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DATE DUE 1

UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS
LIBRARY

S
73

no,l-66
1907-19

Circular No. i.

May, 1907.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

COTTONSEED MEAL.

J. B. LINDSEY AND P. H. SMITH.

Because of heavy rainfalls last autumn large quantities of cotton-
seed were considerably damaged, and as a result, much of the
cottonseed meal that has been offered during the present season has
been off grade, both in color and texture and in chemical composi-
tion. The Station has endeavored to keep close watch of the
quality of the meal brought into Massachusetts. The following
analyses made from samples collected during the past three months
are reported below.

TABLES OF ANALYSES.

Manufacturer or Jobber, Brand and Retailer.

Sampled at.

Protein.

Fat.

Found.

Guar.

Found.

Guar.

High Grade.

American Cotton Oil Co., New Yorlc.

W. T. Uwyer

Sunderland.

Beverly

Fall River..
Gardner. . . .
Hinsdale ..

/()

42.08

41.59
41.24
41.47
46.38

41.00

41-43
41-43
41-43
41-43

%

9-35

9.24

9.07

8.90

10.51

/o

9.00

9.00
9.00
9.00
900

Ciiapin & Co., Boston.

Green Diamond, . . A. Dodge & Son

Green Diamond, . . W. J. Meek

Green Diamond,. .W. N. Potter Grain'Co.
Green Diamond, . . C. A. Pierce

J^

r~. f /"',

F

Manufactnrer or JoDD^, iJrand and Retailer

Hunter Bros.

Milling Co., St. Louis.

C. W. Marsli

G. C. Turner

S. P. Puffer & Son..
Spr'g'd Flour & Gr. Co

J. H. Day

T. M. Lyons

W. P. Griffen

S. D. Viets Co., Springfield.

Mackenzie & Winslow.

J. Lindsay Wells Co., Memphis, Tenn,

Star, A. F. Sanctuary

Star, Eastern Grain Co

Star, Haverhill Milling Co..

Medium Grade.

American Cotton Oil Co., New York.

A. D. Potter

J. O. Ellison &Co ....

H. B. Bridges & Co., Memphis, Tenn.

F. E. Smith

F. W. Brode & Co., Memphis, Tenn.

Owl, J. E. Merrick & Co

Owl, Griswold & Adams . . .

Owl, J. Cushing & Co

Owl, W. W. Mclntyre

Owl, E. C. Frost

Owl, A. W. Charter

Owl, Taunton Grain Co

Buckeye Cotton Oil Co., Augusta, Ga.

Buckeye, Mackenzie & Winslow.

Standard, S. R. Carter

T. H. Bunch, Little Rock, Ark.

Old Gold, A. E. Lawrence & Son

Old Gold, J. B. Garland & Son. . .

Chapin & Co., Boston.

Green Diamond,. . Mackenzie & Winslow

Chas. M. Cox Co., Boston.

Magnolia, H. A. Grossman

Magnolia, F.A. Fales & Co

Magnolia, Whitman Coal & Gr. Co

Magnolia, G. A. Stevens

Sampled at.

Bradstreet.
Chester . . .
N.Amherst
Springfield
Sunderland
Sunderland
Pittsfield . .

Fall River. .

Amherst . . .
Bridgewater.
Haverhill. . .

Orange. .
Bradford

Amherst

Amherst . . .

Dalton

Fitchburg . .
Marboro . . .
Shelb'ne Fls
Springfield .
Taunton . . .

Fall River.
W. Berlin .

Ayer

Worcester

Fall River.

Needham .
Norwood. .
Whitman. .
Worcester.

Protein.

Found. Guar

/o

41-77
43-31
41.99
41.85
41.03
41. 1 1
40.94

41.03

41.20

43->7
44. iS

39-45
39-'4

37.60

38.48
39.62
39-19
39-97
40.01

38-13
40.63

36.42
38-25

39-27
40.80

38-75

39-92
40.72
37-34
36.42

10

4 1. CO
4 1. CO

4 1. CO
41.00

4 1. CO

41.00

4 1. CO

40-43

41-43
41-43
41-43

4 I. CO

4 1. CO

41. CO

41-43
41-43
41-43
41-43
41-43
41-43
41-43

35-97
38.6c

4 I. CO
4 I. CO

41-43

41-43
41-43
41-43
41-43

Fat.

Found. Guar.

In

9.6c
9-32
9-47
8.01

8.75

7-27

ic.c6

9.C2

925
8.8c

8-59

10.65

8.82

10.54
9.25
8.50
8.74

11.63
8.23
8.42

8.03
8.05

9.65
9.12

8.03

9.06
9.12
8.30
8.86

Manufacturer or Jobber, Brand and Retailer.

Humphreys, Godwin & Co., Memphis.

Dixie, Pierce & Winn

Hunter Bros. Milling Co., St. Louis.

G. M. Stratton

Warner Bros

T. M. Welsh

A. E. Lawrence & Son,

D. L. Marshall Co., Boston.

Plioenix, W. N. Potter & Sons..

Phoenix, G. B. Brown

Phoenix, A. N. Whittemore&Co,

Roberts=Ruffin Co., Memphis, Tenn.

Eagle, B. W. Brown

Tennessee Cotton Oil Co., Jackson, Tenn,

Tennessee, Potter Bros. & Co . . . .

Tennessee, Walker Grain Co

J. Lindsay Wells Co., Memphis, Tenn.

Moon, Lexington Grain Co. . .

Star, A. D. Copeland

Star, J. H. Nye

Star, J. W. Raymond

Star, H. K. Webster

Star, G. M. Foster

Star, H ale Knight

Star, C. B. Savvin & Son. . . .

Star, C. B. Sawin & Son. . . .

Low Grade.

Florida Cotton Oil Co., Jacksonville, Fla.

Sea Island, W. J. Meek

Sea Island, City Mills

Sea Island, Hathaway&Mackenzie

Sea Island, G. P. Rogers

Humphreys, Godwin & Co., Memphis.

Dixie, S. D. Viets & Co

Kaiser & Brown, Memphis, Tenn.

C. P. Wasliburn . . .

S. L. Davenport. . .

S. L. Davenport . . .

C.W.&G.W.Nightinc

ale

Sampled at.

Arlington,

Montague .
Sunderland.
.Sunderland.
Ayer

Greenfield
Ipswich . . .
Worcester

Concord.

N. Adams.
N. Adams.

Lexington . .
Brockton. . .
Brockton. . .
Concord . . . .
Lawrence . .

Lowell

Newburyp'rt
Southboro. .
Southboro. .

Fall River. .
Holyoke. ..
New Bedf'rd
Worcester. .

.Springfield

Middleboro,
N. Grafton ,
N. Grafton .
Quincy

Protein.

Found. Guar.

/o
40.27

40.36
40.10
40.85
37.08

40.80
37-i6
40.14

40.63

37-99
36.77

38.70

39-97
37.86
40.18
37-73
37-69
36.24

37-55
37-34

24.83
22.81
25.80
24.18

3J-«3

20.01
21.50
23.96
20.44

%
41.00

41.00
41.00
41.00
38-41

41.00
41.00
41.00

41.00

41 00
41.00

38-41
41-43
41-43
41-43
41-43
41-43
41-43
4>-43
41-43

25-30
25.30

25-30
25.30

41.00

41.00
41.00
41.00
41.00

Fat.

Found. Guar

/o
7.91

8.06

8.29

8.69

12.8:

9.60

9.56

10.26

9-37

7-38
10.05

8-99

10.47

8.67

9-03
9.67

9-58
8.85

8.32
6.71

7-15
7.42

9-54

5-25
5-50
6.06
4.81

/o
9.00

9.00
9.00
9.00
7-5-8

9.00
9.00
9.00

9.00

9.00
9.00

9-10
9-10
9-10
9-10
9-10
9-10
9-10
9-10
9-10

6.00
6.00
6.00
6.00

9.00

9.00
9.00
9.00
9.00

Manufacturer or Jobber, Brand and Retailer.

Sampled at.

Protein.

Fat.

Found.

Guar.

Found.

Guar.

D. L. Marshall Co., Boston.

Phoenix, Mackenzie & Winslow.

Phoenix, J. Gushing & Co

Glenwood, G. B. Pope & Co

Southern Cotton Oil Co.,

Albert Carr

Fall River..
Fitchburg . .
Waltham. . .

Northboro. .

Athol

Fitchburg . .
Lawrence . .
N. IJrookfld
N. Hrookf'ld
Shelb'ne Fls

0/
10

35-'0
34-71
20.71

3392

35-97
35-97
3497
34-53
35-80

33-79
34.10

%

41.00
41.00
22.00

41-43
4 '-43
4 '-43
41-43
41-43
41-43
41-43

%

7.72
11.04
4.89

7-79

8.32

8.33
8.58
10.29
10.38
8.86
9.62

%

9.00
9.00
5.00

J. Lindsay Wells Co., Memphis, Tenn.

Star, Wallace Lord

Star, F. F. Woodward & Co

Star, Chandler Gr. &Mill.Co

Star, George R. Doane

Star, George R. Doane

Star, Potter Grain Co

9-10
9-10
9-10
9-10
9-10
9-10
9-10

Star, C. B. Sawin & Son

Southboro. .

Of the 75 samples herein reported, 65 were guaranteed to contain
41 or more per cent protein, and of these 49 or 75 per cent fell
below the guarantee. Of this number, 20 were one-half to two per
cent below, 1 2 were two to four per cent below, 9 were four to six
per cent below, and the remainder more than six per cent below the
guarantee. Three samples put out by Kaiser & Brown, Memphis,
Tenn. bore a 41 per cent guarantee and tested 20 to 21.50 per cent
of protein. These goods were unquestionably fraudulent. They
were handled by the D. L. Marshall Co., who claim that they were
utterly deceived as to their character. Of the 18 lots of Star Brand
put out by J. Lindsay Wells Co., Memphis, Tenn., guaranteed to
contain 41 per cent protein, only three met their guarantees, eight
fell one to nearly five per cent below, and seven showed a deficit of
five to seven per cent. Replying to a letter addressed to them by
this station concerning the poor quality of their product, they stated
that under the existing conditions " it was a matter with us to take
whatever our mills gave us and be only too glad to get it."

WHO IS TO BLAME ?

The heavy rains which so injured the cottonseed were naturally
beyond the control of man. Some southern brokers with a high
reputation for honorable dealings- frequently found it difiicult

to secure meal that fully conformed to the minimum guarantee.
Others were unquestionably lax and attached a 41 per cent protein
guarantee to whatever meal they shipped without any particular
regard to its quality. ' The northern jobbers claim they were
deceived and under the conditions prevailing were in a large measure
powerless to help themselves ; they state that they bargained for 41
per cent meal and supposed they were getting it. That this claim is /
in a measure true cannot be denied. The writer is convinced, how-
ever, that certain parties knew, or soon discovered that the meal
they were receiving although guaranteed to be choice or extra prime
in quality, was really inferior ; they proposed to take their chances,
and in case they were found out plead ignorance and bad weather,
and if absolutely necessary settle with the local dealer with the least
loss to themselves. It would appear that northern jobbers who have
dealt largely in cottonseed meal have had a trying season and suf-
fered financially. It is believed, however, that the northern farmer
has borne the brunt of the burden, unless he has been alive to the
existing conditions. The station has endeavored by all means in its
power to keep both the dealer and the consumer informed in this
matter.

PRESENT CONDITIONS.

It is to be regretted that the entire business of handling cotton-
seed meal is not under better control. A few months since a firm of
reputable southern jobbers wrote as follows :

" The oil mills are feeling that the ammonia content in C-S
meal is the cheapest on the market and as they cannot secure a pre-
mium for high grade meal they are adulterating with hulls so as to reduce
the ammonia content, and thereby secure something like the proper
valuation of their goods. We oppose this attitude, as we think they
should make the very best goods possible and in that way make a
standing for their goods. We have spoken of ammonia content, but
of course, we mean the equivalent in protein and nitrogen."

Cottonseed meal has been one of the most valuable protein con-
centrates available to the northern dairyman. Its consumption,
however, is sure to be curtailed, unless adulteration is checked and a
reform in the methods of dealing is speedily brought about. It is
assuredly for the interest of the southern merchant to use every

means in his power to see that this most valuable product is unadul-
terated, that it is properly branded and that it substantially conforms
to the guarantee placed upon it.

Northern and southern dealers must get together and arrange a
more systematic and just code of business rules relative to the
handling of this product.

RULES OF THE INTERSTATE COTTON CRUSHERS' ASSOCIA=
TION FOR SAMPLING COTTONSEED MEAL.

Rule 17. Section i. Samples shall in every case be drawn in
the presence of representatives of both seller and buyer at American
destination by a reliable party or parties, who shall make affidavit as
prescribed by these rules in the " form of claims."*

Sec. 2. If the seller refuses or neglects for 48 hours after notifi-
cation to appear in person or appoint a representative to draw the
samples in the presence of the buyer or his representative for arbi-
tration, then the buyer may appoint any disinterested person to
draw such samples.

Rule 20. Two ounces or more from a sack shall constitute a sam-
ple of meal and must be drawn so as to fairly represent the entire con-
tents of the bag. Twenty samples from each carload, or 50 sacks
from each 100 tons, if not shipped in car lots, shall be sufficient to
represent a shipment. Samples of meal if of approximately the
same grade and quality need not be kept separate, but may be com-
mingled in which case they must be placed in a metal mailing or
sample box and carefully marked, showing the number of samples
taken as well as car number and mark.

*FoRM OF Claims. Sec. 6. I, the undersigned, do hereby make affidavit that I iiave

drawn fair and true samples from packages of being not less than

...... per cent of the entire number of packages embraced in a shipment made by

from as evidenced by bil! of lading dated and

issued by

The samples were carefully taken so as to secure a fair representation of the contents of
the individual package and a true average of the quality of the entire shipment.

I certify to the correctness of the samples, which are marked as follows:

and which represents the shipments marked or identified as follows :

or contained in

Sworn to before me, a notary or justice of the peace of county, and state of

and duly authorized by law to take depositions, this . . . day of

igo-. .....

THE STATION METHOD OF SAMPLING.

This station takes a core sample from 20 different bags in each
lot by means of a tube run the entire length of the bag. These
samples are carefully mixed and the necessary quantity put into a
bottle bearing a label, on which is written all of the obtainable data.
It is believed that a sample thus drawn is representative.

THE PROTECTION OF THE LOCAL DEALER.

It naturally is not possible for the station to send its representa-
tive to sample goods received by local dealers in all sections of the
state. The dealer can, however, when purchasing, notify the jobber
that he intends to sample the goods immediately on arrival and have
the same tested by the Experiment Station, or other responsible party.
He should immediately notify the jobber on the arrival of the car
as per Rule 17, Sections i and 2, and take the sample as therein
specified. Open 20 bags, and if a sampling tube is not available,
thoroughly mix the contents of the top of each bag by means of
both hands, then take out a handful from each bag and place on a
clean newspaper. Mix the 20 handfuls and send preferably in a tin
box not less than one-half pound by mail or express to the Station,
stating the name and number of the car, date received, of whom pur-
chased, and enclose a guarantee tag. The Station probably will be
able to make returns in a few days.

CONCERNING REBATE.

Rule 9, Section 6, of the Cotton Crushers' Association :
" Cotton Seed Meal not coming up to contract grade shall be a
good delivery if within one-half of one per cent of the ammonia
contents of the grade sold, or the sale sample, but the settlement price
shall be reduced at the rate of one tenth of the contract price for
each one per cent and proportionately for the fractions, of deficiency
.in ammonia."

Illustration : If a lot of cottonseed meal is guaranteed to test 41
per cent protein (8 per cent ammonia) and only tests 35.50 per cent
(6.9 per cent ammonia) it shows a deficit of i.i per cent. If the
contract price was $28.00 a ton, Jjy of the price would be $2.80 and
y^y of that .28, which added to the $2.80 would be $3.08 which is to
be deducted from the ^28.00 in the form of rebate.

NITROGEN, AMMONIA AND PROTEIN EQUIVALENTS.

One per cent of nitrogen:=i.2 per cent amnionia=6.25 per cent

protein.
One per cent ammonia=.83 per cent nitrogen=5.2 per cent protein.
One per cent protein=. 17 per cent nitrogen:=:.2o per cent ammonia.

Percentages.

itrogen.

Ammonia

Protein,

S-75

=

7.00

=

36.00

5-9°

=

7.20

—

37.00

6.10

:=

7.40

=

38.00

6.25

=:

7.60

=

39.00

6.40

=

7.80

=

40.00

6.56

=

8.00

=

41.00

6.70

=

8.20

=

42.00

6.90

=

8.40

=

43.00

Circular No. 2. May, 1907

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

CUTWORMS.

BY H. T. FERNALD, PH. D.

The general term " Cutworms " refer to the larvae of the Noctuids
or owlet moths, but all Noctuid larvae are not necessarily cutworms.
There are two classes of cutworms, those which feed on weeds, veg-
etables, and flowers, and which are the ones herein treated, and
those which feed on the leaves and buds of trees, which are not
usually abundant enough in Massachusetts to cause serious injury.

The cutworms attack almost any succulent and juicy plant, such
as grass, clover, corn and wheat, garden vegetables and flowering
plants.

LIFE HISTORY.

The moths lay their eggs, 200-500 in number, in masses of rank
vegetable growth, usually on the stalk, though sometimes on the
leaves. This occurs about the last of August or the first of Septem-
ber and about the last of September or the first of October the
young caterpillars begin to feed on the plant upon which the eggs
were laid. After they have grown to about three-fourths of an inch
in length, they go into a dormant state for the winter in the ground
and remain there until spring. They then come to the surface and
eat whatever plant food they may find until full grown, this being
generally between the last of June and the last of July. The follow-
ing features are possessed by nearly all the species and by these
they may be recognized. They are from i /^ to nearly 2 inches in
length : have sixteen feet, the three anterior pairs being sharp, the
five posterior pairs blunt and stout and armed with minute hooks
for clasping ; they have the appearance of being stout with an
inclination to taper at both ends and they are usually dull-colored,
greasy-looking, dingy-brown, gray or greenish, with some light and
dark longitudinal lines and sometimes with oblique dashes. The
head is large, shmy and usually of a red or reddish brown color.
The first ring or collar bears a darker colored, shiny, horny plate as
also does the last segment of the body.

When full grown the caterpillars cease feeding and work their way
into the soil for a depth of four to six inches, and there form an oval
cell by rolling and twisting about until it is smooth and compact
and then change to brown, conical pupae.

Usually in August, the moths emerge from these pupae and fly at
night feeding upon the nectar of flowers and other sweet exudations
from trees or plants.

The life history of this insect is completed about the last of
August when the eggs are laid for the new generation.

HABITS.

The presence of cutworms becomes noticeable in a field as soon
as the plants are set out or when the seeds have begun to sprout.
Plants all through the field will have fallen or will have disappeared.
If examined they will be found to have been cut off at the surface or
a little below the surface of the ground by the cutworms and this
injury continues until the worms are full grown.

ENEMIES.

Because of their large size and hairless bodies these insects are
an easy prey to many enemies. The robin is especially effective as
it destroys more than any other bird. Poultry, especially chickens
destroy many of them and if trained to follow the plow they will do
effective work. The beetle larvae known as the cutworm lion and
the cutworm dragon, as well as the toad, help much to keep this
insect pest in check.

REMEDIES.

There are two kinds of remedies to be applied to this insect ; pre-
ventive and destructive. Of the former cleaji cultiii-e is the most
important. As the moths usually deposit their eggs in rank growth,
it is advisable where the land is not seeded down to keep it clean
and not let it grow up to weeds. Fall plowing will in many cases
prove quite beneficial, provided it is done early.

If on preparing a field for planting any crop liable to attack, cut-
worms are noticed as abundant, complete the preparation of the
field, then spray some clover heavily with Paris green, and then cut
the clover and scatter it here and there over the field. The cut-
worms coming up after food will feed on this and be poisoned.

After a crop is in a different treatment is necessary. In such
cases prepare a bran mash made of fifty pounds of bran or mid-
dlings, one pound of Paris green, enough molasses to sweeten well,
and water to make a dough or mash. Place a little of this at the
base of each plant in the latter part of the afternoon, and keep
fowls away. The cutworms coming up to feed at night will find in
this mash a food they prefer because of its sweetness, to the plant
stem and will feed on it instead. In this way nearly all of these
pests will be destroyed and it is not often necessary to repeat this
treatment.

Circular No. 3.

May 1907

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

THE APPLE MAGGOT OR RAILROAD WORM

Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh).

BY C. E. HOOD, B. S.

This insect pest is a native of America and first began to attract
attention because of its injury to apples about 1867. It originally
fed upon the hawthorn, but unfortunately for fruit-growers has
acquired the habit of feeding on the apple though contrary to the
original belief, it does not restrict itself to early varieties, but is
found on both early and late kinds.

It was first noticed injuring fruit trees in Vermont, Massachusetts
and Connecticut. It is now found from Maine to North Carolina
and also in some of the western states as Minnesota and Wisconsin.

The apple-maggot much enlarged, a, adult male fly ; 3, adult female fly; t, maggot.
Fine lines show the true size of these stages.

The adult of the Apple-maggot is a two-winged fly, somewhat
similar to the common house fly, but smaller. It is easily recog-
nized by its general black color, yellowish head and legs, dark feet,
three pairs of white bands across the abdomen and four black bands

across the wings. The adult fly appears about the first of July and
commences to lay its eggs on all parts of the apple, the cheek how-
ever being preferred. As the flies emerge at all times between the
first of July and the last of September, the egg laying continues
through the same period, and the fruit in which the eggs are laid
may be an early or a late variety according to the time of emergence
of the fly. Each female lays on the average from 300 to 400 eggs ;
the fly first puncturing the skin of the apple with her sharp ovipos-
itor, generally on the shady side, as the skin is not apt to be tough
upon that side, then in this puncture a single egg is deposited.

The eggs hatch in four or five days and the young greenish white
larvae begin their feeding. They burrow in all directions through

Apple showing work of the maggot.

the apple by means of two black curved hooks which are situated
just above the mouth. By a vertical motion of the head they rasp
the fruit with these hooks and suck up the juices thus liberated.
While the larvae are small and the fruit is still growing, the tunnels
which they make largely heal, but when they grow larger and the
fruit approaches maturity the tunnels turn brown thus showing the
presence of the maggot. "Finally they involve the whole fruit ren-
dering it a worthless mass of disgusting corruption held together by
the peel."

After the fruit has fallen or been picked the larvae emerge from
the apple and if on the ground each generally buries itself an inch
or so in the soil and there changes to the pupa stage. When in
storage, the larvae come out onto the bottom of the bin or barrel
and pass the pupa stage there, though occasionally they may pass
this stage in the apple. The pupa does not differ much from the
larva except that it is pale yellowish brown in color, and is some-
what shorter, assuming a more oval form. In the pupa stage the
winter and following spring are passed and about the first of July
the adult flies begin to appear, having undergone the transformation
from the larva to the adult in the pupa. The female fly begins to
lay her 300 to 400 eggs and when this is done her life work is com-
pleted and she dies, thus completing the life history or cycle of this
insect.

TREATMENT.

The Apple-Maggot is a difficult insect to destroy. During its
whole life cycle it is well protected : the eggs are laid under the skin
of the apple ; the larva stage is spent in the inside of the fruit and
the pupa stage is passed in the ground. The protection thus
afforded renders them free from the attacks of parasites and puts
them beyond the reach of poisons applied by spraying.

The only method of combatting the pest is by killing the larvae
and pupae. The remedy which is recommended by nearly all ento-
mologists who have written on the subject, is to pick up the wind-
falls every day or so and either bury them deep or else feed them to
stock. This is based on the fact that the maggots do not leave the
fruit until it has either fallen or been picked. These maggots if not
destroyed at this time enter the ground and appear the next year
three hundred fold stronger. Every orchardist should gather the
windfalls as a matter of economy as it not only checks this insect
but other insects and fungi which live upon the fallen fruit. If
neither of these methods is practicable, it is advisable to turn sheep,
swine or fowls into the orchard in sufficient numbers to consume all
the windfalls. All refuse from barrels, bins and other places where
fruit has been kept, has been found to contain pupae in abundance
in the spring ; therefore, it should be destroyed by burning or
burying.

Circular No. 4. May 1907

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

WIRE WORMS.

BY C. E. HOOD, B. S.

This serious pest of field crops is a long slender grub, yellowish
white in color and with an unusually hard body. These wire worms,
so called because of their hard bodies are the larvae or younger
stages of the click-beetles or snap bugs. There are many species of
these, found under varying conditions. Some are not injurious,
while others do great damage to the roots of plants and to seeds, and
as they work in the ground out of sight it is very difficult to combat
them.

The click beetles lay their eggs and from these the larvae or wire
worms hatch and commence feeding. They continue in this stage
for about two years when they go into the pupa stage, rolling them-
selves up in a little case of dirt. In three or four weeks they become
adult beetles but remain in the ground until spring when they
emerge and lay their eggs for another generation.

Three different classes of remedies have been tried on these
insects, i. Protection of the seed. 2. Destruction of the larvae
(wireworms). 3. Destruction of pupae and adults.

The first method consists of coating or soaking the seed in various
substances as tar, Paris green or kerosene, but the results are not
such as to recommend them generally.

The destruction of larvae by clean fallow ; by planting of the so-
called immune crops ; and by insecticides has not proven as success-
ful as had been hoped for.

The remedies which seem to be the most effective in the control of
this insect, are the destruction of the pupae and adults by fall plow-
ing and by traps.

Much can be done towards checking the increase of wireworms by
fall plowing, as it has been found that if the pupa cases of the insects
are disturbed the insects in them are almost sure to die. The plow-
ing may be done any time after July 20, for by then all mature wire-
worms have changed to pupae. After plowing the soil should be
well pulverized. If this thorough cultivation be continued for three

or four weeks previous to Sept. 20, wheat, rye or grass may then be
sown.

A short rotation of crops in land badly infested with wireworms
has been recommended; and the experience of those who have prac-
ticed it is, that the soil is rendered comparatively free from these
pests.

Trapping by baits such as sliced potatoes, wads of green clover,
and corn meal dough have been tried, and it has been found that
the best results have been obtained by dipping a small handful of
clover into Paris green water, the clover being freshly cut, -and plac-
ing the bunches under boards in various parts of the field. They
should be renewed once or twice a week during early summer.

Considering the small amount of labor involved, and the large
number of beetles that are destroyed in this way, many of them
before they have laid their eggs, this seems to be about the best
method thus far devised. This, however, should be coupled with
fall plowing three years in succession if the best results are to be
obtained.

Circular No. 5. May, 1907

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

ROOT MAGGOTS.

BY H. T. FERNALD, PH. D.

For many years persons who have tried to grow cabbage, cauli-
flower, onions, turnips or radishes, have realized that maggots are
most formidable enemies to these plants. It has been said that
tens of thousands of acres of these vegetables have been ruined in a
single season by these pests.

THE CABBAGE ROOT MAGGOT.

Phorbia brassicce, (Bouche).

This was considered as a serious pest in the U. S. as early as
1833. It, like its food plants, is probably of European origin, and
was probably first introduced into Massachusetts, from which in a
little over half a century it has spread practically all over the
United States and Canada.

This insect as its name implies feeds upon the cabbage, but it
also attacks cauliflower, radishes, turnips and hedge mustard. The
presence of the pest where it occurs in considerable numbers is
indicated by a checking of the growth of the plant, a tendency to
wilt badly in the hot sun and a sickly bluish cast to the leaves.

The adult fly somewhat resembles the common house fly but is
smaller. It makes its first appearance in the spring, about the last
of April or the first of May and lays its eggs near the stalk of the
plant on which the larvae or young maggots are to feed when they
hatch.

In from three to five days the eggs hatch and the young commence
feeding on the roots of the plant. They continue to feed and grow
for about three weeks. At this time they are footless and of a shin-
ing white color and the body is cylindrical, blunt at one end and
tapering somewhat at the other. When full grown they are about
one-third of an inch long, and they -then usually work their way into
the soil an inch or two and there enter the pupal stage. This stage
is spent in the puparium which is elliptical-ovate in form, dark
brown in color and consists of the dried outer skin of the maggot.

After remaining in this stage from two to three weeks the adult
fly emerges about the middle of June and lays its eggs for another
generation of maggots which work in July. Whether there is still
another brood of flies in one season has not been definitely worked

out. Most of them pass the winter in the pupa state, although some
probably winter as adults.

REMEDIES.

This is a very difficult insect to combat and many methods of
treatment both preventative and destructive have been tried with
varying results although the former class seems to be the more
practical.

Closely encircling the stems of cauliflower or cabbage plants by tar
paper collars, which rest upon the ground has proven satisfactory
where practicable. These collars are six sided cards of tar paper
with a slit reaching to the center, and with a star shaped cut at the
center so that the card may accommodate itself to any sized stem
and still make a tight joint.

The cards should be placed about the plants at the time of trans-
planting. Slip the stem to the center of the card, after which spread
the card out flat, and press the points formed by the star-shaped
cut snugly around the stem. Have the paper lie fiat on the ground
and do not have any dirt on top of it.

For onions, radishes and turnips, carbolic acid emulsion has proven
to be quite effective. It is made by dissolving one pound of hard
soap in one gallon of boiling water and then adding one pint of
crude carbolic acid and churning immediately with a force pump or
syringe until it becomes quite thick and thoroughly emulsified. In
treating take one part of this standard emulsion and dilute it with
thirty parts of water. Begin treatment early, a day or two after the
plants are up, or in case of cabbage and cauliflower the day after
they are set out. A knapsack or a wheelbarrow sprayer may be
used in applying the emulsion on a large scale.

Cauliflower and cabbage plants whose roots have been dipped in
a mixture of white hellebore one part, hot water two parts have
made an excellent showing. The mixture should be allowed to cool
and the plants emersed deep enough to also coat the lower part of
the stems.

THE ONION MAGGOT.

PJiorhia cepanwi (Meigen).

This insect attacks the onion only, but is as destructive in its
sphere as is the cabbage maggot. When attacked, the leaves of the
onions become soft and often change to a yellowish color before
wilting. The life history of the onion maggot is very similar to that
of the cabbage maggot and the carbolic acid emulsion treatment as
given above will prove as effective as any.

Circular No. 6. May 1907

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

THE LECANIUMS, OR SOFT SCALES.

BY C. E. HOOD, B. S.

Scale insects of this group abound everywhere, and are found on
almost all kinds of plants, both in hothouses and in the open air.
They are known to gardeners under the general name of soft scales.
The five most common kinds in this state are the Apricot scale, Ahw
^ork Plum scale, Terrapin scale, Tulip scale -am^ the Hemispherical scale.

THE APRICOT SCALE.

Eulecariimn armeniacum (Craw).

This scale acquired its name because of the ravages it commits
among the apricot orchards of California, but in the East it is more
prone to attack the plum and grape, although it has been found
feeding on the pear, prune, cherry, gooseberry and hackberry.

The adult female scale is yellowish brown and a little over one-
eighth of an inch long and later appears to be covered with a powdery
or cottony material. The eggs are laid inside the horny skin or
shell of the mother and this becomes really a basket for holding
the eggs until they hatch in July. After emerging from the egg the
young wander about for a few hours and then select places to settle
down, usually on the under side of the leaves near the large veins.
Here they remain until the latter part of August when they migrate
back to the twigs before the leaves fall and remain there for the
rest of their lives.

During the winter and early spring they are quite small and not
protected by any hard, horny shell, so this is the favorite time for
spraying. The leaves having fallen, the surface to be sprayed is at
a minimum, and the scales themselves are crowded together as much
as they ever will be.

Spraying in winter with kerosene emulsion is a very effective
method. To make the emulsion, thoroughly dissolve one-half pound
hard soap, or whale-oil soap, in one gallon of boiling water. While
this solution is still very hot add two gallons of kerosene and quickly
begin to churn the whole mass, drawing the liquid into the pump

and forcing it back again into the dish. Continue this for about five
minutes or until the whole mass is like a thick cream. It may
now be readily diluted with cold water. This standard emulsion if
covered and kept in a cool place will keep for a long time. For
spraying for this insect, in winter, take one part of the standard
emulsion to every four parts of water, and spray thorougHily as only
the scales which are touched by the spray are killed.

THE NEW YORK PLUM SCALE.

Eulecanium cerasifex (Fitch).

These scales are brown, hemispherical bodies, about one-eighth of
an inch in length and with a dark brown, shiny surface, sometimes
wrinkled slightly.

During the early summer these scales are soft but by the middle of
June they have become hard and are filled with eggs which have
been laid by the female insect under her own body. The number
of eggs under each scale has been estimated at between one and
two thousand. The young hatch in July and crawl to the under
side of the leaves, settle down and begin to suck the juices. They
remain here until the last of August when they go back onto the
twigs. The treatment for the Apricot scale as given above will
answer fully as well as any for this insect also, using one part of
the standard emulsion to four parts of water. Spray once in the fall
before winter closes in and if possible once or twice in March.

THE TERRAPIN OR PEACH SCALE.

Eulecanimn nigrofasciatiun (Perg).

This scale insect has been found feeding on the peach most exten-
sively, but feeds also on the plum, apple, linden, birch, maple, syca-
more and olive. It is somewhat smaller than the preceding Leca-
niums and the scales are reddish brown, elevated oval or pyriform.
The top of the scale is lighter than the sides. They pass the winter
nearly full grown and become adult in the spring. Hatching of the
eggs begins about June lo and continues for nearly a month. The
young settle down on the under side of the leaves and suck the
juices until Jthe last of August when they return to the twigs and
branches for the winter.

The fact that these scales are nearly mature before winter sets in,

renders the treatment a little different from that for the Apricot
scale. As the eggs hatch in June and July the best time for fighting
them probably will be during the period shortly after they hatch and
while the young scales are yet tender. At this time during late
June and early July, then a spray, or better, two or three of them at
intervals of two weeks, of kerosene emulson, diluted ten times,
should be very effective.

THE TULIP SCALE.

Eulecafiiiim tulip if erce (Cook),

This scale is quite common on wild and cultivated tulip trees
throughout the state. It is the largest of all the soft scales, often
reaching a diameter of one-third of an inch. It also attacks the
linden, lime, magnolia and clover.

The scale as it appears in summer is soft and somewhat hemis-
pherical, gray in color, slimy and repulsive. The female continues
to grow until late in August. Early in September it becomes mature,
and the young begin to appear. These little black creatures begin
feeding at once and make some growth before winter sets in.

The best time to deal with this insect is in September when the
young are settling. If only a single twig or branch is infested, the
best way is to cut it off and burn it. Spraying thoroughly about the
middle of September with kerosene emulsion one part, water five
parts will kill all the larvae it reaches and this is perhaps the most
effective method. Strong whale-oil soap suds may be used during
the winter effectively. It must not be made weaker than one pound
to one gallon of water and the application should be thorough.

THE HEMISPHERICAL SCALE.

Saissetia hemisphcerica (Targ).

This is a very common scale found in greenhouses and dwellings.
Its food plants are many, among which may be named ferns, palms,
orchids, peach and orange trees. It is hemispherical in shape being
about one-eighth of an inch in diameter and one-twelfth of an inch
in height. The color varies from light brown when young to dark
brown when old. These insects are found both on leaves and stems,
and it probably breeds continuously throughout the year. Kerosene
emulsion or soap and water can be used as sprays and greenhouses
can be fumigated with hydrocyanic acid gas to destroy this insect.

Circular No. 7. July, 1907

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIOlT

ANTS.

BY C. E. HOOD, B. S.

These little creatures are found in various localities and under
various conditions, but tho.se with which we are most familiar are the
little red house ant and those occuring in lawns.

THE LITTLE RED ANT.

Mfluoniorium pJiaraonis (Linn.)

These are the ants we find in food, in dishes and in many other
places around the house. It is not so much the loss caused by their
devouring food but their getting into everything, which is objection-
able. They are attracted to sweets, greases, dead insects and many
other things. They form their nests in any secluded spot either in
or just outside of the house. This species is also common in fields
and gardens where it sometimes does much injury to corn by gnaw-
ing the blades when but a few inches high for the purpose of drink-
ing the sweet exuding juice. Though a nuisance this ant has one
redeeming habit in that it is an efficient enemy of the bedbug.

Each nest of these insects contains several females laying hundreds
of eggs each and attended by workers whose duty is to care for the
eggs and larvae and also to provide the females with food. The
females are rarely met with by the ordinary observer and the same is
true of the males. The wingless workers are by far the most numer-
ous and are the ones we commonly see infesting foods of all kinds.

REMEDIES.

If the ants can be traced to their nest they may be killed by mak-
ing a few holes about a foot apart with a stick and pouring into each,
a tablespoonful of bisulphide of carbon, then immediately covering
the holes with dirt.

If the nest is located in a wall where the bisulphide of carbon
cannot be used, the location of the nest might be soaked with kero-
sene emulsion. If thoroughly done it would probably kill all the
insects.

If the nest is in the wall of the house or cannot be found,
various baits may be used effectively. It is stated that maple syrup
mixed with London purple in a low dish and exposed to the ants, not-
only killed large numbers but prevented the recurrence of the pest
for a long time afterward. An old and popular remedy is dipping a
sponge in sweetened water and placing it where the ants are, and
when the ants have collected in the sponge it may be dropped into
hot water. A greasy bone may be used in a similar manner. A few
repetitions of any of these baits is generally sufficient, for the ants
seem to communicate the intelligence of danger or disaster one to
another and they all seek safer quarters. A broad chalk line is an
effectual barrier for many species, especially if frequently renewed.
Placing the legs of tables in shallow vessels containing water is
another protection from this pest, and a ring of powdered cloves
around an article it is desired to protect is generally effective.

ANTS IN LAWNS.

In case of ants in lawns the first essential is to find the nests,
which can be easily detected by the scant herbage and the excavated
dirt, or if more obscure it can be discovered by following the trav-
elling ants to their home. When the nest is found take a cane or
broom handle and make a hole in the nest or if large make two or
three holes to the depth of the nest and pour in each a tablespoon ful
of bisulphide of carbon, immediately covering the hole with dirt.
The volatile vapor will permeate through the nests and kill the
insects.

If nests of no large colonies can be found, but it seems that the
lawn is generally infested, take kerosene emulsion on a bright sunny
day when the ants seem to be out in full force and spray the entire
surface. A repetition of this a few times should rid the lawn of this
pest.

Circular No. 8. July, 1907.

BULLETINS

OF THE

Agricultural Experiment Stations

MASSACHUSETTS.

I883-I907.

AMHERST, MASSACHUSETTS
1907

LIST OF BULLETINS.

* Bulletins marked with an asteiisk can no longer le sent on general application. Of many of these,
a few copies remain, which will be furnished to complete sets in public and institutional libraries.

t The publications so marked and designated " Fertilizer Bulletins " in most cases include only
analyses and trade values.

The Station publishes Annual Reports, of which all issues subsequent to the Ninth are still available
for general distribution.

BULLETINS OF THE MASS. STATE EXPERIMENT STATION.

No.

Date of
Publication.

SUBJECTS.

AUTHORS.

a,

6
2

*I

July, 1883

Fodder Analyses, ....

C. A. Goessmann.

15

*2

Aug., 1883

Fertilizer Analyses, ....

C. A. Goessmann.

8

3

Sept., 1883

Fodder Analyses. Fertilizer Analyses,

C. A. Goessmann.

12

*4

Oct., 1883

Fodder Analyses. Fertilizer Analyses,

C. A. Goessmann.

12

*5

Nov., 1883

Fodder Analyses. Fertilizer Analyses,

C. A. Goessmann.

12

*6

Dec, 1883

Fodder Analyses. Fertilizer Analyses,

C. A. Goessmann.

12

*7

March, 1884

Insects Injurious to the Apple. Special
Fertilizers in Fruit Culture. Experi-
ments with Currants. Garden Crops.
Fertilizer Analyses, ....

S. T. Maynard and
C. A. Goessmann.

12

*8

April, 1884

Fodder and Fodder Analyses. Valua-
tion of Fertilizers, ....

C. A. Goessmann.

12

*9

May, 1884

Insects Injurious to Farm and Garden
Crops. Fodder and Fodder Analyses.
Fertilizer Analyses, ....

S. T. Maynard and
C. A. Goessmann.

12

*IO

June, 1884

Vitality of the Seed of Various Weeds,
and the Causes of Certain Diseases of
Grasses. Corn Ensilage. Fodder and
Fodder Analyses. Fertilizer Analyses,

S. T. Maynard and
C. A. Goessmann.

12

*ii

Sept, 1884

Corn Ensilage. Fodder Analyses. Fer-
tilizer Analyses,

C. A. Goessmann.

12

*I2

Oct., 1884

Gluten Meal for Milch Cows. Fodder
Analyses,

C. A. Goessmann.

12

BULLETINS OF THE MASS. STATE EXPERIMENT STATION.

No.

'13

^14

*i5

16

^17

*i8

19

*23

*24

*25
*26

Date of
Publication.

Nov., 1884
March, 1885
April, 1885

July, 1885

Aug., 1885

Oct., 1885

April, 1886
May, 1886
June, 1886
Oct., 1886

March, 1887
April, 1887

July, 1887
Aug., 1S87

SUBJECTS,

Feeding Experiments with Pigs. Fer-
tilizer Analyses,

Fodder Analyses. Valuation of Fer-
tilizers, .......

Meteorological Summary for two
Months. Feeding Experiments with
Milch Cows. Fodder Analyses. Fer-
tilizer Analyses,

Meteorogical Summary. Fodder Analy-
ses. Analyses of Garden Crops. Fer-
tilizer Analyses, .....

Meteorogical Summary. Fodder Analy-
ses. Analyses of Fruits. Analyses of
Weeds. Fertilizer Analyses,

Meteorological Summary. Feeding
Experiments with Pigs. Fodder Analy-
ses. Fertilizer Analyses,

Valuation of Fertilizers and Analyses
of Fertilizers, .....

Meteorological Summary. Fodder
Analyses. Fertilizer Analyses, .

AUTHOR.

C. A. Goessmann.
C. A. Goessmann.

Meteorological Summary.
Fertilizers,

Fodder.

Meteorological Summary. Feeding-
Experiments with Milch Cows. Fodder
Analyses,

Meteorological Summary. Trade
Values of Fertilizers. Fodder Analyses,

Meteorological Summary. Planting
Trees and Small Fruits. Fodder
Analyses. Fertilizer Analyses, .

Meterological Summary. Feeding Ex-
periments with Pigs, ....

Meteorological Summary. Fodder
Analyses. Fertilizer Analyses, .

C. A. Goessmann.

C. A. Goessmann.

C. A. Goessmann.

C. A. Goessmann.
C. A. Goessmann.
C. A. Goessmann.
C. A. Goessmann.

C. A. Goessmann.
C. A. Goessmann.

S. T. Maynard.
C. A. Goessmann.
C. A. Goessmann.

BULLETINS OF THE MASS. STATE EXPERIMENT STATION.

No.

Date of
Publication.

SUBJECTS.

AUTHOR.

n
3.

d
Z

*2 7

Oct., 1887

IVTeteorogical Summary. Feeding Ex-
periments with Milch Cows,

C. A. Goessmann.

16

*28

March, 1888

Meteorological Summary. Trade
Value of Fertilizers. Fertilizer Analy-
ses. Fodder Analyses,

C. A. Goessmann.

12

29

June, 1888

Meteorological Summary. Fodder
Analyses,

C. A. Goessmann.

12

*3o

Aug., 1 888

Meteorological Summary. Feeding
Experiments with Pigs,

C. A. Goessmann.

16

3'

Oct., 1888

Meteorological Summary. Commercial
Fertilizers,

C. A. Goessmann.

16

32

Feb., 1889

Meteorological Summary. Record of
Twelve Cows. Fodder Analyses,

C. A. Goessmann.

12

33

March, 1889

Commercial Fertilizers,

C. A. Goessmann.

12

34

June, 1889

Meteorological Summary. Outlines of
the Work during the present Season.
Fertilizer Analyses, ....

J. E. Humphrey and
C. A. Goessmann.

16

35

Nov., 1889

Meteorological Summary. Feeding
Experiments with Milch Cows,

C. A. Goessmann.

12

36

March, 1890

Meteorological Summary. Productive-
ness of our Farm Lands. Fodder
Analyses. Fertilizer Analyses,

C. A. Goessmann.

16

37

July, 1S90

Meteorological Summary. Feeding
Experiments with Lambs. Fodder
Analyses. Fertilizer Analyses, .

C. A. Goessmann.

16

38

Sept., 1890

Feeding Experiments with Milch Cows.
Fertilizer Analyses, ....

C. A. Goessmann.

12

March, 1891

Circular on Commercial Fertilizers,

C. A. Goessmann.

8

39

April, 1891

Meteorological Summary. Treatment
of Fungous Diseases, ....

J. E. Humphrey.

12

40

July, 1891

Meteorological Summary. Diseases
of Lettuce and Cucumbers. Fertilizer
Analyses. Feeding Experiments with
Steers, . ,

J. E. Humphrey and
C. A. Goessmann.

16

41

Sept., 1891

Meteorogical Summary. Fertilizers.
Experiments with Milch Cows,

C. A. Goessmann.

16

BULLETINS OF THE MASS. STATE EXPERIMENT STATION.

No.

42
43

44
45

"46
47

'49

*5o
51
52

*S3
54
55

*56
57

Date of
Publication.

June, 1892
Aug., 1892

Oct., 1892

Nov., 1892

March, 1 893
May, 1893

June, 1893
Aug., 1893
Oct., 1893
March, 1894
June, 1894
July, 1894
Aug., 1894
Oct., 1894
Nov., 1894
March, 1 895

SUBJECTS.

AUTHOR.

Feeding Experiments with Milch Cows. I

Fodder Analyses, . . . ■!'-'. .A. ( /oessmann.

Meteorological Summary. Feeding
Experiments with Lambs. Fertilizer
Analyses, . . . . . j C A. (Joessmann.

Meteorological Summary. Feeding
Experiments with Steers,

On Fodder Articles and Fodder .Sup-
plies,

Fertilizer Bulletin, ....

Meteorological Summary. Feeding
Experiments with Pigs. Fodder
Analyses,

Meteorological Summary. Fertilizer
Analyses,

Meteorological Summary. Fertilizer
Analyses,

Meteorological Summary. Fertilizer
Analyses,

Commercial Fertilizers. Fodder Analy-
ses,

Meteorological Summary. Fertilizer
Analyses,

Meteorological Summary. Fertilizer
Analyses, ......

Meteorological .Summary. Fertilizer
Analyses,

Meteorological Summary. Fertilizer
Analyses,

Meteorological Summary. Fertilizer
Analyses. Analyses of Fodder Articles,

Meteorological Summary. Human
Food Articles. Analyses of Fodder
Articles. Fertilizer Analyses,

C. .A. Goessmann.

C. A. Goessmann.
C. A. Goessmann.

J. B. Lindsey and
C. A. Goessmann.

C. A. Goessmann.
C. A. Goessmann.
C. A. Goessmann.
C. A. Goessmann.
C. A. Goessmann.
C. A. Goessmann.
C. A. Goessmann.
C. A. Goessmann.
C. A. Goessmann.

C. A. Goessmann.

BULLETINS OF THE HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION.

No.

Date of
Publication.

SUBJECTS.

AUTHOR.

a

6
Z

*i

July, 1888

Reports of the Entomologist, Horticul-
turist and Meteorologist,

C. H. Fernald,

S. T. Maynard and

C. D. Warner.

16

*2

Oct., 1888

Reports of the Entomologist and Hor-
ticulturist,

C. H. Fernald and
S. T. Maynard.

35

*3

Jan., 1889

Tuberculosis,

C. H. Fernald.

20

*4

April, 1889

Report of Horticulturist. Greenhouse
Construction and Heating. Greenhouse
Pests and Plant Diseases.

S. T. Maynard.

22

*5

July, 1889

Household Pests, ....

C. H. Fernald.

10

*6

Oct., 1889

Greenhouse Heating, steam vs. hot
water. Strawberries. Fungous Dis-
eases of Plants,

S. T. Maynard and
J. E. Humphrey.

'9

*7

Jan., 1890

Small Fruits. Vegetables. General
Results of a Trial of a few Japanese
Crops. The Gypsy Moth, .

S. T. Maynard,
W. P. Brooks and
C. H. Fernald.

23

*8

April, 1890

Greenhouse Heating, steam vs. hot
water. Peach Yellows. How far may
a Cow be Tuberculous before her Milk
Becomes Dangerous as an Article of
Food,

S. T. Maynard and
H. C. Ernst.

24

*g

May, 1890

Soil Tests with Fertilizers, .

W. P. Brooks.

47

*IO

Oct., 1S90

Special Fertilizers for Greenhouse
Crops. Small Fruits, ....

S. T. Maynard.

14

*ii

Jan., 1891

Strength of Rennet. Hay Crops.
Flandres Oats. Prevention of Potato
Rot. Fungicides and Insecticides on
Fruits,

W. P. Brooks and
S. T. Maynard.

22

*I2

April, 1891

Report on Insects, ....

C. H. Fernald.

32

*i3

April, 1891

Directions for the Use of Fungicides
and Insecticides,

S. T. Maynard.

12

*I4

May, 1 89 1

Fertilizers for Corn, ....

W. P. Brooks.

62

*'5

Oct., 1891

Experiments in Greenhouse Heating.
Special Fertilizers for Plants under
Glass. Varieties of Strawberries,
Blackberries and Raspberries,

S. T. Maynard.

16

BULLETINS OF THE HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION.

No.

Date of
Publication.

*i6

Jan.,

1892

*i7

April

1892

*i8

April

1892

*i9

May,

1892

*20

Jan.,

1893

*2I

April

1893

*22

Oct.,

1893

*23

Dec,

1893

*24

April

1894

*2S

April

1894

*26

Oct.,

1894

*27

Dec,

1894

*28

April

1895

*29

May,

1895

*30

June,

1895

*3i

July,

1895

*32

Aug.,

1895

33

Oct.,

189s

34

Oct.,

1895

*35

Dec,

■895

*36

Feb.,

1896

SUBJECTS.

A Brief Summary of Results in Elec-
tro Culture,

Experiments with Fungicides and In
secticides,

Soil Tests with Fertilizers
Report on Insects,
Report on Insects,
Report on Fruits, .
Report on Fruits, .
Electro-culture,
Insecticides. The Horn Fly,

Fungicides and Insecticides. Tests of
Grapes,

Strawberries, Blackberries, Raspberries,

History of Tuberculosis in College
Herd. Use of Tuberculin in Diagnosis.

Report on Insects, ....

Fungicides, Insecticides, Spraying
Calendar, ....

Commercial Fertilizers,
Commercial Fertilizers,
Commercial Fertilizers,
Glossary of Fodder Terms,

Analyses of Manurial Substances sent
on for Examination, and Licensed Fer-
tilizers,

The Agricultural Value of Bone Meal.

The Imported Elm-leaf Beetle and
other Insect Pests, . . . .

AUTHOR.

C. D. Warner.

S. T. Maynard.
W. P. Brooks.
C. H. F'ernald.
C. H. Fernald.
S. T. Maynard.
S. T. Maynard.
C. D. Warner.
C. H. Fernald.

S. T. Maynard.
S. T. Maynard.

J. B. Paige.

C. P. Lounsbury.

S. T. Maynard.
C. A. Goessmann.
C. A. Goessmann.
C. A. Goessmann.
E. B. Holland.

C. A. Goessmann.
Chas. Wellington.

R. A. Cooley.

BULLETINS OF THE HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION.

No,

Date of
Publication.

SUBJECTS.

AUTHOR.

a;
d

*37

March, 1 896

Report on Fruits, Insecticides, Fungi-
cides,

S. T. Maynard and
J. H. Putnam.

40

*38

March, 1896

General Discussion on Commercial
Fertilizers. Observations regarding
the Composition of Paris Green,

C. A. Goessmann.

16

*39

April, 1896

Economic Feeding of Milch Cows,

J. B. Lindsey.

23

*40

July. 1896

Analyses of Manurial Substances and
Licensed Fertilizers, ....

C. A. Goessmann.

20

41

Aug., 1896

On the Use of Tuberculin,

D. B. Bang.

27

*42

Oct., 1896

Fertilizer Bulletin, t ....

C. A. Goessmann.

31

*43

Jan., 1897

Electro-Germination, ....

Asa S. Kinney.

32

*44

March, 1897

Variety Tests of Fruits. Tests of
Vegetable Seeds,

( S. T. Maynard,
M. H. Putnam and
( S. W. Fletcher.

48

*45

March, 1897

Fertilizer Bulletin,! ....

C. A. Goessmann.

16

*46

April, 1897

The Habits, Food and Economic Value
of the American Toad,

A. H. Kirkland.

30

*47

April, 1897

On Field Experiments with Tobacco in
Massachusetts,

C. A. Goessmann.

31

*48

July, 1897

Fertilizer Bulletin.! ....

C. A. Goessmann.

24

*49

Nov., 1897

Fertilizer Bulletin, t ....

C. A. Goessmann.

24

*So

Jan., 189S

The Feeding Value of Salt Marsh Hay,

J. B. Lindsey and
B.K.Jones.

48

*5i

Feb., 1898

Fertilizer Bulletin, f ....

C. A. Goessmann.

12

*S2

March, 1898

Variety Tests of Fruits. Spraying
Calendar.

S. T. Maynard.

19

*53

April, 1898

Concentrated Feed Stuffs,

J. B. Lindsey.

24

*S4

July, 1898

Fertilizer Bulletin,! . ^ . .

C. A. Goessmann.

24

*S5

Nov., 1898

Nematode Worms, ....

G. E. Stone and
R. E. Smith.

68

*56

Nov., 1898

Concentrated Feed Stuffs, .

J. B. Lindsey.

24

*S7

Nov., 1898

Fertilizer Bulletin, t ....

C. A. Goessmann.

24

BULLETINS OF THE HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION.

No.

*58

*59
*6o

*6i

*62

*63
64
*6s
*66
*67

68
*69
*70
*7<

*72

*73
*74

*75
76

*77
*78
*79
*8o

Date of
Publication.

March, 1899
March, 1899
April, 1899

April. 1899
July, 1899
Nov., 1899
Feb., 1900
March, 1900
March, 1900
May, 1900

July, 1900
Sept., 1900
Nov., 1900
Jan., 1901

March, 1901
March. 1901
March, 1901
July, 1901
July, 1901
Nov., 1901
Jan., 1902
Feb., 1902
March, igo2

SUBJECTS.

Manurial Requirements of Crops,

Fertilizer Bulletin, t . . . .

Insecticides. Fungicides. Spraying
Calendar, ......

The Asparagus Rust in Massachusetts,

Fertilizer Bulletin, t

Fertilizer Bulletin, f

Concentrated Feed .Stuffs,

Fertilizer Bulletin, f

Variety Tests of Fruits,

The Grass Thrips. Treatment for
Thrips in Greenhouses,

Fertilizer Bulletin, t

The Rotting of Greenhouse Lettuce,

Fertilizer Bulletin, f . . . .

Concentrated Feed Stuffs. Condimen-
tal Stock and Poultry Foods,

Summer Forage Crops,

Orchard Experiments, .

Fertilizer Bulletin,!

Fertilizer Bulletin,!

The Imported Elm-leaf Beetle,

Fertilizer Bulletin,!

Concentrated Feed -Stuffs, .

Growing China Asters,

Fungicides. Insecticides . Sprayin^
Calendar,

AUTHOR.

W. P. Brooks.
C. A. Goessmann.

S. T. Maynard.

G. E. Stone and
R. E. Smith.

C. A. Goessmann.

C. A. Goessmann.

J B. Lindsey.

C. A. Goessmann.

S. T. Maynard.

H. T. Fernald and
W. E. Hinds.

C. A. Goessmann.

G. E. Stone and
R. E. Smith.

C. A. Goessmann.

J. B. Lindsey.

J. B. Lindsey.

S. T. Maynard and
G. A. Drew.

C. A. Goessmann.
C. A. Goessmann.
H. T. Fernald.
C. A. (ioessmann.
J. B. Lindsey.

R. E. Smith.

( G. E. Stone,

} H. T. Fernald and

( S. T. Maynard.

BULLETINS OF THE HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION.

No.

Date of
Publication.

SUBJECTS.

AUTHOR.

0)

fcD

a.
6

8i

March, 1902

Fertilizer Bulletin,! ....

C. A. Goessmann.

20

*82

April, 1902

Orchard Management,

S. T. Maynard and
G. A. Drew.

24

83

July, 1902

Fertilizer Bulletin,! ....

C. A. Goessmann.

24

84

Nov., 1902

Fertilizer Bulletin,! ....

C. A. Goessmann.

30

*8s

Jan., 1903

Concentrated Feeds, ....

J. B. Lindsey.

32

*86

Feb., 1903

Orchard Treatment for the San Josd
Scale,

H. T. Fernald.

16

*87

Feb., 1903

Cucumbers under Glass,

G. E. Stone.

44

*88

1903

Coccidae of the World,

Mrs. M. E. Fernald.

360

89

March, 1903

Fertilizer Bulletin,! ....

C. A. Goessmann.

15

90

July, 1903

Fertilizer Bulletin,! ....

C. A. Goessmann.

30

*9i

Aug.. 1903

Injuries to Shade Trees from Electricity

G. E. Stone.

21

92

Nov., 1903

Fertilizer Bulletin,! ....

C. A. Goessmann.

36

*93

Dec, 1903

Concentrated Feeds, ....

J. B. Lindsey.

52

*94

March, 1904

Distillery and Brewery By-products, .

J. B. Lindsey.

28

*95

March, 1904

Fertilizer Bulletin,! ....

C. A. Goessmann.

18

*96

May, 1904

Fungicides. Insecticides. Spraying
Calendar,

( G. E. Stone,

} H. T. Fernald and

( F. A. Waugh.

i6

97

May, 1904

A Farm Woodlot, ....

F. A. Waugh.

20

98

July, 1904

Inspection of Concentrates, .

J. B. Lindsey.

36

99

July, 1904

Dried Molasses-Beet-Pulp. The Nu-
trition of Horses,

J. B. Lindsey.

i6

100

July, 1904

Fertilizer Bulletin,! ....

C. A. Goessmann.

30

*IOI

Dec, 1904

Inspection of Concentrates,

J. B. Lindsey.

40

102

Dec, 1904

Fertilizer Bulletin,! ....

C. A. Goessmann.

40

103

March, 1 905

Fertilizer Bulletin,! ....

C. A. Goessmann.

20

104

July, 1905

Fertilizer Bulletin,! ....

C. A. Goessmann.

28.

BULLETINS OF THE HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION.

No,

Date of
Publication.

SUBJECTS.

AUTHOR.

0

105

Aug., 1905

Tomatoes under Glass,

G. E. Stone.

40

*io6

Sept., 1905

Condimental Stock and Poultry Foods,

J. B. Lindsey.

24

107

Dec, 1905

Fertilizer Bulletin, f - . . .

C. A. Goessmann.

42

*io8

Jan., 1906

Inspection of Concentrates,

J. B. Lindsey.

5-

109

March, 1906

Fertilizer Bulletin, t ....

C. A. Goessmann.

23

*i 10

June, 1906

Market Milk,

J. B. Lindsey and
P. H. Smith.

48

*iii

July, 1906

Fertilizer Bulletin,! ....

C. A. Goessmann.

28

*II2

Jan., 1907

The Examination of Cattle and Poul-
try Foods,

J. B. Lindsey.

60

"3

Jan., 1907

Fertilizer Bulletin, t ....

C. A. Goessmann.

30

114

Jan., 1907

The Oriental Moth a Recent Importa-
tion,

H. T. Fernald.

'4

BULLETINS OF THE MASS. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT

STATION.

115

Feb., 1907

Cranberry Insects,

H. J. Franklin.

15

116

March, 1907

The San Jose Scale,

H. T. Fernald.

22

117

March, 1907

Fertilizer and Soil Analyses
Values, ....

and Trade

C. A. Goessman and
H. D. Haskins.

22

13

SPECIAL BULLETINS OF THE HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION.

No.

Date of
Publication.

■ SUBJECTS.

1
AUTHOR.

D

be
n

d

*

Nov., 1889

The Gypsy Moth, ....

C. H. Fernald.

8

*

May, 1890

On the Most Profitable Use of Com-
mercial Fertilizers, ....

tChas. Wellington.

44

Jan., 1894

Green Manuring, ....

E. W. Allen.

15

*

July, 1897

The Brown-tail Moth, ....

C. H. Fern,ald and
A. H. Kirkland.

13

Aug., 1S99

The Coccid Genera Chionaspis and
Hemichionaspis, ....

R. A. Cooley.

58

*

July, 1903

The Dairy Law and its Results, .

J. B. Lindsey.

14

1905

Index Number— Mass. State Agricul-
tural Experiment Station, Vols. 1-12,
1883-1894,

44

1895

Index of Publications of the Hatch
Experiment Station, 1888-1895, •

29

1907

Complete Index of Publications of the
Hatch Experiment Station,

48

TECHNICAL BULLETINS.

*I

Aug.,

1903

The Greenhouse and Strawberry Aley-
rodes,

A. W. Morrill.

66

2

Oct.,

1904

The Graft Union, ....

F. A. Waugh.

16

3

April

1907

The Blossom End Rot of Tomatoes, .

Elizabeth H.Smith.

19

t Translated from the German.

Circular No. 9. September 19C7.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND ANIMAL CHEMISTRY.

RULES RELATIVE TO TESTING DAIRY COWS.

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS.

The Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station working in
conjunction with the va,'rious " breed " associations will conduct, when
possible, official tests of pure bred cows on the following conditions :

1. Two weeks notice of a desired test must be given the Station.
All necessary costs in connection with a test, including time at $2.00
to $2.50 a day, traveling expenses, breakage, affidavits, supervision
and clerical work, shall be paid for immediately upon receipt of
statement, as the Station has no funds to advance for this work.

2. The owner of the stock must care for the supervisor during the
test and when necessary convey him to and from the railroad station
or car line.

3. Only cows which are entered in the herdbook of the breed to
which they belong are eligible to advanced registry.

4. There must be an interval of at least six days* between calving
and the commencement of an official test.

DUTIES OF THE SUPERVISOR.

I. The supervisor shall not be held responsible for the identity
of any cow tested, but shall accept the statement of the owner or his
representative as to her name and registration number. The super-
visor, however, shall state whether the cow answers her registered
description, if the same has been furnished him ; otherwise he will

*The A. G. C. C. requires an interval of fourteen days and the Holstein-Frisian Associa-
tion an interval of four days before a seven day test can be started.

include in his report a brief description or sketch of each new animal
tested.

2. The supervisor shall see the cow milked dry at the regular
milking prior to beginning the test,* shall verify the fact with his own
hands and note the time of the same. The last milking must occur at
the same hour, one or more days later according to the length of the
test.

3. The number of cows to which an inspector is limited shall be
dependent upon the amount of work required and the facilities at
hand. He shall not exceed five cows when milked four times daily,
without special permission from the station. He shall allow only
one of the cows entered to be milked at a time and shall personally
oversee the entire milking.

4. A cow must be milked out at a single sitting. In no case will
it be allowable to go back and strip her a second time.

5. The supervisor shall weigh the milk and verify the weight of
the pail. He must thoroughly mix the milk previous to taking the
necessary sample and retain the same under absolute control until
tested.

6. Disturbing conditions such as sickness, being in heat, change
of milker, etc., must always be entered on the report, also the weight
of scattered milkings during the month when required. The super-
visor must also record date of the cow's birth, when last calf was
dropped, when the cow was served, and if a yearly lest when begun,
together with a statement of kind and amount of feed, both grain and
roughage, and method of feeding, also the use of condiments, condi-
tion powders, or drugs of any kind.

7. Any tampering with a cow under test or with the samples by
the owner or an employee, or refusal to comply with the rules must
be reported at once to the station by telephone. Lack of proper
apparatus or facilities for doing satisfactory work should also be
reported.

8. As soon as possible after the completion of the test, the super-
visor shall bring or send to the station, on blanks furnished by the

*The Secretary of the A. G. C. C, William II. Caldwell, writes under date of March j6,
1904, "We have not considered it necessary for the inspector to be present at the previous
milking in case of the yearly tests as he can tell from the records whether the animal is giv-
insr normal amount or not."

cattle clubs, a detailed report over his signature and affidavit. This
record after being verified, endorsed and copied will be forwarded to
the club. The station, however, reserves the right of using the data
if deemed advisable. The supervisor shall submit an itemized state-
ment of time and expenses at each place, also breakage and nuinber
of records sent in.

g. In case of long tests, supervisors will be changed every thirty
days if deemed advisable.

THE TESTING OF SAMPLES.

1. Each sample* must be tested in duplicate by the Babcock test;
the separations must be clean (free from curd and charred material) ;
and no variations in excess of o.io per cent, shall be allowed.

2. In a seven day test when any of the milk or a test sample is
accidentally lost, the average of the corresponding milkings during
the other six days shall be substituted for the missing weight or test,
but such results must always be reported as estimations.

3. With all tests of a week or more duration, a seven day com-
posite sample shall be taken, when required, by means of a sampling
pipette (i c. c. for every pound), preserved with bichromate of potash
and forwarded in a full bottle to the station by prepaid express.
Accompanying the sample shall be a statement of the total amount of
milk and of fat produced during the seven days represented by the
composite. Results by the station's test and by the inspector's data
ought not to vary more than 0.15 per cent.

ADDITIONAL RULES WITH THE CHURN TEST.t

1. In case the churn test is employed in addition to the Babcock,
milk samples of the same amount must always be taken so that the
loss of fat in the samples can readily be calculated from the total
weight of the samples and the average percentage of fat.

2. The skim milk should be weighed daily, carefully mixed and a
composite taken by means of a sampling pipette.

*In case of the Guernsey yearly tests it is only necessary to test a composite of the days
milking which must be taken by means of a sampling: pipette.
tConfirmed Butter.Test. A. J. C. C.

3- The butter milk should be weighed, sampled, and if more than
one churning, a composite taken by means of a sampling pipette.

4. The skim milk and butter milk should be tested in duplicate
by the Babcock test and no variation in excess of 0.02 per cent
allowed.

5, The finished butter should be weighed and sampled immedi-
ately by slicing the entire lump (not prints) by means of a thin case
knife or spatula, and by taking small pieces (size of a walnut) from
various parts of the different slices. Great care should be exercised
to prevent loss of water. The sample, amounting to about one half
a pound, should be shipped to the station in a sealed Lightning fruit jar
by prepaid express.

SPECIAL RULES.

1. The Ayrshire and Holstein-Friesian Associations rule that a
yearly test shall not exceed 365 days and in one lactation period only.
The Guernsey Club insists upon 365 consecutive days.

2. The Ayrshire Association and the Guernsey Club estimate
butter by increasing the amount of butter fat by i ; the Jersey Club by
j^'=j, (or divide the butter fat by .85) ; the Holstein-Friesian breeders
usually add ^.

3. The Ayrshire Association reinburses the station for analytical
work and semi-yearly inspections, and the breeders pay the express
charges on all samples sent to the station as well as the entire cost
of seven day tests.

4. The entire cost of seven day and yearly tests under the
Guernsey Club is met by the owners of the cows tested.

5. The Jersey Club pays one-half the cost for time, traveling
expenses and affidavits on seven day and yearly tests and the owners
reinburse the club for the remainder including breakage, supervision
and clerical work.

6. Under the rules of the Holstein-Friesian Association, the own-
ers pay the station direct for all expenses of the test and also the
cost of any ordered retest that does not corroborate the previous one.

YIELD OF MILK AND BUTTER FAT REQUIRED FOR ADVANCED

REGISTRY.

7 Days.

36s Day?

Milk.

Fat.

Milk.

Fat.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

200.0

8.0*

5,500.0

225.0

250.0

lO.O*

6,500.0

3750'

300.0

12.0*

7.500.0

3250

3500

14.0*

8,500.0

375-0'

•137

•0055

2.74

■137

lO.O

6,000.0

250-5

II.7

7^333-3

287.0

133

8,666.7

3235

15.0

10,000.0

360.0

.00456

3-65

.1

.Ayrshire.

2 years old at commencement of test,

3 years old " " " •'

4 years old " " " '•

5 years old " " " "
Daily increase required.

Guernsey.

2 years old at commencement of test,

3 years old " , " " "

4 years old " » " " "

5 years old " " " "
Daily increase required.

Holstein-Friesian.

2 years old at calving,

3 years old " "

4 years old " "

5 years old " "
Daily increase required.

Jersey.
Under 2^ years old at commencement of test,
2i to 4 years old " " " "

4 to 5 years old " " " "

5 years old " " " "

Confirmed Butter Tests: 14 pounds of actual butter testing at least
80 per cent, fat for 7 days and 500 pounds for 365.

7.2

10.4

12.0

00439

12.0

6,ooo.ot

260,0

8,000.0

300.0

9,000.0

350.0

10,000.0

400.0

APPARATUS REQUIRED AND FURNISHED.

