LIBRARY OF THE DATE DUE UNIV. OF MASSACHUSETTS/AMHERST LIBRARY S 73 M3 no. 1-30 MASSACHUSETTS STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE Circulars 1-30. 1912-1914, v^ "^^13 ?C. 1-30 Circulars Food value of milk P.M.Harwood. Insecticideo, fungicides and directions for their use H. T.Fernald Balanced rations for dairy stock. J.B.Lindsey Ap-ple packing for Massachusetts growers. A.R. Jenks. Pork making for Massachusetts farmers, G.M.Twitchel Three common scale insects H.T.Feraald The dairy industry in Denmark. .. .P.M.Harwood Cost of milk production..,. F.Rasmussen What it costs to produce milk in New England. P.M.Harwood. 10. Protection of Massachusetts dairies from files. P.M.Harwood, 11. Some bacteriological aspects of clean milk inspection. G.E.Marshall. 12. Apple diseases G.E.Stone 13. Clean milk contest, 1913 P.M.Harwood. 14. The culture of the currant U.P. Hedrick. 15. Cantaloupe growing in Massachusetts. J. M.S. Leach. Pruning the grape U.P. Hedrick. Poultry feeds and methods of feeding. ^^ J.C. Graham. Farm water supplies S.P.Gates. The new orchard F.C. Sears. Farm management G.F.Warren. 21. Breeding and feeding cattle F.E.Duffy, 22. The army worm H. T.Fernald. 23. Rural credit, banking and agricultural co-operation in Europe J.L.Ellsworth, Alfalfa growing J. Wing. How to buy fertilizers R.E.Annin. Nut culture W.C.Deming. Peach growing in Western Massachusetts. L.W.Rice. Co-operation C.R.White. Diversified farm accounting L.A. Sloman. Farm ice houses B.S.Pickett. TAliLK OF CONTENTS. By Pro State Board of Agriculture, 1914, .... Report of the Secretary, Summary of Crop Conditions, 1913, Public Winter Meeting of the Board at Springfield, Address of Welcome bj' lion. John A. Dennison, . Response for the Board by Abner Towne, Announcement of Dairy Prizes. By P. M. Harwood, Lecture: Poultry Feeds and Methods of Feeding. fessor J. C. Graham, Lecture: The New Orchard. By Professor F. C. Sears, -Lecture: The Most Important Factors in Successful Farming By Professor G. F. Warren, ^/jN^eport on "Protection from Flies" Contest. By P. M. Har- wood, •t|«Lecture: Breeding and Feeding Dairy Cattle. By F. E Duffy, '...'. Lecture: Rural Credit, Banlving and Agricultural Co-opera' tion in Europe. By J. I,ewis Ellsworth, .... Lecture: Alfalfa Growing. By Joseph Wing, Summer Field Meeting of the Board at Barnstable, Essa\^: Peach Growing in Western Massachusetts. By L. W ^"i-^ Rice, Essa}"- Essay Essaj'- 'o-^^ssa}" Essav ^-v, Co-operation. By C. R. White, .... Diversified Farm Accounting. By L. A. Sloman, . Farm Ice Houses. By Professor B. S. Pickett, Farm Water Supplies. By S. P. Gates, . Cantaloupe Growing in Massachusetts. By J. ]\I. , y Leach, 't'^ssay: The Culture of the Currant. By Professor U. P. Hed ^•i/^s: rick. SJ5 ac saj-: Pruning the Grape. Bj- Professor U. P. Hedrick, Essay: Nut Culture for Mass-aehusetts. By William C. Deming ^Essay: How to buy Fertilizers. By R. E. Annin, Jr., Essay: Honej'bees as Pollinizers. By Mrs. Susan M. Howard Twelfth Annual Report of the State Nursery Inspector, Sixth Annual Rejiort of the State Ornithologist, . Fourth Annual Report of the State Apiary Inspector, Twenty-third Annual Report of the State Dairy Bureau, . Tenth Annual Report of the State Forester, .... Returns of the Incorporated Agricultural Societies, Directory of Agricultural Organizations, .... Index, P.^GE 439 vii 1 1 3 4 6 10 42 55 76 S3 96 117 131 137 144 149 161 169 1 / 1 1S9 195 203 219 224 233 239 269 285 311 421 437 469 Circular Third Edition, Revised. AprU, 1913. No. 1 MASSACHUSETTS STATE BOAUD OF AGEICULTURE. FEB 5- 1914 A-iiric'iiUuTul OF WmW: FOOD VALUE ITS USE AND CAEE BY CONSUMERS, By P. M. HARWOOD, General Agent, Massachusetts Dairy Bureau. BOSTON: WEIGHT & POTTER FEINTING CO., STATE PRINTEES, 18 Post Office Squaee. 