (irmly bind-
ing the form to the pipe. The form is then tilled with cement mortar, and
imiiHrcliatelT afterwards the interior of the joint is carefully pointed to In-
sure water tightness, independently of the ccillar. as far as practicable. As
soon as the collar forms can be reniov ', the trench is backlilled, to pro-
tect the collars while curing." — Journal of Idaho Societv of KuKlneers.
pp 411-41, Vol. No. 1.

Ill southern California reinforced pipe built in the sains manner has
been used. It is wound witii iso. 12 Kalvanized wire spaced about 1 >i
inches apart and coated over to protect the wire from corrosion. The cost
of reinforcing; the liand tamped pipe is 1" cents per foot for Icl jncli pipe,
l."i cc'iits for 12 inch piiie, 2.'i cents for 2ii inch pii'c% and ;!.". cents for
20 inch pipe.

■I- — ''osl of MakiiiK HeinI- reed <'onerete Pipe.

On tile I'matilla project in Oregon, a number of reinforced concrete pipe
lines 4fi and liii inches in dianiHter and agjireKatiiiK several miles in length,
have been installed and are entirely succssfnl. These pipes were thrc>o
Indies thick, made as described abdve. The cost of each is Kiven below.
The concrete was composed of 1 part of cement to 2.:! parts of sand and 8
paiis of gravel, screened through 1 inch mesh and rejected on 'i inch
screen. Cement cost $2.2.'. a barrel, sand $1.00 a eubir yard, gravel $2.*;.".
a c'libic yard. The steel spiral in plaw cost .'>'i cents per pound.

I ii^iilf cjiiini-

eter of eipi' l.t>n<:tli
in iiiclies

tii :is;il

i« r,ni2

111 U'Sl

:'." :ii;i.-.

■'," lii;.'

Miixiiriiin r<i-t i.f Tuliii cost liilH Cost of piaiinjr

heild- liilif. ilii'lliiMti).' h^oilini.' noil iimkiritf jniiils

trend' e.xciiTiitioii. iiii'lci(liii>: niitToridI

11" 2.H7 ' ^

:;il L'.-_M

I". L'.L'l

I". i..'i;

I'l; i.^'i;

IS l.JK

1

i:i
jii

-

ir.

II 1

Tile UclnfiiK 1.(1 Colic rrti' l'l|n' Coiniiiiin nt I.iih AiikcUh ciiiotix tlic fiil-
lowitiK niMiriixiniiitf prluM wiilrli linlinl. ihi> iimtniiil. tln' makiiiK and liiv-
llit; 1)1, t ti(r 'Ii4. (.xcnvniicin (if Ir.rn h :iji.l liinklllllMK

hl.llM tri' III IlL.li,'^.

111.

■:,».
U',

in

I'-.-t 111 .l.ill.ir- f.i-
:'. fi 'I' Ml. .'.11 fi. h. .1.1 lull ti !,, 1,1.

1.7'.

:!.:*ii

:;.ciii

■.'..'.0

.1.111
I l,l

:i iiii

I'lill

I . . .'i

Mil

Till' |iriii>» In soiitliiTM CalllDiiilii for rcinforifd pipi. iiiiuli" with 1 . ml
fniupnl pipe wound with wire nnd pln»tt'r«>d wliji iiw.itar aio iinotcd m 'bil-
lows. Tlicsc prill « ari' for tlir plpt- laid:

'> 111' li I'll"' « .Jil |.,.r lili,. il f,..it

III
I I

.10
.All

Till' piids ill llrllisli ('oliinil)ia due to IiIkIici' ro»t of i eiiient would
probably be about in per ci'iit. lii^'lior.

•"i. — .\<IVHii(a««'s mill l':('onoiii.v of Ittdiifoiioil r<iiiin>l«' I*I|m'.

Till' filial ailvaiiiimc of ri'iiifni i imI iiipc Is its diiiability. 'I'lu' Hist roHt
as (onipaicd to wooili ti pipe Is usually a little nrrati-r, but ila lonRcr llfo
will iiiakf lis iilritnato cost niiirli li wcv, I'spccially wlii-n tlii' pipe ran not
be kept loimlant ly full.

It lia., bicn «li<)WM that for a wooilcn pipe wliosc lit.' Is 1" to 1 ."i years
tlip total annual i at io pay interest on first losl. rinowal and depreciation.
Is 1 .'i per cent, of the tliat cost, and fcr a wooden piiio wliose life Is f^O to
no years, about 11 per cent. For a com lete pipe, depreciation and re-
newal are practically eliminated; therefore interest only, at about « per
cent., need be considered. Hasod on these figures a rororetp pipe would be
as ocononilcal In cost as a wooden plpo pven when the concrete pipe cost
about twice as niiich as tlie wooden one. The prices of \vire wound wood
pipe Bood for ."0 to feet head are about as follows for the Okanagan

district :

111

IL'
I I

-• I ••

The prices fur
ahuiit as follows;
I 'l.iiiii.lrr.

L'S |i,|. lillral t,,

.i',4
,sil

I.:'.",
1 . 1 .",
l.iiii

uniiileli slii\e |ii|ie for ."." foot head, built in iilace,

rr lin,..il f.,
.<l.s

L.

u

IS

.•,1

I'.Sil

:;.4ii

f :

C.)iii|.uiliiK II..' alH>v.. i.iir,.M u.il, (|i„»- n.r i-..iMf(.i,..,| .■III,,,.;,, pi,,,.
nvfU iliut lli.i-.. is no Mi'iU ilin, i-ti... Ill tliHl r,,Hl. b.it If ulilMial.' .„
■ oiiHiiUi,..!, iIm' .■i„iH,rn> i.H in lavoi- or ifinfon .-,1 •„iurvU- |,i|i.'

^U>\^v\i^t. ilu' iiH. oi ,,.iMron,M| coii.itt.. pip,- is IiiiiIi.mI ,,. nio,l,
lu.a.l un.Irr Inn or i:.n iv..t, an<l iIhv i..,piln. .i.r.lul woikm.in^i ip
uii rxp. n«H.. iniinnlii. tilling plant Wdod.n sun, pip, „ |,,n,. ili,. ,,,1
litn.' tliiit tl,..> nin l><, iiKrd for I,IkI .1 I,.. 11, Ik and H^iii iIm-v ar,. .iisli
ilniiKlv pill loKitlicr.

With (oiorrl, pes it is wri ii,., , >:sai v to |,r.-i<.|ii il,,. an „ i,,i|.>

air III 111,, pip,. 10 .n..i,| water liiiniiu,.r. This r.M|iiii, iliat air wih.
aiiipir ,ai.arii> I,,. |,la. ,■,! ttli,.r,.u.r air »ill loll.'ci in i|„. pip..

II is

HI i-
lltl,'

an, I
vali-
ann

II of
s or

IV.-DUTY OF WATER AND FACTORS INFLUENC-

ING THE CORRECT USE OF WATER

IN IRRIGATION.

in TV OK \V.\TI-:il.

A kiiowliMln,. or III,, .iimnlitv of water iih.mI In IrrlKalloii and of the
fa.toiH |„lln..M,inK tie .onect use of water In irrigation is n.-essarv If
the hesl ns,. of the mailable water supply of |lrlli«l, Colnnihia is to l,e
ol.tain..<l. The term duty of nuer Is used to express the relation h.tween
the area ol land served and the (|iianilly of water used. I' niav be further
•inalllied by nsin^- the expr.ssions kios.^ .Inty. duty measured at heads of
laterals, and net duty.

The ui^"»s iliily or water n preseiiis the relation bi'tweeii the (|iiantity of
water diverted from the source of supply ami the total area or Ian, I irrl-

Kateil, It Is ohtaitied riom measure nis or the t!,,>i taken at the head of

fhi' main eanal of the irrigation system and imluihs heshles tli., c|iian;ity
apiiied to III., land, all losses and waste In coiueyain'e.

The «liil.v of water moaMiie.l at tli.- Iiou.l of ih,- la|.,ial is hiulier tliau
Ihe Kross diilv beraiise the loss.s obtained rroni tlie head of tli.. main .anai
to the head of tli,' !at« ral are not included.

The net .liilj if wati r re| -eselits the water
obtained by iiu'iisni I'lneiits t; ken at tli,' margin
besid.s the (|iia!itit:,'H iiseil bv Hie plaiKs. il,e lo>
lation and wi.sl,' oc m iIum: on tl'e lielil, wliiili la'
txtetit by a ski!" 11 1 ii 1 ij'ator.

The duty ,;r wiiicr is spok.'ii of as hinli when tt^e ,,,.a jrT"-^
fain volume of water is ( omiiaratively lart;e. an, I .. . low -.*
i-oniparatUely small. The jrross duty is Iow.t than <•.,' 1.. 1 ,1
ence depending on the .■tlleieiny of the main laiial an.l lis-j.
all lossis of conveyance were idiniinatcd. tlii' i-ross ,lm> it,,!
be ' jual. A knowIed«e of the uross duty is iH,i^>:irv
plan the irritation system in ordi^r to make allowaiins 1
loss. It is also of value in detirmiiiiiitr tlu- elliiieiicy of a
The net iliily must bo distin>;iii,shed rroiii the .-oii-imi „
ro(i'-ii-eil for iiiaviiiiiiiii pHxIiictioii. foi- ii ineniy npr, ;- i >.
water wliii'h is iiseil according to the available water aiul ih, :
skill of the Irrigator. 1 1 in sf caf-i s wliere water r^ abiii.ih.'

tily used is in excei-s or wliat is actually need,.,!, wlnie w|,,.,

ecarce, it may be less than the corrert uniount. The .-oir.Mt
water to use is tliat .iiiantity which :s 11, c, ssary to produce max

di.;n,iwil to the li.ld -is

>f the i).l,i II in, 1, .:,.s

|,. ♦'\api,:al;oii. p,'rco-

lie • ,i.-drol I to a lai;;e

I bv a cer-

lii- ill a IS

I ::e ilirfer-

-'ilari.'s If

'iit> won! i

■ ,',T I

Tvaler

,.• of
.it and
(iiian-

V.TV
'•I O!

-Id

if

1

i

I

If i

,'8

wli4'H all till- Un.Ai-n t'f ttaUT liy pcrri.lRll"". .-vni.nrBtliin nixl wHulf wiilrh
>an !»• lontri.lli'il hv iin'liiaiy larofiil ii .(idii of IrrloUim nii<l rililMiiloii.
Imvi' I ri clliiiliialt'il.

Tin- limy of waltT ran b*" ■tatril In Ihrt'c way i;

Im. Ill number (if a<rt'» Irrltiati-d by a tidw iif wali-r of une lublc fool
piT Hfioi. : for i. <«Tlaln Ulutli of lliiu- iliirlnK the IrrlKatInn period.

2iid. Ill niinilMT of a. riK lrrlK«i''d by ono nilnom' Ini ii for a citIuIii
bnmh of ilinc durliiK lln- lirlKaiinn pt-riod.

:trd. Ill nimibrr of nirc ffct per in re wlilrli Ih »M|iil»ali'iil to xiaiiiiK llir
di'l'tli of wutiT applli'd to tilt' land.

Till' Ih-Ht and Hi-ioiid cxpriwHliiiix iihikI alwayH liirludf tin- lltiu' In ordi'i-
til HpcrIfy a kIv<'Ii Miluiiu' of wati-r, Knr instatiii' a duty of I riiblr foot piT
Hi-< ond for loo at rca during the I'ntirc IrrlKatInn Hcanon of .'. nioiitlis or
I'.o diivH would iiifun :tiHi airr fi'i't on luo acntt or a dcptli of H ft'i'l on
tin- liiiid. ir till' lin^ili of tlnip or pi-rlod of delivery Ih only mii'-lialf of
llu' irrlnalioii Hcamiii, the water delivered will nlve a il.ptli of Is inrlies on
the land. In the Hanie way a duty of 1 nilnern' ineli 'o 1' airjHt diirint! half
the time of an Irrlnatlon HeaHoii of live moiitliH will Kive a diptli of water
on the land of about .". Imlies per liiolith or a total di'ptli of 2'. iiiihes
per Measoti.

The Ihird nietlioil of i xpresslnn duty avoiilw any iiilsiiiidernliuidiim. For
InHtaiiie 2 aire feet ptr acre iiieaim a (le|itli of 2 fee! of water on tli< i-nil.
The duty when expri'HHeil by eitlier of the Hrnt two methods <an en. be

converteil lilt" re feet or acre inches per acre by tlie reUilioii previoiuly
Kiveii wliicli iH. >:ie cubic foot pi r secoii'l in 24 liiiiirH will nlve 2 acre feet,
or 1 acre inch per hinir. and one llrill»li Coliiniliia i"'ner.<' iiicli in li'l hours
will «ive 1 acre ini'ii. lla«ed on tlii« relation, the foUowiiin ei|iii\alent»
are obtulned.

Ilrplh >if Wairr \|i|>lli><l to Ihr l.nnil In tinr Monlh iir riintiniiiMm Kliin.

Kai.

• f ll.n\.

I>

1 Miln.rs' in.h ti

1 a. r.-.

'•r 1

nihil

f'.ot

I'tT SIM

otlil

o ::ii :

iTi'S

1 mln.rs' In. h in

■i acTi'^,

iir 1

iiiMi

fool

per !*f

■ in.l

o TJ ;

iircs

1 miners' Im li to

:i acrci,

or 1

cul.l.

fool

per sf

■..ii.l

o in: .

n-rcs

1 nitnt*rs" iuiii tt>

1 acT.'s.

or 1

.ill.'

fo.it

I't'T S''

'ithi

o 1 i:: :

.■ri'.i

1 TTlill.r^' illrh In

Ti aiTf*.

or I

, iilil.

fool

I'tT Sf

on,l

o ISM :

I'Ti-s

■|ilh a|.|.li.-.l.
..JO ln.hc-<

1. — l>i'iiiei|ml l-ailor«i .lll'eclinu llie Vet Duly of Walei- in Iri'iKatioii.

The factor. s whicli have more or less elTerl on I lie duty of water are;

1st. The kind ol' crops- It is Known Ilial some crops reiiiir.' more
water than others; for instance, alfalfa reijuiies more water tliaii orc'iar.ls.
and yoiins orchards require less water than full beariiiu orchards.

2nd. 'I'lie preparation of land. iiHtliod of appliiation of water ami hUill
of tile irrigator. I'oor preparation of llic land will cause water to accu-
muliile in the swales and imiforiii distribution of water is dinicult. \Vit!i
furrow irrigation unless f;reat care is taken in the division of water be-
tween furrows, tliere will be a larger amount in some furrows than in
otlieis. Will 11 the furrows are ton loiiK n larne excess of water sinks int'>
the soil at il '■ upiier ends of the furrows and poes down beyond the plant
roots. At tile lower ends of the furrows there is often a waste wiiicli may
cause injury to the neighbors' land or to the road below. If deep furrows
are used there is less water and wet soil exposed To tiie air and less evapo-
ration than with shallow furrows.

'\'iM'

ii

Mill. Till fitiM' atiil fri>(|iM !i. > tif t... . Mull ■riuiiiiiiitii iiililmniiii u»
Kiiiih ;iK inirHiliic iilli I II riuiinnli ilci i "Iinih it u|iiii iilinli li>!<^<

4lli, NiiiiiliiT iif >, .iKdiis iiriMKliitii Ik inai i h i-iI In nil iiiigii'i'l ili;'-
'I ii I" 1 1 ii.i'' I" ' ■' ' ' • < \|" .• i.c .■ I liat In iKutiiiii 1 HUM s a i !».■ ut ihr \miIii
nihil-. II II, i„ ii>,. Is i<M> vnai It limy (.iiliiiii-Kc the iir.. .■* uinl « .itri !■ u ili.
."uil, 1)111 if till' ttiili'i- iiililc lisis I •'!> Ill II iti'iiih » hirr ilii. tidil uatM'aii !»■
ili'iivMi li> rii|iirnii'lt> III ihi iiMiiK. t is will I '^.■ll'll iiali'iian> Ihi' M'>iw-iai>
aiiioiiiii iif iri'iualliiii »:iii'r.

< iiiiialr Kalnriill. Iiliiin'i al mr. IuuiihIi' Ii .,,v. w.inl iinnr.

tufiil. all luni' an iTimI. •(■lie niliilall himI Iih il,ntrli' , n;, nr.' iiii|m rani.
Aliiiiiilatil •aintall or hikiw In ilic «iiiiii- «i|| hr luuilv ximi'il in ilii' .snll
.iinl Is Hvallalilc to ili'«'ii moiiil iilani.t ilininu iln- ►jiowmi; K.asnii, ilmx
lIl'irraHllI*; tllr Him i-.-„a r,v ll'liKHlti'll. 'Ill III,. oiliiT luiml, Imlit sIhumih
iIiii'Imk till' Mil. iiii'i' iiiuv ill) iiiiii'i' liai'in iliaii i;i>i. I hy ili'.sl iiiyiiit; lln- hiiII
iniilili ami Inii.axliin mill i\ai'oi at ion. ,\ii iiirira.^ lu li'iiipi rannr ami In
winil iiKiM'iiHiii will !•■ 'isi. ||||. M.il i.\a|Miiali<iii.

ilth. CliiirarliT ■ - atnl f-iiIiiiihI iliainnuc, A Naiin muI iiii.lnlniil
with a iminiiH dulisi li ilialiiK icaillly will lakf carf of lurno Miiiiiii.s

lit ualiT Hitlioiit Wii.. .i.itiniii^' anil <iiioui»ki' wamc.

Till. 'I'lii' valiu' (ir watiT, iiii'ilioil of lui.v ini'iit for water, JihIkiiii'IiI of
IrrUaior A liluli roMt of water liads to lilnluw iliiiy. If water l« hoIiI at no
mmli per aere of laiiil lliclepeii.liiit of the Hiiiuiiiit of wai.r iiseil. it is
hiiiiiun nature for tlie aveiane irrigator to use all he laii. On tlie oilier
liaiul, where the water rliarKi' Is liaseil on llie iiiiaiiii'y aitiially iiseil. this
leads to larefiil life anil l:ij;h duty. This factor k.iiiIhii.iI with the jiidn-
iiieiit or lack of juilKiiU'iit may have more efftit on vai .•■ of the duiv of
water than all the other faitors loKether.

Heeaiise of all tie faitiiis on whiih the duty of water dr|ieiiils, it is to
be expected that there is a ureat dltlereliie in th.' value if the di.ly of
water obtaliiel In difrereiit loialities or even in the same loraliti's for
farms, or mcliards under the same ecnditioiis hut ouneil liy dilireiit
parlies. There are no iiieasiiieliients of the duty of water in liritis'i Coliiiii-
lila, but values of the duty of water in the arid slates uf the liilteil SiatiN
e very niiiiieroiis. These inensiireiiieiits have bieli lariiily niaile h'. tli.-
ligation liive. ,i>;ationy Otihc of the I'. S. Department of Ayric ii'i iire.
. iially 111 cooperation with the state (.oveinint nis. In a review of n-n
years of irrigation investiKations. carried on by ihe 1. S. Iiepai'iio m of
Auriciiltiire since ISHs, Mr. It. 1'. Teele ^ives a larf;e nuiiihi'r of duly of
water mersurenients which are very iiistni live. The.s • iiieasun uieiits
bIiow that tlie Kro.s duty ranges from a maximum avsu-age of 1 :M - acre
feet p. r acre for T.uiiii acres of the Modesto system in Califoinia. to a
miniiiuim of 2.ii acre feet per acre for .'.I'iti aiTi s iiiii.atel by -m.ral
small systems in the Santa Ana Valley, of California. Tlie ninss duly for
."Hi.ioMi acres In the Yakima Valley irricated by several canal systems is
■'i.7<i acre feet per aere. Kor 2ii.imhi acns of tiie Hitt. i- IJoot Valley the
average Is 4.ti!i acre feet per acre.

The duty of water is iieneially lower for a new system, bi'iaii-e si epaj-'e
losses are greater for new canals, new lands reiiuire more water, water is
nuire plmtifiil as only a part of the land is irrif^ated. and the irrigator is
less skillful. As the system gets older, less water is uscij and th" kioss
duty increases. This is well shown in t!:e follow in;,' table.

■ Mi ..S'^T

m^w^-^j

I I

eo

<;rjiti.M llill> <if Wiili'r I tiller Siiiiii > mIiIi* riiiiiil, W iiMhIiludiil.

^■'■:ll^ Ari;) iriiuaii'l );i<r.~i. iju;tiiMi> ..r w.tt.f i"i-.)<rf.

l^iir.- I'. .I I.

is:is (i.sx:; ill

is:i:i v,i:.T I".';

l'>i"i I'Mm: ]'k:

i:i"l I l,!'i;i !i r,

liHi:' is.sTo I'.l

l:"i 1 :;.'.i"iii i.."

i:i":< 17, '"1" i/.T

This l;ili!c sliows llui! iil'lcr 1 I .M'iirs diilv two-lil'llis :is miiili wiuci' was
used as in llic liist vtar. iir ll;c same aiiiimiit dl' walir will ii-iiuali' -'-
tinii's as iiiiuli laiiil.

'I'lu' iliity III' nati'i- iiii'ii>-iiiril al llii* lii-ails iil' lalrraN. On iirw canals Ilic
avi'i-a>;c' cil' incaKiiiciiicnts niadc in sc vcral canal systenis sliows that about
'•() pre ccnl. ol' tlic water (livi'iti'd is (Iclivcicil to tlii' laterals. On older
canals the iieici'iitane is nnicli liinlier. \'i>v Ihi' Snnnyside Canal in easlei'n
Wasliin^toii il was TH per cent, in I'.miIi.

The net iliily of walei' is the ilnty as measured at the iiiars;iii of the
fields. This dnty is iniicli hinliei- than the j;ross duty as slioxvn by the
table lielow.

4liinnlillt>M iif MntiT itolU er<>il to **r\i'riil l-'iirniN I'liftiiinreil With Wnti'r llfcelvpil
lit Iti'iiil of Main t'tiiiiil. nr \fl lliit.t \%, (iroNM lliil.i.

(irn.-^s limy. N.t .iiity. nr
vT wattT di- water do-
Slut.', ninnl. viri..l l.y Uv.tc.I to T.r .mt. I!.inrirli.-i.
raniil. .\rre f.iriiis. Arrt
ft. I'll- aii-i'. ft. p*-r aire.

("ulifiiriiKi . . . .<; ci,'f L'.li; l.'.iS i'J rmuriii- lineil

laliMls and piin'

.■^,\'Sl i-ITlS.

Malm Itidrnliaimli

laier.Tls. . . . i.Tii L'..'iO :,-:

Wa.^liiimiiin. .Sijnnyside. . . ',i.(;ii :',.liii II Fur vi-ar Hull.

" 4..'i7 L'.TIi lis Fur year Iihv.i.

These nieasnrenieiits show that for the (iage I'aiial system, wliicli con-
sists of a main canal, concrete lined with cement mortar about 1 inch thudi,
and pipe distributaries, '.>2 \>cv cent, of the water diverted reaidies the land.
The measureini n;s for the Snnnyside canal show the increase in elliciency
of a sy.stem iis il .nets older. The above results indicate that in a new canal
.system of iinlilieil earth canals the water delivereil to the farms is probably
not more than In |i; r cent, of the water diverlid. For old canals in niuid
condiliiin the ellicieiicv will be inci'eat^ecl to ti."i i- 7n per <eiit.

il. — Itiil.v of Walei- lor «»icbai-<!s.

There is relatively lilili' data on the duty of water for deciduous orch-
ards. The data wliicli is of most interest to Mritish Columbia fruit growers
is I lull obtained for tlie orchards of Washington, Idaho and .Montana. Jlr.
.s. (). .liiyne. Irrinalioii Maiiii.ner in the State of \Vashinj;ton for the 1'. S.
Depailnieiit of .\i;riciilliire, i;ives the followini; information:

"The water (in a 2it acre appli' onharil at Weiiatchee was measured
diirinj; the season of I'.HIS. .showiiiji that a depth of 21!. n4 incheM was ap-
plied !)et«oen May l!!t!>. and September lilSrd. On the same (irchard in
lltlil 27 inches of water were used, the first irrigation was Ma.. liiith and
the last September 12th. The trees were seven ytais old in IHiiS and bore

>; I

a vciy heavy wop tlial vcai-, aiidtlicr in r.ni:) aiul aiiiiiiiiT last vear. 'I'lii>
orclianl is one of llio best can il liu- as wrll as iiiio of tlic hcst proiliii fis ot"
the Wciiatihcc distiicl. Tlie iiiifjalimi was <l(iiic Willi iiioii' Ihaii oi.linarv
<ai-c and iiitc-lli,i;i'ii(i'. Iliir tlif soil icMiiro is lallni- (oarso ainl th,. walcV
lioldiiiK cMiiacily low. tluis lav(>ral)li' lo lai;;r ihicolalioii losses in ih,' sub-
soil, riidoiiblfilly a loiisidcvalilc sa\iiii; in «;iiii- wo.ilij ha\e hii'U pos-
sible liad Ilie liiirinvs used been onlv :',:;ii leei |i,ny insiead of twice that
U'lii;tli."

••AiiclliM- Wenaicl oicliaid of .".o aci. s, im ludini; aiiple.-. peaches and

(itlier fi-uits, nsed 1 1; inclies in I'.hin an. I 17... inches in l'.' 1 o The s.mI hei',>
was somewhat lieaviei- tlian in llo' lornnT case, hut ilie f.iirows u-^ed were
twice as lonn and besides the run off was consid' labh^. I'ait of liie orch-
ard, howcvcT, was not in beaiiiii;- and none of it so iinifi;iinl\ L:ood as the
olliei- e.xaniph' cited. The annual precipitation at W'liialcliee is al'out il
lo s inclies anil comes hue in tlu' fall, winter ami early sprint;.'

•■'rile ncords of one of the Spoliaiie valley Kuupanies show llial on that
system a ileplli of 1 1.7 imhes was applied in IIMI.-,, l'.i.2 inches in linn;
22. x inches in 1:11,7 ami 17 inches in I'.Ho. The annual precipiiai ion at
Spokane is about 1^ im In s of which I, ss than a foiirlh occurs ihirini; the
irri.u'atioii season."

In the Hitter Itoot Valh.y of .Montana, nieasurenieiils were mad., on a
4n ni-r.. Ira.t of orihar.l tiv..,, Tli.. top soil was a v. m;. raid,, l.ia'.i un.ler-

laiil by a ,i;rav..l ami small .•ohhl,.s subs.,il. In I: the .", year ol,l or.hani

was irri^ateil in .Ajiril, .Iiiii,.. .luly ami .August. Th.. total ileptli appli,-,! in
the four irrigations was about Is imhes ami tl;,. rainfall iliirint; th.. irri-
ftation s(.asoii was 1U imli,.s. In I'.ii,) rli.. f, y.ar ol,l orclianl ri..-,.iv,'il
four irrigations an.l the total ile|itli appli.., I was ]s.7 in, -lies: tli,. rainfall
during the si'ason was ."..!• imh.'S. In 1!',i2 th,- orihanl n.,eiv,.,l 1; I in.'hps
of irrii-'alioii water ami th,. rainfall for the s,'as,iii was s im.|i,.s.

Thtse nieasun.ni..nts ami others niaile by the 1'. S. Deparlnieni ,)f .AKri-
culture are assembled in the followiiiK talil,'.

%<•! I)lll.^ of Wilier r<M- OrchiirilN.

I-"^'"IV- .\rr,..,o.. y..,,r. '•'"> "f "'♦•^'•- i" i:..,M,rk. '"

:,rr.. f. ..t i„.r a. r.. in.irKs.

\\'iiOI Wasli ■:<) ];„i.s ,..._. i-,,;,r-.. s.iil.

" J, I l:il,i L',!'.-,

•■'" '■""* I.:;: M...lhiin s..il.

" ".11 n'l" i.i:,

S|. ■•!(:, n. ■ \'all,.>- S.v-l. .Til. Wa-ll .. Iliii.-, |.j.;

1 ■■ I.IIM

I'", 7 l.!..|

"... l:.I.i I,,..