The owner of each herd desiring tests must provide a satisfactory
Babcock machine, the necessary acid and hot water.

Tlie inspector will be furnished the following suppUes :

Spring balance, i

Sampling pipettes, 2

Sample bottles, 12

Milk pipettes, 17,6 c, c, 3

Milk test bottles, lo*^, 12

Acid measures, 17.5 c. c, 2

•These figures represent butter and were obtained by adding one-sixth to the butter fat.
tiioo pounds for 30 days.

•Confirmed Butter Test. A J. C. C.

Dividers, i pair

Bottle brush,

Crayon,

Wire sieve,

Speed indicator,

Stick tags, T box

Preservative,

Report blanks,

Record book and stationery.

CHURN TEST.*

Skim milk bottles, (.01^, graduations), * 6

Steel spatula, i

Sealing wax and seal. r

SECRETARIES OF BREEDERS ASSOCIATIONS.

Ayrshire Breeders Association,
C. M. WiNSLOw, Brandon, Vt.

American Guernsey Cattle Club,
W. H. Caldwell, Peterboro, N. H.

Holstein-Friesian Association of America,
Malcolm H. Gardner, Supt. of Adv. Reg., Delavan, Wis.

American Jersey Cattle Club,
J. J. Hemingway, 8 West 17th. St., New York, N. Y.

Circular No. tJ o July 1907

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND ANIMAL CHEMISTRY.

THE SAMPLING AND SENDING OF FERTILIZERS, SOILS AND
FEED STUFFS FOR FREE EXAMINATION.

It is important that parties who desire to have material examined
should take particular pains in sampling, packing and forwarding, in
order that the results obtained may represent the average
quality of the goods sampled, and that no gain or loss in moisture
may take place during transportation. The station reserves the right
to reject unsatisfactory samples, as well as those not accompanied by
the necessary information, and to publish all free analyses if the
circumstances warrant it. In the package containing the sample
should be placed the name and address of the sender, character
of the material, name of the brand, of whom purchased and if possible
the guarantee tag or a copy of the guarantee (See special form to
be filled out).

METHOD OF SAMPLING.

(a) Material in Bulk.

In sampling ashes, grain or other bulk material, numerous por"
tions should be taken preferably by a tube, or by means of a small
scoop, or in double handfuls from various parts of the heap, placed
on a thick, smooth piece of clean paper and thoroughly mixed ; from
this mixture should be drawn a sample of about one pound, which
should be placed in a clean bottle or tin box together with the neces-
sary data, tightly stoppered or covered and sent to the Station by
mail or prepaid express.

(b) Material in Bags,

Samples should be drawn from 10 per cent, of the number of bags
present, or in case of small lots from 10 different bags, preferably by
means of a tube run the entire length of each bag. A reasonably fair

sample may be secured as follows : Open the requisite number of
bags, thoroughly mix the contents of the top of each bag with both
hands, then take a double handful from each bag and place upon a
clean paper. Mix the several amounts and pack and send as described
under (a).

Cottonseed meal : In order to be representative a sample must
be drawn from twenty bags of every car. (See special circular
concerning rebate).

Distillers^ and breivers^ dried grains and similar coarse material
should be sampled by means of a tube run the entire length of
the bag, or the contents of the bags should be emptied on the
floor, well mixed and sampled as under (a). A sample taken
from the top of the bag is not representative for the reason that the
finer portions, rich in protein, are likely to settle to the bottom.

(c) Sampling Soils.

The taking of representative soil samples to be used for a chemical
examination is of the first importance, for unless proper care is
exercised the results secured will have no particular meaning. The
samples should be taken from different portions of the field and to a
depth not exceeding the downward limit of the surface soil. After
selecting a place, pull up all growing vegetation and remove all surface
matter which is not a part of the soil. Dig a hole about two feet
square, making the sides smooth and clean by means of a sharp
shovel or other instrument ; now place a sharp bladed shovel at the
point of separation of the surface soil from the subsoil, and by means
of another flat bladed instrument shave off a portion (about two
inches) from all four sides of the aperture, letting the soil fall into
the shovel which is held in a proper position to receive the same.
Place the soil in a suitable receptacle and proceed to take other
samples in like manner from several different parts of the field. The
bulk of soil which has thus been taken is now placed on a clean
floor or on a large piece of thick paper and thoroughly broken up and
mixed ; a pound sample is then drawn, packed and shipped as
described under (a). Soil should be sampled only when the weather
conditions are normal.

Statements should accompany the sample or be sent by letter,
stating the locality, depth at which the sample was taken, nature and

depth of subsoil, the method of fertilization and crop rotation which
has been in practice, general fitness of land for cultivation and all
other information that would aid the chemist in making his report.

Parties are not encouraged to send samples of soil for chemical
examination without previous correspondence. In many cases a
statement giving the locality and physical character of the soil, the
method of crop rotation and fertilization followed for a number of
years previous may be sufficient to enable the station to advise intel-
ligently concerning future treatment. The chemical examination of
soils is time consuming and expensive and unless all the conditions
are understood the results are likely to be misleading and of question-
able value.

SENDING SAMPLES.

All samples should be addressed to Dr. J. B. Lindsey, Mass.
Agricultural Experiment Station, Amherst, Mass., (shipping tag accom-
panying this circular.) The samples will be referred to the head of
the fertilizer or feed division, who will see that the same are examined
and make his report direct to the sender. It is important that all
samples be sent as soon as drawn. Express charges should always
be prepaid.

Circular No. ii. November 1907.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS.

WILLIAM P. BROOKS, Director.

Every year brings to the Station numerous inquiries in relation to
the chemical analysis of soils, as well as a considerable number of
requests for such analyses. It seems best, therefore, to present a
brief statement as to the probable value of such analyses, and to state
the policy which will be followed in relation to work of this character.
There exists much misapprehension as to the value to the indi-
vidual of a chemical analysis of the soil which he is to use for crops.
Persons writing in relation to this matter as a rule make a statement
to the effect that they desire a chemical analysis in order to learn
what fertilizer is needed. The results of such analyses do not, as a rule,
afford a satisfactory basis for determining manurial requirements. The
chemist, it is true, can determine what the soil contains, but no ordi-
nary analysis determines with exactness what proportion of the sev-
eral elements present is in available form for the crop. Indeed, there
is no such thing as a constant ratio of availability. While one crop
may find in a given soil all the plant food it requires, another may
find a shortage of one or more elements. Further, on the very same
field, one crop will find an insufficient amount of potash, another
may find enough potash for normal growth, but insufficient phos-
phoric acid, and a third may suffer from an insufficient supply of
nitrogen.

Most of our soils are of mixed rock origin, and as a rule possess
similar general chemical characteristics, provided they have been
farmed under usual conditions. The manurial and fertilizer require-
ments are determined more largely in most instances by the crop
than by peculiarities in the chemical condition of the soil. The
chemical analysis of soils then does not, as a rule, afford results
which have a value commensurate with the cost, and as a rule this

Station will not make such analyses unless the soil differs widely
froin the normal in natural characteristics, or has been subjected to
unusual treatment of such a nature as to probably greatly influence
its chemical condition.

In some cases, the correspondent reports that his crop is diseased
and that he desires a chemical analysis in order to ascertain what is
the cause. The chemical composition of the soil may in some instances
exercise a controlling influence in determining a condition of health
or disease, and is never unimportant from the standpoint of vigorous,
normal and healthy growth ; but in the case of most diseases, the
immediately active cause is the presence of a parasitic fungous, and
this fungous is usually capable of fixing itself upon the plant what-
ever may be the composition of the soil. A knowledge of the chemical
composition of soils, therefore, will not make it possible to advise
such manurial or fertilizer treatment as will insure immunity from
disease.

Correspondents are urged, therefore, when writing in reference to
the chemical analysis of soils, to state all the conditions as fully as
possible. This statement should include a full description of
the soil and as full a report as possible as to manures and fertilizers
applied and crops raised for a number of years previous to the date
of writing. If on receipt of such information a chemical analysis
seems to promise results of value, it will be made, for the present free
of charge, but as explained in the preceding paragraphs such analyses
appear to be only rarely worth while. It will usually be possible to
give helpful advice in relation to the use of manures and fertilizers
on receipt of a full statement as to the character and history of the
soil and the crop which is to be raised, and such advice will always
be gladly given.

Every Farmer Can Help Himself.

Circular No. 12. March, 1908.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

Department of Plant and Animal Chemistry.

THE UNPROFITABLE COW

AND

HOW TO DETECT HER.

Cow testing associations may be defined as voluntary associations
of neighbors desiring through co-operative effort to detect unprofit-
able cows in their herds.

These associations are very common in Europe, and are being rap-
idly organized in several of the Western states and in Canada.
Experts are employed who make periodic visits to weigh the milk
and test it for butter fat, and who are willing, when called upon, to
offer advice and suggestions relative to care, feeding and method of
improving the dairy herd.

The cost of doing the work, which includes travelling expenses,
board and salary, in many cases is borne partly by the members of
the association and partly by the state, and may amount to from %2
to $6 per cow yearly. The plan is perfectly feasible if well organ-
ized and if a sufficient number can be induced to become members.
It is believed that ere long many such associations will be organ-
ized in Massachusetts, and that they will be under the direction and
receive help from the State.

The following plan is tentatively suggested whereby the average
farmer can help himself ^nd at a minimum outlay of time and money,
ascertain the profitable and unprofitable cows in his herd.

METHOD OF PROCEDURE.

Weighing : Begin when the cow is fresh and weigh her milk for
three consecutive days in each month, preferably about the middle

and record the weight on previously prepared ruled paper.* The
sum of the amount produced for three days multiplied by lo gives
the amount produced for the month. The amount of milk produced
in a portion of a month can be estimated by weighing the milk for
one or two days and multiplying by the proper number. Continue
the weighing for one year, and from year to year if you would know
the whole truth. Presen'e yearly summary in permanent record book.

Balance, Pail, Record Sheet and Sample Bottles.

The Balance: Any spring balance or scale will do, but the Chatil-
lon balance, with the scale graduated into pounds and tenths, and
with a movable pointer so that when the empty pail is suspended,
the pointer may be made to indicate zero, is to be preferred. 'J'he
scales cost $3.00 at any dairy supply house.

SAMPLING THE MILK.

JV/ie/i to Sample: Sample the milk of each cow in the second,
fourth and seventh month after calving ; any time during the month
will do, but the middle is to be preferred. The average of the three

* Blank forms for keeping comjilete monthly records can lie had at dairy supply houses.

tests will be a fair index of the quality of the milk during the milk-
ing period. Thus if the milk tests 3.8, 4.2 and 4.8 per cent fat, the
average would be 4.27 per cent for the entire period.

Ufensils A^eedeii in Sampling : A pint lightning jar for each cow;
a small coffee cup or long handled gill dipper for taking the sample ;
a box of bichromate of potash or B. and W. corrosive sublimate
tablets for preserving the sample* to be procured of any dairy supply
house at a cost of $1.00 to $1.25 per box.

How to Sa^nple: Powder fine with a knife one-half of a tablet and
put in each jar. Milk the cow dry and pour the milk as care-
fully as possible from one pail to another three times in order to
mix it. Do not allow any more frothing (air bubbles) than possible.
Dip out a cupful of the milk at once and pour into the jar. Mix
the milk with the preservative by a careful rotary motion. Do not
shake or turn the jar upside down. Proceed in this manner for four
consecutive milkings, (two full days). Be sure to mix the milk by
the rotary motion each time a sample is added to the jar and keep
the jar tightly covered. The jar should be marked with the name
and number of the cow.

Samples of Milk and Babcock Machine.
TESTING THE MILK.

The samples may be tested by the owner of the cow if he has a

* A solution of formalin may be used in place of the tablets ; it can be procured of any
druggist. Add 5 drops with a medicine dropper.

Babcock machine, glassware and acid,* or it may be taken to the
creamery, or in exceptionable cases sent to the experiment station,

ILLUSTRATION OF YEAR'S MILK PRODUCT.

MONTH.

3 days
yield.

lbs.

30 days
yield.

lbs.

MONTH.

3 days
yield.

lbs.

30 days
yield.

lbs.

January, . .

90

X 10

900

July, . . .

48

X

10

480

February, . .

7«

X 10

780

August, . .

42

X

10

420

March, . . .

72

X 10

720

September, .

30

X

10

300

April, . . .

66

X 10

660

October. . .

20

X

10

200

May, . . .

60

X 10

600

November, .

15

X

10

150

June, . . .

54

X lO

540

December, .
Totals, .

(dry)

Totals, . .

4200

1550

Total 5750 lbs. milk X 4.27 (average per cent fat)^245.5 ^^s.
butter fat.

Converting Butter Fat into Butter. Increase the pounds of butter
fat by ^t thus : ^ of 245.5 ^^^- butter fat ^ 40.9 -(- 245.5 = 286.4 lbs.
butter produced during the year.

The above method as described is, of course, not strictly accurate,
but sufficiently so to enable the farmer to form a fair estimate of the
productive capacity of his cows.

WHAT IS A PROFITABLE COW?

(a) For Market AFiIk. In order to be considered profitable, a
cow should produce 6000 lbs. (2800 quarts) of 3.5-4 per cent milk
yearly, without being forced.

(b) For Butter. A cow ought to produce 300 pounds of butter
yearly — if she does not do it, she is not helping you.

QUERY ! Ho7u ?>iti/iy of your coios are returning you these
results ? If you ttou't kiunu, isn't it time you fou)id out I

* Testing outfits with full instructions may be had of any dairy supply house, who furnish
catalogs on application.

t The A represents the water, ash and curd,

Circular No. 13. March, 1908.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND ANIMAL CHEMISTRY.

J. B. LINDSEY, Chemist.

LAWS REGULATING THE SALE OF COMMERCIAL
FERTILIZERS IN MASSACHUSETTS.

Acts and Resolves for 1896, Chapter 297.

Be it enacted^ etc., as follows :

Section i. Every lot or parcel of commercial fer-
Statements to tilizer or fertilizer material sold or offered or exposed
be attached to for sale within this Commonwealth shall be accompa-
packages. nied by a plainly printed statement, -clearly and truly
certifying the number of net pounds of fertilizer in
the package, the name, brand or trade-mark under which the fertilizer
is sold, the name and address of the manufacturer or importer, the
location of the factory, and a chemical analysis stating the percent-
age of nitrogen, of potash soluble in distilled water, and of phos-
phoric acid in available form soluble in distilled water and reverted,
as well as the total phosphoric acid. In the case of those fertilizers
which consist of other and cheaper materials said label shall give a
correct general statement of the composition and ingredients of the
fertilizer it accompanies.

Sec. 2. Before any commercial fertilizer is sold or

Certified state- offered or exposed for sale, the importer, manufac-

fnent to be turer or party who causes it to be sold or offered for

filed and sale within this Commonwealth shall file with the

deposit of director of the Hatch* experiment station of

sample. the Massachusetts agricultural college a certified copy

of the statement named in section one of this act,

and shall also deposit with said director at his request, a sealed glass

jar or bottle containing not less than one pound of the fertilizer,

accompanied by an affidavit that it is a fair average sample thereof.

* Recently changed to Massachusetts.

Sec. 3. The manufacturer, importer, agent or

License fee on seller of any brand of commercial fertilizer or fertil-

each distinct izer material shall pay for each brand, on or before

brand to be the first day of May annually, to the director of the

paid annually, experiment station, an analysis fee of five dollars for

each of the three following fertilizing ingredients :
namely, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, contained or claimed
to exist in said brand of fertilizer : /aw/V/^^/,. that whenever the man-
ufacturer or importer shall have paid the fee herein required for any
person acting as agent or seller for such manufacturer or importer,
such agent or seller shall not be required to pay the fee named in
this section ; and on receipt of said analysis fees and statement
specified in section two, the director of said station shall issue certifi-
cates of compliance with this act.

Sec. 4. No person shall sell or offer or expose for

Character of sale in this Commonwealth any pulverized leather,

inferior mate- hair or wool waste, raw, steamed, roasted or in

rial used must any form as a fertilizer, or as an ingredient of any

be stated. fertilizer or manure, without an explicit printed

certificate of the fact, said certificate to be conspicu-
ously affixed to every package of such fertilizer or manure, and to
accompany or go with every parcel or lot of the same.

Sec. 5. Any person selling or offering or expos-
Penalty for ing for sale any commercial fertilizer without the
violation. statement required by the first section of this act, or

with a label stating that said fertilizer contains a
larger percentage of any one or more of the constituents mentioned
in said section than is contained therein, or respecting the sale of
which all the provisions of the foregoing section have not been fully
complied with, shall forfeit fifty dollars for the first offence and one
hundred dollars for each subsequent offence.

Sec. 6. This act shall not affect parties manufacturing, importing
or purchasing fertilizers for their own use and not to sell in this
Commonwealth.

Sec. 7. The director of the experiment station
Analysis of shall pay the analysis fees, as soon as received by
samples and him, into the treasury of the station, and shall cause
publication of one analysis or more of each fertilizer or fertilizer
results. material to be made annually, and shall publish the

Prosecution of results from time to time, with such additional infor-
violators. mation as the circumstances render advisable, pro-
vided such information relates only to the composi-

tion of the fertilizer or fertilizer material inspected. Said director
is hereby authorized in person or by deputy to take a sample,
not exceeding two pounds in weight, for analysis, from any
lot or package of fertilizer or fertilizer material which may be in the
possession of any manufacturer, importer, agent or dealer ; but said
sample shall be drawn in the presence of said party or parties in
interest, or their representative, and taken from a parcel or a number
of packages which shall be not less than ten per cent of the whole
lot inspected, and shall be thoroughly mixed and then divided into
two equal samples and placed in glass vessels, and carefully sealed
and a label placed on each, stating the name or brand of the fertili-
zer or material sampled, the name of the party from whose stock the
sample was drawn, and the time and place of drawing ; and said
label shall also be signed by the director or his deputy and by the
party or parties in interest, or their representatives present at the
drawing and sealing of said sample ; one of said duplicate samples
shall be retained by the director and the other by the party whose
stock was sampled. All parties violating this act shall be prosecuted
by the director of said station.

Sec. 8. Chapter two hundred and ninety-six of the acts of the
year eighteen hundred and eighty-eight is hereby repealed.

Sec. 9. This act shall take effect on the first day of November
in the year eighteen hundred and ninety-six.

[Approved April 17, i8g6.

Acts and Resolves for 1907 (Chapter 289.)

Be it enacted ete. as foi/ojvs :

Section i. The bulletins or other publications of
Publication the Massachusetts agricultural experiment station
of valuations, containing infomialion about fertilizers shall, in all
cases, state the dealers' cash price per ton for such
fertilizers, and the value per ton of the ingredients of the same, and
the percentage of difference between the said price and the said
value.

Sec. 2. This act shall take effect upon its passage.

[Approved April tt, igoy.

Instructio7is to Manufacturers, Importers, Agents, afid Sellers of Com-
mercial Fertilizers or Materials used for Matiurial Purposes in
Mass a ch u setts.

1. An application for a certificate of compliance with the regu-
lations of the trade in commercial fertilizers and materials used for
manurial purposes in this state must be accompanied :

First, with a distinct statement of the name of each brand
offered for sale, the name of the manufacturer and place of
factory.

Second, with a statement of the percentages of phosphoric acid,
soluble in distilled water, reverted as well as total,
of nitrogen and of water soluble potassium oxide guaran-
teed in each distinct brand.

Third, with the fee charged by the state for a certificate, which
is five dollars for each of the following ingredients : nitrogen,
phosphoric acid and potassium oxide guaranteed in each
and every distinct brand.

2. The obligation to secure a certificate applies not only to com-
pound fertilizers but to all substances, single or compound, used for
manurial purposes offered for sale in this state. Inferior substances
like leather, hair, and wool waste, shall not be used unless so stated
in the guarantee.

3. The certificate of compliance with the laws of the state must
be secured annually before the first of May.

4. Manufacturers, importers and dealers in commercial fertilizers
can appoint as many agents as they desire after having secured at
this ofiice the certificate of compliance with the laws of the state.

5. Agents of manufacturers, importers and dealers in commercial
fertilizers are held personally responsible for their transactions until
they can prove that the articles they offer for sale are duly recorded
in this office.

6. Manufacturers and importers shall upon request furnish a list
of their agents.

All inquiries regarding the sales of commercial fertilizers, may be
addressed to H. D. Haskins, Chemist in charge of the ofiicial
inspection.
Atnlierst, Massachusetts, March, igo8.

Circular No. 14. April, 1908.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

FERTILIZERS FOR POTATOES.

WILLLAM P. BROOKS. Dirf.ctor.

There is general agreement that fertilizers rather than manure
should generally be used for the potato. The principal reasons are :

1, The chances that the crop will be free from blight, rot and
scab are greater on fertilizer. This does not of course mean that
immunity from any of these troubles is certain if fertilizers only are
used.

2. The period of growth is relatively short and the plant food
supplied should be in highly available forms. High grade fertilizers
are superior to ordinary farm manures in this particular.

Manure may be used for this crop with greatest safety and profit
on the lighter soils deficient in organic matter and humus. The
quantity should be moderate and it should be applied broadcast and
plowed or deeply harrowed in rather than placed in hill or drill. It
will usually pay to use some fertilizer in connection with manure.

Experiments with fertilizers for potatoes on the Station grounds
on soils which are retentive in character indicate :

1. Method of Application: The application of all the fertilizers
in the drill, making it cover a strip some 10 to 15 inches in width is
likely to give a better crop than broadcast application of all the fer-
tilizers used.

2. The Nitrogen Supply :

(a) When grown upon a clover or mixed grass and clover sod, a
relatively low percentage of nitrogen in a potato fertilizer is
sufficient.

(b) In order to make it safe to apply the entire amount of fer-
tilizer needed for the crop at planting time, the nitrogen should be
derived from materials possessing a varying rate of availability,
such, for example, as nitrate of soda, sulfate of ammonia, dried
blood and tankasfe.

3- Phosphoric Acid Supply : There is little doubt that the pres-
ence of a Hberal amount of available phosphoric acid in fertilizers
for potatoes is favorable to early maturity and wherever the tops
usually make a rank growth, or where an early crop is important this
element should be relatively abundant in the fertilizer.

4. The Potash Supply :

(a) The percentage of potash in a potato fertilizer should be
relatively high. There is considerable evidence which tends to show
that a relatively high percentage of potash in the fertilizer used for
potatoes is favorable to the maintenance of healthy growth and the
production of a sound crop.

(b) The potash of a potato fertilizer should usually be supplied
in the form of sulfate rather than muriate. When these two salts
have been compared, the sulfate has generally given the heavier
yields and the better quality. On light soils, especially those rich in
lime and in excessively dry seasons, the muriate may be the better
of the two salts.

The Use of Lime and Wood Ashes : It has been clearly shown
that potatoes are more subject to scab when grown in soils which
are alkaline than in those which are moderately sour. The free
application of lime will render most soils alkaline and this fact
explains why the potato is so often seriously injured by scab when
grown on freshly limed land. This practice should be avoided. A
heavy application of wood ashes may have a similar effect in favor-
ing the development of scab and it is usually preferable to derive the
phosphoric acid and the potash needed for the potato from other
fertilizers.

The Composition of Potato Fertilizers : It is believed that fer-
tilizers for potatoes should under the different conditions specified
have about the following composition :

A. When fertilizers only are to be used : —

1. On clover sod or soils rich in humus and relatively fertile:

Per Cent.

Nitrogen, 2.5 — 3.

Phosphoric acid. 8. ■ — 10.
Potash, 8. — 10. in form of sulfate.

2. On lighter and poorer soils :

Per Cent.

Nitrogen, 3.5— 4.5

Phosphoric acid, 6. — 8.
Potash, 8. — 10.

B. For use in connection with manure :

1. On clover sod or soils rich in humus :

Per Cent.

Nitrogen, 1.5 — 2. mostly in soluble forms.

Phosphoric acid, 8. — 10.
Potash, 12. — 14.

2. On lighter and poorer soils:

Per Cent.

Nitrogen, 3. — 3.5 mostly in soluble forms.

Phosphoric acid^ 6. — 8.
Potash, 10. — 12.

Amounts recommended per acre :

A (either i or 2) 1500-2000 lbs.

B (either i or 2) 600-1000 lbs. varying with the amount of manure
used.

HOME MIXTURES.

The judicious selection and purchase of unmixed materials usually
makes it possible to obtain needed elements of fertility at lower cost
than in the " potato specials." Home mixture of these materials is
neitiier difficult nor expensive if the materials are of good grade and
reasonably free from lumps. They have simply to be alternately
added to a heap upon a solid floor in proper proportions and then
shoveled over a few times, taking care to break such lumps as are
present by pounding. Should any single ingredient appear to be
lumpy, it will be best to pulverize it by itself before adding to the
mixture. A gravel screen is sometimes convenient in connection
with such work.

The following mixtures are suggested as likely to prove satisfac-
tory under the conditions indicated :

A. For use where fertilizers only are employed :

1. On clover sod or soils rich in humus and in high fertility :
In each 100 pounds:

Nitrate of soda. 7 lbs.

Dried blood, 8 lbs.

Tankage, 15 lbs.

Acid phosphate, 50 lbs.

High grade sulfate of potash, 20 lbs.
Use 1600 to 2000 pounds per acre.

2. On lighter and poorer soils :
In each 100 pounds :

Nitrate of soda, 12 lbs.

Dried blood, 15 lbs.

'I'ankage, 20 lbs.

Acid phosphate, 35 lbs.

High grade sulfate of potash, 18 lbs.
Use 1600 to 2000 pounds per acre.
B. For use in connection with manure :

1. On clover sod or soils rich in humus :
In each 100 pounds:

Nitrate of soda, 8 lbs.

Dried blood, 5 lbs.

Acid phosphate, 60 lbs.

High grade sulfate of potash, 27 lbs.
Use 600 to 1000 pounds per acre.

2. On lighter and poorer soils :
In each 100 pounds :

Nitrate of soda, 8 lbs.

Dried blood, 10 lbs.

Tankage, 20 lbs.

Acid phosphate, 40 lbs.

High grade sulfate of potash. 22 lbs.
Use 800 to 1200 pounds per acre.

Conditions under which Muriate of Potash may be Substi-
tuted for Sulfate: If the soil on which potatoes are to be grown
is of coarse texture and deficient in capacity to retain water and if
experience indicates a considerable probability that the crop at some
period in its growth will suffer from drouth, it may be wise to substi-
tute muriate of potash for the high grade sulfate recommended in
any of the above mixtures. As already indicated, the substitution
of muriate for the high grade sulfate may be especially advisable if
in addition to being light, the soil is naturally rich in lime.

Method of Applying; If the potatoes are to be planted by hand,
good results maybe obtained by opening the furrows and then scat-
tering the material widely the full length of the furrow, making it
cover not only the entire furrow, but a space a few inches in width
on each side. If spread in this way, the fertilizer will not be
so thick that it will be necessary to take any special steps to
mix it with the soil. It will be sufficiently mixed in cover-
ing the seed. If planting is done by machine, the fertilizer attach-
ment of the machine should be one which scatters the fertilizer
over a relatively wide area. If such a machine cannot be used, it
may be best to withhold a portion of the fertilizer until the crop is
three or four inches high, when it should be scattered along lines
six to eisht inches wide on either side of the row and cultivated in.

IS T

Circular No."H4. July, h

MASSACHeSETTS AGBICyiTUfiAl EXPEBIENT STATION,

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND ANIMAL CHEMISTRY.

Amherst.

THE COST OF TESTING PURE BRED COWS.
(supplementary ']'0' circular no. 9.)

The experiment station committee of the board of trustees of the
Massachusetts Agricultural College at its last quarterly meeting,
adopted the following schedule of prices for conducting dairy tests,
and the same will go into effect September i, 1908.

1. The charge for a single day's test. loJieii made in a sequence zoit/i
others of a similar character, shall be $5.00. Additional days for the
same party shall be at the rate of $2.75 per day.

2. The charge for a ''seven day" test shall be $25.00. An allow-
ance of nine consecutive days will be made, which shall include the
tester's time while enroute. Additional days beyond the nine day
limit will be charged for at the rate of $2.75 a day.

3. The charge for a "thirty day" test shall be $80.00, and 32
consecutive days will be allowed, which shall include the tester's
time enroute. Additional days beyond the t^z day limit will be at the
rate of $2.50 a day.

4. The above statement includes the entire cost, excepting that
as formerly, the owner of the stock must, at his expense, care for
the supervisor during the test, and when necessary, convey him to
and from the railroad station or car line.

In explanation of the new schedule, it may be said that the charges
heretofore have included simply the actual vages paid the tester, in
addition to his traveling expenses, breakage, etc. No charge whatever
has been made for the time employed in securing men and in general
supervision. Work of this character has interfered with other impor-
tant work and has cost the station considerable money. Inasmuch
as the breeders for whom the testing is done are the ones primarily
benefited, it is held to be no more than fair that they should pay the
entire expense. In fact, tests made under the direct supervision of a
college or station official, have a direct advertising and money value to

the breeder which far exceeds the expense involved, either under the
old or new schedule.

The station is of the opinion that yearly tests give much more ac-
curate information concerning the productive capacity of an animal
than seven day tests, and strongly urges breeders to adopt the longer
period.

As heretofore, farmers and breeders can place five cows in the
seven day test when milked four times daily, and when the conven-
iences are adequate, eight to ten cows can be included in the one
or two day tests, providing the cows are not milked more than
twice per diem.

J. B. LINDSEY,

Circular No. i6. July, 1908.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

Am HER. ST.

SEEDING MOWINGS.
By William P. Brooks

The average product of hay to the acre in Massachusetts is
reported to be only a little more than one ton. As good farmers are
not satisfied with an average yield of less than three tons, it is self-
evident that there is much mismanagement, or lack of intelligence in
the management of mowings.

This paper will discuss seeding down to grass or mixed grass and
clover. The topics to be especially considered are as follows :

Preparatory fertilization.

Time and method of seeding.

Preparatory tillage.

Varieties of grass and clover to be used.

Preparatory Fertilization.

It is quite unnecessary to state to the average
Manure. farmer that a liberal application of manure will bring
the soil into good condition to produce profitable
crops of hay and wherever sufficient manure is produced on the farm,
or can be purchased and laid down upon the farm at a low cost, its
use is to be advised. The liberal use of manure in preparing the
soil for seeding to mowing will bring it into condition to produce a
grade of hay made up principally of such grasses as timothy, red top
and orchard grass, while the clovers are present in relatively small
proportion. This is because manure supplies an abundance of nitro-
gen, which greatly favors the growth of grasses. These accordingly
become so rank in their growth that the clovers are to some extent
suppressed. While the fact that the free use of manure in preparing
land for seeding will bring it into fine condition for the production of
heavy yields of hay is well established, it is not as generally known
as it should be that profitable hay production on fertilizers alone is
possible. Indeed there can be no doubt that in most localities if the
plant food must be purchased for the purpose under consideration,
money can be more wisely used in buying fertilizers than in buying
manure.

If manure is to be used in preparing for seeding, it is best to keep
it relatively near the surface. It should be well worked in with a
harrow rather than plowed under, providing its mechanical condition
makes thorough incorporation with the soil by harrowing possible.

In most parts of the state our soils appear to be
The Necessity relatively deficient in lime. Jn soils where this defi-
for Lime. ciency is marked, the necessity for liming will be
indicated by the following conditions : —

1. Clovers will either fail absolutely or make a feeble growth.

2. Sorrel is likely to come in abundantly.

3. If red top and timothy are sown with the clovers, the red top
will do much better relatively than the timothy.

The reasons for the above results briefly stated are : —
(a.) Red top and sorrel can thrive in acid soils.
(/>.) Neither clover nor timothy will do well in such soils.

Wherever such results as are above named have been noted, a
heavy application of lime will usually be found to be beneficial.
Various forms of lime are available. Among the more important are
fresh burned lime, air-slaked lime and fine ground lime.

Of these different forms, the fresh burned or lump lime exercises
the most energetic action on the soil. IJefore application, it should
be slaked, either by exposure in small heaps to the weather or by the
addition of just enough water to cause it to crumble into a fine, dry
powder. The rate of application likely to prove useful is about one
ton to the acre. After slaking, the lime should be spread on as
promptly and as evenly as possible upon the rough furrow, and im-
mediately deeply harrowed into the soil, for which operation, the
disk or cutaway harrow is usually best. In determining whether it
is better economy to purchase fresh burned lime or air-slaked lime,
it should be remembered that a ton of the former is equivalent in its
action on the soil in most cases to from 3,000 to 3,500 pounds of the
latter.

Fine ground limes are put upon the market in sacks, and are the
most convenient form, both for handling and for application; but
they usually cost more in proportion to efficiency than fresh burned
lime.

The effects of liming upon the character of the growth are very
clearly shown in the cuts. The soil used in this experiment was
taken from one of our fields which was supposed to need liming. A
quantity sufficient to fill the two cylinders was first very thoroughly
mixed and an equal amount was then placed in each. Both received

No Lime

EFFECr OF LI -M INC

a general fertilizer, and in both were sown precisely the same kinds
and quantities of seeds — timothy, red top and clover.

The selection of fertilizers for application to land
Fertilizers to which is to be seeded should, in all cases, be varied
be Used. in accordance with the kind of hay desired. If hay
containing a large proportion of clover is wanted,
materials which supply relatively large amounts of potash and phos-
phoric acid, and relatively little nitrogen should be employed. If
hay, largely timothy and relatively free from clovers is wanted, then
the proportion of materials furnishing potash and phosphoric acid
should be smaller, while the materials supplying nitrogen should be
applied in relatively large proportion. There is considerable evidence
to show that if timothy is desired, potash in the form of muriate
is preferable to sulfate, while for clovers on many soils, and especial-
ly in wet seasons, the sulfate is preferable.

The cuts on pages 4 and 5 show the difference in crops of clover
produced on the college farm respectively on the muriate and the
high grade sulfate of potash, used in each case in connection with
bone meal at the rate of 600 pounds to the acre.

The application of fertilizer in preparation for seeding should be
varied also with the season. Materials supplying considerable nitro-

FERTILIZER ANNUALLY
Per Acre,

Bone Meal, 600 pounds.
Muriate of Potash, 250 pounds.

gen in available forms may safely and wisely be applied in spring
seeding, but for late summer or autumn seeding, the application of
such materials in any considerable amounts would be a mistake.

It should be understood that in presenting specific advice as to
applications of fertilizers under different conditions, no attempt is
made to give an exhaustive discussion of the subject. The materials
advised have been used with excellent results on the college farm as
well as by numerous private farmers.

As has been stated, manure is relatively rich in
Fertilizers in nitrogen, and the application of manure alone in lib-
Connection eral quantities will be favorable to the production of
with Manure, hay, made up largely of such grasses as timothy and
red top. If it is desirable to increase the proportion
of clover, either of the following fertilizer applications may be recom-
mended : —

(a.) Per acre, in addition to the manure, muriate of potash or high
grade sulfate of potash 150 to 175 pounds, — the former to be select-
ed for the lighter soils, and in cases where it is desirable that the
proportion of timothy should be relatively large.

(/k) Per acre, muriate or high grade sulfate of potash 150 to 175
pounds, and basic slag meal 600 to 800 pounds.

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Bone Meal, 600 pounds.

High Grade Sulfate of Potash, 250 pounds.

FERTILIZKR ANNUALLY.
Per .Acre,

This application will, it is believed, be especially favorable to
clovers. Slag meal, besides supplying phosphoric acid, will furnish
a considerable quantity of free lime which will help sweeten a sour
soil, or hold in condition a soil where the excess of acid has first been
neutralized by liming.

A. For spring seeding, per acre : —
Fertilizer Basic slag meal, 800 to 1000 pounds

Alone. Muriate or high grade sul-

fate of potash.
Tankage or dry ground fish,

B. For summer seeding, per acre :—

Basic slag meal.

Muriate or high grade sulfate

of potash.
Tankage or dry ground fish.
And, if the soil is in a very low state of fertility, in addition
Nitrate of soda, 75 to 100 pounds

C. For fall seeding, per acre : —

Basic slag meal, 800 to 1000 pounds
Muriate or high grade sulfate

of potash, 175 to 200 "

And, if the soil is in very low fertility, in addition

Nitrate of soda, 75 to 100 pounds ■

175 to 200 "
300 to 400 "

800 to Tooo pounds

175 to 200 "
200 to 300 "

In either of the above fertilizer combinations containing tankage.
it will be best to apply the slag meal by itself, for if this be mixed
with tankage, the free lime which it contains will cause a loss of am-
monia. The other materials advised under A and B should be
mixed together before application. All the materials advised under
C should be mixed before application. The best results will usually
be obtained by spreading all these fertilizers on the rough furrow
and working them in thoroughly with the disk or other deep working
harrows. The nitrate of soda, it is true, does not require deep woik-
ing in, and it is most safely used if spread only a short time before
seeding, while the other materials will prove the most useful if they
can be put on a few weeks before the seed is sown. It is doubtful,
however, whether enough will be gained in the direction of greater
effectiveness of the nitrate to pay the extra cost of separate applica-
tion.

Where the land is seeded in the summer or fall with fertilizer as
advised, it will not infrequently be found profitable to apply some
nitrate of soda the following spring. Whether or not such applica-
tion will prove profitable must be determined by the appearance of
the grass at that time. If it shows comparatively light foilage and a
moderate or feeble growth, a dressing of nitrate will be profitable,
and to facilitate its distribution, it is advised that it be mixed with
about double its weight of basig slag meal.

Time and Method of Seeding.
There is no season of the year, not even excepting winter, which
has not been advocated by some one as the best season for seeding to
grass, and indeed each season has its advantages. The limits of
this circular will not permit a full discussion of the subject. The
writer is convinced that on all soils fairly retentive of moisture and in
seasons not characterized by very unusual drought, the best results
in seeding to mixed grass and clover will be obtained if the seed is
put into the ground during dog days, and on farms where corn is
cultivated, he strongly recommends seeding in the standing corn.
The cultivation of the corn must of course be level. Just previous to
seeding, the spiked-toothed cultivator should be used, working as
close to the hills or rows as possible. The seed should be sown
when the corn is about waist high. Much care should be taken to
distribute the seed evenly, and it seems best in most cases to walk
between every pair of rows aiming to cast the seed about three rows
wide, but of course in very small quantity. By sowing in this way a

J

very even distribution of the seed may be secured. In showery
weather, seed sown in this way will not need covering.

Grass and clover sown in the early spring usually
Spring start well, but there is much risk of damage to the

Seeding. young plants during the hot dry weather which is
likely to prevail in midsummer. If sown alone in
the spring, there is likely in most fields to be a rank growth of weeds
spring up with the grasses and clovers. In most cases, therefore, a
nurse crop (most frequently oats) is put in with the clover. In eith-
er case, the ranker and more rapidly growing weeds or grains make
heavy drafts on the moisture of the soil, and when these are cut, the
exposure of the young and tender grass and clover plants, up to that
time shaded by the taller growth, to the full glare of the summer sun
often seriously injures them. Principally for this reason the writer
is not in favor of spring seeding. Good results may be obtained by
seeding at almost any time between the middle of August and the
first of October, provided the soil is well drained and the lay of the
land such that water will not stand upon it during the winter.
Clovers may be sown with grass seeds up to about the loth of Sep-
tember. If put in later than that they are not likely to make enough
growth to become sufficiently well rooted to go through the winter
safely. If the date of seeding must be late and clover in the mowing
is desired, it is common to withhold the clover seed until the following
spring, at which time, of course, the soil is somewhat compacted and
covering the seed is impossible, as harrowing the ground would up-
root the young grass plants. Clover sown in this way will, in some
seasons, germinate well and make a good growth, but this method of
seeding is attended by a great deal of risk of failure and at best the
crop the first season where this method is followed will contain
but little clover. In fall seeding, it is customary to sow the grasses
and clovers without a nurse crop.

Shallow covering only is essential, and in case of
Covering summer seeding in the corn, no covering at all is
the Seed. needed in many cases, as the shade of the corn keeps
the surface of the ground moist. The heavy pelting
rains of dog days moreover will help to bury the scattered seeds. In
all other cases, the weeder, or the familiar home-made brush, will in
most cases be the best implement for covering the seed, these imple-
ments to be followed in most cases by the roller, which will make the
surface smooth and sufficiently compact so that moisture will rise to
the surface.

Preparatory Tillage.

The fact is now much more generally appreciated than formerly
that it pays to bring land into the best of tilth in preparation for
seeding. Careful plowing followed by numerous harrowings will in
almost all cases be necessary. The soil at the time of seeding should
be fine and mellow at the top and moderately compact below.
Wherever it is possible, ploughing should precede the seeding by a
few weeks at least, and between the date of ploughing and seeding,
the field should be harrowed a number of times. Fall plowing is
generally preferable to spring plowing if the land is to be seeded in
the spring.

Varieties of Grass and Clover to re Used.

No attempt will be made here to consider the characteristics of
the different species of grasses and clovers. The most generally
useful mixture will be made up about as follows per acre : —
Timothy, i8 pounds

Fancy re-cleaned red top, 8 "

Alsike clover, 4 "

Mammoth red clover, 4 "

This mixture is suited for mowings on all medium and heavy soils
which are occasionly broken up and put into hoed crops.

For lighter soils, and especially where it is desirable to leave the
mowing down to grass for a considerable number of years, the fol-
lowing mixture is recommended, per acre : —

Orchard grass, 15 pounds

Tall oat grass, 5 "

Italian rye grass, 5 "

Awnless brome grass, 5 "

Common red clover, 6 "

For medium soils, especially where it is desirable to leave the mow-
ing down to grass for a number of years, the following mixture is
reconuiiended, per acre : —

Orchard grass, 8 pounds

Italian rye grass, 3 "

Yellow oat grass, 4 "

Meadow fescue, 10 "

Red clover, 5 "

Alsike clover, 4 "

In the purchase of grass and clover seeds, it is of much importance
to pay particular attention to the quality. It is wise to obtain sam-
ples and to examine them, or to have them examined by the experi-
ment station with a view to determining, not only the germinating
quality, but whether there is an admixture of weed seeds. In the
purchase of clover, it is now especially important to be on guard
against dodder. Dodder is a parasite which, if it once obtains a
foothold in a field of clover, will soon render it valueless. Dodder
seed, unfortunately, appears to be found with increasing frequency
in samples of clover and alfalfa seeds offered in the markets.

Circular No. 17. September, 1908.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND ANIMAL CHEMISTRY.

J. B. LINDSEY, Chemist.

AN ACT TO REGULATE THE SALE OF CONCENTRATED

COMMERCIAL FEED STUFFS.

Acts and Resolves for 1903, Chapter 122,

Be it enacted, etc., as folloivs :

Section i. Every lot or parcel of concentrated
Statements to commercial feed stuff, as defined in section two of
be attached to this act, used for feeding farm live stock, sold, or
packages. offered or exposed for sale within this Common-
wealth, shall have affixed thereto, in a conspicuous
place on the outside thereof, a plainly printed statement, clearly and
truly certifying the name, brand or trademark under which the arti-
cle is sold for feeding purposes, the name and address of the manu-
facturer, importer or dealer, the net weight of the package, and the
minimum percentage of crude protein, reckoning one per cent of
nitrogen equal to six and one-fourth per cent of protein, and crude
fat which it contains ; the several constituents to be determined by
the methods adopted by the Association of Official Agricultural
Chemists of the United States. If the feed stuff is sold in bulk, or
if it is put up in packages belonging to the purchaser, the agent or
the dealer shall, upon request of the purchaser, furnish him with
the certified statement described in this section.

Section 2. The term "concentrated commercial
Defines feed feed stuff," as used in this act, shall include cotton-
stuffs included seed meals, linseed meals, pea meals, bean meals,
in law. peanut meals, cocoanut meals, gluten meals, gluten
feeds, maize feeds, starch feeds, sugar feeds, dried
distillers' grains, dried brewers' grains, dried beet refuse, malt
sprouts, malt refuse, hominy feeds, cerealine feeds, rice meals, oat
feeds, corn and oat feeds, corn, oat and barley feeds, chop feeds,
corn bran, ground beef or fish scraps, meat and bone meals, mixed
feeds — except as otherwise provided in section three of this act, —
clover meals', condimental stock and poultry foods, patented, proprie-
tary or trade-mark stock and poultry foods, and all other materials of
a similar nature not included in section three of this act,

Section 3. The term " concentrated commercial
Defines feed feed stufif," as used in this act, shall not include
stuffs exempt hays and straws, the whole seeds nor the unmixed
from law. meals made directly from the entire grains of wheat,
rye, barley, oats, Indian corn, buckwheat and broom
corn. Neither shall it include wheat bran or wheat middlings not
mixed with other substances but sold separately as distinct articles
of commerce, nor wheat bran and wheat middlings mixed together,
not mixed with any other substances, and known in the trade as
" Mixed Feed," nor pure grains ground together unmixed with other
substances.

Section 4. Any manufacturer, importer, agent or

Penalty for other person selling, offering or exposing for sale

violation of any concentrated feed stufif included in section two

previous of this act, without the printed statement required

sections. by section one of this act, or with a label stating

that the said feed stufif contains substantially a

larger percentage of either crude protein or crude fat than is actually

present therein, shall be fined fifty dollars for the first offence and

one hundred dollars for each subsequent offence.

Section 5. The director of the Hatch experiment
Director or station of the Massachusetts Agricultural College is
deputy hereby authorized, in person or by deputy, to enter

required to any premises where feed stuffs are stored and to
collect and take a sample, not exceeding two pounds in weight,
analyze from any lot or package of any commercial feed stuff

samples. used for feeding any kind of farm live stock as

Penalty for defined in section two or of excepted materials
Interference, named in section three of this act, which may be in
Results to be possession of any manufacturer, importer, agent or
published. dealer. Any samples so taken shall be put in a
suitable vessel, and a label signed by the director
or his deputy shall be placed on or within the vessel, stating the
name or brand of the feed stufif or material sampled, the guaranty,
the name of the manufacturer, importer or dealer, the name of the
person, firm or corporation from whose stock the sample was taken,
and the date and place of taking : provided^ however, that whenever
a request to that effect is made the sample shall be taken in duplicate
and carefully sealed in the presence of the person or persons in
interest, or their representative, in which case one of the said
duplicate samples shall be signed and retained by the person or per-
sons whose stock was sampled. Any person who shall obstruct the
director or his deputy while in the discharge of his duty under this
act shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction
thereof shall be fined not less than twent3'-five dollars nor more than
one hundred dollars for each ofifence. The aforesaid director shall
cause at least one analysis of each feed stuff collected as herein
provided, to be made annually. Said analysis may include determi-

nations of crude protein, of crude fat, and of such other ingredients
as it is deemed advisable at any time to determine. Said director
shall cause the results of the analysis of the sample to be published
from time to time in station bulletins, special circulars, or elsewhere,
together with such additional information concerning the character,
composition and use thereof as circumstances may require.

Section 6. Any person who shall adulterate any
Adulteration whole or ground grain with milling or manufacturing
of whole or offals, or with any foreign substance whatever, or
ground grain adulterate any bran or middlings, or mixtures of
or standard wheat bran and wheat middlings known in the trade as
by-products ; " Mixed Feed," or any other standard by-product
penalty. made from the several grains or seeds with any

foreign substance whatever, for the purpose of sale,
unless the true composition, mixture or adulteration thereof is plainly
marked or indicated upon the package containing the same or in
which it is offered for sale ; and any person who knowingly sells or
offers for sale any whole or ground grain, bran or middlings, or mix-
ture of wheat bran and wheat middlings known in the trade as
" Mixed Feed," or other standard by-product, which have been so
adulterated, unless the true composition, mixture or adulteration is
plainly marked or indicated upon the package containing the same or
in which it is offered for sale, shall on conviction be fined not less
than twenty-five dollars or more than one hundred dollars for each
offence, and such fines shall be paid into the treasury of the Com-
monwealth.

Section 7. The director of the Hatch experiment

Director to station upon ascertaining any violations of this act

prosecute for the first time shall forthwith notify the manufac-

violators of turers or importers in writing, giving them not less

Act. than thirty days thereafter in which to comply with

the requirements of this act. In case of second or
subsequent violations by the same person or persons, or in case after
a lapse of thirty days the requirements of this act remain uncomplied
with, it shall be the duty of the director of the said station to prose-
cute the person or persons violating any provision of this act, and for
this purpose the director may, if necessary, employ experts, and may
further designate some person connected with the said station, or
some other suitable person, to make complaints in its behalf ; and in
making complaints for violations of this act the persons so desig-
nated shall not be required to enter into any cognizance or to give
security for the payment of costs; provided, however, that there shall
be no prosecution in relation to the quality of any unadulterated com-
mercial feed stuff if the same shall be found to be substantially
equivalent to the statement of analysis made by the manufacturers
or importers.

Section 8. This act shall not affect persons manufacturing,
importing or purchasing feed stuffs for their own use and not to sell
in this state.

Section 9. The term " importer," for all the purposes of this
act, shall be taken to include all who procure or sell concentrated
commercial feed stuffs.

Section 10. To defray the expenses of making the analyses and
of carrying out the regulations provided for or made by under this
act the sum of three thousand dollars shall be allowed for the present
year from the treasury of the Commonwealth, payable in semi-annual
payments.*

Section 11. Section twenty and so much of any other section of
chapter fifty-seven of the Revised Laws as is inconsistent with this
act are hereby repealed,

Section 12. This act shall take effect on the first day of July in
the year nineteen hundred and three. {Approved March 2, IQO^.]

Interpretations.

For sales in bulk from the wholesaler or jobber to
Bulk Sales. the retailer, plainly printed cards tacked to the out-
side and inside of the car, stating brand, name and
address of the manufacturer and guaranty of protein and fat meet
the legal requirements. The retailer must have similar statements
to furnish the purchaser upon request for the same. In most cases
the cards from the car tacked up in a conspicuous place on or near
the bin will probably suffice. If the retailer bags the feed in his own
sacks and so offers the same for sale, tags must be attached as in
the case of other feeds.

It has not been deemed necessary to assume any
Feed Exempt, oversight of the sale of wet brewers' grains, wet
malt refuse, wet yeast refuse and similar products.
Hays and straws; the grains — wheat, rye, barley, oats, Indian corn,
buckwheat and broom corn — when whole, ground separately or
ground together ; wheat bran, wheat middlings and wheat mixed
feed (bran and middlings) are exempt under section 3 of the law,
but this exemption only applies when these products are free from
other substances.

Poultry meals and scratching grains composed solely of the
grains mentioned above, free from other seeds, by-products, and
materials like charcoal, grit, shells, etc., are also exempt.

Unground wheat screenings are considered exempt ; ground wheat
screenings, however, must conform to the law.

The writer earnestly desires the fullest co operation of all manufac-
turers, jobbers, local dealers and consumers. Communications may
be addressed to

P. H. Smith,

Mass. Agricultural Experiment Station,

Amherst, Mass.

♦Section lo amended, by striking out the words "' for the present year," and substituting
the word "annually." Acts of 1904, Chapter 332.

Circular No. i8. October, 1908

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

AMHERST.

ALFALFA AS A CROP IN MASSACHUSETTS.
William P, Brooks, Director.

Alfalfa has been under trial in Massachusetts both at the experi-
ment station and on private farms for a number of years. A good
start and a thick stand are not difficult to obtain ; but in all the ex-
periments, in Amherst at least, and so far as known in other locali-
ties, the crop soon gradually dies out, being replaced by grasses and
clovers. The limit of satisfactory productiveness seems to be two or
three years. It is a question whether under these conditions the
crop will prove profitable, but in the opinion of some who have given
it an extensive trial, it will pay to cultivate alfalfa even though it
furnishes satisfactory crops for only two years.

Its principal advantages as compared with clover are three, (i)
The first crop is ready to cut and feed at least two weeks earlier than
clover. (2) It starts after cutting more quickly than clover, usually
furnishing three crops annually. (3) It is considerably finer than
clover, and therefore likely to be more palatable.

Alfalfa does not apparently exceed clover in nutritive value to as
great a degree as is often supposed.

COMPOSITION OF CLOVER AND ALFALFA HAYS.

Water.

Ash.

Protein.

Fiber.

Nitrogen free ex. Fat.

%

f^

$

$

$ fc

Alfalfa,*

15

7-9

13-5

27.2

33-2 3-2

Alsike clover,t

15

9-7

14.0

23.1

36.1 2.1

Medium red clover,t

15

7.6

13.2

24.2

37.4 2.6

These figures indicate that there may be no great difference in the
nutritive values of alfalfa and clover hays, although further compara-
tive determinations of digestibility are desirable.

The cost of starting alfalfa must materially exceed the cost of
seeding to ordinary mixed mowing.

Soil requirements. Alfalfa may be made to succeed upon a variety
of soils, provided these meet certain requirements. Whatever the
type of soil, it must be naturally thoroughly underdrained. Standing
water within less than six to eight feet of the surface will almost cer-
tainly prove fatal, and there must be perfect surface drainage. Stand-
ing water or ice will destroy alfalfa in a relatively short time. The

* Calculated on basis of two analyses published by the N. J. Exp. Sta.
t Average of analyses in the Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta.

highest degree of success with alfalfa appears to have been attained
on moderately heavy soils. The soil of the typical drumlin of the
state is in many cases well adapted to the crop. Freedom from weed
seeds or roots such as witch grass is highly important. Localities
where sweet clover grows naturally are likely to be peculiarly adapted
to alfalfa, as also are those parts of the state where the soils are rich
in lime.

Preparation for alfalfa. In preparing for alfalfa the most thorough
possible tillage and such treatment as will free the surface soil from
weeds and living roots are of prime importance. If a very early crop,
the cultivation of which will leave the soil free from weeds and in
good tilth, will be profitable, then such a crop may wisely precede
alfalfa ; but the crop should be one which can be harvested not later
than about the loth of July, in order to allow a sufficient interval for
the thorough tillage desirable before seeding. If the cultivation of
such a crop does not promise to be profitable, then a summer fallow
will be found to be highly beneficial.

The following system of preparation is recommended :

(i) Plow the land the previous fall.

(2) Apply lime to the rough furrow either in the fall or early in
the spring, and immediately incorporate thoroughly with the soil by
the use of the disk harrow. In most parts of the state success with
alfalfa is impossible without first thoroughly liming the soil. Burned
lime at the rate of about a ton and one-half to the acre should be
used. This should be slaked with enough water to cause it to crum-
ble into a fine, dry powder. This should then be evenly spread and
immediately worked in. The usual beneficial effects of liming are
clearly shown by the cuts.

ALFALFA.

No Lime.

Lime.

The two cylinders were filled with an equal quantity of thoroughly
mixed soil, so that conditions are known to have been identical at
the start.

A

(3) Just previous to the first harrowing subsequent to the applica-
tion of the lime, apply a mixture of the following materials, per acre:

Basic slag meal, 1500 to 2000 lbs.

Low grade sulfate of potash, 600 to 800 lbs.

Spread the mixture evenly and incorporate into the soil by harrow-
ing.

(4) Shortly before seeding apply the following mixture, per acre :

Basic slag meal, 300 lbs.

Nitrate of soda, 100 lbs.

Spread this evenly and work in lightly with the harrow.

Whether manure should be used depends upon conditions. If a
supply of fine manure, free from weed seeds, is available, and if the
soil is in a very low state of fertility, a dressing of manure is advisa-
ble ; but on soils in good condition the application of manure is
hardly called for, and from some points of view is undesirable. It
almost invariably carries some weed seeds and its use produces the
conditions which are favorable to the growth of grass, since it sup-
plies an abundance of quickly available nitrogen. Alfalfa does not
need large quantities of available soil nitrogen, for under suitable con-
ditions it can draw this element from the air. It seems wise, there-
fore, except upon soils which are exceptionally low in fertility at the
start, to depend mainly upon fertilizers alone, selecting such as will
furnish in abundance such elements of plant food as phosphates and
potash. It is believed that basic slag meal will be found peculiarly
suited to the crop, as it will furnish a considerable proportion of lime
in addition to fairly available phosphoric acid.

2'ifne of seeding. It is believed that the best results with alfalfa
will usually be obtained by sowing it either alone or together with
oats or barley about July 15th to August 5th. Previous to these
dates, and as a result of the frequent harrowings which the field re-
ceives during the spring and early summer months, most of the weed
seeds which were near enough to the surface of the ground to ger-
minate will have started, and accordingly a cleaner stand of alfalfa
will be secured than if the seeding be earlier.

Seed. Great care should be taken to secure the very best northern
grown seed free from dodder. This parasite, if present in any quan-
tity, will soon ruin a field of alfalfa, and if it becomes established
upon the farm is likely to prove a most pernicious weed. The quan-
tity of seed which gives best results seems to be about thirty (30)
pounds per acre.

Soil inoculation. In localities in which sweet clover does not nat'
urally grow, inoculation of the soil with the bacteria which develop
nodules upon the roots and which give the plant the capacity to
assimilate atmospheric nitrogen is advisable. If sweet clover is in-
digenous in the locality, such inoculation is usually unnecessary, as
the bacteria which develop nodules upon the roots of sweet clover
appear to be identical with those found on alfalfa roots. If inocula-
tion is necessary it can be carried out in two ways :

(i) A culture may be obtained and used in accordance with direc-
tions accompanying it. Such cultures are produced both in the
United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, and
by a number of private companies. Most of the experiments with
them up to the present time have given results inferior to those ob-
tained by following the second method of inoculation,

(2) Harrow in 300-400 pounds per acre of soil from an old and
successful alfalfa field.

In soil inoculation, it should be remembered that exposure of the
germs to the light, even if only for a short time, destroys their
vitality. It is advisable, therefore, to harrow in the germ-carrying
soil as promptly as possible after spreading.

Leaf-spot or rust. In certain localities, and in some sections more
than others, alfalfa is subject to a parasitic disease which results first
in the appearance of yellowish spots upon the leaves, and later in
the loss of a large proportion of the foliage. When these spots are
observed it is best to cut the alfalfa immediately. Under this treat-
ment a healthy growth will soon start, but if the diseased plants are
allowed to stand they will be greatly weakened. If leaf-spot shows
itself in a newly seeded field while the plants are yet young, the cut-
tings may be allowed to lie where they fall. They will serve to fur-
nish mulch and winter protection which is so greatly needed in our
climate.

Harvesting alfalfa. Alfalfa should usually be cut soon after it
begins to blossom. If allowed to stand much beyond this period the
plants start much less promptly, and the total yield of the season
will be less. The last cutting of the season should not be too late.
It is desirable that there should be a considerable growth to remain
in the field for winter protection. After cutting, alfalfa should be
allowed to lie, with possibly one turning, until it is moderately wilted.
It should then be put first into windrows and later into cocks, where
it should be allowed to remain until cured. If hay caps can be used,
the results will be highly satisfactory. Should the time required in
curing exceed about five days the cocks should be moved to avoid
injury to the roots.

Annual top-dressing. If the soil has been successfully inoculated,
so that the nodules which have been referred to are abundant upon
the feeding rootlets of the alfalfa plants, it will be unnecessary to
top-dress with materials furnishing nitrogen ; but in order to secure
large crops, it will be essential to supply the mineral elements of
plant food in abundance, and the following mixture of materials is
reconuiiended annually, per acre :

J>asic slag meal, 1,600 to 1,800 lbs.

Low grade sulfate of potash, 600 to 800 lbs.

This mixture may be applied either in the autumn or in the very
early spring.

Experiments with alfalfa upon small areas are recommended in all
localities where soils of the right character are found.

Circular No. 19. Novkmher, 190S.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

A.MHERST.

THE WHITE FLY.
V>y C. E. Hood, I). S.

This insect has become a very serious pest in greenhouses, and
were it not possible to hold it in check, the crop each winter where
it is present would be a total failure. It is not confined to the
tomato alone but also attacks cucumbers, lettuce, melons, tobacco,
geraniums and many other plants, and is not only important in hot
houses, but in summer does considerable damage out of doors.

The egg of the white fly is oval in shape, somewhat pointed at one
end. The rounded end of the egg is fastened to the leaf so the egg
will hang down if the leaf is horizontal. In about two weeks these
eggs hatch into tiny young, which crawl around for a few hours and
then insert their beaks into the leaf and suck the juices until full
grown, which is about two weeks from the time they hatch. After
passing through the pupa stage, a T shaped opening is made in the
back and the adult fly emerges. The mouth parts of both the young
and fly are formed for sucking. They push their beaks into the
succulent portions of the leaf and extract the juices, and as a result,
the leaf soon dies and falls to the ground. Most of the harm, how-
ever, seems to be done by the young. Some time after the leaves
are infested, there is a sticky substance exuded over the leaf, on
which a black fungus grows, which soon covers the entire under
surface of the leaf, making it sooty in appearance.

REMEDIES.

There are two methods of attacking this insect, i. Fumigating
with hydrocyanic acid gas. 2. Spraying with contact insecticides,
such as a solution of Bowker's Tree Soap.

Fumigation is the most successful and most satisfactory method
for the control of this insect that has as yet been discovered, though
the gas produced is a deadly poison and extreme caution must be
exercised in its use. It is essential in fumigating that the cubic con-
tents or amount of space in the house be known, that the right
amount of chemicals to use may be determined. The best propor-
tions to use of the cyanide, sulphuiic acid and water are : —

1 part cyanide of potassium {()S''/( or gc/^).

2 parts commercial sulphuric acid.
4 parts water.

The water should be first poured into an earthen or granite ware
receiving vessel (do not use a metal one), the acid is then added and
finally the cyanide, as directed more fully below. Use .01 grams of
cyanide per cubic foot of space in the house or box to be fumigated.
When the amount of cyanide necessary has been determined, put it
in a paper bag. Close the ventilators and firmly fasten every door
of the house except the one used by the operator. When all is
ready, take the cyanide, fill the lungs with air, drop the cyanide into
the vessel containing the water and acid and leave the house imme-
diately, lock the last door and notice the time.

After the required time has passed, open the doors and give the
gas plenty of time to escape before you enter. This gas is very
poisonous, so do not enter the house during treatment. Fumigate
after sunset, allowing three hours exposure. In ventilating after-
ward, the amount of aitificial heat that can be supplied and the out-
side temperature must be taken into consideration, so that no injury
to the plants will result from the lowering of the temperature. Three
such treatments, at intervals of about twelve days, will usually com-
pletely rid the house of the white fly.

Johnson's work entitled "Fumigation Methods'" is indispensable
to anyone who has occasion to use hydrocyanic acid gas as an insect-
icide. The book can be purchased for $1.00 of the publishers,
Orange Judd Co., 52 & 54 Lafayette Place, New York City. To
those interested in greenhouse fumigation, pages 9-1 1, 118 and
124-146 are especially recommended.

If the cyanide treatment seems undesirable, use a fumigant and a
contact insecticide, such as "Nicoticide," manufactured by The To-
bacco Warehousing and Trading Co., Louisville, Kentucky, for the
fumigant, and Bowker's Tree Soap, manufactured by The Bowker
Insecticide Co., Boston, Mass., for the insecticide.

For each 2000 cubic feet of space, from one to two ounces of
Nicoticide should be used according to the lightness of the house.
This treatment should last all night, and the next day the plants
should be syringed with a solution of Bowker's Tree Soap at the rate
of one ounce in one gallon of water. One such combined treatment
should be sufficient for several weeks. If a second treatment is
desirable, fumigate the same as before, one week later, and spray as
before two weeks after the first treatment.

Circular No. 20. Februarv, 1909

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

AMHERST.

THE USE OF LIME IN MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE.
By William P. Brooks, Director.

In most parts of Massachusetts lime is present in the soil in too
small proportion for the highest productivity. Various types of soil
are found which need liming. What the peculiarities of such soils
are will be made apparent by a statement of the more . common
effects following the application of lime.

The results produced by an application of lime
Possible effects must of course vary with soil conditions ; but the
of liming. principal effects which are likely to follow may be
stated as follows :

1. Free acid if present is neutralized: "a sour soil is
sweetened.'"

2. Some of the less soluble potash compounds of the soil are
rendered available and the need of potash manures will be lessened,
at least for a time. Liming will not permanently take the place of
potash manuring.

3. Phosphatic fertilizers are often rendered more effective.
This is especially true of the less soluble materials.

4. Organic matter decomposes more rapidly and the plant food
it contains becomes more promptly available. This action is most
important in its relation to nitrogen. It is especially valuable in
heavy soils in which organic matter naturally decays slowly. Its
effect is also often important after turning under a green crop.

5. Ammonia and its compounds change into nitric acid more
quickly ; in other words, ammonia nitrogen becomes more promptly
available. Sulfate of ammonia when used as a fertilizer gives poor
results in many soils unless these are first heavily limed.

6. Injurious compounds of iron, and perhaps other injurious
compounds are rendered harmless.

7. Lime mellows the heavy and more clayey soils. It makes
them more friable and permeable. It helps prevent the formation
of crusts and cracking, and makes the maintenance of good tilth more
easy.

I. Those soils on which, when seeded, timothy

How to deter- and clovers fail, and where sorrel comes in abund-

raine what soils antly together with red top, almost invariably need

need liming, liming. Beeches and locusts among trees are lime

lovers and where these grow spontaneously and

attain good size lime is hardly likely to be required. The presence

of much moss or an abundant growth of bluets {Houstonia caerii/ea),

horse tails (^Equisetuvi), or polypods {Folypodiian) is an indication

that lime will probably be beneficial.

2. When soil is sour it will when moderately moist turn blue
litmus paper placed in contact with it red as the paper absorbs the
moisture from the soil. Such paper can be purchased from drug-
gists. It should not be handled with the fingers. "Sour" soils
need liming for most crops.

3. If still in doubt after making the litmus test, place a few
drops of common ammonia water in a glass with half a cupful of
pure water. Into this stir about a teaspoonful of the soil to be
tested. Allow the mixture to settle. If the soil needs liming the
water standing above it will have a reddish brown appearance, the
depth of the color depending upon the amount of soil taken and its
need of liming. In making this test it will be wise for the purpose
of comparison to stir up an equal amount of soil with the same
quantity of pure water without the addition of ammonia. There
will be a distinct difference in color if lime is needed.

4. The most certain evidence of all as to whether lime will prove
beneficial is afforded by a simple experiment which may be carried
out as follows : Lay ofif two square rods in a part of the field to be
tested which seem to be fairly representative and even in quality.
To one of these apply twenty (20) pounds of freshly slaked lime
after plowing and at once work it in deeply. Then apply to each
plot a liberal quantity either of manure or fertilizer and precisely
the same amount to each. Plant table beets. If the soil was much
in need of lime, these will make much the better growth upon the
limed plot.

No one kind of lime can be named which will

Kind of lime invariably be the best to use. The buyer of course

to use. seeks maximum efficiency for the money and labor

expended. The selection must therefore be in large
measure determined by relative prices as related to actual values.
The qualities of the more important materials between which choice
will usually lie will be briefly stated and figures indicating relative
content of actual lime (calcium oxide) will be given for such as are
fairly constant in composition. Information on these points will
make it apparent that choice should not be based upon ton price
alone. Composition and efficiency must be considered also.

Ci) Quick or burned lime. This, if made by properly burning a
good limestone, should contain 95^^ or more of actual lime. One
hundred pounds (100) when slaked will take up about 30 to 35
pounds of water. It is best to slake such lime before spreading it.
This can be accomplished either by placing the lime in small heaps
in the field where it is to be used and covering with soil, when the
lime absorbs water either from the soil or by exposure to the
weather ; or more quickly and perfectly by sprinkling it with just
enough water to cause it to crumble into a dry powder. After water
is added the heap should stand a few days when it will be best to
shovel it over a screen to separate any lumps which are still
unslaked. Fresh slaked lime will prove more effective in correcting
most of the faults of soils needing liming than any other form of
lime. It will be especially desirable in soils rich in inert organic
matter, or in those containing a large proportion of clay. Limes
containing a large proportion of magnesia are less desirable as a
rule than the purer limes although the magnesia is not usually
without value in our soils.

(2) Air slaked lime. Air slaked lime is formed when burned
lime is exposed to the air, the more quickly in proportion as the air
is moist. Under such conditions the lime first absorbs water from
the air; later, if the exposure be long continued, it will also absorb
carbonic acid. From 130 to 170 pounds of fully air slaked lime are
required to furnish as much actual lime (calcium oxide) as is con-
tained in 100 pounds of fresh burned lime of good quality. For
most purposes the air slaked lime will probably answer almost as
well as water slaked lime, but it must be remembered that a larger
quantity is required to produce equal effect.

(y) Slag meal. This material is used primarily as a source of
phosphoric acid, but it usually contains also from 40 to 50 per
cent of actual lime. A considerable proportion of this lime is in
combination, though about one-fourth of it is usually found in the
free form. About one-half of the lime present is believed to exist in
combination with phosphoric acid, and the balance is in combina-
tion with silica as a basic silicate of lime. The latter compound is
usually soluble and when applied to the soil must act in many
respects in a manner similar to free lime. It would probably not be
advisable to depend upon slag meal for the purpose of producing
that sharp change in mechanical condition which is needed in the
heavy, sour clays ; but by a rather free use of slag meal many of the
ordinarily looked for beneficial effects of liming may be expected to
follow ; and in any case, if soil has once been brought into satisfac-
tory condition by one heavy application of lime, we may doubtless
depend upon the lime in slag meal freely used as a source of phos-
phoric acid to hold the soil in a satisfactory condition as regards
that element.

DiiiEerent plants require varying amounts of lime,

The relation some are extremely sensitive to and much injured

of lime to by the presence of free acid. Others are compar-

crops. atively indifferent to the presence of such acid,

while still others appear to do better in soils con-
taining it. Among plants requiring large amounts of lime in the
soil are clovers, alfalfa, peas, beans and vetches. Grasses as a rule
require less lime than clovers; but timothy will not do well in soils
markedly deficient in lime. On the other hand red top thrives in
sour soils. Neither corn nor millets are especially sensitive to acid.
They will often do well on soils which are sour. The same is true
of potatoes, although excessive acidity is undesirable even for these
crops. Cabbages and turnips and all the cultivated members of the
same family require large amounts of lime. Mangel wurtzels, sugar
beets, and table beets are usually benefitted by liming, as are also
onions, spinach, lettuce, and parsnips. Celery also is said to be
much benefited by liming. Among fruits, the apple, pear, peach,
plum, and cherry usually do best where lime is abundant. The black-
berry, on the other hand, does well in soils containing free acid and
some experiments indicate that the strawberry does not particularly
require liming. Lime should not be applied immediately preceding

(3) Ground Ihnestone. Raw limestone first ground very fine is
now offered by some dealers, and is reconunend in certain quarters.
In deciding whether to use this form of lime, the following points
should be remembered :

(a) Limestone is a carbonate of lime and it will require about
175 pounds of this compound to furnish as much actual lime as will
be contained in 100 pounds of burned lime.

(b) Limestone however finely ground is soluble only to a small
extent and its action will be far slower in most soils than that of
freshly slaked burned lime.

(4) Agricultural lime. Some companies are now putting on the
market special preparations of lime which are recommended as
especially fitted for use in agriculture. These are usually in a very
fine mechanical condition and are in most cases made up in part of
fine ground carbonate of lime and in part of slaked lime. The
package in which these are offered makes them exceedingly conven-
ient for handling and for application, but pound for pound such
grades of lime are less effective than equal amounts of burned lime.

(5) Marl. Marl is a deposit consisting of variable proportions
of carbonate of lime (coming from disintegrated shells) and fine
earth. When applied to soils in suitable quantities, it is likely to
produce much the same effects as will be obtained from an applica-
tion of air slaked lime. It is not, however, so rich in actual lime as
the latter, and it will require more than one pound of marl to pro-
duce the effects likely to be produced by application of that amount
of air slaked lime. Statements of the average composition of marl
can have no particular value. In order to determine whether it is
better economy to use marl or some other form of lime, it will be
necessary to know its composition. Efficiency will be measured, in
large degree at least, by the relative proportions of actual lime.

(6) Land plaster. Land plaster, if pure, is made up of finely
ground sulfate of lime (gypsum) which contains only about 40
pounds of actual lime in 100. It is less energetic in its action on
most soil constituents than lime in other forms. It is, however,
often beneficial and may serve numerous useful purposes which will
not be discussed here. At prevailing prices it is not, however,
usually advisable to select plaster as the material to be used for the
correction of the faults most common in soils needing liming.

A

f'j) Slag meal. This material is used primarily as a source of
ohosphoric acid, but it usually contains also from 40 to 50 per
cent of actual lime. A considerable proportion of this lime is in
combination, though about one-fourth of it is usually found in the
free form. About one-half of the lime present is believed to exist in
combination with phosphoric acid, and the balance is in combina-
tion with silica as a basic silicate of lime. The latter compound is
usually soluble and when applied to the soil must act in many
respects in a manner similar to free lime. It would probably not be
advisable to depend upon slag meal for the purpose of producing
that sharp change in mechanical condition which is needed in the
heavy, sour clays ; but by a rather free use of slag meal many of the
ordinarily looked for beneficial effects of liming may be expected to
follow ; and in any case, if soil has once been brought into satisfac-
tory condition by one heavy application of lime, we may doubtless
depend upon the lime in slag meal freely used as a source of phos-
phoric acid to hold the soil in a satisfactory condition as regards
that element.

Different plants require varying amounts of lime,

The relation some are extremely sensitive to and much injured

of lime to by the presence of free acid. Others are compar-

crops. atively indifferent to the presence of such acid,

while still others appear to do better in soils con-
taining it. Among plants requiring large amounts of lime in the
soil are clovers, alfalfa, peas, beans and vetches. Grasses as a rule
require less lime than clovers; but timothy will not do well in soils
markedly deficient in lime On the other hand red top thrives in
sour soils. Neither corn nor millets are especially sensitive to acid.
They will often do well on soils which are sour. The same is true
of potatoes, although excessive acidity is undesirable even for these
crops. Cabbages and turnips and all the cultivated members of the
same family require large amounts of lime. Mangel wurtzels, sugar
beets, and table beets are usually benefitted by liming, as are also
onions, spinach, lettuce, and parsnips. Celery also is said to be
much benefited by liming. Among fruits, the apple, pear, peach,
plum, and cherry usually do best where lime is abundant. The black-
berry, on the other hand, does well in soils containing free acid and
some experiments indicate that the strawberry does not particularly
require liming. Lime should not be applied immediately preceding

No one kind of lime can be named which will
Kind of lime invariably be the best to use. The buyer of course
to use. seeks maximum efficiency for the money and labor

expended. The selection must therefore be in large
measure determined by relative prices as related to actual values.
The qualities of the more important materials between which choice
will usually lie will be briefly stated and figures indicating relative
content of actual lime (calcium oxide) will be given for such as are
fairly constant in composition. Information on these points will
make it apparent that choice should not be based upon ton price
alone. Composition and efficiency must be considered also.

(i) Quick or burned lif/ie. This, if made by properly burning a
good limestone, should contain 95^0 or more of actual lime. One
hundred pounds (100) when slaked will take up about 30 to 35
pounds of water. It is best to slake such lime before spreading it.
This can be accomplished either by placing the lime in small heaps
in the field where it is to be used and covering with soil, when the
lime absorbs water either from the soil or by exposure to the
weather ; or more quickly and perfectly by sprinkling it with just
enough water to cause it to crumble into a dry powder. After water
is added the heap should stand a few days when it will be best to
shovel it over a screen to separate any lumps which are still
unslaked. Fresh slaked lime will prove more effective in correcting
most of the faults of soils needing liming than any other form of
lime. It will be especially desirable in soils rich in inert organic
matter, or in those containing a large proportion of clay. Limes
containing a large proportion of magnesia are less desirable as a
rule than the purer limes although the magnesia is not usually
without value in our soils.

(2) Air slaked Hfiie. Air slaked lime is formed when burned
lime is exposed to the air, the more quickly in proportion as the air
is moist. Under such conditions the lime first absorbs water from
the air; later, if the exposure be long conttnued, it will also absorb
carbonic acid. From 130 to 170 pounds of fully air slaked lime are
required to furnish as much actual lime (calcium oxide) as is con-
tained in 100 pounds of fresh burned lime of good quality. For
most purposes the air slaked lime will probably answer almost as
well as water slaked lime, but it must be remembered that a larger
quantity is required to produce equal effect.

a crop of potatoes. They are more likely to be affected with scab
should such an application be made.

Although lime applied as a top dressing on grass
Methods of lands is often beneficial, it proves most effective in
supplying correcting most of the faults of soils needing liming
lime. if it can be applied to the plowed surface and thor-

oughly mixed with the soil. The autumn or the
early spring is usually best ; but lime may be applied without hesi-
tation at any season of the year, when the land is not occupied by
crops and when it can be plowed. If manures or fertilizers con-
taining ammonia or organic nitrogen are to be used in connection
with lime, the lattej: should be put on and incorporated with the soil
before the manure or fertilizers are applied. Lime should always
be applied broadcast. To do this work by hand is extremely disa-
greeable on accouut of the lime dust which is inhaled. A machine
distributer should be used if possible.

The amount of lime applied under different condi-
Quantity of tions varies from a few hundred pounds to several
lime needed. tons, but an average of about one ton of quick
lime to the acre will usually be sufficient. If air
slacked lime or other weaker forms of lime are employed, the quan-
tity must be proportionally increased. Such application as has
been suggested will not usually be called for more frequently than
once in five to seven years.

As soon as possible after it is spread upon the rough
Mixing the furrow, lime should be deeply worked into the soil.
lime with For this purpose either the disk, cutaway, or
the soil. spring-toothed harrow will be most effective.

J

Circular No. 21.

February, 1909.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

Amherst.

THE CONTROL OF ONION SMUT.
By Georoe E. Stone.

Onion smut has been known in Massachusetts for about forty
years, Mr. Benjamin P. Ware having referred to the injury caused by
it in the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture Report for
1869-70. The smut germs infect the seedlings at a very early
stage, the disease taking the form of dark-colored or sooty masses,
and as the onion matures the black areas of pustules may be noticed
on the leaves and bulbs. Since infection takes place in the early
stages of the seedling, onion sets being immune to the disease, any
method which will kill the smut spores on the seed or in the soil is
beneficial, and treatment of the seed and the soil has given good
results.

Onion smut appears to be on the increase in the Connecticut
valley and other parts of the United States and in some sections
the growing of onions has been discontinued. Positive results have
been obtained by applying per acre 100 pounds sulphur thoroughly
mixed with 50 pounds air-slaked lime in the drills ; and ground lime
drilled in with a fertilzer drill at the rate of 75 to 100 bushels per
acre is good, but the best results have been obtained by the use of
formalin ; either i pound to 30 gallons of water (1 — 240) or i ounce
to 1 gallon of water (i — 128) may be used. Formalin can be easily

Fjc;

applied at the time of sowing the seed by means of a suitable copper
or galvanized iron tank (see fig. i) attached to a " Planet Junior "
or almost any form of onion sower. At the bottom of the tank a
block tin tube about a quarter of an inch in diameter is fastened, to
which is attached a valve to regulate the flow of the formalin, and as
the tube is flexible and at the same time more or less rigid, it can be
bent in any position desired, and held securely. The tank is attached
to the sower by means of strips of iron ( see fig. i) and holds one
gallon.

The tank is not fastened to the iron frame, but merely sets in it,

which is sufficient to hold it in place,
and it can be easily removed. In figure
2, the tank and tube are shown de-
tached from the sower. A special fea-
ture in the construction of the tank con-
sists in its being so made that it will
drain easily, the middle of the tank being
lower than the ends. A larger tank can
be used if necessary, as the weight of the
formalin is not enough to affect the easy
handling of the machine. The flow of
the formalin solution in a tank of this
shape is nearly uniform. There is little
difference between the amount of the
formalin flowing when the tank is full
and when nearly empty.

Tests have shown that about 1200

feet of drill can be treated with one

gallon of formalin solution. The flow of

the solution, which should be sufficient

to cover the seed and wet the soil around

I'lG. 2. it to a certain extent, is regulated by

the valve. An attachment of this sort can be easily made by a local

plumber and readily fastened to an onion sower. *

Circular No. 22. April, 1909.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

Amherst.

POULTRY MANURES, THEIR TREATMENT AND USE.
By William P. Brooks.

The total number of fowls kept in the state is estimated at two
and one-half millions. The average night droppings of medium
breeds according to determinations made in this station must amount
to 40 pounds per fowl per year. On this basis the amount of poul-
•try manure easily collectible from the fowls of the state annually is
50,000 tons. If the plant food in a ton of average fresh poultry
manure be purchased at current prices in fertilizers, the outlay would
amount to nearly $7.50. Observations and experiments indicate
that as poultry manure is frequently handled it suffers a loss of one-
half or more of the nitrogen it contains when voided before it
reaches the land. If a loss of one-half correctly represents the
average, the total money value of nitrogen annually wasted from our
poultry manures must amount to about $160,000. It is the aim of
this circular to show how this loss may be prevented.

Poultry manures are particularly rich in nitro-

General character gen and their general characteristics are such

and composition of that they readily decompose As a result of

poultry manures, decomposition the manure heats and there is a

rapid and large loss of moisture and of ammonia.

The composition is subject to wide variations, due to some extent
to differences in feeding, but in far greater degree to methods of
handling and keeping.

The following tables present the results of recent analyses made
in our laboratory.*

♦Credit for these analyses is due Mr. H. D. Haskins and L. S. Walker, Chemists in the
fertilizer division of the station.

Table i.
Composition of Poultry Manures.

Hen Manure.

Moisture.

5t

Nitrogen.

Potash.

Phos. Acid.

Lime.

*

C (about 2 weeks),

67.62

1.36

•43

I. II

••33

p u u

68. 58

1.07

•44

1. 10

2.78

L

74.96

1. 2 I

•43

1.22

1.71

B-i (I night), . .

6976

I.9I

■33

1. 00

•53

B-2 (2 or 3 weeks),

60.61

2.30

.48

1.09

1.40

B-3 (6 to 8 weeks),

48.82

1.90

•63

2.07

1-93

G-i (I night), . .

66.69

1.58

.42

.50

1.46

G-2 (3 nights).

64.06

113

•39

.62

1.89

Pigeon, ....

25.01

3-90

1.06

2.15

.96

Duck, ....

61.62

1. 12

•49

1.44

1. 12

Goose, ....

67.06

1. 12

•51

•53

.26

Table 2.
Composition on Basis of Equal Dry Matter.

Hen Manure.

Dry Matter

Nitrogen.

Potash.

Phos. Acid.

Lime.

5f

C (about 2 weeks), . .

32-

1^34

•42

1.096

I-3I4

p a a

3^-

1.09

•44

1. 120

2.831

L " " . . -

32-

1.486

•52

1.499

2.101

B-i (i night), ....

32-

2.021

•31

1.058

.56

B-2 (2 or 3 weeks), . .

32^

1.868

■38

.86

1-137

B-3 (stored 6 or 8 weeks).

32^

1. 19

•39

1.294

1.206

G-i (i night), ....

32-

1-517

•31

•47

1.402

G-2 (3 nights), ....

32^

1.006

•34

•55

1.6S2

Average,

32.

X.44

•39

•99

'•53

Table i shows the composition of the material just as it was col-
lected and taken to the laboratory. Table 2 shows the composition
of the different samples of hen manure all reckoned upon the same
basis of dry matter in 100 pounds.

Samples B-i, 2 and 3 are richer than the others in nitrogen,
because the fowls received more animal food. Potash varies rela-
tively little. Phosphoric acid varies widely and must be greatly
affected by the amount of bone in the animal food given to the
fowls.

The comparison between the amounts of nitrogen shown in Table
2 in samples B-i, 2 and 3 and between samples G-i and 2 is par-
ticularly instructive. It illustrates the fact that hen manure unmixed
with absorbents or chemicals suffers very rapid loss of nitrogen.
Sample B-2 differs from B-i only in the fact that the interval
between removal of droppings from beneath the roosts was longer.
The season of this experiment was March, and the droppings were
frozen a part of the time. During warmer weather the loss must
have been yet greater. G-2 though accumulating only during three
nights seems to have lost relatively more nitrogen than B-2, per-
haps because the house was much warmer than the one from which
samples B came ; although this seems an insufficient explanation for
the difference.

Examination of Table i, especially comparison of the samples
B-I and B-2 shows that the fact that nitrogen has been lost is
obscured by the further fact that there has been an even larger loss
of water. The percentage of nitrogen in B-2 (Table i) is larger
than in B-i, but only because the former is dryer. Table 2 shows
that there has been a large actual loss.

The free use of fine dry loam, or the admixture
Methods of of such materials as kainit, acid phosphate.

Preservation. muriate of potash or land plaster, or of a com-

bination of some of these will effectively pre-
vent loss of nitrogen. Loam alone must be used in quantities so
large as considerably to increase cost of handling. Either kainit,
muriate of potash or acid phosphate alone is effective, but the mix-
ture especially with the first holds the material too moist for conven-
ient handling. Plaster is somewhat less sure in its action, and if
largely used the mixture may form hard, dry cakes. Kiln dried pine
sawdust has been successfully used with kainit by the Maine Experi-
ment Station.

The writer recommends fine, very dry earth in moderate quantities
on the dropping boards and daily removal. To each loo pounds of
fresh droppings, add a mixture made up as follows :
Kainit, 15 lbs.

Acid phosphate, 12 lbs.

Land plaster, 10 lbs.

Sprinkle this in proper proportion over each lot of fresh material as
it is added to the accumulating stock, and mix before use.

Such a mixture will give a combination of fertilizer elements in
proportions well suited for most crops.

The frequency with which correspondents
What not to do. inquire as to the suitability of wood ashes, coal
ashes or lime for preserving poultry manures
leads me to caution against mixing with these materials. All of
them are likely to increase the loss of nitrogen. Wood ashes may
be used as a fertilizer in connection with poultry manure, but if so
used should be applied by themselves, preferably before applying
the poultry manure.

The fact should be kept in mind when plan-
The use of poul- ning for the use of poultry manure, that its
try manure. constituents are quickly available. It should

be remembered, moreover, that the material is
naturally so strong that in close contact with either seeds, foliage, or
delicate rootlets in large quantities, it will burn and injure. Such a
mixture as has just been recommended v/ould usually best be used
by spreading either broadcast or very widely in the hill or drill. It
should give excellent results for mowings, lawns, and in the garden.
If to be used for potatoes, the writer would prefer using 4 pounds
of high grade sulfate of potash in place of the 15 pounds of kainit.
The quantity of poultry manure applied must naturally be varied
with soils and crops, but it should be remembered that such manures
well preserved, or such mixtures of poultry manures and chemicals
as have been suggested are much stronger and richer than ordinary
manures and should be used in smaller quantities. From about one
and one-half to two and one-half (i^ to 2^) tons per acre will be
the usual range in quantity. It should be remembered that kainit,
acid phosphate and land plaster are in themselves fertilizers, and
that in mixtures with poultry manures their usual fertilizer action is
not at all diminished.

Circular No. 23. July, 1909

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

AMHERST.

A PARASITE OF THE ASPARAGUS BEETLE.
By H. T. Fernald, Ph. D.

The injury to asparagus plants caused by the asparagus beetle
[Crioceris asparagi Linn) is fully appreciated by those who raise this
crop for market.

Little protection from this pest has been obtained by the attacks
of enemies, and spraying, the use of trap plants and permitting
fowls to run in the beds have been the usual methods of control.

No parasite has been reported as attacking the asparagus beetle,
but on the second of June of the present year a tiny four-winged fly
was observed by the writer at Amherst, passing everywhere over the
plants and carefully examining the eggs of the beetle, which were
then abundant on the stalks of the plant.

The fly appeared to be in no hurry, but wandered up and down
the stalks and their branches, examining the eggs of the beetle which
it found, and seemed indeed to be rather stupid, often entirely pass-
ing eggs no farther away than the length of its body, without giving
them the slightest attention. Occasionally an egg would receive a care-
ful examination, and one in about every eight of these was apparently
considered satisfactory. In such cases the parasite crawled out on
the upper side of the egg as it projected from the stem of the plant,
the egg being none too long to accommodate the insect. Then
heading outward, it gradually bent the end of its abdomen down-
ward and slowly pushed its ovipositor into the egg of the asparagus
beetle. After a few moments it withdrew the ovipositor and resumed
its travels over the plant. This process was observed several times
under a lens, the insects not being easily frightened if the movements
of the observer were slow, and shadows cast having no effect upon
their actions.

A specimen captured at this time was sent to the Department of
Agriculture at Washington, where, through the kindness of Dr. L. O.

Howard, it was determined by Mr. J. C. Crawford as a species of
Tetrastichus, the species not being ascertainable from its poor con-
dition.

For a week or so these parasites could be found in the field, but
after that time no more were discovered till July 12, when a single
individual was captured. At this time there were almost no eggs
present and but very few of the grubs of the beetle, the next
brood not having made its appearance. If we consider the
great abundance of the eggs in June, the scarcity of the grubs in
July would at least suggest that we have a very effective parasite,
for no treatment for the beetle had been given to the field, and the
weather during the month has been favorable for its preservation.

The fly averages about 2^4 millimeters long, varying from slightly
over 2 to nearly 3 millimeters. Its body is a metallic green, brightest
on the abdomen, more blu.sh on the head and thorax, and when the
sun strikes upon it is very noticeable for this reason.

This parasite has also appeared this spring at Concord, Mass.,
where it seems to have been equally effective, for though the beetles
were very abundant early in June and laid many eggs, very few
grubs could be found in the fields the last of the month. One of
the observers at Concord reports seeing the parasite occasionally
attack the eggs with its mouthparts, consuming the contents of the
eggs. The writer has not observed this, and considering the small
size of the parasite and the ease with which one end of the body
might be mistaken for the other without the aid of a magnifying
glass, it would seem very desirable to verify this observation.

We may conclude from the above that an egg parasite of the as-
paragus beetle has now appeared, and promises to be an effective
agent in the control of this pest.

Circular No. 24. September, 1909.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND ANIMAL CHEMISTRY.

J. B. LINDSEY, Chemist.

CONTENTS.

1. An Act to Provide for the Protection of Dairymen.

2. Tlie Babcock Test.

I. AN ACT TO PROVIDE FOR THE PROTECTION OF

DAIRYMEN.'

Be it enacted, etc., as follows :

Section i. All bottles, pipettes or other measuring glasses used
by any person, firm or corporation, or by any employee or agent
thereof, at any creamery, cheese factory, condensed milk factory,
milk depot, or other place, in this state, in determining by the Bab-
cock test, or by any other test, the value of milk or cream received
from different persons or associations at such creameries, factories
or milk depots as a basis of payment for such milk or cream, shall
before use be tested for accuracy. Such bottles, pipettes, or meas-
uring glasses shall bear in ineffaceable marks or characters the evi-
dence that such test has been made by the authority named in sec-
tion two of this act. No inaccurate bottles, pipettes or glasses shall
bear such marks or characters, but when found inaccurate shall be
marked " Bad."

Sec. 2. It is hereby made the duty of the director of the Massa-
chusetts* Experiment Station of the Massachusetts Agricultural Col-
lege, or of some competent person designated by him, to test all bot-
tles, pipettes or other measuring glasses, as required by section one
of this act. The director of the experiment station shall receive for
such service the amount of the actual cost incurred, and no more,

■ Chapter 202, Acts and Resolves of Massachusetts for iqoi.

^Massachusetts substituted for Hatch. See Chapter 66, Acts and Resolves of Massachu-
setts for 1907.

the same to be paid by the persons or corporations for whom it is
rendered.

Sec. 3. Within six months after this act takes effect, and once
each year thereafter, the director of the Massachusetts' Experiment
Station, or his authorized agent, shall inspect at the expense of the
owners all centrifugal or other machines used by any person, firm or
corporation, or by any agent or employee thereof, for the testing of
milk or cream in fixing the value thereof ; and the director of the
experiment station or his authorized agent shall cause all such
machines to be put into condition to obtain accurate results with the
Babcock test or other tests, at the expense of the owners thereof.
Such machines may be replaced by new ones at the option of the
persons to whom they belong.

^Sec. 4. No person shall, either by himself or in the employ of
any other person, firm or corporation, manipulate the Babcock test
or any other test, whether mechanical or chemical, for the purpose
of measuring the butter fat contained in milk or cream as a basis
for determining the value of such milk or cream, or of butter or
cheese made from the same, without first obtaining a certificate
from the director of the Massachusetts" agricultural experiment sta-
tion that he or she is competent to perform such work. Rules
governing applications for such certificates and the granting of the
same shall be established by the said director. The fee for issuing
the said certificate shall in no case exceed two dollars, shall be paid
by the applicant to the said director, and shall be used in meeting
the expenses incurred under this act. If the duly authorized
inspector finds an operator who, after receiving his certificate of
competency, is not, in the judgment of the inspector, correctly man-
ipulating the Babcock or other test used as a basis for determining
the value of milk and cream, or who is using dirty, untested or
otherwise unsatisfactory glassware, he shall immediately report the
case in writing to the director of the station. The director shall at
once notify said operator in writing and give him not less than
thirty days to make the necessary improvements. At the expiration
of that time the director may order a second inspection, the cost of
which shall be borne by the operator or by the person, firm or cor-

^ Massachusetts substituted for Hatch. See Chapter 66, Acts and Resolves of Massachu-
setts for 1907.
3As amended Chapteri425, Acts and Resolves|for 1909.

J

poration employing him, and if the required improvement has not
been made, the director is empowered to notify in writing said
operator, or the person, firm or corporation employing him, that his
certificate of competency is revoked. In case of any subsequent
violation the said director may revoke the certificate of competency
without giving the notice aforesaid.

Sec. 5. It shall be the duty of the director of the Massachusetts^
Experiment Station to test farmers" samples of milk or cream by the
Babcock method, and report the results of each test, the cost of such
test to be paid by the farmer. The director shall also test by the
Babcock method, samples of milk or cream sent from any creamery,
factory or milk depot in the state by its proper representative, the
actual cost of such tests to be borne by the sender. The experiment
station shall publish and distribute such information concerning the
Babcock test, and the taking and forwarding of samples, as it deems
necessary under this section.

Sec. 6. Any person violating any provision of this act shall
be fined not more than twenty-five dollars for the first offence and
not more than fifty dollars for each subsequent offence.

Sec. 7, This act shall take effect on the first day of July in
the year nineteen hundred and one. {Approved March 26, igoi.)

2. THE BABCOCK TEST."

P. H. Smith.

Attention is called to the following suggestions in regard to the
manipulation of the Babcock test the slighting of which, in the haste
of commercial work, will tend toward inaccuracy.

Composite samples of milk and cream should be
Preservation preserved in clean, wide-mouthed, tightly stoppered
of Samples, bottles ; they should be well mixed after each addi-
tion to insure a uniform distribution of the preserv-
ative and its thorough incorporation with the cream. The samples
should be kept in a cool place out of the sun. Ground glass stop-
pered bottles are to be preferred but owing to the expense they are

-Massachusetts substituted for Hatch. See Chapter 66, Acts and Resolves of Massachu-
setts for 1907.
^Revision of an article by E. B. Holland published in a special bulletin in 1903.

not generally used. Bottles with tight fitting corks of first quality
form the most satisfactory substitute.

The preservatives most commonly employed for keeping compos-
ite samples are corrosive sublimate, bichromate of potash and for-
malin. The two former are sold in tablets prepared especially for
the purpose, and simply need to be powdered and dissolved in the
sample ; formalin (formaldehyde) is sold in 40 per cent, solutions
and the quantity needed for a composite can be easily added by
means of a small dropper or pipette.

Corrosive sublimate tablets are to be preferred to other preserv-
atives as they interfere least with the action of the sulfuric acid in
making the test. Where the total solids of milk samples are to be
determined in addition to the percentage of fat, formalin can be
used to advantage as the amount necessary does not affect the accu-
racy of the test. Six to ten drops are sufficient to preserve a
pint sample several weeks if the sample is kept in a cool place. An
undue excess of any preservative should be avoided.

A thorough preparation of the sample is of vital
Sampling and importance, and is best accomplished by gently

Pipetting. rotating and by pouring back and forth from the
mixing vessel. Shaking and forcible pouring is not
permissable, as it is likely to cause partial churning and is sure to
inclose a large amount of air, rendering the sample unfit for pipet-
ting. All cream adhering to the sides and the stopper of the sample
bottle should be incorporated, and the resulting mixture not show
any solid particles of fat. A small, fine wire sieve is of great help
in detecting and correcting a lumpy condition.

After mixing, the sample should be pipetted immediately as the fat
globules rise rapidly towards the surface. The pipette should be
first rinsed with the sample, then filled again slowly taking care to
avoid air bubbles, held in a vertical position when lowering the
liquid to the mark and read with the entire meniscus or crescent
above the line. In transferring to the test bottle, smearing of the
neck should be avoided as far as possible and the pipette blown
clear.

Sour milk can be readily brought into a condition suitable for
pipetting by the use of a wire sieve to break the clots or by neutral-
izing the acidity with a small pinch of powdered caustic alkali or 5

5

per cent, (by volume) of household ammonia. In the latter case the
results must be increased to ofifset the dilution by the factor of 1.05.

Churned milk. In partly churned samples the lumps of butter
can be temporarily incorporated by heating and pouring, or by
dissolving in 5 per cent, (by volume) of ether. With the first method
it is necessary to pipette while the sample is warm and it is advis-
able to weigh the test. It is extremely difficult to secure an accurate
test of a badly churned sample.

Separator cream containing more than 25 per cent, butter fat can-
not be pipetted directly with accurate results, for the reason that a
cream pipette (18 c. c.) will not deliver the requisite amount (18
grams) because of the lower specific gravity and greater adhesive-
ness of the liquid. The experiment station dctes not advocate the
use of 50 per cent, test bottles for rich cream, but prefers to use one-
half amount (9 grams) of the weighed sample in the 30 per cent 6
inch bottle where tests run over 25 per cent., multiplying the results
by two. In pipetting thin cream it is well to use two pipettes alter-
nately, allowing one to drain into the test bottle while the other
is in use.

Sour cream can be suitably prepared by the use of a sieve but the
inclosed gas prevents satisfactory pipetting and makes weighing of
the test absolutely necessary, if accurate results are to be obtained.
Before mixing, the acid and the contents of the test
Adding Acid, bottle should be at a temperature of 60° — 70° Fahr.
When the acid is added the test bottle should be
turned so as to wash down all the sample adhering to the sides of
the neck, rotated at once and this continued until all the lumps of
curd are dissolved. The hand mixing should never be slighted, and
care should be taken not to throw the fat into the neck of the test
bottle.

Cream of a high fat content and naturally a low percentage of
curd, requires slightly less than the regular quantity of acid (17.5
c.c.) and this is equally true of samples containing " an excess of
bichromate of potash (preservative). Skimmilk, containing slightly
more curd than whole milk, and samples preserved with formalin
which hardens the nitrogenous bodies (proteids), need relatively
more than the usual amount of acid.

The machine should be balanced, provided there is
Whirling and not a full battery, by a suitable arrangement of the

Filling. bottles. It should be run for at least five minutes

at a speed equal to the theoretical demands for an

inner disc of the given diameter. The diameter of the disc is

Understood to be twice the distance between the center of the disc
and the point of union between neck of test bottle and bulb when it
is whirling.

Diameter of disc.

Inciies.

lO

12

14
16
18

20

Revolutions a minute.

1074
980
909
848
800

759

The test bottle should then be filled to the shoulder with hot
water and whirled again for fully two minutes and longer if the fat
does not separate clear and oily. After the final filling which should
bring the fat well up into the neck of the test bottle, it should be
whirled again for two minutes to perfect the column of fat.

The percentage can be read more safely and
Reading accurately by using a pair of dividers to measure
Results. the column of fat, than by trusting to the unaided
eye.

-d

*In measutjngthe fat column in the neck
of a milk test bottle the reading should be
made from a to b not to c or to d.

*In measuring the fat column in the neck
of a cream test bottle the reading should be
made from a to c not to b or to d. The size
of the meniscus is magnified in this cut.

*Reproduced from Testing Milk and Its Products, published by Mendota Book Co., Mad-
ison, Wis.

1

In accordance with recent investigation it is considered more
accurate to measure tlie column of fat in a cream bottle from the
bottom of the meniscus (crescent) as indicated in the above cut.
Such observations as we have made confirm this. The writer prefers
to use only the 6 inch 30 per cent. Connecticut cream bottles taking
one-half the usual amount (9 grams) where the cream tests over 30
per cent. The use of 9 inch cream test bottles having a smaller
neck is increasing on account of the greater accuracy obtained.

The reading should be made immediately, before the fat begins to
contract and settle, at a temperature of 120° to 140° Fahr. and the
reading is equivalent to percentage when the normal amount of
material (18 grams) is taken. Too rapid cooling of the samples
may be checked by setting the bottle into a vessel of water heated
to 130° Fahr.

The column of fat should be a clear yellowish liquid with a
sharply defined upper and lower meniscus or crescent, with no white
curd or charred material in or below the fat and no bubbles or foam
on its surface. Discoloration of the fat and charring is due to
excessive acid action, which may be caused by too strong, too much
or too warm acid, too warm a sample or failure to mix at once, or
the action of some preservative, especially bichromate of potash.

Light colored fat and the presence of undissolved curd may be
caused by too weak, too little or too cold acid, too cold a sample,
insufficient whirling or lack of proper heat, or the action of some
preservative, especially formalin.

Bubbles or foam on the surface of the fat may be due to the use
of hard water containing carbonates or sometimes to excessive heat
in poorly constructed turbines.

The contents of the test bottles should be shaken

Care of out while hot to remove the deposit of lime sulfate,

Glassware, rinsed with clean water to remove the acid which

interferes with the cleaning action of the soap,

cleaned with hot soap suds preferably made by using some strongly

alkaline soap powder, rinsed with hot water and allowed to drain.

8

Pipettes should be cleaned in a similar manner. The scale when
indistinct can easily be restored by rubbing over with an oil
shipping crayon.

Communications in regard to the dairy law may be addressed to

P. H. SMITH,
Mass. Agricultural Experiment Station,

Amherst, Mass.

J

Circular No. 25. (Revision of No. i)

October, 1909.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

AMHERST.

COTTONSEED MEAL.
By J. B. LiNDSEY.

The seed of the cotton plant as it conies from the

Method of gin which removes the cotton fibre is still covered

Manufacture, with a coat of white down, technically known as

" linters." The " linters " being removed, the seed

itself appears black in color, and irregular egg shape in form. The

thick, hard, black seed coat or hull is filled with the coiled embryo

(meat) which contains a large number of oil cells. Machines have

a

cotton

Th

culture, 1S95

been invented to remove the hull and the residue or meat is cooked
in large iron kettles, and while still hot is wrapped in hair cloth and
subjected to a pressure of 3000 to 4000 pounds to the inch to
remove as much of the oil as possible. The pressed cottonseed
cake when ground results in the bright yellow cottonseed meal of
commerce. A ton of seed furnishes about 1,000 pounds of hulls,
300 pounds of extracted oil and 700 pounds of meal.'

'The Cottonseed Industry by C. M. Dougherty in Year Book of U.S. Dept. of Agri-
culture 1901, pp. 2S4-298.

As a Feed- Stuff. Cottonseed meal varies somewhat
Composition, in composition particularly in protein and fat,

depending upon the locality in which it is grown,
season, and upon the possible addition of hulls. That obtained
from seed grown in Texas, Arkansas, Tennessee and Missouri
usually tests higher in protein than that produced in Georgia and
the Carolinas, the latter being known as south-eastern meal. The
following may be said to show the composition of meal of satisfac-
tory quality :

Per Cent.

7.00

6.00
41.00

6.30
30.70

9.00

Water,
Ash,
Protein,
Fiber,

Extract Matter,
Fat,

The extremes in case of protein are 36 and 47 per cent, and in
case of fat, 7.50 and 12.00 per cent.

As a Fertilizer. The chief value of cottonseed meal for fertilizing
purposes consists in its nitrogen content ; it also contains noticeable
percentages of phosphoric acid and potash. The following shows
mean and extremes in case of nitrogen and the probable extremes
for the two other ingredients :

Per Cent.

Nitrogen, 5-75— 7-5°

6.56
Phosphoric acid, 2.00 — 3.00
Potash, 1.50 — 2,00

Cottonseed meal is a valuable and usually the most

Agricultural economical protein concentrate for dairy animals.

Uses of Cot- It should not be fed by itself but mixed with other

tonseed Meal, bulky feeds to distribute it. Rations containing

cottonseed meal as a constituent may be had

upon application.

In Massachusetts large amounts of cottonseed meal are used as a
fertilizer, particularly for tobacco. Naturally the higher its nitrogen
and the lower its fat percentage, the more valuable it is for this
purpose.

t

The Inter-State Cottonseed Crushers' Association
Grading Cot- at its annual meeting held at Memphis, May 19-20-
tonseed Meal. 21, 1909, established the following rules for grading

cottonseed meal :

Rule 12, Section i. Choice cottonseed meal must be finely ground,
perfectly sound and sweet in odor, yellow, free from excess of lint,
and by analysis must contain at least 8 per cent, of ammonia (6.56
per cent, nitrogen) or 49 per cent, of combined protein and fat.*

Section 2. Prime cottonseed meal must be finely ground, of sweet
odor, reasonably bright in color, yellow, not brown or reddish, free
from excess of lint and by analysis must contain at least 7.50 per cent,
of ammonia (6.18 per cent, nitrogen) or 46 per cent, of combined
protein and fat.*

Section 3. Good cottonseed meal must be finely ground, of sweet
odor, reasonably bright in color, and by analysis must contain at
least 7 per cent, of ammonia (5.75 per cent, nitrogen) or 43 per cent,
of combined protein and fat.*

It is quite natural, as has already been pointed out
Quality that cottonseed meal should vary in chemical com-
Deteriorated. position as well as in appearance, depending upon
the season, method of handling, and locality in
which it is grown It is evident that the meal sent into Massachu-
setts of late years has decreased somewhat in quality or has come
from different shipping points as the following analyses made at this
laboratory will show :

HIGH AND MEDIUM GRADES.

1904.

1905.

1906.

1907.

1908.

igog.t

No. of samples.

62

61

52

76

41

36

Nitrogen,

7.00

6.66

6.52

6.35

6.74

6.40

Protein,

43.60

41.60

40.68

39-73

42.12

40.01

Fat,

9.00

8.80

8.66

9.07

8.94

8.41

*The Station endorses the ammonia or nitrogen but not tho combined protein and fat
guarantee as a basis for settlement. A lot of meal may contain the requisite 49, 46 or 43 per
cent of combined protein and fat, but through faulty extraction or for some other reason,
not the necessary nitrogen, ammonia or protein equivalent. Thus, if a 49 per cent, com-
bined guarantee should contain 11 per cent, of fat, it would contain only ;jS per cent, of pro-
tein instead of the necessary 41 per cent. Inasmuch as cottonseed meal is purchased pri-
marily for its nitrogen or protein, it is believed to be fairer to adhere to the nitrogen or
ammonia content of the meal as a basis of settlement. In Massachusetts it is illegal to
present a combined protein and fat guarantee.

tAverage only 13 samples.

tSpring collection.

In earlier years meals testing 45 per cent, of protein (7.2 per cent
nitrogen) were quite common. Although it is stated on good
authority that the 1908 crop of seed was of excellent quality and
that much of the resulting meal would test 46 or more per cent,
protein, the meal collected in Massachusetts rarely contained over
41 per cent (6.56 per cent nitrogen). It has been affirmed that
many crushers took advantage of this condition to add sufficient
linters to reduce the protein to 41 per cent. While the addi-
tion of 10 per cent of linters would probably not render the
meal injurious to animals, such an admixture is not recommended.
The linters or short cotton fibers cause the meal to have a fluffy,
bulky appearance.

It is further believed that some jobbers at times make a practice of
sending guarantee tags to be attached by the shippers representing
the meal to have a higher per cent of nitrogen or protein than it
actually contains. It is decidedly unfair and illegal for either
jobber or shipper to attach 41 per cent guarantee tags to meal con-
taining only 38 per cent protein. It injures the reputation of the
seller and likewise destroys the confidence of the purchaser. Such
a practice cannot be too strongly condemned. The price of the
meal should vary in accordance with its nitrogen or protein percent-
age and its appearance. Meal testing 41 or more per cent protein
should be held at an advance over 38 or 36 per cent meal, and the
jobber should endeavor to educate the consumer to this method of
purchase.

Local dealers as well as large consumers claim that
Concerning if the meal purchased does not substantially con-
Rebate, form to the guarantee placed upon it, they are
entitled to a pro rata rebate. The Cotton Crush-
ers' Association recognizes the justice of this claim, and have estab-
lished the following method for settlement :

Rule 12, Section 4. Cottonseed meal not coming up to contract
grade shall be of good delivery if within ^ of i per cent of the
ammonia content (.41 per cent nitrogen) or 2I per cent of combined
fat and protein content of the grade sold or of the sale sample, but
the settlement price shall be reduced at the rate of yL of the con-

tract price for each per cent of ammonia or ^^y, J^ or Jg of the con-
tent of protein and fat as the case may be and proportionately for
the fractions of the deficiency in ammonia.

Section 5. No claim for deficiency of protein and fat combined
or of ammonia shall be made by buyers unless the deficiency shall
exceed ^ of one unit of protein and fat combined or ^^ of one unit
of ammonia.

If a lot of cottonseed meal is guaranteed to test 41

Method of per cent of protein (8 per cent of ammonia) and

Calculation, only tests 35 50 per cent (6.9 per cent of ammonia),

it shows a deficit of i.i per cent ammonia. If the

contract price was $28 a ton, according to the above rule yL of the

price would be ^2.80, and j\ of that .28 which added to the $2.80

would be $3.08, which is to be deducted from the $28 in the form

of rebate.

Nitrogen, Ammonia and Protein equivalents to be used in apply-
ing the above rule :

Nitrogen. Ammonia. Protein.

5,75 equals 7.00 equals 36.00

5-9°

7.20

37.00

6.10

7.40

38.00

6.25

7.60

39.00

6.40

7.80

40.00

6.56

8.00

41.00

6.70

8.20

42.00

6.90

8.40

43.00

In order to secure a representative analysis of any

Methods of lot of feed, it is necessary that a correct sample

Sampling. be taken. Different bags of cottonseed meal have

been found to vary noticeably in their content of

nitrogen or protein and a sample taken from a single bag or from a

few bags would by no means be representative of a car lot.

Rule J 4 of the Cotton Crushers'' Association : Two ounces or more
from each sack shall constitute a sample of meal and must be drawn
so as to fairly represent the entire contents of the bag. Twenty
samples from each carload or fifty sacks from each 100 tons if not

shipped in car lots shall be sufficient to represent a shipment.
Samples of meal if of approximately the same grade and quality
need not be kept separate but may be commingled. In all cases
samples of cottonseed meal shall be, when drawn, immediately
placed in a tin package which must be made and kept air-tight, and
carefully marked, showing the number of samples taken, as well as
car number and mark.*

Station Method of Sampling : The station takes a core sample
from 20 different bags in case of car lots by means of a tube run the
entire length of the bag. These samples are carefully mixed and
the necessary quantity put into a bottle bearing a label on which is
written all of the obtainable data. In case of 5 ton lots or less, 10
bags should be sampled.

Method suggested to local dealers and cons2imers : It naturally is not
possible for the station upon request to send its representative to
sample goods in all sections of the state. If the dealer or large
consumer buys with the understanding that the meal shall conform
to guarantee, and be of the proper color and texture as per the
grading of the Crushers' Association, he should immediately notify
the jobber on the arrival of the car and have him send a represen-
tative to assist in taking a sample, or take the same himself by pre-
vious agreement, as per Rule 34. Open 20 bags, and if a sampling
tube is not available, thoroughly mix the contents of the top of each
bag and remove a handful from each, placing on a clean paper.
Mix the 20 handfuls and send to the station one-half pound of the
mixture in a tight tin box or stoppered bottle by mail or prepaid
express, together with all the necessary information such as name
and number of the car, date received, of whom purchased, and
number of bags sampled, enclosing also a guarantee tag. The
station furnishes blank forms for such information. Samples
improperly taken will not be tested.

The station is willing and ready in so far as its
Relation of resources permit, to test samples of cottonseed meal
the Station to when purchased in ton or more than ton lots pro-
Seller and viding the same are properly taken, and upon
Consumer. request will report the results of its analysis within
a few days. It cannot act as analysts for import-
ers and jobbers ; neither will it test manufacturers' samples ; such

*The portion of this rule relative to cargo shipments has been omitted.

f

work belongs to the commercial chemist. It is not considered the
business of the station to interfere relative to the terms of settlement
between seller and buyer in case the goods fall below the grading
and guarantee, excepting" upon the special request of one or both
parties at interest. Whenever the meal tests substantially below the
guarantee and the station is requested to advise concerning a fair
method of settlement, it is willing to figure the rebate for either
party according to the rules of the Inter-State Cottonseed Crushers'
Association as quoted in this circular.

Circular No. 26. (Revision of No. 14) February, 1910.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

AMHERST.

FERTILIZERS FOR POTATOES.

WILLIAM P. BROOKS, Director.

There is general agreement that fertilizers rather than manure
should generally be used for the potato. The principal reasons are :

1. The chances that the crop will be free from blight, rot and
scab are greater on fertilizer. This does not of course mean that
immunity from any of these troubles is certain if fertilizers only are
used.

2. The period of growth is relatively short and the plant food
supplied should be in highly available forms. High grade fertilizers
are superior to ordinary farm manures in this particular.

Manure may be used for this crop with greatest safety and profit
on the lighter soils deficient in organic matter and humus. The
quantity should be moderate and it should be applied broadcast and
plowed or deeply harrowed in rather than placed in hill or drill. It
will usually pay to use some fertilizer in connection with manure.

Experiments with fertilizers for potatoes on the Station grounds
on soils which are retentive in character indicate :

1. Method of Application : The application of all the fertilizers
in the drill, making it cover a strip some 10 to 15 inches in width is
likely to give a better crop than broadcast application of all the fer-
tilizers used.

2. The Nitrogen Supply:

(a) When grown upon a clover or mixed grass and clover sod, a
relatively low percentage of nitrogen in a potato fertilizer is sufficient.

(b) In order to make it safe to apply the entire amount of fertil-
izer needed for the crop at planting time, the nitrogen should be
derived from materials possessing a varying rate of availability,
such, for example, as nitrate of soda, sulfate of ammonia, dried
blood and tankage.

3. Phosphoric Acid Supply : There is little doubt that the pres-
ence of a liberal amount of available phosphoric acid in fertilizers
for potatoes is favorable to early maturity and whenever the tops
usually make a rank growth, or where an early crop is important this
element should be relativelv abundant in the fertilizer.

4. The Potash Supply :

(a) The percentage of potash in a potato fertilizer should be rel-
atively high. There is considerable evidence which tends to show
that a relatively high percentage of potash in the fertilizer used for
potatoes is favorable to the maintenance of healthy growth and the
production of a sound crop.

(b) The potash of a potato fertilizer should usually be supplied
in the form of sulfate rather than muriate. When these two salts
have been compared, the sulfate has generally given the heavier
yields and the better quality. On light soils, especially those rich in
lime and in excessively dry seasons, the muriate may be the better of
the two salts.

The Use of Lime and Wood Ashes : It has been clearly shown
that potatoes are more subject to scab when grown in soils which
are alkaline than in those which are moderately sour. The free
application of lime will render most soils alkaline and this fact
explains why the potato is so often seriously injured by scab when
grown on freshly limed land. This practice should be avoided. A
heavy application of wood ashes may have a similar effect in favor-
ing the development of scab and it is usually preferable to derive the
phosphoric acid and the potash needed for the potato from other
fertilizers.

The Composition of Potato Fertilizers : It is believed that fer-
tilizers for potatoes should under the different conditions specified
have about the following composition :

A. When fertilizers only are to be used : —

1. On clover sod or soils rich in humus and relatively fertile :

Per Cent.

Nitrogen, 2.5 — 3.

Phosphoric acid, 8. — -10.

Potash, 8. — 10. in form of sulfate.

2. On lighter and poorer soils :

Per Cent.

Nitrogen, 3.5— 4.5

Phosphoric acid, 6. — 8.

Potash, 8. — 10.

B. For use in connection with manure :

I. On clover sod or soils rich in humus:

Per Cent.

Nitrogen, 1.5 — 2. mostly in soluble forms.

Phosphoric acid, 8. — 10.

Potash, 12. — 14.

2 On lighter and poorer soils :

Per Cent.

Nitrogen, 3. — 3.5 mostly in soluble forms.

Phosphoric acid, 6. — 8.

Potash, 10. — 12.

Amounts recommended per acre:
A (either i or 2) 1500-2000 lbs.

B (either i or 2) 600-1000 lbs. varying with the amount of manure
used.

HOME MIXTURES.

The judicious selection and purchase of unmixed materials usually
makes it possible to obtain needed elements of fertility at lower cost
than in the " potato specials." Home mixture of these materials is
neither difficult nor expensive if the materials are of good grade and
reasonably free from lumps. They have simply to be alternately
added to a heap upon a solid floor in proper proportions and then
shoveled over a few times, taking care to break such lumps as are
present by pounding. Should any single ingredient appear to be
lumpy, it will be best to pulverize it by itself before adding to the
mixture. A gravel screen is sometimes convenient in connection
with such work.

The following mixtures are suggested as likely to prove satisfactory
under the conditions indicated :

A. For use where fertilizers only are employed :

1. On clover sod or soils rich in humus and in high fertility :
In each 100 pounds:

Nitrate of soda, 7 lbs.

Dried blood, 8 lbs.

Tankage, 15 lbs.

Acid phosphate, 50 lbs.

High grade sulfate of potash, 20 lbs.
Use 1500 to 2000 pounds per acre.

2. On lighter and poorer soils :
In each 100 pounds :

Nitrate of soda, 12 lbs.

Dried blood, 15 lbs.

Tankage, 20 lbs.

Acid phosphate, 35 lbs.

High grade sulfate of potash, 18 lbs.
Use 1500 to 2000 pounds per acre.

B. For use in connection with manure:

1. On clover sod or soils rich in humus :
In each loo pounds:

Nitrate of soda, 8 lbs.

Dried blood, 5 lbs.

Acid phosphate, 60 lbs.

High grade sulfate of potash, 27 lbs.
Use 600 to 1000 pounds per acre, varying with quantity of
manure used.

2. On lighter and poorer soils :
In each 100 pounds:

Nitrate of soda, 8 lbs.

Dried blood, 10 lbs.

Tankage, 20 lbs. ^

Acid phosphate, 40 lbs.

High grade sulfate of potash, 22 lbs.
Use 800 to 1200 pounds per acre, varying with quantity of
manure used.
Conditions under which Muriate of Potash may be Substituted
for Sulfate : If the soil on which potatoes are to be grown is of
coarse texture and deficient in capacity to retain water and if experi-
ence indicates a considerable probability that the crop at some per-
iod in its growth will sufifer from drouth, it may be wise to substitute
muriate of potash for the high grade sulfate recommended in any of
the above mixtures. As already indicated, the substitution of muri-
ate for the high grade sulfate may be especially advisable if in addi-
tion to being light, the soil is naturally rich in lime.

Method of Applying : If the potatoes are to be planted by hand,
good results may be obtained by opening the furrows and then scat-
tering the material widely the full length of the furrow, making it
cover not only the entire furrow, but a space a few inches in width
on each side. If spread in this way, the fertilizer will not be so
thick that it will be necessary to take any special steps to mix it with
the soil. It will be sufficiently mixed in covering the seed. If plant-
ing is done by machine, the fertilizer attachment of the machine
should be one which scatters the fertilizer over a relatively wide
area. If such a n.iachine cannot be used, it may be best to withold
a portion of the fertilizer until the crop is three or four inches high,
when it should be scattered along strips ten to twelve inches wide on
either side of the row and cultivated in.

Circular No. 27. (Revision of No. 16). July, k

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

AMHERST.

SEEDING MOWINGS.
By William P. Brooks.

The average product of hay to the acre in Massachusetts is re-
ported to be only a little more than one ton. As good farmers are
not satisfied with an average yield of less than three tons, it is self-
evident that there is much mismanagement, 01 lack of intelligence in
the management of mowings.

This paper will discuss seeding down to grass or mixed grass and
clover. The topics to be especially considered are as follows : — ■

Preparatory fertilization.

Time and method of seeding.

Preparatory tillage.

Varieties of grass and clover to be used.

Preparatory Fertilization.

It is quite unnecessary to state to the average
Manure. farmer that a liberal application of manure will bring
the soil into good condition to produce profitable
crops of hay and wherever sufficient manure is produced on the farm,
or can be purchased and laid down upon the farm at a low cost, its
use is to be advised. The liberal use of manure in preparing the
soil for seeding to mowing will bring it into condition to produce a
grade of hay made up principally of such grasses as timothy, red top
and orchard grass, while the clovers are present in relatively small
proportion. This is because manure supplies an abundance of nitro-
gen, which greatly favors the growth of grasses. These accordingly
become so rank in their growth that the clovers are to some extent
suppressed. While the fact that the free use of manure in preparing
land for seeding will bring it into fine condition for the production of
heavy yields of hay is well established, it is not as generally known
as it should be that profitable hay production on fertilizers alone is
possible. Indeed there can be no doubt that in most localities if the
plant food must be purchased for the purpose under consideration,
money can be more wisely used in buying fertilizers than in buying
manure.

If manure is to be used in preparing for seeding, it is best to keep
it relatively near the surface. It should be well worked in with a
harrow rather than plowed under, providing its mechanical condition
makes thorough incorporation with the soil by harrowing possible.

In most parts of the state our soils appear to be
The Necessity relatively deficient in lime. In soils where this defi-
for Lime. ciency is marked, the necessity for liming will be
indicated by the following conditions : —

1. Clovers will either fail absolutely or make a feeble growth.

2. Sorrel is likely to come in abundantly.

3. If red top and timothy are sown with the clovers, the red top
will do much better relatively than the timothy.

The reasons for the above results briefly stated are : —
(a.) Red top and sorrel can thrive in acid soils.
(p.) Neither clover nor timothy will do well in such soils.

Wherever such results as are above named have been noted, a
heavy application of lime will usually be found to be beneficial.
Various forms of lime are available. Among the more important are
fresh burned lime, air-slaked lime and fine ground lime.

Of these different forms, the fresh burned or lump lime exercises
the most energetic action on the soil. Before application, it should
be slaked, either by exposure in small heaps to the weather or by the
addition of just enough water to cause it to crumble into a fine, dry
powder. The rate of application likely to prove useful is about one
ton to the acre. After slaking, the lime should be spread as
promptly and as evenly as possible upon the rough furrow, and im-
mediately deeply harrowed into the soil, for which operation, the
disk or cutaway harrow is usually best. In determining whether it
is better economy to purchase fresh burned lime or air-slaked lime,
it should be remembered that a ton of the former is equivalent in its
action on the soil in most cases to from 3,000 to 3,500 pounds of
the latter.

Fine ground limes are put upon the market in sacks, and are the
most convenient form, both for handling and for application ; but
they usually cost more in proportion to efficiency than fresh burned
lime.

The effects of liming upon the character of the growth are very
clearly shown in the cuts. The soil used in this experiment was
taken from one of our fields which was supposed to need liming. A
quantity sufficient to fill the two cylinders was first very thoroughly
mixed and an equal amount was then placed in each. Both received

No Lime Lime

EFFECT OF LIMING.

a general fertilizer, and in both were sown precisely the same kinds
and quantities of seeds — timothy, red top and clover.

The selection of fertilizers for application to land
Fertilizers to which is to be seeded should, in all cases, be varied

be Used. in accordance with the kind of hay desired. If hay
containing a large proportion of clover is wanted,
materials which supply relatively large amounts of potash and phos-
phoric acid, and relatively little nitrogen should be employed. If
hay, largely timothy and relatively free from clovers is wanted, then
the proportion of materials furnishing potash and phosphoric acid
should be smaller, while the materials supplying nitrogen should be
applied in relatively large proportion. There is considerable evidence
to show that if timothy is desired, potash in the form of muriate
is preferable to sulfate, while for clovers on many soils, and especially
in wet seasons, the sulfate is preferable.

The cuts on pages 4 and 5 show the difference in crops of clover
produced on the college farm respectively on the muriate and the
high grade sulfate of potash, used in each case in connection with
bone meal at the rate of 600 pounds to the acre.

The application of fertilizer in preparation for seeding should be
varied also with the season. Materials supplying considerable nitro-

1 ERTILIZER ANNUALI,^■.

Ppr 4rrp ) ^""^ MeaL 6oo pounds.

rer .-iLre, j vi urate of Potasli, 250 pounds.

gen in available forms may safely and wisely be applied in spring
seeding, but for late summer or autumn seeding, the application of
such materials in any considerable amounts would be a mistake.

It should be understood that in presenting specific advice as to
applications of fertilizers under different conditions, no attempt is
made to give an exhaustive discussion of the subject. The materials
advised have been used with excellent results on the college farm as
well as by numerous private farmers.

As has been stated, manure is relatively rich in
Fertilizers in nitrogen, and the application of manure alone in lib-
Connection eral quantities will be favorable to the production of
with Manure, hay, made up largely of such grasses as timothy and
red top. If it is desirable to increase the proportion
of clover, either of the following fertilizer applications may be recom-
mended : —

(a.) Per acre, in addition to the manure, muriate of potash or
high grade sulfate of potash 150 to 175 pounds, — the former to be
selected for the lighter soils, and in cases where it is desirable that
the proportion of timothy be relatively large.

(<^.) Per acre, muriate or high grade sulfate of potas.?i 1^0 to ly^
pounds, and basic slag meal 600 to 800 pounds.

FFRTILIZER ANNUALLY.

Pol- \nra i Bone Meal, 600 pounds.

rer .-^cre, | ^-^^^ Grade Sulfate of Potash, 250 pounds.

This application will, it is believed, be especially favorable to
clovers. Slag meal, besides supplying phosphoric acid, will furnish
a considerable quantity of free lime which will help sweeten a soui
soil, or hold in condition a soil where the excess of acid has first been
neutralized by liming.

A. For spring seeding, per acre : —

800 to 1000 pounds

Fertilizer Basic slag meal,
Alone. Muriate or high grade sul-

fate of potash,
Tankage or dry ground fish,

B. For summer seeding, per acre : —

Basic slag meal,

Muriate or high grade sulfate of

potash.
Tankage or dry ground fish.
And, if the soil is in a very low state of fertility, in addition
Nitrate of soda, 75 to 100 pounds

C. For fall seeding, per acre : —

Basic slag meal, 800 to 1000 pounds

Muriate or high grade sulfate of

potash, 175 to 200 "

x\nd, if the soil is in very low fertility, in addition

Nitrate of soda 75 to 100 pounds

175 to 200 "
300 to 400 "

800 to 1000 pounds

175 to 200 "

200 to 300 "

If tankage or fish are relatively high in price it may be wise to
substiliitc sulfate of aniiiioina fc:)r them, but in only one-half as large
(juantities.

In either of the above fertilizer combinations containing tankage,
fish, or sulfate of ammonia, it will be best to apply the slag meal by
itself, for if this be mixed with either, the free lime which the slag
contains will cause a loss of ammonia. The other materials advised
under A and 15 should be mixed together before application. All
the materials advised under C should be mixed before application.
The best results will usually be obtained by spreading all these fer-
tilizers on the rough furrow and working them in thoroughly with
disk or other deep working harrows. The nitrate of soda, it is true,
does not require deep working in, and it is most safely used if
spread only a short time before seeding, while the other materials
will prove the most useful if they can be put on a few weeks before
the seed is sown. It is doubtful, however, whether enough will be
gained in the direction of greater effectiveness of the nitrate to pay
the extra cost of separate application.

Where the land is seeded in the summer or fall with fertilizer as
advised, it will not infrequently be found profitable to apply some
nitrate of soda the following spring. Whether or not such applica-
tion will prove profitable must be determined by the appearance of
the grass at that time. If it shows comparatively light foliage and a
moderate or feeble growth, a dressing of nitrate will be profitable,
and to facilitate its distribution, it is advised that it be mixed with
about double its weight of basig slag meal.

Time and Method of Seeding.

There is no season of the year, not even excepting winter, which
has not been advocated by some one as the best season for seeding
to grass, and indeed each season has its advantages. The limits of
this circular will not permit a full discussiou of the subject.

The writer is convinced that on all soils fairly
Summer retentive of moisture and in seasons not character-
Seeding, ized by very unusual drought, the best results in
seeding to mixed grass and clover will be obtained
if the seed is put into the ground during dog days, and on farms
where corn is cultivated, he strongly recommends seeding in the
standing corn. The cultivation of the corn must of course be level.
Just previous to seeding, the spike-tooth cultivator should be used,
working as close to the hills or rows as possible. The seed should
be sown when the corn is about waist high. Much care should be

taken to distribute tiie seed evenly, and it seems best in most cases
to walk between every pair of rows aiming to cast the seed about
three rows wide, but of course in very small quantity. I^y sowing
in this way a very even distribution of the seed may be secured In
showery weather, seed sown in this way will not need covering.

Grass and clover sown in the early spring usually
Spring start well, but there is much risk of damage to the

Seeding. young plants during the hot dry weather which is
likely to prevail in midsummer. If sown alone in
the spring, there is likely in most fields to be a rank growth of weeds
spring up with the grasses and clovers. In most cases, therefore, a
nurse crop (most frequently oats) is put in with the clover. In either
case, the ranker and more rapidly growing weeds or grains make
heavy drafts on the moisture of the soil, and when these are cut, the
exposure of the young and tender grass and clover plants (up to that
time shaded by the taller growth) to the full glare of the summer sun
often seriously injures them. Principally for this reason the writer
is not in favor of spring seeding.

Good results may be obtained by seeding at al-
Fall most any time between the middle of August and

Seeding. the first of October, provided the soil is well drained
and the lay of the land such that water will not
stand upon it during the winter. Clovers may be sown with grass
seeds up to about the loth of September. If put in later than that
they are not likely to make enough growth to become sufficiently
well rooted to go through the winter safely. If the date of seeding
must be late and clover in the mowing is desired, it is common to
withhold the clover seed until the following spring, at which time, of
course, the soil is somewhat compacted and covering the seed is im-
possible, as harrowing the ground would uproot the young grass
plants. Clover sown in this way will, in some seasons, germinate
well and make a good growth, but this method of seeding is attended
by a great deal of risk of failure and at best the crop the first season
where this method is followed will contain but little clover. In
fall seeding, it is customary to sow the grasses and clovers
without a nurse crop.

Shallow covering only is essential, and in case of

Covering summer seeding in the corn, no covering at all is

the Seed. needed in many cases, as the shade of the corn keeps
the surface of the ground moist. The heavy pelt-
ing rains of dog days moreover will help to bury the seeds. In all
other cases, the weeder, or the familiar home-made brush, will in
most cases be the best implement for covering the seed, these imple-
ments to be followed in most cases by the roller, which will make the
surface smooth and sufficiently compact so that moisture will rise to
the surface.

Preparatory Tillage.

The fact is now much more generally appreciated than formerly
that it pays to bring land into the best of tilth in preparation for
seeding. Careful plowing followed by numerous harrowings will- in
almost all cases be necessary. The soil at the time of seeding should
be fine and mellow at the top and moderately compact below.
Wherever it is possible, ploughing should precede the seeding by a
few weeks at least, and between the date of ploughing and seeding,
the field should be harrowed a number of times. Fall ploughing is
generally preferable to spring plowing if the land is to be seeded in
the spring.

Varieties of Grass and Clover to be Used.
No attempt will be made here to consider the characteristics of
the different species of grasses and clovers. The most generally
useful mixture will be made up about as follows per acre: —
Timothy, i8 pounds

Fancy re-cleaned red top, 8 "

Alsike clover, 4 "

Mammoth red clover, 4 "

This mixture is suited for mowings on all medium and heavy soils
which are occasionally broken up and put into hoed crops.

For lighter soils, and especially where it is desirable to leave the
mowing down to grass for a considerable number of years, the fol-
lowing mixture is reconmiended per acre : —

Orchard grass, 15 pounds

Tall oat grass, 5 "

Italian rye grass, 5 "

Awnless brome grass, 5 "

Common red clover, 6 "

For medium soils, especially where it is desirable to leave the
mowing down to grass for a number of years, the following mixture
is recommended per acre : —

Orchard grass, 8 pounds

Italian rye grass, 3 •'

Yellow oat grass, 4 "

Meadow fescue, 10 "

Red clover, 5 "

Alsike clover, 4 "

In the purchase of grass and clover seeds, it is of much importance
to pay particular attention to the quality. It is wise to obtain sam-
ples and to examine them, or to have them examined by the experi-
ment station with a view to determining, not only the germinating
quality, but whether there is an admixture of weed seeds. In the
purchase of clover, it is now especially important to be on guard
against dodder. Dodder is a parasite which, if it once obtains a
foothold in a field of clover, will soon render it valueless. Dodder
seed, unfortunately, appears to be found with increasing frequency
in samples of clover and alfalfa seeds offered in the markets.

*CiRCULAR No. 28. October, 1910

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND ANIMAL CHEMISTRY

RULES RELATIVE TO TESTING DAIRY COWS.

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS.

The Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, working in
conjunction with the various pure bred cattle associations, will con-
duct, when possible, official tests of pure bred cows, on the following
conditions :

1. Two weeks' notice of a desired test must be given the Sta-
tion,

2. Charges for testing shall be as follows:

a. The charge for a single day's test, wheti made in a
sequence with others of a similar character, shall be $5.00.
Additional days for the same party shall be at the rate of
$2.75 per day. These prices do not include the tester's
time while en route.

b. The charge for a "seven-day" test shall be $25.00.
An allowance of nine consecutive days will be made, which
shall include the tester's time while en route. Additional days
beyond the nine day limit will be charged for at the rate of
$2.75 a day.

c. The charge for a " thirty-day " test shall be $80.00,
and 32 consecutive days will be allowed, which shall in-
clude the tester's time en route. Additional days beyond
the 32 day limit will be at the rate of $2.50 a day.

d. The owner of the stock must, at his expense, care
for the supervisor during the test, and when necessary,
convey him to and from the railroad station or car line.

* A revision of circulars Nos. 9 and 15.

3- The owner of each herd desiring tests must provide a satis-
factory Babcock machine, the necessary acid and hot water, and a
suitable box or cupboard fitted with a hasp for a padlock, in which
the supervisor may keep his samples.

4. Only cows which are entered in the herdbook of the breed to
which they belong are eligible to advanced registry.

5. In case of long tests, supervisors will be changed every thirty
days, if deemed advisable.

6. All reports of tests must be brought or sent to the Experiment
Station by the supervisors. Such reports, after being verified, en-
dorsed and copied, will be forwarded to the proper club. The sta-
tion, however, reserves the right of using the data, if deemed advisa-
ble.

DUTIES OF THE SUPERVISOR.

1. The supervisor shall not be held responsible for the identity
of any cow tested, but shall accept the statement of the owner or
his representative as to her name and registration number. The
supervisor, however, shall state whether the cow answers her regis-
tered description, if the same has been furnished him ; otherwise, he
will include in his report a brief description or sketch of each new
animal tested.

2. The supervisor shall see the cow milked dry at the regular
milking prior to beginning the test,* shall verify the fact with his
own hands and note the time of the same. The last milking must
occur at the same hour, one or more days later according to the
length of the test.

3. The number of cows to which an inspector is limited shall be
dependent upon the amount of work required and the facilities at
hand. He shall not exceed five cows when milked four times daily,
without special permission from the station. He shall allow only
one of the cows entered to be milked at a time and shall personally
oversee the entire milking.

• In case of Ayshires it is not necessary to see the cow milked dry before beginning
test.

4. A cow must be milked out at a single sitting. In no case will
it be allowable to go back and strip her a second time.

5. The supervisor shall verify the weight of the pail before each
cow is milked. As soon as a cow is milked the supervisor shall take
charge of the pail and its contents and keep it under his control
until he shall have weighed the milk and taken the sample for the
Babcock test. He must thoroughly mix the milk previous to taking
the necessary sample and must retain the sample under absolute con-
trol until tested.

6. Disturbing conditions such as sickness, being in heat, change
of milker, etc., must always be entered on the report.

7. When required, as indicated on the blanks furnished, the
supervisor must also record the date of the cow's birth, when last
calf was dropped, when the cow was served, when test was begun,
statement of kind and amount of feed both grain and roughage,
method of feeding, also the use of condiments, condition powders,
or drugs of any kind.

8. In the case of yearly tests the supervisor shall at the begin-
ning of the test record on blanks furnished him for the purpose a
full description of the animal entered for test.

9. Any tampering with a cow under test or with the samples by
the owner or an employee, or refusal to comply with the rules must
be reported at once to the station by telephone. Lack of proper
apparatus or facilities for doing satisfactory work should also be
reported.

10. As soon as possible after the completion of the test or at least
once each month, the supervisor shall bring or send to the station on
the proper blanks a detailed report over his signature and affidavit.
He shall also submit an itemized statement of time and expenses at
each place, number of records sent in and breakage. In case of
tests of over thirty days' duration he shall submit such a report on
the first day of each month.

11. All the butter fat tests and weights of milk secured by a
supervisor shall be recorded by him in a suitable record book, which
he shall retain constantly in his possession until called for by the
experiment station official in charge of the work.

THE TESTING OF SAMPLES.

1. Each sample must be tested in duplicate by the Babcock test ;
the separation must be clean (free from curd and charred material);
and no variations in excess of o.io per cent, shall be allowed.