It. .IS.. \all. y. M;ili.. 1 r.,,-iii i |s

liit,..r 1:.,,.! Vall.y. M,,n, M ,: ,;:,„ v,.,i,,i,i.. |„a„i

'' " ■'.... |., i:h,i I ■,; iiti,l..rl.ii,l « ill,

■'" '■'"-■ 1.77 Mili-.il .,r L:rav..l

an.l Miiall ...,l,l,|..-.

■^^•'■•■■'«'\- l.r,.'

This tabl.. shows iliat fnim 1.2:1 t,; 2.2.-, a, r,. le, t p,.r a,i,. w,.r,. iis n

th,.s,. or,|iiinls. with an averai.. ' I.,;l> a, r,. I., t p..r a,-n. or a ,i,.i,tii of

about III':; imhi's. This is e,|uiva!ent to a n<.t ,luty id' 1 .iibi,- f.Hir p,.r
secoii,! f,)r N.s a,r,s ,liirinf; an irrii;ati,,ii s,.as,in of 1 nnnilis. i:\pr, ss,', I
ill Itritish Ciliimliia niin.'rs' in, Ins. it w,iuld b,. 1 mill, .is' in, li to a littl,'
over 4 acns.

I'rofessor Fortier. Chief of lrri.i;ati,ni lnv,.sti,uati,(ns tor ili,. r. S. 1),.-

liannieiil .;f .AKri.uiluro. inaUes the loll,)win;; state. t in |.-arni,.rs' l!nl-

letin 404, Irrigation of Ori'liards:

I

n

I! 1

:i

62

■111 Mi'iii-iitI 111!' most water is ai)l>lit'<l in districts that i' quire tlie least.
Wlu level- valei- is clieap and abiiiidaiil tlie tendeiuy seems to be to i.se
larj;e (luaiitities, leKardliss ol' tlie reiiuirenients of fruit trees. In Wyom-
ing tl;e duly of water is seldom less tlian at the rale of a < uliic foo: per
second for To acres. In pans of soutliern California the same (in iiitily of
water not inrreiiueiitly serves 4iMi acres, yet the amount reciuiici liv the
fruit trees of the latter locality is far in excess of the fonuer. In recent
vears the tendency all over the West is toward a more economical use of
water and even in localitiis where water for irrit;atioii is still reasonably
low in price, it is rare t::at more than 2 'a acre feet per acr- is applied in a
season. This is tl:e duty provided for in the contracts of the Hitter IJoot
Valley lrri>;ation Company (f .Montana, which has 4ii.(mhi acres of fruit
lands under dilcli. Since, lowever. the watt r user is not entitled to receive
more than one-half of an acre foot lier acre in any one calendar moiitli, it
is only when the Kiowiiif; season is long and dry that he reiinires the full
amount."

"In the vicinity of lioiililer. Colorailo, the continuous How of a cubic toot
per second tor lu.". days si'ives about 112 acres of all kinds of crcips. This

amount of water il none wcit
1.11 feet."

;i. — Duly ol Wilier I'of .\ll'alfn.

A number of measurements liave
of water applied on alfalfa lields.

lost would cov( r < a(di acre to a depth of

been made to determine tlie iiuantity
In WasliinKton nieasureiueiits on t'le
Sunnyside project of the Yakima valley gave a net duty in lIHili •( 2.7.1
acre fet t per acre. This reiinsents the average for 47, (ion acres iucludcii
in the .system, of which about I'.o.immi acres were in timothy, clove.- and
alfalfa, Ki.uun acres in orchard, and the remainder in potatoes. Professor
Waller of I'lillieaii, Washington, obtained from nieasnrenieiits made in
19(1.'. on live farms in Washington, aggregating 1S9 acre,^, an average net.
duty of 2.:'..". acre feet per acre or a toMI depth of 2S.2 inches, the values
for the different farms ranging from 21 inches as a niinimum to :!!>.i)
inches as a maxiniuni. The average yield was 7.S.'i Ions per acre; the
field re(eiving :i:» inches of water gave a yield of S tons per acre, and tliat
receiving 21 incl es T"i tons per acre.

In Idaho, measurements made by D. H. Bark in ]!M(l on live farinr, in
tlie llig and Little Wood valleys gave the following results:

><f lliit.'> cf Wiilc-r fi«r Vlfnll'ii nil III15 unci I. Mile Wcioil lllver VnllejK, lilnho.

Locality. .\r,:i (acres).

Kin:l of soil.

Tot.il dipili lOslimatcd
.-iliplicij eft.) yield.

Ketchuiii
Hail. y. .

fioiiiliny .
Gooilins .
(rooiling.

:;i.s

6!l.6

S:iniy IriMiii. yr;iv.-ll\-
c Jr.'.\ .Hn- h.:cni. ^rav"

sall.ly >\ll.son

t'nlf i.rm lava asli soil

lly

a 111

Jl.l'.

I.'i.iia
1.8'i

l.ilii
l.ii.i

The large deptl s of water applied on the farms of Ketchum and llailev
are due to the amount of water decreed by conn being far in excess of the
needs of the land; this leails to wasteful and careless use. These amounts
are double or triple tlie aincunt used upon similar and more porous soils in
the upper Snake River valley. The soil absorbed a large ciuanlity of water
but retained only a small part of it, the remainder being lost by percolation.

■I, — 1>iil\ of Wilier lor I'olaloes.

Mcnsuicqueiits were made in lIHi.'. on four tracts of potatoes in Wash-
ington aggiegatiiig 27 acres. A mean dejith of 17.(1 inches of water was
used and Sic yield was s..". tons per acre. Oth.er scattencl iiieasuremc'iits

m!mr

:^r-\zmS^£^'WiWS' w..^t ' ;r-'\ :^'^^>mfu'>smm'\:-g^^ws!&

63

made in various slates gived utics ranKiiiB from l.oo acre foot iier acre in
the San Joaauin valley of California, to T.s acre feet in Nevada.

The duty of water measurements Rive above show tlie usual conditions
obtained on an ordinary irrigation system. The lar^e losses in conveyance
which occur from the head of the main canal to the point of delivery on the
farm, are shown by the larse difference between the gro.ss duty and net
duty. The values of net duty of water .^how the variations in the quan-
tities of water applied not only on dilTerc .t crops but also for the same crop
under similar conditions. Three variations are due not only to local con-
ditions but largely to the skill used by the irrigator in preM-nting loss.'s of
water and to the value of the water. The decrea.se of the losses or increase
in duty as the water becomes more valuable and the irrigators more skill-
ful, is well shown by the measurements obtained on the Sunnyside iiroject
in eastern Washington.

«»i' \v.\ti:k

F.ACTOKS IXKI,IK\(I\(; THK COIt HI-XT ISI
IS lltl{l(;.\TI(».\.

The net duty of water represents the best use of water onlv when suffi-
cient water is applied to give the best crop production and when the losses
of percolation and evaporation are eliminated as much as practicable by
skillful application of water and proj.er cultivation. .\u intelligent use
of water in irrigation reduires a careful consideration of the following
principles:

1st. Disiiosal of water ai)plied to the soil.
2nd. Ilelation of soil water to soil texture,
lird. Kvai>oratinn of soil water and methods of cliecking it,
•Jth. Percolation of water applied to the soil and percolation losses.
1. — ItiKpoNal of Mutei- .\|>|ilieil fo tile Soil.

The water applied to the soil is disi)osed of in four ways:
Isl. I'luiit lianspiiutioii. A useful part is used to pro.hi. plant
growth. It passes from the soil into the root hairs, from the root hairs
into the stem and is carried to the leaves from where it evaporates. This
process is called plant transpiration.

and. Soil iiioisJiire evapoiation. A i)art is lost by evaporation from the
soil. This loss will depend on the texture of tlie soil, the perc<nta,ge of
moisture in the soil, the method of irrigation, tlie tim,. and frequeiicv of
cultivation, the temperature, the humidity i„ fi„. air, the amount of wind
movement.

3r)l. Soil i.eiTola»ioii. A part is lost by ],ercolation in-., tli.. soil l„.vond
the reach of i)lant roots. This loss depends on the characr and r,ualitv of
soil and subsoil, the d. pth to the water Uw], the top,^gl■apllv of the land
the skill of the irrigator, th<. eniciency of the distributing svst..ni i1;g
length of the furrows.

4th. Siii-face Haste. A jiart is lost by the waste of water at tlie e'i,ls
of fields or furrows. This water passes to tlie lower neighbor or on the
roads where it ma- do considerable damage. This loss can be ]<yvVi\U'.\
by using care.

-• — Itelatioii of Soil .Moistiiie to Soil Tevture.

Water may exist in the soil in three conditions: ( 1 ) hygroscopic water
(2) capillary water, and ( .'i ) gravity water.

Hyaroscopic ,vafer is that which occurs in all soils not dried by artificial
heating. It is the moisture which a soil dried by ariiticiai iieat will ab.sorb
from moist air. It exists as a very thin film surrounding each particle but

r?flf5?S-

M

(14

l\

is (listiiinuislicil fidiii caiiilUiiy water in that it does not move by capillary
action or otherwise and can not be iibsorbt'd by the |ilanl roots in Hullicient
(|uaiititi<s to he of any iiractical value to sustain nornial plant growth.

<'a|iniai'.v «a(<'i- is that which exists* »« a thickened lilin around eac h soil
particle and partially lills the pore spates. It is held in the soil aKaiiist
gravity and is not drawn out by drainage. It moves in the soil in any direc-
tion, and rises in the soil between the «(iil particles because ol' the same
action which draws the oil up a lamp wick. Capillary water is <if ;;reatest
importanci> to plant growth li rovers the plant roots anil is tlie water on
xvhi<li the growth «< p!ant.-i depends.

Capillary water moves I'rom a wit tioil to a drier soil and this is what
causcvs the water to spread lateially and to be drawn from the wetter i-iiib-
soil to the surface where it is evaporated if the evaporation is not clucked
by a niuhh. The water will rise to a greater beitiht in a soil wliose texture
is line tlian in a soil whose texture is coarse, but the lapidity of rise is
greater for a soil of (oarse texture than for one of line texture. For in-
stance, I'rnl'csyor lliljjard found that in a sandy soil the maxinniin lieiKht to
which water rose was 17 inches in fl days, while the maximum lieiKht for
a clay soil was ■!•> inches in l',».', days. In the sandy soil it look 1 hour to
rise S inches while in the clay soil it took 12 houis to rise the same height.

(iiivity wilier is that wattr which moves downwards through the aoil
pores because of gravity. When the soil is saturated the pores are entirely
tilled with water and that water which fills tlie space between the pons not
occupied by capillary water, is gravity water. Oravity water is not letained
by the soil if tliere is natural or artificial drainage. It passes downwards
and supplies capillary watir to the soil helow and the excess teaches the
water table or a drainage chattnel. When tiiere is an excess of gravity
wati I , it i]asses down to a depih whicii is too far below the ends of the
plant to he drawn up by capillarity and is wasted.

A soil which is saturated (ontains gravity, capillary and h>groscopic
water. A soil which is draiiKii contains capillary and liygroaiopic moisture
only. A soil which is air dried in the sun ( ontains hygn.. .-opic moisture
only and a soil wiiich is drie 1 by artilicial I.eat contains no niosture.
I'ei«« iilage of fiee iiioisliire in xoil lor p^uiil urowth.

The pores for most cultivated soils will average frotii 2" to •"" per cent,
by volume of the entile vo!n!i:e, being sinallest for sandy soils and gieatest
for clay soils. P'or plants to grow it is necessary that tley have air as well
as water and for best growing condit'on it has been found tha; the capillary
water in tie soil should range fiom 4n to liti per cent, of llie pore space.
This leaves about an ((|ual space 'Or air. In other words, for maAimum
growing (onditJti a vi'iy sandy soil lontaining 2."p pt>r cent, pore space
should have lii lo 1 .'i per (cut. by volume of free iiKusture. while a heavy
clay soil khhh n'lii; hi to ilu pir cent, pore space should have 20 to 30
lier cent, by vounie of flee iro^stuie. Kxpressed in per cent, by weight,
for a very sp.tidy scil air dried weighing 110 pounds jier cubic foot, tlie free
moisture content should be from ."..7 to N.-'i per cent.; for a stiff clay soil
■weighing 7."' pounds the moislure lontent should be Kl.ti to 2.". per cent,
and for an average sandy orchard loam. 10 to 1 ."i per cent. I'rofessor
I.oughridge found that on a sandy soil where the moisture content in the
fourth foot of the soil was 1 ."> per cinl, by weight, there was an excess of
moisture which crowdeil out the air and caused the treses to sii Ter. In this
case tiie correct moisture content should have been about half of tl;e pore
space or about In |ier cent, by weight.

1

'l"lu' iMiiuiiiiiMi aiiiiiuiil of liiM' sDil iiiDisluic ill I'diir I'cct of siiil iicci-usiiiv'
to kct'i) liiM's In n(i()(l mowing loiulitiini lias bi'cii Idiiml In lie lidiu L"..". tii .',
lH'i' cent, for iipiili s urid pnnics. :; to 4 per ci iit, lor prnis, and I iin icr
or oven less foi' apiirois ami poailiis. 'riic irrinator may usi- iIh-hi' alx),"
relations to (Ictcriniiic by cxpcriiii. iit A liis soil lias siilllc hiiI inoisliiic 'i'lii'
procedure would he to taUi' samples Iroiii the soil ainiiiid the reois and
delerniilie Hie perceiitaj;e ol' nioisf re. Tliis is done as Icillmvs; l!y means
ol' a soil ailuer take soil samples m e.uli loo! ol > ! Iie;;ililiilii; with the top
soil where the roots lietiiii, wliii li may lie I'l inchc.-, ■ ninic liciiii tin siiiiace,
down to the dep;li to which they exti iid. whiili nia.\ lie liuir or live teet or
more. The sani|iles should lie iii,ii;ec|iale|y ip'aciri in a .iar to jireveiit
evaporation. A ver.\ snitalde jar is a i;hiss liiiii Jar whiili can lie desed air
tl«lit. The percental;!' of •■.loi^liiie is deteriiciied li\ weii;li:n:; oiil Inn
ounces of the sample hel'ore lesitm any moislnre; then spread tlie sample
thinly over a tin plate and expose i; to the sun for the .m'eater pan of a
<lay or until tlioronthly air dried. If the uei>;ht is now '.in ounces tliere
was 1 ounce of free wate: for every 1" onncos of moist soil, whiidi is sulli-
cieiit for j;ood ^rowiij; condition. If the weinht air-dried had lieeti '.i7
per cent, it would show that there was only :i per cent, free mo stuie and
that irrigation was necessary.

Professor l.ou«liridf;e found from determination of soil moisture in
southern California citrus orchards lllulletin 2ii:!, Otliie of Kxperiment Sta-
tions, 1'. S. Ileparttneiit of AKricullure) that the percentage of soil mo it-
nre for a sandy loam averapied about 4. lis per cent, for the upper 4 feet and
•'."ti |)er cent, for the upper 11! feet before irrigati'in and immediately aft< r
irrigation the percentage in the up|ier four feet averaf-'ed about '.• lU per
(int. Si.\ weeks after irrigation the amount of moisture was a little greater
t!an previous to the applicat'oii of water. About oiie-lifth of the water a|i-
plied was retained, the other four-lifths had been taken up by soil evajiora-
tiou and plant transpiration. For a clay loam soil the percenta>;e of
moisture averatced for ", feet depth of .soil, (i.Sl before irrigation, 11.27
immediately after irrigation, and one montli after irrisration the moisture
percontape almost returned to its normal amount before irrigation. On a
heavy loam the percentaBe of free moisture was ."..4 7 before irrigation and
Ib.Sd immediately after irrigation.

'•i. — KvaiHii'iifioii of Soil Wntei- mill Melluxls of CheekiiiK It.

The effects of the various factors inlhieiiciiiK soil water evaporation have
been investipiated throiiKb very interesting experiments made in the arid
region by the Irrigation Investigations Offiie of the r. S. Department of
Agriculture, the Agricultural College of ftali. and others. The results
were <ilitained by means of tanks or iiots Tilled with soil and placed as nearly
as possible under actual field conditions for irrigation and cultivation. The
water a|i|dicd was measured in each case and loss from evaporation was
obtained by we' ".,> the tanks at dpsired intervals. Tlip results obtained
have appeared ■ following bulletins: I'. .'^. l)i partnieiit of Agricul-

ture, OfTice of . inielit Stations, Itulktin 177; I'tah .\srl( ullnial Col-

lege. Bulletins sn, M!, In4, In.'. While these investigations have been
carried on for some time, the results so far i>iiblisned are not snllicient to
justify delinite coiKlusions, but the work is being cont'.nued and with the
additional information very valtiable ami practical result? will be obtained.

\ I

66

<

1

—

\

—

I

^^

1

f

Tbto/
Loss -

eptl-Otti

First
^ Doifs

5*f>tl-4

NCAt

4 Days
Sept4-6

Next
3 Days

3»pt6-il

Next Ntj(t
4DaifS iSDOjfs

Scptll-IS >ptlf4ct

Klu. I.'. — llvniiiirntliin iliirliiu; ii iicrlnil of :t:i <ln>N rnini m;iII IrrlKnIrtI
(t InrhcM ilrep, IIiivIm, <'nl.

No
Mulch

3 inch
Mulch

6 inch

n./ch

Sinch
Mulch

5^"
<

0

-

-

1

■

1

1 -

Sept 1 to Oct 3 -32. Dot/a \

No
riulch

3ineh
Mulch

6 inch
Mulch

Sinch
Mulch

5 '«

u

1

■

■ mm,

Junes to eA - 21 Do4/j \

LlLli

>art'£

riK. tit. — IMliTf i-r miilvhfM <:u
«'\ npiirntliin f ri>ni niiII,

I'lu. 17. -— l-:iVerl of iniilcheM on
4'% II l»n rut Ion from noII,

\\ l>lllltl*h«'t*: W llNh.

•IT

The r.'Siill.s iili,ai|> iilnaiii. d li> .■X|jiTiiiii'iil ii ol nivnt \ulii. in iinU-

oatlliK lidtt s ■ -li,. fiulois (III wliicli til., us. ,,| «ulc|- ilciMMiil (Jill lie

controlHMl liy III,. ... Alitor, -nicsc i( siiltH may 1. siiiiinmiizcd as luilims:
Kxlciil iir (•viiporulliiii fi'Diii liitic <.i>ils mil < iilihnit'il.

Oil roiii- Caliloriiia orcliai i Hoils an aiciimc i<( \2'i, ,iicli.s oi iii ii;aiiiiii
watrr was niipllcd and llic cvapiTiation loss per season i Kch 2:'.rd ,ii Aim-

H8t :n«t) was :t4 per c.-nl. This shows the Ihii;.. iirriciitau ' loss in soil

nioitftiirc whiidi may obtain diiiinn a loni; s. asmi. The i:ii(. oi (.\ apoialioii
depends ininli on the nioistnri. in the soil, -yf,,. ,-, .,,,|is ohmiiKMl on a sandy
orchard hiaiii in southern California are as lollows;

F'lr ii s;(li.l\- I Oil lit -ill ur;i( I'd

For ii sandy j.iuMi uiii, IT..'.',' fv
Kiir a san.|\ I. .am v\ iih M,'.' ; in
Fur II s.iiiilv luain H II h X :i ' ; fr,.
F'.r J -.tMii\ I'.aTii w ilh l.H ' , fi-.-

\\ .1 1 ■■!■

. w ■ k]\
. H .■.■kl\

.1 I'MIM I i.itl W ,( ~ I

•M ['■'r.lf i"Ii \y,[- 1
.(|M.raTi"M \\,(- 1

ill uatir

■V a ; lira i lull
a\ (...rat J. Ill

The lart;e rate of evaporation lioiii soils which are very uel indicates
tlie necfssity for wetllnn as little of the surface as possilde ulien irriuatinj;.
With oriharils this may be obtained by iisitij; dee;i furrows

The rate of evaporation for a perio'l of I!:! days followiiiy an irrigation
ti inches in deptli is illiistraleil in the diagram niveii below for a California
brown loam soil not cultivated after irrlnatioii I Kin. 4".). This dia>:rani
eliow's the excesMive rate of evaporation immediately after irrigation when
tlie Biirface soil is very wet. The loss diiriin; the first tlire(> days was IT
per cent, of the water used and is alioiit eiinal to one-half of the total loss
(iuriiiK tlie :!2 days which is :!.■. per cent. These results iiuiiiate the im-
portance of preveiitiiiK the evapi ration loss as early as possible after
irrlKation.

m

«i

X
u

Surface

Irrigation

Tot ok

O Ooyi Ooys

25

r..st 5

5^
I

i

.^ Oe«p

Totol

Doys

^

i

Turrow Irnqotion.

0' Oetp

Totol Fml I
10 Ooys T)ov(,

i

i^

9" Deep

Totot
10 Days Oajr!»

l£" Deep

Tolol
10 Doy3

r.rjt 5

k2i

Effect of Depth of F"urr0ws on Evaporation from Soil
FlK. 4S.

i I

68

I'lll'fi'l 1)1 Mill iiiiili'lirH oil Holl i'tu|Miriill(in.

TIk' fflrrt of dry toll iiuiIcIu'm of dllTcii iil IhlikiHi'M i;|i;il.<il on H <■ Hull
Murfac*' after Irrigation an' hIiowii In tlif iliaKrainH t;lvt ii lirliv.. Tlie tirHt
oiu' ( KIk 4tl I Is lor till' California noil wliotic dallv rate of cvuiioralion in
Hi'.iii above. 'I'lie second one ( K;k. -I T t Is lor a W c iiatcliee on luird sandy
loam soil typical of the onhard lamls <if ilie north leiilral portidn of tlie
Slate of WasliiiiHton. 'I'ljese diaKiains show the effect iveliess of differ 'lit
deptliH of niiilc lies. .\ '.I inc li iiiiilch pracllcally .■^lepped all evaporation.

'I'liese < X|iei:i,iiiiis represent llieorellcal conditions wliieli can lu^t lie
olitained in tiie Held. It is, however, pos.'^ible to approach these collections
by prodiicinn a iiiiilc li by lullivation. Coliclitions inori' ni'Srly like tlidd
ciinditions were f(dli.»el in anotiier experiment made in Califoiiiia on a
sandy loam soil. In this experiiiielit x inches of water was applied to the
noil siirfac4' in a furrow 4 imlies deep. The walei was appliel during the
liist two da.\s and at the eiol of the tliiid clay some of the tanlis were cnlti-
valc'd II incliis deep, the others reci iviiiK no ciiltiia; on. i'he e\aporBtion
lc:ss cliirint; the liist ti'icc clays wiis lo.."c per cent, or ."^l inch, diir im tlie
next Ihrei' days ii was 1.2 per cent, from the c iiltivatc^cl tanks iind il.il per
cent, from iiiicultivatj'd tanks, sliowinv: that llie !ci-s from cnliivatel soil
was one-tliircl thai from iinciiltivaled uoll.

KITi'i't of '"iitli of furrows on Hoil cvuiioration.

The experinienta ma > on California orchard soil imitated as nun I, as
possible actual fudd iiia' Ice. A depth of .'I'i inches of water was ajiidied
to different pots, on the surface and In furrows ;i, li, and 0 inilies deep.
The irrigation lasted two days and the soil was cultivated at tl'.e end of the
thirl day. The evaporation losses for the llrst three days anil for the next
seven days fidlowinn cultivation were p.s sh.own in the accompanying dia-
gram. The loss for fiiriows 12 incles deep wr.s U of the lots obtained
with Kiirface irrigation.

4. — IVl'Colnlioii of Water .\|i|>lieil «o the Soil.

To obtain maximum heiietits from irrij;atio!i water tlie water applied
should be uniformly distribiitt d tin (iinhout tie toil down to the lower end
of the roots and pny water which patses beyond the caiiillary reach of the
lower ends of roots is wasted. It Hows underground either into some clrain-
aRP channel or may cause i 'insiderable damage by tlu w aterlop^inn and
the rise of alkali in the lands below. In actual practice i s impossible to
obtain perfect distribiilicm c f wale; iind have no wa^:l•. but hy careful
irrigation it is iKissib'.e to ii-inimize the loss by percolation.

KlVeet of toxtiire of soil aii<l subsoil on ]iercidiition.

When water is applied in irrigation, llu' sc.il iirectly n ccuitac-t with t'le
water is saturated, a portion of this water moves downwards aud wets the
soil beneath fumishing capillary water or free moisture to the roots below.
If siitlicient water has been added, the excess water passes into some drain-
age channelM or down to the level nf standin.g water. This excess water is
wasted. This los.s by percolation is usually greater in open soils well
drained through which gravity water percolates readily and it is very easy
for a cart lets and wasteful irrigator to use a great deal mor<' water than
necessary. Some of tlie waste can not be eliminated because when a soil
is irrigated by furrows the upper end of the furrows where the water is
tiiine'.l In receives an excess of water. In son'e southern California orch-
ards with careful irrigation, it has been found that the water at the upper

<'nil 111' till' lull cms |pili iillilr I ill ilipll h 11 H Ulrii: 111* :;" |. . : W'hru' i;lii;a-
tioU '.H IJI'lll'lii cil li'>:. <aii'lllll> ll.r V\ll»t4' :k IJci i!nlllil sill! i.l<llti'l'. Mr. I>.
II. Iliii'k. ill I'i'iiiL:! di' liri^iitloM III VI si 11:111 Uiii> in liliil.ii. siaii s iliai s(.iii>"
llIlK* nil iiiiiciiis s'li's svhrii' 1 1 r uali'i' is liiii !ip|m (listamis, as hiuli as

!tr> plT Cflll. Ilf till iMUiT prl I lillllis ^11 ll' i|i Mil llli '.|i|M'| mil' ihiril nl lllr

III' 111 that il pHsins I I'.Miiiil till' /mil' nt' ilii- i nits ami .s Inst. T, , ivasii- ati
b<> lti!liliiii/('il li\ us, lis; ilnit I'liiiiius.

Saiiijv -1)11 iiiiili'i iaiil uitli uuimI s lir inn.-; ililli.ilt ,ii l;ai'<! in ihi'-
Vciil |ii'i I'tilaliiiii !i SSI s lull ;li<> i!ia> In iiia>li' -iiiall li;. iisiiil; iii'iiiiint
ii'i'iKUi I'll appliiil ill 'ii»;lii i|iiaiit tiis ii siiinl m' i:i'avy ii i i^atiniis. a paii ni'
wlilcli is u i.sir I. nil I liv !a> ilm nut t, i' dsi i Imt ,iiii .■-> stviii so I !,ai i in uatrr
(Idrs liiil luiM' ;n I rail I Iiii;; ilislai' i s .ii i In i iin has nr n, ,■!■ ; hr I ■

I'cii'iiliilioii III' uiili-i- ii|i|ilii>il ;n I'lii'i'iiv s.

II is i II 1 1 :n I'll III thai til' ll 1 i|.alnl' : I nil III I. Iinu I <it\ llir ualil' a|i|>l:i<l In
nri'liaiils in liiiinws ili.^i i iliiiti s iisnir with.n ili- miI. ;ii niili'i' ilial l:i' may
know liinv I'ar ajiail 1 1 i' liinnwp si.uiilil Im. I n« Intiu tlmx s'niihl ln' ami

till' |i llHtll 1)1' lillll' «atir shinllll lie I UN ii| thn I'm lows. T'lr inrii'it |)iai--
tlro will viM-y Willi llir il itl'i'i'iiit ly|iis nf snils Mil. I iiiili iiritatnr slinulil bi-
roiiii' aciiiiaiiili'il with his soil by nbsci \ inn 'I'' inoticn nf thr watt-r in tli'
soil by nil alls nl' hniiiivs irailc uitli a soil niiMi'i' aii'l t I'l'inlii s iliiu airnits
till' I'liirnws.