2. In a seven day test when any of the milk or a test sample is
accidentally lost, the average of the corresponding milkings during
the other six days shall be substituted for the missing weight or test,
but such results must always be reported as estimations.

3. With all tests of a week or more duration, a seven day com-
posite sample shall be taken, when required, by means of a sampling
pipette (i c. c. for every pound), preserved with bichromate of pot-
ash or some other preservative and forwarded in a full bottle to the
station by prepaid express. Accompanying the sample shall be a
statement of the total amount of milk and of fat produced during the
seven days represented by the composite. Results by the station's
test and by the inspector's data ought not to vary more than 0.15 per
cent.

ADDITIONAL RULES WITH THE CHURN TEST.*

1. In case the churn test is employed in addition to the Babcock,
milk samples of the same amount must always be taken so that the
loss of fat in the samples can readily be calculated from the total
weight of the samples and the average percentage of fat.

2. The skim milk should be weighed daily, carefully mixed and
a composite taken by means of a sampling pipette.

3. The butter milk should be weighed, sampled, and if more than
one churning, a composite taken by m'eans of a sampling pipette.

4. The skim milk and butter milk should be tested in duplicate
by the Babcock test and no variation in excess of 0.02 per cent
allowed.

5. The finished butter should be weighed and sampled immedi-
ately by slicing the entire lump (not prints) by means of a thin case
knife or spatula, and by taking small pieces (size of a walnut) from
various parts of the different slices. Great care should be exercised
to prevent loss of water. The sample, amounting to about one-half
a pound, should be shipped to the station in a sealed Lightning fruit
jar by prepaid express.

•Confirmed Butter Test. A. J.C. C.

i

SPECIAL RULES.

The owners of pure bred animals under test are advised to
thoroughly familiarize themselves with the rules under which their
respective associations are working. Our supervisors are instructed
to refer all questions in regard to rules to the proper pure bred cat-
tle associations. The information in this circular is simply intended
to supplement the rules of the various associations and in no way to
conflict with them. The supervisor is not at liberty to decide as to
which stipulations contained herein are essential and which are not
and any apparent variation between the instructions in this circular
and those of the pure bred cattle associations should be referred at
once to the Experiment Station.

YIELD OF MILK AND BUTTER FAT REQUIRED FOR ADVANCED

REGISTRY.

7 Days. 365 Days.

Milk. Fat.

Milk.

Fat.

lbs. lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

AYSHIRE.

2 years old at commencement of test,

6,000

214.3

-, U (1 U 11 (< ((

6,500

236.0

. U ii U U (( u

7,500

279.0

. (t U U (( (( 11

8,500

322.0

Daily increase required,

2.74

0.12

GUERNSEY.

2 years old at commencement of test.

6,000

250.5

^ i( u u u a 11

7,332.3

287.0

4

8,665.6

323.5

r " i< u i( « ((

10,000.0

360.0

Daily increase required,

3-65

0.1

HOLSTEIN FRIESIAN.

2 years old at calving,

7.2

250.5*

^ 1( (1 U (1

8.8

287.0*

4

10.4

3235*

5 " " " "

12.0

360.0*

Daily increase required,

.00439

O.I

JERSEY.

Under zh. years at commencement of test

, 12.0

6000.0

260.0

z\ to 4 years " " " "

8000.0

300.0

4-5 years " " " "
5 years " " " "

9000.0
10,000.0

350.0

400.0

Confirmed Butter Tests : 14 pounds of

actual butter testing at least 80 per

cent fat for 7 days, for 90 days or less an

average of 2 pounds a day,

for 365

days 500 lbs.

* Competition restricted to cows having been admitted to Advanced Register on 7 day

APPARATUS FURNISHED.

The inspector will be furnished with the following supplies or as
many of these supplies as may be deemed necessary :

Spring balance,

Sampling pipettes,

Sample bottles.

Milk pipettes, 17.6 c. c.

Milk test bottles, lofc

Acid measures, 17.5 c. c.

Dividers,

Bottle brush,

Crayon,

Wire sieve.

Speed indicator.

Padlock,

Stick tags.

Preservative.

Report blanks.

Record book and stationery.

CHURN TEST.*

Skim milk bottles, (.01^ graduations),
Steel spatula.
Sealing wax and seal.

I
2

I 2
2

pair.

box

SECRETARIES OF BREEDERS ASSOCIATIONS.

Ayshire Breeders Association, C. M. Winslow, Brandon, Vt.
American Guernsey Cattle Club, W. H. Caldwell, Peterboro, N.H.
tHolstein-Friesian Association of America, F. L. Houghton, Brat-
tleboro, Vt.

American Jersey Cattle Club, J. J. Hemingway, 8 West 17th St.,
New York, N. Y.

Communications pertaining to advanced registry work addressed
to the Massachusetts Experiment Station should be sent in care of
the undersigned,

PHILIP H. SMITH,

Mass. Agr. Exp. Station,

Amherst, Mass.

* Confirmed butter test. A. J. C. C.

t Communications in regard to advanced registry should be addressed to Malcolm H.
Gardner, Superintendent of Advanced Registry, Delavan, Wis.

Circular No. 29. (Revision of No. 11.) October, 1910.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

AMHERST.

The Chemical Analysis of Soils*

By William P. Brooks, Director.

Almost every day the station receives either inquiries regarding
the chemical analysis of soils or samples forwarded for such analy-
sis. The following letter received a short time ago fairly represents
the attitude of most correspondents relative to such work.

Gentlemen : I write for information for Mr

the owner of a large farm in , Mass.

He wishes to know if he can send you samples of soil for
analysis; most likely would send 8 or 10 samples from
different parts of his farm. In what form and in what
quantity should he send, and what would be the expense
for analysis of each package sent ? He would also like
to know what crops would produce the best results for each
sample sent, and the best fertilizer for each sample and the
quantity required

It will be noted that the gentleman in whose interest this letter
was written believed : —

(i) That chemical analysis will show to what crops a soil is
suited.

(2) That such analysis will determine what fertilizers should be
applied and the quantity needed.

Our correspondence indicates that these views are very generally
held, while another widely accept^^d belief is that the cause of crop
disease will be revealed by a chemical analysis of the soil in which
the crop is growing.

Although a chemical analysis of a soil is often of value, it is be-
lieved that these views are neither generally accepted by scientific
men nor supported by the known facts of experience under the condi-
tions usually met with in this state.

1. The Crop Adaptation. While the chemical condition of a
soil is not altogether without influence in determining the crops to
which it is suited, this, as a rule, at least within such range of soil
variation as exists in this state, plays a much less important part
than mechanical and physical peculiarities. The crops to which a
soil is suited aie determined chiefly by its drainage, its capacity to
hold and to conduct water, its temperature and its aeration, and
these in turn are determined by the mechanical structure of the soil
and sub-soil. Variations in the proportions of gravel, sand, silt, and
clay, and not in chemical composition, cause the usual differences in
these respects. The varying proportions of these, therefore, usually
determine the crops to which a soil is suited.

2. Fertilizer Requirements. The results of a chemical analysis
of a soil do not, as a rule, afford a satisfactory basis for determining
manurial requirements. The chemist, it is true, can determine what
the soil contains, but no ordinary analysis determines with exactness
what proportion of the several elements present is in available form for
the crop. Indeed, there is no such thing as a constant ratio of availa-
bility. While one crop finds in a given soil all the plant food it re-
quires, another may find a shortage of one or more elements.
Further, on the very same field one crop may find an insufficient
amount of potash, another may find enough potash for normal
growth, but insufficient phosphoric acid ; while a third may suffer
only from an insufficient supply of nitrogen.

Most of our soils are of mixed rock origin, and, as a rule, possess
similar general chemical characteristics, providing they have been
farmed under usual conditions. The manurial and fertilizer require-
ments are determined more largely in most soils by the crop than by
peculiarities in the chemical condition of the soil.

3. Crop Diseases. In some cases, the correspondent reports
that his crop is di-seased, and that he desires a chemical analysis in
order to ascertain what is the cause. The chemical composition of the
soil may in some instances exercise a controlling influence in deter-
mining a condition of health or disease, and is never unimportant
from the standpoint of vigorous, normal and healthy growth ; but in
the case of most diseases, the immediately active cause is the pres-
ence of a parasitic fungus, and this fungus is usually capable of
fixing itself upon the plant whatever may be the composition of the
soil. A knowledge of the chemical composition of soils, therefore, j
will not make it possible to advise such manurial or fertilizer treat-]
ment as will insure immunity from disease.

CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH ANALYSES WILL BE

MADE.

For the reasons which have been briefly outlined, the chemical
analysis of soils does not, as a rule, afford results which have a value
commensurate with the cost ; and this station, therefore, will not
make such analysis unless the soil differs widely from the normal in
natural characteristics, or has been subjected to unusual treatment
of such a nature as to probably greatly influence its chemical condi-
tion. In order that we may decide whether analysis seems called for,
correspondents are urged to write before taking samples, and when
doing so to state all the conditions as fully as possible. This state-
ment should include a full description of the soil and as full a report
as possible as to the manures and fertilizers applied and crops raised
for a number of years previous to the date of writing. In all cases
in which, on the basis of the information given, it appears that a
chemical analysis promises results of value, such an analysis will be
made, and for the present free of charge ; but, as explained in the
preceding paragraphs, such analyses appear to be only rarely worth
while. It will usually be possible to give helpful advice in relation
to the use of manures and fertilizers on receipt of a full statement
as to the character and history of the soil and the crop which is to
be raised, and such advice will always be gladly given.

In case analysis is regarded as desirable, full directions for taking
and forwarding samples will be sent.

Circular No. 30.

January 191 1.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND ANIMAL CHEMISTRY.

> BALANCED RATIONS FOR
DAIRY STOCK.

By J. B. LINDSEY.'

1. Composition of Cattle Feeds.

All cuttlo tVeds, whether in the form of o-rains and their by-
products, or as hay, corn silage and straw, are composed of the
following groups of substances : —

Water. — The several grains and their bj-products contain from
7 to 12 per cent of water ; hay and straw, 12 to l(i per cent ; field-
cured corn stover, o() to 40 ])er cent; and corn silage, 76 to 80
per cent.

Ash represents the mineral ingi'edients, and constitutes the ashes
after the feed is burned. These ashes consist of lime, potash, soda,
magnesia, iron, phosphoric and sulfuric acids.

Protein is a collective name for all of the nitrogenous matter ; it
corres})onds to the lean meat in the animal, and may be termed
" vegetable meat." It has the same elementary composition as
animal flesh, ^^"hen fed to animals as a component of the various
feed stuffs, it serves as the exclusive source of flesh as well as a
source of heat or energy and fat.

Crude fiber or cellulose is the coarse or woody part of the plant.
It may l)e called the jilant's framework. It is a source of heat or
energ}' and fat.

1 In co-operation with the State Board of Agriculture.

Non-introgenouH extract matter represents the sui>aJ"s, starch and
gums. It is the ])rinci])al source of heat or eiieray and fat for the
dair}' animal.

Fat includes not only the various oils and fats in all gi"ains and
coarse fodders, but also waxes, resins and colorino- matters. It is
fre(|uently termed etJier extract, because it is that portion of the
})lant sohiblc in ether. It serves as a source of heat oi- energy and
fat in the body of the animal.

Carboliydrates is a term which is generally used to include both
the fib(u- and the extract matter.

2. DlGESTIIULlTY OF ( 'aTTLE FeEDS.

The several groups of nutrients above described, which make up
the various cattle feeds, are valuable to the animal only in so far
as they can be digested and assimilated. The concentrated feeds
are considerably more digestible than the coarse fodders, as a single
illustration will show : —

100 Pounds Timothv Hay.

100 Pounds Gluten Feed.

Composi-
tion.

Per Cent
Digestible.

Pounds
Digestible.

Composi-
tion.

Per Cent
Digestible.

Pounds
Digestible.

Water,

15.0

-

-

8.5

-

-

Ash, ....

4.3

-

-

1.7

-

-

Protein, .

6.3

48

3.0

26. -2

85

22.3

Fiber,

28.4

58

16.5

7.2

76

5.5

Extract matter,

43. fi

63

■27.5

53.3

89

47.4

Fat, ....

•2.4

61

1.5

3.1

83

2.6

Totals,

100.0

-

48.5

100.0

-

77.8

In the tirst and fourth columns are given the composition of
average samples of timothv hay and of gluten feed. In the second
and tifth columns are shown the percentages of the dilierent gTou})s
which ai'e digestible. Thus, of the 6.3 pounds of })rotein in timothy,
48 })er cent are digestible^ or 3 pounds ; and of the 26.2 pounds of
protein in 100 pounds of gluten feed, <S5 per cent or 22.3 pounds,
ai'e digestible. Excluding the ash, which is not generally taken
into account, it is shown that 100 pounds of timothy hay contain
about 4S pounds of digestilile or actual food material, and 100

pounds of gluten feed 7S ])ounds. It is evident, therefore, that
the ffhiten feed is deeidedh more vahiable as a souree of nutrition
than the timothy hay.^

o. XiTTRiTiVE Katio of Cattlk Fp:ei)S.

The immerical relation which the digestible protein hears to the
other digestible organic nutrients (tiber, extract matter and fat'-^)
is termed the nutritive ratio of the feed or ration. Timothy hay
has, for example, 3 parts of digestible protein to 47.0 i)arts of other
nutrients, or as 1 is to 15.8. This is termed a very wide nutritive
ratio. Gluten feed contains 22.3 parts of digestible protein to 58.fi
parts of other nutrients or as 1 is to 2.6. This may be termed
a very narrow nutritive ratio or })ro})orti()n. All feeds having a
luitritive ratio of 1 to 5 or less may be said to have narrow ratios,
those from 1 to 5 to 1 to 8 a medium ratio, and above 1 to 8 a
wide ratio.

The cereals and non-leguminous coarse fodders have medium to
wide ratios, legumiiu)us coarse fodders medium ratios, and the
leguminous seeds and concentrated by-products narrow ratios.

4. CoMHixixc; Coarse axd Concentkated Feeds (Balanced

Rations).

Desirable rations for dairy stock should possess («) palatability,
(/>) suthcient l)ulk, and (c) should contain 1 })art of protein to 5.5
to 7 parts of the other digestible organic nutrients. If the ratio is
much narrower than 1 to 5.5, the ration is likely to be too stimulat-
ing for continuous feeding, and the animal is likely to become thin
in tiesh. If the ratio is much wider than 1 to 7, the tendency will
be for the animal to put on fat rather than to give milk. In both
cases the ration may be said to be out of balance.

For both economical and physiological reasons it is necessary that
a considerable portion of the daily ration of the dairy animal should
be composed of coarse fodder or roughage, because such materials

1 On the basis of these figures one would assume that these two feed stuffs were valuable in the
proportion of 48 to 78, or 100 to 162. This is not strictly true, however, for the reason that the
more woody fiber a feed contains the more energy is required to digest it; further, the gluten feed
contains much more protein than the timothy, which, for the purposes of growth and milk pro-
duction, still further enhances its value. In fact, it has been shown that the relative production
values of timothy hay and gluten feed are as 100 to 236, or as 1 to 2.36.

- The fat is converted into the energy equivalent of the starch or liljer by multiplying by 2.2;
thus, 3 per cent of fat would have an energy equivalent of 6.6 per cent or parts of starch.

are easily and cheai)ly ])r()duced ujx)!! the farm, and l)eeause the
digestive traet of the boxine is es})eeially suited to utilize them.
Most of these home-grown coarse feeds, however, are wry high in
earbohvdrates and have a relatively low digestibility. It is neces-
sary, theiefore, to suj)})lement them to an extent with the cereal
grains, which, though relatively low in protein, are very digestible;
and with the concentrated l)y-])r()ducts, M'liich, in addition to a rela-
tively high digestibility, are (juite rich in protein. A single illustra-
tion will make this clear. Many exi)eriments have demonstrated
that a l,(X)0-pound cow, })rodu('ing daily 10 (piarts of milk of
average cjuality, needs ap})roximately the following amounts of
digestible nutrients : —

Digestible.

Protein.

Fat.

Carl)olij'drates.

Total.

Nutritive Ratio.

Pounds,

. 2-2 5

.5

l;5 or 13.6

16

1 to 5.6 or 7

Now, if this animal were fed daily as much of an extra (juality
of hay as she would consume (28 to 30 pounds), she would re-
ceive : —

Digestible. Protein. Fat. Carbohydrates. Total. Nutritive Ratio.

Pounds, . . 1.8 .3 13 14.6 1 to 10.5

Such a ration is deticient both in total diwstible nutrients as well
as in digestible protein. If 7 })ounds of the hay Avere rei)laced
by an equal amount of corn meal, the hay and corn meal would
furnish : —

Digestible.

Protein.

F^at.

Carboliydrates.

Total.

Nutritive Ratio.

Pounds,

1.4

.47

14.35

16.22

I to 11

The corn meal being very digestil)le, but a one-sided or starch}'-
feed, would sufficiently increase tlie total digestible nutrients, but
not the })rotein. Tf 4 })ounds of corn meal were re})laced by 2
pounds of bran and 2 })ounds of cotton-seed meal, the several feeds
would suppl}^ : —

Digestible. Protein. Fat. Carbohydrates. Total. Nutritive Ratio,

Poiuids, . 2.07 .60 13.20 15.87 1 to 6.6

The replacing of 7 pounds of hay with o i)()unds of <orn meal
rich in digestible matter and with 2 pounds each of bran and cotton-
seed nu'al especially rich in digestible protein, furnishes a ration

containing less fiber and more starcliy matter and protein than is
contained in the hay. Siu-h a ration eoiitalns the recjuisite amount
of botli total digestible matter and digestible protein, and ma}' be
said to be properly balanced .

5. Types of Balanced Rations.

Because of the high prices of all concentrated feeds, dairymen
are frequently in doubt as to the kinds to be selected and the
amount to be fed in order to secure the best returns for the money
in^•ested. Farmers selling cream to the creamery, or located where
there is not a (juick demand for milk, probably will not find it
economical to feed over 3 to 5 pounds of purchased grain daily, and
will use maximum amounts of hay and silage (1 to ll/'o bushels of
silage and what liaj^ the animal will eat clean). If the silage is well
eared, 1 and y^ pound each of cotton-seed meal and flour middlings,
s})rinkled over the silage to distribute it, will produce a fairly well-
balanced ration, and prove helpful in maintaining the milk flow.
If corn meal is a home product rather than silage, mix by weight
1/4 bran, ^'2 <^'<^i"n ^iid cob meal and 1/4 cotton-seed meal (100 pounds
bran, 200 pounds corn and cob meal and 100 pounds cotton-seed
meal), and feed 5 to 6 quarts daily, together with one feeding of
cut or shredded corn stover and what hay the animal will clean up.

Producers of market milk generally And it advisable to feed some-
what more grain, and a numl)er of coml)inations are suggested which
will produce satisfactory ])alanced rations when fed with what hay
the animal will eat clean (1<S to 24 })ounds a day), or with 1 bushel
of corn silage and 10 to 16 })ouuds of hay.

I. II.

125 pounds bran. 125 pounds bran.

100 pounds flour middlings. 100 pounds corn or hominy meal.'

100 pounds gluten feed. 100 pounds cotton-seed meal.

Mix and feed (j to 8 pounds (7 to 9 Mix and feed 6 to 8 pounds (7 to 1)
quarts) daily. quarts) daily.

HI. IV.

100 pounds wlieat bran. 125 pounds wheat bran or malt sprouts.

100 pounds gluten feed. 100 pounds corn or hominy meal.

35 pounds cotton-seed meal. 125 pounds gluten feed.

Mix and feed 7 pounds (8 to 9 quarts) Mix and feed 7 pounds (6i to 7 quarts)
daily. daily.

1 Corn and cob meal if on hand can be used In place of coi'n or liominy meal.

75 pounds wheat brim.
150 ))oiu)ds corn and cob meal.
100 iMHuids cotton-seed meal.
Mix and feed (i to <S pounds or ([uart?
daily.

Vil.

150 ]>ounds distillers' <>rain.s.
150 pounds standard middlings.
100 pounds corn or hominy meal.
jNIi.x and leed 7 pounds or quarts daily.

IX.

200 pounds dried brewers' grains.
100 pounds corn meal.
50 pounds cotton-seed meal.
Mix and feed 7 pounds (1» (juarts)
daily.

VI.

100 pounds distillers'' grains.
100 pounds malt sprouts
150 pounds corn meal.

50 jjounds cotton-seed meal.
Mi.x and teed 7 pounds (7 to 8 (piarts)
daily.

VIII.
150 pounds wheat bran.
200 ])ounds gluten feed.
Mix and feed 7 pounds (S to '.) (piarts)
daily.

X.'

;5(J0 pounds l)rHn
100 pounds flour middlings.
100 pounds corn meal
100 pounds ground oats.
800 pounds gluten feed.
100 pounds linseed meal.
Mix and feed as desired.

The cost ot" a pound of the .several mixtures is likely to vary tVoui
1.4.') lo 1.(1 cents. It is believed that the above selections ai'e nioi'e
econoniical on the basis ot" their content ot" nutritive material than
most ot" the sugar feeds and other proprietary mixtures.

In general it may be said that the amount of (j rain to l)e fed daily
depends («) upon the size of the cow, (/>) daily milk yield and (c)
the local market value of the milk. The richer the milk, the more
food is re(|uired to })r()duce a given amount ; and vice versa .

Seven pounds of the above mixturi's is a fair average amount tor
cows weighing 800 to 900 pounds, which are yielding 10 (juarts of
4 per cent milk. For every 2 (|uarts of milk yiekled in excess of
this amount the grain ration may be increased by 1 i)ound.

7. Rations for Yor\(; Stock.

Young dairy stock may receive 1 peck or more of silage daily,

depending upon their size, in addition to ^vlult hay, corn stover or

other coarse fodder tlie\' will eat (dean ; or the entire roughage ma\'

consist of hay. Grass and clover rowen form a very desirable feed

1 Haliou dcsigrnccl for cows ou test; ratlier expensive for orflinary purposes.

lor growing- animals. In addition lo llic ahovc, it is usually ad\ is-
ahle to feed from 1 to o [)ounds daily ot" a grain mixture reasonably
rich in ])rotein and asli.^ Any of the above mixtures will prove
satisfactory. The writer has found mixtures by weight of ^/^ A\dieat
bran and i^-o tiour middlings ; or T/^) bran, 1/4 t-orn meal and 1/4 ^<'iir
middlings; or even l^ bran and i/'2 corn meal, ({uite satisfactor\\
A ration composed of late-cut hay and corn meal would not be
desirable, it lacking both flesli and bone forming material (protein
and ash) . .

J. B. LINDSEY.

Amherst, January, 1911.

1 If the roughage consista largely of grass or clover rowen, 2 pounds daily of a mixture of liraii
and corn meal, or even of corn meal alone, will prove satisfactory.

Approved p,y the State Board of Pitblicatiox.

■d

Circular No. 31. April, 1911.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

AMHERST.

Lime and Sulphur Solutions*

By G. E. Stone,

Lime and sulphur has been used for many years in various forms
and for different purposes, although it is only comparatively recently
that its value as a fungicide has been realized. The extensive use
of this solution as a spray for the San Jose scale has incidentally
demonstrated its great value as a fungicide. Our observations and
experiments with the use of lime and sulphur when applied to trees
in a dormant condition have convinced us that as a fungicide no
preparation which has ever been used can be compared with it for
efficiency in controlling dififerent fungi. Up to the present time
lime and sulphur has been largely used as a spray for fruit trees in
a dormant condition, but in late years it has also been used in vari-
ous modified forms as a summer spray with very encouraging results.
Many trials have been made of the diluted concentrated prepara-
tions, and also of what is known as the " self-boiled lime and sulphur,"
but these methods are in a more or less experimental stage.

Lime and sulphur used as a spray on trees in a dormant condition
is a positive preventive of peach leaf curl, Monilia and Cladosporium
infection on trees. Its use holds in check the leaf spots of the apple,
pear and plum, and will probably do the same for quinces and other
fruit trees and shrubs. We also believe that it has a material effect
on cankers, black knot and other common twig diseases. So effec-
tive is this treatment for leaf spots that many cases have been ob-
served where only one spraying has been made and not a single spot
could be found on the foliage of fruit trees in any part of the year.
The diseases of fruit trees, however, are not as common in Massa-
chusetts, or nearly so destructive, as elsewhere, and for this reason

it is impossible from our experience to state what effect tiie lime and
sulphur would have on apple scab, apple rust and the fruit rots.

Experience has shown that the best concentrations of lime and
sulphur are obtained by using about twice as much sulphur as lime,
since this preparation gives the least sediment. Nothing but the
best fresh stone lime, which is the purest, should be used in making
lime and sulphur, Air slaked lime should not be used under any
circumstances, and in many cases it is advisable to use hot instead
of cold water in slaking the lime.

SELF-BOILED LIME AND SULPHUR MIXTURE.

By W. M. Scott.

Flowers of sulphur or sulphur flour, 8 pounds.

Fresh stone lime, 8 pounds.

Water, 50 gallons.

In making this mixture the best stone lime procurable should be
placed in a barrel and slaked, using precautions not to drown the
lime in slaking it. W. M. Scott recommends that enough water be
applied to nearly cover the lime when slaking. As soon as the lime
has commenced to slake and some heat has generated, apply the
sulphur through a fine sieve to break up the lumps. The mixture
should be stirred and more water added gradually, bringing it to a
thin paste. As soon as the lime is well slaked, more water should
be added to cool the mixture.

Since there is much difference in lime as regards the develop-
ment of heat, it is difficult to specify any particular time to add the
water for the purpose of cooling, but it should be done before the
sulphur goes into solution and forms sulphides, which are injurious
to peach foliage. Under ordinary conditions, the mixture should
not be allowed to remain hot over ten or fifteen minutes after slak-
ing. With the intense heat developed from slaking and constant
stirring a uniform mixture of fairly finely divided sulphur and lime
is obtained with only a small trace of sulphides in solution. It
should be strained before use and is intended as a summer spray.

Mr. Scott has used this successfully for peach brown rot and scab.
In this formula he also mixed two pounds of arsenate of lead, which
proved effective in controlling plum weevil. Mr. Scott believes that
the arsenate of lead is less likely to burn tender foliage when in
combination with lime and sulphur than when used alone.

COMMERCIAL LIME AND SULPHUR CONCENTRATED

SOLUTIONS.

There are a number of these solutions on the market which are
apparently similar in composition. Their specific gravity varies
from 30° to 34° Beaume, and in using them it is necessary to dilute
according to the strength of the solution and the nature of the foliage
to which they are to be applied. The directions furnished by manu-
facturers for the dilution of their own product for different purposes
can usually be relied upon.

LIME AND SULPHUR SOLUTION— Geneva Formula. *

Lime (pure,) 36 lbs.

Sulphur (high-grade, finely divided,) 80 lbs.

Water, 50 gals.

This is prepared by first moistening the sulphur and making it in-
to paste. Then slake the lime in about 10 gals, of hot water, adding
the lime gradually to prevent violent boiling and spilling over. Add
the sulphur paste gradually during the slaking and stir constantly to
prevent the formation of lumps. When the slaking is complete add
the full amount of water, and boil for one hour. The boiling may
be accomplished by the use of steam or by wood fires and kettles.
In either case maintain the original volume of water. This concen-
trated solution is recommended by the Geneva Experiment Station,
where extensive investigations have been made relative to the lime
and sulphur solutions.

When the solution is made to 50 gals, it should have a density of
from 24° to 25° Beaume. The Geneva Experiment Station recom-
mends that where the lime is 95fc pure, 38 pounds should be used,
and where only gofc pure, 40 pounds. According to their tests, when
one part of pure lime and two parts of sulphur are boiled one hour,
only slight amounts of sediment are present, whereas if the lime con-
tains impurities, the amount of sediment is an indicator of the purity
of the lime. The solution can be stored in filled, stoppered barrels
for some time if the temperature does not fall below 5° F.

* For further information consult Bui. 329 and 330, Geneva, N. Y.
Agr. Exp. Station.

The following table of dilutions is recommended by the Geneva
Experiment Station : —

Amount of dilution.

Number of gallons of water to one gallon of

Reading

lime sulphur solution.

on Hydrometer

For San Jose For blister For summer

scale. mite. spraying of apples

Degrees Beaume.

35

9

12^

45

34

834

12

43)4:

33

8^

11^

4i>^

32

8

1 1

40

31

1%

io>4

31%

30

IYa

10

3^%

29

6^

^V-z

34K

28

6^

9

32 3/4

27

6

8^

3'

26

554

8

29>^

25

^%

7>^

273/4

24

5

ny

26

23

4^

6^

24^

22

43<

6

223/i

21

3%

5/2

2134

20

3%

5

193/4

19

3%

^y^

1834

18

3

aVa

'7

17

2%

4

16

16

2y2

33^

15

15

^%

3J^

14

14

2

3

I23/<

Circular No. 32. July 1,1911

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND ANIMAL CHEMISTRY

J. B. LINDSEY, Chemist.

AN ACT TO REGULATE THE SALE OF COMMERCIAL
FERTILIZERS. (Chapter 388, 19 11.)

Be it enacted, etc., as folloivs :

Section i. No commercial fertilizer shall be sold or offered
Statements to be or exposed for sale in this commonwealth without a plainly
printed on label printed label accompanying it, displayed in the manner
accompanying the hereinafter set forth, and truly stating the following par-
fertilizer, ticulars : —

I. The number of pounds of the fertilizer sold or offered
or exposed for sale.

2. The name, brand or trademark under which the fertilizer is sold, and, in
the case of agricultural lime, its particular form.

3. The name and principal address of the manufacturer, importer or other
person putting the fertilizer on the market in this commonwealth.

4. The minimum percentage of each of the following constituents which the
fertilizer may contain : (a) nitrogen, (b) phosphoric acid soluble in distilled
water, (c) available phosphoric acid, (d) total phosphoric acid, (e) potash solu-
ble in distilled water ; except that in the case of undissolved bone, untreated
phosphate rock, tankage, pulverized natural manures, the ground seeds of plants,
and wood ashes, when sold unmixed with other substances, the minimum per-
centage of total phosphoric acid therein may be stated in place of the percent-
ages of soluble and available phosphoric acid ; and except that in the case of
agricultural lime the label shall truly state the following : (a) minimum and
maximum percentage of total lime, (b) minimum and maximum percentage of total
magnesia, (c) minimum percentage of lime and magnesia combined as carbon-
ates, (d) minimum percentage of lime sulphate in gypsum or land plaster.

5. If any part of the nitrogen contained in the fertilizer is derived from pul-
verized leather, raw, roasted or steamed ; or from untreated hair, wool waste,
peat, garbage tankage, or from any inert material whatsoever, the label shall
truly state the specific material or materials from which such part of the nitrogen
is derived.

Section 2. When any fertilizer is sold or offered or ex-
Concerning attach- posed for sale in packages, the label shall be affixed in a
ment of label. conspicuous place on the outside thereof. When any fer-
tilizer, other than the product of gas-houses, known as gas-
house lime, is offered or exposed for sale in bulk the label shall be affixed in a
conspicuous place to the bin or other enclosure in which the fertilizer is con-
tained but need not state the number of pounds thereof. And when any fer-
tilizer other than gas-house lime aforesaid is sold in bulk the label shall be
affixed in a conspicuous place to the car or other vehicle in which the fertilizer is
shipped or delivered and shall state the number of pounds thereof. When any
fertilizer is sold in packages furnished by the purchaser the seller shall furnish
the labels therefor.

Section 3. The provisions of the printed label required
Definition of guar- by this act relating to the constituents contained in any
anteed analysis ; fertilizer shall be known and recognized as the guaranteed
Wagner method to analysis of such fertilizer, and the available phosphoric
be used for acid in basic phosphatic slag shall be stated in the label

phosphatic slag, thereof on the basis of the results of an analysis by the
Wagner Method, so-called, until such time as the Associa-
tion of Official Agricultural Chemists of North America shall adopt a method of
analysis for basic phosphatic slag, after which the available phosphoric acid
shall be stated on the basis of an analysis by the method of said association.

Section 4. Any manufacturer, importer, or other person
Definition of viola- selling or offering or exposing for sale in this common-
tion of previous wealth a commercial fertilizer or brand of commercial fer-
sections. tilizer, any constituent part of which is of a smaller per-

centage than it is stated to be in the label of said fertilizer,
and any manufacturer, importer, or other person selling or offering or exposing
for sale in this commonwealth a fertilizer or brand of fertilizer with a label which
is untrue in any particular, shall be deemed to have committed a violation of
this act.

Section 5. No manufacturer, importer, or other person
Certified copy of shall sell or offer or expose for sale in this commonwealth
label to be filed, any commercial fertilizer until he shall have tiled with the
Cost of analysis director of the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment
fee and time of Station a copy certified by him to be a true copy of the
payment. label required by this act, excepting the item as to number

of pounds, for every brand of fertilizer to be sold or offered
or exposed for sale in this commonwealth, and shall have paid to the said direc-
tor an annual analysis fee for every brand aforesaid as follows : eight dollars
for nitrogen, eight dollars for phosphoric acid, eight dollars for potash contained
or stated to be contained in any such brand of fertilizer, and twelve dollars for
every brand of agricultural lime except gas-house lime. The certified copy of
the label of every brand of fertilizer to be sold or offered or exposed for sale in
this commonwealth shall be filed with, and the proper analysis fee for every such
brand shall be paid to, the director of the Massachusetts Agricultural Experi-
ment Station prior to the first day of January of the calendar year in which the
brand is to be sold or offered or exposed for sale. But should a n)anufacturer,
importer, or other person desire in any year to sell or to offer or expose for sale
in this commonwealth any brand of commercial fertilizer in respect of which the
requirements of this section as to the filing of a copy of the label thereof and the
payment of the analysis fee therefor have not been complied with before the first
day of January of said year, the said manufacturer, importer or other person may
offer or expose for sale and sell the said brand in this commonwealth upon filing
a certified copy as aforesaid of the label thereof and paying the full analysis fee
therefor. No agent or other person shall be oblised to file a copy of the label
of, or pay an analysis fee for, any brand of fertilizer for which a certified copy
of the label has been filed and the analysis fee has been paid by the manufac-
turer or importer of such brand.

Any manufacturer, importer, or other person filing with the director of the
Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station a false copy of the printed label
of any fertilizer or brand of fertilizer shall be deemed to have committed a viola-
tion of this act.

Section 6. When both the certified copy of the label of

Director to issue any brand of fertilizer has been filed and the analysis fee

certificate of com- therefor has been paid as provided in section five of this

pliance when condi- act, the director of the Massachusetts Agricultural Experi-

tions are fulfilled, ment Station shall issue or cause to be issued a certificate

to that effect ; and the certificate shall be deemed to au-

thorize the sale in this commonwealth, in compliance with this act, of the brand
of fertilizer for which the certificate is issued up to and including the thirty-first
day of December of the year for which it is issued.

Section 7. Every commercial fertilizer and brand of

Collection and commercial fertilizer sold or offered or exposed for sale in

analysis of samples this commonwealth shall be subject to analysis by the direc-

and publication of tor of the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station

results. or by his duly designated deputy or deputies. And the

said director is hereby authorized and it is made his duty
to make or cause to be made in each year one or more analyses of every fertil-
izer and brand of fertilizer sold or offered or exposed for sale in this common-
wealth, and to collect the annual analysis fee provided for by section five of this
act. The said director, his inspectors and deputies, are further authorized to
enter upon any premises where any commercial fertilizer is sold or offered or
exposed for sale to ascertain if the provisions of this act are complied with, and
to take samples for analysis as provided for by this act. The analysis of all
fertilizers shall be made by the methods adopted by the Association of Official
Agricultural Chemists of North America, except that basic phosphatic slag may
be analyzed by the Wagner Method, so-called, until a method of analysis there-
for is adopted by said association. The said director shall have the right to
publish or cause to be published in reports, bulletins, special circulars or other-
wise, the results obtained by said analyses, and in connection therewith shall, in
each case, state the cost of equivalent amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and
potash in unmixed materials when bought for cash on the market at retail. Said
reports, bulletins, circulars, or other publications shall also contain such addi-
tional information in relation to the character, composition, value and use of the
fertilizers analyzed as the said director in his discretion may see fit to include.
The said director may at any time make or cause to be made for any person a
free analysis of any commercial fertilizer or brand of commercial fertilizer sold
or offered or exposed for sale in this commonwealth, but he shall not be obliged
to make such free analysis, or to cause the same to be made, unless the samples
therefor are taken and submitted in accordance with the rules and regulations
which may be prescribed by him. The results of any analysis made in accord-
ance with the provisions of this act, except a free analysis as aforesaid, shall
be sent by the director to the person named in the printed label of the fertilizer
analyzed at least fifteen days before any publication thereof.

Section 8. All samples of commercial fertilizers taken

Sampling for analysis shall be of not less than substantially one and

of fertilizers. one-half pounds in weight, and every sample shall be taken,

whenever the circumstances conveniently permit, in the pres-
ence of the person selling or offering or exposing for sale the fertilizer sampled,
or of a representative of such person. Broken packages shall not be sampled,
and all samples shall be taken from substantially ten per cent of the fertilizer to
be sampled, except that in the case of a fertilizer sold or offered or exposed for
for sale in bulk ten single samples shall be taken from as many different portions
of the lot. All samples taken shall be thoroughly mixed and divided into two
nearly equal samples, placed in suitable vessels, and marked and sealed. Both
shall be retained by the director, but one shall be held intact by him for the
period of one year at the disposal of the person named in the label of the fer-
tilizer sampled.

Section g. Any person hindering or obstructing the direc-
Penalty for ob- tor of the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station,
structing director or or any inspector or deputy of the said director, in the dis-
deputy. charge of the authority or duty conferred or imposed by

Prosecutions at any provision of this act and any person violating any pro-
discretion of direc- vision of sections one, two, three, four and five of this act
tor. shall be fined not less than fifty dollars and not more than

two hundred dollars for each offence. It shall be the duty

of the said director to see that the provisions of this act are complied with, and
he may, in his discretion, prosecute or cause to be prosecuted any person vio-
lating any provision of this act. But no complaint based upon an analysis of
samples shall be made for any such violation, if the samples were taken other-
wise than as provided in this act. And no complaint shall be made for a failure
of any fertilizer or brand of fertilizer to meet the guaranteed analysis thereof if
the analysis of such fertilizer made by the director, or by his deputy or deputies,
shows the amounts of the constituents thereof to be substantially equivalent to
the percentages stated in the label of the fertilizer.

Section io. All fees collected by the director of the Mas-
Analysis fees sachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station under the pro-
turned over to visions of this act shall be turned over by him to the treas-
treasurer. urer of the said station, and the amounts received and dis-

Accounts to be bursed shall be kept in a separate account, and shall be
audited. audited and reported, as are other moneys placed in charge

of the trustees of the Massachusetts Agricultural College.
The money collected under the provisions hereof shall be used under the author-
ity of the said director to meet the expenses incurred in carrying out the pro-
visions of the act, and should there be a surplus, the surplus shall be used in
the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, under the authority of its
director, for experiments and research relative to soils, fertilizers and manures.
Section ii. In this act unless the context or subject-
Definition of terms, matter otherwise requires,

"Agricultural lime" includes all the various forms of lime
intended or sold for fertilizing purposes.

" Available phosphoric acid " means the sum of the soluble and reverted phos-
phoric acid, except that, as applied to basic phosphatic slag, the term "available
phosphoric acid " shall mean that part of the phosphoric acid made soluble by
the Wagner Method, so-called, until such time as the Association of Ofhcial
Agricultural Chemists of North America shall adopt a method for basic phos-
phatic slag, after which it shall mean that part of the phosphoric acid made
soluble by the method of said association.

" Brand " means any commercial fertilizer distinctive by reason of name, trade-
mark or guaranteed analysis or by any method of marking.

" Commercial fertilizer " includes every natural or artificial manure containing
nitrogen or phosphoric acid or potash or lime, except the excrements and litter
from domestic animals when sold in their natural state ; but dried or partly dried
manure, pulverized or ground, shall be included as a commercial fertilizer.

" Copy " means certified copy.

" Fertilizer " means commercial fertilizer.

" Importer " means a person who procures for sale in this commonwealth
commercial fertilizers made in other states or countries.

"' Label " means printed label.

" Lime " means calcium oxide (CaO).

" Magnesia " means magnesium oxide (MgO).

" Packages " includes sacks and bags and all other receptacles.

" Person " includes a corporation or partnership or two or more persons hav-
ing a joint or common interest.

" Phosphoric acid" means phosphoric anhydrid (PoO-).

" Potash " means potassium oxide (KoO).

Section 12. Sections eleven to seventeen inclusive of chapter fifty-seven of
the Revised Laws and chapter two hundred and eighty-nine of the acts of the
year nineteen hundred and seven are hereby repealed.

Section 13. This act shall take effect on the first day of December in the
year nineteen hundred and eleven. {Approved May 4, iQii.)

Circular No, 32 A July i, 1918

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND ANIMAL CHEMISTRY

An Act Relative to the Sale of Commercial Fertilizers
[Chap. 220, 1918]

Beit enacted, etc., asjollows:

Section i. Chapter three hundred and eighty-eight of
Director to issue cer- the acts of nineteen hundred and eleven is hereby amended
tificate of registra- by striking out section six, and substituting the following : —
tion when COndi- Section 6. When the certified copy of the label of any
tions are fulfilled, brand of fertilizer has been filed, and the proper fees have
Director or deputy been paid, the director of the Massachusetts Agricultural
may refuse or can- Experiment Station shall issue or cause to be issued a cer-
cel certificate if tificate to that eftect ; and the certificate shall be deemed
statements are to authorize the sale in this commonwealth, in compliance
misleading. with this act, of the brand of fertilizer for which the certifi-

cate is issued up to and including the thirty-first day of De-
cember of the year for which it is issued. The director of the Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station or his authorized deputy may refuse to issue a
certificate for any fertilizer or brand of fertilizer which does not contain at least
one half of one per cent of nitrogen, or one half of one per cent of potash soluble
in distilled water, or one per cent of phosphoric acid, or five per cent of lime, or
five per cent of magnesia, or which contains its potash or phosphoric acid or lime
or magnesia in forms substantially insoluble by the methods of analysis for com-
mercial fertilizers prescribed by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists
of North America, or which does not possess substantial properties as a ferti-
lizer. The said director or his deputy may also refuse to issue a certificate for
any fertilizer under a name, brand, or trade mark which is untrue in any partic-
ular, or which, in his opinion, would be misleading or deceptive in any particular,
or would tend to mislead or deceive as to the constituents or properties of said
fertilizer. The director or his deputy may refuse to issue more than one certifi-
cate for any fertilizer under the same name or brand, or to issue a certificate for
any fertilizer under a name or brand to the use of which the party is not lawfully
entitled. Should a certificate be issued for any fertilizer and it be discovered
afterward that the certificate itself, or the granting of it, or the manner of pro-
curing it, was in any respect in violation of any provision of this act, the said
director and his authorized deputy, shall have power to cancel the certificate.
No commercial fertilizer or brand of fertilizer shall be sold or offered or exposed
for sale until a certificate has been issued by the director or his authorized dep-
uty, and any manufacturer, importer, or other person who shall sell, or offer or
expose for sale a fertilizer or brand of fertilizer for which no certificate has been
issued, or the certificate for which has been cancelled, shall be punished by a
fine not exceeding two hundred dollars for each offence.

Section 2. Section nine of chapter three hundred and
Penalty for obstruct- eighty-eight of the acts of nineteen hundred and eleven is
ing director or dep- hereby amended by inserting after the word "with," in the
Uty. Director may tenth line, the words : — he may prescribe and enforce such
prescribe rules and rules and regulations relative to the sale of commercial
regulations. Prose- fertilizers as he may deem necessary to carry into effect
CUtions at discretion the full intent and meaning of this act, — so as to read as
of director. follows : — Section g. Any person hindering or obstructing

the director of the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment
Station, or any inspector or deputy of the said director, in the discharge of the au-
thority or duty conferred or imposed by any provision of this act and any person
violating any provision of sections one, two, three, four and five of this act shall
be fined not less than fifty dollars and not more than two hundred dollars for
each offence. It shall be the duty of the said director to see that the provisions
of this act are complied with, he may prescribe and enforce such rules and regu-
lations relative to the sale of commercial fertilizers as he may deem necessary to
carry into effect the full intent and meaning of this act and he may, in his dis-
cretion, prosecute or cause to be prosecuted any person violating any provision
of this act. But no complaint based upon an analysis of samples shall be made
for any such violation, if the samples were taken otherwise than as provided in
this act. And no complaint shall be made for a failure of any fertilizer or brand
of fertilizer to meet the guaranteed analysis thereof if the analysis of such ferti-
lizer made by the director, or by his deputy or deputies, shows the amounts of
the constituents thereof to be substantially equivalent to the percentages stated
in the label of the fertilizer.

Section 3. In addition to the requirements of section five
Declaration of ton- of chapter three hundred and eighty-eight of the acts of
nage sold and pay- nineteen hundred and eleven, every manufacturer, importer
ment of fee. Pen- or other person who sells or offers or exposes for sale in
ally for failure to this commonwealth any commercial fertilizer shall, on or
comply with re- before the first day of January and July in each year, be-
quirements of this ginning with January, nineteen hundred and nineteen, file
section. with the director of the Massachusetts Agricultural Exper-

iment Station a sworn statement in such form as the di-
rector may prescribe setting forth the number of net tons of fertilizer sold by
him in the commonwealth during the preceding six months, stating in each case
the number of tons of every brand sold, together with a permit allowing the di-
rector or his authorized deputy to examine the books of the person filing the
statement, for the purpose of verifying the same, and shall thereupon pay to the
director a fee of six cents a ton of two thousand pounds for the fertilizers so
sold, except that no such statement, permit or fee shall be required in respect of
agricultural lime. The said director or his authorized deputy shall have powder
to cancel the certificate for any brand of fertilizer in respect to which the require-
ments of this section have not been complied with, and any manufacturer, im-
porter or other person who shall sell or offer or expose for sale in this common-
wealth a fertilizer or brand of fertilizer without having filed the statement and
permit and paid the fee required by this section shall be punished by a fine not
exceeding five hundred dollars for each offence. But no agent or other person
shall be obliged to file a statement or permit, or pay the fee required by this sec-
tion, for any brand of fertilizer for which the statement and permit have been
filed and for which the fee has been paid by the manufacturer or importer of
such brand. The director is hereby authorized and it is made his duty to collect
the fee required by this section, and to turn over the same to be accounted for
and disbursed in accordance with the provisions of section ten of said chapter
three hundred and eighty-eight. [^Approved May 21, igi8.

Chap, 220, page 2.

J

Circular No. 33. Superseding No. 24. April, 1912

MASSACHOSEnS AGRICULTORAL EXPERIMENT STATION

Department of Plant and Animal Chemistry^
J. B. LINDSEY, Chemist.

CONTENTS.

I. An Act to regulate the use of utensils for testing the composi-
tion or value of milk and cream.
II. Salient Points in the Act.
III. Suggestions for making the Babcock test.

I. An Act to regulate the use of utensils for testing the

COMPOSITION OR VALUE OF .MILK AND CREAM.'

Be it enacted, etc., as folloius :

Section i. No bottle, pipette, or other meas-
Glassware must be uring glass or utensil shall be used in this
tested for accuracy, commonwealth by any inspector of milk or
and so marked, cream, or by any person in any milk inspection
laboratory, in determining, by the Babcock or
other centrifugal machine, the composition of milk or cream for the
purposes of inspection; or by any person in any milk depot, cream-
ery, cheese factory, condensed milk factory or other place in deter-
mining, by the Babcock or other centrifugal machine, the composi-
tion or value of milk or cream as a basis for payment in buying or
selling, until it has been tested for accuracy and verified by the direc-
tor of the Massachusetts agricultural experiment station, or by his
duly designated deputy or deputies. Every such bottle, pipette, or
other measuring glass or utensil shall be submitted to the said direc-
tor by the owner or user thereof, to be tested for accuracy before the
same is used in this commonwealth for the purposes aforesaid. The
owner or user shall pay to the said director for the use of the said
station as a fee for making the test, a sum not exceeding five cents
for each bottle, pipette, or other measuring glass or utensil tested,

' Chapter 218, Acts and Resolves of Massachusetts for 1912.

Any bottle, pipette, or other measuring glass or utensil that has been
tested and verified as aforesaid shall be marked by the director or
by his said deputy or deputies to indicate the fact, or if tested and
found to be inaccurate may be marked by him or them to indicate
that it is inaccurate. No bottle, pipette, or other measuring glass or
utensil that has been marked by the said director, or by his duly
designated deputy or deputies, to indicate that it is inaccurate shall
be used in this commonwealth by any person in determining the
composition or value of milk or cream.

Section 2. Every Babcock or other centrifu-

Babcock machines gal machine used in this commonwealth by any

subject to inspector of milk or cream, or by any person in

yearly inspection, any milk inspection laboratory for determining

the composition of milk or cream for purposes

of inspection, or by any person in any milk depot, creamery, cheese

factory, condensed milk factory or other place for determining the

composition or value of milk or cream as a basis for payment in

buying or selling, shall be subject to inspection at least once in each

year by the director of the Massachusetts agricultural experiment

station or by an inspector or deputy of the said director. The owner

or user of any such centrifugal machine shall pay to the said director

for the use of said station as a fee for making such annual inspection

the actual cost of such inspection for each machine inspected.

Any Babcock or other centrifugal machine used as aforesaid that
is not, in the opinion of the director, or of an inspector or deputy of
the said director, in condition to give accurate results, may be con-
demned by the director or by his inspector or deputy. No Babcock
or other centrifugal machine that has been condemned by said direc-
tor or by an inspector or deputy of the director as not in condition
to give accurate results shall be used in this commonwealth by any
person for determining the composition or value of milk or cream as
aforesaid, unless the machine be changed to the satisfaction of the
said director or of his inspector or deputy, and approved by him.

Section 3. No inspector of milk or cream,
Operators must and no person in any milk inspection labora-
secure certificate of to ry, shall manipulate the Babcock or other
competency* centrifugal machine for the purpose of deter-
mining the composition of milk or cream for
purposes of inspection, and no person in any milk depot, creamery,

cheese factory, condensed milk factory, or other place in this com-
monwealth shall manipulate the Babcock or other centrifugal machine
for the purpose of determining the composition or value of milk or
cream as a basis for payment in buying or selling, without first ob-
taining a certificate from the director of the Massachusetts agricul-
tural experiment station, or his duly designated deputy, that he is
competent to perform such work. The fee for such certificate shall
be two dollars, and shall be paid by the applicant therefor to the said
director for the use of the said station. In case any holder of a cer-
tificate is notified by the director, or by his duly designated deputy,
to correct his use of a Babcock or other centrifugal machine, the
actual cost of making an inspection to ascertain if the said person
has corrected his use of the said machine shall be paid by the said
person or by his employer to the director for the use of the said sta-
tion. No holder of a certificate whose authority to manipulate a
Babcock or other centrifugal machine has been revoked by the direc-
tor of the Massachusetts agricultural experiment station, or by his
duly designated deputy, shall thereafter manipulate in this common-
wealth any centrifugal machine for the purposes aforesaid.

Section 4. The director of the Massachusetts

Director of the agricultural experiment station and his duly

Experiment Station designated deputy are hereby authorized to

empowered to issue certificates of competency to such persons

issue and revoke desiring to manipulate the Babcock or other

certificates. centrifugal machine as, in the opinion of the

director or his deputy, are competent to man-
ipulate said machines. The said director or his deputy may make
and enforce rules governing applications for such certificates and
the granting thereof and may, in his discretion, revoke the authority
of any holder of a certificate who, in the opinion of the director or
of his deputy, or of an inspector of the said director, is not correctly
manipulating any centrifugal machine as aforesaid, or is using dirty
or otherwise unsatisfactory glassware or utensils.

Section 5. It shall be the duty of the director
Director awthorized of the Massachusetts agricultural experiment
to test glassware^ station, and he is hereby authorized, to test or
and inspect machines cause to be tested all bottles, pipettes and other
and see if measuring glasses or utensils submitted to him

provisions of Act are as provided in section one, to inspect or cause
complied with. to be inspected at least once each year every
Babcock or other centrifugal machine used in
this commonwealth by an inspector of milk or cream, or by any per-
son in any milk inspection laboratory, for purposes of inspection, or
by any person in any milk depot, creamery, cheese factory, condensed
milk factory, or other place for determining the composition or value
of milk or cream as a basis for payment in buying or selling, and to
collect or cause to be collected for the use of said station the fees or
actual cost of tests and inspections provided for in this act. The
said director, his inspectors and deputies are further authorized to
enter upon any premises in this commonwealth where any centrifu-
gal machine is used as aforesaid to inspect the same and to ascer-
tain if the provisions of this act are complied with.

Section 6. Any person hindering or obstruct-

Violators of this Act ing the director of the Massachusetts agricul-

to be tural experiment station, or any inspector or

punished by fines, deputy of the said director, in the discharge of

the authority or duty imposed upon him or

them by any provision of this act, and any person violating any of

the provisions of sections one, two and three of this act shall be

punished by a fine of not less than fifteen and not more than fifty

dollars for each offense.

Seciion 7. It shall be the duty of the director
Director authorized of the Massachusetts agricultural experiment
to institute station to see that the provisions of this act are

legal proceedings, complied with, and he may in his discretion
prosecute or cause to be prosecuted any person
violating any provision of this act. But this act shall not be con-
strued to affect any persons using any centrifugal or other machine
or test in determining the composition or value of milk or cream
when such determination is made for the information of such persons
only, and not for purposes of inspection, or as a basis for payment
in buying or selling.

Section 8. A sum not exceeding five hundred dollars yearly
shall be allowed and paid out of the treasury of the commonwealth
to meet the cost of prosecutions under this act, to be paid upon the
presentation to the treasurer of the commonwealth by the director of
the Massachusetts agricultural experiment station of proper vouchers
therefor.

Section 9. The word " person " as used in this act shall include
a corporation, association or partnership or two or more persons
having a joint or common interest.

Section 10. Sections sixty-five to sixty-nine, inclusive, of chap-
ter fifty-six of the Revised Laws, and chapter four hundred and
twenty-five of the acts of the year nineteen hundred and nine are
hereby repealed.

Section ii. This act shall take effect on the first day of July in
the year nineteen hundred and twelve. {^Approved March g, igi2.

II. Salient Points in the Act.

The following persons are included within the
Persons included, meaning of the law: (a) operators who use the

test as a basis of payment for milk and cream;
(b) operators in milk depots, creameries or laboratories where the
test is used in determining the fat content of purchased milk or
cream with a view to ascertaining if it be of standard quality; (c)
milk inspectors.

The above mentioned operators must secure
Certificates. from the director of the experiment station or

his authorized deputy a certificate of compe-
tency. This is done by applying for an examination. Upon re-
ceipt of the application an arrangement will be made with the appli-
cant for a time and place for the examination. If the results of the
examination are satisfactory, a certificate will be issued to the appli-
cant. It is believed it will be more satisfactory, as a rule, for the
applicant to come to Amherst by previous appointment for the ex-
amination. In exceptional cases, if the applicant desires that the
examination be held elsewhere, an arrangement relative to time and
cost will be made if possible. Such cost will include, in addition to
the two dollars for the certificate, the traveling expenses and the
extra cost of the time of the examiner.

All Babcock centrifugal machines must be well
Machines. oiled and every part kept in good repair. The

machine must be set on a firm foundation in
order to keep it free from vibration. It must be level and run at the
required speed. The correct speed for Babcock centrifugal machines
of different diameters is considered to be that stated in Farrington
and Woll's book, " Testing Milk and its Products," published by
the Mendota Book Company, Madison, Wisconsin.

Babcock centrifugal machines and other appa-
Inspection, ratus used in making the test will be inspected

at least once each year, the expense being borne
by the person or firm at whose plant the inspection is made. The
use of a machine that is out of repair or not in condition to give
accurate results, or the use of dirty or untested glassware, will be
considered sufficient grounds for re-inspection, or may lead to the
revoking of the certificate of the operator or prosecution at the dis-
cretion of the director of the experiment station.

Glassware must be tested for accuracy by the
Glassware. Massachusetts experiment station before being

used, and so marked as to indicate the fact.
It must be kept clean and in condition to insure accurate results.
Communications in regard to this law should be addressed to

Philip H. Smith,
Mass. Agricultural Experiment Station,
Amherst, Mass,

III. Suggestions for Making the Babcock Test.
PHILIP h. smith.
Attention is called to the following suggestions in regard to the
manipulation of the Babcock test, the slighting of which, in the haste
of commercial work, will tend toward inaccuracy.

Composite samples of milk and cream should
Preservation of be preserved in clean, wide-mouthed, tightly
samples. stoppered bottles ; they should be well mixed

after each addition to insure a uniform distribu-
tion of the preservative and its thorough incorporation with the

cream. The samples should be kept in a cool place out of the sun.
Ground glass stoppered bottles are to be preferred, but owing to the
expense they are not generally used. Bottles with tight fitting corks
of first quality form the most satisfactory substitute.

The preservatives most commonly employed for keeping compos-
ite samples are corrosive sublimate, bichromate of potash and form-
alin. The two former are sold in tablets prepared especially for the
purpose, and simply need to be powdered and dissolved in the sam-
ple ; formalin (formaldehyde) is sold in 40 per cent, solutions, and
the quantity needed for a composite can be easily added by means
of a small dropper or pipette.

Corrosive sublimate tablets are to be preferred to other preserva-
tives, as they interfere least with the action of the sulfuric acid in
making the test. Where the total solids of milk samples are to be
determined in addition to the percentage of fat, formalin can be
used to advantage, as the amount necessary does not affect the accu-
racy of the test. Six to ten drops are sufficient to preserve a pint
sample several weeks if the sample is kept in a cool place. An
undue excess of any preservative should be avoided.

A thorough preparation of the sample is of
Sampling vital importance, and is best accomplished by

and pipetting'. gently rotating and by pouring back and forth
from the mixing vessel. Shaking and forcible
pouring is not permissable, as it is likely to cause partial churning
and is sure to inclose a large amount of air, rendering the sample
unfit for pipetting. All cream adhering to the sides and the stopper
of the sample bottle should be incorporated, and the resulting mix-
ture should not show any solid particles of fat. A small, fine wire
sieve is of great help in detecting and correcting a lumpy condition.

After mixing, the sample should be pipetted immediately as the fat
globules rise rapidly toward the surface. The pipette should be
first rinsed with the sample, then filled again slowly, taking care to
avoid air bubbles, held in a vertical position when lowering the liquid
to the mark and read with the entire meniscus or crescent above the
line. In transferring to the test bottle, smearing of the neck should
be avoided as far as possible and the pipette blown clear.

Sour milk can be readily brought into a condition suitable for
pipetting by the use of a wire sieve to break the clots or by neutral-
izing the acidity with a small pinch of powdered caustic alkali or 5

8

per cent, (by volume) of household ammonia. In the latter case the
results must be increased to offset the dilution by the factor of 1.05.

Churned milk. In partly churned samples the lumps of butter
can be temporarily incorporated by heating and pouring, or by dis-
solving in 5 per cent, (by volume) of ether. With the first method
it is necessary to pipette while the sample is warm and it is advisa-
ble to weigh the test. It is extremely difficult to secure an accurate
test of a badly churned sample.

Separator cream containing more than 25 per cent, butter fat can-
not be pipetted directly with accurate results, for the reason that a
cream pipette (18 c. c.) will not deliver the requisite amount (18
grams) because of the lower specific gravity and greater adhesive-
ness of the liquid. The experiment station does not advocate the
use of 50 per cent, test bottles for rich cream, but prefers to use one-
half amount (9 grams) of the weighed sample in the 30 per cent. 6
inch bottle where tests run over 25 per cent., multiplying the results
by two, In pipetting thin cream it is well to use two pipettes alter-
nately, allowing one to drain into the test bottle while the other is
in use.

It is the general rule in western creameries to weigh all samples
of cream in preference to pipetting. While at first this method may
take longer, it is an excellent precaution, and with practice the oper-
ator can make the test nearly as fast as by pipetting. We have
found, at the experiment station, that thin cream (25 per cent, or
less fat) free from lumps of fat and uncurdled will give just as high
results when pipetted (18 c. c), provided the pipette is given ample
time to drain into the test bottle.

Sour cream can be suitably prepared by the use of a sieve, but the

inclosed gas prevents satisfactory pipetting and makes weighing of

the test absolutely necessary, if accurate results are to be obtained.

Before mixing, the acid and the contents of the

Adding acid. test bottle should be at a temperature of 60° —

70° Fahr. When the acid is added the test

bottle should be turned so as to wash down all the sample adhering

to the sides of the neck, rotated at once and this continued until all

the lumps of curd are dissolved. The hand mixing should never be

slighted, and care should be taken not to throw the fat into the neck

of the test bottle.

Cream of a high fat content and naturally a low percentage of
curd, requires slightly less than the regular quantity of acid (17.5
c. c.) and this is equally true of samples containing an excess of
bichromate of potash (preservative.) Skimmilk, containing slightly
more curd than whole milk, and samples preserved with formalin,
which hardens the nitrogenous bodies (proteids), need relatively
more than the usual amount of acid.

The machine should be balanced, provided
Whirling' and filling, there is not a full battery, by a suitable arrange-
ment of the bottles. It should be run for at
least five minutes at a speed equal to the theoretical demands for an
inner disc of the given diameter. The diameter of the disc is under-
stood to be twice the distance between the center of the disc and the
point of union between neck of test bottle and bulb when it is
whirling.

Diameter of disc. Revolutions per minute.

Inches.

10 1074

12 980

14 909

16 848

18 800

20 759

The test bottle should then be filled to the shoulder with hot water
and whirled again for fully two minutes and longer if the fat does
not separate clear and oily. After the final filling, which should
bring the fat well up into the neck of the test bottle, it should be
whirled again for two minutes to perfect the column of fat.

The percentage can be read more safely and
Reading results, accurately by using a pair of dividers to meas-
ure the column of fat than by trusting to the
unaided eve.

-d

* In measuring the fat column in the
neck of a milk test bottle the reading
should be made from a to b, not to c or
tod.

* In measuring the fat column in the
neck of a crearn test bottle the reading
should be made from a to c, not to b or
to d. The size of the meniscus is mag-
nified in this cut.

In accordance with recent investigation it is considered more ac-
curate to measure the column of fat in a cream bottle from the bottom
of the meniscus (crescent) as indicated in the above cut. Such ob-
servations as we have made confirm this. The writer prefers to use
only the 6 inch 30 per cent. Connecticut cream bottles, taking one-
half the usual amount (9 grams), where the cream tests over 30 per
cent. The use of 9 inch cream test bottles having a smaller neck is
increasing on account of the greater accuracy obtained.

For eliminating the upper meniscus in reading cream, the experi-
ment station has adopted a method advocated by the Indiana experi-
ment station, in which a small amount of white mineral oil (some-
times called glymol or glycolinef), colored red with alkanet root is
introduced into the neck of the bottle at the conclusion of the test
and just before reading. The white mineral oil, being of a lower

* Reproduced from " Testing Milk and its Products," published by Mendota Book Co.,
Madison, Wis.

t Obtained of any wholesale drug house.

specific gravity than the butter fat, floats on top of the fat column
and eliminates the meniscus, the upper part of the fat column ap-
pearing as a straight line.

The reading should be made immediately, before the fat begins to
contract and settle, at a temperature of 120° to 140° Fahr., and the
reading is equivalent to percentage when the normal amount of
material (18 grams) is taken. Too rapid cooling of the samples
may be checked by setting the bottle into a vessel of water heated
to 130° Fahr.

The column of fat should be a clear yellowish liquid with a sharply
defined upper and lower meniscus or crescent, with no white curd or
charred material in or below the fat and no bubbles or foam on its
surface. Discoloration of the fat and charring is due to excessive
acid action, which may be caused by too strong, too much or too
warm acid, too warm a sample or failure to mix at once, or the
action of some preservative, especially bichromate of potash.

Light colored fat and the presence of undissolved curd may be
caused by too weak, too little or too cold acid, too cold a sample,
insufficient whirling or lack of proper heat, or the action of some
preservative, especially formalin.

Bubbles or foam on the surface of the fat may be due to the use
of hard water containing carbonates, or sometimes to excessive heat
in poorly constructed turbines, »

The contents of the test bottles should be
Care of Glassware, shaken out while hot to remove the deposit of
lime sulfate, rinsed with clean water to remove
the acid, which interferes with the cleaning action of the soap, "N

cleaned with hot soap suds, preferably made by using some strongly *

alkaline soap powder, rinsed with hot water and allowed to drain.
Pipettes should be cleaned in a similar manner. The scale when
indistinct can easily be restored by rubbing over with an oil ship-
ping crayon.

Circular No. 34. (Superseding No. 17.) June, 1912

MASSfiCHOSETTS AGRICULTyEI EXPERIMENT STATION

AMHERST

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND ANIMAL CHEMISTRY

J. B. LINDSEY, Chemist.

An Act to regulate the sale and analysis of food stuff

USED for feeding LIVE STOCK AND POULTRY.

[Acts and Resolves for 1912, Chapter 527.]

Be it enacted, etc., as follows:

Section 1. In this act, unless the

Definitions context otherwise requires: — The

of Terms term "commercial feeding stuff" shall

include all feeding stuff used for

feeding live stock and poultry and containing not more than

sixty per cent of water, except whole seeds or grains, and the

unmixed meals made directly from the entire grains of corn,

wheat, rye, barley, oats, buckwheat, flaxseed, kafir, and milo,

whole hays, whole straws, unground cotton seed hulls and unground

corn stover when unmixed with other materials.

The temi "cattle feed" shall include all materials used for
feeding live stock and poultry.

"Brand" shall mean any commercial feeding stuff or cattle feed
distinctive by reason of name, trade-mark or guaranteed analysis
or by any method of marking.

"Crude protein" shall mean the percentage of nitrogen multi-
plied by the factor six and twenty-five one hundredths.

"Copy" shall mean certified copy.

"Feeding stuff" shall mean commercial feeding stuff.

"Importer" shall mean a person who procures for sale or dis-
tribution in this commonwealth commercial feeding stuff or cattle
feed from other states or countries.

"Label" shall mean printed label.

"Package" shall include sacks and bags, tins, boxes, jars, and
similar receptacles.

"Person" shall include a corporation or partnership of two or
more persons having a joint or common interest.

"Tag" shall mean printed tag.

Section 2. Every package, lot or
Statements to Be parcel of comniercial feeding stuff

Printed on Label sold or offered or exposed or kept for

Accompanying the sale or distributed within this Corn-
Feeding Stuff mon wealth shall have affixed thereto
in a conspicuous place, as hereinafter
set forth, a tag or label containing a legible and plainly printed
statement in the English language clearly and truly certifying:
(a) the weight of the contents of the package, lot or parcel;
(6) the name, brand or trade-mark;

(c) the name and principal address of the manufacturer or
person responsible for placing the commodity on the
market ;

(d) the minimum per cent of crude protein;
{e) the minimum per cent of crude fat;

(J) the maximum per cent of crude fibre;
(g) the specific name of each ingredient used in its manu-
facture.

Section 3. When any feeding stuff

Concerning Attachment is sold or offered, exposed or kept for

of Label sale or distributed in packages, the

tag or label shall be affixed in a con-
spicuous place on the outside thereof. When any feeding stuff
is offered, exposed or kept for sale in bulk, the tag or label shall
be affixed in a conspicuous place on the bin or other enclosure
in which the feeding stuff is contained, but need not state the
number of pounds thereof. And when any feeding stuff is sold
or distributed in bulk the label shall be affixed in a conspicuous
place on the car or other vehicle in which the feeding stuff is
shipped or delivered or distributed and shall state the number of
pounds thereof. When any feeding stuff is sold in packages
furnished by the purchaser the seller shall furnish the tags or
labels therefor. The provisions of the printed tag or label required
by this act relating to the constituents contained in any commer-
cial feeding stuff shall be known and recognized as the guaran-
teed analysis of such feeding stuff.

Section 4. Before any manufac-

Registration turer, importer or other person shall

of Guarantee sell, or offer, expose, or keep for sale.

Required or distribute in this commonwealth

any commercial feeding stuff, he shall

file with the director of the Massachusetts agricultural experiment

station, or his authorized deputy, for registration, a copy certified

by him to be a true copy of the tag or label required by this act.

excepting the item as to the number of pounds, for every brand
of feeding stuff to be sold or offered, exposed or kept for sale
or to be distributed in this eomm on wealth. But no agent or
other person shall be obliged to file a copy of the tag or label
of any brand of feeding stuff, a copy of which has been filed
by the manufacturer or importer of such brand and for which
a certificate of registration has been issued. No feeding stuff or
brand of feeding stuff shall be sold or offered, exposed or kept
for sale or distributed in this commionwealth until the tag or
label therefor has been registered by the director of the Massa-
chusetts agricultural experiment station, or his authorized deputy,
and a certificate of such registration has been issued by him.