V'l ry inti'ii stiiifi fXpi i iim-iits wru- niailc in sniii'iu ni (alilniiiia litiiM
orcliarils by I'loli'ssor LoiiMiiiiilt;! tor thi' Inisjatioli ItiviMti^atic lis OIIUi'
of tlif" r. S. 1)1 pafniPIir of Aci b tiltnii' i lliillittli "Jo:!. Ottlri' nf Kxpi'i inu'iit
Slatiiinsl. ('ii:ss I iciiil.i'S wi'ir iliii; aiicss sr\i'ial lininus In a (li'pth nf
T) or 'I fi'i I. till' fiinows wi'U' I'xti'iiili'.l over the tnmii by -i'c it »no;li'n
tloii^hs. At ti^ii'ar pi lioilH liiiiinn ii rijialinii a thin sliin nf .-nil w;is nil
from till' fail' nf tic tiiiirli I'Xpns'm.: a fri'sii siirfain nf ilic wnt ama. 'I'ln
outlini-M wi'ii' tr.irsiiK'' ami ii'ciiidiil iliii'.ni; an I aflnr tl'n piiinl nf in:-
Kation. Till' aii n:iipail> iir.; iliir-.aiiis uivn thi' prii riitai i' if flii' li:nistiirp
in thi' snil aiil s' nw by ;iir|L.ii!iir iiiiMS tin ilnptli nf p, rcn'al inn at
diffc nut tiiiir i.

rEH

l-'li£. 111. — Oiilllii«'t« u( iiiTciiliiliiiii iiuiler NKteeii fiirrift«H In nbiiiIv 'iinni.

(11. !■;. S. IlulK-iln l":i. 1'. S. I i.-i.ariiTi' ni ■<{ .\t;ri''Ult iiri'.)

.M

Till' lifHl (liaKUiiii I Klu. i:ii Ik lor a hhihI.v liiaiii hhII. 7 tii :i fiM't deep
iiiiiliTlalil s, Ith u Haiiily Miil Th.. iilifO'r'MitliitiH wi'if iiiaili' In n Ircnch
«'»ra^aii'(| aiioHH Hlxirt ii liiiiiiHw. Th.. riiiiiiMx mrr tHici f,.,.t Ihiik and
till' tii'tiih wa« liall «a.v ili.uri ihp limiPWM; if rci|iilici| almiit IK-. Immii'ii for
tlu' «aliM- ti. liav.l liair ilir I. iifctli (.r Hi.. Iiiiiowk anil nliiiiit 12 lii.iiis tiioro
t' I'l.arli llif I'tiij. Tlii.s ilhiuiaiM hIiuhs ri-»iills wlilili ari' vtry miijirlHlnK
(.. tin. iniwHliii'. It Is iiiMiiu.iiih lii.li(.\(.i| iliHt till' waliT nimi.hiIh lal.. rally
HO Hd to Kivi. a laiilv iiiiihiiiii .IlKtilliiitloti Ihroiiuhout the mi'l, Imt tho
illaKinm «lu)W« tliai tli.. u.ii.i sin.ailH only a Kiiiiill iliMlam. laterally,
iiHiially l(HM than :i I'...: tmni Hi.. Iiiiinus. wliii'M Is iioi hmIHi i..|it to wi-t the
Koil niiirortiily. In il... liisi l,.oi 77 |i.r ...nt. i,r H,. s.iil was u..|t..il, In the
»(i''<'iiil fool 7s. 7'. |M.r- (■•111 , ill 111., iliir.l f,„ii 1 . 1 :: |>..r .■.nt . in llii. fourth
foot 411 inT ...nt , In III.. Ilnii ■J7 .".11 iMT II. II!.. anil in ll'.. sixili .". |...r cent.
■riii« kIiows till. ni'icsHiiy l.n |ii|ii iiiK tlic riirrows rliisf to (li.. tri'fs anil for
lunliiK sulll.ii.|il III, mil. >r ol' liniow.s to liriiiK ;li..|n .Lis.' tofthcr.

Til., next lilaKrani i KIk. ."."I is tor a niltty .lay loam with a Kiibgoll
which is ycry ( oiiiinii l. but ulii.h .jiiii^klv alisorhs water ami l(ei-oin..s soft.
The tieiiih was nia.le arr.iHs liv.. furrows half way ilowii tlie furrows. At
the eiul of .•. I lioiiis the water was cut off. Til.. (listrilMitlon of water in
this soil WHS miii'h ni.iic iiiilfoini llinn In the previoiis ca..e. This \n ilue
to the Boil h. iiiu inoii. .(.iiiii.i.t wlilili pi'idiices a slower ilownward perco-
lation ami a Mr.'at.r si.lcua.vs moiion lieiaus.. of tin. greater «'ffeft of
capillarity.

Til., third and loiirtli iliauraiiis i Kits. .".I, .".2: show the limit of percola-
tion in a sandy .sidl from siiiKle furrows In inims dee|) nnd .'. Inclii.B deep
for a period of seven hours. With the deep fnr.ow there is a ureatar
depth of percol'Uioii and the water spreads fartli..r sld 'ways. The deep
furrow also has th.. ailvaiitune that less of th" surface mnlih is wetted than
with Hhallow furrows.

The fifth and sixth diagrams ( Fl>;s. ."3, .'4) show the outlines of perco-
lation in hiavy loam for four deep and four shallow furrows under the
game conditions of koII and water. The deep furrow nives a more uniform
distrllintion of water, a greater di-ptli of percolation, a greater xideways
absorption, and a smaller iieri<.ntai;e of moisture rises hy capillarity to the
surface to be lost hy evaporation,

Tlie seventh iliayiam (V\n. .'.■,) shows the pridiable dislribiitioii of liiolat-
ure in a sandy loam lengthwise with the furrows, from the head to the
foot of the furrows as det.Tmim.d liy a few borings. The furrows are 660
feet lonn and the water was run iii them for a |)eriod of llir.'c days. Suffl-
cient boiiiijjs w..r.. not taken to determine the curve accurately. Other
experiments showed that the cu've may asien.l (piite abruptly toward the
surface ns indi. ted by the dotted line. This iliaj;iain shows clearly that
the water is not evenly .listrihuted ; th.' deinh of percolation near the head
ditch is much greater than tlie average depth of percolation along the fur-
row; a larne part of the \Mi!er iiasses beyond the reach of idant roots and
is wasted. With heavy soils the diflereiicp in percolation would not be so
sreat. This experiment shows the niHeswity for tdiort furrows, especially
in nandy soils.

!M1

n

* t It

^ /J *« /J <«

.- j.«.-T ,. ... W-, .Y.| f^ j X ,,

1-.

v..-:^.

ria. *■!.— iiiiilliii « Iff |>< •'•'"■■••■•III unil< . Iltr riirri»'< In uilti> <lii> ■■mm.

"' !■ > hull. 'Hi J I ■, (■ > I '. ;.,ill:ii,li' ..1 \- I ;. ,il: .ir. , 1

I'lu. .-.•. — lliil^liir <if iirrcninllun In aiinilt miiII (rum
fiirnitt III liK-hfw ilfrp III Ni>«i*ii hiiiir:!.

" •■ l:. S r.ull.-llii j.i:;. I' .,, |.,-|,i. Aiir.l

J

M

?.ft Iff 0 J 2

/
2

1 1

1 ;

0

/
2

/

^

1

1'l.i. '-. — Oiiillilf I I |ii*rf!<lllllirii III -<:iiiil> Mtill Ir.itii
flirriti\ Ti Inflii'M ilff|i In :ti>\('ii hmii i.

I ' '. !:. S. liiill^'im •-■■.;. r s I >■■ ■:. .\--. >

t-'llK. n:t.— Oulllurn iif iirrfiilntliin Mn*l«*r rmir tlrt*|i fiirr<*%% • In licnt > l*inm.

(' '. i; s Hull. !iii j'» ;. r, s. i',|.i. Aur)

fVt ] c '' r 3 ■» r A 7 0 » '' " .' ' 'f' .'"* "]

.;/, .•■'Lvy'-t ■ V . .X'l "■•■•} ■'•r "I" .'■<"/''. I ' -■'..'!

=^,

-•. ( .1.,-

-rtrl— I.-, t >w

I-'Ik. ril.^UMlllnrn iif |irrr(»lntliin tiniirr fmir Hlinllon riirriivVM In brn% > Itinm.

■ ". i:. S IMlh.tlii .'":;. I'. S. !'-i.i. .\ur.)

II B II ill

KIk. .%,t.^('ur\F nhonlnK i>r»hnhlF litKrr limit <>f prr< iimtlDU friiin hrad tu (iMit
4if riirmnm In Hfinil> l<*nin.

Ml. i: s r.iiii.'Tiii J" !. r. s ii.pt. Awr.)

v.— IRRIGATION AND CULTIVATION OF

ORCHARDS.

DisTHimriov oi' w.\ti:u.

Kill' till' orili.iiils 111' I'.ritisll ('(iliiliil'iii, ;;;. well a.s l'(ir DthiT lielil crops,
witli the (>x(' iitiiiM of ^oiiic li'Vcl liiiuls ili'viircil to ^;r(iu inn !iii.*. furrow
lrri);ati<iii is the (tiily feasible nietliod.

The success in ohtiiininn iinifcrni (listi ibntion of water l).v furrow irri-
gation lie]).. nils lai'nel.v on tlio niellioil iiseil to iliviile tlio water ciiually be-
tweui tlie furrows. Tlie earliest nielloil nf carr.viii.i; the water in ilie head
of the furrows is by means of the earthen lieail ilitili locateil aloii;; the
upper bonnilary of the oriharil at tlie upper » ml of the furrows. The
division of the water is effecte'l by cuts made in the side of the eiuth ditch.
This tiict! <v! \^ still >i=«d by many, hut bwcac,sp rriwi; asid iir.-:!fi=fartory.
It has led some orchardists to adopt improved methods of division such aB
lath tubes or iren spouts placed in the il tch bank, while some of the best

orrlmiillKfM liHVf if|iliiii(| ihi' •■mill illitli li> «ch n Muiin < iir llir iwnf
p<>rniaiiutit icitnnti' iIiiiin' <ii' r(iMii<i>' |>i|M' ilxii iImimiik K>nii'iii

Wlii'if 111'' ciiiiiiiiil \s •■iiuill iiiicl tl:.' ..'iipr i.uii'ar. 111)1- 1 i-.iil illi. h III-
lit'itil lliiiiii' iair>liiK till' wall! Iiniii llic imiiit iit ililitcry itiut |iliii < <l iin iiii'
lilxliiit iniit I r III)' liiiiil 111 111' II I tiitli'il, iiia\ 1,1' all tiiiil iH rii<i'i">ai( lint
for lui'Ki'i' iinliuritK uml lnr irri-uiiiur kIupwh, it In iiii i>iiitl > ii> haW' lun <■■'
ilioii' 111 Hil illtrlii'X 111- lliiiiii'* to Willi h tlir Willi r |h raiiii'l liv a Mipiilv
illlcli, |ii|ii', or lliiTiii' III liiyiiiK out mihIi a iliMirlliiiiinn h>i<:i'Iii iIk' liiiuatur
slioiilil HtiKJy till' to|Miutapliy nr tlip laml ami .'•iilnih ilr Iiih ni'iliai'ij »l!li

Hllllli I' til I rlKl iLlrlll'K to ttKo lul'I'llWll Willi ll ari' IliM tiKi ill 1^ Mini !ii<
ati'i'ii. I Hiially it Ih iliHlialilr to niaki' ilii' riiiiiius imi iivit 'i'Hi tot milUi-
ary naii'ly I< am ami '.'.i'" ii' I rnr tiiiiii' pdrmis i^amlv .'dil.

NO. I.

No2

■? ' S^i^-^wf^^^l^^gf^- ' "^

fMo4

i

i

Ancihtr term of N©4.

l-'lu. .MI.— 'r> iilrtil tTiintiv iif I'lirth illli-hi'i*.

I. l':illtll*'ll lll'ail Dilrll.

Till' lit ad ilitcli is plaii'il alutiK Mii' lii-lici-l liiiiimlary el' tlif i.iiliafil oi' if
tlii'fc i.s a ri(lf;t' tlifoiiph tlu' iciiHT m llm luilianl, it is placcil im this
riilnf ami supplies tlic ruiidws ruiiiijig ilouii iln' .^Inpr ini Imili siilis. 'I'lu'

propi.T Krailt' ilopi'inls mi tlii' miIihuc it' wairr in 1 aiiiiil ami on iho

tliaracti'T of tin- t^iiil; Ilif vi'loiity iiin-^t nol lir Ino f;ii'at or it will croil"
tilt' soil. On till' oilier liami it is IjckI to have siillli iiiit mIim it> to pii'M-ut
tlu' t;i'owlli of wati'r |ilaiits. Vi'locitii's of 2 to -''^ foL! p<-r si'ioml arc
(U'siiablp. Till' (lianram I Flu. .".lil ami aicompaiiyiiin talilo to wliifh Im-;
hn*)?! ai|'l('<1 thf_' last I'oliiinli, ri i-f tiilvrn from Hiitti'tin \o. 1 (iiiitli' i:>
Irrit-'atiou I'rai'tUo on tlio I'ac itlc Cuasr. 1j> S. Furiicr, issuoil liy ilir I'ulj-
licitv Coiiiiiiittot' of tlio Fiftoemli .Valioiial lriii;ai;im ('oiit;ii'ss.

fiMs^r- .r«>a

Il

Tnhlr tiltinic Ihe Mriin \rlii

P'T r.1,1.

1
I'*

fJriili

■'• r

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.63

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l.l'H

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74

'"' "■ '""•■"'«- ..r l>l...hr. \M,h niffrren. «;ra.l„.

I'lirm ll|i,.h \„. I.

■.',1 |,

Mlili'.

I'lt.'t-I
l'*i.K7

ti»j.»;7

Kil.llil

.M.Mll V.I.,
in ff..| |„

I'll
I.IJ

:mii

L'.JS

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I"T >■■

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., Ilrilisli Co-
lli mil la

1.1)1
l,7S

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29

II

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611

Ins,

l-'nrm llilrh \.>. a.

t>.«7

.81'

-'Mill

-'li.ii7

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1.1; 1

lll.lMI

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III)

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«. 17

1 ::.:;::

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I.Cil

I'll, nil

I.:i7

l'(i.li7

J.l'S

.80

I.IMI

i.:;ii
l..-,ii
1. 711

I. Ml

J. nil
J. I II
I'.IU

16

60
64
71
75
8S

I'.ns
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l.:;ii

."i.Jcl
6.01)
6.80

74

106

l.-.o

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L'4a

I'nrni Dllrh \„. 4.

.M
1.118
I..". 1

16.67
:.'ll.tlil

4.:'o

3.40

7.70
l'..".ii

I I. III!
11'. .'11

1U2
1'74

;::!8
:iuo
4:14
475

"-• ..,e loose .on ,„a. ,.„ .1^.::;!"., '^ '.^ ' J :;^^::;„^ ^-^ ^per.

^-^..!";:;^:;T;;i:i;C ■ :"i,!"'T"7 ':■•■ "■^'-- '^ '"-■^^" -" "-■ -ter

o- ..• .„a,.„. .iainf ;;;::;.;:, oi^;;r if "wi':;:r:.::;T"" """"'""^•

.:::.::':. :L«;-;:;:-.s::,-:.r '-Jrr .:r;:.,t:r T:.;;f r^
^r::::r?-<;,--r.;;:r;;/;---:;:-

to prevent the washiMK of the .soi a son , . n "''""■•^« =^'t^>"tion

.11. It .!! ..II i.arpi. i ,, tjrcvent

t'lg. r>7.— AdJUHtnble V rrondrr.

J

t'lg. .-.s \ •iioK a!!ju!<<ali!<- V criiivrfp

■ \

I 1

I'lB. .'II l.ath tuhr. «

Mi'i>r

JflB. 60. Mrth»a «f illarlDK lath lube In dllrh hank fur fnrrnv Irrlitnll

( Kar!n''rs' Ittilli-tiit ::7.i, I'. S. l>r|.t. Aur.t

f!

riK- O'l' — * iTiK'rclr tllHlrllilllluu lliiinr.

il

,; !

fe

this some use i)ic;< s of saiKs or caiiva!*. otliois use pieces (.f .s!iin«l<'S or
Bliiall rocks, etc. A better iiiiproveiiielit Is tlie use of shoit tubes placoil
ill tlie bank of tl:e liead iliicli. Tliesc tiiliea ma.v be made of laths nailoil
toKCtlier and cut in two lixil leii^tlis or liia.v be iiieces of discarded )iipes
'-a iiKli to 2 iuclie.-i in (lianieter. A lalli tube bavinn an insiile ope'iinn 1
inch si|uare placed s inclies b:lo\v tlie water level will wive a discharge of
1 miners' inch. The How through the tube can l)o ri^jiilated by a slide.
The surface of the water can be Kept at the proper height by means of
{•heck nates reiiulaied by llashhoards and spaced accordiiiK to the urade of
the ditch. The ac( oinpatiyin;; .'(ketchis show the lath tube and the nianner
of placing them, and alto the "heck nates in the dirch bank. (l<'igs. :v.i, Cu).
a. — Wooden Head l''liiiiies.

Wooden Humes with small oiii-ninjis in one side ^i\f more accurato
division of the water and are used very extensively in lOastern Washington.
They can alto be elevated above the nro\ind to carry walir over shallow
depressions which is ati advaiita^e over earthen ditches. However, the
lieiKlit above the nronnd must not be over two or three feet or the water
falliiifi thronnh the opening into the furrows will cause excessive washing.
The Humes usually vary in width from S to 12 inclus and from tl to It)
inches ill heiKh!. and the openings are controlled by ir.etal or woodt n slidey.
:{. — Conciele Head I'liiiiies. ( I-'igs. Ill, ti2).

The short life of ■. den Humes has led most of the orcliardisis of
soutlurn California to ',. , tither concrt te Humes or cement pipes A con-
crete head Hume is mac'- of the same form as the wooden lliini.> and gal-
vanizecl iron spouts or tubers from ■'i to 1 'u inch in diameter are inserted
in the side of il:e l!un:e bcfoic l!;c> ccincrc'te has hardened, there h. iu.n onc>
spout for each furrow t Ki.i;. i;:il. On steep slopes wliere tlii' velocity is
liigh, to give an c>ven distribiitic.u through the .spouts, checks made ol ;!uirl
pieces of lath are inserted below eacdi opening as shown in the- ac.ompa. ly-
ing sketch. To hold the checks in jilace, one end of the huh H:s into a
groove cut ill the side of th.e Hume by means of a trowel licfore Ihe c-o-i-
cret<' is hard.

The thickness of the Hoor for all sizc-s up to 24 inches in widtli is 2
inches. Tho side walls for all depths up to 12 inches are 2^-^ inches thick
at the top and I! inches at the bottom. The Humes are made aln'ost any
size. The dimensions and cost of some of the sizes commonly used in
southern California ar(> as follows:

I

Bottom

wi

nil.

Deptli.

C'll

>ic

f.'

■1

it c-

m

■I

etc

i.r

fust

p.T

lill.'U

fo

cit

tnchi

s.

Inches.

lin

•al

f<

■ It ■

cf

II

mill*.

in

■cms.

11

"

..14

20

8

ri

r.:

• CIO

22

10

12

.c;::

2 1

10

14

.cic;

-■'

to

16

.c-.!p

2 c;

to

18

.71

-"

10

20

.71

■J s c .

10

22

10

24

,Sic

-■'

11'

12

.71

-'\

12

14

.7 1

''1

li

1«

.7 c'.

- •

r.'

1.S

.7''

2N

12
1 *>

20

,s:.

-■'

1 •

24

.ss

::■!

1 2

—

FIk. «I IHntrlhntliiu ut natrr In turrunii (rum riiDiTrlr brail flume.

w

>

^jj^

tfi^^l

l^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^feK^-i^ta^VBft..^^^^^^^^^^HI^^^^^I

^^^^H

^^H|^^^QB^^H|^M

^H^^^^

i^^^^^^^^^^^^b. ' ^^P'^HmBt^

^H^Rt--*' '~*^^ '- ;-^^ttittj|||

Bfci^fcjj^' ""

■P^^'- "'' WnBmm

V^^HHfitt^^&££T ' J

1 ^HH^^

1 "^^^J^tJ

^^H

Is^^^^^^^^^^HbHmI^^^^^^^^I^BB^^^ ' :^'

^.m^^l

jgfl

•In. u:: — C uDiTpIr lilMlrlhiillnK flump ■■iinnrrtrd In ««flr lakr <iiit Im>».

T"*

I

'^1

M =1

Till' I OHt of luboi- iiihI mutriinlti fiir wliicli tlir iihovr inui* w.mc obl.iiliiMl
art': Labor $2,tni to $u'.".<i lor !> Iimiix, loiiuiu $:'. ", n u b;u;il. and ^riiMd
$!..'ii a cubic vnril.

I

78

Till' lliiiiiis arc i( .stiiH It'll on llu' kioumiI liv usiim ii si't of forinw i)r
IIKiiiIiIh IiiIu wliirli (III' riilirl'ctc Ih plurt'il (Fin. *> I ) . 'I'lii' liiolllilx I'oliMiKt of
all liiHlilf liii'loiiili'yH ii'oiikIi Mliiilliir In tlif fiii'iu iiiK'il till' llnliiK iliiiiii'M, hut
inailf with till- Kiiiiu- iIIiiiciihUiiih uh tlit> iiitildf of the lliiiiii'. anil <i<ilt«iii«>
wuIIh III' Hht'athinK Ik-IiI the |ir(>|i<'r iliHtaiii'i' a|>ai't fi'oiii thi' iiiMlilr I'oi'iii by
nil aim nf wiparl'i)': liliii kx ainl heavy I' shaiiiil Inm. stiadilliiiK ihit tin- oiit-
tilili' wall anil iiiMJili' wall. liiHti-ad nl' tlii' I siiapi'il iioii. the imtsl li' walls
(iiiilil III' lit'lil In plan' by tttakcit ilriviti in tlir mi'iiiiikI. 'I'd liiiilil tlir llonr
auil kIiIc s at 111!' naiiii' tinii' tin' IiihIiIi' wallK aif Inlil almxi' Ihf t roiin I by
till' Hpai iiiK fianiis a lii-inht i'i|ual In the thirkiicsK of tlii' lliKir. Tiic Ihiiiio
is built in (ii'itions 12 fi'i t liinj; wliPh i« the IniKtli tif tlin foiins. No pni-
viHiiin is iiiaili' liu- i niiliai tim iml sniall ulii inkat;i' i-iarks m i iir. Tliif*!'
niiilil 111' I'liinlnalril by inserting at tlir ciljii'S a metal tnnmu' - in- 11 inrlies
Willi' inibi'ilili il abimt halfway into carli wrtion. TliiH tonnni' shoiilil b»'
well painti'il Willi oil or Hoap to pi't'Vtiit tlii' ailhi'sinn of the loiiirete and It
will I lien ait ax a toii^iie ami Kiciove joint.

To pi iniit till' iiuiik removal of the forms, whiili is neies«ary iijilcws
Miitlli'ioiit forms are used to build a cdnsldfrHble leimth at one settlnt?, the
ronirele is mixed roni|iaratively dry and reiinires larefnl tamping, A iiilx-
tnre of 1 [lart of cement to .". of well Kradeil jiit gravel is Kelitirally used.
It Is imiiortant that the lomrete be kept moist by iiprinkliiiK or otherwise
for a perioil of at least one week. When eompleted the nide walls are
partly baikltlled with earth up to about one-half of their height. It Is
better to have the siKiuts at least 4 liirhes loiiK and preferably six to pre-
vent the wasliinK away, by the aetion of tlie water lominn out of the spout,
of the soil from under the lluiiie, whiih will raiise it to settle and rraik.
These t;alvaiiized iron spouts are made by loial metal workeis at a inst of
4 ■'( to .'. U ceiitu caili.

I. — I'eiiK'iit I'lpes ami l>i>>tril)ii(iii): Staiiil I'ipes. I KiM:s. ti.'>. lii'i).

In Bouthern California many hundreds of miles of lemelit pilies have
been used for the ilistribntion of water to oriliards and in reient yeais its
use has been extended to some of the oriharils in Wasliin^ton and Idaho.
While many orihardis's in southern California still prefer the open Hume,
there are the follow'nK objectioiie to o|ieii Hume:

1st. Teams and farm Implements can not cros<! the Hume and there is
always a strip of '.■•ih\ on each side that ran only be partially cultivated
becaui^e it can not lip crossed in the opposite direction.

2nd. The Hume is liable to be ilama»;ed by the teams and farm im-
plements.

:!r(l. Tlie tliiiiie may settle and f'rack if tlie earth undeinealh is washed
away by the water iiassinn through tlie spouts into the furrows.

4tli. The furrows can only be made with teams and cultivators up to
1.". feet fiom the Hume and they iinist be comiiieted by liaiiil.

.'itli. l.eavis may fall in the Hume and stop u|i either iiartialiy or com-
liletely the openings ol tiie ilistributiHK spouls, nliich requires extra time
on the part of the irrigator.

Tliese disadvautajies have led many of the orchardists to tlie use of
iindernroiind piiiis which do not interfere with cultivation.

A coiiiliielt' iiiiiii-iKiouiei lii|ie dlot ribut iiiK sysiciii cuiisists of.

1st. A main pipe line which carries the water from the measiiriii.i; box
or iioint of delivei'y to the lines of distributing stands which take the iilace
of '.lead ditclies.

,VA,

riK. «m._M„e ,.r .IUtr|l.,iilnu «:,., !,„.„ f„r ,|U,rllMilI f „,.i.t

rrom «>fiiM>iii i»I|m>.

r.

■■<■>.

Jnil 'lui' illMliiliiitliii: lliirs «|iii|i Kiii.liiri Mil' «rii.i Irotii III.' riiutii
|ill>f lihc, iiiiil whlili ail' iiiiihiM ii'il til th.. ilUtnliiiniiK xIhihIh

.11(1. 'I'hf ilinli .liiillliK hIUIIiIh III liiiHili.-i \\ iiii'iiiH i.r v\li|.|i 11,1' water Ih
liliiiiulit to till' Miiiriiii' ami i|:»li liiili'.l itit,, tlu' Iuiiovh il.i.iiwh xniall

Kal\illll/.l'll llllll M|ll IllK illHlltl'd ill till' hIiIik of till' hllHII.

• ill Iti'KulHiiiiK liii.Xfx anil art t xHiii ii K,

A t>|>lial ttyxti'iii Ih hIiowii In tltr itn iini|iiiii.\ lim nki n li i Kiy ilTi Tlii'

lilpt- liiKM iif Hill' of haiiil taiiipi'il |il|ii' iiUtnil in tii'ml .k of hiu li i|i'|itli

lliHt thtr.' Ih hI Ii uki iHii' runt of carlh (ov.imh; TIii' iiii'IIiimI of inuklnn

till' 1>I|H. McrtiollH Hllll Jl>llllll>! III. Ill, a* ttl'll HH III.' inoll.-lli.'H .ir III.' |l||»'

and tin- lont of tnaklUK ami laying linvf l>< t-n fully ili'Mcrllit'il i paKi'i

47 III .'iT.I Tlu tin iiip.' line iir f. imI liiu> |h mil n.'r.'Hiaiy wIhti' only

iini' line of HtanilH Ih ne(.'*HHiy, hiiiIi mm wliere the mi luinl Im xinall ami
can l)v Irrlnated with one Kei of ( .itowm ;l:tii or .;t|ii feet Ioiik, Hut for
larKer orelianlit It Im deHliable that llie oriliard lie Hiippll. d liy Iw.i or nior.'
Iicad dItclieH or diatilbiitluK pliie IIii.'h In (ird.T to limit the l.'iiiitli of the
fiirrowM to not over titin fe.-i and iirefi-rnlily :!:;ii leet f.ir Kamly »<(i||. 'I'll.-
main mipply pip.' f.'.ds the illMtrihiilinK IIiich ami inmlii.tK the water from
the ineaKiirinK hox or point of delh.'ry to fli.. Ii.ail of lln' line of KtandH.
At till' Jiimiiiiii of the line of utaml-. with the main jilp.'. tiirnoiil lioxe« with
Miillahl.' »',at.'^f ur.- iieicKKary to continl th.' How into each line. Th.' linen
of dlslrlhiitlnn tilands extend a.rowt the direillon of the fiirrown At tl.e

li.'ad .if enih tr ow and in line with the trees a Hiand is conn. it. 'd m the

lilHtriliiitlnK line.