Section 5. A certified copy of the

Time of tag or label required by this act shall

Registration be filed with the director of the

Massachusetts agricultural experi-
ment station, or his authorized deputy, for registration prior to
the first day of September in each year for every brand of com-
mercial feeding stuff to be sold or offered, exposed or kept for
sale or to be distributed in this commonwealth during the year
Ijcginning with said first day of September. The said director
or his authorized deputy may thereafter permit a manufacturer,
importer or other person to file a copy of the tag or label of a
brand of feeding stuff, and may register the same for said year
in accordance with the rules and regulations which may be pre-
scribed by the said director.

Section 6. When the certified copy
Director to Issue of the tag or label of any brand of

Certificates Authorizing commercial feeding -stuff has been
Sale After Feeding Stuffs filed as provided by this act, the
Are Registered director of the Massachusetts agri-

cultural experiment station, or his
authorized deputy, shall register .such tag or label if he finds the
same to be in accordance with the requirements of this act, and
shall issue, or cause to be issued, a certificate of such registration,
and the said certificate shall be deemed to authorize the sale in
this commonwealth, in complia,nce with this act, of the brand of
feeding stuff for which the certificate is issued, up to and including
the thirty-first day of August of the year for which it is issued.

Section 7. The director of the
Director May Refuse Massachusetts agricultural expcri-
to Register Feeding mcnt station or his authorized deputy
Stuffs if Statements may refuse to register any commercial
Are Misleading feeding stuff under a name, brand,

or trade-mark which, in his opinion,
would be misleading or deceptive, or which would tend to mislead
or deceive as to the materials of which the feeding stuff is composed.
The director or his said de]juty may refuse to register more
than one feeding stuff under the sam^e name or brand, or to reg-
ister any feeding stuff under a name or brand to the use of which
the applicant for registration is not lawfully entitled. Should
any feeding stuff be registered in this commonwealth and it be,
discovered afterward that any provision of this act was violated
in obtaining such registration or that such registration is in any
respect in violation of any provision of this act, the director of
the Massachusetts agricultural experiment station, and his author-
ized deputy, shall have power to cancel such registration and the
certificate issued therefor. No manufacturer, importer, or other
person shall sell or offer or expose or keep for sale or distribute
in this commonwealth any commercial feeding stuff, registratiod
whereof has been cancelled by the director or his authorizen
deputy.

Section 8. Every commercial feed-
Director or Deputy ing stuff and cattle feed, or brand
Authorized to thereof, sold or offered, exposed or

Collect and Analyze kept for sale or distributed in this
Feeding Stuffs commonwealth shall be subject to

analysis by the director of the
Massachusetts agricultural experiment station, or by his desig-
nated deputy or deputies, and the said director is hereby author-
ized and it is made his duty to make or cause to be made in each
year one or more analyses of every brand of feeding stuff sold
or offered, exposed or kept for sale or distributed in this common-
wealth, and he is hereby given free access in person and by deputy
to all places of business, mills, buildings, carriages, cars, vessels
and other receptacles of whatsoever kind used in the manufacture,
sale, storage or delivery of any feeding stuff' or cattle feed in this
commonwealth, or in the importation or transportation of any
feeding stuff or cattle feed for sale or distribution in this common-
wealth. The director and his deputies are further authorized to
open any receptacle containing or supposed to contain any feeding
stuff or cattle feed for sale or distribution as aforesaid, and to
take samples for analysis, as provided by this act. The methods
of analyses of all feeding stuffs and cattle feeds shall be those

in force at the time by the Association of Official Agricultural
Chemists of North America.

Section 9. The said director shall

Results of Analyses have the right to publish or cause

to Be Published to be published in reports, bulletins,

special circulars, or otherwise the
results obtained by said analyses, and said reports, bulletins,
circulars, or other publications, shall contain such additional
infomiation in relation to the character, composition, value and
■ use of the feeding stuffs or cattle feed analyzed as the director
may, in his discretion, see fit to include. The said director, in
his discretion may at any time make or cause to be made for
consumers a free analysis of any brand of feeding stuff or cattle
feed sold or offered or exposed or kept for sale or distributed in
this commonwealth; but all samples for such free analysis shall
be taken and submitted in accordance with the rules and regu-
lations which may be prescribed by the director. The results
of any analysis of a commercial feeding stuff made in accordance
with the provisions of this act, except a free analysis as aforesaid,
shall be sent by the director, at least fifteen days before any
publication thereof, to the person named on the tag or label
of the feeding stuff analyzed.

Section 10. All samples for anal-
Sampling of ysis of any commercial feeding stuff
Feeding Stuffs or cattle feed shall be taken, whenever

the circumstances conveniently per-
mit, in the presence of at least one witness, and no action shall
be maintained for a violation of the provisions of this act, based
upon an analysis of a sample taken from less than five separate
original packages, unless there be less than five separate original
packages in the lot, in which case parts of the official sample
shall be taken from each original package. If the feeding stuff
or cattle feed is in bulk, parts shall be taken from not less than
five different places in the lot : provided, that this shall not exclude
sampling from bulk when the feeding stuff or cattle feed is not
exposed sufficiently to take parts from five different places, in
which case parts shall be taken from as many places as practicable.
All samples thus taken shall be placed in suitable vessels, marked
and sealed. A part of each sample shall be held by the said
director or his deputy at the disposal of the person named on
the tag or label of the feeding stuff sampled for fifteen days after
the results of the analysis have been reported as provided in
Section Nine.

Section 11. No commercial feeding stuff or cattle feed or
brand thereof that has been mixed or adulterated with any

substance of substances injurious to the health of live stock or
poultry shall be sold or offered or exposed or kept for sale or
distributed in this commonwealth.

Section 12. Any manufacturer, im-

Violation of porter, or other person who shall sell

This Act to Be or offer, expose or keep for sale, or

Punishable by Fine distriloute in this commonwealth, any

commercial feeding stuff without the
tag or label required by this act, or with a tag or label that has
not been registered, or with a tag or label the registration of
which has been cancelled by the director of the Massachusetts
agricultural experiment station or his authorized deputy, or who
shall file with the said director or his authorized deputy for
registration a false copy of the tag or label of any feeding stuff
or brand of feeding stuff or who shall impede, obstruct or hinder
the director or any of his deputies in the discharge of the authority
or duty conferred or imposed by any provision of this act, or
who shall sell or offer, expose or keep for sale or distribute in
this commonwealth any feeding stuff which contains a smaller
per cent of crude protein or crude fat, or a larger per cent of
crude fibre than is certified in the tag or label of such feeding
stuff to be contained therein, or who shall fail properly to state
the specific name of every ingredient used in its manufacture,
or who shall sell, or offer, expose or keep for sale or distribute
in this commonwealth any feeding stuff or cattle feed or brand
thereof which has been mixed or adulterated with any substance
or substances injurious to the health of live stock or poultry
shall be deemed guilty of a violation of this act and upon con-
viction any such manufacturer, importer or other person shall
be fined not more than one hundred dollars for the first violation,
and not less than one hundred dollars for each subsequent viola-
tion.

Section 13. It shall be the duty of

Director Required the director of the Massachusetts

to Enforce Provisions agricultural experiment station to see

of This Act that the provisions of this act are

complied with, and he may prescribe

and enforce such rules and regulations relative to the sale of

commercial feeding stuff or cattle feed as he deems necessary

to carry into effect the full intent and meaning of this act. He

may in his discretion prosecute or cause to be prosecuted any

person violating any provision of this act, and no complaint shall

be made or prosecuted for any such violation except with the

authorization or approval of the said director.

Section 14. To defray the cost of collecting samples, making
analyses, and of otherwise carrying out the provisions of this
act, a sum not exceeding six thousand dollars shall be allowed
annually from the treasury of the commonwealth, payable in
quarterly payments into the treasury of said station. All moneys
received and disbursed under this act shall be kept in a separate
account and shall be audited and reported as are other moneys
placed in charge of the trustees of the Massachusetts Agricultural
College. In case at any time there should be a surplus, the
surplus shall be used in the Massachusetts agricultural experiment
station, under the authority of its director, for experiments and
research relative to the feeding of farm animals.

Section 15. Chapter one hundred and twenty-two of the
acts of the year nineteen hundred and three, chapter three hun-
dred and thirty-two of the acts of the year nineteen hundred
and four, and all acts and parts of acts inconsistent herewith
are hereby repealed.

Section 16. This act shall take effect on the first day of
September in the year nineteen hundred and twelve. (Approved
April 25, 1912.)

Communications in i-egard to the law should be addressed to
the tindersigned, who has been appointed by the Director as
deputy to carry out the provisions of the act.

PHILIP H. SMITH,

Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station,
Amherst, Mass.

Circular No. 35. March, 1913.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

Amherst.

POULTRY MANURES, THEIR TREATMENT AND USE.

The total number of fowls kept in the state is estimated at two
and one-half millions. The average night droppings of medium
breeds according to determinations made in this station must amount
to 40 pounds per fowl per year. On this basis the amount of poul-
try manure easily collectible from the fowls of the state annually is
50,000 tons. If the plant food in a ton of average fresh poultry
manure be purchased at current prices in fertilizers, the outlay would
amount to nearly $7-50. Observations and experiments indicate
that as poultry manure is frequently handled it suffers a loss of one-
half or more of the nitrogen it contains when voided before it reaches
the land. If a loss of one-half coiTectly represents the average, the
total money value of nitrogen annually wasted from our poultry
manures must amount to about $160,000 It is the aim of this cir-
cular to show how this loss may be prevented.

Poultry manures are particularly rich in nitro-

General character gen and their general characteristics are such

and composition of that they readily decompose. As a result of

poultry manures, decomposition the manure heats and there is a

rapid and large loss of moisture and of ammonia.

The composition is subject to 'wide variation, due to some extent
to differences in feeding, but in far greater degree to methods of
handling and keeping.

The following tables present the results of recent analysis made
in our laboratory.*

*Credit for these analyses is due Mr. H. I), llaskins and L. S. Walker, Chemists in the
fertilizer division of the station.

Taiile I.
Composition of Poultry Manures.

lien Manure

Moisture

Nitrogen

Potash

Phos. Acid

Lime

C (about 2 weeks), . .

67.62

,.36

•43

T.II

^•33

p " " . .

68.58

1.07

■44

I. ID

2.78

L "

74.96

1. 2 I

■43

1.22

1.71

B-i (I night), ....

69.76

I.9I

•33

I. CO

•53

B-2 (2 or 3 weeks), . .

6061

2.30

.48

1.09

1.40

B-3 (6 to 8 weeks) . .

4S.82

1.90

■(^3

2.07

'•93

G-i (i night), ....

66.69

1.58

.42

.50

1.46

G-2 (3 nights), ....

64.06

I-I3

•39

.62

1.89

Pigeon,

25.01

3-90

1.06

2.15

.96

Duck,

61.62

1. 12

•49

1.44

1. 12

Goose,

67.06

1. 12

•51

•53

.26

Tablc 2.
Composition on Basis of Equal Dry Matter.

Hen Manure

Dry Matter

5S

Nitrogen
1-34

Potash

Phos. Acid.

Lime

C (about 2 Weeks), . .

3=

.42

1.096

■•314

P " " . .

32.

1.09

■44

1. 120

2.831

L " " . .

32.

I 4S6

•52

1.499

2.101

B-i (I night), ....

32-

2.021

•31

1.058

•5('

B-2 (2 or 3 weeks), . .

32.

1.868

•3S

.86

i^i37

B-3 (stored 6 or 8 weeks).

32.

1. 19

■39

1.294

I.2C6

G-i (I night) ....

32^

1.517

•31

•47

1.402

G-2 (3 nights), ....

32^

1.006

•34

•55

1 .682

Average,

32^

1.44

•39

•99

1-53

Table i shows the composition of the material just as it was col-
lected and taken to the laboratory. Table 2 shows the composition of
the different samples of hen manure all reckoned upon the same
basis of dry matter in 100 pounds.

Samples B-i, 2 and 3 are richer than the others in nitrogen, be-
cause the fowls received more animal food. Potash varies relatively
little. Phosphoric acid varies widely and must be greatly affected by
the amount of bone in the animal food given to the fowls.

The comparison between the amounts of nitrogen shown in Table
2 in samples B-i, 2 and 3 and between samples G-i and 2 is par-
ticularly instructive. // illustrates the fact that hen manure unmixed
with absorbents or chemicals suffers very rapid loss of nitrogen. Sample
B-2 differs from B-i only in the fact that the interval between the
removal of droppings from beneath the roosts was longer. The sea-
son of this experiment was March, and the droppings were frozen a
part of the time. During warmer weather the loss must have been
yet greater. G-2 though accumulating only during three nights
seems to have lost relatively more nitrogen than B-2, perhaps because
the house was much warmer than the one from which samples B came ;
although this seems an insufficient explanation for the difference.

Examination of Table i, especially comparison of the samples B-i
and B-2 shows that the fact that nitrogen has been lost is obscured
by the further fact that there has been an even larger loss of water.
The percentage of nitrogen in B-2 (Table i) is larger than in B-i,
but only because the former is dryer. Table 2 shows that there has
been a large actual loss.

The free use of fine dry loam, or the admixture
Methods of of such materials as kainit, acid phosphate,

Preservation. muriate of potash or land plaster, or of a com-
bination of some of these will effectively pre-
vent loss of nitrogen. Loam alone must be used in quantities so
large as considerably to increase cost of handling. Either kainit,
muriate of potash or acid phosphate alone is effective, but the mix-
ture especially with the first holds the material too moist for conven-
ient handling. Plaster is of little value as an absorbent of ammonia
and if largely used the mixture may form hard, dry cakes.

The writer recommends fine, very dry earth in moderate quantities
on the dropping boards and daily removal. To each loo pounds of
fresh droppings, add a mixture made up as follows :
Kainit, 15 lbs.

Acid Phosphate, 20 lbs.

Sprinkle this in proper proportion over each lot of fresh material as
it is added to the accumulating stock, and mix before use.

Such a mixture will give a combination of fertilizer elements in
proportions well suited for most crops.

Do not mix wood ashes or lime with poultry

What not to do. manure as both of them are strongly alkaline
and will release the ammonia which causes a
greater loss than if the poultry manure were left in its natural state.
Coal ashes if practically free from wood ashes, may be used in place
of dry earth as an absorbent : but the mixture should be supplemented
with kainit and acid phosphate.

The fact should be kept in mind when planning

The use of poul- for the use of poultry manure, that its constitu-
try manure. ents are quickly available. It should be re-
membered, moreover, that the material is nat-
urally so strong that in close contact with either seeds, foliage, or de-
licate rootlets in large quantities, it will burn and injure. Such a
mixture as has just been recommended would usually best be used
by spreading either broadcast or very widely in the hill or drill. It
should give excellent results for mowings, lawns and in the garden

If to be used for potatoes, the writer would prefer using 4 pounds
of high grade sulfate of potash in place of the 15 pounds of kainit.

The quantity of poultry manure applied must naturally be varied
with soils and crops, but it should be remembered that such manures
well preserved, or such mixtures of poultry manures and chemicals
as have been suggested are much stronger and richer than ordinary
manures and should be used in smaller quantities. From about one
and one-half to two and one-half (i V2 to 23^) tons per acre will be
the usual range in quantity. When poultry manure is used without
potash salts or acid phosphate it is best applied as a top-dressing, be-
cause it is richest in available nitrogen. If it is to be used for garden
or field crops, it should always be balanced by the use of kainit, sul-
fate or muriate of potash, and acid phosphate.

Circular No. 36 (Revision u{ No. 22). Fkuruarv, 1914.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

AMHERSr.

POULTRY MANURES, THEIR TREATMENT AND USE.
By William P. Brooks.

The total number of fowls kept in the state is estimated at two
and one-half millions. The average night droppings of medium
breeds according to determinations made in this station must
amount to 40 pounds per fowl per year. On this basis the amount
of poultry manure easily collectible from the fowls of the state
annually is 50,000 tons. If the plant food in a ton of average
fresh poultry manure be purchased at current prices in fertilizers,
the outlay would amount to nearly $7.50. Observations and
experiments indicate that as poultry manure is frequently handled
it suffers a loss of one-half or more of the nitrogen it contains when
voided before it reaches the land. If a loss of one-half correctly
represents the average, the total money value of nitrogen annually
wasted from our poultry manures must amount to about $160,000.
It is the aim of this circular to show how this loss may be prevented.
■Poultry manures are particularly rich in nitro-
General character gen and their general characteristics are such
and composition of that they readily decompose. As a result of
poultry manures, decomposition the manure heats and there is a
rapid and large loss of moisture and of ammonia.

The composition is subject to wide variations, due to some extent
to differences in feeding, but in far greater degree to methods of
handling and keeping.

The following tables present the results of recent analyses made
in our laboratory. *

Table 1 shows the composition of the material jvist as it was
collected and taken to the laboratory. Table 2 shows the com-
position of the diflferent samples of hen manure all reckoned upon
the same basis of dry matter in 100 pounds.

Samples B-1, 2 and 3 are richer than the others in nitrogen,
because the fowls received more animal food. Potash varies
relatively little. Phosphoric acid varies widely and must be greatly
affected by the amount of bone in the animal food given to the
fowls.

The comparison between the amounts of nitrogen shown in Table
2 in samples B-1, 2 and 3 and between samples G-1 and 2 is particu-
larly instructive. It illustrates the fact that hen manure unmixed
with absorbents or chemicals suffers very rapid loss of nitrogen. Sample
B-2 differs from B-1 only in the fact that the interval between the
removal of droppings from beneath the roosts was longer. The
season of this experiment was March, and the droppings were

♦Credit for these analyses is due Mr. H. D. Haskins and L. S. Walker, Chemists in the ferti-
lizer division of the station.

Table i.
Composition of Poultry Manures.

Hen Manure

Moisture

Nitrogen

Potash

54

Phos. Acid.

Lime

C (about 2 \veek.s),

67.62

1.36

■43

I . 1 1

1-33

p II II

68.58

1.07

■44

I . 10

2.78

L "

74.96

1 .21

■43

I .22

1. 71

B-i (i night), . .

> 69.76

1. 91

•33

1 .00

•53

B-2 (2 or 3 weeks),

60.61

2.30

.48

1 .09

1 .40

B-3 (6 or 8 weeks),

48.82

1 .90

63

2.07

'•93

G-i (i night), . .

66.69

1.58

.42

.50

1 .46

G-2 (3 nights), . .

64.06

••'3

■39

.62

1.89

Pigeon, ....

2 ^ .01

3-90
1.12

I .06

^■i5
1.44

•53

.96
1 . 12

Duck,

61.62

■49
51

Goose, ....

67.06

1 . 12

.26

Table 2.
Composition on Basis of Equal Dry Matter.

Hen manure

Dry ^

latter Nitrogen

4 <ji

Potash

Phos. Acid.

*

Lime

C (about 2 weeks), . .

32

1^34

.42

I .096

••314

P "

32

1 .09

■44

1 . 120

2.831

L "

32

1.4S6

•52

1.499

2. lOI

B-i (i night), ....

32

2.021

•31

1.058

.56

B-2 (2 or 3 weeks), . .

32

1.868

•38

.86

'•»37

B-3 (stored 6 or 8 weeks).

32

1. 19

•39

1.294

1 .206

G-i (i night), ....

32

1. 517

•31

•47

1 .402

G-2 (3 nights), ....

32

1 .006

•34

•55

1.682

Average,

32

1.44

•39

•99

I 53

frozen a part of the tiine. During warmer weather the loss must
have been 3^et greater. G-2 though accumulating only during three
nights, seems to have lost relatively more nitrogen than B-2, perhaps
because the house was much warmer than the one from which
samples B came; although this seems an insufficient explanation
to account for so large a difference.

Examination of Table 1, especially comparison of the samples
B-1 and B-2 shows that the fact that nitrogen has been lost is
obscured by the further fact that there has been an even larger
loss of water. The percentage of nitrogen in B-2 (Table 1) is larger

than in B-1. but only because the former is drier. Table 2 shows
that there has been a large actual loss.

The free use of fine dry loam, or the admixture
Methods of of such materials as kainit, acid phosphate,

Preservation. muriate of potash or land plaster, or of a

combination of some of these will effectively
prevent loss of nitrogen. Loam alone must be used in quantities
so large as considerably to increase cost of handling. Either kainit,
muriate of potash or acid phosphate alone is effective, but the
mixture especially with the first holds the material too moist for
convenient handling. Plaster is of less value as an absorbent of
ammonia and if largely used the mixture may form hard, dry cakes.
Dr}' sawdust has been successfully used with acid phosphate
and kainit by the Maine Experiment Station. In bulletin 216,
that vStation recommends using with each 30 pounds of fresh drop-
pings (their estimate of the yearly amount of night droppings
from one hen) :

10 pounds sawdust,
16 pounds acid phosphate,
8 pounds kainit.
The writer recommends:

1. Where poultry is kept upon a small scale and where fine
dry earth can be readily obtained that this be sprinkled in moderate
quantities on the dropping boards whenever the accumulation is
removed, which should be daily. To each lOO pounds of fresh
droppings add a mixture of chemicals as follows:

(a) Where the material will be used as top-dressing for grass
lands or for lawns:

Acid phosphate, 20 pounds.
Kainit, 15 pounds.

{b) Where the mixture will be used for field crops such as
corn or in the vegetable garden:

Acid phosphate, 50 pounds,
Kainit, 25 pounds.

In either case sprinkle the mixture in proper proportion over
each lot of fresh material as it is added to the accumulating stock
and mix before use.

Mixture (a) with 65 pounds of dry earth (estimated amount
added) will weigh 200 pounds, and if we do not take into account
the small amount of plant-food elements which may be found in
the earth, it should have about the following composition:

Nitrogen, 0.95 per cent.

• Phosphoric acid, 2.00 per cent.

Potash, 1.14 per cent.

Provided the droppings in the original quantity are similar to
sample B-1, one ton of this mixture will supply plant-food about
as follows:

Nitrogen, 19 pounds.

Phosphoric acid, 40 pounds.
Potash, 23 pounds.

Mixture (6) with 70 pounds of earth added gives a total weight
of 245 pounds. This will contain:

Nitrogen, about 0.8 per cent.

Phosphoric acid, about 3.5 per cent.
Potash, about 1.5 per cent.

One ton of this mixture will supply about:

Nitroj^cn, 16 pounds,

Phosi)horic acid, 70 pounds,

Potash, 30 pounds.

2. Where- ]Joultry is kept upon a large scale obtaining and
handling earth in as large quantities as are necessary will greatly
increase the labor and the cost of applying the manure. Under
such circumstances, therefore the writer is inclined to indorse
the Maine system. Placing this upon the same basis as the other,
the proportions would be as follows:

Fresh droppings, 100 pounds.

Acid phosphate, 50 pounds,

Kainit, 25 pounds.

Dry sawdust, 30 pounds.

This proportion of sawdust is slightly lower than that recom-
mended in the Maine bulletin. The total weight is 205 pounds,
but there is in practically all cases some loss of moisture and it is
suflicientl}' accurate for practical purposes to estimate the weight
of the mixture at 200 pounds. On this basis the composition would
be as follows:

Nitrogen, 0.95 per cent..

Phosphoric acid, 4.25 per cent.,

Potash, 1.79 per cent.

One ton of this mixture will supply:

Nitrogen, 19 pounds,

Phosphoric acid, 85 pounds.

Potash, 36 pounds.

Do not mix wood ashes or lime with poultry
What not to do. manure as both of them are strongly alkaline
and will release the ammonia which causes a
greater loss than if the poultry manure were left in its natural state.
The fact should be kept in mind when planning
The use of poultry for the use of poultry manure that its con-
manure, stituents are quickly available. It should be
remembered, moreover, that the material is
naturally so strong that in close contact with either seeds, foliage
or delicate rootlets in large quantities it will burn and injure. Such
mixtures as have been recommended are usually best used by
spreading either broadcast or very widely in the hill or drill. It
will not be found easy to make the materials sufficiently fine for
application with a fertilizer drill, but they can be successfully
applied with such a fertilizer distributor as the Greenwood or by
the use of a manure spreader. The quantity of poultry manure
to be applied must naturally be varied with soils and crops, but
it should be remembered that such manure well preserved mth
such mixtures as have been suggested are much stronger and richer
than ordinary manures and should be used in smaller quantities.
From about 1| to 2^ tons per acre will be the usualrange in quantity.
If poultry manure is to be used for potatoes the writer would
recommend substituting 8 pounds high grade sulfate of potash
in place of the 25 pounds of kainit recommended in the 2d and
3d mixtures. Poultry manures if unmixed of with the chemicals
in mixture No. 1 can probably be most profitably used as a top-
dressing for grass because of the high ])ercentage of nitrogen con-
tained in them.

Circular No. 37. February, 19 14.

NASSACHUSEHS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

AMHERST.

GREEN MANURING AND COVER CROPS.
By William P. Brooks.

Green manuring is the practice of cultivating a crop for soil
improvement. The crop is usually, but not always, plowed in
while green. A cover crop is one grown largely for soil protection,
but it may at the same time serve all the purposes of a green rnanure
crop. On the other hand, during the period of its growth a green
manure crop is a cover crop.

The practice of using crops for soil protection and improvement
has received much more attention in recent years than formerly,
largely because its poSvSible benefits and the conditions essential
to their realization are better understood. It is not yet as general
as it should be. The objects of this circular are:

1. To briefly indicate the possible benefits from the use of
green manure and cover crops, and the principal reasons therefor.

2. To consider the special characteristics, value and adaptation
of each of the principal crops.

3. To state the conditions under which the introduction of these
crops is to be advised. -

1. POSSIBLE BENEFITS

The protection of the soil against damage by
Erosion prevented, wdnd which carries away the finer and better

particles, and water which washes fields which
have any considerable slope. In other words, to prevent erosion.

The conservation of soluble plant-food com-
Plant-food saved, pounds. Plant-food compounds .soluble in

water tend to wash through the soil (and of
course most largely on those which are of coarse and open texture)
to lower levels, or they are carried away through natural or artificial
drainage channels. The danger of this loss is of course greatest
in seasons of abundant rainfall and it goes on most largely in fields
which are bare. If the soil be kept full of hungry rootlets of a
growing crop the amount of loss through this source is greatly
reduced.

Green manure and cover crops may be made
Weeds prevented, of much use in preventing the growth of

weeds and the ripening of weed seeds, and
also in some cases they may be made very helpful in exterminating
certain kinds of weeds with which a field may have become infested.

Those green manure or cover crops which
Soil enriched in belong to the family of legumes (pod bearers)
nitrogen. are capable, under the right conditions, of

assimilating nitrogen from the air. They do
this through the agency of bacteria that live in nodules on their
roots. Through the cultivation of legumes it is possible, therefore,
to increase the sum total of nitrogen in the soil. The vegetable
matter produced by such crops as clover, peas, beans and vetches
is rich in nitrogen and when it decays, this element, in the form
of ammonia or nitrates, is gradually rendered available to a following
crop.

Plant-food made '^^^^ availability of the mineral food constitu-
., , , ents ot the soil is increased. Ihe increase is

available. ^^^^ .

1. To the action of the living roots which exercise a solvent
action on the mineral particles of the soil.

2. To the increased biological activity (bacteria and other
micro-organisms) favored by shade and the increased proportion
of organic matter in the soil.

3. By the solvent action of carbonic acid and other organic
acids produced in the decay of the added vegetable matter.

Improved physical condition due to the
Humus increased, admixture of vegetable matter and the gradual

increase in the amount of humus.- This
means better capacity to retain and to conduct moisture.

In the case of the deep rooted green manure
Subsoil mellowed, or cover crops the subsoil is to a considerable

extent opened and mellowed so that following
crops root more deeply. To some extent, also, such crops transfer
material gathered by their deep roots in the subsoil toward the
surface.

2. PRINCIPAL CROPS

Among characteristics which especially fit a
Desirable charac- crop for cover or green manure are the fol-
teristics. lowing: ability to thrive broadcast; rapid

growth; deep and vigorous root system;
freedom from injury by frosts. If the crop, besides possessing
the characteristics named, is a legume it will prove most valuable
because in one respect it surpasses all others, viz., it has the ability
to gather nitrogen from the air which none of the others possesses.

Non-Legumes

None of the crops of this class have the capacity to gather nitrogen
from the air.

Suited to light soils, one of the most useful
Winter rye. of the green manure crops outside of the

legumes, grows late in the autumn and begins
growth very early in the spring, especially valuable for preventing
waste of nitrates during the fall, winter and spring rains, and

because it affords cover and protection in winter, preventing both
damage from wind and washing; produces a large amount of vege-
table matter sufficiently early in the season to be plowed under
and followed by a crop to be harvested. Seed broadcast, 2 to 3
bushels per acre.

Suited to light soils, characterized by extreinely
Buckwheat. rapid growth in warm weather, killed by

frosts, valuable especially in preventing growth
or subduing weeds and producing a large amount of vegetable
matter within a short period of time. Seed broadcast, 1 bushel
per acre.

Suited to the lighter soils, characterized by
White mustard. rapid growth and hardiness, valuable for

n'trogen conservation, will make a good
growth before cold weather if put in after early potatoes or sown
in corn at the time of the last cultivation. Seed 5 to 6 pounds
per acre if sown in corn; one-half that quantity alone broadcast.

vSuited to medium soil. There are two
Rape. classes — Spring, represented by Dwarf Essex,

and Winter. The latter is not hardy in most
parts of Massachusetts. Where it can be grown, especially valuable,
it starts into growth extremeh' early in spring and furnishes a
large amount of vegetable matter in seas®n to plow under for most
crops. Dwarf Essex rape may be sown after harvesting an early
crop, being very hardy, continues to grow until late in the autumn,
especially valuable for nitrogen conservation. Seed broadcast 3
to 5 pounds per acre.

Legumes

All the crops included in this class have the capacit}' to gather
nitrogen from the air. They will do this, however, to an important
extent only when the following conditions are met:

1. The soil must be neutral or alkaline.

2. It must be stocked with bacteria of the right kind or they
must be supplied. In the case of legumes which have commonly
been grown in the locality the appropriate bacteria are usually
abundant. When a legume new to a locality is to be grown the
bacteria should be supplied either in the form of a culture or b}' the
use of loam from a field where they are abundant. Cultures are
now commercially prepared and if of good quality are generally
to be preferred to soil.*

3. It must not contain a large amount of nitrogen in the form
of available compounds. If it does the legume will take most of
its nitrogen from the soil and will not draw upon the air to any
considerable extent.

* Cultures may be obtained of the " Department of Microbiology," Mass. Agricultural Col-
lege, Amherst. A charge of 25 cents is made, which covers cost and postage on sufficient for one
bushel of seed.

Suited to the better loams, is not hardy and
The soy bean. is not well suited for prevention of erosion

or conserving nitrogen, will furnish a large
amount of vegetable matter within a comparatively short period
of summer weather, does best if planted in drills. About | bushel
of seed per acre.

Suited to light and medium loams, endures
The cow pea. drouth and hot weather exceedingly well, not

hardjs but will furnish a large amount of
vegetable matter in a relatively short period of summer weather^
does best in drills and requires about ^ bushel of seed per acre.

3. CONDITIONS WHEN GREEN MANURING IS ADVISABLE

The statement of possible benefits of green manuring quite
clearly indicates by inference the conditions under which the intro-
duction of a green manure crop is advisable, but at the same time
it includes references to so many and so important advantages
that the reader may be in danger of over-estimating its value.
There is no question that it can produce the beneficial effects
referred to but there are conditions under which these effects would
be secured at too great cost. Under the following conditions there
can be no question that green manuring will be profitable:

1. When the green manure crop ca;n be produced without the
sacrifice of a crop to be harvested, or during a period when the
field would otherwise be unoccupied, when it will help prevent
loss of nitrates, erosion and infestation by weeds.

2. Green manuring will be especially important on soils made
up largely of sand or clay and naturally deficient in humus.

3. Green manuring, especially with legumes, will be unusually
beneficial on soils naturally deficient in available nitrogen compounds.

4. It is especially beneficial in orchards : preventing erosion, fur-
nishing organic matter and keeping down weeds.

5. The introduction of a green manure crop in cases where a
crop to be harvested must be sacrificed will self-evidently be in
place only on the cheaper lands.

On the other hand where a farm is stocked

When not advis- to its capacity, green manuring will seldom

able. or never be advisable. Many of the green

manure crops have large food value. It will
be found more profitable to feed clover to the animals of the farm
than to turn it in in most cases, and where the excrements are
carefully saved and returned to the land practically all the eflPects
of green inanuring will be realized.

4. The legume must be allowed to attain nearly full development
if the gain in nitrogen is to be large, since during the early stages
of its growth the nitrogen which it requires comes in large measure
from the soil.

There are two classes of cultivated vetches —
Vetches. spring and winter. The winter vetches are

much more valuable than those belonging to
the other class. The hairy or sand vetch is the most valuable
variety. It is suited to medium loams, found especially valuable
in orchards, useful both in preventing erosion and in gathering
and conserving nitrogen and should usually be sown with winter
r3'e. Broadcast 1 bushel of seed per acre.

Suited to medium or fairly heavy loams,
Field peas. quite hardy and useful for nitrogen gathering,

should be grown with a grain crop. Broad-
cast 1^ to 2 bushels of seed per acre.

Best suited to medium loams, may be culti-
Crimson clover. vated either as a winter annual or annual,

not quite hardy enough to make it reliable
as a winter annual in most parts of Massachusetts, though it occa-
sionally goes through the winter. Where it does this, it is one of
the most valuable cover and green manure crops. Sown in August
it makes a thick mat of leaves, serves to conserve nitrogen and
prevent erosion, starts its growth very early the following spring
and can be turned under in season to be followed by a crop which
is to be harvested; where hardy particularly valuable in orchards.
Seed broadcast about 15 to 20 pounds per acre.

Suited to a wide variety of soils, but do best

Common and in medium loams ; if sown the latter part of

mammoth red July or early in August make sufficient growth

clovers. in autumn to prevent erosion and conserve

nitrogen, start into growth fairly early the
following spring but will not mature in season to be followed by
such crops as corn and potatoes. These clovers are very deep
rooted, may often be very profitably used for combined forage
and green manure, much used in orchards. Seed broadcast 8
to 10 pounds per acre.

Distinct from the true clovers, like them in
Sweet clover. many respects but not nearly as valuable for

forage, suited to a wide variety of soils if
drainage is perfect, particularly deep rooted, sown in July will
prevent erosion and conserve nitrogen, starts into growth extremely
early the following spring and will furnish a large bulk of vegetable
matter which may be turned under in season to be followed by
crops to be planted about the same time with corn. There are
two varieties, white and yellow; the white is the more valuable
for green manuring. Seed broadcast about 20 pounds per acre.

Suited to the better loams, is not hardy and
The soy bean. is not well suited for prevention of erosion

or conserving nitrogen, will furnish a large
amount of vegetable matter within a comparatively short period
of summer weather, does best if planted in drills. About ^ iDvishel
of seed per acre.

vaulted to light and medium loams, endures
The cow pea. drouth and hot weather exceedingh^ well, not

hardy, but will furnish a large amount of
vegetable matter in a relatively short period of summer weather,
does Ix'st in drills and requires about h bushel of seed per acre.

3. CONDITIONS WHEN GREEN MANURING IS ADVISABLE

The statement of possible benefits of green manuring quite
clearly indicates by inference the conditions under which the intro-
duction of a green manure crop is advisable, but at the same time
it includes references to so many and so important advantages
that the reader may be in danger of over-estimating its ^alue.
There is no question that it can produce the beneficial effects
referred to but there are conditions under which these eft'ects would
be secured at too great cost. Under the following conditions there
can be no question that green manuring will be profitable:

1. When the green manure crop ca:n be produced without the
sacrifice of a crop to be harvested, or during a period when the
field would otherwise be unoccupied, when it will help prevent
loss of nitrates, erosion and infestation by weeds.

2. Green manuring will be especially important on soils made
up largely of sand or clay and naturally deficient in humus.

3. Green manuring, especially with legumes, will be unusually
beneficial on soils naturally deficient in available nitrogen compounds.

4. It is especially beneficial in orchards : preventing erosion, fur-
nishing organic matter and keeping down weeds.

5. The introduction of a green manure crop in cases where a
crop to be harvested must be sacrificed will self-evidently be in
place only on the cheaper lands.

On the other hand where a farm is stocked

When not advis- to its capacity, green manuring will seldom

able. or never be advisable. Many of the green

manure crops have large food value. It will
be found more profitable to feed clover to the animals of the farm
than to turn it in in most cases, and where the excrements are
carefully saved and returned to the land practically all the effects
of green manuring will be realized.

because it affords cover and protection in winter, preventing both
damage from wind and washing; produces a large amount of vege-
table matter sufficiently early in the season to be plowed under
and followed by a crop to be harvested. Seed broadcast, 2 to 3
bushels per acre.

Suited to light soils, characterized by extremely
Buckwheat. rapid growth in warm weather, killed by

frosts, valuable especially in preventing growth
or subduing weeds and producing a large amount of vegetable
matter within a short period of time. Seed broadcast, 1 bushel
per acre.

Suited to the lighter soils, characterized by
White mustard. rapid growth and hardiness, valuable for

n'trogen conservation, will make a good
growth before cold weather if put in after early potatoes or sown
in corn at the time of the last cultivation. Seed 5 to 6 pounds
per acre if sown in corn; one-half that quantity alone broadcast.

Suited to medium soil. There are two
Rape. classes — Spring, represented by Dwarf Essex,

and Winter. The latter is not hardy in most
parts of Massachusetts. Where it can be grown, especially valuable,
it starts into growth extremely early in spring and furnishes a
large amount of vegetable matter in season to plow under for most
crops. Dwarf Essex rape may be sown after harvesting an early
crop, being very hardy, continues to grow until late in the autumn,
especially valuable for nitrogen conservation. Seed broadcast 3
to 5 pounds per acre.

Legumes

All the crops included in this class have the capacity to gather
nitrogen from the air. They will do this, however, to an important
extent only when the following conditions are met:

1. The soil must be neutral or alkaline.

2. It must be stocked with bacteria of the right kind or they
must be supplied. In the case of legumes which have commonly
been grown in the locality the appropriate bacteria are usuall}'
abundant. When a legume new to a locality is to be grown the
bacteria should be supplied either in the form of a culture or by the
use of loam from a field where they are abundant. Cultures are
now commercially prepared and if of good quality are generally
to be preferred to soil.*

3. It must not contain a large amount of nitrogen in the form
of available compounds. If it does the legume will take most of
its nitrogen from the soil and will not draw upon the air to any
considerable extent.

* Cultures may be obtained of the " Department of Microbiology," Mass. Agricultural Col-
lege, Amherst. A charge of 25 cents is made, which covers cost and postage on sufficient for one
bushel of seed.

4. TREATMENT OF THE GREEN MANURE CROP

It is a common practice to turn under crops <^ro\vn as green
manures as soon as their growth is completed, but even in the case
of those which are killed by autumn frosts, if protection from wind
and washing is especially needed, it may be preferable to leave
the crop on the surface until the following spring. It is not believed
there will be any great loss in manurial value if this ])ractice be
followed because the crop on the surface in winter weather will
not decay to a sufficient extent to render its constituents soluble.
In deciding upon the time for working a green manure crop into
the soil it should be remembered that this should be done a few
weeks at least before the seed of the following crop is to be sown.
The presence of a large amount of undecayed vegetable material
a few inches below the surface is unfavorable to the germination
and early growth of a following crop. Time should be allowed
for the vegetable matter to settle and in part decay and for the
capillary connection between the portion of the soil turned over
and the undisturbed soil below to have become re-established.
In a majority of instances it seems better to turn a green manure
crop under rather than to leave it on the surface. A plow turning
a large furrow slice is best suited to the work and a disk coulter
is desirable. If the crop is tall, a chain fastened to the middle of
the evener long enough so that the end will drag in the furrow
about opposite the mould-board may be used with advantage. A
chain so used divides the standing crop and bends it forward just
ahead of the plow so that it is covered much better than would
be possible without it. In some cases the chain is looped in such
a way as to accomplish the same result. In the case of a crop
killed by winter frosts but allowed to remain upon the surface
until spring, it is best to go over the field with a disk harrow, cutting
up the stems and working the material somewhat into the soil
before attempting to plow.

5. SHOULD GREEN MANURE CROPS BE FERTILIZED

While a moderate degree of benefit may follow the introduction
of green manure crops without the application of any fertilizer, its
full benefits will not be realized on soils which are much exhausted
without the application of materials that furnish, at least, moderate
quantities of the mineral elements of plant food, for which purpose
basic slag meal and a potash salt applied broadcast, after plowing, and
deeply worked in, will prove among the most useful.

Further, it will not be possible to greatly enrich the soil in
nitrogen from the air through the growth of legumes unless lime be
first applied in the case of all soils which are acid, because the nodular
bacteria cannot multiph^ to any great extent, nor actively assimilate
nitrogen in soils which are sour.

Circular No. ^S. February, 1914

HASSACHUSETT8 fiGRICULTORAL EXPERIMENT STATION,

AMHERST.

CABBAGE, CAULIFLOWER, TURNIP, RAPE, AND OTHER

CRUCIFERS.
William P. Brooks.

The crops in this group thrive in quite a variety
Soils, of soils, but none will do well if water be near

the surface or the soil inclined to be wet. Well
tilled loams in good fertility should be selected, the lighter for Eng-
lish turnips and Swedes or for early cabbage, and medium loams for
cauliflower. Under irrigation success is possible on very light soils
if highly manured or fertilized. With deficient drainage or over-wet
soils these crops are peculiarly liable to the disease known as club-
foot. These crops should not be grown two successive years on the
same land nor come into any rotation more frequently than one year
in four or five.

These crops will fail or do poorly in any soil
Lime Necessary, which is sour in marked degree. If blue litmus

paper in contact with the moist soil turns red it
should receive an application of lime. The rate of application must,
of course, be varied to suit different conditions, but in general for the
lighter soils which are sour the application of about one ton per acre
of air-slaked lime or marl, or one and one-half tons of fine ground
limestone is desirable, while for the heavier soils about fifteen hun-
dred pounds of hydrated (water-slaked) lime is likely to be beneficial.*

The disease known as clubfoot (root) or some-
Prevention of times " fingers and toes," is due to the growth
Clubfoot. of a fungus in the cells of the roots. It causes

the distorted root swellings, often of enormous
size, familiar to most who have grown these crops. No cure or cer-
tain prevention when soil has become infected is known. Rotation of
crops, no one of this group to be put upon any given field oftener

* For fuller discussion of use of Lime see Bulletin No. 137.

than once in four years, and a rather free use of lime, will help secure
immunity. After soil has been brought into condition by one good
initial liming a yearly application of a mild lime at the rate of five
hundred pounds per acre should be sufficient. If slag meal be used
for all crops in the rotation (except potatoes if they be included), it
is probable that a second liming will be unnecessary.

The crops of this family will repay liberal man-
The Use uring, and barnyard or stable manures are well

of Manures* suited to all except turnips or Swedes for table
use. For these it is best to avoid the too free
use of such manures, as the roots are less smooth, stronger in flavor and
more liable to be attacked by worms. For all these crops manures from
animals fed refuse from any of them should be avoided as such man-
ures will be likely to carry disease germs. This is particularly true
of hog manure or manures on which hogs run, because these animals
are often fed waste vegetables, which usually means those which are
diseased, and which, therefore, carry the germs of disease. Manures
should, in general, be plowed in or deeply disked under.

All crops of this family are dependent in a very
Fertilizer Needs unusual degree upon a liberal supply of phos-

phoric acid in highly available forms. Acid
phosphate, dissolved bone and basic slag meal prove highly beneficial.
When manure is freely used no other fertilizer than a phosphate may
be necessary. These crops are less dependent upon artificial potash
supply than most, and it may be doubted whether potash in addition
to manure will be called for. Some nitrate to push the plants rapidly
from the start makes it easier to prevent serious injury from lice and
some other insects, and is always desirable in connection with mod-
erate applications of manure, especially for early crops.

In connection with a medium dressing of man-
Fertilizers for Use "re use for cabbage or cauliflower a mixture
with Manure, made up as follows :

Acid phosphate, 6 parts.

High grade sulfate of potash, i part.
Nitrate of soda, 2 parts.

This mixture will contain nitrogen 3.44, available phosphoric acid
10.66 and potash 5.55 per cent.

Apply broadcast just before plants are set and use from eight to
twelve hundred pounds per acre.

For brussels sprouts, kohl-rabi and kale about the same application
will be useful.

For rape use one-half to two-thirds the above amounts.

If one grows these crops on a small scale only it will often be
preferable to use a ready mixed fertilizer having about the composi-
tion of the mixture of chemicals recommended. There is usually no
saving in cost when chemicals must be purchased in small quantities,
and of covu^se this practice involves rather more trouble.

When fertilizers only are to be used for these

When Fertilizers crops it is believed that they should show about
only are Used, the same general composition as the mixture
above recommended for use with manure ; but
a rather higher percentage of nitrogen will be useful except after
clover, alfalfa or other legumes, or on soils in high fertility or con-
taining a large proportion of humus, such as reclaimed muck or peat.
A portion of the nitrogen in a fertilizer for this use should be derived
from materials less soluble and more quickly available than nitrate of
soda, such as cyanamid, tankage or bone. A part of the phosphoric
acid also may be in less soluble form than acid phosphate, and it is
believed an application of basic slag meal will be highly desirable.
This has the double advantage of furnishing available phosphoric acid
and a large amount of lime (mostly, it is true, in neutral compounds),
thus reducing, as has been pointed out, the necessity for a separate
application of lime in preparation for these crops. It is believed that
when the slag is used it will be found best to apply it by itself on the
rough furrow to be deeply worked in by disking, and if some time
before putting in the crop so much the better. The previous fall will
be the best time. The useful application will probably range from
600 to 1200 pounds per acre according to soil and crop. It will be
desirable, especially with soils low in fertility, to mix sulfate of potash
with the slag at the rate of 100 pounds per acre.

In connection with this preparatory application of slag meal and
potash a mixture of chemicals made up in the following proportions
is recommended :

Acid phosphate, 4 parts.

H. G. sulfate of potash, i "

Nitrate of soda, 2 "

Cyanamid, 2 "

Tankage, 4 "

This mixture will have about the following chemical composition :
nitrogen 6.5^, phosphoric acid 8.8^ and potash 3.8^. It may be
used in amounts varying from 1000 to 1600 pounds per acre.

It may be here again remarked that if only small areas are to be fer-
tilized it will probably be most satisfactory to buy a mixed fertilizer
of the desired composition.

Whether fertilizer is to be used with manure or
Application of the alone it will be best in most cases to apply the
Fertilizers. mixture broadcast just before setting the plants

or sowing seed ; though in work upon a small
scale it is probable that lesser amounts of fertilizer can be made to
give fairly satisfactory crops if a part at least is reserved for applica-
tion in wide circles about the plants after they are set, to be worked
in with the cultivator. The harrow will sufhciently work under a
broadcast application of such mixtures as are recommended.

Circular No. 39 (Revision of No. 31). February, 19 14.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTORAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

amhp:rst.

LIME AND SULFUR SOLUTIONS. -

Bv G. E. Stone.

Lime and sulfur iias been used for man)- years in various forms
and for different purposes, although it is only comparatively recently
that its value as a fungicide has been realized. The extensive use of
this solution as a spray for the San Jose scale has incidentally dem-
onstrated its great value as a fungicide. Our observations and ex-
periments with the use of lime and sulfur when applied to trees in a
dormant condition have convinced us that no preparation which has
ever been used can be compared with it for efficiency in controlling
different fungi. For many years lime and sulfur has been largely
used as a spray for fruit trees in a dormant condition, but of late it
has also been used in various modified forms as a summer spray with
very encouraging results. Many trials have been made of the diluted
concentrated preparations, and also of what is known as the " self-
boiled lime and sulfur," but the methods are in a more or less ex-
perimental stage.*

Lime and sulfur used as a spray on trees in a dormant condition is
a positive preventive of peach leaf curl and Monilia and Cladosporium
infection on peach twigs. Its use holds in check the leaf spots of the
apple, pear, plum, quince and other fruit trees and shrubs. We also
believe that it has a material effect on cankers, black knot and other
common twig diseases. So effective is this treatment for leaf spots
that in many cases after only one spraying not a single spot could be
found on the foliage of fruit trees during any part of the season.

Self-Boiled Lime and Sulfur Mixture.

For some purposes, especially summer spraying, self-boiled lime
and sulfur mixtures are useful. One of the best rules is the foUow-

* The diluted lime and sulfur has not proved equal to Bordeau.x for spraying potatoes.
—Geneva Agri. Exp. Station (N. Y.), bul. 347, F. C. Stewart and G. T. French,

W. M. Scott's Formula.

Flowers of sulfur or sulfur Hour, 8 poiuids.

Fresh stone lime, (S pf)unds.

Water, 50 gallons.

In making this mixture the best stone lime procurable should be
placed in a barrel and slaked, using precautions not to drown the
lime in slaking it. W. M. Scotc recommends that enough water be
applied to nearly cover the lime when slaking. As soon as the lime
has commenced to slake and some heat has generated, apply the
sulfur through a fine sieve to break up the lumps. The mixture
should be stirred and more water added gradually, bringing it to a
thin paste. As soon as the lime is well slaked, more water should be
added to ct)ol the mixture.

Since there is much difference in lime as regards the development
of heat, it is difficult to specify any particular time to add the water
for the purpose of cooling, but it should be done before the sulfur
goes into solution and fomus sulfides, which are injurious to peach
foliage. Under ordinary conditions, the mixture sliould not be allowed
to remain hot over ten or fifteen minutes after slaking. With the
intense heat developed from slaking and constant stirring a uniform
mixture of fairly finely divided sulfur and lime is obtained with only
a small trace of sulfides in solution. It should be strained before
use.

Mr. Scott has used this successfully for peach brown rot and scab.
In this formula he also mixed two pounds of arsenate of lead, which
proved effective in controlling plum-weevil. Mr. Scott believes that
the arsenate of lead is less likely to burn tender foliage when in com-
bination with lime and sulfur than when used alone.

Concentrated Lime and Sulfur Solutions.

There are a number of these solutions on the market which are
apparently similar in composition. Their specific gravity varies
from 30° to 34° Baume, and in using them it is necessary to dilute
according to the strength of the solution and the nature of the foliage
to which they are to be applied. The directions furnished by manu-
facturers for the dilution of their own product for different purposes
can usually be relied upon,

Home Made Lime and Sulfur Solutions.

Experience has shown that the best concentrations of hme and
sulfur are obtained by using about twice as much sulfur as lime,
since this preparation gives the least sediment. Nothing but the
best fresh stone lime should be used in making lime and sulfur. Air
slaked lime should not be used under any circumstances, and in
many cases it is advisable to use hot instead of cold water in slaking
the lime.

LIME AND SULFUR SOLUTION— Geneva Formula.*

Lime (pure), 36 pounds.

Sulfur (high grade, finely divided), 80 pounds.

Water, 50 gallons.

This is prepared by first moistening the sulfur and making it into
paste. Then slake the lime in about 10 gallons of hot water, adding
the lime gradually to prevent violent boiling and spilling over. Add
the sulfur paste gradually during the slaking and stir constantly to
prevent the formation of lumps. When the slaking is complete add
the full amount of water, and boil for one hour. The boiling may be
accomplished by the use of steam or by wood fires and kettles. In
either case maintain the original volume of water. This concentrated
solution is recommended by the Geneva Experiment Station, where
extensive investigations have been made relative to the lime and
sulfur solutions.

When the .solution is made to 50 gallons it should have a density
of from 24° to 25° Baume.f The Geneva Experiment Station recom-
mends that where the lime is 95^r pure, 38 pounds should be used,
and where only 90^ pure, 40 pounds. According to their tests, when
one part of pure lime and two parts of sulfur are boiled one hour,
only slight amounts of sediment are present. Sediment indicates im-
purity of the lime used. The solution can be .stored in filled, stop-
pered barrels for some time if the temperature docs not fall be-
low 5° F.

* For further information consult Buls. 329 and 330, Geneva (N. V.) Agri. Exp. Station,
t To obtain accurate degrees Baume a hydrometer may be used such as furnished by
Bausch & Lomb, Rochester, N. Y., for about |i.oo.

I'he following table of dilutions is recommendecl by the Geneva
Experiment Station : —

Amount of Dilution.

Number of gallons of water to one gallon of Hnie-

Reauinl; on

siilfiir solution.

Uydrometek.

Degrees Baume.

For San Jose

For Blister

For Summer

Scale.

Mite.

Spraying of Apples.

35

9

I2H'

4S

34

83^

12

^3y^

33

8^

1I>^

4«>^

32

8

I I

40

31

7>^

io>^

37^

30

JVa

10

36j4

29

63^

9)^

34^

28

6>4

9

3^%

27

6

8>4

31

26

• sH

8

2914

25

s%

7/2

273/<

24

5

7

26

23

4>^

6>4

24>4

22

4>i

6

223/<

21

3y^

55^

2C^

20

3y2

5

193^

19

3%

43/4

1834

18

3

45<

17

17

23^

4

16

16

^y

3%

J5

15

I^

3^

14

14

2

3

I23/<

Dr. C. A. Peters and A. W. Brooks* have recently shown that some
of the C(MTimercial lime and sulfur occasionally thickens up owing to
an organism closely related to Beggiatoa. This organism does not
spoil the solution chemically, but it does for use, since it clogs the
nozzle. The organisms can be disintegrated by heat, or filtered out.

* Microorganisms in Commercial Lime- -Sulfur, Journal of industrial and Engineering
Chemistry, Vol. 5, No. 12, December, 1913.

Circular No. 40.

April, 1914.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,

AMHERST.

DOWNY MILDEW OF CUCUMBERS.

(Peronoplasmopara cubensis (B. & C.) CI.)

By George E. Stone.

Downy mildew, which is not difficult to distinguish from other leaf
fungi, is most likely to occur on greenhouse cucumbers in August and
September, and has never been observed by us in greenhouses in the
winter. The fungus occurs on the under side of the leaf, causing
whitish or yellowish angular spots on the leaves (see Fig. i), and
these spots are more prominent on greenhouse than on field cucum-

FiG. I. Showing characteristic spotting of

cucumber leaf by downy mildew

(Peronoplasmopara)

bers. Ordinarily, an attack of this mildew lasts but a few weeks, and
causes only an insignificant spotting of the leaf. Reproduction is by
means of small spores, which retain their vitality longest in a moist
atmosphere.

Downy mildew was first observed on material received from Cuba
in 1868, and was later noted in Wisconsin in 1882. In 1888 it was
found on cucumber leaves obtained from Japan, and in 1889 it was
found in New Jersey, causing injury under glass, at which time it
was also common on field cucumbers. During the same year it was
reported abundant in Florida and Texas. In 1890 it appeared in
Massachusetts and again in 1892, when it was found on greenhouse
and field crops. In New Jersey it was common in 1891, 1892 and
1893, and in Connecticut and New Vork about the same time.

In 1895 it appeared in Ohio, and later caused considerable injury in
that state both to greenhouse and field crops. In 1899 it was noted
in England ; in Brazil, in 1900; in Russia, Austria-Hungary, Java
and East Africa in 1902, and in Italy in 1903, showing that the dis-
ease has been quite cosmopolitan in its progress. Since its appear-
ance in this country it has been generally distributed and quite de-
structive to field crops of cucumbers, although from 1892 until 1900
it was not observed in Massachusetts, to our knowledge. Since 1900,
however, it has appeared annually on field crops and occasionally in
greenhouses, where its appearance has caused little alarm.

It has been shown that this fungus is perennial in the south and
travels north every season, apparently about the time cucurbitaceous
crops mature. It usually makes its appearance in Massachusetts
about the middle of August, although sometimes a little earlier ; but
in 19 1 3 there was a bad infection on greenhouse cucumbers in the
Boston district in May, June and July, which caused much loss, es-
pecially in unheated houses, where the air often becomes very damp.
This is the first time downy mildew has been observed here earlier
than August, and this attack may have some connection with the un-
usually warm winter of 19 12 — 1913-

While the downy mildew is capable of doing considerable injury to
greenhouse crops, it is not difficult to hold the disease in check if
proper attention is paid to the moisture in the house. In no case
should moisture be allowed to remain on the foliage for more than
two or three hours, and even in the warm months steam should
occasionally be turned on to dry out the house and change the air.
All mildews and leaf blights are encouraged by moisture on the foli-
age, lack of light during the period of plant development, and stag-
nant air. In our experiments, in which we have grown cucumbers
and melons under glass every month in the year, we have never had
the slightest infection from mildew when the plants were syringed
properly ; i. e., only on bright mornings when the leaves will dry
quickly. While cucumbers can be grown without syringing, the risk
from red spider during the spring and summer months is necessarily
great.

After the middle of September or October first there is little dan-
ger of infection, therefore it is better to start the winter crop at this
time rather than in August. A slight attack of downy mildew does
little or no harm, and if cucumber growers always used the same
judgment as lettuce growers, an infection would seldoai prove serious.
It has been shown that spraying with Bordeaux mixture constitutes
an effective preventive in the field, and sulfur and oil painted on the
pipes in the greenhouse has proved beneficial.

This unlooked for attack of downy mildew in the early summer
months makes it apparent that in future all cucumber growers should
be on the lookout for earlv infection.

Circular No. 41.

April, 1914.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

AMHERST.

THE CONTROL OE ONION SMUT.
Bv George E. Stone.
Onion smut has been known in Massacliusetts for about forty years,
Mr. Benjamin P. Ware having referred to the injury caused by this
fungus in the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture Report for
iS6g — 70. The smut germs infect the seedlings at a very early stage,
the disease taking the form of dark-colored or sooty masses, and as
the onion matures the black areas of pustules may be noticed on the
leaves and bulbs. Since infection takes place in the early stages of
the seedling, onion sets being immune, any method which will kill the
spores on the seed or in the soil must be beneticial. Where onions
are grown year after year on the same land the smut shows a marked
tendency to increase, but even here it can be controlled by the use of
proper remedial measures.

Fk;. I. Shijwiiig Planet Jr. cultivatur with fcirnudin drip.

Positive results have been obtained by applying per acre 100 pounds
sulfur thoroughly mixed with 50 pounds air-slaked lime in the drills,
and ground lime, drilled in with a fertilizer drill, at the rate of 75 to
100 bushels, is also good. But by far the best results have been ob-
tained from the use of formalin, which may be applied at the rate of
one ounce to one gallon of water (i-i 28), or in even weaker solutions.
Some onion growers in the Connecticut valley, where the crop is
grown extensively and with great success, occasionally use the for-
malin stronger than the amounts recommended, but this results in
injury to the crop, i-ioo parts, which is sometimes used, is capable
of killing almost anything, and in our opinion is too strong to apply
to seed.

By the aid of certain devices, formalin can be easily and cheaply
applied when the seed is sown. Tests have shown that about 1200
feet of drill can be treated with one gallon of formalin solution. One
of the first devices used for this purpose was made by the writer, and
consists of a tank attachment. At the bottcjm is fastened a block tin
tube about a quarter of an inch in diameter, to which is attached a
valve to regulate the flow of the formalin, and as the tube is flexible
and at the same time more or less rigid, it can be bent in any posi-
tion desired and held securely. The tank, which holds one gallon,
may be attached to any onion sower (see fig. i) by means of strips
of iron. Although not fastened to the iron frame, the tank stays in
place and can be easily removed.

Fig. 2. Formalin tank, block tin
pipe and valve. (See Fig. i.)

In figure 2 the tank and tube are shown detached from the sower.
A special feature of the tank consists in the ease with which it can
be drained, the middle of the tank being lower than the ends. A
larger tank may be used if necessary, as the weight t)f the formalin
is not enough to affect the easy handling of the machine. The flow
of the formalin solution in a tank of this shape is nearly uniform,
there being little ditTerence in the amount flowing when the tank is
full and when nearly empty.

Figures 3 and 4 show more recent devices of this nature. The
tanks are in both cases made of galvanized iron and have a capacity

Fig. 3. Horse-shoe form of tank. A tank similar to this might be
readily adapted to any two-row seed sower.

of two gallons. An improvement over the earlier apparatus consists
in an iron rod attached to the valve and leading to the handles of the

Fig. 4. bhowing tank suspended between the handles of the sower.

sower, by means of which the operator can adjust the flow at will. The
horse-shoe form of tank shown in figure 3 has the largest use in the
Connecticut valley.

In the treatment of onion smut only enough liquid need fall to
cover the seed and moisten a little of the surrounding soil.

Very satisfactory results have been noted from the use of the for-
malin drip in this state. Some land so infested with the smut as to
make it impossible to grow profitable crops of onions has produced
clean crops after treatment by this method. In one case the smut
was so severe that the land had to be abandoned, but it now rents
for $50.00 an acre as onion land. The apparatus can easily be made
up by any local plumber, and on the whole the formalin treatment
constitutes one of the most effective methods for the control of onion
smut, and has resulted in saving many thousands of dollars each year
to onion growers.

Note. — Formaldehyde solution, u. s. p., 40 per cent, volume, can
be obtained from the Perth Amboy Chemical \\'()rks, 100 William
St., New York City, at the following rates :

In 400 lb. barrels, 9c per lb.

In 250 lb. barrels, 9}4'^ P^^ 't).

In 125 lb. kegs, f. o. b. New York, 9/^c per lb.

In 60 lb. kegs, ' iic per lb.

In 1 lb. bottles, 50 to a case, 19c per lb.

Circular No. 42 (Revision of No. 26). April, 19 14.

WASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

AMHERST.

FERTILIZERS FOR POTATOES.

WiM. P. Brooks,

Fertilizers are in general regarded as superior to manures
Manures Com- for this crop. Principal reasons :
pared with 1. The period of growth is short; the plant food supply-

Fertilizers, should therefore be in highly available forms. High grade

fertilizers are superior to farm manures in this particular.

2. The chances that the crop will be free from blight, rot and scab are
greater on fertilizers.

3. Manures of good quality supply nitrogen in relatively large amounts, so
great that on the better soils the growth of vine is apt to be excessive on
manure.

The above statements do not necessarily lead to the conclusion that manures
should never be used. They may give excellent crops, especially on the lighter
soils, deficient in humus and low in fertility ; but the quantity applied should
be moderate and applied broadcast, to be plowed or deeply harrowed in rather
than placed in hill or drill, and it will usually pay to use some fertilizer in
connection with the manure.

Lime is alkaline in chemical character, and one of the most
Relation of Crop common and serious diseases from which potatoes suffer —
to Lime. ordinary scab, caused by the development of a fungus in
the surface tissues of the tuber — is favored by an alkaline con-
dition of the soil.

An acid condition, while not protecting the crop in case of serious infection,
is not favorable to the scab fungus. The application of lime, then, in any con-
siderable quantity the same year that potatoes are planted is unwise. This
does not mean that soil on which potatoes are to be grown should never be limed.
Where the soil is inclined to be excessively acid and clover fails to do well, lime
may be used in moderation, but should be applied, if possible, some two or three
years before the land will be occupied by potatoes.

Powdery scab, on the other hand, is apt to be more serious where soils are
acid ; and if this new disease gains a foothold and proves to be as difficult to
control as now seems likely, we may be forced to use lime in order to hold it in
check, as otherwise it may become more injurious than the ordinary scab.

The first problem which will confront the potato grower is the
Selection of decision as to whether he will use one of the ready-mixed
Fertilizers. " Special " potato fertilizers, or, on the other hand, buy mater-
ials and make his own mixture. There are considerations
favorable to both plans. Some of the principal points favorable to the ready-
mixed fertilizers are :

1. Some labor at a season apt to be crowded with work is saved.

2. Such fertilizers are usually in good mechanical condition.

3. In remote country places particularly they are easier to obtain.

4. Selection may be somewhat easier, 'although it is not possible to buy under
the name " potato fertilizer " with certainty of obtaining the type of fertilizer
needed, for there is enormous variation between different so-called " potato fer-
tilizers." In our last fertilizer bulletin the analyses of ninety different brands

of potato fertilizers are given. The percentages of plant-food elements in such
fertilizers made by reliable firms varied as follows : Nitrogen, .93% to 5.03%;
phosphoric acid (available), 4.447o to 9.57%; phosphoric acid (total), 5.31 to
12.81%; potash, 2.01% to 11.20%.

FACTORY MIXED FERTILIZERS.

If, then, a " potato special " is to be used it is essential to have a clear idea
about what composition is desirable. It is not enough to call simply for a
potato fertilizer.

As a result of experiments and observation I am inclined to recommend :

A. When fertilizers only are to be used.

1. On clover sod or soils rich in humus and relatively fertile :

Per cent.
Nitrogen, 2.5 — 3.

Phosphoric acid, 8 — 10.

Potash (in form of sulfate), 8 — 10.

2. On lighter and poorer soils :

Nitrogen, 3.5— 4.5.

Phosphoric acid, 6 — 8.

Potash, 8 —10.

B. For use in connection with manure.

1. On clover sod or soils rich in humus:

Nitrogen (mostly in soluble forms) ,

Phosphoric acid,

Potash,

2. On lighter and poorer soils :

Nitrogen (mostly in soluble forms).

Phosphoric acid,

Potash,

Of such fertilizers, when used alone, 1500 to 2000 pounds per acre; those to
be used with manure, 600 to 1000 pounds per acre.

HOME MIXTURES.

The judicious selection and purchase of unmixed materials usually makes it
possible to obtain needed elements of fertility at lower cost than in " potato
specials," but this is in part because the trade in unmixed materials is almost
exclusively on the basis of cash payments, while the trade in mixed fertilizers
is to a considerable extent on a credit basis — crop time. It is the part of
wisdom before deciding on the purchase of materials to obtain quotations for
cash on a " potato special " of the desired composition and to compare these
with quotations on materials which will give a fertilizer of the same general
composition, plus the necessary charge for the labor of mixing. It is, moreover,
no doubt in some cases necessary to make some allowance on account of shrink-
age in unmixed materials caused by torn or overthin bags ; but it is possible
that there may be some shrinkage also on the ' special " mixed goods from the
same causes. The labor of mixing is neither diflficult nor expensive.

1.5-

- 2.

8 -

-10.

12 -

-14.

3 -

- 3.

5

6 -

- 8.

10 -

-12.

In deciding what materials to use for making the potato fer-

The Sources of tilizer the principal points to be considered are cost and

the Different suitability for the crop. It is not ^possible to give formulas

Plant-food Ele- which shall be permanently best. Relative prices of sources

ments. respectively of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash vary from

year to year, and even in some cases from month to month.

The end to be aimed at is, of course, the same in the case of all plant-food

elements, viz. : to obtain the greatest possible number of pounds of available

plant-food for the. money expended. The ton price is no indication as to whether

a fertilizer is dear or cheap. Fertilizers of the highest ton price are sometimes

the cheapest.

In order to make it safe to apply the entire amount of fertil-
The Nitrogen izer needed for the crop at planting time the nitrogen should
Supply. be derived from materials possessing a varying rate of avail-

ability, such, for example, as nitrate of soda, sulfate of am-
monia, cyanamid, dried blood and tankage.

Nitrate of soda is immediately available. Sulfate of ammonia, cyanamid and
dried blood require a little time and are about equally available. Tankage is
slower in its action. The proportion of cyanamid must be small, for otherwise
there may be loss of ammonia from organic materials or sulfate of ammonia if
these constitute a part of the mixture. Such loss, however, is not probable if the
mixture contains also a considerable proportion of acid phosphate, for this will
be likely to combine with the excess of lime in the cyanamid. As a conse-
quence of such combination the phosphoric acid of the acid phosphate may be
somewhat decreased in solubility, but it will still be available.

Other materials which may be considered as sources of nitrogen are dry-ground
fish, cottonseed meal and bone meal, but the first is usually high in price and
the others are not as a rule as suitable or available as the materials named.

There is no doubt that the presence of a liberal amount of
Phosphoric Acid, phosphoric acid in a fertilizer for potatoes is favorable to
early maturity, and wherever an early crop is important or
where there is a tendency to excessive growth of vine, this element in soluble
form should be relatively abundant in the fertilizer. Acid phosphate should be
mainly depended upon, but a small proportion of the phosphoric acid in the
form of tankage, fish or bone is not undesirable. Basic slag meal is absolutely
unsuitable for potatoes on account of the excess of lime it contains.

The potash of a potato fertilizer should, I believe, usually
Potash. be supplied in the form of sulfate rather than muriate, al-

though on light soils, especially those rich in lime, and in ex-
cessively dry seasons the muriate may be preferable. On the soils of the col-
lege farm wherever these two salts have been compared the sulfate has generally
given a slightly heavier crop, and the quality, as indicated by the percentage of
starch, and mealiness and flavor when cooked, has been superior.