There aiM NarloiiH way« of imikiiiK th.' siaml.s and it lenulaiinu tl..'
Ilii«. They vary only In d.-tailH ami can be . laKsdlle.l into two ilimiiici ny.s-
teins, line known a« the overflow systeir, ami the oth.'r. the pressure Mywlein.

The overllow syst.'iu is best adaiited where tlu' Ijii.. of HlainlH Is iilacd
on a Hat unlforin ^rade. Th.- iir.sHiiri' system is best where tlie kIoih' of
the ground is si.ep and not uiiifnrni. These two systems are illusfral.'d In
the a.comiianylnn diagram l KIk. t;s). With the ov.rllow Hystem the lines
of stands must usually be divided by mean« of ov.'illow boxes or i res'iiiii'
rcKulatliiK box.'S Into a nuiuber of se<tioi'..4 dep.'mllMK on the Krade, and
each Heition Indiidts a number of distributinn stands, the t.i|is o>- which
are placed at the same level. The overllow box aits as a cliei k In a li.ad
illtch and by closing or reKulalliiK the sat.' of the overllow it causes the
water to rise In the dlMtrihu;iii« stami and maintains the water tiiirfac..
Ill till" stands at ahoiit a uniform l.'Vel. If the Kate of the overllow box is
dosed the water which is not ilistribut.'d ihi(iii>;h the stands above It,
passes ov.-r the ovi rlluw to siipiily the stands below; this makes the system
praiiically automatic. Tlie disiributlnn stands ar.' seldom mad.' hii;h..r
than Hi iiiciies above tlie >;roiind: wh.'n it exc.'eds llii.; a iii'W section or
Kriiup of stands is made by ilisertiiit; another overllow box. On sleep j;r;iile
the cest is irucli increased because of th.' KVvnl liiimher of o\erllous.

Tile pressuri' system, or valve system, is so called becaii.se tlie ilis-
tributiiiK line is divided into a iiiinibor of sections, di iiemlinir on th.. ljiioIi'.
so that eacii Heciion is under a water pressure wlucli th.' pip,' will safely
stand. Itecausc of the pressure It is neces*!ar.N to regulate the ihnv into

'■ basin by means of a valve. Fsually th. s.'ctioiis should not be loiiKer
' 11 .11 feet and the pressure head bIioiiIiI not exceed 1.". feet. The boxes
w. ,.11 (ivide the line in se. lions contro! the pressure by means of a uate.

^-^1

J^l }

80

■riic (liiiKriiiii s:.(ius llic piisitioM (if lliis Hillc «liiili is pliKc;! on lljc iip-
slrcilin (IT- iiilc! siilc 111' the l)Ox. 'riic iucskuic of tlir wiitcr lends Id piisli
llic i;;ilc' iiuiiy iinni llir Kiilc Iraiiii' ami laiisc lcaUa;;c. 'Id pievcnt iliis llu'
f-'alcs, wliiih ail' iiaiiicil picssiiic Katrs lo (lisliMKuish llicni I'loni llic clicapri-
sliilc Kates, arc so ilcsif;iieil llial when llii> nale Is eloseil liiriijiv; the lianille
lifiiijis llie Kale ti^lil aKaiiisI ils rraiiie. 'I'liis is olilaiiiel ; lii'oi.'Ji soiue

j 1 lo' ^*

1 A t^ ^j

1

,?i;o o o o ^^ n o ^* 1

^?'„X'V- ^" ^^^w-^i^,

.: O--- --■(;,» ----1

5i> vo--

- *■

^

u

il'?
II

Ipl

^ ::'^

<

!}^ 1 ^ Id

\

/I

'1^ Qi

a 1 ('I^ k

'Ti ' €^'

i
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1 'V!)> 1

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A ' P

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i j

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1 ^ i

h

<'3|' ^

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CS 1 0

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5

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b (J> (

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r3

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. 1

-

IN

:'^

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; . f

!3 ^^

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b!li ^i J

^ 1 lb;

K\.

7('^/yt'/ \aa',-/it: 0 5

Ȥ

*

I

I
j

I
I

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\ ^i-

si

Oyejmatv Sys

TEM .

ffT£S9U/t£ 5yaT£M.

*» - fh' , \

/T. <

itv...,

Deta/ls or D/sTfr/aor/Na 3r^/vos.

i

^'^■^^^"'"■T^'

!

~^^hA

Details or OvEffFLow 3tand

I'lU. i;-. Dctlllls <ll' Kl II ||||||. ■ll>,lrilMlllllu IliK ..

WPl

^2

I !■

iiHMliMiiiial <I.-\i,,. uhi, h \ai:,.s
tur

'" '"I'^'Mi.i:,,,, uitli ,|.,. ,liir,.|,.i,t iiiaiiiila
, , . '■ j;iili s. ili,. ,]iiliiiar.\ ^.lidi' uali' , ail lie iisi.i

;■:.';::'?:,/•':";'■':, r'"-"-' — '-• i-.i.m;:;,!;:::

s.a.Hln, „.,.s,.,.Hn„. This ,„a> „-,,ui,,. a h,.i.|„ ,. ■ n , J a , ' ! "

f,''""""' .:"'!" -'"■■i- »""■ T!„. ,.,.,.sun. s> ,„,,,„ ,„. „...i :„: ,

"- .l,«t,.,l,,mn»; li„.. has ,o ,,..ss shalhnv ,l.,H-..ss:,„.s. In all .a... h .

'!':":' '"■ '"^' "■"• -■— - 'l^a, „:,. ,„axi,H,. a,l w,,, ,„„ ;. !

1.'. Icct

l»<'l«ils <il >.lnii(Is,

!.■ sa.Hls an. s.ow,. ,„ ,1, rail i„ ,h,. a,, ,„„„„nyin, .lia.ran,. S,a,„l
A us,.,l ,.„. !,.. „v..rn„w sys,.,,,, ..„nsis,s of a s..,.ri„„ ,„• .; „, ^ „„,, „i„ .

'"":"";<•'■"■ •' •■ «i'" 'I'.' '-v...- ..,„i ..,„ ,„ sa,l.il.. „v..,. a .; .„■ s i,„,, ,
M, ,„. n, ,h.. p,,,-. li,u. „v n,..aMs of a .s.,a>„ pi,.K. Tl... j„i,. is ,„a,l.. ni h
a r„h ,■,.„„.,„ n.or.ar mux..,! i„ ,h.. pn,p„r,ioM of 1 pan of ,•,.„>..„. ,o - of
sa.Hl Aromul ,1,.. upp.,- ,.,ul of ,1,,. pip., at ,h.. surfa,,. of ,h.. ,.ro„„J is

"a.e.l ,Mo . I.sn-ibu.i,,,^ basin an,l ,h.. spa.o in ,1,,. basin aronn,! ,1,.. snuUloi-
i'UM' .s nik.,1 wuh .enHnf n,or.ar. Tho basin is nsnally a .s..,-,io„ .; ,„ is
nH-h..s lonK of 1.; in..), pip., Aronn,l ,bo .■in-.nnfon.n,,. of ,|,.. basin, nrar
""■"';"-■■ >'■".., . ro .i .lis.ribn.inK .-acs or spouts a,-o ins..,„.,l and ..,.n,..nt.Ml
I" H,l,.s .ut as soon as tl,.. basin has b, on n,a,l,. or ,ast in ,h.. basin whon
niaKiiiK 11 in the nioial moulds.

Stand I! is also nsod for tl„. ovrllow .systoni and .-onsists of a sIumIh

''^,'^"' '" ■ ' '" '- '"'■'"« i" 'lianiotor in whirli tho s|,onts aro insortod

<!•■*-'. i.;m. Tho !arj;..r basins of tho ty,„. A aiv prolVrabl,. ulioio I ho fur-
rows tond to wasli loyothor.

Stands (• an,l I) ar.. usod for tho prossuro svst. in Thov aiv niad,. as
.stands A and li witli tho addition of tho iv^ulatinu valv,. ,-,.ni..nt, d in tho
ypriKbt Pipo (Ki^:. To,, stan.l K. ran bo usod also tor tho prossuro svston,
It IS similar to basin H with th,. top olosod by a rap of oonion, n.«rtar.' This
.stand ro,|uiros that spouts bo o|,onod from tho outsido ami unloss they aro
liroporly mad... tho iir..ssuro will .aiiso tli.uii to loaK. With tli,. oth,.r sian.ls
tho siiouis may opon . ith.'r from the outsido or iiisido.

OVOl'lloW Millllls.

Ovorllou A is lodinarily mad., of a s..ition of 1 r, in.h ,; tlio top of

whhh is .ut an ov..rllow n.it.l, :, .,r >; in,h..s d....p and . inoh..s wid,. and
af;aiiist this Hi in, h pip,, and ,-..monto,l to it is a somi-.ircular or --:! <ir-
.iilar .s,.,.tion of an s inch pip... Tho Mat.^ in tho upstr.am .ompartim.nt is
a .sitiiid.' f^lido .ujit...

Ovorllow I! .onsists ,,f an o\..rllow wall 2 imh.s thiol; built in a 14 .,r

'" '"'■'' <)v..rllow (■ is mado of two stand pip,.s ,-,)nno,iod with a

slioit p;o(<. of i; in, h pip...

DraiiiiiiK >lio pipes. ^

'" '"■''''■ '" '■iiiply Iho pipo to lurvoiit burstiiit; by fioo/ini; and aNo to

Hush out any silt, ii ,s iioros.sary tliat at all tlio lowost po:,iis ni,r.;s ooii-

trollod by valMs or i^aios ho providod.

.\rr(. ss.»|.ii's.

Til, a,-,-ossori,s ib-.l r,,r a pipo systi-n. aiv: il) tlo- i;alvanizi,l iron

^|"Hlls. 12) ri'milaiint; .uat.s, whirl, ar.. i.ithor tl,.. .sinipl,. ,asl iron or st,.,.I
slid,. ;;atis oi III,, pr. ssur.. Kat,.s, i :1 I th,. \alv,.s. Th,.s,. ,l,.vi,,.s ar,. tiia,!,.
by s,.v,.ral iiiar.,ila,t,n ors in s.iuthorn Calif.uiiia and vary in ,l,.tail. I'rob-

riK. till. — rnnMtrurlloii of illNlrllMidim Mtiiinl

|>I|>«*N.

!.

riK. TO. — lllwlrniiiliiiK iirfMMiirp Hfnnil iiipe, I > |if I).

igSLJm^j^ii-'WI

9^'-

f- i

! !

' 1

if
f 1

Ui|

kwm^fw.

83

ably tlM. lar,...s, ra,:.Mi..s a„. ,l,o«., .,f K-lIar an,! Tl„„„as.,„ Manufa,-, urinu-
"...puny a, ,.,„ An^H... an.i „u. l-o„„.na .Ma,n,.a, „u in. C a Tl
■onona Tl,e ,„i...« .-ivon b.-low ar.. for . alif.„nia. Th. ,i s „,,

.ehver ,.,..„• appnan... a, Van-ouv..,- f.,,- ,„. .an,, p.-i,..., a ,u ,
Cal fornia po,n,s an., for onl..,.s anu.nnHnK .,. $1 , a ,lis,„„n, of J

ti.e .s(.,.<>n,l firn' w<„.l,l jjiv,. abont th,. san„. p,i,.,.s.

' ""' "' <"nl»nlil«ril Iriiii DUItUmiIIiik finlr».

I'iaiiifliT.

I In.li
1 ,, ••
1 ,..

' ■■■

■ ■ II 1 -

• nt>

t'oMi or ValVFM.

X... of val.-,

HI
u

-'; inili.'s

6

8

10

('ll»«t of iiHi

I'riif.

l.IO
l.KU

"f I'licnlnu-.

Cast Inm yliih. KaK^s. Cast iron |.r,-.-<>.iir,. nai

8
111
IJ
! I
16
IS

$1.60

i.t:.

J..")0
U.60
4.60
.'i.TO
8.20

$ 3.40
:i.85

1.60
U.90

7.8.5
1 1). 2;
12.50

tpiinixlniaip (111,1 nf MandM In I'lat-r.

Ty]i,' of .ftanii.

A
B

I IV. riliiw

I'rire coinpli-lt'.

$1,110 111 *l..",,i

.:,o t.i I.2.-,

l.T.'i tcj 2.110

l.li.-,

2.7.". .«IIJi' Kate.

~>- — I'ri'ssui-o :'i|)e |,in<.s and Valves.

On some of the oichaiUs iu tlie Okananan and Gianci Koiks ,li.s,,i,ts an,l
also on orchards in Idaho and scuhern Calilornia, the wan-r is ,li.stribntod
over the orchards in high pressure. %vo.)d-ban,le,l pipe lin.^s. The pipe lines
take the place of tl,e head ditches; tliey are tapped at each row or wh.iever
desired by a staiidpipe f'-imed by screwing in the wooil sliort sections of
Kalvanized iron pipe cap„.d by an ordinary garden valve to regulate the
tiow. Where tlie land is very irregular an.l it is desired to keet 'le water
under pressure, this form of construction is the most d.'sirable al in fact
the only feasible one. but if it is p„.ssible to break the pre^siu and main-
tain it within the safe pressures for cenn^nt pipes by proper regulation, the
cement pipe distributing s.vstem has the advantages nf lowest cost. irreatiT
durability ami better division of the water between furrows.

;4-l>^^<

S4

<l. — l.ii.tiiiu Out I'°iii'I<>»h: \iiiiiI:<>i'. I.cimlli, l>f'|illi iiiiil SIo|m'.

'!'!)(' 'iiiiiihi'j' III' riiiKius ^iii'ii'S Ki'i'iilh uitli tile i>|iiiiiiiri iiiiil judi^tiKijt of
tlif iiiiKiiliir, Pdi' \iiiiiii; cMilmnls 1 icm|iiciiI l> c;iil> iwu imidus .m- uscil
for caili iii« 111 irirs. one mi I'luh siili' iil' tlii' tri'is. Kiir iildiT cinljiiril.s
usually iil Inisl lliU'i' riiriows inr umnI, niif (in nu li Hiili' iil' llif tirr ri,\\:-i
anil oiii' 111 till' ii'iiii'i' liiiwi'i'M nil' mus. Tu uliiiiiii n iiiiiii' iiiiirnnii ilis-
lril)\ltiiiii III' liiiiisluir. as liiaiiv a-i six iii' rinlil runinvs tii I'arli row <A' Iii'vs
Ulc usi'il. 'I';:i' pri'Si 111 ti'liili'iiiy ;., tu iisi' i|i'i'|ii'i' liiiiiius ami S|iari' tin 111
t'artlii'i' ajiail i Kii;. 7 1 I. A ilr;ilh iil' s itirliis is l'ii'i|iii'iit ly iisr:!. In
Boiitlii'iii I'aliliiiiiia iinlianls ari' usually funowt'il with pliiws attarliiil In
the fiaiiics of « iii'i'Ii'il rultivatois in tlii" plan- of tlu' iiillivalor ti'i-Mi iFi^.
'li). Kiiiicius '.I iiiiliis ilri'p liavi' a luiltoiii wiiltli of to imlirs iiml a top
Willi li of I .'■ iiiilii'S.

Tlie oxpi'iinionts lUsiiibi'il iinili r tie ilislribiition of watof in ruriow
irritiation j;av(> sonio iiitiTi'Stinn n suits wliirli slioiilil huIiIo llio orrlianl-
Ist ill ailoptiiii; till' lii'Sl ai raUHi'iuoiit of furrows. Thcso ixpcriiuonts
sliowi'il tliat for a saiuly .soil with furrows 4 fi'i't apart it took about 24
bonis for the wator lo s|ircail siiloways and nicot botwoon the furrow.s; for
a I'lay loam about I:; hours was sulliiii'iit. Thi'Sr cxiii'iiiin-tnts also sliowcil
that for a di'i'|> fiiirou ilo' sideways spriad was creator than for a (iliallow
furrow. 'I'Im' .sideways spread for >saiidy loam \>as limited to about 2 feet
on eai!i side of the furrow and for ilay loam about :'. feet; this wouhl iiiili-
eato thai the distame apart of furrows slioiild be not over four feet for
sai'.dy liaiii and six fei t for i lay loam. The furrows on either side of the
row of trees should he idaieil as mar as possible to the tree to moisten tlie
soil ilirertly under llie tree.

f:

l''l|C- T:I.— M thoil of iH.tinK •■■It ziuxiiK fiirrii»M.

II 1. i:. .■';. imili.'un j:;ii, I', s.

■|it. Aur.i

I'Ib. TI. — \|>|il>lim jiiicr III ilri'it (ilr

f

2

FIk- 7'J. — MnktnK ilt'ep fiirrouH with plowH HttHrheil
\vhr«>lril t'ultUattir.

f,*.

I

■'Ijt. 71 ^npl.tliiK uiiitT III r.lit,d.nK t

iirntUM.

.*•?>.«!.-' U I

mt

I

l|

:i

f !

; n

rMiiiillv II,.. fiiiiowH nil' iiiui!f imnill.l !,, i|,. ,,,», ,,r ii..w \, ,1, •

!'■"""='"" •'■ " '•""" l-HNll.!.. .„ K. I Ihr , u.„.a, t!.. ,, \uurU

l.-aVH a Hpa... I„t«....ii (l„. lr....H ,11 « ,.,» nl,„i, „ .,■„,,, „anv.\ ,1m t..
«-i 11... ..oil uunr i.hlf,„mly ||,- l.in.l ,., ,,,,.. l„Mn«„| ^„ „, ,„ |,„,„ ,,^

r/'l'l',"" ■*""■".':' """"■'" "■■*" ■'• ■" ■'" '"""- """""■■' I" <1-
'•"".•.I lln... HI,. Ilist M,H,I... il„.n ,i,.»s,.| ai r:^;!,. a„.l..s a.ul .1,.. ,*,■„■>•

'■";" "'"' ""^ """I" »'"' » "I'-^-l II'"""' ■ ■■•>,. ., ,..!,,• I..„.,h ,l„„..r

vrlo.it.v ui„l ,lu. laiKW ar.a «,.|i.,|, 11,. /.ij;,,,-^ I.mm.-.. ,,.,,. ^ „ \,n^,.,-
H.nam. Kn.,,n..>,l!.v only .1,.. !.,«..,■ lu.ir. ,l,:r,|, ,„• i„„,tl, „l ,1,.. lurmu, in

zlKZHK«.,|. TiKs will t.n.l |„ mv., ,(„. !,«.., „,,,, ,„■ , ,,.i,,„.,, „^ ,,;,,,.|^

"""•'■ '"* ""• "I '■ I''"' »''l'l' "llM.fw.s.. i..,,.u,.H a umih.r ,|„Hnl|ly.

'I'll.. IniKili (,r th.. iiiir.>ws funurH us.ialjv ikiiii ;i: i:-,'„ |,„ , ^^|,|,.|,

IH tl... \vu^,U ,„• a .. u.,.. „.„,•:, Ah a ■■,.1.. ,l„. .,..>..«. .!„ ,.l.l n.,.'..x, ....,1

M... f,.,.t a„.l |.r..|. rahly lili,, tV..,. <)„ «„„,|y «..;i, ..h,,.., iallv, h , i,un,««

not <,v,.r ;!:i.i iVrt l„„« aiv .l..siral.l..; „Uu^r^Ms,^ ili.. „|,|,„,- sl,l,. „r ,|„,
orrlianl >v,,.ivrH a lar*;.. vk.v.h of «a-..r l.,.l„,.,. 11,,. I,.^^..,. „a,l l.a.s r, ,-..iv..,|

Hlltllc.f.Ilt.

Th.. Kia,!.. or II,,. |„n-oHH Nari.s u h uith t|,,. lopo^niphv or- liy of

th.. laiul. Son,.. ..nhanis on Hat vall..y noils ,1,. not |,. ,-,„it of a Mi.,.,,..,-

^ra.l,. than I m.h ,0 loo ,v,.t whU .,.|,,n-,ls on ki,.,.,. «1,|,. |,ii|.^ ,„„ ,.,.

M"lff lila.inK th,. I„im«s on nun h st, .,.,„.,■ ^,,„l.s Th,. pn.i..., R,a,l,. ,|..-

WM.lH luxuh on ih.. ,l,ara.'l..r of il:.. .ol. (,„ onlinaiv a Mat ^:ra,|.. ,-:

.! to .1 iii<-|„.» in lu„ r,..., i« |,,..|Vnil.l,.. lit, „„,,.„ hi|.s:,|, s Mai uia.l.s l„r

th.. t,irm«.s can often l„- ohu |,y s,.ni„.i; ,:„, ,|,„ ,,-,.,.s ,„ i|„„ ,,„ ,„,

fows will mil a.ioss tlu- slop,.. S,.ni,. soils thai ,1,, ii„: „asl, |,.„ih .,,„
Irfl>;at.'.l >-ii,-.-,.sHriilly «iih i„nows h« st....|, as l,.|, .„• m.-h,. r,.,., ,,, i|„.

lHin.ln.,1, 1,1,1 nsiially siirh «n,-l,.s ai,. ..x,,.ssiv,. an, I u i,,. ,|„ii ^,■r. snr.ll

Riftain.s 1„. i,un..:l inio th,. furious an, I ui-,ai ,aiv lal-.n t,. i.r,.v, „i u„sh-
...K of th,. .oil. \Vh,.|c. Hl.,.p «ra,I.H ar,. n,,t aNoi.lahl.. ;.hor, fiiirowH
slioiiltl bi- used.

. — WIh II f.i

.\l'l'I.H\Tli(\ :i|.- \\ \T|.;|{.

««!<• (ti< liaiils aii(< giiiiiitily .,| \\„t<r l<> V,,-.

.Mo«t oiThanlists liav,. Ih,.i|. opinion as 10 uli,n i,-,ii;ai i,,n is n,.,.ssary
Th..y may 1„. K„i,l,.,l by the api,,.aian,-,. of th,. fruits aii.l th,- l.-avfs Inii'th,^
bP8t way to dotoimin,. Iho ne.ssity for Irrigation is bv a hIu,Iv of th,. ^oi|
This i« best ilon,. by borinss or excavating ti'f.nilu.s to .lotcrnihu. wher,^
the roots are an.l how niiuh fro,, moisture there is in th,. „oii Th,. in,.tho,l
of taking soil samples and the <i,nerm:natioii of p,.r, ,.ntaK<. of free nioisiur,.
In the soil have been explained I pa«e «:,). After th,. o ardlst lias b,-
fome familiar with bis soil and knows the b,.st per,-,.ntai:e of moisture for
his trees, he may be able to tell r,.adily by takins a sample of th,. «oil in
his hand whether there Is sulticieiit moistur,. or not.

It has been stated above ( pa^e •;:, ) that the niinimun, aipouni of f,-,.,.
soil moisture in four tVet of s,.il to keep appl,. tr.,.s in kooiI Kiouini; con-
dition has been found to be from 2.;, to ;! per cent, bv weight. ])r I,oimh-
ridKe found in his ex|,eriments on citrus or.hards in soutliern California
that the moisture content In the iipp,r ,,nir f,.et varied from about 4 7 per
cent, by w,iKht before IrriKation, to H.tU per cent, immediately afl,.r irri-
gation for a sandy soil, from about <!M iier cent, before irrigation to I I ■>?
per_cent. immediately after irrigation for a sandy loam, and from about
.).i. to lw.,sG pel cent, for a heavy loam. The percentage of free moisture

«^JL •I'jMt

i i !

ij t -

^ n =

8«

»! We. kn aft.T liilKHllnii ««« icilii'i'il liv kdII t'VttiiDrallDii ainl iiliim triiiiti-
plialUiu III uliiait thi^ mumii' m kIikIiiIv IiIkImt lliuti JiiHt bi'foic In Kiilidii.
iluMi'il (III tht'M' IlKini's Hilli Inlnutldii ui tilx »ii-k liitrnalu, tlio iicni.nlaKc
of liiT iiiiiIhIiiH' III mill at rarji IniKatloii woiilil li.- aliiiiil ", |n.r . cni fur
sanely liiaiii ami 4 ", fm- lUiy liiaiii iir lii'n\y Niaiii, or about ."i ihhiihIh nf
vMiliT to IiHi ^iiiiiiiIk or Hoil. Kim- a mill air ilrUil wiIkIiIhk rii.ni alioiit lint
III till imiiiiiiIh, thJH 1h ••i|iiiNaU>iil to aliout 1 liirii of waliT In 12 llulift*
ilc|ith of mill. TIiIh kU'h fur the iiirrcrt i|iiaiitity of water to |iiit iti tlio
upper bIx feel of mill In onl- r lo iiialiitaiii I Iir proper i|iiHiitil> of noil
iiiolKture, u ileplli of iilioiit It liiclies of li ri>;ailiiii, apiilleit at nix wi ik liiter-
\alH ilurliiK IlK' >;iii\\liiK weamiii

'I'liine llniired are liuneil on rmullH oblallieil for full j^lowii illrua
on Iiui'iIh wlilrli In Callfornui iihiiuII> reipilre aboiil twire an iiiiiili an apple
IreeH or other fleriiluoiis truit. Therefore aboiil ■! Ituhes of IrrlKalioii
water at eaili irrlnuiinii m'paraleil by iiitervalx ol 4« ilaya tthonlil be ample
That thiH niiioiiiil may hr yiillliU'iit for a yoiiiiK orrhanl ul li aat ia tthov.n
by the followliiK caoe in lilahii ilemiU'eil by i'on H. Murk, In charge of Irri-
KatUin liueHtiKatioiiH foi- the r. S, lnpartnunt of AKrlciiltiire. The orih-
aiil !■ a thrifty .'> year olil orrhanl locatetl at Twin Kails where the annual
precipitation varies from aloiil ,s lo is Incheo. liuriiiK the KrowlUK Meamiii
of r.tld Ihe rainfall was 1 'a ln< hes anil the ileplli of Irrigation water ap-
pllerl V iis about 7 '4 ini his. The koII wa^ kept well miilrhed by freiiueiil
cnllhatiipim ami tlie niolntiire at the enil 1 I the s( anon in the fall was fully
as hiKh us at tin- I 'Kinninc of tlie reason Thin one eatie is nut I'onilnnive
bn; it shows the posHibilities «.. Miiiall iiiiantities o' water lareriiliy uKecl.
Till ixaniplen of net iliit* of water on orrhanlH in eastern WaBiiiiijjton anil
Miiniana tiivin on pa^e li I Imlliate the i|u.intities iihimI wIiIi oniinary lare
in irrigation anil rMltivation. It i« inti resiiiiK to iiotiee that the ineasiin'-
nients maile on lilriis on harils Khoweii that tlie iiiniuint of soil niuistiire
uni I li»(l to nandy loam soil was prailiially the same an lor heavy loam soil
anil ilay loam. This is probably true of any hoII whlili la miflliiently ileep
and not underlaid with a very open sandy or gravelly noil, in wiiirh rase
the soil xliould be irri):aled more frei|Ueiitiy and less ili'plh of water applied
at each lirij;ation.

J.— NuiiiImt of Ii'i-iiialioiiM I'er SeaMiii.

The number of IriiHaliims will depend on the capacity of soil iii ret:iii'
water. The orchardist sluiiilil he guided mainly by the examination of liix
soil and should try to keep the mi)i«ture luntetit within the limits Bta:.Ml
above; that is, the free moisture whuuid be between .'. and In per cent, of
the weij;ht of the soil. For an open .soil, well drained, i for a shallow soil,
lijiht irrigations appli«'d frei|uently are bes.; fur a deep retentive Hoil three
to four irri^'atiolis 4 or ti iiiclns deep ai«' ampU'. The practice in nuine of
the fruit KniwiuK disliicls of U'ashinjjtoii, Idaho, Mutitana i'lid Ciiioiado is
desiribfil by Professor Kortier in I'. S Department of AsficiUure, Farniersi'
Huiletin 4ii4. on Irrigation of Or, iianls. as follows:

"In the Yakima and Wenatchee fruit-K'ovvinK dist". icts of WashiiiKlon,
the first Irri^'ation is usually piven in April or e'jrly in -May. Then I'ollow
three to four waterinjis at interval« of 2u to ,'lu da:,s. At .Montrose, ('olo.,
water is used tliree to lUe times in a season. At I'ayetle. Iilahu, the same
number of irrigations is applied, hes:inninn about .June 1 in ordinary sea-
sons and repeating the operation nt the «'nil of 'M> day intervals. As a rule,
ths= iircl'nT'iJs "^ I ,cv.i~r jji!, Idal'.it ;u'e waterni t!'.r*"e timer: |jetri:'.:::!'.ir ahu'.it

•«• that II,.. „..« «,M„| ,„(,, i,a " ,' " *■';*" "" "• I"""- H-l.i.ii.li.r -,.

•"•"ir. ii. „„. „„,.. ,„ v,nV I,;; ,: ""•■ ''•■'••''■ "•■'•*' "■•■■x-

InlKat...! at.,,,,, ,|„|, | , ,v„^j„,, , ,',' ^„'^; ^, ^ , V',,'"""' "" , "'*■■ "" " ""'■•

" " Hh,I,,|. Ili.trii II (iiMNt i,,r II,, M,.,,, . ,

»'u:.'H II.- I„il, «,„i! M-nlana Au , i, „|,,„,,| ,:,u,.^..,

"Ah u Ki-iiiTal lull', m.iiiiu m.., n. .. i , , .
lrriKail.,nH V<,iini! ir..,san. ir V. ., "' "'"" •«" '" l"ui-

}^M.. u.,. ....... „^.. ;;„:,::;:, ',;;.;:; v:;!.r- • -■ y^zrv-^n ■'""

I 111. In ,,,iim.ii|,,„ I, ,||„v l„. nil, ii,«. ., ' '' " ■ '""I ^'i«u«i

.1^,;".,;,, !;::;;;:; "■ • "-■■-'!:-:"'::..::: rx "1;:;:;-!.:--^:: i!r

!l. — I all anil Wini.r InlHulioii.

early f,„H, |„ ,|„. f,,,, .,,,„^ ^•"""' 'y"-.!.* .lamuK..,! i.y ,„..

th.. H.,ll Is i.,„ 1.1., ,'' "ff "I""" " «'l.v i" -lu. .„i,„„.,. „,„|

.•..■».ni ..„!,; :7'''''''''';',''''''^'« •"- f»ll "-' Win,..,, ,„„

^T '->'^'^-<^^Z::^^^^^

an,l „„|> «,.,n,.|..,„ «ai.,. h1„.„|,| „., „,,,,..„ , „..„ ;:''";;;' '" ^ ""-■

i. — Itiiiiiiltiu Uai.i- hi III.. I ii,,„„H

.,.rr:;;:;,;;,™;;u';-;;;;;r:;,,:;;,:;;:;;:;-r''i;r""-

:";;;':r-:-:;;;t:™;':,::.;:::;::;i::'i-";\'---
^tr:,:r'r;;rrr;:;::;:;r:::;::::;;;H "•■■-■"":-

"... was,.. ,„■ a ...,n,.„..„,s ,„... „ „..„ „„ , . ' ,r." 7": " '"""^

r-, :•:■„;::• -^-^- ■ .a":.v.,::;:;iJ';;:.:;:::-;;;;,:;;

n.a:',:a,r ';:.,;;; a ;:;;:\,!:;..';::;:;;r;:;;;;:-:':^

rr;;..:::;.^:'V"'" ^' -----^^

MIlM' IHM't'.SSJi t V Id ! ri-luMfi. 1 :n,-|.. I i-. f-. ' * ^ n tut

. ... «i.. s .,f .„■ ' .„!1 ^ '"'■"■ """■'■'•■" '^'"' • '■' '""-''^ " '•" '""■--

Siz.- ,,r -,r..;,in. Nuiiii.. r ,.f ,1,1 ^ ,.. •,■ ,,

min,.r-'ln, h... . '" '■'■'^■■"' ■ ' '». li- -- .I- P. ...-. l,,uMs , r

■'^""- "•-'■■- l^...r,-. , r,... :;„ ;,,,,... ,_•

i;::::' 'i'"^' ';'"^^ ':"'^ ^'"^'^- -^■'- -»•!-.
^" • ■■■■"^ :^ p. '■ '^ ^:
i: '.

h ' I

X8

Till' Tiiiiiiljci' <)l' liirrows into which tlic irrigatiiiB hi>a(l may be divided
will dcpciiil iiiiK'h (111 ilic (liaraitor ol' thf soil and niade of liirniwH, In
tioiiu' casis diu' half a niincis" iu<li iir fvcii luss may be iiiii into fucli fui-
idw while for some sandy .soils it is ncccHsary to uso :i or 4 iniiicis' iiuhcs
in order that the water will reach tlie lower end of the furrow and not be
all absorbed at the npiier < ml. On tijiht Moil a small stream must be used
in Older tlial it will run slowly in the furrows and «ive time for the water
to percolate into the uroniid witlioiit a waste at tln! lower end. To prevent
the iiiiiier end of Hie furrows from receivinK too mucli water it is always
desirable to Iienin with a lar^e stream into each furrow and rush the
water to the lower end, tlien reduce the size of stream to obtain an even
distribution.

With furrows :'.:!u feet lonK, tl feet apart, and a Hritish Columbia miners'
Inch to eaili furrow, the time which the water must run to nivo an averane
depth of water on I'le soil of <! inches is about !<• hours. Depending on the
nature of the soil and lennth of the furrow, the time the water is run into
the furrows varits from 4 to ix hoNr.s. I'rof. K. W. Fischer, of Montana,
found that on the clayey loams of the apiile orchards on the east bench of
the Ilitti r Hoot Uiver, it rei|uires from 12 to IS hours to moisten the soil in
furrow irrigation, 4 I'eet deep and ;i feet Bideways.

3. — rreveiilUiii <il' l.iiNseN of Wilier .A|i|ili<-<l; ami Ciiltivulioii.

The lofses which occur in the application of water to the soil are:

1st. The losses due to nne(|ual distribution of water iu the Hoil caused
by deep percolation and waste at the upper end of the fielda, unequal
division of water between furrows, and excessive use of water which is not
retained by the soil.

2n(I. I.oss from nealect, because of careless irri;;i>tion which allows
waste in the low places and at the ends of the furrows, causing; injury to
roads and adjoiniiiB orchards or farms.

;!rd. I.oss by evaiioratioii of the water in the furrow itself and especial-
ly of the soil moisture from the wet soil.

Tlie remedies to minimize the losses due to uufiiual di.itribiilion of
water in the soil anil the waste due to deep percolation have been fully
discussed in the precediUK iiages. The loss from neglect can be largely
pievi nled by care. The losses due to evatioration can be lessened by apply-
ing the water iu deep furrows and by thorough cultivation.

Irrigation wiili dei i) furrows places the water well below tlu' surface
and dots not wet the surface soil to the same extent as with shallow fur-
rows; this decreases the evaporation loss and permits cultivation of the
orchard soon after irrigation. It also encourages deep rooliiig wliicli is
always disirable exceiit where the soil is very ahallow.

Cullivaliou is one of tlu' most inilioriaiit factors not only to prevent
evaporation, but to imiirove the condition of the soil. To prevent evapora-
tion the s(!il should be cnllivatid immediately after each irrigation. Pro-
fessor Fischer, llorliciiliurisl for the .MoHtana Agricultural College, utates
thai as a general rule c.rchards should \w cultivatid every ten days during
the growing season until about .\ugiist Isl. Cultivation si'ould .slo|i at that
time, esiiecially in young orchards in order to induce the trees to mature,
thus putting llieiii iu belter Kuiilidon to endu'e freezing temperatures in
tV.f. enrl.v i':i!'. n*wl '.v:i;t»-". !!,;- dcscriiirp iht- jiroccs^ of cuHivatinTi iti
i\lontaiia us fi.llows:

•>'«>. I Ills plowi ■ '

TIW. is rolKnv..., .i„, a «„i... „„,,;■.:;. MnolitMn^ Man^^^^" '"

, -^ ' " «'""i.:ai- nuiln, .; ,„ s i,„.|u.s tln.k is ,

'1''<'I> soils tl.ai. on., only :: ,„• 4 in.hrs tlii,l<

pi-acticMl, ri-f.(|noiU Iri-i.tation Is not iiccossa
tak ■■

iiucli iiKH-c <.|Tc(ti\(. for

li thorouuli iiiliivatiim is

IniKatioii ualiT can not

|a .. tl... p,a,... of f,..„HU.n, an., .......on.,, ..nUiva, ;. 'l In /:" ^^^

«a .on „. ,.n-n,ws .,f .,i,r..,vn, ..op.hs an.l of nn„.„..s of .li,!.., ,„„,.;

... T;;a;;nr;::'i;;""""'"''^-^-'^- "^- •• ^ — ..■.•-':

ill

M— IRRIGATION OF POTATOES.

!• — Selection i,( Soil.

I'.)tat

Til

.).'s ai|. mown v

cy may lie ^i'

•■ry prolitalily in many

fills i)iir|

own .separately a.s a

ol' till- iri-i.ijateil .listi-i.t,«

some inconie I'
pos.' tliey

><>se. or tlioy may b.. planteil bet

r.)ni tbe lan.l

Willie tile trees ar

rial .rcip on lan.l .levoleil
ween tree rows in order to .)l)tai

l.'Ks (letriniental

ire preferable to deep rooted pla

<• younK anil for tlii.s imr-

Kiown

proving tbe text

to tbe I

iiojier giowtb of an

iits wbicb are always ni

on lanil wbi.b is to be planted in f;

u-cliard. They can also be

lire of the

soil.

ruit trees, for tb

»' purpose of iin-

I'otatoes whhli a

orchard or while tb

r.> Blown on orchard soils

yields as obtainc.l
potatoes. Or.hard

tbe trees are y

ith

er prior to planting tb.

yoiniR, can not be expected i.i give

)n s.)ils which are sele.ted

potatoes. This

soils are not always well suited f

for t'l.' purpose of «

as large

matter, but the cont

us esiie.'ially true of

of tbe s.iil

nuons .•iiltivation, tli

a soil wbicb is dell

rowiiiK
»■ large yiel.is of

tb

e con.litlon of tb(>

wben barvesting tlu

eieni In oigani.-
e irrigation an.l tb.. iligging

-•oil.

[■rop in 111.' fall will v.^ry

IIP

iii.h inipr.iv..

\VI

<■" potato. 's are to b<

obtii

; row 11

niaxinniiii pi .■,;liictii)n, tl

<eparat..|y aihl for tli.' .■hi,.f piirp.

givi n prop.'r lr<.atm..nt.

le soil shoiil.l li

soil, well (Iraiiii'd,
it in go.i.l con.i;ti

The best s.iil is a

jf
e .arefiilly selecte.l an.l

with sulli

saii.iy loam of fairh

ulh.'ieiit hiiiniis or ile.'iiyed organic 1

on an.l incn.as.. its

pow.'r to r..ta;n iiui

porous
nail. 'I- Hi put

" — Trealmeiil i>f Soil.

To otbain 1
a foiin.lation

i(.avy yiel.is .sanilv

lils

tin

■rop which will a. 1.1 liii

"SI usually lie pr.>|inre;l by groulii:

mils to 111.

.luoth

s piiriuis.' ar.. alfalfa, clover.

s.iil.

Tbe 1

.' con.lilien tb(. rotat

and pel

To Iv

I. 'St .rops f.ir

■ep the lan.l in good pro-

practice in Colorad.

ion of crops is usually a.lv.icated. A

potatoes for two yi.ais, anil g
sometimes omitto.l.

IS to grow either clover

or alfalfa f

.ir twi

common
t'ar.s.

ram or jieas for on.. y..ar: this last

<rop IS

90

j:hr

! f:\[l'

! i

W'lrc alfalfa Is I lie foiinclatioii ciop it is lUtlitT (lillliiilt to plow it up.
This is usually done by plowing; the alfalfa wlicii it is blooiuiiiK. liist slial-
low to a (li'ptli of \i or 4 inilics, in order to turn over the plant and cut off
tlie crown at tliat dtptli to expose the roots to the sun. This is followed
by a deep plowini; in the fall wliicli leaves the land in j;ood condition for
the potato crop.

New laiMl is brok' ii uii in the fall previous to Krowing crops by plow ill);
(leei)Iy and allowing it to stand in tiiat condition until spring; when it is
either worked nii by a s!. allow plowing ■♦ to t> inches deep and Ihiii har-
rowed, or ."imply imlveii^'el anil worked up with a disk or qirin^ tooth
harrow .

:l. — I'liiiitiiiK Potatoes.

'I'iie time of iilantiu); varies wiili climatic (ondi!ioii,s and the kind of
l)otatocs. Karly |iotato(s aie planted in the spring as t:o(;n as the frost
is out of the nronnd and when there is no <lanf;er of late bard frosts, l.ate
potatoes may be planted as laJe i;i; the middle of .Iiiiie, but usually earlier
is mote (lesiiab'e. cspi cially w 1 ere there i,s a delicient water supjily in the
late summer.

The depth of planting dejiends on the condition of the soil and the kind
of potato! s. Karly potatoes planted in moist retentive .soil are place! 2 to
2 'a inclus deep; where the soil is n<!t retentive atid is dry, or where there
is danjier of heavy fiost, 4 inclus is better. The rows are spaced 'Mi to 42
inclus a|)art aiul tlu- hills in the lows 12 to 1-") inches apart: on rich land
they may be placed as closu as H inches apart.

The seed may bo (itl.er whole or cut. Good si<!e seed mi - be used. In
Colorado medium size whole seed as larce as two ounce.-, is preferred.
Four ounce potatoes ate cut in two and six ounce potatoes in three. I'ota-
tois raised on irrigated land are not considered the best for seed, and dry
land Eted from Wisconsin, Minnesota or from non-irrigated land of Colo-
rado, are jeiierally used in that State, it is important that the seed be
pioperly selected. A uniform size is desirable. Seed averaKinj; 1 1-2 ounces
in weifibt and spaced 12 inclu.s apart in rows spaced 4(i inches apart will
re<iui,e about I2(Mi pounds of seed to the acre.

For small areas the seed is iilr-ed in the furrow and pressed by hand,
then covered with jilow or harrow. For lar^e areas mechanical planters
drawn by a horse are used. They will open tl.e furrow, place the seed,
cover it, rnd pack the soil.

■1. — Ciiltivalioii.

The cultivsition should begin soon after planting. The first cultivation
between tl.e lows which are indicated by the tracks of the planter, besins
a week after plantinn. This (ultivation should be K or 1u inches deep In
order to well suirle the soil and kill the alfalfa which may havt> a tend-
ency to spiout ajiain. Tlie cultivator drawn by two horses, lias four
shovels, two for each side of the low; they are 4 to 'i inches wide and 14
to l"i inches lonn. The cultivator is followed by a harrow. Cultivation is
continued with the harrow iiassed over the land in both directions once a
week, if possible, until the plants are ."i or 6 inches liigh. Shallow cultiva-
tions after each irrigation until t'le plants cover the ground Is desirable.

Tt. — Qifiiiitity of Wairr IC<M|iiiie<l for INituloes.

Kxperiments made by the Agricultural College of I'tah on the relation
of yield to nuantit.'- of water- used, gave the following results:

ai

Salt

M..ri

Kx|,..r

■allty.

I.iiki' Count. \

fi'litii ..r «

iiM.Mi S;:iiion I'la

it'T ai pli.'.l in in.h, .i.

7 '■•
10 "
11\

1«'4

20 >3

17->,
ItiU

-I'j
II .". 1 ..

I'tf
9

i:.

JO
40

^ I' I'l in l.ii.-li.l.v |,,.r ;,, r,.
I'lii "

:'.".8
-7n

L'l:

I 1 1!

Till' above rt^nhs sliow that K! i,. •xi i„, i .■ '

nearly as nreat an.i i,t «„,„.! .all .t^.a,;;^" ..:"'""' "'" '"" '"^ •^■""'
also corrobota,.., by .nea«,„o„u.,„s .a /b H wu' """■"/'l'- '''"" ''*

The fc-sults obtaine.1 are sivett b.lo '" """" '" ^'■'^'•'■

wben tho water is oobl, will retar,! the growth. The moisture in the"«oi"l

sboiild be kept fairly •inifn-pi -inti' ti , ,) . -'"lure in tlie hoil

ciiiLv .in.m.m .inti, f!,r tiibfr.s boRm to ronii, wiieii a iarse

ter IS required. The need of irrigation n,ay be indirated by

=-..011111 ue Kepi rairiy unitnrnt
quantity of water is required.

.Ri^^r^r

V

i

I

! i

1*2

the aiiiicaianic of ll:c plants such as tlie (larUcnliin of tlio leaves, or iirefer-
ably ly in , xaininutioii ol' tl:e toil iiiulcr tlie KWil'ace whcie the tiibeis loiiii.
The fo'A is in ^ood <(>mllliiui when a hall ol' earth siiiieezeil in the hand
will le'alii it.) ihape.

Tie last irrijiatioii should be aiM'Hed bel'ore the growtli of tuber ceasi^s
in order to sive about one month and a half to two nionths for ripiiiinji in

dry earth. Wliere |ie,tatoes aie ^rown be;w(en tr invs, hiti' irrijiation

and cull. v,".t (111 after the liis: of .\u«iisit will keep the oichard in yrowliif;
condilM;!' too !i;tc' in lie fall and will not nive f. e wood sulllciriil lime to
mature Ix'foii' the liis: hard frosts.

7. — Method of Iniautioii.

I'otators are irrvuated hv furrows male midway between the rows. T'.ie
furrows lire made by a double luouldboard plow \vhi(h foni'i a V tii'inh,
the liottom of wl;ieh should be about II to 12 inches below the crown of the
plant. Tlie !in>;th of tie fuiiows si (uild not be over 2hu or liuu fee: for
lioious ;andy .'■o'l iMid not over .MMi to lieu I'eet for more retentive loam.
(Jreater lenjiths j-ive uiiei|iial distribution of soil moisture with an < xcess
or waste rt I he u|ipei' en I due to deep percolation.

A coMiiron piaclice in Colorado is to open alternate furrows for the tirst
irrlKntion. and for the next irrigation optn the furrows in the intervals
between rcws whicli were left uncpfned in the first irrigation. For more
than two irrigation the alttrnat'on is repeated.

The divis'on of water be'.wetn furrows Mie size of tl'.e stream delivered
to eaci' funow. f e lengtli of time the st.";u is run into the furrows, are
the .SI 1' e and Kintrolled by tlie same factors as the irrigation of orchard
and al'alfa by furrows previously described.

I'otato vines are shal'ow rooted and the fret|uent application of cold
water no doubt retari's their giowth; for this reason some irrigators iirefer
to apii'y V.e water at night when tlie soil and water liave had all day to
warm up in the sun. T! -is practice also has the advantage that the loss of
moisture by evaporatien is deiifPfed. Many growers object to night irri-
gation be;Ruse of the night worl< necessary to distribute the water. How-
ever, this may be cut down to a minimum by a proiier preparation of the
ground and th.e regulation of the wate, delivered to the furrows by placing
spouts in the banks of tie 1 ead ditch at the head of each furrow or by
UL^ing fcr t' e head ditch a Hume wi;h auger holes as described for orchard
irrigaiion.

Additional information on tlie agricultural pliase of jioiato j.'row.ng
may be otbained by consulting the following bulletins:

Potato Invcsfgations. Hulletin Xo. !»4, Agricultural Kxpenment Sta-
tion, rnillman, Wnshingtcn.

I'otato niltiiie on lrri^iatei Farms of the West, Farmers' Hulletin :'.««,
r. S, Department of Agriculture, Washington, O. V.

VII,— IRRIGATION OF ALFALFA.

Tie value of alfalfa as a forage nop and as a foundation cmi) for
orchards or potatoes to be grown on soils lacking fertility, make it desir-
able that information on the proper methods of irrigaiion of this crop be
included in this bulletin. The growing of alfalfa is not widespread in
British Columbia, but its rapid spread in almost every state of tlie I'liited
States makes it nr.cciiahle to exiiect that it will becenie a more import-
ant crop

LEGEND

Slope of Lana
DirecCjon of flotv m Flume

FlK. 7." IIU1lllMitii:n ».»«(<■

Ill fur Ipii iirrr (rni't. Knii-it li'k, Hioli.

III. i:. S. llull'iin IS'S, r. S. |i,;ii. Aur.)

! ' !

94

tlial the furrows ilo not cxci'ed tHio U'ft for ordinary loam soils anil S.'IO
or even 22» ffft for lioidiis Handy soils. 'PI, is ri>i|iiiiis tluU tlic Held be cut
lip by two or more head ditclics or luad Miinifs fed by tlic supply laloral.
A typical wooden Hume distribMlion tivsiem for an aifaiia field at Keiine-
".visk, WasliiiiKtoTi, Im shown in the aicompaiiyint; diagram ( Ki^. 7">). The
furrows are made ;i to »i inches deep, about the same widlli, ami miaced
Irom Is inches to 4 feet apart. tle|iendiiiB on the cliaracter of tlie soil. The
furrows are commonly madi' by the use of a marker or furrowing nled
whicli may be a routili implement made of Ioms fastened lOK'etiier and
s|)aced the rinht distance apart, but preferably made of timber as Kliown
below ( FiK. Td). This leaves a smooth furrow without doils to interfere
with the flow.

: i

FIk* 7U.^FiirriininK ^lr<l>

I I'^armtT-s' lUilUtln 31i2, I'. S. Di'iit. Aur.)

The water is divided and distributed into thp furrows from the head
ditch or flume as for orchard irrigation, usually from spouts placed in the
ditch bank or from holes bored in the side of the flume. At flrst a larger
stream is turned into each furrow to rush it throuRh to the lower end and
then the openinR is regulated to give a small stream which is allowed to
run 12 to 24 hours for furrows ;{3(i to 660 feet long and 24 to 4S hours for
furrows 66i) to 132(1 feet long. For porous soil a larger stream for a
shorter time should be used. With furrows 2 feet apart and 33(1 feet long
It will require about !-"> miners' inch to each furrow, running for 24 hours,
to give a depth of 9 inches of water on the land. The practice in the
Yakima Valley is to make the furrows IS inches apart when the land is
first seeded and to abandon every other one after the plants are well rooted.
'2. — .Aiiioiiiit of Water Iteqiiirefl.

The duty of water measurements given for alfalfa (page 62) sliow the
great variations in (luantity of water ap|)lie(I by different irrigators in dif-
ferent localities. These quantities do not give any idea of the correct
quantity of water to use. The maximum yield of alfalfa obtainable in any
case will depend not only on the quantity of water used, but on the t le
when it is applied. When properly applied it has been found that different
quantities of water will give different yields but that the increase in yield
is not in direct jiroportion with the increase in quantity of water applied
and there is no doubt for every particular case, a depth of water which will
give a maximum yield and any quantity applied above that is not only
wasted but decreases the yield because of the excess moisture in the soil.
Professor Kortier in 1H(I3, when director of the Montana Kxperiment Sta-
tion, made experiments on seven plats of alfalfa to determine the relation
between quantity of water applied and yield. The results obtained are
given in the following table taken from 1'. S. Department of Agriculture,
Farmers' IluUetin 373 on Irrigation of Alfalfa.

Mtst^Ll

^^^^3^-

'l^i

^^^'.'UnfCi^'^tmSSi^

■^^SEcT^IS^FSr

tiimmlllrN ..r «n„r \„p„r,, ,., uf«lfH „„„ , ,, ,

l-ltMrrlnirnl ^Inlln

■■■irril, Munmna

■lat

IrrlmiilMii.

i-l.ili.

t.:» ft.

;iir:ilf.i.

I I.I 1..I1-

it:

.Ml

Alex. Jlcl'lii-lsdii, S<

IllSipCCtiOII, Mtat

f« tllHt

iiclaiy of the lilali

iliiccd the liiaxlii

Ml soiMlifiii idali,

while thii-tj

mill (1(11, (,r alfalla an

was (latiiam.il to so

ix iiiilus iiroihiccil

< Moaid of lloiiic iillwial
us of watiT aiiplii'il |ii-o-
loiiiiliiii; to si\eii tons ol' lialcil iiav

M iiiil

six and oiu-tliinl

nil' t'xtciit I

tons; bcsiilfs Ih;

).v excessive use of water.

lield

Ml-. Don II. 11.11 k.

carikd on during tl

in iliaiKe or Iriijiaidii |nv

on the watt

!<• past two seasons some vei-v

cstiKaiioiis in ldah(

was to ."oU'it Held

ie<iuiieineiits of plants and dntv

interestiiiK exper

lias
inn lits

of water.

8 av« raniiiK abc

Tl

ic nietiiod iiseil

These llelds were divided

used tile same
been bis usual iiisK
and on the third part, a
ured and the yield

into tlui
manner of irri^ati

airis on typical farms of tl

le state.
11 one part the owner

('11 the second

e e inal iiarts. ()

111 ami same iinantity of water as had

part a Kii-ater

sii'aller amount. Tl

amount was used

yield.

Th,

s weighed to ilet

clover, are n
of Idaho.

lesiilts obtained for the diff

ermine tie ainc

le water was larefiilly meas-

iveii in the Kis! th I!

eieiit croiis

icniiial Iteport of i!),

t-^viiin t!'e greatest
Krain, alfalfa, and

ate KiiKineer

The only experiment f

or red clover

was made

Held with very sandy !<nd Kravelly soil. Helc

extendiUK to a depth of at least loo feet, the subs-idl

(ent. sand an 1 lio to tl

feet from the suifa.e. T;i(. field was

run over the siiil'aie ■listnu

on a two year old clover

2 feet from tie surfa

was of

per cent, (oaisi- Kiavel. Tl

ce and

to 40 per

le water table was

results obtaintd w»

nces f:(Mii lilo (
rs follcws:

irinatid by lloodinj;, tl

cet to as much as 2:!.'.:t fe(

10 water bejnt;

The

Niinihi

T of lrri)i;itli:

'i-..i:il ,1,

aPrli.M).

Yi.-l.l

Tl

le Kreattst yield was obtained wiili the medium aiuount of

in all three cases the (|

due to the very open character of tl

uaiitities used are very laif;e an 1 iiKlndc

water. Hut

a uaste

water is run. A lar;

le soil and to tl

especially at the iipiier end of tl
runnin.1,' the water sliorter d sta

:>' piopoition of the ualer

oim distance the

lost by ill

le Held.

•P periolat

ion.

Th

e waste could be lesseiieil bv

nces, pieferahly 1

ess than .".on feet.

The

experiments for alfalfa were made

sandy and prav
same manner, the

e on a variety of soil.';

l.V ^oil.

siniila

very

Alfalfa fi

water beins Hooded dista

to the ahove, was irrigated in the

ve yeais old save the following results:

nets from l!lTf» to 2.'i.".o feet.

ranBiiSKinti#!'«f/'--x

I f!

ll i

96

Niiiiilirv cif Irrlniilliini.

Tiiliil lit'

III iif wiiti-r

f.,:::. f.-.t

H.'.IJ
11.10

Ylrld piT illTl'

Till' m't'iili'st jicld was ohlaiiicil Irom tlio (;i'i>alcst aiiiiniiil (if waliT. In
this rase also wati r was llooilcil iiiiiili tix) I'nr ami llu> lnss by deep iKirola-
lioii is 111) ildiili! very urcnt. 'I'lif wasti> loiild bo vt ly niiuli jc^si'iiiil by
iisiiin I'iciiiicnt liplii inis;ati(His and sliDrlciiiiiK lln' rtislaiicc llii' water lias
to trav 1. iliMausc dl' llir wasii' in bcitli iil' tlif abiivi' mavidly .soils, tlicsc!
ii'Miilts ilo ni;l icinrsml tlii' collect (inaiitily ol' water to use.

1)11 a very sandy loam of line texture down to a di ptli of ti I'eel or more,
the viclils olitaiiied I'or I'oiir year old allalta were as I'ollows:

.NiiiiiImt ,.f irriu.uions.