A very large number of comparisons between these two salts has been made.
The average of the trials on the different fields has in all cases been a larger
yield on the sulfate, the difference in its favor ranging from one bushel per acre
in one case to 53 bushels in another. The average of the 51 different com-
parisons between these two salts for potatoes shows for the muriate a yield of
207.4 bushels per acre; for the high grade sulfate, 218.6 bushels. The average
difference, therefore, in favor of the sulfate is 11.2 bushels, a quantity which is
much more than sufficient to . cover the difference in cost between the two salts.
The quality of the tubers on the sulfate, moreover, is superior. The differ-
ence is indicated by the following figures, which represent the average of three
experiments: Potatoes raised on sulfate of potash, water 78.11%; on muriate,
79.86'I(i. Per cent, of starch in potatoes raised on sulfate, 14.99%; on muriate,
13.68%.

Wood ashes are not a good source of potash for potatoes on account of their
alkaline character.

FORMULAS FOR USE IN HOME MIXING.

The following materials and proportions are suggested for use under different
conditions :

A. Where fertilizers only are to be employed :

1. On clover sod or soils rich in humus and in high fertility.

In each 100 pounds —

Nitrate of soda, 7 lbs.

Sulfate of ammonia, 4

Cyanamid, 4 "

Tankage, 15

Acid phosphate (14%), 50 "

High grade sulfate of potash, 20 "

Use 1500 to 2000 pounds per acre.

This mixture will have about the following composition: Nitrogen, iA%:,
phosphoric acid, 8.5%; potash, 10"/o.

2. On lighter and poorer soils:
In each 100 pounds —

Nitrate of soda, 12 lbs.

Sulfate of ammonia, 8 "

Cyanamid, 5 "

Tankage, 20 "

Acid phosphate (14%), 35 "

High grade sulfate of potash, 20 "
Use 1500 to 2000 pounds per acre

This mixture will have about the following composition : Nitrogen, SA% ;
phosphoric acid, 6.9%; potash, 10%.

In putting these materials together it is recommended that the cyanamid and
acid phosphate be mixed first, as it is believed that this will be certain to pre-
vent any loss of ammonia from the sulfate of ammonia and tankage which are
later added.

B. For use in connection with manure :

1. On clover sod or soils rich in humus :
In each 100 pounds —

Nitrate of soda, 8 lbs.

Sulfate of ammonia, 4 "

Acid phosphate (14%), 60 "

High grade sulfate of potash, 28 "

Use 600 to 800 pounds per acre, varying with quantity of manure used.
This mixture will have about the following composition: Nitrogen, 2.04%;
phosphoric acid, 8.4%,; potash, 14%.

2. On lighter and poorer soils:
In each 100 pounds —

Nitrate of soda, 8 lbs.

Sulfate of ammonia, 6 "

Tankage, 20 "

Acid phosphate (14%), 40 "

High grade sulfate of potash, 26 "

Use 800 to 1200 pounds per acre, varying with quantity of manure used.
This mixture will have about the following composition : Nitrogen, 3.64% ;
phosphoric acid, 8.4%; potash, 13%.

If the potatoes are to be planted by hand, good results may be
Method of obtained by opening the furrows and then scattering the ma-
Application, terials widely the full length of the furrow, making it cover not
only the entire furrow, but a space a few inches in width on
each side. If spread in this way, the fertilizer will not be so thick that it will be
necessary to take any special steps to mix it with the soil. It will be sufficiently
mixed in covering the seed. If planting is done by macliine, the fertilizer attach-
ment of the machine should be one which scatters the fertilizer over a relatively
wide area. If such a machine cannot be used, it may be best to withhold a por-
tion of the fertilizer until the crop is three or four inches high, when it should be
scattered along strips ten or twelve inches wide on either side of the row and
cultivated in.

Circular No. 43. (Revision of No. 2) June, 19 14

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTORAL [XPEKIINT STATION

CUTWORMS.

BY H. T. FERNALD, PH. D.

The general term "Cutworms" refers to the larvae of the Noctuids
or owlet moths, but all Noctuid larvae are not necessarily cutworms.
There are two classes of cutworms, those which feed on weeds, veg-
etables, and flowers, and which are the ones herein treated, and
those which feed on the leaves and buds of trees, which are not
usually abundant enough in Massachusetts to cause serious injury.

The cutworms attack almost any succulent and juicy plant, such
as grass, clover, corn and wheat, garden vegetables and flowering
plants.

LIFE HISTORY.

The moths lay their eggs, 200-500 in number, in masses of rank
vegetable growth, usually on the stalk, though sometimes on the
leaves. This occurs about the last of August or the first of Septem-
ber and about the last of September or the first of October the
young caterpillars begin to feed on the plant upon which the eggs
were laid. After they have grown to about three-fourths of an inch
in length, they go into a dormant state for the winter in the ground
and remain there until spring. They then come to the surface and
eat whatever plant food they may find until full grown, this being
generally between the last of June and the last of July. The follow-
ing features are possessed by nearly all the species and by these
they may be recognized. They are from i 1-4 to nearly 2 inches in
length ; have sixteen feet, the three anterior pairs being sharp, the
five posterior pairs blunt and stout and armed with minute hooks
for clasping ; they have the appearance of being stout with an
inclination to taper at both ends and they are usually dull-colored,
greasy-looking, dingy-brown, gray or greenish, with some light and
dark longitudinal lines and sometimes with oblique dashes. The
head is large, shiny and usually of a red or reddish brown color.
The first ring or collar bears a darker colored, shiny, horny plate as
also does the last segment of the body.

When full grown the caterpillars cease feeding and work their way
into the soil for a depth of four to six inches, and there form an oval
cell by rolling and twisting about until it is smooth and compact and
then change to brown, conical pupae.

Usually in August, the moths emerge from these pupae and fly at
night feeding upon the nectar of flowers and other sweet exudations
from trees or plants.

The life history of this insect is completed about the last of August
when the eggs are laid for the new generation.

HABITS.

The presence of cutworms becomes noticeable in a field as soon
as the plants are set out or when the seeds have begun to sprout.
Plants all through the field will have fallen or will have disappeared.
If examined they will be found to have been cut off at the surface or
a little below the surface of the ground by the cutworms and this
injury continues until the worms are full grown.

ENEMIES.

Because of their large size and hairless bodies these insects are
an easy prey to many enemies. The robin is especially effective as
it destroys more than any other bird. Poultry, especially chickens,
destroy many of them and if trained to follow the plow they will do
effective work. The beetle larvae known as the cutworm lion and
the cutworm dragon, as well as the toad, help much to keep this
insect pest in check.

REMEDIES.

There are two kinds of remedies to be applied to this insect ; pre-
ventive and destructive. Of the former clean culture is the most
important. As the moths usually deposit their eggs in rank growth,
it is advisable where the land is not seeded down to keep it clean and
not let it grow up to weeds. Fall plowing will in many cases prove
quite beneficial, provided it is done early.

If on preparing a field for planting any crop liable to attack, cut-
worms are noticed as abundant, complete the preparation of the
field, then spray some clover heavily with Paris green, and then cut
the clover and scatter it here and there over the field. The cut-
worms c<nTiing up after food will feed on this and be poisoned.

After a crop is in a different treatment is necessary. In such
cases prepare a bran mash made of fifty pounds t)f bran or mid-
dlings, one pound of Paris green, two quarts of molasses to sweeten,
and water to make a dough or mash. Place a little of this at the
base of each plant in the latter part of the afternoon, and keep fowls
away. The cutworms coming up to feed at night will find in this
mash a food they prefer because of its sweetness, to the plant stem
and will feed on it instead. In this way nearly all of these pests will
.be destroyed and it is not often necessary to repeat this treatment.

Circular No. 44. July, 1914.

ISSACHUSniS AOICiTiAL EMRIMENT STATION.

AMHERST.

Suggestions for Judging the Agricultural
Value and Adaptation of Land.

William P. Brooks.
A person familiar with such matters will be able to form a very
accurate opinion as to the productive capacity and adaptation of
land by examination on the spot. The knowledge that such a
person will be able to obtain as to the agricultural value of a piece
of land for any particular purpose by such examination will be
more exact and more reliable than the indications afforded by
chemical analysis. For the formation of an accurate judgment
considerable experience is essential, but it is hoped that the sug-
gestions which follow will make the matter at least sufficiently
clear for a fairly satisfactory estimate. Among the more impor-
tant factors which should be observed may be named the follow-
ing :

1. The depth and color of the surface soil.

2. The level of the water table and the conditions affecting
drainage.

3. The texture of the soil.

4. The general appearance and texture of the subsoil.

5. The character of the natural or spontaneous vegetation.

L The Depth and C«>lor of the Surface Soil.

The term surface soil is commonly used to indicate that portion
of the topsoil which in uplands, at least, is almost always dis-
tinctly different in color from the soil below. In the case of soils
which have been plowed and cultivated it is generally used to
desi^ate that part of the soil which is turned over by the plow.
The darker in color the surface soil and the greater its depth, the
more productive, as a rule, the land will be found to be. The
usual cause of the darker color of the surface soil is the presence
of organic matter or humus. The larger the amount of such mat-
ter in upland soils, the better, for it is highly favorable to good
texture and productiveness. It is possible to determine the pro-
portion of organic matter in a soil with approximate accuracy,
even without laboratory facilities. The following method is sug-
gested :

Take small quantities of soil to the full depth to which the sutt-
face soil extends in a considerable number of different places.

Put these samples together, mix them thoroughly, and of this
mixture take about one pint for the test.

(a) Spread this sample out in a shallow pan and place it where
it will be quite hot, but not sufficiently so to bum. If con-
venient it may be set on top of a covered boiling kettle of water,
as there would then be no possibility of overheating. The sample
should first be weighed. It should then be heated until it is
believed that all the water has been driven ofif, but it should be
re-heated after the first weighing and if it is found that it has
continued to lose in weight it should be heated again. The heat-
ing process should be continued until two successive weights are
practically the same.

(b) The pan of thoroughly dried soil should be placed over a
a live fire, brought to a red heat, and held there until no smoke
or active combustion can be seen. The material should then be
removed and when it is cool weighed. After this weight is recorded
it should be subjected to intense heat again and re- weighed. This
alternate heating and weighing should be continued until no
further loss of weight takes place.

(c) The difference in weight between the dried soil and the soil
after it has been intensely heated will represent with substantial
accuracy the amount of organic matter. It is desirable that
the soil should contain at least four or five per cent of such mat-
ter, and seven or eight will be yet better.

2. The Level of the Water Table and the Conditions
Affecting Drainage.

The term water table designates the level of the standing water
in the soil. It can be determined by opening holes to sufficient
depth in different representative parts of the field. If the water
table is comparatively near the surface holes opened with a crow-
bar will answer the purpose, but if it lies too low to be reached in
this way they may be opened by the use of a post-hole digger or
spade, or if it can be obtained a soil auger may in some cases be
most convenient. The important point in connection with exami-
nation for the water table is to ascertain whether it lies too near
the surface to permit good root development. Foi most crops
conditions will be, in general, satisfactory if the water table at the
time when seeds are put in is not nearer than some five or six feet
below the surface. It may lie considerably lower than this during
the hottest and dryest part of the year without disadvantage and,
of course, very early in the spring or in seasons of excessive rain-
fall it may lie nearer thesuiface. Thoroughly satisfactory results
with most crops cannot, however, be expected if the water table
during any part of the growing season for a crop stands for any
considerable length of time nearer than some five feet below the

surface. The grass crop is an exception and heavy yields of fairly
good quality may be obtained with the water table considerably
nearer the surface.

In the climate of Massachusetts there is a considerable excess of
rainfall as compared with the evaporation of water from the sur-
face. The total annual rainfall in most parts of the state is about
forty-four inches. Evaporation from the land surface varies greatly,
but it is not likely to be much more than half the above amount.
There remains then a layer of water some twenty inches in depth
to be disposed of by drainage. A study of the water table will
show whether the natural drainage channels are sufficient to carry
away this water. If the water table, in cases wheie it is raised by
excessive rainfall to within a short distance of the surface, does
not fall to the level which has been indicated as desirable within
two or three days it shows that the natural drainage is not as free
and effective as it should be. In such cases it is important to
observe whether conditions are such that artificial drainage can be
put in without excessive cost. Soils in which the water table
naturally stands too high for the best crop results, if artificially
drained are likely to be more productive and more valuable for
many crops than soils which do not need artificial diainage.

3. THE TEXTURE OF THE SOIL.

The texture of the soil is determined largely by the relative pro-
portions of particles of different sizes, although the shape of the
particles and the proportion of organic matter also have an effect.
The texture of the soil is important chiefly because of its relations
to the capacity of the soil to retain water and to conduct water
from below upwards by capillary attraction. To form a judgment
as to soil texture the soil should be examined by eye, by touch
and by making it into a dilute mixture with water and allowing it
to settle :

Appearance : If the texture of the soil is so coarse that the
individual particles can clearly be distinguished, if each stands out
as a distinct grain of considerable size, the soil will be relatively
deficient in ability to hold and conduct water. It will be a light
soil.

On the other hand, if the individual particles are so small they
cannot be clearly distinguished with the naked eye, but are brought
out by a good pocket lens, the soil allows water to pass
through it rather slowly, retains a relatively large proportion and
in periods of drought is likely to bring water from the lower and
more moist strata toward the surface by capillary attraction.
Crops on such soils will be much less influenced by periods of
extreme drought and heat than on soils of coarser texture. If,
however, the particles are so excessively fine that it will require a

high power of the microscope to distinguish them as individuals
the soil is likely to be too impervious both to water and air.
Such soils are usually characterized as heavy.

The Feel of the Soil : A very good idea as to the character of
the particles which make up the soil , and therefore as to its gen-
eral texture and quality, can be obtained by examination with the
fingers. Place a little of the soil in the most sensitive part of the
palm of the hand and rub it with the sensitive tips of the fingers .
If it is found to contain particles which tend to cut and scratch
the soil will be light. On the other hand, if it has a soft, smooth
feel it will have much better capacity to retuin water. Here
again, if on making the soil quite moist and rubbing it in the palm.
of the hand it is found to have almost the feeling of paste it prob-
ably contains a large proportion of clay and must be classed as
heavy. If a little of the soil be rolled between thumb and fingers,
while held close to the ear, a grating sound will be heard if it con-
tains much coarse sand.

Settling in Water : Additional knowledge as to the relative
proportions of coarse and fine particles in the soil can be obtained by
stirring it up with a relatively large amount of water. The water
should be slowly added as in making paste and all the lumps
broken up. To the thick mixture a sufficient amount of water
should be added to make the whole vei-y fluid. This mixture of
soil and water should be turned into a glass cylinder and allowed
to settle. The coarser particles will go to the bottom first and by
examination through the glass the relative proportions of coarse
and fine can be quite accurately determined. A tumbler may be
used but a higher glass is preferable. If almost all the particles
go to the bottom at once the soil must be made up principally of
sand. If the water clears gradually, but remains turbid for a
considerable number of hours, there must be considerable silt or
clay. If clay predominates it will be many days before the water
will become entirely clear. In general, soils made up principally
of the finer grades of sand and silt, with only moderate quantities
of clay, have the best texture and give the best results in
agricuture.

4. The General Appearance and Texture of the Sub-SoiL

A suitable texture in the sub-soil to a depth of some five or six
feet, at least, is almost as important as in the surface soil. In
general it should be similar. It is far better, however, that the
sub-soil be more compact and of finer texture than the surface
soil than that it should have the opposite characteristics. A sub-
soil that is very open, and contains loose gravel or course sand in
large porportion is to be avoided for most crops. The methods
of examination should be the same as for surface soil.

5. The Character of the Natural or Spontaneous
Vegetation.

To the practiced eye the vegetation which grows spontaneously
in any given locaUty affords clear indications as to the character
and general agricultural value of the soil. In attempting to give
a basis for judgment, dependent upon observation of the natural
vegetation, it seems best to speak of the plants which should be
observed under the following classes :

Grasses and clover, sedges and rushes, miscellaneous herbaceous
plants, weeds, and trees.

Grasses and Clovers : Among the commonest grasses which
indicate a soil of very low agricultural value are the beard or
poverty grasses (Andropogon scoparius and furcatus). Where
these grasses are almost the only herbaceous vegetation it is cer-
tain that the soil is very low in capacity to retain moisture, and
its productive value will be very small. Among other grasses
which indicate relatively light and dry soils are : Sweet vernal,
(in some localities known as June grass) (Anthoxanthum odoratum) ,
and meadow soft grass (Holcus lanatus). The soils, however, where
these grasses predominate is likely to be of consfderably better
qualit}^ than those where the beard grasses occupy most of the
ground.

Among grasses which indicate a much better and moister soil
may be mentioned Kentucky blue grass (Poa pratensis) and
meadow fescue (Festuca elatior). Orchard grass {Dactylis
glomerata) while it will thrive upon lighter soils than the two last
named, indicates a fairly good soil.

Among grasses which indicate soils rich in organic matter and
inclined to be wet, blue-joint {Calamagrostic canadensis) and foul
meadow {Poa triflora) are among the most common. The pres-
ence of a large proportion of white clover (Trifolinm repens) in the
turf is an indication of soil of good quality and fairly retentive of
moisture.

On the other hand, rabbit-foot clover and yellow clovers {Tri-
foUum arvense and TnfoHum agrarium) indicate light and rela-
tively dry and poor soils.

The presence of sweet clover {Melilotus alba) indicates a soil of
good quality and usually one which is relatively rich in lime.

Sedges and Rushes : The sedges are plants which to the ordi-
nary observer closely resemble grasses. They can, however,
readily be distinguished from grasses, The latter have joined,
round, hollow stems and leaves in two ranks. Sedges have three
sided stems, usually solid, and the stem leaves are arranged in three
ranks. Most of the sedges thrive best in moist soils and where
they are abundant it is certain that artificial drainage will improve

'the soil for almost any purpose, and even for the production of
hay.

Rushes are also somewhat grassilike but are yet more easily
distinguished from grasses than sedges. Their stems are pithy or
hollow, but not jointed. Their flowers are produced in clusters
and are small and greenish or brownish in color. Rushes like
sedges prefer moist or wet soils and indicate the necessity of arti-
ficial drainage.

Miscellaneous Herbaceous Plants : The herbaceous plants
which grow along the fence rows or in unimproved land should be
■carefully noted : The small golden-rods and sun-flowers indicate
relatively Hght, comparatively dry and poor soils, so too do bush
clovers (Lespedeza), mullein and lupines. The asters indicate soils
having better capacity to retain moistiire. The presence of vetches
in abundance, and the fact that the common yellow dock flour-
ishes and attains a large size, indicate that the soil is more reten-
tive of moistme and of better quality. Horse-tail {Eqiiisetitm
arvense) indicates a light soil.

Among other classes of plants whose presence and abundance,
especially if the individual specimens are of good size, indicate
soil of good retentive capacity and of good quaHty are some of the
larger species of the parsley family, the mints, and some of the
species of the nettle family. Heaths such as the checkerberry,
cranberry and huckleberry indicate a soil likely to be deficient in
lime.

The presence of bluets (Houstonia), the greenish mosses and of
ierns in abundance is an indication that the soil is probably sour.

The Japanese farmers are accustomed to say that in wild land
"where the most common color of the flowers of the natural vegeta-
tion is yellow the soil is poor, but if the prevailing color of the
flowers of the natural vegetation is blue the soil is sure to be com-
paratively good. Although this classification is not entirely safe
it will generally apply under conditions prevailing in Massachu-
setts.

The Weed Growth : In attempting to fonn an estimate of the
character and productive value of cultivated land the varieties of
weeds and their size and vigor should be noted. There are, of
comse, innumerable kinds of weeds and no attempt is made to
mention all ; only a few of the more common which afford clear
indications as to soil quality will be named :

Wormwood {Artemisia absinthium) indicates a light and i da-
tively dry soil. Pigweeds of different species {Amaranthus and
Chenopodium) indicate rich soil with greater capacity to retain
moisture. The smart weeds (Polygonum) indicate a soil which is
inclined to be moist and usually relatively rich. " Pusley " or
purslane {Portulaca oleracea) flourishes in rich soils inclined to be

light rather than heavy. Where sorrel is abundant the soil is
likely to be sour. Shepherd' spurse {Capsella Bursa-pastoris)
thrives best in medium and rich loams.

Tree Growth: Among trees which indicate soils of rather poor
quality, and inclined to be very light and deficient in moisture
may be mentioned the white birch, scrub oak, scarlet and yellow
oaks, and the pitch pine. The white pine, hemlock and chestnut,
indicate soils of considerable better quality and with better
capacity to retain moisture. The elm, ash, and white and black
oak, the walnut and the red maple indicate soils with good
capacity to retain moisture and with good productive capacity.
In localities where the chestnut is the prevailing tree the soil will
be found to be deficient in lime. Such trees as the black birch ^
yellow birch and beech flourish in a strong retentive soil fairly
rich, at least, in lime and humus. The witch-hazel, although
hardly large enough to be called a tree, may be mentioned here.
It is popularly regarded as indicating a soil of good quality. The
black alders and willows thrive in soils which, at times, at leasts
are wet and which will usually need artificial drainage.

LEADING CHARACTERISTICS SUMMARIZED.

Some of the more marked among the characteristics (which
may readily be noted) of soils of different characters may be stim-
marized as follows :

Characteristics of Inferior Soils : The soils which are Hght
and dry, and on which it is practically certain that crops would fre-
quently suffer from lack of moisture, will usually present some or
all of the following easily observed characteristics :

If there are trees, the scrub oak, pitch pine, white birch. Juniper
or red cedar are likely to be prominent. Beard grasses in scat-
tered tufts or forming a rather open turf will be abundant. The
flowers in general will be yellow. The smaller golden-rods, sun-
flowers and mullin are likely to occur. Lupines and sand violets
are abundant in some sections. Examination of the soil will show
that even at the surface it is of relatively light color, containing^
very little humus. The surface soil is shallow. When tested by
touch both the surface soil and sub-soil will be found to be made
up largely of relatively coarse, gritty particles.

Soils of this character if they can be enriched in humus and
irrigated at moderate cost may give profitable returns. They are
suited particularly to such crops as thrive at relatively high tem-
peratures such as beans, cucumbers, melons and tomatoes. They
may also be fairly suited for asparagus, but this crop will be very
subject to rust unless it can be irrigated. Rye and buckwheat
may do fairly well. If in doubt as to what crops may be grown
on a given soil the best course to follow is to ascertain what farm-
ers in that neighborhood are successfully raising on similar
soils.

Characteristics of Good Soil : The soils which are at least of
fairly good quality will usually present some or all of the following
characteristics :

8

Among the trees will be found such varieties as the white pine,
hemlock, chestnut, sugar maple and white, black, red and pin
oaks. If there is turf it will be relatively close, made up of such
species as sweet vernal, Kentucky blue grass and white clover.
The prevailing color of the flowers will be other than yellow.
Violets (not sand or birdfoot) asters and vetches are likely to be
found. The surface soil will be comparatively dark in color, indi-
cating a good amount of humus, and it will be deep. The sub-
soil will be moderately compact and both it and the surface soil
will be made up largely of fine particles having a smooth feel to
the touch.

Soils with these characteristics will be suited to most of the
crops cultivated in Massachusetts, particularly, com, onions,
potatoes, squashes, apples, pears, peaches, currants and straw-
berries.

Characteristics of the Strongest and Best Soils : The
soils which contain most active and potential fertility, and which
have good capacity to retain moisture usually show some or all
of the following characteristics :

If trees are present, among them the elms, ash, oaks of large
size, the beech, walnuts, and red maple are likely to be found. If
there be turf it will be close, luxuriant, made up largely in most
parts of the state of Kentucky blue grass, fescues and white
clover. Vetches, smart weeds and dock are likely to be found.
The flowers will be mostly blue. The surface soil will be dark in
color and deep, and both it and the sub-soil will be fine in texture,
containing, at least, a fair amount of clay and a large proportion
of silt.

Such soils, if the drainage is good, will give satisfactory crops
of almost aU kinds. They will be particularly suited for grass,
oats, celery and, in general, for crops which thrive best at rela-
tively low temperatures, and yvith uniform and abundant supply
of moisture. Plums and quinces should do well. Strawberries
will thrive if organic matter is abundant.

The Soils of Our Marshes and Swamps :

The soils of marshes and swamps exhibit characteristics so
different from those of the uplands, to which especially the
previous discussion of soil characteristics applies, that a few words
in relation to them seem called for :

The soil in a typical marsh or swamp is usually made up of
muck or peat resting upon a compact bottom. The depth of the
muck or peat varies from a few inches to many feet. The muck
and peat are made up principally of vegetable matter, in a very
advanced state of decay in muck, but possessing more of the
characteristics of the original plant tissues in peat. These soils
are in general very wet. If they can be relieved of surplus water
by artificial drainage and well worked to allow aeration they may
be made highly productive. Those are of most value which have
a considerable admixture of the very finest grades of sand, silt
and clay, and with the vegetable matter quire fully decayed.
Such soils will be found especially valuable for grass, celery and
late potatoes. These soils are usually sour. They are relatively
rich in nitrogen, but are likely to need applications of lime and
potash.

Circular No. 45. (Revision of No. 29). July, 1914.

Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station.

AMHERST

The Chemical Analysis of Soils*

By William P. Brooks, Director

Almost every day the station receives either inquiries regarding
the chemical analysis of soils or samples forwarded for such analy-
sis. The following letter received a short time ago fairly repre-
sents the attitude of most correspondents relative to such work.

Gentlemen: I wish for information for Mr

the owner of a large farm in , Mass.

He wishes to know if he can send you samples of soil for
analysis; most likely would send 8 to 10 samples from
different parts of his farm. In what form and in what
quantity should he send, and what would be the expense
for analysis of each package sent? He would also like
to know what crops would produce the best results for
each sample sent, and the best fertilizer for each sample
and the quantity required.

It will be noted that the gentleman in whose interest this
letter was written believed: —

(1) That chemical analysis will show to what crops a soil is
suited.

(2) That such analysis will determine what fertilizers should
be applied and the quantity needed.

Our correspondence indicates that these views are very generally
held, while another widely accepted belief is that the cause of crop
disease will be revealed by a chemical analysis of the soil in which
the crop is growing.

Although a chemical analysis of a soil is often of value, it is be-
lieved that these views are neither generally accepted by scientifiic
men nor supported by the known facts of experience under the
conditions usually met with in this state.

1. The^Crop Adaptation. While the chemical condition
of a soil is not altogether without influence in determining the
crops to which it is suited, this, as a rule, at least within such
range of soil variation as exists in this state, plays a much less
important part than mechanical and physical peculiarities. The
crops to which a soil is suited are determined chiefly by its drain-
age, its capacity to hold and to conduct water, its temperature
and its aeration; and these in turn are determined by the
mechanical structure of the soil and sub-soil. Variations in the
proportions of gravel, sand, silt, and clay, and not in chemical
composition, cause the usual differences in these respects. The
varying proportions of these, therefore, usually determine the
crops to which a soil is suited.

2. Fertilizer Requirements. The results of a chemical
analysis of a soil do not, as a rule, afford a satisfactory basis for
determining manurial requirements. The chemist, it is true, can
determine what the soil contains, but no ordinary analysis
determines with exactness what proportion of the several
elements present is in available form for the crop. Indeed, there
is no such thing as a constant ratio of availability. While one
crop finds in a given soil all the plant food it requires, another
may find a shortage of one or more elements. Further, on the
very same field one crop may find an insufficient amount of
potash, another may find enough potash for normal growth, but
insufficient phosphoric acid; while a third may suffer only from
an insufficient supply of nitrogen.

Most of our soils are of mixed rock origin, and, as a rule, possess
similar general chemical characteristics, providing they have been
farmed under usual conditions. The manurial and fertilizer re-
quirements are determined more largely for most soils by the crop
than by peculiarities in the chemical condition of the soil.

3. Crop Diseases. In some cases, the correspondent reports
that his crop is diseased, and that he desires a chemical analysis
in order to ascertain what is the cause. The chemical composition
of the soil may in some instances exercise a controlling influence
in determining a condition of health or disease, and is never
unimportant from the standpoint of vigorous, normal and healthy
growth ; but in the case of most diseases, the immediately active
cause is the presence of a parasitic fungus, and this fungus is
usually capable of fixing itself upon the plant whatever may be
the composition of the soil. A knowledge of the chemical com-
position of soils, therefore, will not make it possible to advise such
manurial or fertilizer treatment as will insure immunity from
disease.

CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH ANALYSES WILL BE

MADE.

For the reasons which have been briefly outlined, the chemical:
analysis of soils does not, as a rule, afford results which have a
value commensurate with the cost; and this station, therefore,
will not make such analyses imless the soil differs widely from
the normal in natural characteristics, or has been subjected to
unusual treatment of such a nature as to probably greatly
influence its chemical condition. In order that we may decide
whether analysis seems called for, correspondents are urged to
write before taking samples ; covering the points indicated
below. If we decide that the analysis promises results of interest
and value to the pubHc, as well as to the individual, the work will
be done and without charge.

INFORMATION NEEDED.

Description of the soil.

(a) Color.

(b) Depth.

(c) Feel.

(d) Most Common Trees.*

(e) Most Common Plants.*

(f) Most Common Grasses and Clovers.*

(g) Most Common Weeds.*

(h) If Manured or Fertilized: What and How
Much Applied.!

(i) What Crops Recently Grown and With What
Results ?t

TAKING SAMPLE.

Dig holes 8 inches square in different parts of the field to a
depth a little below where the surface soil ends.** From each
take a slice one-half inch thick from one side, mix all these
samples very thoroughly, and of the mixture send 1 pint in a clean
closed jar or can.

Address: Director's Office,

Mass. Agr'l Exp. Station,

Amherst, Mass.

* Send specimens if not sure of name.

t Give the information for as many years as possible.

**See circular No. 44.

Circular No. 46. September, 1914

MASSACHUSEHS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,

AMHERST.

Directions for Sending Fruits for Identification.

By J. K. Shaw.

The Department of Pomology receives each year many specimens
of orchard fruits for identification. This service is gladly undertaken
and might be more satisfactorily performed if certain rules for the
selection, packing and forwarding of the specimens were more
commonly observed. It is the purpose of this circular to set forth
such rules for the guidance of those desiring to submit specimens for
identification or for any other purpose.

1. At least two specimens of each variety should be sent.
Whenever possible a larger number should be included. This may

conveniently be done if the fruits are small.

2. The specimens should be typical of the variety.

They should not be the largest nor the most highly colored and
especial care should be taken to select those of characteristic form.

3. It is best that they should be sent two or three days before
reaching prime eating condition.

Fruits do not fully develop their varietal characteristics until they
are completely ripened. Therefore at this stage identification is
easier and more certain.

4. Wrap each fruit (or in the case of grapes and small fruits each
cluster) separately in soft paper. Use several layers.

5. If more than one variety is sent attach a number to each
specimen.

This may be done by fastening a tag to the stem or where this is
impossible by marking, plainly, the wrapper. Keep a memorandum
of this so you will be sure to remember which is which on receiving
our reply.

6. Whenever possible include a shoot or twig from each variety
sent.

This should include two years growth, that of the present and of
last season. The age may be readily determined by locating the
second annual ring from the tip. Free growing shoots should be
chosen. In the case of peaches, grapes and small fruits a portion of
the present seasons growth is sufficient. The attached leaves should
be included if in season. If the shoot is too long to pack easily it
may be cut in sections. It should have a tag bearing the same
number as the corresponding fruit specimens and be carefully wrapped
in soft paper in such a manner as to avoid as far as possible, bruising
the leaves. Do not bend or break the shoots in packing them.

7. Pack the wrapped fruits and shoots in a strong box with an
abundance of soft crumpled paper, cotton or similar soft material.

Great care should be observed in this to see that the fruits cannot
be injured by pressure against each other, the enclosed shoots or the
sides of the box. Be sure that all is pacKed SHIIgly leaving no
possibility of vacant space developing in the more or less rough
handling sure to be encountered in transportation. Choose a box of
ample size s<; that there will be room for an abundance of Soft
pacKing material. It should be of wood, strong cardboard or
best of all corrugated paper. Do not use wood veneer nor light paste-
board boxes. Tie the package with plenty of strong cord.

8. By the same mail write us advising of the shipment and giving
for each variety as far as possible the following information (a) the
approximate age of the tree, (b) where the tree came from, (c) the soil
type whether sandy, loamy or clay and whether moist or dry,
(d) cultural conditions espcially whether in sod or under cultivation.
If you have any suspicion of the name of the variety mention it. The
blank on page 4 may be used for this purpose.

If sent by express this information may be enclosed in the package.
It is contrary to the postal regulations to send it by parcel post.

g. Address the parcel to the Department of Pomology, Massachu-
setts Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass. Be sure to put your own
name on the package so we may know from whom it is received,

I

The Identification of Nursery Stock.

There is much complaint of the failure of nursery stock to be true
to name. Orchardists are frequently desirous of knowing whether or
not newly purchased stock or other young trees are what they are
claimed to be. To determine this involves usually the identification
of the variety in the absence of fruit, a task that is difficult and in
many cases well-nigh impossible.

We can attempt such work only in the case of apple varieties and
cannot guarantee accuracy in all cases, nevertheless we are glad to
receive specimens and render the best service possible. Also such
specimens may be of value to us in the work of the Experiment
Station.

Persons desiring to submit shoots for examination should carefully
observe the instructions given under paragraph 6. It is necessary to
send two years growth of a free growing shoot and especial care
should be taken to forestall injury to the leaves. It is well to send a
few typical leaves from the present season's growth, smoothly
packed between layers of soft paper in the bottom of the package in
addition to those attached to the shoot. If no fruits are enclosed it
is well to dampen the packing material slightly. Instructions given
under paragraphs 5,7,8 and 9 should be followed.

Leaf characters are of great value in identifying varieties and it is
impossible in most cases to do much without them. However if one
is desirous of submiting dormant shoots we will be glad to receive
them and do what we can. It is often possible to determine whether
or not a tree is correctly named even though in cases of substitution,
accidental or otherwise, it is impossible to tell what the variety is.
Dormant shoots should include two years growth of a free growing
shout and be tightly wrapped to check drying out.

Information Blank to Accompany Fruit
Specimens.

Name of sender

Date

Address

Kind of fruit

Number of specimens

Where grown

Age of tree

Source of tree

Soil

Cultural conditions

Possible variety name

Method of shipment

Remarks

Circular No. 47.

November, 19 14

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,

AMHERST.

The Feeding Value of Apple Pomace,

BY J. B. LINDSEY.

There is often considerable discussion in the agricultural press
and among farmers concerning the value of apple pomace as a
food for dairy and beef cattle. With a view to getting a few posi-
tive data, this station instituted a number of experiments, the re-
sults of which are here briefiv stated.

(a) Compost

tion of Apple

Pomace

(Per Cent.)

Water.

Ash.

Protein.

Fiber.

Extract

Matter.

Fat.

Sample I, . • .

Sample II,

Corn silage for comparison

81.40
80.20
80.00

.73
.60

1.10

.94
1.01
1.70

3.00
3.19
5.40

13.03
13.73
11.10

.90

1.27

.70

It will be seen from the above figures that apple pomace is a
carbohydrate feed similar to corn silage. It contains about the
same amount of water, rather less protein and fiber, and a larger
proportion of extract matter. Whether the extract or starchy
matter in the pomace is as valuable, pound for pound, as that
contained in the com, has not been thoroughly demonstrated.

(6) Digestibility of Apple Pomace.

The value of a feed cannot always be measured by its composi-
tion. A food is valuable as a source of nutrition only in so far as
its various constituents can be digested and assimilated. This
station has made two different experiments to ascertain the diges-
tibility of the pomace, and the detailed results are to be found in
the seventeenth report of this station. The summary follows :

Summary of Experiments {Per Cent.)

Apple pomace (first ex-
periment), .

Apple pomace (second
experiment),

Average, .

Dent corn silage (f6r com-
parison),

Flint corn silage (small
varieties), .

Numb'r

of
Single
Trials.

17
11

Dry
Matter.

70.6
71.5

64.0
75.0

Ash.

72.5 54.7

Protein Fiber.

42.8 —

48.7

Extract
M atter

61.6 84.5
67.3 84.3

— 64.4 84.4

— I 52.0 62.0 69.0

I

— I 65.0 77.0 I 79.0

Fat.

47.2
43.4

85.0
82.0

The results show the total dry matter in apple pomace to be
about as digestible as in the best grades of silage. The protein
content of the pomace is small — about 1 per cent — and it has not
been possible, by present methods, to ascertain its digestibility,
judging from the composition and digestibility of the pomace,
one would feel justified in assuming that, pound for pound, it
should approach in feeding value an average quality of corn
silage.

(c) Experiments with Dairy Animals.

While this station has not carried out any exhaustive compara-
tive tests with pomace and other coarse feeds, it has fed the
pomace a number of seasons to dairy animals. The material was
drawn fresh from the mill, and placed in a large pile under cover.
A noticeable quantity of juice gradually drained from it, but it
kept in good condition for two months The animals received
from 15 to 30 lbs. daily, ate it readily, and the results were quite
satisfactory. In one case two cows were fed alternatel3^ four
weeks at a time, on grain and hay, and on grain, hay and pomace;
25 pounds of pomace were compared with 5 pounds of hay. Dur-
ing the pomace period the animals produced 1,153 pounds of milk,
and gained 24 pounds in \\\e weight ; during the hay period,
1,138 pounds of milk and lost 6 pounds in weight. On this
basis 5 pounds of pomace were more than equivalent to 1 poiuid
of hay. Judging from this feeding test, and from the composition
and digestibility of the pomace, it seems probable that 4 pounds,
when fed in what is termed a " balanced ration." would be equal
in feeding value to 1 pound of good cow hay.

The Vemiont Experiment Station has fed apple pomace for four
years, using in all 20 cows in the several trials. The pomace was
shoveled into the silo, leveled off, and kept in good condition
without further care. In some cases it was placed on top of the
corn silage after the latter had settled. The quantity fed varied
from 10 to 35 pounds daily, with no unfavorable effects. As a
result of the several experiments, the Vermont station concludes
that the pomace is equivalent in feeding value to an equal weight
of average corn silage,* and that it is without injurious effect on
the flavor of milk and butter.

Farmers are cautioned not to feed too large quantities at first,
but to begin with 10 pounds daily, and to gradually increase the
quantity to 30 pounds, taking a week or more in which to do it.
In this way, danger of a sudden milk shrinkage or of the animals
getting "off feed," as is sometimes reported, may be avoided.
Judging from all the data available, it is believed that farmers
living in the vicinit}' of cider mills will find it good economy to
utilize the pomace as a food for their dairy stock.

As roughage, 30 pounds pomace may be fed, or 15 pounds pom-
ace and 15 pounds of corn silage, together with what hay
the animal will eat, which will usually be from 10 to 16 pounds
daily. In addition, 5 to 10 pounds of a grain mixture will be
necessary, the amount depending upon the size of the animal and
her milk yield. Pomace may also be fed to dry cows, steers and
to sheep.

Some desirable grain mixtures to be fed with roughage :

I. II.

100 pounds bran. 100 pounds bran.

100 pounds flour middlings. 100 pounds corn or hominy meal.'

100 pounds gluten feed. 100 pounds cottonseed meal.

Mix and feed 6 to 8 pounds (7 to 9 Mix and feed 6 to 8 pounds (7 to 9

quarts) dail3\ quarts) daily.

III. IV.

100 pounds wheat bran. 100 pounds wheat bran or malt

200 pounds gluten feed. sprouts.

35 pounds cottonseed meal. 100 pounds corn or hominy meal.

Mix and feed 7 pounds (7 quart.s) 150 pounds gluten feed.

daily. Mix and feed 7 pounds (or quarts)

daily.

* There is doubt in the mind of the writer whether pomace would prove equal to
well-preserved and well-eared corn silage. It certainly would approach it in feeding value,
and ought to be fully utilized.

■ Corn and cob meal if on hand can Ije used in place of corn or hominy meal.

75 pounds wheat bran.
150 pounds com and cob meal.
100 pounds cottonseed meal.
Mix and feed 6 to 7 pounds (7 qts )
daily.

VII.

150 pounds distillers' grains.
150 pounds standard middlings.
100 pounds corn or hominy meal.
Mix and feed 7 pounds (or quarts)
daily.

IX.

200 pounds dried brewers' grains.
100 pounds corn meal.
50 pounds cottonseed meal.
Mix and feed 7 pounds (9 quarts)
daily.

VI.
100 pounds distillers' grains.
100 pounds malt sprouts.
150 pounds corn meal.
50 poimds cottonseed meal.
Mix and feed 7 pounds (7 to 8 qts.)
daily.

VII r.

150 pounds wheat bran.
200 pounds gluten feed.
Mix and feed 7 pounds (8 to 9 qts.)
daily.

300 pounds bran.
100 pounds flour middlings.
100 pounds corn meal.
100 pounds ground oats.
300 pounds gluten feed.
100 pounds linseed meal.
Mix and feed as desired.

XI.

1.5 pounds gluten feed.
1.5 pounds cottonseed meal.
4.0 pounds dried beet pulp.^

XII.

3 pounds distillers' grains.

4 pounds dried beet pulp.^

The cost of a pound of the several mixtures is Hkely to var}'
from 1.4 to 1.6 cents. It is believed that the above selections are
more economical on the basis of their content of nutritive material
than most of the sugar feeds and other proprietary mi.xtures.

In general, it may be said that the amount of grain to be fed
daily depends (a) upon the size of the cow, (b) daily milk yield,
and (c) the local market value of the milk. The richer the milk,
the more food is reqtiiied to produce a given amount, and vice
versa.

Six to seven pounds of the abo\'e mixtures is a fair average
amount for cows weighing 800 to 900 pounds, which are yielding
10 quarts of 4 to 5 per cent milk. For every two quarts of milk
yielded in excess of this amount the grain ration may be increased
by one pound.

2 Ration designed for cows on test : rather expensive fur ordinary jnirposes.
•3 Beet pulp should he moistened with two or tliree times its weijjht of water Ijefure
feeding.

Circular No. 48.

December, 1914

MASSACHUSEHS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,

AMHERST.

Beet Residues for Farm Stock

By J. B. LiNDSEY.

1. DRIED BEET PULP.

Dried beet pulp represents the residue in the manufacture of
sugar from sugar beets. It is first run through presses to reduce
its water content as much as possible, and then put into kilns
where it is thoroughly dried by direct heat. It is coarse and of a
gray color.

Molasses beet pulp is the pressed plain pulp mixed with the
residuum beet molasses and dried. It is said that another method
of making molasses pulp consists in mixing a definite amount of
molasses with the dried plain pulp.

Composition of Beet Pulp.

Water,

Ash,

Protein.

Fiber,

Extract matter,

Fat, .

Total,

Plain Pulp.

Molasses Pulp.

Corn Meal for
Comparison.

9.08

8.48

11.00

3.02

6.93

1.30

8.90

11.16

9.80

18.76

10.16

2.00

60.59

62.76

72.00

.65

.51

3.90

100.00

100.00

100.00

It will be noted that the plain pulp contained about 9 per cent of
water, a relatively large amount of fiber, and practically no fat.
In chemical composition it differs from corn meal in having much
more fiber, less extract malter and much less fat. The percent-
age of sugar present is small, the larger part of the extract matter
being in the form of the hemi-celluloses. The molasses pulp con-
tained considerably more ash, due to the large amount of mineral
matter in the molasses. The fiber content was noticeably less
than that of the plain pulp, due to the replacing of the pulp by
the molasses, which was without fiber. They are, however, carbo-
hydrate feeds of the same chemical type of composition as corn.

Pounds of Digestible Matter in a Ton.

Extract

-"rotein.

Fiber.

Matter.

Fat.

Totals.

92.56

311.42

1,005.79

—

1,409.77

140.62

162.56

1,129.68

—

1,432.86

Plain pulp,
Molasses pulp,
Com meal for com-
parison, 132.00 — 1,322.00 70.00 1,524.00

The above figures show that a ton of the corn meal with sub-
stantially 11 per cent of water contains about 8 per cent more
digestible organic nutrients than a ton of the plain beet pulp hav-
ing 9 per cent of water. One would not, therefore, expect to note
a marked difference in the effect of these several feeds when used
as a component of grain rations intended for milk production.'

Beet Pulp as a Substitute for Corn Silage.

Wing * compared the wet pulp with com silage, feeding 50 to
100 pounds daily, together with 8 pounds of grain and 6 to 12
pounds of hay, and concluded that the dry matter in the pulp was
of equal value, pound for pound, \\4th the dry matter found in

' Calculations on the basis of net energy values show the corn meal to have 45.6 per
cent more energy than the plain pulp. This is due to the loss of energy assumed to be re-
quired to digest the fiber in the pulp, and, according to Kellner, to the extra energy re-
quired for its mastication. Kellner states that the dried pulp has about the same energy
value as bran, but noticeably less than the cereals and oil cakes. Probably the larger the
amount of dried pulp fed the greater would be the difference in its feeding effect as com-
pared with corn meal.

- Bulletin No. 183, Cornell Experiment Station.

the silage. The milk-producing value of wet beet pulp ' as it comes
from the factory, according to Wing, is. pound for pound, about
one-half that of corn silage.

Billings " compared the dry pulp with corn silage, and con-
cluded that the pulp ration gave 10.2 per cent more milk than
did the silage ration; but, because of the cost of the dried pulp,
it was more economical to feed silage. In his trial the cows re-
ceiving the pulp ration lost in flesh.

It is believed that 5/^ to possibly 6 tons of silage is substan-
tially equivalent in feeding value to 1 ton of the dried pulp. Un-
der present conditions it is considered not to be good economy for
fanners to buy pulp to be used in place of home-grown corn
silage, the farm being the place for the production of carbo-
hydrate food stuffs.

Dried Beet Pulp vs. Corn Meal.

At this station six cows were fed on a basal ration of hay, bran
and cottonseed meal. In addition three of the cows averaged 4 3
pounds of plain pulp or molasses beet pulp, while the other three
were receiving a like amount of corn meal. After a lapse of five
weeks the conditions were reversed. The results may be briefly
stated as follows :

Milk Yields (Pounds.)

Character of Ration.

Total
Mili<.

Daily
perCow

Total
Fat.

Butter
Equiva-
lent.

Com meal

Plain pulp, ....

3,941.3
4,017.1

18.8
19.1

215.3
216.5

251.1

252.3

Corn meal, ....
Molasses pulp,

4,184.0
4,054.0

19.9
19.3

233.4
220.6

272.3
257.3

' Only those living in the immediate vicinity of tlie factory can afford to use the wet
pulp. It is worth not over $2 a ton on the farm.

2 Bulletin No, i8g. New Jersey Experiment Station,

The com meal ration produced about 2 per cent less milk than
the plain pulp ration. In the second trial the corn meal ration
caused an increase of some 3 per cent of milk over the molasses
pulp ration. From the above trials one may conclude that the
com meal and beet pulps as components of a ration had about
the same effect.'

If the pulp can be purchased at sHghtly less per ton than the
com, it would prove economical for dairy animals.

The Feeding of Beet Pulp.

Dried beet pulp absorbs a great deal of water, and in case it is
fed dry, this absorption will take place in the mouth and stomach,
and is likely to cause choking, indigestion and stomach irritation.
It should be first moistened with two to three times its weight of
water, and the dry grain mixed with it.

Sample Daily Grain Rations Containing Dried Beet Pulp.

(a) Dairy Cows.

I. II.

3 pounds distillers' grains, 1.5 pounds gluten feed,

4 pounds dried pulp. 1.5 pounds cottonseed meal,

4.0 pounds dried pulp.

III. IV.

2 pounds gluten feed, 2 pounds wheat bran,

2 pounds flour middlings, 2 pounds cottonseed meal,

3 pounds dried pulp. 3 pounds dried pulp.

(b) To Supplement Pasturage. — By weight one-half of
dried pulp and one-half gluten feed; or one-third dried pulp, one-
third gluten feed and one-third wheat bran ; or two-thirds dried
pulp and one-third distillers' grains, would prove desirable combi-
nations (feed from 3 to 7 pounds daily of the mixture, depending
upon requirements) .

(c) For Fattening Stock. — It should prove satisfactory for
fattening beef animals in the proportion, by weight, of two-thirds
beet pulp and one-third cottonseed meal. The material is hardly
to be recommended for swine and horses.

' See foot note i, bottom of page 2.

s

Dried Beet Pulp as Roughage.

As high as eight pounds of the dried pulp can be well moist-
ened with water and fed to each animal as a partial source of
roughage in place of corn silage, together with what hay the ani-
mal will eat clean (10 to 16 pounds daily). If thus fed, it natur-
ally should be omitted from the grain ration.

The Place of Dried Beet Pulp in the Farm Economy.

Fanners who are in position to produce their own feed cannot
afford, as a rule, to purchase starchy feedstufifs, of which dried
beet pulp is a type. Such material should be produced upon the
farm in the form of corn, oats and barley.

For milk production it is more desirable for the fanner to pur-
chase materials rich in protein, such as cottonseed and linseed
meals, distillers' and brewers' dried grains, gluten feed, malt
sprouts, fine middlings and wheat bran. These feedstufifs are not
only very helpful in milk production, but likewise supply increased
amounts of nitrogen in the manure. Only when the supply of
home-grown corn is exhausted or limited would it be considered
economical to substitute dried beet pulp either as a ]3ortion of the
grain ration or as a part of the roughage.

Milk producers who purchase all of their feed will find the dried
pulp a satisfactory component of the daily ration, providing it can
be secured at a relatively reasonable price.

BEET LEAVES.

Every autumn the station is in receipt of inquiries concerning
the value of beet leaves for feeding purposes. In order to answer
these inquiries the following infonnation is submitted :

Composition and Digestibility.

The leaves have the following average composition : '

Per Cent.
Water 89.30

Ash,

1.80

Protein,

2.30

Fiber,

1 50

Extract matter,

4.70

Fat,

.40

From the above analysis it is evident that the leaves contain a
great deal of water, and on the basis of dr}^ matter are relatively
rich in protein and ash and poor in fiber. The leaves contain
from 20 to 37.7 per cent of their nitrogen in the form of amids.
The ash contains a large amount of oxalic acid (3.5 per cent of
the dry matter), and in the extract matter varying amounts of
dextrose and laevulose have been recognized.

According to F. Lehmann,'' sheep digest 61 per cent of the
crude protein, 52 per cent of the fat and 75 per cent of the extract
matter.

How to Feed the Leaves.

Beet leaves are best suited for dairy cows and for fattening
cows and steers. They are less suited for young stock, swine,
horses and sheep. Fed in too liberal quantities they have a de-
cidedly laxative effect, and likewise cause indigestion. This is
due to the oxalic acid and inorganic ash constituents. The same
bacteria which in the paunch of the bovine produces lactic acid,
act to an extent upon the oxalic acid and partially decompose it.

' E. Pott, Handbuch der Thier. Ernahrung, etc., Zweite Auflage, II, Bd. S. 201.
2 See E, Pott, already cited, p. 202.

It is advisable to feed not over 50 pounds daily of the green leaved
to dairy cows, together with dry hay and grain. In case of cows
that are near to calving one-half of this amount is preferable. It
is stated that dry cows and thin steers will take larger amounts
without bad effect.

German observers have found it helpful, in order to guard
against the unfavorable action of the oxalic acid, to feed one
ounce of precipitated chalk to every 50 pounds of leaves. It is
not advisable to feed the leaves when the milk is intended for
young children. Before feeding, the leaves should be made as
free from soil as possible. This can in a measure be accomplished
by shaking off the dirt with the aid of a fork, or by placing them
in slatted drums or on sieves made of slats. It is not economical
to wash them, as too much of the water-soluble nutrients is lost.
Beet leaves may be ensiled, and thus treated have been found
to be less laxative in their effect. The oxalic acid is also partly
decomposed. The leaves should be allowed to wilt, freed from
excessive earth or sand, and then placed in pits in the earth or in
ordinary wooden silos and thoroughly tramped. Excess of moist-
ure is to be avoided. In case of necessity the leaves may be
placed in small piles, and will keep very well from one to two
weeks. The ensiled material contains approximately 76 per cent
of water, and E. Wildt ' has shown it to have the following per-
centages digestible :

Per Cent.
Protein, .... 65

Fat, 60

Extract matter, ... 54

It is not advisable to feed to cows over 25 pounds daily of the
ensilage, together with hay, straw and grain. Larger amounts
frequently act unfavorably on the animal, and are likely to pro-
duce a strong taste in the milk. German authorities are inclined
to prefer the ensiled to the fresh leaves, especially if the latter are
at all frosted or decayed.

E. Pott, already cited, p. 207.

Circular No. 49. (Revision of No. 38) February, 1915.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,

AMHERST.

CABBAGE, CAULIFLOWER, TURNIP, RAPE, AND
OTHER CRUCIFERS

William P. Brooks

The crops in this group thrive in quite a
Soils. variety of soils, but none will do well if

water be near the surface or the soil
inclined to be wet. Well tilled loams in good fertility should
be selected, the lighter for English turnips and Swedes or for
early cabbage, and medium loams for late cabbage and cauli-
flower. Under irrigation success is possible on very light soils
if highly manured or fertilized. With deficient drainage or
over-wet soils these crops are peculiarly liable to the disease
known as clubroot. They should not be grown two successive
years on the same land nor come into any rotation more
frequently than one year in four or five.

These crops will fail or do poorly in any
Lime Necessary, soil which is sour in marked degree. If

blue litmus paper in contact with the moist
soil turns red an application of lime is needed. The rate
of application must, of course, be varied to suit different
conditions, but in general for the lighter soils which are sour
the application of about one ton per acre of air-slaked lime or
marl, or one and one-half tons of fine ground lim^lstone is desir-
able, while for the heavier soils about fifteen hundred pounds
of hydrated (water-slaked) lime is likely to be beneficial.*

The disease known as clubroot (foot) or

Prevention of sometimes "fingers and toes," is due to the

Clubroot. growth of a fungus in the cells of the roots.

It causes the distorted root swellings, often
of enormous size, familiar to most who who have grown these

♦ For fuller discussion of use of Lime see Bulletin No. 137 which will be sent on application.

crops. No cure or certain prevention when soil has become
infected is known. Rotation of crops, no one of this group to
be put upon any given field oftener than once in four years,
and a rather free use of lime, will help secure immunity. After
soil has been brought into condition by one good initial liming
a yearly application of a mild lime at the rate of five hundred
pounds per acre should be sufficient. If slag meal be used for
all crops in the rotation (except potatoes if they be included),
it is probable that a second liming will be unnecessary.

The crops of this family will repay liberal

The Use manuring, and barnyard or stable manures

of Manures. are well suited to all except turnips or

Swedes for table use. For these it is best

to avoid the too free use of such manures, as the roots are less

smooth, stronger in flavor and more liable to be attacked by

worms. For all these crops, manures from animals fed refuse

from any of them should be avoided as such manures will be

likely to carry disease germs. This is particularly true of hog

manure or manures on which hogs run, because these animals

are often fed waste vegetables, which usually means those which

are diseased, and which, therefore, carry the germs of disease.

Manures should, in general, be plowed in or deeply disked under.

All crops of this family are dependent in a

Fertilizer Needs, very unusual degree upon a liberal supply

of phosphoric acid in highly available forms.

Acid phosphate, dissolved bone and basic slag meal prove highly

beneficial. When manure is freely used no other fertilizer than

a phosphate may be necessary. These crops are less dependent

upon artificial potash supply than most, and it may be doubted

whether potash in addition to manure will be called for. Some

nitrate to push'the plants rapidly from the start makes it easier

to prevent serious injury from lice and some other insects, and

is always desirable in connection with moderate applications of

manure, especially for early crops.

In connection with a medium dressing of
Fertilizers for Use manure use for cabbage or cauliflower a
with Manure, mixture made up as follows:
Acid phosphate, 6 parts.

High grade sulfate of potash, 1 part.
Nitrate of soda, 2 parts.

This mixture will contain nitrogen 3.44, available phosphoric
acid 10.66 and potash 5.55 per cent.

Apply broadcast just before plants are set and use from
eight to twelve hundred pounds per acre.

For brussels sprouts, kohl-rabi and kale about the same
application will be useful.

For rape use one-half to two-thirds the above amounts.

If one grows these crops on a small scale only it will often be
preferable to use a ready mixed fertilizer having about the
composition of the mixture of chemicals recommended. There
is usually no saving in cost when chemicals must be purchased
in small quantities, and of course this practice involves rather
more trouble.

When fertilizers only are to be used for
When Fertilizers these crops it is believed that they should

Only Are Used, show about the same general composition
as the mixture above recommended for use
with manure; but a rather higher percentage of nitrogen will be
useful except after clover, alfalfa or other legumes, or on soils
in high fertility or containing a large proportion of humus, such
as reclaimed muck or peat. A portion of the nitrogen in a
fertilizer for this use should be derived from materials less
soluble and more slowly available than nitrate of soda, such
as cyanamid, tankage or bone. A part of the phosphoric acid
also may be in less soluble form than acid phosphate, and it is
believed an application of basic slag meal will be highly desirable.
This has the double advantage of furnishing available phosphoric
acid and a large amount of lime (mostly, it is true, in neutral
compounds), thus reducing, as has been pointed out, the necessity
for a separate application of lime in preparation for these crops.
It is believed that when the slag is used it will be found best to
apply it by itself on the rough furrow to be deeply worked in
by disking, and if some time before putting in the crop, so much
the better. The previous fall will be the best time. The useful
application will probably range from 600 to 1200 pounds per
acre, according to soil and crop. It will be desirable, especially
with soils low in fertility, to mix sulfate of potash with the
slag at the rate of 100 pounds per acre.

In connection with this preparatory application of slag meal
and potash a mixture of chemicals made up in the following
proportions is recommended:

Acid phosphate, 4 parts,

H. G. sulfate of potash, 1 part.
Nitrate of soda, 2 parts.

Cyanamid, 2 parts.

Tankage, 4 parts.

This mixture will have about the following chemical com-
position: nitrogen 6.5%, phosphoric acid 8.8% and potash 3.8%.
It may be used in amounts varying from 1000 to 1600 pounds
per acre.

It may be here again remarked that if only small areas are to
be fertilized it will probably be most satisfactory to buy a mixed
fertilizer of the desired composition.

Whether fertilizer is to be used with manure
Application of the or alone it will be best in most cases to
Fertilizers apply the mixture broadcast just before

setting the plants or sowing seed; though
in work upon a small scale it is probable that lesser amounts
of fertilizer can be made to give fairly satisfactory crops if a
part at least is reserved for application in wide circles about
the plants after they are set, to be worked in with the cultivator.
The harrow will sufficiently work under a broadcast application
of such mixtures as are recommended.

Circular No. 50. March, 1915.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,

AMHERST.

RATIONS FOR DAIRY STOCK*

By J. B. LiNDSEY.
1. Composition of Cattle Feeds.

All cattle feeds, whether in the form of grains and their by-products,
or as hay, corn silage and straw, are composed of the following groups
of substances:

Water — The several grains and their by-products contain from 7 to
12 per cent of water; hay and straw, 12 to 16 per cent; field-cured corn
stover, 30 to 40 per cent; and corn silage, 76 to 80 per cent.

Ash represents the mineral ingredients, and constitutes the ashes after
the feed is burned. These ashes consist of lime, potash, soda, mag-
nesia, iron, phosphoric and sulfuric acids.

Protein is a collective name for all of the nitrogenous matter; it cor-
responds to the lean meat in the animal, and may be termed "vegeta-
ble meat." It has the same elementary composition as animal flesh.
When fed to animals as a component of the various feed stuffs, it serves
as the exclusive source of flesh as well as a source of heat or energy
and fat.

Crude fiber or cellulose is the coarse or woody part of the plant. It
may be called the plant's framework. It is a source of heat or energy
and fat.

Non-nitrogenous extract matter represents the sugars, starch and
gums. It is the principal source of heat or energy and animal fat.

Fat includes not only the various oils and fats in all grains and coarse
fodders, but also waxes, resins and coloring matters. It is frequently
termed ether extract, because it is that portion of the plant soluble in
ether. It serves as a source of heat or energy and fat in the body of
the animal.

Carbohydrates is a term which is generally used to include both the
fiber and the non-nitrogenous extract matter.

It will thus be seen that all of the several groups of nutrients — pro-
tein, carbohydrates and fat — are sources of energy; that is, they furnish
the food or fuel to maintain the life of the body. They also are con-
vertible into fat. The protein, however (including the ash), is the only
group from which the animal can make its flesh or lean meat. In or-
der to form the bones all the groups are used.

* Originally prepared for the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture as Circular No. 3.

2. Digestibility of Cattle Feeds.

The several groups of nutrients above described, which make up the
various cattle feeds, are valuable to the animal only in so far as they I
can be digested and assimilated. The concentrated feeds are consid-
erably more digestible than the coarse fodders, as a single illustration
will show.

100 Pounds Timothy Hay.

100 Pounds Gluten Feed.

Composi-
tion.

Per Cent
Digestible.

Pounds
Digestible.

Composi-
tion.

Per Cent
Digestible.

Pounds
Digestible.

Water,

15.0

—

—

8.5

—

—

Ash,

4.3

—

—

1.7

—

—

Protein,

6.3

48

3.0

26.2

85

22.3

Fiber,

28.4

58

16.5

7.2

76

5.5

Extract matter.

43.6

63

27.5

53.3

89

47.4

Fat, .

2.4

61

1.5

3.1

83

2.6

Totals, .

100.0

—

48.5

100.0

—

77.8

In the first and fourth columns are given the composition of average
samples of timothy hay and of gluten feed. In the second and fifth
columns are shown the percentages of the different groups which are
digestible. Thus, of the 6.3 pounds of the protein in timothy, 48 per
cent are digestible, or 3 pounds; and of the 26.2 pounds of protein in
100 pounds of gluten feed, 85 per cent or 22.3 pounds, are digestible.
Excluding the ash, which is not generally taken into account, it is
shown that 100 pounds of timothy hay contain about 48 pounds of
digestible or actual food material, and 100 pounds of gluten feed 78
pounds. It is evident, therefore, that the gluten feed is decidedly more
valuable as a source of nutrition than the timothy hay.

3. Method of Measuring the Efficiency of Feeding Stuffs.

The digestibility of a feed, however, is not the true measurement of
its nutiitive value, for the reason that some feeds require more energy
for their digestion than others. What is termed net energy value, ex-
pressed in the form of calories' or therms,' represents more accurately
the true nutritive values of feeding stuffs.

Explanation. The entire amount of heat or energy contained in a
feeding stuff is termed its total heat or energy value. All of this heat or

' A calorie represents the amount of heat necessary to raise i gram of water i" Centigrade. It
is the unit of heat measurement. A therm represents the amount of heat required to raise looo
kilograms of water i" Centigrade.

energy cannot be utilized by the animal for the purposes of maintain-
ing its body in a state of temperature equilibrium, or for aiding in the
production of growth and milk. The several losses may be enumerated
as follows: (a) the undigested material, i. e., the faeces; (6) the in-
completely used material (urea, etc.) of the urine; (c) the work re-
quired in the processes of digestion and assimilation in preparing the
nutrients so that they can be used for maintenance and for the pro-
duction of growth and milk. These several sources of loss expressed
as energy, deducted from the total energy, leave the real or net energy
value.

Here follows a table showing the relative net energy values (relative
values) of a few of the more important feeding stuffs. Instead of ex-
pressing the relative energy values in therms of energy, they are stated
on the basis of 100 for the sake of direct comparison. The figures
were secured by the use of the so-called Kellner method.' They are
not perfect, but represent the results of the best method that we have
available at this time. Corn meal is taken as 100 and the other feeds,
both concentrated and coarse, arc compared with it :

Relative Values of Feeding Stuffs.

Corn meal,

Apple pomace,

Beet pulp (dried), -

Brewers' dried grains.

Brewers' wet grains,

Buckwheat middlings,

Corn bran.

Corn silage.

Corn stover, from field,

Corn stover, very dry,

Cottonseed meal,

Distillers' dried grains, largely

from corn.
Gluten feed.
Gluten meal, .
Hay, alfalfa or clover,'*
Hay, barnyard millet.
Hay, English (mixed grasses),

fine early cut.

It should be borne in mind
energy and not protein value.

' For a full explanation of the components of the animal body, the composition of feeds, the
different ways in which the food is used in the animal body, and the explanation for using the
therm in the calculation of rations for farm animals, see Farmers' Bulletin 346, United States De-
partment of Agriculture, prepared by H. P. Armsby.

^ Our own experiments, comparing beet pulp with corn meal, as components of a dairy ration,
have shown their feeding values to be more nearly equal.

3 Alfalfa probably preferable, especially as source of protein.

00

Hay, Kentucky blue grass.

41

11

Hay, orchard grass, .

38

69

Hay, red top,

43

66

Hay, rowen,

48

18

Hay, swamp or swale,

23

90

Hay, tall oat grass.

36

78

Hay, timothy.

36

12

Hominy meal.

105

27

Linseed meal (old process),

94

36

Malt sprouts.

66

95

Oats, ground,

83

Rye feed.

91

94

Wheat bran.

57

91

Wheat kernels, red.

92

99

Wheat kernels (white),

94

42

Wheat middlings (flour),

98

36

Wheat middlings (standard)

67

43

that the above figures express only net
If protein is needed to balance the ra-

tion, it can be purchased most economically in the high-grade protein
concentrates, such as cottonseed meal, gluten feed, distillers' dried
grains and the like.

4. Nutritive Ratio of Cattle Feeds.

The numerical relation which the digestible protein bears to the other
digestible organic nutrients (fibjr extract matter and fat ') is termed
the nutritive ratio of the feed or ration. Timothy hay has. for exam-
ple, 3 parts of digestible protein to 47.3 parts of other digestible nutri-
ents, or as 1 is to 15.8. This is termed a very wide nutritive ratio. Gluten
feed contains 22.3 parts of digestible protein to 58.6 parts of other
digestible nutrients or as 1 is to 2.6. This may be termed a very narrow
nutritive ratio or proportion. All feeds having a nutritive ratio of 1 to
5 or less may be said to have narrow ratios, those from 1 to 5 to 1 to 8
a medium ratio, and above 1 to 8 a wide ratio.

The cereals and other non-leguminous coarse fodders have medium
to wide ratios, leguminous coarse fodders medium ratios, and the
leguminous seeds and most concentrated by-products narrow ratios.

5. Combining Coarse and Concentrated Feeds (Balanced

Rations).

Desirable rations for dairy stock should possess (a) palatability, (6)
sufficient bulk, and (c) 1 part of protein to 5.5 to 7 parts of the other
digestible organic nutrients. If the ratio is much narrower than 1 to
5.5, the ration is likely to be too stimulating for continuous feeding, and
the animal is likely to become thin in flesh. If the ratio is much wider
than 1 to 7, the tendency will be for the animal to put on fat rather
than to give milk. In both cases the ration may be said to be out of
balance.

For both economical and physiological reasons it is necessary that a
considerable portion of the daily ration of the dairy animal should be
composed of coarse fodder or roughage, because such materials are eas-
ily and cheaply produced upon the farm, and because the digestive
tract of the bovine is especially suited to utilize them. Most of these
home-grown coarse feeds, however, are very high in carbohydrates, low
in protein, and have a relatively low digestibility. It is necessary,
therefore, to supplement them to an extent with the cereal grains,
which, though relatively low in protein, are very digestible; and with
the concentrated by-products, which in addition to a relatively high
digestibility, are quite rich in protein. A single illustration will make
this clear. Many experiments have demonstrated that a 1,000-pound

' The fat is converted into the energy equivalent of the starch or fiber by multiplying by 2.2;
thus, 3 per cent of fat would have an energy equivalent of 6.6 per cent or parts of starch.

cow, producing daily 10 quarts of milk of average quality, needs ap-
proximately the following amounts of digestible nutiients:

Digestible. Protein. Fat. Carbohydrates. Total. Nutritive Ratio.

Pounds. . 2.25 .5 13 or 13.5 16 1 to 5.6 or 7

Now, if this animal were fed daily as much of an extra quality of hay
as she would consume (28 to 30 pounds), she would receive:

Digestible. Protein. Fat. Carbyhydrates. Total. Nutritive Ratio.

Pounds, .1.3 .3 13 14.6 1 to 10.5

Such a ration is deficient both in total digestible nutrients as well as
in digestible protein. If 7 pounds of the hay were replaced by an equal
amount of corn meal, the hay and corn meal would furnish:

igestible.

Protein.

Fat.

Carbohydrates.

Total.

Nutritive Ratio.

'ounds.

1.4

.47

14.35

16.22

1 to 11

The corn meal being very digestible, but a one-sided or starchy feed,
would sufficiently increase the total digestible nutrients, but not the
protein. If 4 pounds of corn meal were replaced by 2 pounds of bran
and two pounds of cottonseed meal, the several feeds would supply:

Digestible. Protein. Fat. Carbohydrates. Total. Nutritive Ratio.