•r..i.ii ,i.-|.iii ..r v\Mt.

Ml.l.li. .1.

l.l-.l f.-.'l
j.i;.".

4.S!

Vi.M i.rr ;u re

4.14

4.28

4.:.:

The field waa well prepared for irrigation. The yields were nearly tho
Baiiio for tlie dilTereiit del'tliH of water applied.

For a clay soil •> feet or more <U>ep witli a tliin layer of hardpan 2 or 3
feet below the surface, the yields of an alfalfa field .'i years old were:

XuinlMr »( irrln^illiins.

s
8
!l

Ti.tal il.lHh nf H.ltlT

ai.i.li.Ml.

Yield per acre.

3.4.'i

f.'it

4.00

;i.66

4.37

While the yield was greatest for the largest (luantity of water used, it
was not much greater than that obtained where tho smallest quantity of
^vater was used.

On a clay loam of the same character as the above clay soil the yields
from a one year old alfalfa field were:

Number of irrlsations.

Tuial ili'i>ili "f water
a|.|.llc,1.

Yii'hl per aire.

1, i::

f.-

ct

2.8.-.

:.'.l 1

4.!>:i

2.-."i

4.:!5

T';e rehults obtained from tliese experiments show that on gravelly soil
a :..iic; larger ciuantity of water may be used than on more retentive soil.
}{ut tho quantities used do not represent tlie amount of water reiiuired
for tliey include larjie losses due to deep percolation which can be very
much reduied by nuiniiiK the water shorter distances and using light irri-
gation applied mere rrO(|uently. As a rule the yield seeius to increase with
tlie quantity of water apiilied, but the increase in yield in most ca.ses is
slight for a considerable increase in quantity of water and in some cases a
greater yield was obtained with the smaller quantity.

Tho r. S, Departiuent of Agriculture has made experiments on thirty
plats of alfalfa at the I niversity Farm at I»avis, California, to deteruiiae
the best uee of water on alfalfa. The yields obtained for varying amounts
of water are as follows:

07

Depth „f »...,. r a|.|.|l.,I, ■*■'"''' '" ' '■■■'' ^""'

III liilii. 111 l:iu

^•""- I"- «.»:!

'- 1,7:1 - -,.,

-' 6.43 s.ai

■I" ».„:. ,,,;;.,

■'- :.,„,

■•'• T.«o .,.:i:i

'" "r. ■,,,;:,

Tlic plants were I »i) y.'ui » old in I'.ilii ariil tliici' yciifsnlil in in 1 1 Tiii.
raliifHll ihiiiiiK tl;.' tall, uinici' ami «|.riiiK piccdinn the Hiirnrixi' <it I!>1"
was iil.iiut 12 IihIhs. ami piKcdiiiK ih,. tuniiinT of I'.Ml It wa.< Jilmii j:'
iiiclic.-,, Tlic laiiilall diuiiiK ilu' hiowIuk scawon rnnii llic h.^ninii ii^' oi
April t(i tic I'iri of Octohcr in InUli yoars was lets tliaii I indi. T:,. Kiil
wa« a ^andy loan' of jiicat <liptli and the mibMlantial ylidda (.hlainoi .van
our inlKallon «l ow the powj.r of this soil to ictaln tli.. inoistuir pro Imc I
by lln' winter and sih-mik ralnst. Tlie rcHu't« sliow lliat tlif yUdd imij^aufi
maliMially with an Imicas,. in tlic atnoiitit of water applic I np to :iii IikIh t.
which nave a nicaler yield tl.an .■!2 or :;tl indies and alii'.ost as ureal as
48 inc'.HH.

The exiieiiinints made in Montana. Idah(^ and Caliloi nia. diHcribed
above stem to indi<ale thai ;!ip imhes of water careliilly applied will give
almost maximum yields. While greater yields may be otbained hy adding
Kreater (piantities of water, the imiease is only small and will in moHt
cages not pay for the fxtra water. 'Where water is valuable it may be more
economical to use evt 11 less than ;in iiKhes. The best |)ractice in i^oiithern
California where water is valuable compares (le.sely with the experiments
mentioned. At I'omona. Talifornla. the rainfall for l!tii;{-4 was about 9
Inches; the (luantlty of water applied by pumping averaned 2.:i feet in
^epth and the yield of cured hay averaped 1 to 1..'. tons per acre per cut-
ting, live or six cuttinss beiiiR common.

S.— Nuiiil''er <>f lii-iKutionN,

Where theri is sulficient moisture in the soil due to rainfall no irri-
Katlon may be necessary for the first crop. For each succeedins crop it
is common practice to apply one irrisation either btfore or after cuttinR.
On gravelly porouii soil and on shallow soils, two or even three irrigations
for eacli crop may be piefeinble. Irrigation before cutting is the ( iiMtom
in the Yellowstone Valley of Montana. It has the advantage that the soil
being shaded by the i)lant. the evaporation of soil water is decreased. It
also tends, 60 prevent baking of the soil and permits an earlier^ vrrigation
for tie hist < rop. which is m advantage if the available vsater runs short
before tie end of the season. The disadvantages of irrigating before
cutting are that the plants Interfere more or less with tlie distribution of
water and that the soil may take considerable time to dry out sufficiently
to permit harvesting. For these reasons many irrigatois prefer to irrigate
after each nitting.

4. — The I'l-nper Time to liiigule Alfalfu.

Farmers' Hnlletin No. :!T3 on Irrigation of Alfalfa, written by Samuel
Fortier of the I'. S. Department of Agric iMi'^re, gives the following
Information on the proper time to irrigate alfahr vinter irrigation, winter
killing and seeding of alfalfa'

riRgi

■ ■ i
III I

li !

•S

b..M..,..l, ,h.. Ku,.,.,,. „„.| .,.,„,„....HH I, i„ „,„ haiMl. ir i, ,..„ain. ". ImlMlC,,

il. mill xliiiwK till' IriiiuiiitM iif tho

)laiitH to

IliC .>;iiil SIU
picvrrit 11 ilicckiiii; of the |- ^;ii.wi|i.

•Allalla rnniMH.iil.v ,,.,, iv.s .iir,.l..>-H ([•.•ntrii..|it at tli,. Iinn.ls of western

uii.Mi v\ai,.r IS auiiliil.l.. and Ik not n I..i| for other cioiw It

Imii.Ml on tl;>. allMlla II..1,Ih or nirailows wli..tli,.r ihes,. i„.,',l It

I i.'i.. is no Miicslioi; timt ylH.ls of allalfa iniKlit b.- .•oini.l.Matilv

'"'•'^<' '»'■!■ "as 11.X.MI In MnillnK: out wIumi Io applv wain' li,

, ,-.„i, . . ""'; "",''"' ""■ *-''"■" "'■' "' ''i'""'!"' <iin.lltloiis tli,.f.. IB a

"""'". l"'nrn ,,t.,. „r ^„il isiui-,. will,!, will «iv,. lu-st .■.•sullH. fMil.T Ihp

""»''< II f" I Piaitic.. it is liiipossihi.. to maintain uiiirorni
condillons lor any Irnntli of liiiic. Tlie soil is apt to
niiKli or to,, littl.. water, or .■!«,. It i.h ,U.|nK<'(l with cold wate,
when il needs only heat nnd air

irriualois
N iisnally
or .lot.
In<re;ised ir
e.'ii il ki,ii| o
< eriniii
present
Iiloist >

HOlI-
vo ton
time

When il needs only heat nnd air. The niinil.er of irri«BllonH re,,„i, • ,k-
pends upon the depth and nature of the soil, th.. depth to ground w rr
the nmiiher ol entllni.'s. and tie lainrall. temperature, and wind mnv. m> -'

Other Ihlnus lieMit; e(|iial, mole frequent watrrin>;i4 are r Irel in th

warm sections ot the .South than in the cooler portions of the .North Tho
niimher of Irrlnatlons per year for alfalfa lanK.s from 4 in .Montana and
WyxwUiK to ns many as 12 in parts of ralifornia and Arizona In localities
where water Is scane duriiit; part of the season the number of waterines
as well as the amount used , ach tiniH depends on the available supply It
18 a common practice to apply freiiiient and heavy Irrlnation.s in sprfnir
w-hen water Is abundant and to water less often and more snarlnwly when
the Hupply is low."

S. — Winter IrrlKiilioii of Alfulfa.

"Wlien water is applied either to bare soil or to crops outside of the
rPKul.-ir Irripation season it is termed winter Irrigation. The practice
thus lar has be. n conllned lar^rely to the warmer parts of the arid reKlon
It lias h.( ome well established in Arizona and California and is beiUK quite
exiended to parts of OreKon, Kansas, and the Rocky Mountain

rapidly
Staffs.
■K;:
a larK'
of all
wate

etice has shown that a deep ret<'iitiv(. soil is capable of storing
antity of watei\ dn acioiint of the lliictiiation of western streams
Ids. from the small creek to the larjie river, the Kreatcst flow of
len comes at a season when there is least demand for it In a few
local. (S adeiiiiate stora>;e laciliiies have been provided to retain the
purphis. hut as a rule it is allowed to so to waste. The passage of so nuich
waste water led to the introduction of
every case the results

winter irrlKation and in nearly
liave been .satisfai fory. The chief differences be-
< .>p< 1 winter and ordinary irr;ations are llie larwr volumes used, the
crirl.' manlier of conveyiiiK "ml applyiiiK the water, and the dormant or
partially iloniianl condition of the plants at the tiipe of irri^'ation.

••Ml sides fiiriiishinn a .supply of much-needed moisture, winter irrigation
when (oiiiliiions are favorable, p'-evcnts winter killinn and improves the
mechanical (ondition of the noil."

fl. — AVinlei killing of Alfulfa.

•In the colder portions of Montana. Wyoniinj:, Colorado, Itali and the
Dakotas alfalfa is apparently winterkilled from a variety of raiises and
sonietinies fioni a combination of causes. The percntape i*" loss uiotind
Cree'ey. Colo., has been placed at 2 per cent, per annum In this ineaHty
and tbiouKhout the Cache la I'oudre Valley In northern "olorado most of

«!•

•• wint. iklllltiit IH (Ion.- In i>|m n clr\

III

rrlliiili .1 lit H MiHii llv of

Kiel

innlHtiiif III ihc i ill. Ill th

iiiH aiHl l» ipiiif Kcii,.| illy al

1 ralili' ilHiiiiiKf waM iliiiii' to ili.- alrul

I' Willi.. I- (if I;ici7 loii-

< II li' 1 .11, lit of ihi' loiiK dry h|ii-II

tt IU'IiIh aniiiiiil l.ii\|.|aii<|, c,,!

feri'il iiiiiHl. It w

till

111 iiuilwHiti.r. •III.. Ill, I ulfaif,, II,

would liay.. |in.y..iii..c| ili,. loss

<i|iliiliiii (if III,. raitiH'iH that a I

HI., fall

hiir-

■.N'<.«r Wlii'mlaiiil, W-

ilntiiaK<- 111 wint

lllf IiIkIi..!- IKII'tjIIIIH ilf III,

II..M

the will, riiliil)iii.>il « illi tl'

ii, and li..|f alKti tin- ihiikc Im Haid Ki li.. la. k .if

At ("lioti'Bii, ill iiorilK.rii Mont

w i-ITi.i tM pi'diliiit.d li

V I old and » 111,1

M Kllltl'l- MlllSt
IIHII.Sll.l.. Ill

imrt of an airall'a llild whlii
tht- iitiwatiTcd iiiirt
II

itana, a laini.i- waiii..,!, luh in il

1 wiiH Z years old. an, I it

fall.

» inti rkilli',|, w liil..

nanii. Ilii(. yvliiili inlKht h.. ^iv

ion cMcaiK.il Injury, TIiIk and oih.r .yidi.ni.. alo'ni; th

contlitioii

s loo tiiiKii nioisiur.' 1h aM drfrl

I'll no lar to d(.iiionsirai that iiiulci !<oiiii

iiii'iital ax tr

•|'l<ibalily the ihirf caiiH.. of the ■^|ni,.ik'll

tllr

frccziiij; and thinylnv Thi. d

ini; ,ir nifalta ir, altcrnatr

wh.Mi any wati

aiiian.. Iroiii this ,aii.s.. Im yiLally in(i..aH..d

r Ih li.ft HtaiidliiK on the siirfa

lirotcclion, lint «li..n a thin slici't

rtHiilt is iiHiially fatal to idants. Tl

of ice forms ov

A lilaiiki t of siii.u is a
cr portioiis if a lii'lii th

thaultiK on alfalfa

II' had pffcrts of altrrnatc r

crop is liki'Wisi'
ln'ayiiiK of th.. »;(iil

may li.. ohsi.rxcil at III.' (.due of

iri'Ziim and

injured by th.. riiptnrf of the ia|i roots

a Hliow hank.

Th

laiisi'il h,'

•■Fldlii priseiil kii(>\y|..dK(. of the sniiji.ct, tin
to pr<)t..(t alfalfa Melds from winte-killiny

\V1

leri' both th.. soil and tin

I III

air ari' dry the plant hI id I:

eaiis whiili nia.\ b.. iiseil
le siinuiied lip II < follows:

cii'iit water lor eyaporaiion, lint th.. land t^l

loiild be (Iraitieil

le siipplji'd with

tl;or-

oiiKbly that none of the top soil is saturate.!: a iat.. Krovytli s'loiild not ti
forced by b.ayy Irriyalions late in the nr

irrigate afit.r the plants ha

owiiiK season: If tlu' soil

dry.

stionld be perniltled to remain

ye Htoppeil kiowIiij;; and the latest uiiiwih

tection.

on the Kroiind, unpasliired. as a pro-

It may be stated In c (inclnsion that th.. loss to the far

mer frum the

winti rkilliiijt of alfalfa is ntit as Kieat as iiiikih ajipear at nrst. i-h.. dam-
BKe Is done In winter, and ther.. is ample time to plow the plants nnd..r and
secure another croii. which is usually heayy. owiUK to the amount of

The Montana fariii..r who In

bushels

fertilizers a<I(led by the roots of alfalfa,
creased bis a\erat.'<' .vield of oats from .",ii to li
plouKlilntj under winterkilled alfalfa illiistrat«.d this point.
7. — SeeiliiiK .Xlfalf* on l.niiil to lip In-lKutiHl.

I'r acre by

'In the upiier Snake Ulyer Valli.y. In Idaho. alfaKa

by a Mraln crop. Th.. stubble is pl

is usually |ii'ei'eili.,l

early in the sprint; it is double-disked, harrowed, and

plowed t'l to It iiKhis cl.(.p in the fall, and

to 211 pouiiilH of seed is then drilled in il.T."

smoothed.

ti inch.'s a|iait. When oats is used as

inch to 1..', inches d(.(.p in

' roni s

a nurse croii It is «i(.il..|| lii u. sn

to loo pounds per acre beint,' used. Kioin .x to 12 pounds fif alfalfa ;ie(.d
are then drilled in. in th.. o|iposite dlri.ction. Some farmers use

binalion drill wliich

•lis both at tl

le same time. Wlu.n no iiurs..

a I'om-

crop is

to 12

used the alfalfa plants are iiip|ii.d when iliey reacli a height of S
Indus. This is necessary to hold tlie \yi.eds in ii:eck and to cause the
plants to i^tool.

"In the Yakima Valli.y. Mariii and .\|iril are prefeirt d for sei.ilinK
alfalfa, both on account of the climate and the abundant wati.r suiijily of
that period. The ground is plowed di.(.p. ^radi'd. smoothed, and harrowed.
From 111 to 2il pounds of seeil are then put in with a bioadcast seedf.r and
barrowcd liitlitly T'se furrows are tlien marked o>'' and iriit;aton begins.
The Kround is .epi moist constantly until the .\ouii^ plants are fairly wtdl
establish. .(l. The use of so much ^^ater at the start is due lari;ely to the
tend«.ticy o' the soil to bake if allowed to become dry.

"The alfalfa growers of .Montana are alioiit eijually diyided in opinion
as to the adyantanes of iisini; a nurse crop. Those vyho seed grain with
alfalfa claim that they set more out of the land the lirat season, while
those who are o|iposed to this practice believe that the injury done to the
alfalfa plants by the Krain croii extends throiish s.-veral years and that
the sm:iii p: in of :'::,- finsr y.-.ar i.^ more than .jftsel by the lessened .li.-iils
of alfalfa in subsenuent years.

'a'/^"'*

1N

lOu

"111 lion li. Til ColorBilo, rotation of

. ,, In itHtfil.

„H.. »...,'""'■. .^V"""'""' '"■■'""■' ni.iho.iH of H...,ll„« alfalfa a.-,. In

<ln II.,. 11,1,1. HMVMMK I -J lo 1,-, |,„„„,u of alfalfa. «,.tth,K il, r, 1 , rTll

Infoimatio,, „„ tl... vai Io,,h .■.Krli-iiltiiral ,|.i..8tloi,« Invoh,. | |„ alfalfa
urovHiiW anil Its iif,. .an h.. olitaliit-it In fh.. following bull,.* rs

Alfalfa (irowiiiK, Ka.n,.,«- |l„llHln .So. LM.",. I. S. I),.|.«r.m, nt „f .Api-
culture. WanhlriKton. ■>. C.

,,');''""■" ' "" ^"- •••'. Anrl.„l,„,a! Kx,,.-, m Station. .\l„s,»w

Iilaho, '

Vm.-THE USE OF SMALL PUMPING PLANTS
FOR IRRIG.ATION IN BRITISH COLUMBIA.

\nii!e IhitiHh Columbia ,« favor,-.! « .,1, a s>stiMn of lar^. rlvoK, «u.h
a« tho IhoMipson. th.. Fras,.r, the KHtl.. ValU-y an,l lak.a Hu.h u» the
OkanaKan. .(,.-,. s|.!..,„li,| ...kp \nnU^ of wat,-, ar.. practi.aHv n... avall-
abl.. for ^ravi.v irrigation b,.,au. of tbe topoKiapli.v „f ,h.. irritable lan.l
Til,. Irruab!,. lai.il ..xinta usually „ «,.|,arate ^niall va!l,.vs form..,l on both
81.108 of «mall,T str-aiim. r i, small ben<h..s hlRh above the river^. or
lak,«. Kenerall.v wit: oonKnlerable slope towar.Ja these bo,lle« of water
This p.«.ition of the irriiiahle land rombined with the Hat Kra.l,. of the
rivers mak.s ,llv..,.slou b. gravity How eetly from the«e s„ur,,.8 an

eronomieal impossibility. These con.llti.Mm ha e made It ne.e-aary to
utilize the iinialler streams or .reeks, the flow of which U Irresular being
abundant at the beKinning of rhe Irrigation aeaeon but in manv casea de-
creaHiiiK to an insiiffl. ent volume before the . : .ae of the season Moat
<>t the watersheds of these streams are favored with reservoir sif-.» which
can be utilized at a nioderate cost to leKulate the (low. Vp to the pr..sent
the natural etream tlow. supplemente.l n some cai.n with atoraf,'e water
has been the usual sonrc. of supply. Naturally the svst, n.s m„,t easily
•onstructed wvre instalie,! first and the best available sources ImN.- been
taken up. With He increasing demand for vater to put new lan.l under
nriKatlou.iess favorahle sourct^ of wati r supply must. be. utilized, an I the
.ost ot development wiM be<„„ k,v;V ,. There will ..■ ill ,-, main bo.lies
of land for wh, h no tiauty war.-r is a-ailable or onlv available at a very
hish ..ost, and which nay be situated at a moderate elevation above , he
large rivers or lake. For these conditions the development of a wa'er
supply by pumping „u, . be ^he b^^^t solution. The information given below
apph. s to small pumping plants, irrigatint; fiom about Ifi t.. Ion acres.

<'(>\S!I)KHATI()\S (-()\TKI»IJ.I\(; Tin: SKLK<TIO\ OK .A
I'l Ml'l\«; IM.WT.

The proper s-lection of a pumpini; plan' lepends upon manv factors

-nhl.h should be carefuliy .'onsidcred by th. .nteii.ling purcha.>;ers. These

•"•' •■• '•• i^aiil -:::i p.--;na r,i ..peraliun. iZ) liie kind

«ij^' ■ iA'm^:mMmMmfM:,'mif!mi

of |)uni|), Ci) till' claHH of fiiKliK' or .IiIvIiik i.ow..r, i (t ,i,,. ||(«t i o«t i :, t
fuel .oHf, (.11 ..ml of t;x,.,| .liarn... uii.l atl.'ii.lHii. .-. 'l , ,•„. f».|„,.H „!..
lMli'i<l.|..ii<ltMl uii.t »l:oiilil I,.. .'oiiHlili.rt-.l loK.tli.t Th.ir n-latiw Impoit
aiKi. ttill Wiry with i.xnl , .>ii.|Iii..i,h himI tor that i,.,i,..>,i It l» i,„i ,„,««ih|..
t.) Btatc .l.-(ii.lt.. nil.s «ln.h will a|i|.l> iii all .hkcm. A hiii.I> r,i ii,,. .on-
.llllotm iiff'Mtiiiu .'Bill faiior Ik Iht'iffor.' ii.-<,^(tary In caih <■««>•.

•• — <ii|>ml(.» oi IMniil iiiiil I'cihiil of <l|M-i'iiil<>n.

'I'lu. r.'.imrc.l caimtity .ii ilo- plum will .l..|M'ii(l on n,,. nr.a irriKat..,!.
the liity of «iii..r or .l.'i.tli of water rfipilr...! ..li thr laii.l aii.l II,.- porioil
of oiK'ralioii Kor ordliiaiy or.lmnl hoI! in th.- arl.l part of llritl»li (dUini-
l)l« ;i total .ii'plli ,,t 12 imli.-s of watpr during tlie .rricatlon s.a«..n will bt-
niiffl.i.'Mt f.ir yoiiiiK onlianln. Kor a full iM'aiinK on liar.l In in. Ik-h hI. ><i|.|
j«' ample, while for alfalfa ami other foiane cropn J4 lo :it; in'he« Ih pl.T-ty.
Where the toHt of piiinpInK In hiKli suih aH for Hinnll plaiilH anil !ueh
Ilfl8, it will usually not he f.n«,hl.- to ktow at n profit anyihiim hut
orcharila. To re. line lli.> .out of loinipiim, no txceHK water hIioiiIiI he ime.l,
all lofdeii Hlioiild he iireveiiteil In .aieful irritation an. I ilior.iiiKh ciilliva-
tloii. In wlii.h lawe a yomii; oii hard on fairly .lii-p reteiiiiye moII may not
re()iiire more than tl to :) iii.heH oi irrinaliim water ami a f.ill hearinK
onhard not nioie nr.iu 12 or 1.'. In. Ikh diirini: tli.. irriKuii.>n ^..•aMon. To
put a d.'pth of 2 l..t of water on on.- a<re, r lal^es a How of v. ' v ni-arly
1 ruble loot per sediiid for 24 hours; this in e.|uivali'iii to »".n I S. f:al-
loiiH per minute for 24 hours Sis relation <an be apiilie.l to any .-as.' I.,
obtain tlie Hize of the puiiiii example, if it is .lesired to irritali' a

40 aci-e oreharil I 'j I'..' .1.. an irrijiation t*.>as.iii of l2ii .la>s. lliis

re(|iiir(s tio acr.' feet in I2ii .la . .>r 'j of an airi' f.xii per .lay. Tliis
will be obtaiiieil liv a pump ni^n^' ', ..! ii .uhi.' f.i.ii per Hecon.l. .ir llo
r. 9. j;allon» per iiiiiuile, w lien the pump is operate. I . .intiniioiisiy 21 Imiirs
a day every day .liirinK the IrrlKRllon nensoii of four m.niths. K.ir a lu
aere or. liar.l the required .aparifv based on th.' saiii.' ..unlit ions w.nilil h.-
'4 the above or 2s nallons per niiiinte or 11.; of a . iiiiic foo' p.r n.-ron,!.
or about 2'i Itrifisli Columbia niiner.s' ii,.iies.

The abovf twii exainpi.s an- hase.l on a pump oper.u iii; . m iiuoiisiy at
the rates tiiveii above. While .ontinuoua op»>raiion ili'.i .atses the re.iiiir.il
size of plant, it is usually ineferalle to select a plant of lari?er lapaiily
and oiierat." it only a part of the lime. This is espe. ially desirable for very
small orrliar.ls n wiiicli casi' contiiiiioiis operation t;iv.'S :i stream to.)
tmall to irrigate witli. The 'itlier .lisadvanlaj;' s .if (■.•11! ions opera-
'ioi. e'e:

'St. Continuous operation r.'.|Uir.'S .■ontinu.ois iriiKati.in m.l DiiMtant
attention to .>perate the pnmpinii plant. F^or very small tra. !s 11 lenulat-
Mie reservoir may be use.l. but i' 111 iKt be of considerable capacit> o be of
any service and i- must be llne.l with (onciete to prevent seepage losses of
liie water which wlieii iMimp.'d is too valuable to lo.se. IsuaHy it is prefer-
able to purchH.*e a larstr plant and do without a reservoir.

2nd. ("ontiniious operation means that the water can not bf applie.l to
the different parts of the orchard within a short time, so that only a riinall
part of the .(rchar.l .)r farm rei'-ives the water when most neede.l, am! th.>
remainder n'.ist be irrigate. 1 eitlier too ear v or too iate.

:ird. Colli unions oiieration >;ives a small ^tri>ani whi.b cai. ii.if be ap-
plied eeonomi. ally.

I
ft!

■lu\

102

4th. A small p'art ie less efflrient and requires a proportionately larger
fuel .on^un.ption than a larger plant to pump the same quantity of water.

()n the other hand a very short period of operation requires a eompara-
ively larKe pumping plant which will greatly in.rease the fi.st < ost of
Installation, the interest on the eapital invested, the depreciation and fund
necessary to i)rovi(le for renewal.

l-sually it is d.sirahle K. operate the pump not over 1-2 or 1-:! of the
time dunng the irrigation s. asot, an.l often a shorter period is desrable
Ih.s req.ines a pumping plant two or three times or more the size rehired
for continuous irrigation. The capacity of the pump must i.e sufflcient in

all ca.ses to gjve a large enough stream to irrigate econo allv; even for

the smallest orchards a stream of at least .-, miners' inches or about G3
1 . S. gallons iier minute, is desirable.

For a full bearing orchani IS inches of irrigation water api.lied in about
•T irrigations of « inches each at intervals of Si) to 40 davs should W ample
.n most cases. As stated above, where the water has to be pumped to a
high elevation the higher cost of the water demands great care in its use
and 12 to 1.-, inches total depth of irrigation water would be suincient.

The table below gives the re.;-,, re.I pump capacity for various sizes of
orchards or farms and lor different periods of operation, it is based on a
depth of irrigation water of « inches each month, or IS inches in :{ months
which is taken as the irrigation season. The period of operation is given
in number of 24 hour >:a.vs that the pumping plant is operated each month
These da.vs need not be consecutive; for instance if the oi'.iation period is
10 days, instead of applying (; inches of water in one irri..,auon lasting 10
days, the so, I may he so porous and gravelly that it will not retain nioistui
in whicli case it may be preferable to apply S inches at a time in two irr.-
Kations during the month, of ,". days each. The required pump capacity
is given in V. S. gallons per minute instead of Imperial gallons because the
pumps sold in British Columbia are mostly rated in 1'. S. gallons per
minute.

XrveNxnr.t ( annill.v of I'liinix. In I . S. 4;allon« I'rr MIniitr lu «;lvr a « In.h Depth

.If Wuler on Ihr Land Karb Munth M hen Oppralr.1 thr FullonlnK

.\uinbrr of 24 Hour Daya Prr Moatk.

Area
Aort^.<^.

20 day?

10
15
20

.to

40

60

«0

120

1 1:;
I, -,11

J_'8

:icM)

4.''>0

1'8

:.(!

sr.

1 r<:i

:!:18

4.-.0

ST.".

I.", (lay.s.

10 (lays.

.-. ilay.<.

:<8

."iri

n;i

T.'t

lU'.r.

- J."»

ll:i

170

:i4ii

l.TO

1' L* ."»