Pounds. 2.07 .60 13.20 15.87 1 to 6.6

The replacing of 7 pounds of hay with 3 pounds of com meal rich in
digestible matter and with 2 pounds each of bran and cottonseed meal
especially rich in digestible protein, furnishes a ration containing less
fiber and more starchy matter and protein than is contained in the hay .
Such a ration contains the requisite amount of both total digestible
matter and digestible protein, and may be said to be properly balanced.

6. Types of Balanced Rations.

Because of the high prices usually prevailing for all concentrated
feeds, dairymen are frequently in doubt as to the kinds to be selected
and the amount to be fed in order to secure the best returns for the
money invested. Farmers selling cream to the creamery, or located
where there is not a quick demand for milk, probably will not find it
economical to feed over 3 to 5 pounds of purchased grain daily, and
will use maximum amounts of home-grown hay and silage (1 bushel
of silage and what hay the animal will eat clean) . If the silage is well
eared, 1 }4 pounds each of cottonseed meal and flour middlings, sprinkled
over the silage to distribute it, will produce a fairly well-balanced ra-
tion, and prove helpful in maintaining the milk flow. If corn meal is
a home product rather than silage, mix by weight ^ bran, >^ corn and
cob meal and ji cottonseed meal, (100 pounds bran, 200 pounds com

and cob meal and 100 pounds cottonseed meal), and feed 5 to 6 quarts
daily, or by weight ri corn and cob meal and ^ cottonseed meal and
feed 4 to 5 quarts daily, together with one feeding of cut or shredded
corn stover and what hay the animal will clean up.

Producers of market milk generally find it advisable to feed some-
what more grain, and a number of combinations are suggested which
will produce satisfactory balanced rations when fed with what hay the
animal will eat clean (18 to 24 pounds a day), or with 1 bushel of corn
silage and 10 to 16 pounds of hay.

I
100 pounds bran.
100 pounds flour middlings.
100 pounds gluten feed.
Mix and feed 6 to 8 pounds (7 to 9
quarts) daily.

III.
100 pounds wheat bran.
200 pounds gluten feed.
25 pounds cottonseed meal.
Mix and feed 7 pounds (7 quarts)
daily.

V.
75 pounds wheat bran.
150 pounds corn and cob meal.
100 pounds cottonseed meal.
'Mix and feed 6 to 7 pounds (or
quarts) daily.

VII.

150 pounds distillers' grains.
150 pounds standard middlings.
100 pounds corn or hominy meal.
Mix and feed 7 pounds (or quarts)
daily.

IX.

200 pounds dried brewers' grains.
100 pounds corn meal.

50 pounds cottonseed meal.
Mix and feed 7 pounds (9 quarts)
daily.

II.

100 pounds bran.
100 pounds corn or hominy meal.'
100 pounds cottonseed meal.
Mix and feed 6 to 8 pounds (7 to 9
quarts) daily.

IV.

100 pounds wheat bran or malt

sprouts.
100 pounds corn or hominy meal.
150 pounds gluten feed.
Mix and feed 7 pounds (or quarts)

daily.

VI.

100 pounds distillers' grains.
100 pounds malt sprouts.
150 pounds corn meal.
50 pounds cottonseed meal.
Mix and feed 7 pounds (7 to 8
quarts.) daily.

VIII.
150 pounds wheat bran,
200 pounds gluten feed.
Mix and feed 7 pounds (8 to 9
quarts.) daily.

300 pounds bran.
100 pounds flour middlings.
100 pounds corn meal.
100 pounds ground oats.
300 pounds gluten feed.
100 pounds linseed meal.
Mix and feed as desired.

■ (.'orn ^nd Cob meal, if on hand, can be used in place of corn or hominy meal.
- Ration designed for cows on test; rather expensive for ordinary purposes.

J

XI. XII.

1.5 pounds gluten feed. 3 pounds distillers' grains.

1.5 pounds cottonseed meal. 4 pounds dried beet pulp.'
4.0 pounds dried beet pulp.'

The cost of a pound of the several mixtures is likely to vary from
1.5 to 1.7 cents. It is believed that the above selections are more eco-
nomical on the basis of their content of nutritive material than most
of the sugar feeds and other proprietary mixtures.

In general it may be said that the amount of grain to be fed daily
depends (a) upon the size of the cow, (b) daily milk yield, and (c) the
local market value of the milk. The richer the milk, the more food is
required to produce a given amount; and vice versa.

Six to 7 pounds of the above mixtures is a fair average amount for
cows weighing 800 to 900 pounds, which are yielding 10 quarts of 4 to
5 per cent milk. For every 2 quarts of milk yielded in excess of this
amount the grain ration may be increased by 1 pound.

7. Rations for Young Stock.

Young dairy stock may receive 1 peck or more of silage daily, de-
pending upon their size, in addition to what hay, corn stover or other
coarse fodder they will eat clean; or the entire roughage may consist
of hay. Ten to 15 pounds of roots daily in cases where silage is not
available will prove appetizing and helpful. Grass and clover rowen
form a very desirable feed for growing animals. In addition to the
above, it is usually advisable to feed from 1 to 3 pounds daily of a grain
mixture reasonally rich in protein and ash."^ Any of the above grain
mixtures will prove satisfactory. The writer has found mixtures by
weight of j/z bran, ^ corn meal and ji flour middlings; or }4 bran,
}{ com meal and }( ground oats quite satisfactory. A ration com-
posed of late-cut hay and com meal would not be desirable, it lacking
both flesh and bone forming material (protein and ash).

Several months before the heifer freshens it is well, if circtmistances
permit, to increase the grain ration to 5 or 6 pounds per day in order
to get her accustomed to grain and to encourage a large future milk
flow.

The feeder will do well to bear the following in mind :

1 . Late-cut hay is noticeably less nutritious than early-cut.

2. The fine grasses are more nutritious than the coarse.

' Beet pulp should be moistened with two to tliree times it weight of water before feeding.
- If the roughage consists largely of grass or clover rowen, 2 pounds daily of a mixture of bran
and corn meal, or even of corn meal alone, will prove satisfactory.

3. The clovers and alfalfa should be cut in early bloom. If cut in
late bloom their nutritive value is noticeably lessened.

4. Concentrated feeds, aside from their palatability, should be pur-
chased for their high digestibility or net energy value and protein con-
tent.

5. The cereals have a high net energy value; cottonseed meal, glu-
ten feed, distillers' dried grains and flour middlings, while they are
highly digestible (high net energy value) are purchased as a rule be-
cause of their protein content.

6. Wheat bran is an expensive source of nutrition, but its bulk and
laxative qualities frequently commend its use to eastern feeders in
amounts not exceeding 25 to 30 per cent of the entire grain ration.

7. Some proprietary grain mixtures are fairly economical; others,
which contain low-grade by-products, are quite expensive, due to the
fact that such feed mixtures are sold at about the same prices as the
high-grade concentrates.

8. The farm is the carbohydrate factory. As a rule, it is not prac-
ticable for the farmer or dairyman to produce all of the high-grade
protein feeds to supplement his home-grown carbohydrates. He should
endeavor to produce as much as possible of the needed protein in the
form of clover, alfalfa, peas and possibly soy beans. In some cases he
will find it necessary to purchase corn and the like, but this, as a rule,
is not good economy.

Circular No. 51. (Revision of No. 40.)

March, 1915.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,

AMHERST.

DOWNY MILDEW OE CUCUMBERS.

(Peronoplasmopara cubensis (B & C) CI.)

By George E. Stone.

Downy mildew, which is not difificult to distinguish from other leaf
fungi, is most likely to occur on greenhouse cucumbers in August and
September, and has never been observed by us in greenhouses in the
winter. The fungus occurs on the under side of the leaf, causing
whitish or yellowish angular spots (see Eig. i,) and these spots are
more prominent on greenhouse than on field cucumbers. Ordinarily,

Fig. I. Showing characteristic spotting of

cucumber leaf by downy mildew

( Peronoplasmopara)

an attack of this mildew lasts but a few weeks, and causes only an
insignificant spotting of the leaf. Reproduction is by means of
small spores, which retain their vitality longest in a moist atmosphere.
Downy mildew was first observed on material received from Cuba
in 1868, and was later noted in Wisconsin in 1882. In 1888 it was
found on cucumber leaves obtained from Japan, and in 1889 it was
found in New Jersey, causing injury under glass, at wliich time it
was also common on field cucumbers. During the same year it was
reported abundant in Florida and Texas. In 1890 it appeared in
Massachusetts and again in 1892, when it was found on greenhouse
and field crops. In New Jersey it was common in 189 1, 1892 and
1893, and in Connecticut and New York about the same time.

In 1895 it appeared in Ohio, and later caused considerable injury in
that state both to greenhouse and field crops. In 1899 '^ ^^"^^ noted
in England; in Brazil in 1900; in Russia, Austria-Hungary, Java
and East Africa in 1902, and in Italy in 1903, showing that the dis-
ease has been quite cosmopolitan in its progress. Since its appear-
ance in this country it has been generally distributed and quite de-
structive to field crops of cucumbers, although from 1892 until 1900,
it was not observed in Massachusetts, to our knowledge. Since 1900,
however, it has appeared annually on field crops and occasionally in
greenhouses, where its appearance has caused little alarm.

It has been shown that this fungus is perennial in the south and
travels north every season, apparently about the time cucurbitaceous
crops mature. It usually makes its appearance in Massachusetts
about the middle of August, although sometimes a little earlier ; but
in 19 1 3 there was a bad infection on greenhouse cucumbers in the
Boston district in May, June and July, which caused much loss, es-
pecially in unheated houses, where the air often becomes very damp.
This is the first time downy mildew has been observed here earlier
than August, and this attack may have some connection with the un-
usvially warm winter of 1912 — 191 3.

While the downy mildew is capable of doing considerable injury to
greenhouse crops, it is not difficult to hold the disease in check if
proper attention is paid to the moisture in the house. In no case
should moisture be allowed to remain on the foliage for more than
two or three hours, and even in the warm months steam should
occasionally be turned on to dry out the house and change the air.
All mildews and leaf blights are encouraged by moisture on the foli-
age, lack of light during the period of plant development, and stag-
nant air. In our experiments, in which we have grown cucumbers
and melons under glass every month in the year, we have never had
the slightest infection from mildew when the plants were syringed
properly ; i. e., only on bright mornings when the leaves will dry
quickly. While cucumbers can be grown without syringing, the risk
from red spider during the spring and summer months is necessarily
great.

After the middle of September or October first there is little dan-
ger of infection, therefore it is better to start the winter crop at this
time rather than in August. A slight attack of downy mildew does
little or no harm, and if cucumber growers always used the same
judgment as lettuce growers, an infection would seldom prove serious.
It has been shown that spraying with Bordeaux mixture constitutes
an effective preventive in the field, and sulfur and oil painted on the
pipes in the greenhouse has proved beneficial.

This unlooked for attack of downy mildew in the early summer
months makes it apparent that in the future all cucumber growers
should be on the lookout for early infection.

Circular No. 52 (Revision of No. 41;

March, 1915.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

AMHERST.

THE CONTROL OF ONION SMUT.
By George E. Stone.

Onion smut has been known in Massachusetts for about forty years,
Mr. Benjamin P. Ware having referred to the injury caused by this
fungus in the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture Report for
1869" — 70. The smut spores infect the seedlings at a very early stage,
the disease taking the form of dark-colored or sooty masses, and as
the onion matures the black areas of pustules may be noticed on the
leaves and bulbs. Since infection takes place in early stages of the
seedling, onion sets being immune, any method which will kill the
spores on the seed or in the soil must be beneficial. Where onions
are grown year after year on the same land the smut shows a marked
tendency to increase, but even here it can be controlled by the use of
proper preventive measures.

Fic. I. Showing" Planet Jr. cultivator with formalin drip.

Positive results have been obtained by applying sulfur thoroughly
mixed with air-slaked lime in the drills, at the rate of 100 pounds of
sulfur and 50 pounds of lime to the acre. Ground lime, drilled in

with a fertilizer drill, at the rate of 75 to 100 bushels per acre also is
good. But by far the best results have been obtained from the use of
formalin, which may be applied at the rate of one ounce to one gallon
of water (1-128), or in even weaker solutions. Some onion growers
in the Connecticut valley, where the crop is grown extensively and
and with great success, occasionally use the formalin stronger than the
amounts recommended, but this results in injury to the crop. i-ioo
parts, which is sometimes used, is capable of killing almost anything,
and in our opinion is too strong to apply to seed.

Fig. 2. Formalin tank, block tin pipe and valve. (See Fi^. i.)

By the aid of certain devices, formalin can be easily and cheaply
applied when the seed is sown. Tests have shown that about 1200
feet of drill can be treated with one gallon of formalin solution. One
of the first devices used for this purpose was made by the writer, and
consists of a tank attachment. At the bottom is fastened a block tin
tube about a quarter of an inch in diameter, to which is attached a
valve to regulate the flow of formalin. This tube can be easily bent
to discharge at any desired point and yet has sufficient stiffness to

hold its position. Tlie tank, which holds one gallon, may be attached
to any onion sower (see fig. i) by means of strips of iron. Although
not fastened to the iron frame, the tank stays in place and can be
easily removed.

In figure 2 the tank and tube are shown detached from the sower.
A special feature of the tank consists in the ease with which it can be
drained, the middle of the tank being lower than the ends. A larger
tank may be used if necessary, as the weight of the formalin is not
enough to affect the easy handling of the machine. The flow of the
formalin solution in a tank of this shape is nearly uniform, there being
little difference in the amount flowing when the tank is full and when
nearly empty.

Fig. 3. Horse-shoe form of tank. A tank similar to tliis might be readily adapted
to any two-row seed sower.

Figures 3 and 4 show more recent devices of this nature. The
tanks are in both cases made of galvanized iron and have a capacity
of two gallons. An improvement over the earlier apparatus consists
in an iron rod attached to the valve and leading to the handles of the
sower, by means of which the operator can adjust the flow at will.
The horse-shoe form of tank shown in figure 3 has the largest use in
the Connecticut valley.

In the treatment of onion smut only enough liquid need fall to cover
the seed and moisten a little of the surrounding soil.

Very satisfactory results have been noted from the use of the for-

malin chip in this state. Some land so infested with the smut as to
make it impossible to grow protTtable crops of onions has produced
clean crops after treatment by this method. In one case the smut
was so severe that the land had to be abandoned, but it now rents for
^50.00 an acre as onion land. The apparatus can be made by any

Fig. 4. ShowiiiL; tank suspended between the handles uf the siiwer.

local plumber, and on the whole the formalin treatment constitutes
one of the most effective methods for the control of onion smut. It
has each year resulted in saving many thousands of dollars to onion
growers.

Note. — Formaldehyde solution, U. S. P., 40 per cent, volume can

be obtained from the Perth Amboy Chemical Works, 100 William
St., New York City, at the following rates :

In 400 lb. barrels, 9c per lb.

In 250 lb. barrels, 9/4^c per lb.

In 125 lb. kegs, f. o. b. New York, 9^c per lb.

In 60 lb. kegs, iic per lb.

In I lb. bottles, 50 to a case, 19c per lb.

Circular No. 53 (Revision of No. 39). April, 191 5.

MASSACHUSEHS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

AMHERST.

LIME AND SULFUR SOLUTIONS.
By G. E. Stone.

Lime and sulfur has been used for many years in various forms and for
different purposes, altliough it is only comparatively recently that its value
as a fungicide has been realized. The extensive use of this solution as a
spray for the San Jos^ scale has incidentally demonstrated its great value as
a fungicide. Our observations and experiments with the use of lime and
sulfur when applied to trees in a dormant condition have convinced us that
no preparation which has ever been used can be compared with it for effic-
iency in controlling different fungi. For many years lime and sulfur has
been largely used as a spray for fruit trees in a dormant condition, but of
late it has also been used in various modified forms as a summer spray with
very encouraging results. Many trials have been made of the diluted con-
centrated preparations, and also of what is known as the "self-boiled lime
and sulfur," but the methods are in a more or less experimental stage.*

Lime and sulfur used as a spray on trees in a dormant condition is a pos-
itive preventive of peach leaf curl and Monilia and Cladosporium infec-
tion on peach twigs. Its use holds in check the leaf spots of the apple,
pear, plum, quince and other fruit trees and shrubs. We also believe that it
has a material effect on cankers, black knot and other common twig diseases.
So effective is this treatment for leaf spots that in many cases after only one
spraying not a single spot could be found on the foHage of fruit trees during
any part of the season.

Self-Boiled Lime and Sulfur Mixture.

For some purposes, especially summer spraying, self-boiled lime and sul-
ful mixtures are useful. One of the best rules is the following :

W. M. Scott's Formula.

Flowers of sulfur or sulfur fiour, S pounds.

Fresh stone lime, 8 pounds.

Water, 50 gallons.

* The diluted lime and sulfur has not proved equal to Bordeaux for spraying potatoes.
—Geneva Agri. Exp. Station (N. Y.), bul. 347, F. C. Stewart and G. T. French.

In making this mixture the best stone lime procurable should be placed in
a barrel and slaked, using precautions not to drown the lime in slaking it.
W. M. Scott recommends that enough water be applied to nearly cover the
lime when slaking. As soon as the lime has commenced to slake and some
heat has generated, apply the sulfur through a fine sieve to break up the
lumps. The mixture should be stirred and more water added gradually,
bringing it to a thin paste. As soon as the lime is well slaked, more water
should be added to cool the mixture.

Since there is much difference in lime as regards the development of heat,
it is difficult to specify any particular time to add the water for the purpose
of cooling, but it should be done before the sulfur goes into solution and
forms sulfides, which are injurious to peach foliage. Under ordinary condi-
tions, the mixture should not be allowed to remain hot over ten or fifteen
minutes after slaking. With the intense heat developed from slaking and
constant stirring a uniform mixture of fairly finely divided sulfur and lime
is obtained with only a small trace of sulfides in solution. It should be
strained before using.

Mr. Scott has used this successfully for peach brown rot and scab. In
this formula he also mixed two pounds of arsenate of lead, which proved
effective in helping to control the plum-weevil and other insect pests. Mr.
Scott believes that the arsenate of lead is less likely to burn tender foliage
when in combination with lime and sulfur than when used alone.

Concentrated Lime and Sulfur Solutions.

There are a number of these solutions on the market which are apparently
similar in composition. Their specific gravity varies from 30^10 34° Baumd,
and in using them it is necessary to dilute according to the strength of the
solution and the nature of the foliage to which they are to be applied. The
directions furnished by manufacturers for the dilution of their own product
for different purposes can usually be relied upon.

Arsenate of lead at the rate of 3 pounds of paste or li pounds of pow-
der to 50 gallons of the mixture may be combined with these commer-
cial lime and sulfur solutions as a summer spray. Extreme care should be
taken to mix the two substances thoroughly as injuries have been reported
from this combination of arsenate of lead with the commercial solutions,
especially in the eastern part of the state. To do away entirely with the
risk of injury to the foliage and fruit it would be safer to combine the arse-
nate of lead with the self-boiled lime and sulfur solutions as outHned in the
previous section.

Home Made Lime and Sulfur Solutions.

Very few orchardists find it profitable to prepare the home-made lime and
sulfur solutions now that the commercial solutions are so much more conven-
ient to use and are virtually as efficient. Information concerning the prepa-
ration of the home-made solutions may be found in bulletins Nos. 329 and
339, of the New York (Geneva) Agricultural Experiment Station, which
mav be obtained from the director of that station.

I

Circular No. 54 (Revision of No. 36). April, 1915.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL immm STATION

AMHERST.

POULTRY MANURES, THEIR TREATMENT AND USE.
By William P. Brooks

The total number of fowls kept in the state is estimated at two
and one-half millions. The average night droppings of medium
breeds according to determinations made in this station must
amount to 40 pounds per fowl per j^ear. On this basis the amount
of poultry manure easily collectible from the fowls of the state
annually is 50,000 tons. If the plant-food in a ton of average
fresh poultry manure be purchased at current prices in fertilizers,
the outlay would amount to nearly $7.50. Observations and
experiments indicate that as poultry manure is frequently handled
it suffers a loss of one-half or more of the nitrogen it contains when
voided before it reaches the land. If a loss of one-half correctly
represents the average, the total money value of nitrogen annually
wasted from our poultry manures must amount to about $160,000.
It is the aim of this circular to show how this loss may be prevented.
Poultry manures are particularly rich in
General character nitrogen and their general characteristics
and composition of are such that they readily decompose. As
poultry manures, a result of decomposition the manure heats
and there is a rapid and large loss of
moisture and of ammonia.

The composition is subject to wide variations, due to some extent
to differences in feeding, but in far greater degree to methods of
handling and keeping

The following tables present the results of recent analyses
made in our laboratory.*

Table 1 shows the composition of the material just as it was
collected and taken to the laboratory. Table 2 shows the com-
position of the different samples of hen manure all reckoned upon
the same basis of dry matter in 100 pounds.

Samples B-1, 2 and 3 are richer than the others in nitrogen,
because the fowls received more animal food. Potash varies rela-
tively little. Phosphoric acid varies widely and must be greatly
affected by the amount of bone in the animal food given to the
fowls.

The comparison between the amounts of nitrogen shown in
Table 2 in samples B-1, 2 and 3, and between samples G-1 and 2
is particularly instructive. It illustrates the fact that hen manure
unmixed with absorbents or chemicals suffers very rapid loss of
nitrogen. Sample B-2 differs from B-1 only in the fact that the
interval between tthe removal of droppings from beneath the
roosts was longer. The season of this experiment was March,
and the droppings were frozen a part of the time. During
wanner weather the loss must have been yet greater. G-2, though

* Credit for these analyses is due H. D. Raskins and L. S. Walker, Chemists in the fer-
tilizer division of the station.

Table i.
Composition of Poultry Manures.

1
Hen Manure

Moisture

Nitrogen

Potash

Phos. Acid.

Lime

*

C (about 2 weeks),

67.62

1.36

•43

I. II

'•33

p K (1

68.58

1.07

•44

1. 10

2.78

L

74.96

1. 21

.43

1.22

1.7c

B-i (I night), . .

69.76

I.91

•33

1. 00

■53

B-2 (2 or 3 weeks),

60.61

2.30

.48

1.09

1.40

B-3 (6 or 8 weeks),

48.82

1.90

•63

2.07

1-93

G-i (I night), . .

66.69

1.58 •

.42

•50

1.46

G-2 (3 nights),

64.06

I-I3

•39

.62

1.89

Pigeon, ....

25.01

3^90

1.06

2.15

.96

Duck, ....

61.62

1. 12

•49
•51

1.44
•53

I j->

Goose

67.06

1. 12

26

Table 2.
Composition on Basis of Equal Dry Matter.

Hen Manure

Dry Matter

Nitrogen

Potash
*

Phos. Acid.

Lime
*

C (about 2 weeks), . .

32-

1-34

.42

1.096

I.314

P " " . .

32.

1.09

.44

1. 120

2.831

L " " . .

32.

1.486

•52

1.499

2.IOI

B-i (I night), ....

32-

2.021

•31

1.058

•56

B-2 (2 or 3 weeks), . .

32.

1.868

•38

.86

I-I37

B-3 (stored 6 or 8 weeks).

32.

1. 19

39

1.294

1.206

G-i (i night), ....

32.

1.517

•31

•47

1.402

G-2 (3 nights), . . .

32.

1.006

•34

•55

1.682

Average, ....

32.

1.44

•39

•99

1-53

accumulating only during three nights, seems to have lost rela-
tively more nitrogen than B-2, perhaps because the house was
much warmer than the one from which samples B came ; although
this seems an insufficient explanation to account for so large a
difference.

Examination of Table 1, especially comparison of the samples
B-1 and B-2, shows that the fact that nitrogen has been lost is
obscured by the further fact that there has been an even
larger loss of water. The percentage of nitrogen in B-2 (Table 1)
is larger than in B-1, but only because the former is drier. Table
2 shows that there has been a large actual loss.

The free use of fine dry loam, or the admix-
Methods of ture of such materials as kainit, acid phos-

Preservation. jjhate, muriate of potash or land plaster,
or of a combination of some of these, will
effectively prevent loss of nitrogen. Loam alone must be used in
quantities so large as considerably to increase cost of handling.
Either kainit, muriate of potash or acid phosphate alone is effect-
ive but the mixture, especially with the first, holds the material too
moist for convenient handling Plaster is of less value as an
absorbent of ammonia and if largely used the mixture may form
hard, dry cakes.

Dry sawdust has been successfully used with acid phosphate
and kainit by the Maine Experiment Station. In bulletin 216,
that Station recommends using with each 30 pounds of fresh
droppings (their estimate of the yearly amount of night drop-
pings from one hen) ;

10 pounds sawdust,
16 pounds acid phosphate,
8 pounds kainit.
The writer recommends:

1. Where poultry is kept upon a small scale and where fine
dry earth can be readily obtained that this be sprinkled in moder-
ate quantities on the dropping boards whenever the accumulation
is removed, which should be daily. To each 100 pounds of fresh
droppings add a mixture of chemicals as follows:

(a) Where the material will be used as top-dressing for grass
lands or for lawns:

Acid phosphate, 20 pounds,
Kainit, 15 pounds.

(b) Where the mixture will be used for field crops such as
com or in the vegetable garden :

Acid phosphate, 50 pounds,

Kainit, 25 pounds.

In either case sprinkle the mixture in proper proportion over
each lot of fresh material as it is added to the accumulating stock
and mix before use.

Mixture (a) with 65 pounds of dry earth (estimated amount
needed) will weigh 200 pounds, and provided the droppings are
similar in composition to sample B-1, it should have about the
following composition:

Nitrogen, 0.95 per cent.

Phosphoric acid, 2.00 per cent.

Potash, 1.14 per cent.

This estimate does not make any allowance for the small
amount of plant-food found in the earth. One ton of this mix-
ture will supply plant-food about as follows.

Nitrogen, 19 pounds.

Phosphoric acid, 40 pounds.

Potash, 23 pounds.

Mixture (b) with 70 pounds of earth added gives a total weight
of 245 pounds. This will contain about:

Nitrogen, 0.8 per cent.

Phosphoric acid, 3.5 per cent.

Potash, 1.5 per cent.

One ton of this mixture will supply about :

Nitrogen. 16 pounds,

Phosphoric acid, 70 pounds,
Potash, 30 pounds.

2. Where poultry is kept upon a large scale obtaining and
handling earth in as large quantities as are necessary will greatly
increase the labor and the cost of applying the manure. Under
such circumstances, therefore, the writer is inclined to indorse the
Maine system. Placing this upon the same basis as the other,
the proportions would be as follows :

Fresh droppings, 100 pounds.
Acid phosphate, 50 pounds,
Kainit, 25 pounds,

Dry sawdust, 30 pounds.

This proportion of sawdust is slightly lower than that recom-
mended in the Maine bulletin. The total weight is 205 pounds,
but there is in practically all cases some loss of moisture and it is
sufficiently accurate for practical purposes to estimate the weight
of the mixture at 200 pounds. On this basis the composition
would be as follows:

Nitrogen, 0.95 per cent.

Phosphoric acid, 4.25 per cent.
Potash, 1.79 per cent.

One ton of this mixture will supply :

Nitrogen, 19 pounds.

Phosphoric acid, 85 pounds,
Potash, 36 pounds.

Do not mix wood ashes or lime with poul-

What not to do. try manure as both of them are strongly

alkaline and will release ammonia, thus

causing greater loss than would occur if nothing were mixed with

the manure.

The fact should be kept in mind when
The use of poultry planning for the use of poultry manure
manure. that its constituents are quickly available.

It should be remembered, moreover, that
the material is naturally so strong that in close contact with
either seeds, foliage or delicate rootlets in large quantities it will
burn and injure. Such mixtures as have been recommended are
usually best used by spreading either broadcast or very widely in
the hill or drill. It will not be found easy to make the mate-
rials sufficiently fine for application with a fertilizer drill, but they
can be successfuly applied with such a fertilizer distributor as the
Greenwood or by the use of a manvire spreader. The quantity of
poultry manure to be applied must naturally be varied with soils
and crops, but it should be remembered that such manure well
preserved with such mixtures as have been suggested are much
stronger and richer than ordinary manures and should be used in
smaller quantities. From about 1/4 to 2>^ tons per acre will be
the usual range in quantity.

If poultry manure is to be used for potatoes the writer would
recommend substituting 8 pounds high grade sulfate of potash in
place of the 25 pounds of kainit recommended in the 2d and 3d
mixtures. Poultry manures if uninixed or with the chemicals in
mixture No. 1 can probably be most profitably used as a top-
dressing for grass because of the high percentage of nitrogen con-
tained in them.

Circular No. 55 (Revision of No. 37). August, 1915.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

AMHERST.

GREEN MANURING AND COVER CROPS.
By William P. Brooks.

Green manuring is the practice of cultivating a crop for soil
improvement. The crop is usually, but not always, plowed in
while green. A cover crop is one grown largely for soil protection,
but it may at the same time serve all the purposes of a green manure
crop. On the other hand, during the period of its growth a green
manure crop is a cover crop.

The practice of using crops for soil protection and improvement
has received much more attention in recent years than formerly,
largely because its possible benefits and the conditions essential
to their realization are better understood. It is not yet as general
as it should be. The objects of this circular are:

1. To briefly indicate the possible benefits from the use of
green manure and cover crops, and the principal reasons therefor.

2. To consider the special characteristics, value and adaptation
of each of the principal crops.

3. To state the conditions under which the introduction of these
crops is to be advised.

I. POSSIBLE BENEFITS

The protection of the soil against damage by
Erosion prevented, wind which carries away the finer and better
particles, and water which washes fields which
have any considerable slope. In other words, to prevent erosion.

The conservation of soluble plant-food com-
Plant-food saved, pounds. Plant-food compounds soluble in

water tend to wash through the soil (and of
course most largely on those which are of coarse and open texture)
to lower levels, or they are carried away through natural or artificial
drainage channels. The danger of this loss is of course greatest
in seasons of abundant rainfall and it goes on most largely in fields
which are bare. If the soil be kept full of hungry rootlets of a
growing crop the amount of loss through this source is greatly
reduced.

Green manure and cover crops may be made
Weeds prevented, of much use in preventing the growth of

weeds and the ripening of weed seeds, and
also in some cases they may be made very helpful in exterminating
certain kinds of weeds with which a field may have become infested.

Those green manure or cover crops which

Soil enriched in belong to the family of legumes (pod bearers)

nitrogen. are capable, under the right conditions, of

assimilating nitrogen from the air. They do
this through the agency of bacteria that live in nodules on their
roots. Through the cultivation of legumes it is possible, therefore,
to increase the sum total of nitrogen in the soil. The vegetable matter
produced by such crops as clover, peas, beans and vetches is rich in
nitrogen and when it decays, this element, in the form of ammonia or
nitrates, is gradually rendered available to a following crop.

The availibility of the mineral food constituents
Plant-food made of the soil is increased. The increase is due:
availible. l. To the action of the living roots which exer-

cise a solvent action on the mineral particles of
the soil.

2. To the increased biological activity (bacteria and other micro-
organisms) favored by shade and the increased proportion of organic
matter in the soil.

3. By the solvent action of carbonic acid and other organic acids
produced in the decay of the added vegetable matter.

Improved physical condition due to the ad-
Humus increased, mixture of vegetable matter and the gradual
increase in the amount of humus. This means
better capacity to retain and to conduct moisture.

In the case of the deep rooted green manure or
Subsoil mellowed, cover crops the subsoil is to a considerable extent

opened and mellowed so that following crops
root more deeply. To some extent, also, such crops transfer material
gathered by their deep roots in the subsoil toward the surface.

2. PRINCIPAL CROPS

Among characteristics which especially fit a crop

Desirable charac- for cover or green manure are the following:

teristics. ability to thrive broadcast; rapid growth; deep

and vigorous root system; freedom from injury

by frosts. If the crop, besides possessing the characteristics named, is

a legume it will prove most valuable because in one respect it surpasses

all others, viz., it has the ability to gather nitrogen from the air which

none of the others possesses.

Non-Legumes

None of the crops of this class have the capacity to gather nitrogen
from the air.

Suited to light soils, one of the most useful of

Winter rye. the green manure crops outside of the legumes,

grows late in the autumn and begins growth very

early in the spring, especially valuable for preventing waste of nitrates

during the fall, winter and spring rains, and because it affords cover

3

and protection in winter, preventing both damage from wind and wash-
ing; produces a large amount of vegetable matter sufficiently early in
the season to be plowed under and followed by a crop to be harvested.
Seed broadcast, 2 to 3 bushels per acre.

Suited to light soils, characterized by extremely
Buckwheat. rapid growth in w^ann weather, killed by frosts,

valuable especially in preventing growth or
subduing weeds and producing a large amount of vegetable matter
within a short period of time. Seed broadcast, 1 bushel per acre:

Suited to the lighter soils, characterized by rapid
White mustard. growth and hardiness, valuable for nitrogen

conservation, will make a good growth before
cold weather if put in after early potatoes or sown in corn at the time
of the last cultivation. Seed 5 to 6 pounds per acre if sown in corn;
one-half that quantity alone broadcast.

Suited to medium soil. There are two classes —
Rape. Spring, represented by Dwarf Essex, and Winter.

The latter is not hardy in most parts of Massa-
chusetts. Where it can be grown, especially valuable, it starts into
growth extremely early in spring and furnishes a large amount of
vegetable matter in season to plow under for most crops. Dwarf Essex
rape may be sown after harvesting an early crop, .being very hardy,
continues to grow until late in the autumn, especially valuable for
nitrogen conservation. Seed broadcast 3 to 5 pounds per acre.

Legumes

All the crops included in this class have the capacity to gather
nitrogen from the air. Thc}^ will do this, however, to an important
extent only when the following conditions are met:

1. The soil must be neutral or alkaline.

2. It must be stocked with bacteria of the right kind or they must
be supplied. In the case of legumes which have commonly been grown
in the locality the appropriate bacteria are usually abundant. When a
legume new to the locality is to be grown the bacteria should be
supplied either in the form of a culture or by the use of loam from a
field where they are abundant. Cultures are now commercially pre-
pared and if of good quality are generally to be preferred to soil.*

3. It must not contain a large amount of nitrogen in the form of
available compounds. If it does the legume will take most of its
nitrogen from the soil and will not draw upon the air to any consider-
able extent.

♦Cultures may be obtained of the "Department of Microbiology," Mass. Agricultural College,
Amherst. A charge of 25 cents is made which covers cost and postage on sufficient for one bushel

of seed.

Suited to the better loams, is not hardy and is

The soy bean. not well suited for prevention of erosion or

conserving nitrogen, will furnish a large amount

of vegetable matter within a comjmratively short period of summer

weather, does best if planted in drills. About \ bushel of seed per acre.

Suited to light and medium loams, endures
The cow pea. drought and hot weather exceedingly well, not

hardy, but will furnish a large amount of vege-
table matter in a relatively short period of summer weather, does best
in drills and requires about | bushel of seed per acre.

3. CONDITIONS WHEN GREEN MANURING IS ADVISABLE

The statement of possible benefits of green manuring quite clearly
indicates by inference the conditions under which the introduction of a
green manure crop is advisable, but at the same time it includes
references to so many and so important advantages that the reader
may be in danger of over-estimating its value. There is no question
that it can produce the beneficial effects referred to but there are con-
ditions under which these effects would be secured at too great cost.
Under the following conditions there can be no question that green
manuring will be profitable:

1. When the green manure crop can be produced without the
sacrifice of a crop to be harvested, or during a period when the field
would otherwise be unoccupied, when it will help prevent loss of
nitrates, erosion and infestation by weeds.

2. Green manuring will be especially important on soils made up
largely of sand or clay and naturally deficient in humus.

3. Green manuring, especially with legumes, will be unusually
beneficial on. soils naturally deficient in available nitrogen compounds.

4. It is especially beneficial in orchards: preventing erosion, furnish-
ing organic matter and keeping down weeds.

5. The introduction of a green manure crop in cases where a crop to
be harvested must be sacrificed will self-evidently be in place only on
the cheaper lands.

On the other hand where a farm is stocked to its
When not advisable, capacity, green manuring will seldom or never

be advisable. Many of the green manure crops
have large food value. It will be found more profitable to feed clover
to the animals of the farm than to turn it in in most cases, and where
the excrements are carefully saved and returned to to the land practic-
ally all the effects of green manuring will be realized.

4. The Icgmne must be allowed to attain nearly full development
if the gain in nitrogen is to be large, since during the early stages of its
growth the nitrogen which it requires comes in large measure from the
soil.

There are two classes of cultivated vetches —
Vetches. spring and winter. The winter vetches are

much more valuable than those belonging to the
other class. The h:;iry or sand vetch is the most valuable variety.
It is suited to medium loams, found especially valuable in orchards,
useful both in i^reventing erosion and in gathering and conserving
nitrogen and should usually be sown with winter rye. Broadcast 1
bushel of seed per acre.

Suited to medium or fairly heavy loams, quite
Field peas. hardy and useful for nitrogen gathering, should

be grown with a grain crop. Broadcast 1\ to 2
buphels of seed per acre.

Best suited to medium loams, may be cultivated
Crimson clover. either as a winter annual or annual, not quite
hardy enough to make it reliable as a winter
annual in most parts of Massachusetts, though it occasionally goes
through the winter. Where it does this, it is one of the most valuable
cover and green manure crops. Sown in August it makes a thick mat
of leaves, serves to conserve nitrogen and prevent erosion, starts its
growth very early the following spring and can be turned under in
season to be followed by a crop which is to be harvested ; where hardy
particularly valuable in orchards. Seed broadcast about 15 to 20
pounds per acre.

Suited to a wide variety of soils, but do best in

Common and medium loams; if sown the latter part of July

mammoth red or early in August make sufficient growth in

clovers. autum to prevent erosion and conserve nitrogen,

start into growth fairly early the following spring

but will not mature in season to be followed by such crops as corn and

potatoes. These clovers are very deep rooted, may often be very

profitably used for combined forage and green manure, much used in

orchards. Seed broadcast 8 to 10 pounds per acre.

Distinct from the true clovers, like them in
Sweet clover. many respects but not nearly as valuable for
forage, suited to a wide variety of soils if drain-
age is perfect, particularly deep rooted, sown in July will prevent
erosion and conserve nitrogen, starts into growth extremely early the
following spring and will furnish a large bulk of vegetable matter which
may be turned under in season to be followed by crops to be planted
about the same time with corn. There are two varieties, white and
yellow; the white is the more valuable for green manuring. Seed broad-
cast about 20 pounds per acre.

Suited to the better loams, is not hardy and is
The soy bean. not well suited for prevention of erosion or

conserving nitrogen, will furnish a large amount
of vegetable matter within a comparatively short period of summer
weather, does best if planted in drills. About }j bushel of seed per acre.

Suited to light and medium loams, endures
The cow pea. drought and hot weather exceedingly well, not
hardy, but will furnish a large amount of vege-
table matter in a relatively short period of summer weather, does best
in drills and requires about | bushel of seed per acre.

3. CONDITIONS WHEN GREEN MANURING IS ADVISABLE

The statement of possible benefits of green manuring quite clearly
indicates by inference the conditions under which the introduction of a
green manure crop is advisable, but at the same time it includes
references to so many and so important advantages that the reader
may be in danger of over-estimating its value. There is no question
that it can produce the beneficial effects referred to but there are con-
ditions under which these effects would be secured at too great cost.
Under the following conditions there can be no question that green
manuring will be profitable:

1. When the green manure crop can be produced without the
sacrifice of a crop to be harv^ested, or during a period when the field
would otherwise be unoccupied, when it will help prevent loss of
nitrates, erosion and infestation by weeds.

2. Green manuring will be especially important on soils made up
largel}^ of sand or clay and naturally deficient in humus.

3. Green manuring, especially with legumes, will be unusually
beneficial on soils naturally deficient in available nitrogen compounds.

4. It is especially beneficial in orchards : preventing erosion, furnish-
ing organic matter and keeping down weeds.

5. The introduction of a green manure crop in cases where a crop to
be harvested must be sacrificed will self-evidently be in place only on
the cheaper lands.

On the other hand where a farm is stocked to its
When not advisable, capacity, green manuring will seldom or never

be advisable. Many of the green manure crops
have large food value. It will be found more profitable to feed clover
to the animals of the farm than to turn it in in most cases, and where
the excrements are carefully saved and returned to to the land practic-
ally all the effects of green manuring will be realized.

3

and protection in winter, preventing both damage from wind and wash-
ing; produces a large amount of vegetable matter sufficiently early in
the season to be plowed under and followed by a crop to be harvested.
Seed broadcast, 2 to 3 bushels per acre.

Suited to light soils, characterized by extremely
Buckwheat. rapid growth in warm weather, killed by frosts,

valuable especially in preventing growth or
subduing weeds and producing a large amount of vegetable matter
within a short period of time. Seed broadcast, 1 bushel per acre:

Suited to the lighter soils, characterized by rapid
White mustard. growth and hardiness, valuable for nitrogen

conservation, will make a good growth before
cold weather if put in after early potatoes or sown in corn at the time
of the last cultivation. Seed 5 to 6 pounds per acre if sown in com ;
one-half that quantity alone broadcast.

Suited to medium soil. There are two classes —
Rape. Spring, represented by Dwarf Essex, and Winter.

The latter is not hardy in most parts of Massa-
chusetts. Where it can be grown, especially valuable, it starts into
growth extremely early in spring and furnishes a large amount of
vegetable matter in season to plow under for most crops. Dwarf Essex
rape may be sown after harvesting an early crop, being very hardy,
continues to grow until late in the autumn, especially valuable for
nitrogen conservation. Seed broadcast 3 to 5 pounds per acre.

Legumes

All the crops included in this class have the capacity to gather
nitrogen from the air. They will do this, however, to an important
extent only when the following conditions are met:

1. The soil must be neutral or alkaline.

2. It must be stocked with bacteria of the right kind or they must
be supplied. In the case of legumes which have commonly been grown
in the locality the appropriate bacteria are usually abundant. When a
legume new to the locality is to be grown the bacteria should be
supplied either in the form of a culture or by the use of loam from a
field where they are abundant. Cultures are now commercially pre-
pared and if of good quality are generally to be preferred to soil.*

3. It must not contain a large amount of nitrogen in the form of
available compounds. If it does the legume will take most of its
nitrogen from the soil and will not draw upon the air to any consider-
able extent.

♦Cultures may be obtained of the "Department of Microbiology," Mass. Agricultural College,
Amherst. A charge of 25 cents is made which covers cost and postage on sufficient for one bushel
of seed.

4. TREATMENT OF THE GREEN MANURE CROP

It is a common practice to turn under crops grown as green manures
as soon as their growth is completed, but even in the case of those
which are killed by autumn frosts, if protection from wind and washing
is especially needed, it may be preferable to leave the crop on the sur-
face until the following spring. It is not believed there will be any
great loss in manurial value if this practice be followed because the crop
on the surface in winter weather will not decay to a sufficient extent to
render its constituents soluble. In deciding upon the time for working
a green manure crop into the soil it should be remembered that this
should be done a few weeks at least before the seed of the following
crop is to be sown. The presence of a large amount of undecayed
vegetable material a few inches below the surface is unfavorable to the
germination and early growth of a following crop. Time should be
allowed for the vegetable matter to settle and in part decay and for the
capillary connection between the portion of the soil turned over and
the undisturbed soil below to have become re-established. In a
majority of instances it seems better to turn a green manure crop
under rather than to leave it on the surface. A plow turning a large
furrow slice is best suited to the work and a disk coulter is desirable.
If the crop is tall, a chain fastened to the middle of the evener long
enough so that the end will drag in the furrow about opposite the
n ould-board may be used with advantage. A chain so used divides
the standing crop and bends it forward just ahead of the plow so that
it is covered much better than would be possible without it. In some
cases the chain is looped in such a way as to accomplish the same
result. In the case of a crop killed by winter frosts but allowed to
remain upon the surface until spring, it is best to go over the field with
a disk harrow, cutting up the stems and working the material some-
what into the soil before attempting to plow.

5. SHOULD GREEN MANURE CROPS BE FERTILIZED

While a moderate degree of benefit may follow the introduction of
green manure crops without the application of any fertilizer, its full
benefits will not be realized on soils which are much exhausted without
the application of materials that furnish, at least, moderate quantities
of the mineral elements of plant food, for which purpose basic slag meal
and a potash salt applied broadcast, after plowing, and deeply worked
in, will prove among the most useful.

Further, it will not be possible to greatly enrich the soil in nitrogen
from the air through the growth of legumes unless lime be first applied
in the case of all soils which are acid, because the nodular bacteria
cannot multiply to any great extent, nor actively assimilate nitrogen in
soils which are sour.

Circular No. 56 September, 1915

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

AMHERST.

Wm. p. Brooks, Director
E. D. Waid, Acting Director of Extension Service

CAMPAIGN TO ELIMINATE BACILLARY WHITE DIARRHOEA

1. White Diarrhoea is common in this State and is the occasion of
great loss.

2. The disease is transmitted by the hen laying the egg.

3. Hens harboring the bacillus can be detected by a laboratory test of
the blood.

4. If such hens (reactors) are eliminated from breeding flocks losses of
chicks from Bacillary White Diarrhoea with proper sanitation can be
practically entirely avoided. This fact has been demonstrated by tests
made both in the Massachusetts and the Connecticut Experiment Stations.

5. The facts above stated must make it apparent that a campaign for
the elimination of this disease is desirable and practicable. Breeders have
simply to cease using eggs from reacting hens for hatching and the disease
will soon dissappear.

6. The Extension Service and the Experiment Station of the Massachu-
setts Agricultural College, working co-operatively, are prepared to begin
testing the breeding hens of owners applying for the test under the follow-
ing general conditions :

(a). The collection of the blood samples will be carried out by the
Extension Service.

(b). The agglutination test of the blood samples will be made in the
Veterinary Department of the Experiment Station and from that Depart-
ment reports on the results with such directions as may be necessary will
go to the flock owners.

(c). As the work of the Veterinary Department will be largely routine
and not experimental in its nature a charge will be made by the Station to
cover a part of the cost. This for the present will be five cents for each
hen tested.

7. Those desiring to have their flocks tested on this basis should address
their applications : Poultry Department, Agricultural College, Amherst.

8. Those who have already applied for the test, whether verbally or in
writing, as well as others should now make application as directed
under " 7."

9. So far as conditions permit applications will be accepted in the order
of priority : but locality, as will be readily understood, must be considered
since at present only one man can be employed in taking blood samples.
It may not be possible to satisfy all applications, as the forces and facilities
available for the work are limited.

Circular No. 57 (Revision of No. 28) September, 1915

MASSACHUSEHS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

Department of Chemistry

RULES RELATIVE TO TESTING DAIRY COWS

General Requirements

The Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, working in
conjunction with the various pure bred cattle associations, will conduct,
when possible, official tests of pure bred cows, on the following
conditions :

1. Two weeks' notice of a desired test must be given the Station.

2. Charges for testing will be as follows ;

(a) The charge for a single day's test, when made in a sequence
with others of a similar character, will be $5.00. Additional days for
the same party will be at the rate of $2.75 per day. These prices do
not include the tester's time while en route.

(b) The charge for a "seven-day" test will be $25.00. An allow-
ance of nine consecutive days will be made, which shall include the
tester's time en route. Additional days beyond the nine day limit will
be charged for at the rate of $2.75 a day.

(c) The charge for a "thirty-day" test will be $80.00, and 32
consecutive days will be allowed, which shall include the tester's
time en route. Additional days beyond the 32 day limit will be at the
rate of $2.50 a day.

(d) When the cost of supervisor's time and traveling expenses is
in excess of the preceding rates the actual cost of the test will be
charged. Such a charge, however, will not include office supervision,
breakage or items other than the supervisor's time and traveling
expenses.

(e) All bills for this work must be paid within ten days of date
rendered. Breeders failing to comply with this requirement shall
lose the privilege of having their cows tested under Experiment
Station supervision.

(f) The owner of the stock must, at his expense, care for the
supervisor during the test, and when necessary, convey him to and
from the railroad station or car line.

3. The owner of each herd desiring tests must provide a satis-
factory Babcock machine, the necessary acid and hot water, and a
suitable box or cupboard fitted with a hasp for a padlock, in which the
supervisor may keep his samples.

4. In case of long tests, supervisors will be changed every thirty
days, if deemed advisable.

5. All reports of tests must be brought or sent to the Experiment
Station by the supervisors. Such reports, after being verified, en-
dorsed and copied, will be forwarded to the proper club. The station,
however, reserves the right of using the data, if deemed advisable.

Duties of the Supervisor

1. The supervisor shall not be held responsible for the identity of
any cow tested, but shall accept the statement of the owner or his
representative as to her name and registration number. The super-
visor, however, shall state whether the cow answers her registered
description, if the same has been furnished him.

2. The supervisor shall see the cow milked dry at the regular
milking prior to beginning the test,* shall verify the fact with his own
hands and note the time of the same. The last milking must occur
at the same hour, one or more days later according to the length of
the test.

3. The number of cows to which an inspector is limited daily shall
be dependent upon the amount of work required and the facilities at
hand. He shall not exceed five cows when milked four times daily
nor ten when milked two or three times daily, without special per-
mission from the station. Where inferior facilities for testing are
furnished the number of cows allowed daily may be reduced. The
authority for such action rests, however, with the Experiment Station
official in charge and not with the supervisor. The supervisor shall
allow only one of the cows entered to be milked at a time and shall
personally oversee the entire milking.

4. A cow must be milked out at a single sitting. In no case will
it be allowable to go back and strip her a second time.

5. The supervisor shall verify the weight of the pail before each
cow is milked. As soon as a cow is milked the supervisor shall take
charge of the pail and its contents and keep it under his control until
he shall have weighed the milk and taken the sample for the Babcock

*In case of Ayrshire and Jersey breeds it is not necessary to see the cow milked dry
before beginning test.

test. He must thoroughly mix the milk previous to taking the
necessary sample and must retain the sample under absolute control
until tested.

6. Disturbing conditions such as sickness, being in heat, change
of milker, etc., must always be entered on the report.

7. When required, as indicated on the blanks furnished, the
supervisor must also record the date of the cow's birth, when last
calf was dropped, when the cow was served, when test was begun,
statement of kind and amount of feed, both grain and roughage,
method of feeding, also the use of condiments, condition powders, or
drugs of any kind.

8. In the case of yearly tests the supervisor shall at the beginning
of the test record in duplicate on blanks furnished him for the purpose
a full description of the animal entered for test.

9. Any tampering with a cow under test or with the samples by
the owner or an employee, by refusal to comply with the rules must
be reported at once to the station by telephone. Lack of proper
apparatus or facilities for doing satisfactory work should also be
reported.

10. All the butter fat tests and weights of milk secured by a
supervisor shall be recorded by him in a suitable record book or upon
special blanks furnished for that purpose, which he shall retain
constantly in his possession until called for by the Experiment
Station official in charge of the work.

1 1 . The supervisor shall adhere to the foregoing rules in every
particular as well as to the rules of the various breeders' associations
under which he may be working.

Special Rules

The owners of pure bred animals under test are advised to
thoroughly familiarize themselves with the rules under which their
respective associations are working. Our supervisors are instructed
to refer all questions in regard to rules to the proper pure bred cattle
associations. The information in this circular is simply intended to
supplement the rules of the various associations and in no way to
conflict with them. The supervisor is not at liberty to decide as
to which stipulations contained herein are essential and which are not
and any apparent variation between the instructions in this circular
and those of the pure bred cattle associations should be referred at
once to the Experiment Station.

Tield of Milk and Butter Fat Required for Advanced

Registry.

AYRSHIRE
2 years old at commencement of test,

7 Days
Milk Fat
lbs. lbs.

365
Milk
lbs.

6,000

6,500

7,500
8,500

274.

Days
Fat

lbs.

2 14-3
236.0
279.0
322.0
o.i:

7.2

8.8
10.4
12.0
•00439

250.5
287.0

323-5
360.0

0.1

250.5*
287.0*

323-5*

360.0*

0.1

250.5
287.0

323.5
.^60.0

Daily increase required,
GUERNSEY
2 years old at commencement of test,

^ (( U U (<

. U U (( 1(

5 "
. Daily increase required,

HOLSTEIN FRIESIAN

2 years old at calving,

3 "

4 " " "

5 " . ".

Daily increase required,

JERSEY

2 years old at commencement of test,

3 "

4 "

5 " . ".

Daily increase required.

Confirmed Butter Tests : 1 4 pounds of actual butter testing at
least 80 per cent, fat for 7 days, for 90 days or less an average of
. 2 pounds a day, for 265 days 500 lbs.

Secretaries of Breeders' Associations

Ayrshire Breeders' Association ; C. M. Winslow, Brandon, Vt.

American Guernsey Cattle Club ; W. H. Caldwell, Peterboro, N. H.

tHolstein-Friesian Association of America ; F. L. Houghton,
Brattleboro, Vt.

American Jersey Cattle Club ; R. M. Gow, 324 West 23d Street,
New York, N. Y.

Communications pertaining to advanced registry work addressed
to the Massachusetts Experiment Station should be sent in care of
the undersigned. PHILIP H. SMITH,

Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station,
Amherst, Mass.

♦Competition restricted to cows having been admitted to Advanced Register on 7 day
test.

**For special requirements of seven, fourteen and thirty day tests consult Jersey Rules.

tCommunications in regard to advanced registry should be addressed to Malcolm H.
Gardner, Superintendent of Advanced Registry, Delavan, Wis.

Circular No. 58 (Revision of No. 47).

November, 1915.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

AMHERST.

The Feeding Value of Apple Pomace*

BY J. B. LINDSEY.

There is often considerable discussion in the agricultural press
and among farmers concerning the value of apple pomace as a
food for dairy and beef cattle. With a view to getting some
positive data, this station instituted a number of experiments, the
results of which are here briefly stated.

(a) Composition of Apple

Pomace {Per Cent.)

Water.

Ash. ! Protein. 1 Fiber.

Extract
Matter.

Fat.

Sample I, . . . 81.40
Sample II, . . . 80.20
Corn silage for comparisoiij 80.00

.73

.60

1.10

I
.94 3.00

1.01 3.19

1.70 5.40

13.03
13.73
11.10

.90

1.27

.70

It will be seen from the above figures that apple pomace is a
carbohydrate feed similar to corn silage. It contains about the
same amount of water, rather less protein and fiber, and a larger
proportion of extract matter. Whether the extract or starchy
matter in the pomace is as valuable, pound for pound, as that
contained in the com, has not been thoroughly demonstrated.

(h) Digestibility of Apple Pomace.

The value of a feed cannot always be measured by its composi-
tion. A food is valuable as a source of nutrition only in so far as
its various constituents can be digested and assimilated. This
station has made two different experiments to ascertain the diges-
tibility of the pomace, and the detailed results are to be found in
the seventeenth report of this station. The summary follows:

Digestibility of the Pomace {Per Cent.)

Number

of

Single

Trials.

3
3

Dry

Matter.

Ash.

Protein Fiber. f/ti*<^*
1 Matter

i

Fat.

Apple pomace (first ex-
periment) , .

Apple pomace (second
experiment),

72.5
70.6

54.7
42.8

—

61.6
67.3

84.5
84.3

47.2
43.4

Average,

Dent corn silage (for

comparison) .
Flint corn silage (small

varieties) ,

6

17
11

71.5

64.0
75.0

48.7

52.0
65.0

64.4

62.0
77.0

84.4

69.0
79.0

45.3

85.0
82.0

The above figures mean that 71.5 per cent of the total dry
matter, 64.4 per cent, of the total fiber, etc., contained in the
pomace are digested. The total dry matter in apple pomace is
shown to be about as digestible as in the best grades of silage.
The protein content of the pomace is small — about 1 per cent —
and it has not been possible, by present methods, to ascertain its
digestibility. Judging from the composition and digestibility of the
pomace, one would feel justified in assuming that, pound for pound,
it should approach in feeding value an average quality of corn silage.

(c) Experiments unth Dairy Animals.
While this station has not carried out any exhaustive compara-
tive tests with pomace and other coarse feeds, it has fed the
pomace a number of seasons to dairy animals. The material was
drawn fresh from the mill, and placed in a large pile under cover.
A noticeable quantity of juice gradually drained from it, but it
kept in good condition for two months. The animals received
from 15 to 30 lbs. daily, ate it readily, and the results were quite
satisfactory. In one case two cows were fed alternately, four
weeks at a time, on grain and hay, and on grain, hay and pom-
ace; 25 pounds of pomace were compared with 5 pounds of hay.
During the pomace period the animals produced 1,153 pounds of
milk, and gained 24 pounds in live weight; during the hay period
1,138 pounds of milk and lost 6 pounds in weight. 0;i this basis
5 pounds of pomace were more than equivalent to 1 pound of
hay. Judging from this feeding test, and from the composition
and digestibility of the pomace, it seems probable that every
4 to 5 pounds, when fed in what is termed a "balanced ration,"
would be equal in feeding value to 1 pound of good cow hay.

The Vermont Experiment Station has fed apple pomace for
four years, using in all 20 cows for the several trials. The pom-
ace was shoveled into the silo, leveled off and kept in good condi-
tion without further care. In some cases it was placed on top of
the corn silage after the latter had settled. The quantity fed varied
from 10 to 35 pounds daily, with no unfavorable effects. As a
result of the several experiments, the Vermont station concludes
that the pomace is equivalent in feeding value to an equal weight
of average corn silage,* and that it is without injurious effect on
the flavor of milk and butter.

(d) How to Feed the Pomace.

Farmers are cautioned not to feed too large quantities at first,
but to begin with 10 pounds daily, and to gradually increase the
quantity to 30 pounds, taking a week or more in which to do it.
In this way danger of a sudden milk shrinkage or of the animals
getting "off feed," as is sometimes reported, may be avoided,
Judging from all the data available, it is believed that farmers
living in the vicinity of cider mills will find it good economy to
utilize the pomace as a food for their dairy stock, dry cows, steers
and sheep.

As roughage for mature cows or steers, 30 pounds pomace
may be fed, or 15 pounds pomace and 15 pounds of corn silage,
together with what hay the animal will eat, which will usually be
from 10 to 16 pounds daily In addition, 5 to 10 pounds of a
grain mixture will be necessary for dairy cows, the amount de-
pending upon the size of the animal and her milk yield.

Some desirable grain mixtures for dairy animals to be fed with
roughage :

I II.

100 pounds bran, 100 pounds bran,

100 pounds flour middlings, 100 pounds corn or hominy meal,'

100 pounds gluten feed. 100 pounds cottonseed meal.

Mix and feed 6 to 8 pounds (7 to 9 Mix and feed 6 to 8 pounds (7 to 9

quarts) daily. quarts) daily.

III. IV.

100 pounds wheat bran, 100 pounds wheat bran or malt

200 pounds gluten feed, sprouts,

35 pounds cottonseed meal. 100 pounds corn or hominy meal,

Mix and feed 7 pounds (7 quarts) 150 pounds gluten feed.

daily. Mix and feed 7 pounds (or quarts)

daily.
* There is doubt in the mind of the writer whether pomace would prove equal to
well-preserved and well-eared corn silage. It certainly would approach it in feeding value-
and ought to be fully utilized.

' Corn and cob meal, if on hand, can be used in place of corn or hominy meal.

V.
75 pounds wheat bran,
150 pounds corn and cob meal,
100 pounds cottonseed meal.
Mix and feed 6 to 7 pounds (7
quarts) daily.

VI.

100 pounds distillers' grains,
100 pounds malt sprouts,
150 pounds corn meal,
50 pounds cottonseed meal.
Mix and feed 7 pounds (7 to 8
quarts) daily.

VII.

150 pounds distillers' grains,
150 pounds standard middlings,
100 pounds corn or hominy meal.
Mix and feed 7 pounds (or quarts)
daily.

IX.

200 pounds dried brewers' grains,
100 pounds corn meal,
50 pounds cottonseed meal.
Mix and feed 7 pounds (9 quarts)
daily.

XL

1.5 pounds gluten feed,

1.5 pounds cottonseed meal,

4.0 pounds dried beet pulp.'*

VIII.
150 pounds wheat bran,
200 pounds gluten feed.
Mix and feed 7 pounds (8 to 9
quarts) daily.

300 pounds bran,
100 pounds flour middlings,
100 pounds corn meal,
100 pounds ground oats,
300 pounds gluten feed,
100 pounds linseed meal.
Mix and feed as desired.

XII.

3 pounds distillers' grains,

4 pounds dried beet pulp.^

The cost of a pound of the several mixtures is likely to vary
from 1.4 to 1.6 cents. It is believed that the above selections
are more economical on the basis of their content of nutritive
material than most of the sugar feeds and other proprietary mix-
tures.

In general, it may be said that the amount of grain to be fed
daily depends (a) upon the size of the cow, (b) daily milk yield,
and (c) the local market value of the milk. The richer the milk,
the more food is required to produce a given amount, and vice
versa.

Six to seven pounds of the above mixtures is a fair average
amount for cows weighing 800 to 900 pounds, which are yielding
10 quarts of 4 to 5 per cent milk. For every two quarts of milk
yielded in excess of this amount the grain ration may be increased
by one pound.

^ Ration desi i:ned for cows on test; rather expensive for ordinary purposes.
3 Beet pulp should be moistened with two or three times its weight of water before
feeding.

Circular No. 59. December, 1915.

NASSACHUSEHS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIINT STATION

AMHERST.

THE USE OF FERTILIZERS IN 1916.

William P. Brooks

The directors of the Agricultural Experiment Stations in the New Eng-
land States, New York and New Jersey have recently held a meeting for the
discussion of the present situation as affecting the use of fertilizers. At this
meeting it was decided to make certain fairly definite suggestions, each direc-
tor to present the subject with due regard to special local conditions. The
following suggestions embody the substance of the points agreed upon except
that in a few instances special reference is made to conclusions based chiefly
upon results obtained in this Experiment Station and not, perhaps, generally
supported.

The person planning his use of fertilizers for next season confronts a
peculiarly difficult situation. Neither potash salts nor basic slag meal which
have been coming to us from Europe can be imported and neither can be
purchased except for prices practically prohibitive. Nitrate of soda has
advanced sharply in price on account of its extensive use in the manu-
facture of explosives and the excessively high ocean freight rates due to the
scarcity of shipping and the blocking of the Panama Canal. Acid phos-
phate is also much higher than in recent years on account of the heavy de-
mand for sulfuric acid, essential in its manufacture, in the production of
munitions of war. Most other materials have advanced in sympathy and
all mixed fertilizers are necessarily higher and contain little or no potash.

Under these conditions it becomes especially important to adopt such
general measures as will reduce so far as possible the necessity for purchased
fertilizers.

MEASURES FOR LESSENING THE NEED FOR FERTILIZERS

Among such measures some of the more important may be mentioned
and briefly discussed.

1. Selection of the Soil

No good farmer is satisfied to follow a system which means that his soils
are growing poorer, but during the ensuing season fertilizer potash will be
practically unobtainable while other materials will be high. In order,
therefore, to reduce the necessary expenditure for fertilizer so far as possible
and at the same time not to run undue risk of crop failure, it will manifestly
be good policy to grow hoed crops chiefly on the better soils. In deciding
which are the better, we must consider both natural characteristics and
previous treatment. The heavier soils are in general stronger than the
lighter. It is especially important to remember that they contain more
total and usually also more available potash. The soils rich in organic
matter stand least in need of manure or fertilizer nitrogen. The soils that
have recently been well manured or fertilized will carry crops through a
period of temporary fertilizer shortage better than those less liberally treated.
Freshly broken up grasslands, especially if clover has constituted a consider-
able proportion of the herbage, and recently reclaimed soils will, other things
being equal, furnish more available food to a hoed crop than fields long
under cultivation.

2. Increasing the Availability of Soil Constituents

Most soils contain large enough quantities of the important plant food
elements for good crops for many years, but as a rule only a small propor-
tion of these elements is in available forms. This is especially true of potash
which is locked up in enormous quantities in most of our soils and subsoils.

There are two distinct lines of treatment which may help bring inert
soil constituents into available forms, namely tillage and the use of indirect
fertilizers.

Tillage. Thorough tUlage should be mentioned first. It is within the
reach of all. Deeper plowing and more careful harrowing, more perfect pul-
verization of the soil for the production of a better seed-bed, and better care
of the crop while growing mean that the plant's needs will be more largely
met by the soil itself, for all these measures favor changes which render
naturally inactive soil constituents more available, and the amount of such
constituents in most soils is relatively large.

Indirect Fertilizers. There are a number of materials, some of them
not in themselves usually important as direct sources of plant food and
others which are of value as direct sources of plant food, which exercise an
indirect effect upon the soil favorable to an increase in the availability of
some of its constituents. Among the more important of these may be men-
tioned lime in its different forms, land plaster, common salt, soda ash,
nitrate of soda and acid phosphate. Under existing conditions it is a matter
of the greatest importance that we consider to what extent the use of these
materials may bring inert soil constituents within the reach of the plant.

(a) Lime
Lime is without doubt one of the most important of the indirect ferti-
lizers. It sweetens sour soils, promotes decay of organic matter, hastens the
availability of the plant food such matter contains, and increases the activ-
ity of beneficial soil organisms; it improves the physical condition of heavy
soils, and it is usually asserted that it helps make the naturally inert potash
of the soil more available. To what extent it will do this seems, however,
to be a question, and the experiments in this station indicate that in the
lighter and medium soils at least lime does not by any means take the place
of potash application.

(b) Land Plaster

Authorities have usually claimed that land plaster as well as lime in-
creases the availability of soil potash, but experiments in this station
indicate that its activity in that direction is not materially greater than that
of lime. The use of plaster cannot render application of potash unnecessary.

(c) Common Salt

It is claimed in some quarters for this material also that it will increase
the availability of the soil potash. It is probably worth trying for that pur-
pose. This station has no direct evidence bearing upon this question. It is
pointed out, however, that the chlorine which is a constituent of common
salt will undoubtedly increase the loss of lime from the soil, and the writer
believes that it may also exert an unfavorable influence upon the quality of
potatoes and perhaps render plants more susceptible to frost injury and
winterkiUing.

(d) Soda Ash

Soda ash may help sweeten a sour soil and may possibly somewhat de-
crease the necessity for the addition of potash, but the supply is small and
the price high.

(e) Nitrate of Soda

Nitrate of soda, as is well understood, is one of the most valuable nitrogen
fertilizers. Some authorities assert that where this material is used as a
source of nitrogen the use of potash as a fertilizer is rendered either entirely
or in part unnecessary. The authority for this statement is so good that it
does not seem possible to doubt that nitrate of soda is useful in the direc-
tion indicated, but that the employment of this material will render potash
fertilization unnecessary is not supported by the experimental work of this
station.

(f) Acid Phosphate

Good authorities assert that acid phosphate favors the activity of bene-
ficial soil organisms, that it indirectly favors the assimilation of atmos-
pheric nitrogen, and that as a result of its use the availability of soil potash
is increased. The latter effect is supposed to be due to the calcium sulfate
(land plaster) which acid phosphate contains. Experimental work at this
station shows clearly that on our medium soils the effect of acid phosphate
upon potash availability is by no means great.

In conclusion upon this topic, it is urged that while it is not believed
that the use of the materials under consideration can be made to entirely
take the place of potash fertilization, it is nevertheless worthy of considera-
tion. The cheaper of these materials should undoubtedly be more freely
used than under ordinary conditions.

3. More Careful Conservation and Utilization of All Home Resources.

Animal Manures. These, of course, should be carefully saved and
used at all times. They should be so handled as to prevent undue heating
in loose piles for this means loss of ammonia. Especially at this time when
potash from other sources cannot be obtained at reasonable cost, all loss of
urine should be prevented, for this contains about four- fifths of the total
potash of the excrements as well as a large amount of nitrogen. Exposure
to rains in piles or small heaps means the washing out of soluble consti-
tuents— chiefly nitrogen and potash. The use of acid phosphate scattered
over the manure at the rate of about a pound per day for each horse or cow
may sometimes be advisable as a means of preventing loss of ammonia.

Attention is called to the fact that the earth beneath leaky stable floors
absorbs and retains most of the potash from the urine which passes through,
and if the stable has been long used, this earth may be richly worth re-
moval. The same may be true of the surface earth of open yards or pens in
which manure has accumulated for some time. It may be worth while to
remove a few inches, or at least to scrape them much closer than usual.
The same may be true of the earth below manure heaps and composts.