4r.o

L'J.'i

:i:;8

t>7."»

:i«o

t.-.o

:h)o

4.'.0

675

l:!r,ii

600

1100

18110

900

'3.-,0

-700

'- liay^

- J."»

.■.«:)

4.-pO

1 1:;.".

B7.'i

IGiol

ItOO

2250

l.;r,o

ll.iT.l

ISOO

4."i00

J Ton

6T.".n

:;tioo

ItOllO

.-,(0.1

] :J.",oo

Tlie capacity of pumps for smaller or greater .leptlis of water applied
per month can be easily computed by proportion from the values given.
For difftrent aicas and different periods of operation the capacity may be
obtaMied by interpolation.

i!. — Kind of I'iniip.

The kinds of pum|) commonly used to raise water for irrigation are (1)

■V J. . iMLi:yi^ r^'^y- ^r

103

centrifugal pumps. (2) power plunger pumps, ,3) deep well pumps ,4)
air hit pumps, (f.) hydraulic rams.

Deep well pumps and air lift pumps are used ,or „p:ng nruler^round

water from deep wells. I„ Itritish Columbia tl.e un.lerground water euppiv
>8 unknown and ..ee<l not be considered at present wi.en the water su .pl'v
IS obtainable f,om the large streams and lakes a.lja.ent to irrigable area
For pumping fr.uu tl,.^,. sources the centrifugal pumps and the power
plunger pumps are the h,.st adapted, lly.lraulic rams are u«ed lor small
quantitu^ of water su. 1> as for domestic purposes or K.r irrigation of small
pieces of land. They are economical in operation, but re.iuire spe.ial con-
.litioius such as a nearby stream with «ufli<ient fall in a short .listance
The choice between a centrifugal pump and a power plung..r ,,„nip will
depend on the caiiacity reiiuired and (be height of lift.

Oiiti'ifiiKiil luiinp.

A centrifugal pump consists of a circular casing with tlu- inlet or suction
end connect.d to the center and the outlet or discharge end formed tan.i;eMt
to the periniet<-r. Inside the casing is the runner or impeller keve.l on the
shaft and revolving with it. It is forme.l of curved vanes closely litting
the casing and corrt«ponds to the piston or i.luuger of a plunger pump
When in operation the impeller by revolving imparts a velo.itv to tlie water
between tlie vanes and forces it away from the center of the casing to-
wards the perimeter or rim of the casing tlirough tlie outlet and U|> the
discharge pipe. This produces a partial vacuum at the center of the im-
peller whi<h in<luces a (low tlirough tlie suction pipe into the casing The
number of revolutions of tlie runner or speed of the pump has an e.xact
relation to the head or lift against which the pump is working and for
every head there is a speed for which the inimv works most ellicieutlv.
This speed can be obtained from the pump manufacturers. It is important
that the pump be connected to an engine or motor which will give it the
proper speed. Overs|iceding is preferable to underspeeding but eitlier
reduce the immp efficiency.

Simple centrifugal pumps siiecially designed and driven at a sulli<ieiitly
high rate of speed may be uscmI for lifts cor.-siderably over luii f,et, but
usually the sock pump obtainable from I lie nianiifactiireis is not suitable
for lifts over 7.". feet and for the .smaller sizes the lotal lift should not ex-
ceed •">() feet. For higher lifts ((impound or multi-stage centrifugal pumps
are used. These consist of two or more pumps connected in series, the
discharge of the first pump or stage is delivered into the suction of the
next pump and the oiiei:ition is repea ed according to the number of stages.
I'siially 7.". feet to 12.". feet is allowed to eacli stage.

Where the required cajiacity of the pump is over I mi or 1."." gallons per
Tiiinule and the total life less than 7.". feet, the centrifugal pump is no
doubt the best adaiited.

Centrifugal pumps are usually denoted by a inuiihir which represents
the diameter of the discharge in inches. The etiicicnt (apacity of eacli size
will vary to some extent with the speed of the pump wliidi deiiends on the
total lift pumped against. The pum|>s can. therefoic, not be rated ac. u-
rately. The capacities given in the accompanying table are worked out
from the ratings given by a reliable iMinip manufacturer and are subject
to considerable variations either above or below the values given.

104

m

S r ^ ■/

5 i -

s - •?

r i 1 =

lilt

9 ; u -

- ». 0

c

1

c

Nil in

..T 1

f acri

•s Irr

i','au-.

. 6 In. deep

-1 i£

>. = c

- » -

- L '^
loo

J

■7 C

c
E

.■aril

month for
111.

o|.,-ra
inon

tlon 1
til. of

iTlod.

during

y, 0 ■:

.10
days.

20
days

1.".
days*.

10

lay.-.

5
lay.«. ,

4'a

2'»

lays.

1
day.

-

.il'

8

27

18

i:i

'.1

2"4

9-10

-■■s

l.-lll

.:!:i

1.'

40

27

20

l:!

6 'a

:i'*

1 3-l»

:!

l'-;i

.r.o

1)4

60

411

:;o

20

10

■■

:i'a

;too

.66

24

80

.•.:!

40

27

i:i

«H

2 2-3

4

400

.;iu

32

110

71

.'..'i

:■,«

IS

;i

3 2-3

A

7110

1.60

.'»7

1!<0

127

!»'.

6:1

:!2

16

6 1-3

«

;hio

L'.OO

71

240

160

120

80

40

20

8

7

l:'00

2.70

!*"»

320

213

160

107

.^4

27

10 2-3

8

16«>

3.50

12.''.

430

287

215

143

72

36

14 1-3

■ i!

To etart a ceiitrifupal pump the suction pipe and the pump muet be
filled with water or primed. This may be done by closing the discharge
pipe with a check valve and connecting the suction end of a hand pumj^
to the top of the casing. Where a steam engine is used a steam ejector
may take the place of the hand pump. For small pumps and low lifts a
foot valve on the end of the suction pipe may be used and the pump jiriraed
by pouring water in the casing, or suction pipe. The disadvantage of a foot
valve is that if the water is not clear a small stone or twig may lodge itself
in the foot valve and prevent priming. This will necessitate that the suc-
tion pipe be uncoupled and the obstruction removed.

Tlie pump must be placed as near as i)n.>-s;bU' to the water level to keep
the suction lilt down. While theoretically the suction lift may be as great
as 31! feet at sea level and about 30 feet at an elevation of 3(iil0 feet, it la
desirable not to exceed 2i) feet and less is preferable.

The plant efficiency can be Increased by reducing the friction in the suc-
tion and discharge pipes. As few bends as possible should be used and
these should be made by using long turn elbo ,■.-!. The suction and dis-
charge pipes should he larger than the intake and outlet op( nings of the
pumps and joined to the pump with an increaser. The diameter of the
suction pipe and especially of the discharg.' pipe should ho 1 '4 times the
diameter of the intake and if the discharge pipe is long it may be economy
to make its diameter even larger. Enlarging the lower end of the suction
pipe will further decrease the friction. This may be done by a funnel-
shaped section whose length is about 3 tinus the diameter of the suctioi*
pipe and whose large end is about I '4 times the diameter of the pipe. The
larger opening at the entrance to the suction pipe will decrease the tend-
ency to suck up sand or gravel. When the water carries weeds, gravel, or
other material a strainer sheiild be used and the total area of tlie strainer
should be at least twice the area of the suction pipe. The discharge pipe
should ii(;t carry the water any higher than necessary.

I'inver piNlon or |iluiiKer |>iiiii|ih.

This type of pump consists of one or more cylinders in each one of
which a piston or plu v.er moving backwards and forwards sucks the water
in the cylinder and forces it up the discharge pipe. When the cylinder has
only one suction valve and one discharge valve the motion of the piston in
one direction causes suction ^lul displacement in the opposite direction
forces the water through the discharge pipe. W'th two sets of valves so
arranged that there is a discharge for each displacement of the piston, the

10.-
pump is Kno«-,> as a ,lo..blo Rc,i„K ,.„„„, \v;„n ,he „„„„. .,as ,w„
cylinders it ,s known as a duplex p.nnp, with three ,y!l„,|..rs it is a tripk-x
pump, and i„ either ease may be either double a., In,- or sin.-le a, iinj

The <ai>adty of the pump will depend on the diameter of the .vlinder

he lenKth of the stroke of the piston, and the nun.her of stroke, orrevolu^

tons ,.er minute. The eapa.ities of a few si..^ of doubU ...In,-, single

Piston pumps, single a.tlnB triplex pnmp« and of double a.-tin^ dupLx

pumps are as follows: "uiJiex

< apat-lly «f lluublr AcIIbk, MdkIp I-InIhb rump.

Miarn

pter of

~

~

-~

-

— :

waifr

■yllniler

Length

of Htriike.

It

■vulutlons

or

I'. S. uallons

r;

int'lifs

•itroKt'H jipr n"

Inut.-.

I'<^r minute.

:! Inches
4

40

12.4

5

40

21.8

«

5

(

•

6
y uf

40
40

34
58

g

40

80

SlBKlr

40

104

C'aparit

* ell Bit.

Triplrx I'lKlim

Pump.

1
4
4

I;

4
4

•

50
30
50

18

32
50

O

5
«

g
8

50
45
45

7«

!ll
1 :i!

7
7

8

lU

45
42

ISO

8

10

40

'-'!

g

12

40

;iio

9

Capa

10

■ III

40
plr\ I'lini

■ IK.

310

■11,

of Don

Mr \

•11

■IK

21«
3

4
4
6

^

--

—

t 5

21)

3>4

75
60

36

4

e

60

Ts

5

6

«0

1 Jii

«

«

SO

IT t

S

10

.lo

I .'"

•i

10
10

50
50

24 ■

g

l;!

50

9

12

SO

IlliO

The sizes of pumps and the capacities ,ary with the different manufac-
turers. The values stated above sl.ow the approximate ranpe of the different
sizes. For small capacities the double actins single piston pump mav be
used. For larger capacities usually the single aciing trlpl-x pump and In
some cases the double acting duplex pump is used. The triplex pump is
generally preferable; it has the advantage that the power is eonstan-.ly ap-
plied because of the strokes overlapping and this glv»>8 an even How with
little puL'i.-jfio!, The s'lrtion and dlschaiKc pipe should be larger ihau the
suction and discharge openings of the pump as for centrifugal pumps. The
suction pipe should be as short as possible and the pump placed as near
the water surface as possible In order to keep the suction lift low.

M

106

A iiliiiiKcr iniiiip must be Kivcii proper care in order to work eflw iently
and keep it in workinj; condition. It should be carefully cleaned and oilOil
and at the close of the punipiuK period it must be emptied in order that it
will not be damaged by freezing and the cylinders and water passaKea
cleaned and oiled lo i)revent rusting.
Choice betuecn Centi'll'iiKul |iiiin|> an<l poMei' pliiiiKer |iliiii|>.

The choice between a power pump and a i-entrifugul |)ump will depend
on the lift and capacity.

In iniKalioii work ixiwcr immps are best adapted to IiIkIi heads above
7.". feet and to small or moderate volumes of water, usually \MiUer 2M0
gallons per miiiule. For these comlitlons the clllciency of a power pump is
usually greater than tliat of a centril'ugal pump. For greater volumes the
plunger pumps are comparatively expensive and centrifugal piimiis are
ueually preferable unless ilii' lift is excessive. The centrifugal pump has
the advantage that it is simple In construction with no parts to get out of
order, and that it is cheajier than a power pump. The selection 8ho\ild be
made cnly after careful consideration of the Hrst cost of the pump and the
annual cost of fuel, operation and maintenance. Where the lift is hgh the
fuel cost will be considerable and it is good economy not to seUrt the
cheapes: pump obtainable but one that is guaranteed for a higli elMcitncy.
On the other hand if the pump is only to be operated a very biiuiII i)ortion
of the season it wouhl be poor economy to invest a large capital in a high
grade pump to save in fuel cost.

3. — ('lasNes of KiiiciiieK or Uriviiig; I'oHer.
Methods of coiiiieclioii of |iiiiiip and enKJiie.

Ceiitrifugal puii'ps and power pumps are generally driven either by gaso-
line engines, steam eiigints or by electric motors. The pumps are usually
either direct coiiiiecteil or connected by means of belts, gears or chains.
Direct connection is prel'erahle when jiossible, it is more economical in fuel
consumption and does away with the adjustment of belt or chain necessary
with belt or chain driven pumps.

The connection of the pumi)« and driving power must be such that the
pumps will he given the speed or number of revolutions per minute for
which they are designed and for which liighest efficiency is obtained. For
this reason direct connection can only be used where the diiving i)ower
and the pump have the same speed.

The speed of centrifugal pumps is usually high and so is that of electric
motors and for that reason tliey can, if i)roi)erly designed, be direct con-
nected; this is done usually by means of a flexible coupling, (iasoline and
steam engines are generally operated at a much lower speed than centri-
fugal i)umi)s and for that reaso.i are not direct connected unless the engine
and pump are specially d( signed. This is done by some manufacturers.

Power plunger pumps are o|)eiated at a slow speed and for that reason
are not direct connected to the driving power.

When connected by gears, belts or chains the driving gear and driven
gear, and the driving pulley and driven pulh y must he proportioned so
that the pump will be given its correct speed. When a plunger pNinp is
built as a single machine with a Bteam engine, with the piston or plunger
of the water cylinder on the same driving rod as tlit piston of the steam
cylinder it is called a direct acting steam pump The fuo] cnnsi'.ic.iiti.iii .if
a steam pump is greater than that of a steam driven jiower pump and for
that reason steam pumps will not be considered.

■^^'-^--im-fj^

107
('a|m<ity of t-iiKiiM-.

■Hie power necessary to lift water is indicated In horse powers. A lioree
power represents ti.e energy required to lift 33,U(.o poiuuls 1 foot l.iKli
in one minute: this is etmivalent to ?.'MU> gallons of water per minute
raised 1 foot high. Tiiis relation enables one to find the horse power
required in any case by multiplying the discharge of the pump In gallon;*
per minute by the total lift in feet and dividing by 3!Mio. The result
obtained represents the useful water hoi-.se power necessary to lift the
water. The horse power delivered by the engine to the belt or gear.s when
the pump is belted or geared to the engine, or to the i.ump itself when
direct connected, Is the brake horse power and must be greater than tlie
useful horse power to allow for the loss of energy in the pump and trans-
mission. The horse power developed within the engine itself is the indi-
cated horse power and niuet be greater than the brake horse power to allow
for the energy loss in the engine itself. Gasoline engines and motors are
rated on brake horse power. Steam engines are rated on indicated lu.rse
liower.

The combined efficiency of a pumping plant represents the ratio of tlie
useful water liorse power to the rated horse power of tli.. engine, and will
vary considerably with the type of pump, method of connection of engine
with pump and the care taken in operating botli pumi) and engine at the
proper speed, in ordinary field practice a good pumping plant, properly
installed, shou.d easily reach the efficiency given in the following table:

Klfl<-lrnf.< «f OnlririiKHl I'umtilnK I'laiilii.

No. i.f centrl-
fimiii pump.

I'l.Tli.irKe In
f. S, r.allon.s
t'cr mlnutf.

lull
l.iO
225
300
400
700

:m)

-•00
llOII

rater li'ir.spiinwi-i

n

-ak

y lior.i

per foot 1

f lift.

Kir

•icn.

y.

1

o\\

■r ptr

:iii

I'Ht.

f.

ot

if lift

.02.5

"Tl

.1181

.038

;!.'.

.11

.057

411

.14

.08

45

.18

.10

45

.22

.17

50

..14

.23

50

.4«

.:!!

50

.62

The efficiency of iKiwer plunger pumps varies with tlie size of the pump
and with the lift. A greater efficiency is obtained with the liigher lifts and
with the larger sizes. The efficiencies of properly insialled i)liinger pumps
and the horse power for various lifts are given in the following table:

108
llrak* Hura* I'tinrr HrqiilrrtI lit Uprralr I'luBcvr Vtumpm,

ntamt'tt-r Lfnu;t)i

ot of

cyllniliT. stroki'.

3 inihcs i Iniln'S

Capacity
in 1-. S.

Uiil. PIT

niinutf.

Klllrli'iuy ami liraki' Hume
riiH.r for lifts .if

soft. UIO ft. l.'.Ofi. JiMi ft. J5u ft.

Kllliliniy
Horse I'ower

.:io .4(1 .t> .i:,

.75 l.l 1.8 2.0

KffltitTliy 735 " .50 '^ .«U .65

Horse Power 1.3 1.5 2.0 2.5

~KfflilenVy 736 .50 7«5 765

Horst- Toner 1.9 2.5 3,1 4.0

kfflilemy ' .40 .55 .65 .70

Horse Power 2.4 3.5 4.4 5.5

.46

2.5

3.1

.«5~
4.8

5

8

no

Ktfiilellcy
Horse I'ower

.40
2.8

.55
4.1

.65
5.2

.70
6.5

.72
7.8

6

8

131

Kfflileniy
Horse power

.45
3.8

.60
5.5

.65
7.5

.70
9.3

.72
11.4

7

8

180
^210

KIHilenoy
Horse Power
Htnel.'iny
Horse Power

.45
5.0

.60

.65
10.5

.70
13.

15.5

■

10

.50
5.25

.65

8.0

.70
11.

14.

.78
17.

g

10

270

Kmeleticy
Horse Ptjwer
KIHelency ~"
Horse Power

.50
d.75

750 ~
8.5

.65
10.25

.65
13.

.70
14.50

IS. 25

23.

.78

22.1

9

10

340

.70

18.

.78

28.

Type <if KiiKino.

The above table will sive 'lie size ol' the eiiKine. The driviiiK power
must be either a gasoline eiiKine, steam engine, or electric motor. The
methods of eonnectiiiK the eiiRine with the pump have been already con-
sidered. Other factors beiiiK etitial, direct connection is preferable when
possible. A few general considerations of tlie types of engine are given in
tlifc following paragraphs.

Kteaiii Kngiiiio.

For small plants irrigating a few acres, the steam engine, although very
reliable, is practically out of the question because it requires a licensed
engineer whose salary would be prohibitive. However, for larger areas
and where coal is cheai), it may be cheaper than either a gasoline engine or
electric motor. Vov large plants operated continuously it may be economy
to install an efficient boiler and a high grade compound rondensing, triple
expansion, or quadruple expansion, steam engine, in order to decrease the
fuel cost. For small plants operated only for short periods during the
irrigation season it is miicli more Important to decrease the cost of instal-
lation. The interest on tlie capital invested and the depreciation of the
plant are very important items of cost as compared to the fuel cost. For
these reasons unless the acreage is large and the lift very high, the steam
plant will consist of a semi-portable locomotive type boiler and an ordinary
elide valve steam engine.

(iasolino Knginos.

A gasoline engine is fairly reliable if it is strongly built and operated
with care. Cleanliness and proper attention are necessary. All paita and
bearings should be kept in fine adjustment and properly oiled, by examin-
ing the rnglne at least every two or three hours. The circulating water

'

109

.honUI be kept fairly hot but not too hot. It Hhonl.l be nearly bolll«K as It
coniea out of the Jacket.

The .nKlne shouhl he re«,ilate,i hy nu.ans of ihe Kovernor to ^-ive the

proper «p..e,l ,„ the pump. To keep .lown the fuel eonsun.ption the kbho-

ine fee.1 «houl.l be «„ a.lju.s.e.l that there will be a M.i«« in everv ten or

l^llZ .'■'"""'"""^' """ •"" <■"«"'"■ ••* "" "«• ^^">Ke.l up to lt« full rate.l

,„ ,?'*''' '\"r '■'.■'"■ ''' """ """'""■' I '■"'"^■"i-'K '<> «'"< I" ."..Kines are due

lo the sparking devi.e. This <a>, UHually he renie.lle,! hy eloauin^ all ,„n-

r :r.h"'i '::■"'/'"• ^""""" ""■ '"'"' -' ""•^- •^''"•-'■"^ -•<-'■"-

placniK the batteries.

Klj'eli'lr .Miitdrx.

'•;i'-tri.- u.otors are rHIable au.l easy to operate. re,,uirln« verv little
attention.

4. — First Cost «r IMaiit.

The fhM cost of a p. iuK plant .lepen.Is on the Bra.le of n.achip.rv

the co«t of tranaportat.on. the expense of installation. Ile.au.se of these
factors accurate e«tin>ates of cost can not be Riven. However the ap-
proxMnate cost values given below will be of value to the lan,l owner who
Is conslder.nK the feasibility of a punipiUK plant. The values wiven repre-
sent^ U,e prices at Vancouver and do not include transportation and instal-

^»Pl.r..,lm.l, < ...I „r SInai, stam* Onlrin... mp».

No. of pump.

fapaclty

In

V.

S. uallDns 1

't-r

2*4

IIMI

3

3M

:|iiii

4

5
«

7

IHIM

8

ItiOII

The cost of two step centrlfuRal pun. s of the same sizes will be
four times the values given above.

*'""■"»""■<•■ < """ "' TrliHr, Mlwie .\,iIi,k r„„,r l-iimp.

Tost.
IS

»n

110
120
140

ISO
240

about

DlanicUirof l.ani<ih of
water Kiriikc In

cyllnilt-r, fnclu-.s.

I'apac Ity
m v. S.

Bal.-i. ]iir
minui*'.

lift.

10

11'

ti

41

8

ill

s

180

Hi

-70

12

310

tin fr

$ 270

400

550

■^

300

440

(00

"

930

1000

■■i

110

Apiiriialn

r.uviT.

Home

HI
>K
20
2.">
3U
40

■ tr < <•■( or KIrrtrlr Miilorm tiaMillBv Kaslavii aad NiMiilv Nlld* Valvv,
•BilraolaK Mlraai Kaalar, With l.oramulltr lliillrr aad Auilllarlrit.

fust iif clorirli' motDr.M
UMM) riv. iK-r minute.

$ :<o

1 10
tKO
L'lil)
JKO

::|o

»rrflnca.

t 4::.

'.too

1,100

l.:'.oo
l.fioo
:'.loo

c

OHt of Stf

enijineii

till

% K.'.O

800
1.000

I,;ioo
i,"r.o
t,.'.oo
l,Too

('list (if arrossoiit'N ami iii.tlullulloii.

Till' ahovo costs arc for tlip pumps and t'liKiU" atid do not iii(liiil<! the
aiccssorios, tlic foundation, tlic labor of iriBtallation, and tlii! liouelnn. For
ail electric plant the cost of transforniers should he added unless these are
supplied by the electric couipaii.v. The accessories will Include the miction
and discharne pipes, the valves and littlnss, the priniinK pump, the con-
nection between ininip and enRine. The suction pipe is usually made of
steel; the diecliarKe pipe may be steel or wood banded pipe and should cose
delivered at different points in the nrld part of Uritisli Columbia about
as follows:

('■■III uC IMpm Nate fur IMt ^'ret Hrad.

IHametpr

of pipe.

foxt per f.i

»t <»f WOOil

' ild

•a

pit

iC.

Cost per foot of

stool pipe.

4 Indies

$ .20

$ .30

«

..■10

.6S

H

.40

.«0

10

r, -

1.10

i-2

.6S

1.3'>

It

-r

l.««

111

.!>.')

2.0«

18

1.10

2.S0

20

1.44

3.00

For a rouph estimate the total cost ot .alves, priminR pump, all lltttings
and suction pipe, but not discharKe pipe, may be taken as about 10 per cent,
oi the cost ot pump and engine for a gasoline or steam plant and '0 per
cent, for an electric plant. The cost of installation should not exceed 5
per cent. The cost of a b'lildiiK to lioii.°e the plant will range from about
$2.'. for a small plant t,) $10O or moro for a larger plant. The cost ot
transportation and hauling will depend oii the railway charge from Van-
couver and on the distainv from the st.ition tn point of installation.

.■>. — Fuel ('«nsiiiii|itl«n and Fuel Cost.

The selection betweei a stearu en;;inc, sasoline engine and an electric
motor will depend to some extent o;i tlia comparative cost of coal, gasoline,
and electrical energy.

A gasoline engine is usually guaiartced for a fuel consumption of 1-9
to t-10 ' an Imperial gallon of gasoline per rated or brake hoise power
per lioi' \ new engine well adj-.st''d will come up to this efJicleiicy, but
an ongii ;at has been operated some time will consume about 1-V of an
Imperial .- lion of engine gasoline or distillate per brake horse power
per hour.

Ill

Tlu. fu..| ,onH„n.i.tlou „r a Hioam ,..>Kir». .vlll var.v Kr..a<l.v „„ ,h,. iv„e
of bolUT an.| ,.,>Ki,u.. a Hiimll «ll,l.. valv,. unrx-v.m.U-u^iu^ ,.„t,|„.. ,„„,.,/ ..-,
hor»,. imwer will u».. probably .-,0 to .1,. i,„„,>,Ih of sl.an. ,.,..• brak.. horno
power per bo,.r. A lo.onm.lv.. type of hoib.- h1,„u1.I ,ive .-, or .! poun.ln of
.team for 1 poun.l of roal. Tlu-refor... a sn.all «u.an> ..„«i„.. under "^
homo power »houl.l <onH„n,e about lo p„uM.I« of ro„l |.,.r brake l,„rH.. power
per bour Stea;,. eMKlueK of tbe «a.ne type fron, :!o to .".o bor«e pow.-r will
consume from .. ,o .s poun.ls of ..oal per brak.. l,orse power per hour.

Kle.lrl.al energy l» meaHUre.l It. Kllowatin. .\ Kllowa.i ,.s ..m.al to 1 l-'J
horse power, but beeaune of the Io..h of e,„.ruy in the tnotor. 1 Kilowatt

will usually Klve about 1.1 brake horse po«.,r. lias ,„ this li,.ure I

brake horse power hour |8 equal to '.-lo of a Kilowatt hour.

The above valu,.« Hhow that to pro.lu... | i„ake horse rower p-r hour
It requires either 1-7 of an Imperial k«IIou of .listillate, about lo poutt.lH
of coal or !.-lu „f a Kilowatt hour, llase.l ou th,.se liKureH the table b, low
«hoW8 the coHt of ru..| per brake horse power per hour for .s.veral e,|ulva-
lent cost values of fuel, l„ the table is also ^Iveu the fuel eost of puM,pl„K
one acre foot of water throuKb a lift of one foot. a.suminK plant etflcietuy
of .,(1 per cent, and T.", piT cent.

Kuuiva

I.nt

unlis i-.,sis

"f fuol.

I--U.

1 11. sis 1

n .

■nt>

1.

('"St ..f

uaHulltii'
In icnis

I'.isl .,f

I...11 In
.iMllars

i'...Ht of
cU'ctrlelly
In cnlK

T'T liraka
h. p. |,..r

V.r ii.r.
liftinl

f'.
1 f

It 1

t wat
hiKh.

p.T r

mp.

IHT tim

vr K. \V.

luiur

n

M'Tr

'^%

call

on.

'

.'.IMMI 11,.)

hour.

ci-nt.v

2.0
2.30

-

«.3
7.0

cff

clfHry

14
18

IS

4.ri5
S.IS

■2J.0
2.83

3.6.-1
4.20
4.70

I'O

5.70

3.20

2.8.-.

7.S

--

«.30

3..'.rt

3. ID

S.ti.'i

r --

26

t.ss

7.40

3>0
4.1.';

:i.4.-.

(i.30

.'t.T'l

\'*.-li

ft. NO

The price of ensine Rasollne bouKbt in drums is ahout 1'4 .eiits per
Kallon delivered at Kamloops an.l 2.! cents per gallon at Okanasan points
Thfse prices are equivalent to coal at $>\.x:. u, $;.4u a ton or ele.tricitv at
3. SO to 4.1., rents a Kilowatt hour. The fu..l .,;st is, however, onlv a part
of the total cost of pum|)ing.

«. — ri\e<l ClmiK.'s anil .\lfendance.
-*• — Klxetl chui'KeN.

The cost of installation repre.,enis a capital whi. h if invested would

bring in an income represented by the interest. It is t efore necessary

to consider this interest as part of the cost of operation. To this should be
added the annual cost of re|)aiis, maintenance and renewal These items
of cost represoit the fixed charges. After f. or s years a gasolin,. engine
may need to have its cylinder r<.bored and a new piston provide.! the cost
of which is about one-fourth the cost of a new engine. With ordinary care
the life of a gasoline engine may be taken as lo voars; the life of an
electric motor about 1.". to 20 .vears. The tixed charges on the entire plant
may be taken as follows:

112

Kltril < Imrsra.

It'

-irlr

lilaiil
cnt.

Sli

1111 .iiuln.' iiiitnl
< ^ni.ill 1

1
•

» I'tr .1 111
«

<l;l"iillll.- iliiilli. i.l.ilil. !•:

Iippri'iliitii.ti iitiil r'i'iii'».il N iM-r r.tii
Ui-|>alr^ atirl niatnti itatii •- ::
Ini. r.»t «

IT 11 l«

H.-^AlM-mliilirf.

An electric niuldr iei|iilieH a iriinliiiuiii of atttiiil me. siiiall uaHoHne
plaiitH r»-t|iilri' rrciiiieiit Iiih|i<m Hon, anil uli-arn «>nKliit'» ri'iiiilr*- a liieiiHe;!
j-nKlneu- ami for (hat n-acdn can noi be fcononilcally iined fur Hniall plants
oiH-rated iliirlnn Hhort pei imlH. The < cwt of attenilanie for an electrlo
motor piiniplnK plant xhoulil not exceed ."i centii per hour, for n naniiline
••nuliH- plant In cint» per Imiir and for a Hlciiiu inKlm- plant 4n leiiis per
hour. Willie electric inotirH uiiil naiiollne en»!iiu« are iiHiiallv opeiated by
tin- orchanllut or Irrigator. Iii« time Ih valuable and a cliaine Hlmiild be
made for It.

7. — Filial Srleilloii of Type of I'Iniil.

Till- llnal aelerlioii of a punipliiK plant alioiild be based on a careful
<()ii«lderat;on of ll:e faciois stated al'i^e. The best tilze of plant, tin- luTlod
of o|ierailoii, the kind of eiiKii't' or driving power, can only be correctly
determined by a llnal < oiisideratiiin of cost of liistallatiiii and copi of
operation. For small iilants operated for »liort periods dutrliiK the Irrl-
iiatlon Beaton steam engines are not to be considered even where co.il Is
• heap because they must he operated by a licensed eUK tieer whose salary
would be excfsslve In proportion to the uavInK obtained by using cheap
coal WI.ere electric powfr is available the choice Is between a Kasoline
fiigine and an electric motor. The electric motor ruiulres minimum
attendance, it is reliable and Its lirsi cost is much less than that of a Kaso-
line engine. For thfse reasons if electric power Is available, an electric
motor is preferable to a Basoline engine and will prove far more economical
than a gatoline, even nhould the (ost of electrical energy be higher than
the fuel cost for a gasoline engine, which is not likely to obtain in ilrltiah
Co'umbia because of the high cost of engine gasoline or distillate.

At Grand Forks, llritisli Columhia. electricity was sold for pumping
plants at the late of ;i cents pi i Kilowatt hour: as far os fuel cost is con-
cerned this is equivalent to gasoline at about 1!> rents a gallon. TliiH is
lefti than the tost at which gasoline can be obtained and in addition glvea
the advantages stated above.

The aiipllcatloii of the above inforiiiation and cost data to any par-
ticular lai-e i.s iliustrated by t' e following exampli ■<:

Klrwt e\i:inple: A !in acre orcharil is to be Irriagted by pumping. The
quantity to be applied is )i inchctt per month and the total depth in one
season. IX inches. The lift Is ."lO feet and the discharge pipe 2uu fet t long.
Kngine gasoline costs 24 cents per Imperial gallon. Assuming the pump is
operated 1-,'i of the tinie or ten twenty-four hour dcys each month, this
will require a pump capacity of 22.'i gallons per minute (page Iu2) which
la obtained with a Xo. ;i centrifugal pump (pape 104) and 7 horse power
engine (page loT). The discharge pipe will be 4 inches in diameter. The
first cost and total i-"-t t-.f r.npratSc.r. v.:!l bp about as t::\U::\::-

tn

Kim I imi iif riiiai.

Nil. :l 1 i-iiirlfiiii.il |iuMi|i

' II. I' uii-'iiin.. inulni'

ITImliin iiniiiii. „iiitl..n |i||.... Hiiinu-. ,■{,■

Kr. lulu chur^iii ^iti,| haullnn

.•»" f..i .if I i,„ti «,„.,i ii,(,.|i-.l .11^, harm- |il|.,

In^Nilljitiiin. :,'; of m^t

Iliill.llim 1.1 h.Hi-. j.lint '.'.'.'.'...'

Tiihil .11 ,1

.1 a.',
. dii.i

TiilHl \niiHnl < iml iil <l|irrall«ii.

Kii.-l ,..>i ,if T iTHk.. M !•. . nmn.i f.ir :; i., rl.i.l- .,f m ,i.,,

1< 1-. iu.il I'l ll'iiui' 111! :.'n\T\I, Ci - 17. I,. .,,.

KIximI .■hH^Hl■^. ii- i: prr . mt. ..f ilr.si .,.»i

-Miiii.l.iiit . T.'il l,.iiir< III III , ,.|ii,

T.iliil

■..-t for JO

I itITi' ....

HllJ

IJil.K*

Wh,.,-.. .■l.Ttrl,. pow.ir is oblaiiiabl.i the liiHt coHf ..I' plain aiul aiiMi.al
• OKt of oiHTallon lor III.' KaiiM> coiulitloiis, nHHiiiuliiK Hi.' unit . okI of ..Irctrlc
|io <nr to Ijc ;I i.tiIh per Kilowatt hour wniilil lie:

Flr.Hl i-.Mi ..f i.liini $.-,:iii.iiii

Tiital annual i-.isi i.f i,|...r,iii.iii ;4,-.,(iii

c.si jM-r aiT.-- |_. _.•

Tabulated bt-low arc the first (ohIs of waHollm. .iikIii.. |iuni|>inK planta
and tli.> I'ottts of oporatlon for on lianis ol L'li. 40 and .so aciTH for :;'!« of
-.0 fe..t and I.-.o r. .'t and for different periods of operation. For llie higher
lift Kindle a.tinK trl|ilex pumps are u.sed. Tlie cohIh niven are based on
Ka»<olin<i at 24 cents a gallon, for a dep:li of irriKatiou of 1 .s inrbes for llie
lower lift and deptbs of IS in.lies and I :> inrbes for tbo biKbor lift, it biiuK
assumed tbat b.v <areful use of wat.r, If the soil is retentive, 12 inibrs
may be Huffleieiit. Tbf disi liar^e pipe is assuiiied to be 2oi( feet lonn.

I ONI u( l>uni|>lnK Wllfc l.niMillnr l':iiKliir« himI OnlrlfiiKal I'limiM r»r .■«» Ki.i.l l.irt,
(•aaullnr 21 Onlx ■ <iall»ii.

J 5 L
il.J£ =

in

i: i

Aiti.iial ('out i»f i.ppriition iM»r urr»»;
I*" III. depth of Hater npplifd.

80

II
20
10
22

400
llf.

ono

4110

;hii|
40ii

12

i-.

Kllel

Kixeil

.\ttHiMlaiii*f«

Total

It.--

charife.*

1,225

t S.2.-.

$lo..-o

$i.:io

$20.6.1

«.'..■>

s.;.-i

s.lo

.■;,fio

20.4.-

72:.

12.00

K.20

7.20

2.'.. to

i.sr..-,

".".■.

7.110

.!tO

16..-..1

1.22:. ,

8.2.'.

.". . 2 .-.

2.00

l.-i.,-,o

9i

S.7.".

4.10

:; C.I

l(i.4.-.

y*:,-, j

T.T.'i

4.00

.0.1

12.6.-.

1.22.-. !

8,2".

2.f.0

2.011

12. 8S

I i

i :l . til I

114

< itBl »f I'aniiliiii Milk liaiuilln* l':iiaiafii mua oiaalr \rllBs 'l'rl|>!r«
rHinitii r«r IM l-'aMii l.iri.

^?k,

Ilii

n 1 .
IJ I-

I : M

1(1 i- 1

:'H |.

mil
:; HP

I'
HI
IN

•!|

Aiiiiuul '■'i%i ill ii|)f I ut lull |irr iii'rr fur
III irrluittton Htitrr uf
1^ iiichi*'*

.l>'i>ll>

Kiii'l

l.Tln
J.TUii

. nil

• .IMI

Kix«l
I 'liai'tft**

f Jil ml

I I 8ii

In. '.Ml

I IT"

1 11.1111

T III

:..ll.-.

Alli'ii-

lIlXl.'l-

•I no

I "11
I' III

liilul

)ilii.:>ii
it.*»

$K li.'i

3 1 HI
ST. "ill

ofl; hit ii<-<

Till.. I

}:r: ;ii
SD.Ii)
_':i !Mi

-■:' :ii
jii.dii
IT :'

The cniiflilllfH (if |iiini|m, rHiii'i'lally pluiiKer iiiiiiitiH. and tlif gizos <if
ciikIiu'm. vary Willi llic dlflcicnl iimKcH. ami for tliut icasoii the bIkh kIvimi
art- not uhvayH nbtaiiinbl-, Imt «izcH a|)|iroxliiiatlnK ititin' can In- uoi'il
in place.

The above coHt eHllnialeit are only aiilinixinrite. They are baseii '>n the
c<in(llllonn hrated above and are not apiillcable to all caaiii becauae of the
varyiiiK conditions whiih make the Installation of nearly every imniplii.',
plant a HpiciHi proble'n. The iHtiniales are made for caHOllne enRines and
are coii«idt..rably hinlier than for electri<- motors. The llrst example glowi' I
that vsllh an electric plant the ( (isl of piimpliiK was only tin por cent, of tiie
<<iHt with a Kasollne plant. The tabulated values bIiow the followinK' Intti
estiiiK resullH:

Ist. The cost per acre of pumpinK is nnich larKer for a small area than
lor a large area.

2nd. The cost per acre does not vary conslderaLly with llie period of
operation, and in some cases a plant moderately large operating for a
shorter period will cost les'j per acre tbaa a smaller plant opcratlnR a
longi-r period. This is due to the lower fuel cost obtained '.vlth the larger
more etJicient plant and the decreased cost cf attendance for the shorter
period of operation which overbalance Mie larger fixed charges. Kve'i
should the reeultinK <o»'_ be smaller for the smaller plant, the inconveni-
ence due to immping for a long period and the extra labor in irrigation
may overbalance the daving in cost.

:{rd. Kor the lifts assumed a period of operation eiiual to about ten
Iwenly-four hour days during the month or one-third of the time during
the irrigation seanon neenis to be prefi rable with the ceiitiifugal iiuinp.
With the higlier price triplex plunger pumps a period of operation of one-
third to two thirds of the time is preferable.

< O.OI»l-:i{.\TIVK l'lMIMX<i.

The lower cost iier acre for larger area« shows the advantages to be
gained by cooperation between small owners. Uy uniting anil Installing a
large plant instead of several suialler plants the cos. of installation and
operation is very much reduced and the plant can be given n.oie compe-
tent atlentioi. whh li relieves the orchardist and in • ases the life of
the plant.

Where by such cooperation several liun<lred acres can be brought to-
geliier, u ceulial oieani plaul lo generate electric power, whicii '.< iraus-
mltted to the several electric motor pumping plants, is the moet economical
and best solution.

i

;^|MSS

itn

Kor ■ppariiti- plai a ^l.,n,. jo or 4" li.ii*.' iM.w.r. kmm i Im.i iihiiiii

..Hiiir,n..l -., >tuH Clin ■■■* «iil |.:riiiiili th.' c lirap. », iM.H.r Tli. s.. plaiiiN iir.-
K'HHtli ;ii.,l ,.a»llv uiM'rafiMl l,,..v < oimlwi ..f Hif iuixIik ii ili whidi ,;ii,l

nml M i'luo'il luiil IhioiiKli " |i .ncm, „r i,i,rll«l . ombiistl.Mi, in pr.s.ii. . ..r
• Ir Biiil «!(.ani, foiiiiM Hip ua» «l.icli (i|i.iut.i« Hi,' ..tiKiiuv tian |.i-,.,li,, , i-«
olMTHfiMl on haril nr Hi.itirai li.. ,„al have li.rn in mik. .Mxriil ..,„ lali.in i,,r
n niiiiilicr of v'-am ami rlumc <>p,'iHli'<i on Hiifl or liitiiii.iti ii- . ml nir • im,-
Inn iiifo I >•, I. lit have n ■! Im-m wry «(i>-<( xHfiil, Tli.- fiifl ... siiiiipucM is
viry low, uHimllv from : lo ' i;, poiiiiiU of loal pi.r Immm. ;■ ..m idi- on..
hour, or '. to , of a i.iit. i-.r lior«e powt-r for oik- hour rtitli liar. I ..i.il
at lilt pf Ion This Is from :. to 7 lillll■^ Icns tliaii tin tin I . om ,Mtl.
Kaaolin.- hi 24 ti i,u a (tBil..ii. I'iihIuct hhh i.latits arc more . xpiiisA,- liiiu;
i.'agol:n.' cnKlm-H mill for sinalli r plaiitH tli.- fm-l fioiioiny .ill In. ovc:
halami-il hv Jit- Inrwi'r iii;.-rc»i ami .l"prpclal:on I'linrKPx. K'.r inv larsi*.
niiiKh' iilaiKc hltili .Inly «i,Hin .'iinlii. .v;|| \„. u,,. ,„„„, ..ronomj. it: f.Tiii
..f itiHlnl.falioii.

I.I.Hir OK Kr-OMtMIt .\l. I'l MI'IMJ.

Tlu' can. s prri ;.i.iHly .vorl^cil out lor KaHoliiii- cni/inc puiiipiiiK i.lanls
shov that tor small iia.t« of 2>i lo ^n acri's ehf rost of lifiliiK «iilllri.>nt
wati'i lo cive- a clcptli ot' irilxBtloii water of is ImlifH will ihiihi- 'oi' h lilt
of .Ml feet frimi about $11!. .".(i por acri- for the larner urea to ahout $:;o i.n
per acre for the anialler area, ami for liftH of I.Mi feel the reKpeciive costs
are about $23 and *:t.". per acre. These costs may seem IiIkIi s com-
pared with KiBvily water, but lo obtain an Idea of the ei my ami

feasibility of devrlopiiiK water by piinipl a, comparisons must he mail.'
with the value of IrriKatUin water li^ the irricat. i| distri.is of Itrilisli <'o-
li.mbia and also In >.t|ier localities under the sunn- conditions. In lliilish
Columbia, up to :!.• in.'Sert, ni'ivlty wal.r oblaiimble without puinpiny
has he. n ipiite plehiif ' r'or that reason pumping has not been mcessiiry.
iinpi . 'v-ii;!, have been constrmted. Ilowevci-. water is
' •• i- . the Hteps vvhiih many irrigation loinpaniis
t''.'.". !•'. . ii iiiK to conserve waier and pievi nt losses of
' '..;■.■. I. water In loncrete lined canals ami in pl|iea

■f. ■ riiii- Kpense. sliow tliat water Ims liecome surn-
"' .■11' : inn. If a comparison is ina<le with water

•■ i'. .. • '. cost ..f construction of a well constrnctel
••n ■ .' ■ - .' an ai.e an.l even higher. Tills cost is

i. ..>:. • •■' ■ '' - >old ro the orchanlisi and in addition
• I. 'lu' value of the lami. It is probably con-
tn.ii uin.l under an irrlKalion s.\sli'in uill cost at least
than similar land lor whldi there is no ^lavity supply.

ami very fe
becoming n.'
In Hritiafi i ■ :■ t.'
transport"'. •■! :.'
constriu, . ii

rlently vt: ■.,. ..

thus ohtf !• •;,'
system ii.a;, , i ,.i
charKfd np tc 'i.
reasonnble prollt
servative lo assun
$Inil an acre mnr.

Tlie chief advantai^e ;)f gravity systems is the lo« annual cost of operation,
usually less than *i: per acic, hut if to this be addi d the inierest on the
dlffprcnie In cost between land under the iiriKUlion system and land wliicii
in to he supplied by pum|)in»;. assumed at $lnn. the total annual cost may
be $ln to $1", an acre. This is about eiiiial to tlie cos: of inimpinv; witli
gasoline eiininis to a heisht of :,i> feet and ahout half as lar^-e us for lifts
of l.'.O feet. Where electric iiower is available or for larne pumpint; plants
the cost of piiiiipiiiK would compare very favorably with gravity watei' eVeii
for higher lifts than those stated above. There are many conteiiiplateil
bydro-eleotric power installations in the irrigated regions of Hritish Co-

116

liinibia xvlil.h, if matrrlnliz,.,!. will 1,,. of Kivnt vain,. In ,.xl..mllnn lli,. un.a
IrrlKalcit by iMiiiipliii;.

A roriHJ.l.THtioti of piiinpiiiK ill other ilifltrlilH in of liit.T..st to «liow lt«

f.-aHibiliiy. Ill ..astoiii WaHlilimlon walor Is tifliiK puiii I in „„,. ra.sc to

an .'li'vatlon of 2.-.(i r,.,.t ab.n.. ihr «„iiic.. of Hiijiply. In thr .itrus .llHtiict
or Boulheiii Callfoinla llflH abov,. 2(iii f,.,.t arc no! iiuiisiial and It Is ron-
wkl.'ieil prolitabli. lo pump •Dili f,.,.|. In tlu> I'omona .llstrlct of Houtli.Mii
California, the lost of pninped water aveianes $ I :. per aire for i.Me acre
foo, when purcliaweil from IrriKalioii eoiripanles. while for smaller private
plants thp crmt Is often greater. In I'.in:. the IrrlaKlion InvestiKalioiiH
Olllre of thi' Inlt.d SiHl.-H heparlinent of AKri.iillnie nia<l.' tests on
various pumping plants and these show that the cost of imiiiipIiil; at private
plants of 1(1 to liMl horse power with lifts of Inn to :{(io feet, varied from
$ln to $!i(i per aero for one a<re foot of water.

There is a limit beyond whleh it is not eronomieally feasible to pump.
In the California eitrn« distrlrts lilts above 4iMi fe< t have bei n prolilable
For the orenard lands of llrilish Colnmhia eciually hi(;h llfis hIiouIiI be
prolitable. for tl,.- net return per acre from a nood apple orchard is uswaliy
more than that from a citrus orchard. \ eitrUB orchard In years old

sh(,\ild averaM? a net prolil of $lnn to $ I .",; ,• acre. The net prolits from

apple orihards In to U> years old in the Ya'iima Valley are niven in bul-
letins of the I'niteil Stales Department of AKiiculture as $'J"n to $I10I) per
acre. With prolits larger than those obia ued from dtrua or<hards in
tiouthern Calilornla. what has bei'U considered feasible in pumpinK there
is at least egually so for the apple orcha-ds of llritlsh Columbia when no
other more economical source of wale- supply Is availabl.-. However, for
wiiiall pumping plants and small ari'as the writer bell.'v.'« that it is well
not to exceed 2(Mi feel, while for hirper plants lifts of 4iin f,., i may be
economically feasibk'.

i

li^'"^: ■■;« ■

\i;

r.ABLE OF CONTENTS.

INTKODICTION

..-SK,.KCT,..X^UK^^N^^,Mn.:ATK.. .-AUM AM. SKTnV; .., ■

Scl.Mtii.ii of 1111 Onliiinl or Kami I iuI.t Inimil

1. <'liiiiiillc coiiililions

2. Chcmicul I'Diiipositiiiii ( I' III!' Kdil

:t. 'rcxiliic (if t^oil iiliil sill siiil

•». I.iHuliciM ami sill' III' Di'i hiii'il

I'rfpaiHlioii (if l.ainl for Onhnnl

I. Clearing the siiil'iicf

-'. •ilnwlim imps 1(. iiiiiMovi- ioiiiIIIi.m of llir soil

". I'oriiliii^' till. u< ,■ lows

N.T.-wsll.f for Knowl,.,|^.. of Monsurriii, „i oi \V:ii,.i

I'liits of .Mi'asiircnii'iit

I. Till, (iiliii- fool |„.,. siTiiiiil or sfioiid loot

'-■ 'I'll!' Ilrilisli ('oliiiiilija minors' Ini li ...

:i. Ari'c foDi

4. Iti'lalioll liolHiiii riiliic loo
aero I'ooi

Mi'tlioils of .Moasiinimni

I. V'liliiiiii'lrir iiicasiiirmoiiis

:;. Woirs '..'.'.■.■.',■

Moawiirciiioiil (,r ilJsilKiri;!- '..'.'.[.'.

U'eir board on a ililrji

Weir liox

:i. Milii'i-M" imh lioard or hox

Mimrs' Inih hox plai .mI in ,aiiai or liit.li

Minors- ini'li hox and lako mil irom pijio liiio iindor no

prcssiiri'

Minors- imh hox and lako oiii from pnssiiio pipo lino

Minois imh hox Willi ovi rlhuv wall lor canals or llii .s

4. Spci-ial nioastiriiiK doviics

Tlio liranl-Miilioll imii-r '..'.'...,..

■'■ Moasiiroiiioiit ,d- disiharg,. hy ohiainini; w hi, in of How aii,|

|■ro^;s Mcriion of llniiio or ranal

('urroiil nil. lor ,

lialiiii; station and rating; lIuiiio ! . ,

Aiiloinatic rrnistc^is

I'lIKO

It |ii-r sicond. iiiiiiors' iioh and

In
III
III
I !
I I

I I
\.l

■ ::

14

17
17
I'll
HI

1'4

II! CONVKYA.NC

Oh- \\A-ii;i{ i.'()i( Tin: iiiiiKiA rin.v sv;

niti risii COM MiiiA

k|ios of liri;;allon :'.,»sti

ri;.\is OK

"•riiiationt Conslrmii

t oiuo.vami' l.iissos of Wall

r ill Canals

1. Kxt.nt of

Kv

Koopanc liissi's in 'iinals

:i|iorali(in loss from walor siirfa

rovonlion of SiipaKo I
I. C

it' lanals .

pi
iliiri'lc linjiit;s

.ossi s III Canals .

"Drill of cross soil

Hlirinkun

Kffocl of frost

<• and ixpansion

ion and ihiikm

d' hnini:

Mclhod (if ronslriirt

iirtion of lomroio liniii

118

I

.f tM

TAIII.K OK (•(•NTKNTS — CONTIXrKU.

i'a
t'diifitnictiou of cdiHret*' linings by iiifaiis of forms. . .

Joints

Kx|>ansion Joints

Mtllioil iisfil near Kelowna by Kelowna Irrigation

Company

ConstriKtion of concrete lining without forms

Cost of concrete linings

Cost of lining without forms

Kconomy of concrete linings

Steel Fhimi's

Plain Concrete I'ipe Not Reinforced

1. Manufacturing hand tamped cement pipes

MIxtnrcs used

Mixing materials

I'locess of moulding

Curing the pipe

Coating the pipe

Cost (if moulds

Dinwusions of cement pipes and rate of manufacturing. .
Cost of making pipe

2. Constru<lion and laying of pipe line

KxcaTation of trench

Laying the pipe

11. Other methods of making cement pipe

Machine tamped pipe

I'ipe ma<le by wet process

Reinforced Concrete l'i|ie

1. Metiiod of casting reinforced concrete i)ipe

(I'matilla jiroject. Oregon.)

2. Method of joining

Hell and si)igot Joint

Collar Joint

Lock joint

:!. Method of making ai.d laying reinfor<ed concrete pipe on

Roswell project. Idaho

4. Cost of making reinforced concrete pipe

'•. Advantages and economy of reinforced concrete pipe

17. — DITY OF WATKR AM) FACTORS INFLIKXCINC. THK CORRKCT I
OF WATKR IN IRR IGATION -

Duty of Water

1. Principal factors aiTeciIng the net duty of water

2. Duly of water for orchards

:i. Duty of water for alfalfa

4. Duly of water for potatoes

Factors Inllueiiciiig Hie Correct I'se of Water in Irri^-ation. . . .

1. Disiiosal of watir applied to the soil

2. Relation of soil moisture to soil text ure

Percentage of free moisture in soil for plain growth. .
I!. K\aporalion of soil «aler and methods of checking it .

Kxtent of evaporation from hare soils not cultivated. .

Kflect of Boil mulches on soil evaporation

Klfect of de|>th of furrows on soil evaporation

4. Percolation of water applied to tlie soil

Kffect of texture of soil and suhso'l

Percolation of water ai)|'lied in furrows

V. -IR1U(;ATI0.\ A.ND CILTIVATIO.V of ORCIIARDtV —

Distribution of Water

1. Ki. ihcn head ditch

ge.
:i6
38
3S

39
39
41
43
43
44
4.-)
47
47
47
47
48
4.S
48
48
4!t
4!l
4 it

.'lO

r.4

."i4

:.4

.".4

,"16

SK

.18
60

t;2

t>2
Ii3
ti.i

tM

(I .'p
•I I

t;8

«8

t;8

US
fi9

72
73

119

T.\IH,K (»F COXTKXTS— <-«»\TI\rKI».

2. Wooden head tlunios ''"'i*'.

:!. f'oncrclp licad Miinifs I,.'

4. CVnu-iit iiiix's and disliibiitin); stand i.ii.i.s -v

Dt'tails of stands ';,

Ovfi-lldw stands . .'. s"

Oiaininn the plpi's .......'. s'>

Accessories ' ~

•'. '"ifssure pipe lint's an I valves i,^

'!. UyinK out furrows: numi.er, leuKtli, depth an.l slope! '..'.' s'l

Application of Water

1. Wheii to irrigate orchard's andqiiantitv' of water to' use' s"!

.. ^un^ber <>t irrigations per season s,'

:i. Fall and winter irrij,'ation \^-

4. KiMininK water in the furrows ' . .' J^-

-. Prevention of losses of water applied, and .uit'ivat'ioM ".'/'.'. xs
Vr. — lUHKIATlOX OK I'OTATOHS —

1. Selection of soil ^,.

2. Treatment of soil '.

3. I'lantinp potatoes ','

4. Cultivation '.'.'.'.'.'.['. .,,'

•">. Quantity of waier re(|uir.d for potatoe.^. . . i!!I

fi. Time to irrinate '

T. Method of :■ isation ..'......'.. •>•>

VII. — IRRIGATIO.V OP ; ^. [,FA - "

1. Methods of irrigation ,,,,

Furrow method of alfalfa irrigacdii ......'.'.'.'..'.'.'.'.[',[ jc'j

2. Amount of water required j, ,

3. Number of irrigations ,,.

4. The pro.ier time to irrigate allaifu i,;

■"'. Winter irrigation of alfalfa .^'^

«. Winter killing of alfalfa ,,^

7. Seeding alfalfa on land lo be iriiKai'.l i,.|

VIII.— THK rSK OF SMALL IM MI'INtJ I'LA.NTS KOIJ l|{KI(J\TIO\ l\
IlKITISH COLIMUIA:— ■-»ii>..> r.N

Considerations Controlling the Selection >.i a I'uruping I'laiit . i,h.

1. Capacity and period of operation jn'

2. Kind of pump ,,i„

Centrifugal pump ; ,i^

Power piston or plunger pun^; ■.....'..'.'...' iui

Choice between centrifugal iiunii. and |)ower liliiiigi.r

pump ,,,,.

3. Classes of engines or driving power .'.'.' ini;

Method of connection of p\imp and engine. ... lui;

Capacity of engi-ie j,,-

Type of engine ' j,,^

Steam engliie lux

(Jasoliie engine [ jn^

Klectric motors ' , j ,,;,

4. First cost of plant '....'.......'. ii|i|

Cost of accessories and installation no

">. Fuel consumptioi, anil fuel cost j i,,

8. Fixed charges ano attendance Ill

I a ) Fixed charges '.....'...'....', 1 11

( b ) Attendance ] ] 1 1 ..

7. Final selection of type of plant .'....'....... 1 1 2

Cooperative Pumping , I ,

Limit of Kconomical Pumping j 1 -

p-1

M .

M

I

't I