Well-saved manure carries per ton about the following amounts of the
chief plant-food constituents:

Nitrogen 10 pounds

Phosphoric acid 7 "

Potash 10 "

The weight of a cord varies from about two to three tons. An ordinary
two-horse cartload of cow manure weighs about a ton. Since manure must
apparently in most cases be the chief source of potash for next season, it is
apparent that when possible some manure should be applied to all land
which is to be planted to hoed crops unless it is known that the soil -is
already well supplied with that element. Moderate manuring and some

fertilizer for all should be the rule rather than heavy manuring without fer-
tilizer for some and exclusively fertilizer for others. *

Refuse Organic Materials. All refuse vegetable matter has a manu-
rial value and many kinds are particularly rich in potash. A ton of dry
corn stover, at the present prices for potash salts, contains nearly ten dollars'
worth of that element. Tobacco stems are still richer, while the stems and
tops of all crops and weeds of many kinds are also rich in that element.
Under existing conditions it will pay unusually well to gather and utilize all
materials of this class, weeds carrying ripe seeds perhaps excepted. Such weeds
may be burned and their ashes utilized. Many of them can be used as bed-
ding in stables and pens where animals are kept. If, as in the case of corn
stover, they have a food value, the potash they contain may be practically
all recovered in the animal excrements, provided the urine is carefully saved.
Vegetable materials not fitted for use as bedding or the feed of live stock
may be plowed or otherwise worked into the soil, or may be first made into
compost.

Wood Ashes. These will be unusually valuable this year. They will
help sweeten sour soils as they contain a large proportion of carbonate of
lime and other alkalies, and they supply potash. Save all that are made
upon the farm or in the house and buy wherever possible at a reasonable
price. House to house purchase in one's own neighborhood may be advis-
able in localities where wood is much used as fuel. Remember that leaching
removes most of the potash of ashes. Local lime and brick kilns should not
be forgotten. Ashes from these are lower in potash than house ashes, but
are well worth looking for.

Green Manuring. Green manuring may to some extent reduce the
necessity for the application of fertilizers. It is sometimes valuable in
preventing erosion; it may reduce the loss of soluble plant food by leaching;
it may increase the availability of soil constituents by direct action of the
feeding roots and by the fermentation of the crop when incorporated with
the soil; and if a legume is selected, it may increase the stock of soil nitro-
gen by acquisition from the air. It is now too late to undertake green
manuring for hoed crops of next year, but its advantages should be kept in
mind.

Kelp and Seaweed. These are particularly valuable as sources of
nitrogen and potash, and under existing conditions those living near the sea-
board can well afford to incur a heavier expense in collecting and applying
these materials than in years when fertilizers can be more cheaply obtained.

FERTILIZER SOURCES OF PLANT FOOD
1. Nitrogen

Nitrate of soda is the most immediately available source of nitrogen and
is especially important for crops whose early growth is chiefly at low temper-
atures and on soils deficient in potash, since the soda it contains will some-
what reduce the amount of potash taken by the plant.

On soils not deficient in lime sulfate of ammonia is a good source of ni-
trogen, although its action is not quite so immediate as that of nitrate.

Cyanamid, at present prices one of the cheapest quick-acting nitrogen
fertilizers, is also a good source of that element. Because it contains lime it
may be especially adapted for use on acid soils ; but for the same reason it is
likely to cause loss of ammonia if mixed with sulfate of ammonia or organic

'Farmers' Bulletin 192 on "Barn Yard Manures" can be obtained Ot the United
States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

materials such as blood or tankage, and if mixed with acid phosphate it may-
decrease the solubility of the phosphoric acid. It does not appear to be best
to use it in mixtures in excess of about 200 pounds to the ton, and if applied
in fairly liberal quantities by itself, it should if possible be incorporated with
the soil a few days before the seed is planted.

Vegetable sources of nitrogen such as cottonseed meal and castor pomace
are exceptionally high in price, but it is well to remember that besides nitro-
gen they furnish some potash and phosphoric acid.

Blood and tankage are good sources of nitrogen.

For a single application to long-season crops, a combination made up of
about one-third each of nitrate of soda, either cyanamid or sulfate of
ammonia, and either cottonseed meal or tankage is likely to be satisfactory.

2. Phosphoric Acid

The use of fine ground rock phosphate is not recommended for general
application and certainly not for quick returns, and there appears to be no
conclusive evidence that mixing it with manure as is sometimes advised in-
creases its availability.

The phosphoric acid of bone and tankage is much more available than
that of rock phosphates, but acid phosphate is the most quickly available
source of phosphoric acid and must be chiefly depended upon as a source of
that element for general crops. The high price at which it is now held sug-
gest the advisability of unusual care in its use. It should not be forgotten,
however, that a fairly liberal use of a fertilizer supplying soluble phosphoric
adid seems to promote early root development, rapid growth of the crop and
relatively early and perfect ripening. Because of its effect upon early root
development it may have an important influence on the extent to which the
plant is able to draw upon the soil itself for food.

3. Potash

It should be remembered that no complete substitute for potash is
known. Fine ground feldspar as a source of potash cannot be recommended
as the potash which it contains is not available and, so far as known, there is
at present no practicable method, economically speaking, of rendering potash
from this source accessible to the crop.

Wood ashes in most localities seem likely to be the only material that
can be purchased to supply potash, but the' percentage of that element in
these, on account of the unusual demand, is likely to run low, and they
should be purchased only on guarantee.

4. Mixed Fertilizers

The mixed fertilizers offered in the market this year, according to the
announcements of a number of the more prominent manufacturers, will in-
clude brands showing the following variations in plant food:

Ammonia from 1 to 6 per cent

equivalent to

Nitrogen " .8 " 4.95 "

Available phosphoric acid " 8 "10 "

Potash "0 "1

SUGGESTIONS FOR DIFFERENT CROPS
1. Top-dressing Grasslands

Where market hay relatively free from clover is desired, an application
furnishing nitrogen alone is probably advisable this year, since potash can-

not be obtained and phosphoric acid is unusually high in price. One to two
hundred pounds of nitrate of soda or of cyanamid, or of a mixture of equal
quantities of the two, or a similar mixture of nitrate of soda and sulfate of
ammonia, or about one hundred to one hundred and fifty pounds of sulfate
of ammonia alone, seem likely to prove as satisfactory as anything.

For mowings where clover is desired, or for clover and alfalfa, among
different materials which can be obtained ashes will prove best suited, and
if pure wood ashes are not obtainable, those from lime or brick kilns may
prove the next best material.

2. Corn

Experiment stations have long taught that the farm manures under
ordinary conditions should be largely used for the corn crop. Ten tons of
good manure will carry:

100 pounds of nitrogen,
66 " " phosphoric acid,
100 " " potash.
With this it will usually be advisable to use a very little quick-acting nitro-
gen and some acid phosphate or, if preferred, about 300 to 500 pounds of a
mixed fertilizer containing about:

2.5 per cent nitrogen and
10 " phosphoric acid.

3. Potatoes, Root Crops and Vegetables

If available, it is advisable to use manure on account of its potash con-
tent, and about six to eight tons well worked into the soil may be recom-
mended. With this should be used about 500 to 600 pounds of a mixed
fertilizer containing:

2.5 per cent nitrogen and

8-10 " phosphoric acid.

If no manure is available, it is recommended to apply wood ashes broadcast
for all these crops, except potatoes on soils which are neutral or alkaline. It
is believed that wood ashes may be safely used for potatoes up to about
1000 pounds per acre on the majority of our soils which are decidedly acid
if put on broadcast and worked into the soil a little in advance of planting.
In connection with ashes, from 1000 to 2000 pounds of a mixed fertilizer
containing about:

4.1 per cent nitrogen and

8-10 " phosphoric acid,

can be recommended; or in place of it a mixture of chemicals supplying
similar amounts of plant food.

4. Spring-sown Cereals or Top-dressing Winter Cereals

Except on the richer soils, the use of from 300 to 500 pounds of mixed
fertilizer containing

4.1- 5 per cent nitrogen and

8 -10 " phosphoric acid,
is likely to give a profitable increase of crop, or in place of such mixed ferti-
lizer, a combination of chemicals, including a considerable proportion of
nitrate of soda for nitrogen, which will supply similar amounts of plant food.

5. Orchards

It is doubtful whether fertilizer can profitably be used to any great ex-
tent on orchards this year unless it be for those standing in grass. If the

orchard can be well tilled and a system of growing cover crops is followed,
many soils produce satisfactory growth and fruitfulness without fertilizer.
The use of 75 to 100 pounds per acre of nitrate of soda for peaches on the
lighter and poorer soils may constitute an exception.

THE PURCHASE OF FERTILIZERS

1. Secure quotations and guarantees from several responsible parties
and buy for cash if possible.

2. Remember value is fixed by food content, not bj'- weight, and make
sure you get the maximum for money spent.

3. At current prices very cautious use of fertilizers must be the rule,
but a relatively liberal expenditure is a necessity for crops of high money
value per acre and those requiring heavy outlay for labor. For these, even
at present prices for potash, it may be good policy to purchase something to
supply that element in all cases where experience indicates it to be im-
portant.

SUMMARY

1. The fertilizer situation in 1916 is peculiarly difficult because: —

a. Potash salts cannot be purchased at a price which farmers can
afford to pay.

b. Nitrate of soda and acid phosphate are exceptionally high be-
cause of the war, the scarcity and high price of coastwise freights, and the
blocking of the Panama Canal.

c. Most other materials have advanced in price in sympathy.

2. The farmer under these conditions should adopt all possible means
for lessening the need for commercial fertilizers. Among such measures are
the following: —

a. Putting all hoed crops upon the better soils.

b. Adopting all possible means of increasing the availability of
inert plant food found in the soil, including: —

(a) Better and deeper tillage, and drainage where needed.

(b) Use of indirect fertilizers such as lime, land plaster and
common salt which may help make soil potash available. It should be re-
membered that nitrate of soda and acid phosphate besides serving as direct
fertilizers may also help render soil constituents available.

3. Unusual care in saving and applying farm manures.

a. Prevent escape of urine which means loss of potash, heating
which means loss of ammonia, and leaching which means loss of all soluble
constituents.

b. Apply some manure to all cultivated land.

4. Organic refuse.

a. Carefully save all refuse vegetable materials. These are chiefly
valuable for the potash they contain.

b. If fitted for such use, employ such material as bedding; other-
wise, incorporate directly with the soil.

5. Wood ashes.

These, if of good quality, will be unusually valuable for the potash
they carry. Gather from all possible sources and purchase wherever avail-
able at reasonable prices.

6. Green Manuring.

Should the war continue another year, this would be especially
worth consideration.

7. Kelp and seaweed will be worth more than usual on account of the
potash and nitrogen they carry.

8. Fertilizer sources of plant food.

a. Nitrogen. — Nitrate of soda is the most quickly available source
of nitrogen and may also help reduce the necessity for potash. Sulfate of
ammonia and cyanamid are good sources of nitrogen, the latter the cheap-
est; while organic materials such as tankage and cottonseed, though high,
may be necessary in connection with those already named.

b. Phosphoric acid. — Acid phosphate whether by itself or in
mixed fertilizers is the most quickly available and generally best adapted to
the needs of our agriculture, since basic slag meal cannot be obtained. Fine
ground rock phosphates cannot be advised, but the phosphoric acid in fine
ground bone and tankage is valuable though much slower in action than
that in acid phosphate.

c. Potash. — ^It should be remembered that there are no thoroughly
satisfactory potash substitutes. Fine ground feldspar cannot be recom-
mended. Wood ashes of different kinds are at present the only important
available source of potash, although the vegetable ammoniates such as
cottonseed meal and castor pomace contain a moderate amount of that
element.

d. Mixed fertilizers both with and without potash will be offered,
but the maximum of that element will probably be 1 per cent. It is not
thought that these goods in the quantity in which they can generally be em-
ployed will furnish sufficient potash to be of much value to the crop, while it
will necessarily add materially to the cost of the fertilizer. The mixed ferti-
lizers on the market are most of them practically ammoniated superphos-
phates, supplying nitrogen and phosphoric acid in varying proportions and
combinations.

9. Suggestions for different crops.

a. For grasslands where clover is not particularly desired, for this
year, materials furnishing nitrogen chiefly or exclusively; nitrate of soda,
sulfate of ammonia and cyanamid being among the best. A combination of
the first and third has sometimes given exceptionally good results. Quantity
of this mixture or any of the single materials, 100 to 200 pounds per acre.
If phosphoric acid also is deemed necessary, a highly nitrogenized com-
mercial brand may be desirable.

b. Top-dressing clover and alfalfa. — Wood ashes if obtainable are
probably best under the peculiar conditions now existing.

c. Corn. — Use manure and 300 to 500 pounds of a fertilizer carry-
ing 2i to 3 per cent of nitrogen and about 10 per cent available phosphoric
acid.

d. Potatoes, root crops and vegetables. — Use some manure if avail-
able and in connection with it 500 to 600 pounds of a mixed fertilizer con-
taining about 2h per cent nitrogen and 8 per cent phosphoric acid. If ma
nure is not available and the soil is strongly acid, broadcast 800 to 1000
pounds of wood ashes and use 1000 to 2000 pounds of mixed fertilizer con-
taining about 4 to 4i per cent nitrogen and 8 to 10 per cent phosphoric acid,
or a mixture of chemicals which will furnish equivalent plant food.

e. Oats, barley and spring top-dressing winter grain. — Except on
soils made rich by heavy applications to previous crops, 300 to 400 pounds
per acre of mixed fertilizer containing about 4 to 5 per cent nitrogen and 8
to 10 per cent phosphoric arid, or a mixture of chemicals made up chiefly of
nitrate of soda and acid phosphate, supplying about 100 pounds of the
former to 200 of the latter.

f. Orchards. — Chief dependence this year should be placed upon
tilage where practicable. A little nitrate of soda may be useful on the
poorer soils and where orchards stand in grass.

Bulletin 162 on Phosphates in Massachusetts Agriculture, Circulars
on Green Manuring, on the use of Lime and on the Selection of Fer-
tilizers for our leading crops will be sent on application. Address,
Experiment Station, Amherst, Mass.

Circular No. 6o February, 1916

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

AMHERST.

Suggestions for the Use of Fertilizers for Tobacco and Onions for 1916.

H. D. Raskins.

The unusually large number of requests from local farmers for
suggestions and advice in relation to the use of fertilizers for tobacco
and onions has warranted the publication of this circular.

It is evident that the tobacco and onion growers are confronted by
unusual conditions. The extremely wet season of last summer must
have modified soil conditions by the elimination of much of the soluble
nitrogen and potash, as well as numerous other soluble plant food resi-
dues which the soil contained. The washing out of these saline
substances, which had accumulated during the past several years due to
the lack of a normal rainfall, is likely to benefit materially large areas of
tobacco land, altho in all probability it will be necessary to supply
available nitrogen somewhat more liberally than during the past few
years. Potash is not as readily leached out of the soil as nitrogen, yet
from analyses made of tobacco soils collected late in the fall of 19 15 it
would seem that considerable soluble potash had been lost. It is felt,
however, that old tobacco soils are sufficiently well stocked with potash
to grow good crops for a few seasons without any additional potash
application.

The fertilizer manufacturers have decided upon a maximum of 2 per
cent potash in mixed fertilizers; the majority of the brands, however, are
guaranteed to contain only i per cent for which $5.00 a unit is charged ;
many of the companies are not offering potash in any of their mixed
goods.

Fertilizers for Tobacco.

In fertilizing for tobacco the usual practice has been, up to the time
of the scarcity of potash in this country, to use each year about 3,000
pounds per acre of a formula testing 4.50 per cent nitrogen, 3 per
cent available phosphoric acid and 5.50 per cent potash, this amount

having been used by some of the best growers — with 5 cords of manure
every other year. In recommending a fertiUzer formula for any crop it
is realized that it is impossible to compound one that will answer equally
well for all conditions, as each farm and sometimes each field is an in-
dividual problem. It is felt, however, that a formula may be recom-
mended that will answer in many cases, changes and substitutions to be
made to fit individual conditions.

The following recommendations are made with the understanding that
the tobacco stalks from healthy tobacco (plants suffering from calico and
other diseases being rejected) be cut into short lengths, returned to
the land acre for acre and thoroughly disked in previous to plowing.

Formula No. i.

To be used with lo tons of manure per acre.
200 pounds ammonium sulfate, or a like amount of calcium cyanamid,
1700 " cottonseed meal ( 6.50 per cent nitrogen),

500 " acid phosphate ( 16 per cent grade).
This formula will test about 6.6 per cent nitrogen, 5 per cent avail-
able phosphoric acid and i per cent potash.

Formula No. 2.

To be used per acre without manure.
200 pounds ammonium sulfate, or a like amount of calcium cyanamid,
2000 '• cottonseed meal ( 6.50 per cent nitrogen),
300 " fish or concentrated tankage,
600 " acid phosphate ( 16 per cent grade).
This formula will test about 6.9 per cent nitrogen, 6 per cent avail-
able phosphoric acid and i per cent potash.

In the above formulas 300 to 400 pounds of castor pomace may be
substituted for a like amount of cottonseed meal if desired. Precipitated
bone may be used in place of acid phosphate in amounts to furnish
about the same phosphoric acid. Either of the two formulas are recom-
mended for old tobacco land. On new land formula No. 2 may be used
with a medium application (8 to 10 tons) of manure per acre.

Llme for Tobacco.

The results of many chemical tests on tobacco soils during the past
year, taken according to directions from this laboratory, have indicated

that altogether too much lime has been used for tobacco in the past. Similar
conclusions may be drawn from an experiment which was conducted on a
tobacco farm in Sunderland, Mass., where the various lime products
were tested to show their effect upon the growth and quality oi tcjbacco.
It is believed that lime should be used sparingly on old tobacco land, and
when used it should be for the purpose of controlling the quality of the
crop. Probably new land should receive a medium application of
agricultural lime, in order to produce the proper quality of leaf.

Fertilizers for Onions.

Formula No. i.

To be used on old onion land ; soil rather heavy ; amount given
sufficient for i acre.

250 pounds nitrate of soda,
200 " ammonium sulfate,
300 " 9 per cent tankage,
1250 " 16 per cent acid phosphate.
This mixture would analyze about 5.2 percent nitrogen and 11 per
cent available phosphoric acid. In addition to the above it is recom-
mended that when the onions get to be 3 or 4 inches high a mixture of
125 pounds of nitrate of soda and 200 pounds of fine ground fish or
tankage be used as a top-dressing per acre. This should be scuffled
or cultivated in.

Formula No. 2.

To be used on medium or lighter soils ; amount given sufticient for
I acre.
200 pounds nitrate of soda,

150 " ammonium sulfate or a like amount of calcium cyanamid,
500 " concentrated tankage or fish,
1 150 " 16 per cent acid phosphate.

This formula would test about 5.2 per cent nitrogen and 10.5 per
cent available phosphoric acid.

In addition to this it may be necessary to use a top-dressing as recom-
mended in the previous formula. If it is felt that the soil is deficient in
potash, even tho the soil may be heavy in character, 1000 to 1500 pounds
of wood ashes may be used per acre, in which case lime need not be used.

Lime for Onions.

It is felt that lime can be used on onions a good deal more freely than
on tobacco, and if a soil is inclined to be of an acid character it certainly
should receive a liberal lime application. The hydrated or slaked lime
usually will be found best on the heavy types of soil, while on the lighter
soils the more mild forms, such as marl, precipitated lime or finely
ground limestone will prove more suitable. Certain ground limestones
are now offered in very fine mechanical condition, and in this fine state
their activity is very much improved.

General Suggestions.

It may be felt by many that in the fertilizer formulas given in this
circular a pretty liberal amount of nitrogen and phosphoric acid has been
recommended. The formulas, of course, can be varied to suit individual
conditions, and the amount used per acre may be reduced if it is felt
that the soil is already in a very high state of fertility. It is felt, how-
ever, that it is necessary in growing both tobacco and onions that the
crop have a sufficient amount of available plant food to make a rapid,
constant growth.

It is needless to say that whenever the grower feels so inclined mi.xed
commercial fertilizers may be used in place of the formulas given and in
amounts to furnish about the same proportion of plant food. In fact it
is felt that during the present season it is possible in many instances to
buy plant food as cheaply in the form of mixed goods (on a cash basis)
as in raw materials and chemicals, the latter being offered at unusually
high prices.

Circular No. 6i. (Revision of No. 43) February, 1916.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

CUTWORMS.

HV H. T. FERNALD, PH. D.

The general term "Cutworms" refers to the caterpillars of the Noctuids
or owlet moths, but all Noctuid caterpillars are not necessarily cutworms.
There are two classes of cutworms, those which feed on weeds, vegetables,
and flowers, which are the ones here treated, and those which feed on
the leaves and buds of trees, which are not usually abundant enough in
Massachusetts to cause serious injury.

The cutworms attack almost any succulent and juicy plant, such as grass,
clover, corn and wheat, garden vegetables and flowering plants.

LIFE HISTORY. The moths lay their eggs, 200-500 in number, in masses
of rank vegetable growth, usually on the stalk, though sometimes on the
leaves. This occurs about the last of August or the first of September and
about the last of September or the first of October the young caterpillars
begin to feed on the plant upon which the eggs were laid. After they have
grown to about three-fourths of an inch in length, they go into a dormant
state for the winter in the ground and remain there until spring. They then
come to the surface and eat whatever plant food they may find until full
grown, this being generally betweea the last of June and the last of July.
The following features are possessed by nearly all the species and by these
they may be recognized. They are from i 1-4 to nearly 2 inches in length;
have sixteen feet, the three anterior pairs being sharp, the five posterior
pairs blunt and stout and armed with minute hooks for clasping ; they have
the appearance of being stout with an inclination to taper at both ends and
they are usually dull-colored, greasy-looking, dingy-brown, gray or greenish,
with some light and dark longitudinal lines and sometimes with oblique
dashes. The head is large, shiny and usually of a red or reddish brown
color. The first ring or collar bears a darker colored, shiny, horny plate as
also does the last segment of the body.

When full grown the caterpillars cease feeding and work their way into
the soil for a depth of four to six inches, and there form an oval cell by
rolling and twisting about until it is smooth and compact and then change
to brown, conical pupae.

Usually in July and August, the moths emerge from these pupae and fly at
night feeding upon the nectar of flowers and other sweet exudations from
trees or plants.

The life history of this insect is completed about the last of August when
the eggs are laid for the new generation.

HABITS. The presence of cutworms becomes noticeable in a field as
soon as the plants are set out or when the seeds have begun to sprout-
Plants all through the field will have fallen or will have disappeared. If
examined they will be found to have been cut off at the surface or a little
below the surface of the ground by the cutworms and this injury continues
until the worms are full grown.

ENEMIES. Because of their large size and hairless bodies these insects
are an easy pray to many enemies. The robin is especially effective as it
destroys more than any other bird. Poultry, especially chickens, destroy
many of them and if trained to follow the plow they will do effective work.
The beetle larvae known as the cutworm Hon and the cutworm dragon, as
well as the toad, help much to keep this insect pest in check.

REMEDIES. There are two kinds of remedies to be applied to this in-
sect : preventive and destructive. Of the former clean ailttne is the most
important. As the moths usually deposit their eggs in rank growth, it is
advisable where the land is not seeded down to keep it clean and not let it
grow up to weeds. Fall plowing will in many cases prove quite beneficial,
provided it is done early.

If on preparing a field for planting any crop liable to attack, cutworms are
noticed as abundant, complete the preparation of the field, then spray some
clover heavily with Paris green, and then cut the clover and scatter it here
and there over the field. The cutworms coming up after food will feed on
this and be poisoned.

After a crop is in a different treatment is necessary. In such cases pre-
pare a bran mash made of fifty pounds of bran or middlings, one pound of
Paris green, two quarts of molasses to sweeten, and water to make a dough
or mash. Place a little of this at the base of each plant in the latter part of
the afternoon, and keep fowls away. The cutworms coming up to feed at
night will find in this mash a food they prefer, because of its sweetness, to
the plant stem and will feed on it instead. In this way nearly all of these
pests will be destroyed and it is not often necessary to repeat this treatment.

A recently discovered and very effective modification of this last method
of control is as follows. Take 20 lbs. of coarse flaked bran, i lb. of Paris
green, 2 quarts of molasses, and 6 oranges or lemons. Stir the molasses
into a gallon of water; add the juice of the fruits and their rinds finely
chopped ; stir in the Paris green and bran, adding enough more water to
make into a dough dry enough so it can be spread broadcast by hand, and
spread the whole over the field at or after sunset, The success of this
method is largely dependent upon getting the fruit flavor and some' of the
Paris green on each flake of the bran, making these flakes both attractive
and poisonous to the cutworms ; therefore mix thoroughly. The amount
given above should be enough to cover from 3 to 5 acres.

In gardens considerable protection may be obtained by sinking a stiff
paper cylinder into the ground around the stem of each plant.

Circular No. 62. (Revision of No. 48.)

February, 1916.

NASSACHUSEHS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

AMHERST.

Beet Residues for Farm Stock*

By J. -B. LiNDSEY.

1. DRIED BEET PULP.

Dried beet pulp represents the residue in the manufacture of
sugar from sugar beets. It is first run through presses to reduce
its water content as much as possible, and then put into kilns
where it is thoroughly dried by direct heat. It is coarse and of a
gray color.

Molasses beet pulp is the pressed plain pulp mixed with the
residutim beet molasses and dried. It is said that another method
of making molasses pulp consists in mixing a definite amount of
molasses with the dried plain pulp.

Composition of Beet Pulp.

Water,

Ash,
Protein,
Fiber,

Extract matter.
Fat,

Total,

Plain Pulp.
9.08

Molasses Pulp.
8.48

Corn Meal for
Comparison.

11.00

3.02

6.93

1.30

8.90

11.16

9.80

18.76

10.16

2.00

59.59

62.76

72.00

.65

.51

3.90

100.00

100.00

100.00

It will be noted that the plain pulp contains about 9 per cent
of water, a relatively large amount of fiber, and practically no fat .
In chemical composition it differs from com meal in having much

more fiber, less extract matter and much less fat. The percentage
of sugar present is small, the larger part of the extract matter
being in the fomi of the hemi-celluloses. The molasses pulp con-
tains considerably more ash, due to the large amount of mineral
matter in the molasses. The fiber content is noticeably less than
that of the plain pulp, due to the replacing of the pulp by the
molasses, which is without fiber. They are, however, carbo-
hydrate feeds of the same chemical type of composition as corn.

Pounds of Digestible Matter in a Ton.

Extract

Protein.

Fiber.

Matter.

Fat.

Totals.

Plain pulp,

92.56

311.42

1,005.79

—

1,409.77

Molasses pulp,

140.62

162.56

1,129.68

—

1,432.86

Corn meal for com-

parison, 132.00 — 1,322.00 70.00 1,524.00

The above figures show that a ton of the corn meal with sub-
stantially 11 per cent of water contains about 8 per cent more
digestible organic nutrients than a ton of the plain beet pulp
having 9 per cent of water. One would not expect, therefore, to
note a marked difference in the effect of these several feeds when
used as a component of grain rations intended for milk production."

Beet Pulp as a Substitute for Corn Silage.

Wing ^ compared the wet pulp with com silage, feeding 50 to
100 pounds daily, together with 8 pounds of grain and 6 to 12
pounds of hay, and concluded that the dry matter in the pulp
was of equal value, pound for pound, with the dry matter found

■ Calculations on the basis of net energy values show the plain pulp to have 30 per
cent less energy than the corn meal. This is due to the inferior quality of the nutrients in
the pulp, and, according to Kellner, to the extra energy required for its mastication. Kell-
ner states that the jdried pulp has about the same energy value as bran, but noticeably less
than the cereals and oil cakes. Probably the larger the amount of dried pulp fed, the greater
would be the difference in its feeding effect as compared with corn meal.

2 Bulletin No. 183, Cornell Experiment Station.

I

in the silage. The milk-producing value of wet beet pulp,' as it
comes from the factory, according to Wing, is, pound for pound,
about one-half that of corn silage.

Billings ' compared the dried pulp with corn silage, and con-
cluded that the pulp ration gave 10.2 per cent more milk than
did the silage ration ; but, because of the cost of the dried pulp,
it was more economical to feed silage. In his trial the cows re-
ceiving the pulp ration lost in flesh.

It is believed that 5;^ to possibly 6 tons of silage is substan-
tially equivalent in feeding value to 1 ton of the dried pulp.
Under present conditions it is considered not to be good economy
for farmers to buy pulp to be used in place of home-grown corn
silage, the farm being the place for the production of carbo-
hydrate food stuffs.

Dried Beet Pulp vs. Corn Meal.

At this station six cows were fed on a basal ration of hay, bran
and cottonseed meal. In addition three of the cows averaged 4.3
pounds of plain pulp or molasses beet pulp, while the other three
were receiving a like amount of corn meal. After a lapse of five
weeks the conditions were reversed. The results may be briefly
stated as follows :

Milk Yields (Pounds.)

Character of Ration.

Total
Milk.

Daily
perCow.

Total
Fat.

Butter
Equiva-
lent.

Com meal, ....
Plain pulp, ....

3,941.3
4,017.1

4,184.0
4,054.0

18.8
19.1

215 3
216.5

251.1

252.3

Corn meal, ....
Molasses pulp.

19.9
19.3

233.4
220.6

272.3
257.3

' Only those living in the immediate vicinity of the factory can afford to use the wet
pulp. It is worth not over $2 a ton on the farm.

2 Bulletin No. 189, New Jersey Experiment Station.

The com meal ration produced about 2 per cent less milk than
the plain pulp ration. In the second trial the com meal ration
caused an increase of some 3 per cent of milk over the molasses
pulp ration. From the above trials one may conclude that the
com meal and beet pulps as components of a ration had about
the same effect '

If the pulp can be purchased at slightly less per ton than the
corn, it would prove economical for dairy animals.

The Feeding of Beet Pulp.

Dried beet pulp absorbs a great deal of water, and in case it is
fed dry, this absorption will take place in the mouth and stomach,
and is likely to cause choking, indigestion and stomach irritation.
It should be first moistened with two to three times its weight of
water, and the dry grain mixed with it.

Sample Daily Grain Rations Containing Dried Beet Pulp,
(a) Dairy Cows.

I. II.

3 pounds distillers' grains, 1.5 pounds gluten feed,

4 pounds dried pulp. 1.5 pounds cottonseed meal,

4.0 pounds dried pulp.

III. IV

2 pounds gluten feed, 2 pounds wheat bran,

2 pounds flour middlings, 2 pounds cottonseed meal,

3 pounds dried pulp. 3 pounds dried pulp.

(6) To Supplement Pasturage. — By weight one-half of dried
pulp and one-half gluten feed ; or one-third dried pulp, one-third
gluten feed and one-third wheat bran ; or two-thirds dried pulp
and one-third distillers' grains, would prove desirable combina-
tions (feed from 3 to 7 pounds daily of the mixture, depending
upon requirements) .

' See foot note i, bottom of page a.

5

(c) For Fattening Stock. — It should prove satisfactory for
fattening beef animals in the proportion, by weight, of one-third
beet pulp, one-third corn meal and one-third cottonseed meal.
The material is hardly to be recommended for swine and horses.

Dried Beet Pulp as Roughage.

As high as eight pounds of the dried pulp can be well moistened
with water and fed to each animal as a partial source of roughage
in place of com silage, together with what hay the animal will eat
clean (10 to 16 pounds daily). If thus fed, it naturally should be
omitted from the grain ration.

The Place of Dried Beet Pulp in the Farm Economy.

Farmers who are in position to produce their own feed cannot
afford, as a rule, to purchase starchy feedstuffs, of which dried
beet pulp is a type. Such material should be produced upon the
farm in the form of corn, oats and barley.

For milk production it is more desirable for the farmer to pur-
chase materials rich in protein, such as cottonseed and linseed
meals, distillers' and brewers' dried grains, gluten feed, malt
sprouts, fine middlings and wheat bran. These feedstuffs are not
only very helpful in milk production, but likewise supply increased
amounts of nitrogen in the manure. Only when the supply of
home-grown com is exhausted or limited would it be considered
economical to substitute dried beet pulp either as a portion of the
grain ration or as a part of the roughage.

Milk producers who purchase all of their feed will find the dried
pulp a satisfactory component of the daily ration, provided it can
be secured at a relatively reasonable price.

2. BEET LEAVES.

Every autumn the station is in receipt of inquiries concerning
the value of beet leaves for feeding purposes. In order to answer
these inquiries the following information is submitted :

Composition and Digestibility.

The leaves have the following average composition

Per Cent.

Water,

89.30

Ash,

1.80

Protein,

2.30

Fiber,

1.50

Extract matter, .

4.70

Fat, ....

.40

From the above analysis it is evident that the leaves contain a
great deal of water, and on the basis of dry matter are relatively
rich in protein and ash, and poor in fiber. The leaves contain
from 20 to 37.7 per cent of their nitrogen in the form of amids.
The ash contains a large amount of oxalic acid (3.5 per cent of
the dry matter), and in the extract matter varying amounts of
dextrose and laevulose have been recognized.

According to F. Lehmann," sheep digest 61 per cent of the
crude protein, 52 per cent of the fat and 75 per cent of the extract
matter.

How to Feed the Leaves.

Beet leaves are best suited for dairy cows and for fattening
cows and steers. They are less suited for young stock, swine,
horses and sheep. Fed in too liberal quantities they have a de-
cidedly laxative efifect, and likewise cause indigestion. This is
due to the oxalic acid and inorganic ash constituents. The same
bacteria, which in the paunch of the bovine produce lactic acid,
act to an extent upon the oxalic acid and partially decompose it.
It is advisable to feed not over 50 pounds daily of the green leaves
to dairy cows, together with dry hay and grain. In case of cows
that are near to calving, one-half of this amount is preferable. It
is stated that dry cows and thin steers will take larger amounts
without bad effect.

' E. Pott, Handbuch der Thier, Ernahrung, etc., Zweite Auflage, II. Bd. S. 201.
2 See E. Pott, already cited, p. 202.

1

German observers have found it helpful, in order to guard
against the unfavorable action of the oxalic acid, to feed one
ounce of precipitated chalk to every 50 pounds of leaves. It is
not advisable to feed the leaves when the milk is intended for
young children. Before feeding, the leaves should be made as
free from soil as possible. This can in a measure be accompHshed
by shaking off the dirt with the aid of a fork, or by placing them
in slatted drums or on sieves made of slats. It is not economical
to wash them, as too much of the water-soluble nutrients is lost.

Beet leaves may be ensiled, and thus treated have been found
to be less laxative in their effect. The oxalic acid is also partly
decomposed. The leaves should be allowed to wilt, freed from
excessive earth or sand, and then placed in pits in the earth or in
ordinary wooden silos and thoroughly tramped. Excess of mois-
ture is to be avoided. In case of necessity the leaves may be
placed in small piles, and will keep very well from one to two
weeks. The ensiled material contains approximately 76 per cent
of water, and E. Wildt ' has shown it to have the following per-
centages digestible :

Per Cent.
Protein, ..... 65

Fat, 60

Extract matter, ... 54

It is not advisable to feed to cows over 25 pounds daily of the
ensilage, together with hay, straw and grain. Larger amounts
frequently act unfavorably on the animal, and are likely to pro-
duce a strong taste in the milk. German authorities are incHned
to prefer the ensiled to the fresh leaves, especially if the latter are
at all frosted or decayed.

' E. Pott, already cited, p. 207.

Circular No. 63. (Revision of No. 50.) February, 1916.

MASSACHUSEHS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

AMHERST

BALANCED RATIONS FOR DAIRY STOCK

By J. B. LiNDSEY

1. Composition of Cattle Feeds.

All cattle feeds, whether in the form of grains and their
by-products, or as hay, com silage and straw, are composed of
the following groups of substances:

Water — The several grains and their by-products contain
from 7 to 12 per cent of water; hay and straw, 12 to 16 per cent;
field-cured com stover, 30 to 40 per cent; and com silage, 76 to
80 per cent.

Ash represents the mineral ingredients, and constitutes the
ashes after the feed is burned. These ashes consist of lime,
potash, soda, magnesia, iron, phosphoric and sulfuric acids.

Protein is a collective name for all of the nitrogenous matter ;
it corresponds to the lean meat in the animal, and may be termed
"vegetable meat." It has the same elementary composition as
animal flesh. When fed to animals as a component of the various
feedstufEs, it serves as the exclusive source of flesh as well as a
source of heat or energy and fat.

Crude fiber or cellulose is the coarse or woody part of the
plant. It may be called the plant's framework. It is a source
of heat or energy and fat.

N on-nitrogenous extract matter represents the sugars, starch
and gums. It is the principal source of heat or energy and animal
fat.

Fat includes not only the various oils and fats in all grains
and coarse fodders, but also waxes, resins and coloring matters.
It is frequently termed ether extract, because it is that portion
of the plant soluble in ether. It serves as a source of heat or
energy and fat in the body of the animal.

Carbohydrates is a term which is generally used to include
both the fiber and the non-nitrogenous extract matter.

It will thus be seen that all of the several groups of nutrients —
protein, carbohydrates and fat — are sources of energy; that is.

they furnish the food or fuel to maintain the hfe of the body.
They also are convertible into body fat. The protein, however,
(including the ash), is the only group from which the animal can
make its flesh or lean meat. In order to form the bones all the
groups are used.

2. Digestibility of Cattle Feeds.
The several groups of nutrients above described, which make
up the various cattle feeds, are valuable to the animal only in
so far as they can be digested and assimilated. The concentrated
feeds are considerably more digestible than the coarse fodders,
as a single illustration will show.

100 Pounds Timothy Hay.

100 Pounds Gluten Feed.

Composi-
tion

Per Cent
Digestible

Pounds
Digestible

Composi-
tion

Per Cent Pounds
Digestible Digestible

Water

15.0

—

—

8.5

—

—

Ash

4.3

—

—

1.7

—

—

Protein

6.3

48

3.0

26.2

85

22.3

Fiber

28.4

58

16.5

7.2

76

5.5

Extract Matter

43.6

63

27.5

53.3

89

47.4

Fat

2.4
100.0

61

1.5

48.5

3.1
100.0

83

2.6

Total

"

77.8

In the first and fourth columns is given the composition of
average samples of timothy hay and of gluten feed. In the second
and fifth columns are shown the percentages of the different
groups which are digestible. Thus, of the 6.3 pounds of protein
in timothy, 48 per cent are digestible, or 3 pounds; and of the
26.2 pounds of protein in 100 pounds of gluten feed, 85 per cent,
or 22.3 pounds, are digestible. Excluding the ash, which is not
generally taken into account, it is shown that 100 pounds of
timothy hay contain about 48 pounds of digestible or actual
food material, and 100 pounds of gluten feed, 78 pounds. It is
evident, therefore, that the gluten feed is decidedly more valuable
as a source of nutrition than the timothy hay.

3. Method of Measuring the Efficiency of Feeding Stuffs.

The digestibility of a feed, however, is not the true measurement
of its nutritive value, for the reason that some feeds contain more
metabolizable or available energy than others. What is termed
net energy value, expressed in the form of Calories' or therms,'

' A large Calorie represents the amount of heat necessary to raise 1 kilogram of water 1 *

Centigrade. It is the unit of heat measurement. A therm represents the amount of heat
required to raise 1,000 kilograms of water 1* Centigrade.

represents more accurately the true nutritive values of feeding
stuffs.

Explanation. The entire amount of heat or energy contained
in a feeding stuff is temied its total heat or energy value. All
of this heat or energy cannot be utilized by the animal for the
purposes of maintaining its body in a state of temperature
equilibrium, or for aiding in the production of growth and milk.
The several losses may be enuinerated as follows: (a) the undi-
gested material, i. e., the faeces; (6) the incompletely used material
(urea, etc.) of the urine; (c) the work required in the processes
of digestion and assimilation in preparing the nutrients so that
they can be used for maintenance and for the production of
growth and milk. These several sources of loss expressed as energy,
deducted from the total energy, leave the real or net energy value.

Here follows a table showing the relative net energ}^ values
(relative values) of a few of the more important feeding stufiEs.
Instead of expressing the relative energy values in therms of
energy, they are stated on the basis of 100 for the sake of direct
comparison. The figures were secured by the use of the so-called
Kellner method i. They are not perfect, but represent the results
of the best method that we have available at this time. Com
meal is taken as 100 and the other feeds, both concentrated and
coarse, are compared with it.

Relative Values of Feeding Stuffs.

Corn meal .

. 100

Hay, Kentucky blue grass

41

Apple pomace

11

Hay, orchard grass

38

Beans (soy)

. 107

Hay, red top

43

Beet pulp (dried )2

69

Hay, rowen

48

Brewers' dried grains

66

Hay, swamp or swale

23

Brewers' wet grains

18

Hay, tall oat grass

36

Buckwheat middlings

90

Hay, timothy

36

Corn bran .

. 78

Hominy meal

105

Corn silage .

12

Linseed meal (old process)

94

Corn stover, from fiel

1 . 27

Malt sprouts

66

Corn stover, very dry

36

Molasses

70

Cottonseed meal .

95

Oats, ground

83

Distillers' dried grains

, largely

Rye feed

91

from corn

94

Straw (oat)

20

Gluten feed

91

Straw (rye or wheat) .

13

Gluten meal

99

Wheat bran

57

Hay, alfalfa or clover^

42

Wheat kernels, red

92

Hay, barnyard millet

36

Wheat kernels, white .

94

Hay, English (mixed \

2:rasses),

Wheat middlings (flour)

98

fine early cut .

43

Wheat middlings (standard

) 67

• For a full explanation of the components of the animal body, the composition of feeds,
the different ways in which the food is used in the animal body, and the explanation for using
the therm in the calculation of rations for farm animals, see Farmers' Bulletin 346, United
States Department of Agriculture, prepared by H. P. Armsby. .

2 Our own experiments, comparing beet pulp with corn meal as components of a dairy
ration, have shown their feeding values to be more nearly equal.

3 Alfalfa probably preferable, especially as source of protein.

It should be borne in mind that the above figures express
only net energy and not protein value. If protein is needed to
balance the ration, it can be purchased most economically in the
high-grade protein concentrates, such as cottonseed meal, gluten
feed, distillers' dried grains and the like.

4. Ntitriiive Ratio of Cattle Feeds.

The numerical relation which the digestible protein bears to
the other digestible organic nutrients (fiber, extract matter and
fat^) is termed the nutritive ratio of the feed or ration. One
hundred pounds of timothy hay has, for example, 3 parts of
digestible protein to 47.3 parts of other digestible nutrients,
or as 1 is to 15.8. This is termed a A^ery wide nutritive ratio.
One hundred pounds of gluten feed contains 22.3 parts of digestible
protein to 58.6 parts of other digestible nutrients, or as 1 is to 2.6.
This may be termed a very narrow nutritive ratio or proportion.
All feeds having a nutritive ratio of 1 to 5 or less may be said to
have narrow ratios, those from 1 to 5 to 1 to 8 a medium ratio,
and above 1 to 8 a wide ratio.

The cereals and other non-leguminous coarse fodders have
medium to wide ratios, and the leguminous coarse fodders,
medium ratios and the leguminous seeds and most concentrated
by-products narrow ratios.

5. Combining Coarse and Concentrated Feeds (Balanced Rations).

Desirable rations for dairy stock should possess (a) palata-
bility, (b) sufficient bulk, and (c) 1 part of protein to 5.5 to 7
parts of the other digestible organic nutrients. If the ratio is
much narrower than 1 to 5.5, the ration is likely to be too stimu-
lating for continuous feeding, and the animal is likely to become
thin in flesh. If the ratio is much wider than 1 to 7, the tendency
will be for the animal to put on fat rather than to give milk.
In both cases the ration may be said to be out of balance.

For both economical and physiological reasons it is necessary
that a considerable portion of the daily ration of the dairy animal
should be composed of coarse fodder or roughage, because such
materials are easily and cheaply produced on the farm, and
because the digestive tract of the bovine is especially suited to
utilize them. Most of these home-grown coarse feeds, however,
are very high in carbohydrates, low in protein, and have a rela-
tively low digestibility. It is necessary, theiefore, to supplement
them to an extent with the cereal grains, which, though relatively
low in protein, are very digestible; and with the concentrated
by-products which, in addition to a relativel}^ high digestibility,
are quite rich in protein. A single illustration will make this

^ The fat is converted into the energy equivalent of the starch or fiber by multiplying
by 2.2; thus, 3 per cent of fat would have an energy equivalent of 6.6 per cent or parts of starch.

clear. Many experiments have demonstrated that a 1,000-pound
cow, pioducing daily 10 quarts of milk of average quality, needs
approximately the following amounts of digestible nutrients:

Protein. Fat. Carbohydrates. Total. Nutritive Ratio.

Pounds, 2.25 .5 13 or 13.5 16 1 to 6.4

Now if this animal were fed daily as much of an extra quality
of hay as she would consume (28 to 30) pounds, she would receive:

Protein. Fat. Carbohydrates. Total. Nutritive Ratio.

Pounds, 1.3 .3 13 14.6 1 to 10.5

Such a ration is deficient both in total digestible nutrients
as well as in digestible protein. If 7 pounds of the hay were
replaced by an equal am.ount of com meal, the hay and com
meal would furnish:

Protein. Fat. Carbohydrates. Total. Nutritive Ratio.

Pounds, 1.4 .47 14.35 16.22 1 to 11

The corn meal being very digestible, but a one-sided or
starchy feed, would increase sufficiently the total digestible
nutrients, but not the protein. If 4 pounds of com meal were
replaced by 2 pounds of bran and 2 pounds of cottonseed meal,
the several feeds would supply;

Protein. Fat. Carbohydrates. Total. Nutritive Ratio.

Pounds, 2.07 .60 13.20 15.87 1 to 6.4

Th e replacing of 7 potmds of hay with 3 pounds of corn meal
rich in digestible matter and with 2 pounds each of bran and
cottonseed meal especially rich in digestible protein, furnishes
a ration containing less fiber and more starchy matter and protein
than is contained in the hay. Such a ration contains the requisite
amount of both total digestible mattet and digestible protein,
and may be said to be properly balanced}

6. Types of Balanced Rations.

Because of the high prices usually prevailing for all concen-
trated feeds, dairymen are frequently in doubt as to the kinds
to be selected and the amount to be fed in order to seem e the best
returns for the money invested. Farmers selling cream to the
creamery, or located where there is not a quick demand for milk,
probably will not find it economical to feed over 3 to 5 pounds of
purchased grain daily, and will use maximum amounts of home-
grown hay and silage (1 bushel of silage and what hay the animal
will eat clean). If the silage is well eared, 1| pounds each of
cottonseed meal and flour middlings, sprinkled over the silage
to distribute it, will produce a fairly well-balanced ration, and
prove helpful in maintaining the milk flow. If com meal is a

' Instead of expressing the nutrients needed by different animals in the forms of protein,
fat and carbohydrates, it is believed we shall soon be using the terms protein and therms of
net energy. Thus, a cow of 1,000 pounds producing 20 pounds of milk daily, will require
2 pounds of protein and 12 therms of energy. A circular on this subject may be published
before long.

home product rather than silage, mix by weight 1-4 bran, 1-2 corn
and cob meal and 1-4 cottonseed meal, (100 pounds bran, 200
pounds com and cob meal and 100 pounds cottonseed meal), and
feed 5 to 6 quarts daily ; or by weight 2-3 com and cob meal and
1-3 cottonseed meal and feed 4 to 5 quarts daily, together with
one feeding of cut or shredded com stover and what hay the
animal will clean up.

Producers of market milk generally find it advisable to feed
so:newhat more grain, and a number of combinations are suggested
which will produce satisfactory balanced rations when fed with
what hay the animal will cat clean (18 to 24 pounds a day), or
with 1 bushel of com silage and 10 to 16 pounds of hay.

I.

100 pounds bran,

100 pounds flour middlings,

100 pounds gluten feed.

Mix and feed 6 to 8 pounds (7 to 9

quarts) daily.

III.
100 pounds wheat bran,
200 pounds gluten feed,
100 pounds corn or hominy meal,
INlix and feed 7 pounds (7 quarts)

daily.

V.

75 pounds wheat bran,
150 pounds corn and cob meal,
100 pounds cottonseed meal,
Mix and feed 6 to 7 pounds (or
quarts) daily.

VII.

150 pounds distillers' grains,
150 pounds standard middlings,
100 pounds corn or hominy meal,
Mix and feed 7 pounds (or quarts)

daily.

IX.
200 pounds dried brewers' grains,
100 pounds corn meal,
50 pounds cottonseed meal,
Mix and feed 7 pounds (9 quarts)

dailv.

XI.
1.5 pounds gluten feed,
1.5 pounds cottonseed meal,
4.0 pounds dried beet pulp.'

II.
100 pounds bran,
100 pounds corn or hominy meal,'
100 pounds cottonseed meal.
Mix and feed 6 to 8 pounds (7 to 9

quarts) daily.

' IV.
100 pounds wheiit bran or malt

sprouts,
100 pounds corn or hominy meal,
200 pounds gluten feed.
Mix and feed 7 pounds (or quarts)

daily.

VI.

100 pounds distillers' grains,
100 pounds malt sprouts,
150 pounds corn meal,
50 pounds cottonseed meal.
Mix and feed 7 pounds (7 to 8

quarts) daily.

VIII.
150 pounds wheat l^ran,
200 pounds gluten feed,
Mix and feed 7 pounds (8 to 9

quarts) daily.

X.2

300 pounds bran,
100 pounds flour middlings,
100 pounds corn meal,
100 pounds ground oats,
300 pounds gluten feed,
100 pounds linseed meal.
Mix and feed as desired.
XII.

3 pounds distillers' grains,

4 pounds dried beet pulp.

' Com and cob meal, if on hand, can be used in place of corn and hominy meal.

^ Ration designed for cows on test; rather expensive for ordinary purposes.

3 Beet pulp should be moistened with two to three times its weight of water before feeding.

1

The cost of a pound of the several mixtures is Hkely to vary
from 1.5 to 1.7 cents. It is believed that the above selections
are more economical on the basis of their content of nutritive
material than many of the sugar feeds and other proprietary
mixtures.

In general it may be said that the amount oj grain to be fed
daily depends upon: (a) the size of the cow, (6) the daily milk
yield, and (c) the local market value of the milk. The richer
the milk, the more food is required to produce a given amount,
and vice versa.

Six to seven pounds of the above mixtures is a fair average
amount for cows weighing 800 to 900 pounds, which are yielding
10 quarts of 4 to 5 per cent milk. For every 2 quarts of milk
yielded in excess of this amount the grain ration may be increased
by 1 pound.

7. Rations J or Young Stock.

Young dairy stock may receive 1 peck or more of silage daily,
depending upon their size, in addition to what hay, com stover
or other coarse fodder they will eat clean; or the entire roughage
may consist of hay. Ten to 15 pounds of roots daily in cases
where silage is not available will prove appetizing and helpful.
Grass and clover rowen fomi a very desirable feed for growing
animals. In addition to the above, it is usually advisable to
feed from 1 to 3 pounds daily of a grain mixture reasonably
rich in protein and ash.i Any of the above grain mixtures will
prove satisfactory. The writer has found mixtures by weight of
1-2 bran, 1-4 com meal and 1-4 flour middlings; or 1-2 bran,
1-4 com meal and 1-4 ground oats quite satisfactory. A ration
composed of late-cut hay and com meal would not be desirable,
it lacking both flesh and bone forming material (protein and ash) .

Several months before the heifer freshens it is well, if cir-
cumstances permit, to increase the grain ration to 5 or 6 pounds
per day in order to get her accustomed to grain and to encourage
a large future milk flow.

The feeder will do well to bear the following in mind:

1. Late-cut hay is noticeably less nutritious than early-cut.

2. Fine grasses are more nutritious than the coarse.

3. The clovers and alfalfa should be cut in early bloom.
If cut in late bloom their nutritive value is noticeably lessened.

' If the roughage consists largely of grass or clover rowen, 2 pounds daily of a mixture
of bran and com meal, or even of com meal alone, will prove satisfactory.

4. Concentrated feeds, aside from their palatability, should
be purchased for their high digestibiHty or net energy value and
j^rotein content.

5. The cereals have a high net energy value; cottonseed
meal, gluten feed, distillers' dried grains and flour middlings,
while they are highly digestible (high net energy value), are
purchased as a rule because of their protein content.

6. Wheat bran is an expensive source of nutrition, but its
•bulk and laxative qualities frequently commend its use to eastern

feeders in amounts not exceeding 25 to 30 per cent of the entire
grain ration.

7. Some proprietary grain mixtures are fairly economical;
others, which contain low-grade by-products, are quite expensive,
due to the fact that such feed mixtures are sold at about the same
prices as the high-grade concentrates.

8. The fann is the carbohydrate factory. As a rule, it is
not practicable for the farmer or dair^nnan to produce all of the
high-grade protein feeds to supplement his home-grown carbo-
hydrates. He should endeavor to produce as much as possible
of the needed protein in the form of clover, alfalfa, peas and
possibly soy beans. In some cases he will find it necessary to
purchase corn and the like, but this is not advised whenever it
can be grown upon the farm.

Circular No. 64. May, 1916.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

AMHERST

CO-OPERATIVE SOIL STUDIES BY THE AGRICULTURAL
EXPERIMENT STATION

AND THE

EXTENSION SERVICE

OF THE

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

F. W. Morse

The attitude of the Agricultural Experiment Station toward the
examination of miscellaneous soil samples is fully defined in Circular
No. 45. There are certain conditions, however, that would make a
soil analysis by chemical and mechanical methods, very advantageous.

This circular is supplementary to Circular No. 45 and describes a
plan by which county agents of the Extension Service can co-operate
with the Agricultural Experiment Station in making soil examinations
more serviceable.

It is especially desirable to compare the texture and composition
of soils of known value for special crops with those of soils believed
to have similar possibilities, because the varied surface of our state
requires specialization in crops to utilize the land to its capacity.

The analyses of samples taken from small areas of an acre or less,
are of little, if any, practical value to the community unless the fields
are known to be typical of larger areas.

In order to compare and correlate the properties of unknown soils
with known types, it will be necessary to have all samples taken by
a uniform method, and accompanied by notes describing important
field conditions.

Method of Sampling.

Use a soil auger for taking samples in all cases where the texture
will permit. If the soil should be too dry to adhere to the auger,
moisten the soil around the auger before withdrawing it. Make
numerous borings in representative spots in the area under examina-

tion, and mix them together into a composite sample. No fixed
depth can be prescribed for the borings, but the actual depths
employed should always be stated in the notes accompanying the
sample. The surface soil should be sampled to the depth employed
in plowing or to the line of demarcation between soil and subsoil.
Twelve inches actual depth in the subsoil is a convenient standard
when the subsoil is sampled.

About one quart of the composite sample will be sufficient for the
examinations in the laboratory, and the sample should be sent to the
Agricultural Experiment Station in a receptacle which the Experiment
Station will provide on request.

The necessary information by which soils may be compared and
correlated is outlined in the following schedule, which is essentially
like that given in "Soils, Their Properties and Management," by
Lyon, Fippin & Buckman.

Outline of Factors Useful in Soil Classification.

Weathering

( Stream
Water < Lake

( Ocean
Wind
Glaciation
Gravity
Plant and Animal Life

Agencies of Formation

Materials of Formation

Crystalline Rocks -! ^^'^'^^
( Basic

Shales and Sandstones

Limestone and Marl

Organic Matter

Specific Properties

Color

Natural Drainage

Subsoil and Underlying Material

Organic Matter and Humus

Plant Food

Carbonate of Lime

Texture

Sizes of Soil Particles

The agencies and materials concerned in the soil formation will be
ascertained at the Experiment Station.

The portion of the outlined information desired from county agents
is as follows :

A. Notes descriptive of the soil in place, which include :

Depth of soil,

Color of soil,

Depth of subsoil.

Color of subsoil.

Material underlying the subsoil.

Natural surface and drainage of area,

Characteristic vegetation of area.

B. Description of locality, which will enable the Experiment
Station to locate it on the topographical maps of the State. The
United States Geological Survey has published a complete series of
topographical maps of the State on a scale of one mile to the inch
and county agents will find these maps serviceable in all their field
work. There are from four to twelve sheets required for each county,
costing five cents per sheet, and they may be obtained of the Director
of the United States Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.

By means of the topographical maps and the different publications
on the geological characteristics of different portions of the State, it
is expected that most of the geological information can be secured
for any locality.

The laboratory investigations will include as many of the follow-
ing determinations as may be deemed necessary :

Organic matter and humus.

Plant food.

Carbonate of lime,

Sizes of soil particles.
It is not planned to make this a soil survey of the State nor a
substitute for a soil survey ; but to make our future soil examinations
after a uniform procedure, by which the results can be co-ordinated
and relations between one locality and another brought out, if any
exist.

Circular No. 65. (Revision of No. 56.) September, 1916.

MASSACHUSEHS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

AMHERST
Wm. p. Brooks, Director

CAMPAIGN TO ELIMINATE BACILLARY WHITE DIARRHOEA

1. Bacillary White Diarrhoea of hens and chickens is common in this
State and the occassion of great loss.

2. The disease is transmitted by the hen laying the egg.

3. Hens harboring the bacillus can be detected by a laboratory test of
the blood.

4. If such hens (reactors) are eliminated from breeding flocks losses of
chicks from Bacillary White Diarrhoea, with proper sanitation, can be
practically entirely avoided. This fact has been demonstrated by tests
made both in the Massachusetts and the Connecticut Experiment Stations.

5. The facts above stated must make it apparent that a campaign for
the elimination of this disease is desirable and practicable. Breeders have
simply to cease using eggs from reacting hens for hatching and the disease
will soon disappear.

6. The Experiment Station of the Massachusetts Agricultural College,
is prepared to test the breeding hens of owners applying for the test under
the following general conditions :

(a.) The collection of the blood samples and the agglutination test will
be made by the Veterinary Department of the Experiment Station and from
that Department reports on the results, with such directions as may be
necessary, will go to the flock owners.

(b.) As the work of the Veterinary Department will be largely routine
and not experimental in its nature a charge will be made by the Station to
cover a part of the cost. This, for the present, will be five cents for each
hen tested.

7. Those desiring to have their flocks tested on this basis should address
their applications : Veterinary Department, Experiment Station, Amherst,
Mass.

8. So far as conditions permit applications will be accepted in the order
of priority : but locality, as will be readily understood, must be considered
since at present only one man can be employed in taking blood samples.
It may not be possible to satisfy all applications, as the forces and facilities
available for the work are limited.

Circular No. •65, August, 1916

MASSACHUSEHS AGRICULTORAL [XPERIMENT STATION

VETERINARY DEPARTMENT
AMHERST

POULTRY FARM DISINFECTION.

James B. Paige

To free infected premises from bacillary white diarrhea it is
important to destroy the genns which cause the disease. With
this in mind it has seemed advisable to print a short paper giving
briefly some simple methods of disinfection which are effective in
destroying disease-causing organisms. The few methods cited
below have been selected from a number recommended by the
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station, the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture, and this department.

PRELIMINARY STEPS.

Clean all houses, roosts, nests, incubators, brooders, etc.,
thoroughly. In case of houses remove all litter, sweep dust from
walls and ceilings, and scrape all manure from floors, roosts and
nests. The litter and manure should be taken to a spot where
fowls cannot reach it and should be burned or spread on the land
at the earliest convenience. Next wash the house thoroughly
with water from a hose until all parts seem clean, and let the
house dry a day or moie. It is then ready to be disinfected.

TO DISINFECT ROOMS WHICH MAY BE MADE AIR TIGHT
EASILY— such as feed rooms, brooder houses and incubator cellars.

For this purpose formaldehyde gas is effective. In using this
method the following articles will be necessary : 1 large piece sheet
iron, 1 large pan, such as a dishpan, deep enough to prevent
mixture of formalin and potassium pemianganate from boiling
over, 1 kettle for boiling water, commercial formalin and crystals
of potassium permanganate. The formalin and permanganate
may be purchased at a drug store. In buying allow 3 pints of form-

alin and 2v3 ounces of potassium permanganate for every 1000
cubic feet of space to be disinfected.

For disinfecting with formaldehyde gas the temperature should
be at least 50° Fahrenheit, preferably above. Remove birds from
the house and close tightly all windows and yard openings, seal-
ing cracks with strips of paper or cotton. Open all closets, cup-
boards, drawers or bins which are to be disinfected. Weigh out
the required amounts of formalin and potassium permanganate
in separate dishes. Scatter the permanganate crystals in the
deep dishpan and place pan on the large piece of sheet iron on
the floor of the room to be disinfected. Since much heat is
evolved in the leaction of the formalin and permanganate all
combustible materials should be removed from the vicinity of the
pan. Place a kettle of boiling water in the room to give a moist
atmosphere. Pour the formalin quickly over the potassium per-
manganate crystals in the pan, leave the room at once, and shut
and seal the door tightly. Allow the house to remain closed
6-12 hours, allowing 12 hours whenever it is desired to disinfect
materials into which the gas must penetrate (fabrics or hay.)
At the end of 6-12 hours open the house and air thoroughly.

TO DISINFECT HOUSES, ROOSTS, NESTS, INCUBATORS,
BROODERS, ETC., WITH LIQUID DISINFECTANTS.

Formaldehyde. As an affective disinfectant a solution of forma-
lin and water may be employed. Add 1-2 pint of commercial
formalin to each gallon of water used, and with a pressure spray
pump or a brush apply the mixture to the areas to be disinfected.
Because of the irritating vapor all doors and windows should
be open. The worker should protect his hands by wearing oiled
leather or rubber gloves. Apply the disinfectant twice, allowing
houses, roosts, etc., to dry between applications.

Compound Cresol Solution. A highly recommended coal-tar
disinfectant is found in compound cresol solution, a mixture of
cresol and linseed-oil-potash soap. Such a mixture is necessary
as cresol alone does not mix with water readily This compound
may be purchased under the name of liquor cresolis compositus,
U. S. P., or it may be made according to the following directions
taken from "Diseases of Poultry," by Pearl, Surface and Curtis.

"Commercial cresol" can be obtained from a druggist. Do not
allow this cresol to come in contact with the skin as it is corrosive.

If by accident it does so, wash the spot thoroughly with water.
"Measure out 3 1-5 quarts (6 1-2 pints) raw linseed oil in a 4 or
5 gallon crock; then weigh out in a dish 1 pound 6 ounces com-
mercial lye or 'Babbit's Potash." Dissolve this lye in as little
water as will completely dissolve it. Start with 1-2 pint water
and if this will not dissolve all the lye, add more water slowly.
Let this stand for at least 3 hours until the lye is completely dis-
solved and the solution is cold; then add the co/c? lye solution very
slowly to the linseed oil, stirring constantly. Not less than 5
minutes should be taken for adding this solution of lye to the oil.
After the lye is added continue the stirring until the mixture is in
the condition and has the texture of a smooth homogeneous liquid
soap. This ought to take not more than half an hour. While
the soap is in a liquid state and before it has had a chance to
harden add, with constant stirring, 8 1-2 quarts of commercial
cresol." The resulting dark brown fluid will mix with water and
yeild a clear solution. It should be kept covered and away from
live stock.

For disinfecting purposes this cresol compound should be added
to water, adding 4 to 5 ounces to each gallon of water. The
mixture should be applied liberally to houses, roosts, nests,
brooders, incubators, etc., with a spray pump or scrub brush.
After letting the disinfectant dry, spray houses, roosts, etc., a
second time and let them dry in the sun. Brooders and incu-
bators should be disinfected before using them for each new hatch.
Houses should be treated in this way at least once or twice each
year.

In addition to formalin and compound cresol solution there are
many other liquid disinfectants in the market. The directions
for the use of these are usually given on the containers in which
the preparations are sold.

APPLICATION OF WHITEWASH AND DISINFECTANT.

As an aid to cleanliness it is desirable to whitewash houses
often. For such a purpose, after the disinfectant has been
appHed, lime wash, to each gallon of which 4 ounces of chlorid
of lime has been added, may be used. By following the directions
given below (From the United States Department of Agriculture.
Bulletin 480) it will be possible to apply whitewash and disinfect-
ant at the same time.

"Slake 7 1-2 pounds of lime, using hot water if necessary to
start the action. Mix to a creamy consistency with water. Stir
in 15 (al)out 1 pint) fluid ounces of cresol (commercially known
as liquid carbolic acid) at least 95^/c pure, and make up to 5
gallons by adding water. In case compound solution of cresol
(liquor cresolis compositus) is used, add 30 fluid ounces (about 2
pints') instead of 15 as in the case of cresol (liquid carbolic.)
Stir thoroughly. If to be appHed through a spray nozzle, strain
through a wire sieve. Stir freciuently when applying and keep
covered when not in use. In case a large surface is to be dis-
infected it will be advisable to prepare a liberal amount of the
disinfecting solution before beginning the application. Such
solutions, however, should not be permitted to remain in recep-
tacles which are accessible to animals." In case of small areas
the wash may be applied with a brush but in most cases a strong
spray pump is desirable as it appHes the solution rapidly and
with sufficient force to drive the wash into all crevices. When
the spraying is completed open the house to admit sunlight and
air.

TO DISINFECT LITTER FOR USE IN BROODERS.

To disinfect litter for use in brooders spread cut hay or shav-
ings on the floor, spray with cresol solution until litter is thorough-
ly wet, and spread it in the sun until dry.

TO DISINFECT FEED TROUGHS AND DRINKING FOUNTAINS.

All feed troughs and drinking fountains should be cleaned fre-
quently, scalded three or four time with boiling water, and allowed
to dry in the sun. In addition potassium permanganate may be
used in the drinking water as an antiseptic. For this purpose add
as much permanganate as can be held on the surface of a dime
to each gallon of water used for drinking and stir the water well
before pouring it into the diinking fountains.

TO DISINFECT YARDS.

To free poultry yards from infection, the ground should be
plowed, spaded, or harrowed and dressed with lime. Whenever
possible it is advisaljle to have a vegetable or grass crop raised
on the infected area before using it again for fowls.

SPECIAL CIRCULAR January, 1919

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

Department of Plant and Animal Chemistry.

THE VALUE OF APATITE AND BARIUM SULFIDE
(Barium-Phosphate)

By H. D. Raskins

This material is not a chemical combination of barium and phosphorus
as perhaps the name would indicate, but is a mechanical mixture of an in-
soluble or three lime phosphate, similar to Canadian apatite, with about 7
per cent of barium sulfide. Apatite in its natural state is recognized as the
most insoluble of the natural phosphates.

Among the claims of the manufacturers of the so-called Barium-Phos-
phate are the following:

1. That its phosphoric acid is available as a source of plant food.

2. That it will favor early maturity of crop.

3. That it furnishes sulfur in a form readily accessible to the growing

plant.

4. That it sweetens the soil by the alkaline salt barium sulfide.

With reference to these claims, the present state of our knowledge leads
us to say :

1. Our experiments indicate that an insoluble phosphate similar to
apatite, mixed with about 7 per cent of barium sulfide (Barium-Phosphate)
when used in pots without manure, but in one instance with a green cover
crop, gave up little if any phosphoric acid to the crop grown.*

2. Barium-Phosphate used with and without manure in a field experi-
ment conducted in 19 18, did not favor the early maturing of the corn crop
over that grown on adjoining plots without the use of the Barium-Phosphate.

3. It is conceivable that the barium sulfide which is mixed with the
apatite may eventually furnish some soluble sulfur compounds. It is hardly
conceivable that the average soil which received annual manure and fertili-
zer applications would be found deficient in available sulfur compounds, as
manure contains much soluble sulfates, and most mixed fertilizers contain
an abundance of sulfur in the form of calcium sulfate, or gypsum, resulting
from a union of the calcium oxide with sulfuric acid, with which the raw
phosphate is treated in making the acid phosphate.

4. Provided the Barium-Phosphate does have a sweetening effect on
the soil, it must be relatively small as only about 7 per cent of the product
is claimed to be barium sulfide. This would mean that in a 1,000 pound
application, which is the average amount recommended by the company,

only 70 pounds of barium sulfide would be applied per acre. Laboratory
experiments show that the Barium-Phosphate has about 1-20 the neutraliz-
ing effect of commercial hydrated or slaked lime, and about 1-15 that of fine
ground limestone. In other words, a soil that would require one ton, or
2,000 pounds of calcium hydrate to reduce soil acidity, would require 2,720
pounds of calcium carbonate, and 40,000 pounds, or 20 tons, of Barium-
Phosphate to produce the same effect; or stated in another way, 136 pounds
of ground limestone costing about 40 cents would be as effective a neutrali-
zer as a ton of Barium-Phosphate.

CONCLUSIONS.

From the results of experiments thus far conducted at this Station, we
have failed to observe any effect from the use of Barium-Phosphate that
would warrant us in recommending its use in place of the soluble phosphates.

The manufacturers claim that to get the best results with this mate-
rial, it should be used in connection with stable manure or with green
crops plowed under, assuming that the bacteria in the manure will render
available the insoluble phosphates. This point we have not as yet
proved, and it is our purpose to conduct further experiments in order if
possible to solve the problem.

*One exception was noted in one pot in the experiment conducted in 1916 witli Dwarf Essex
Rape.