1913. Appkoved by The State Board of Publication. FOOD VALUE OF MILK -ITS USE AND CARE BY CONSUMERS. BY P. M. HARWOOD, GENERAL AGENT, DAIRY BUREAU, STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Consumers should use more milk than they now do : — BECAUSE — It is nutritious. It is cheap (even at 12 cents per quart). It is the best food for babies (mothers' milk excepted). It should form the major portion of the child's diet up to school age. The average school child should consume at least 2 glasses per day. Many adults would be benefited by the use of more milk and less meat. More milk used in cooking would add the cheap- est nutrition of its kind. Proper nutrition conduces to efficiency and long life, — in other words, to good health. Good health means better bodies, better minds, better morals, a better community. Increased consumption demands increased pro- duction, thus benefiting both consumer and producer. Remember: milk is easily digestible without cooking, and that to get the greatest benefit from it milk should be taken slowly. Consumers should buv — Clean milk, and keep it clean. Diseaseless milk and keep it uncontaminated; when in doubt pasteurize for safety.^ Cold milk, and keep it cold. Bottled milk only, for babies' food and for drinking purposes. 1 Long-hauled milk for large cities is now generally pasteurized before delivery. The New York Milk Committee says: "Milk-borne dis- eases are far less common than the underfeeding which re- sults from the use of too little milk." Also: "Milk is a bet- ter and cheaper food raw than any condensed milk or any proprietary or patent food." The committee gives the fol- lowing as to the food value of milk: — Chemists tell us that one quart of milk is equal in food value to any one of the following list of animal foods: — i pound lean beef at 20 cents, . 8 eggs at 36 cents, . 3 pounds fresh codfish at 12 cents, 2 pounds chicken at 20 cents, . I pound pork loin at 15 cents, f pound ham at 20 cents, 1 pint oysters at 20 cents, Average, .... Cents. . 15 . 24 . 36 . 40 . 12 . 12 . 20 22 Any price expended for a quart of milk buys the same food value that averages to cost 22 cents in the above list. Milk also has greater digestibility and a nearer perfect' balance between its various ingredi- ents. No single food-product is at once so nourishing and digestible for both infants and adults. The United States government says: "The value of milk for nourishment is not as generally understood as it should be. Many people think of it, for adults at least, as a bev- erage rather than a food, and do not realize that a glass of it adds as much to the nutritive value of a meal as a quarter of a loaf of bread or a good slice of beef. A quart of average milk contains the same amount of nutritive ingredients as 0.75 of a pound of beef or 6 ounces of bread." Table from Farmer's Bulletin 363, showing Nutrients and Energy in 1 Pound of Water-free Edible Portion of Several Food Materials. Food Materials. Protein (Pound). Fat (Pound). Carbo- hydrates (Pound). Mineral Matter (Pound). Fuel Value (Calories). Whole milk, .... Skim milk (0.3 per cent fat), Buttermilk Cheese Beef, round, .... Smoked ham, Wheat flour Wheat bread. Potatoes, Apples .25 .36 .33 .39 .57 .26 .18 .15 .10 .03 .31 .03 .06 .52 .40 .66 .01 .02 .01 .03 .39 .55 .53 .03 .85 .82 .85 .92 .05 .06 .08 .06 .03 .08 .01 .01 .04 .02 2,475 1,835 1,845 2,990 2,750 3,275 1,865 1,865 1,790 1,885 Prof. R. M. Washburn, formerly of the Vermont Experi- ment Station, in a recent lecture before the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture, said: "In order to compare one food with another it is necessary to compare foods which have a similar nutritive ratio, and are either both of animal or both of vegetable origin, for the digestibility of milk and meat products is very materially greater than that of cereals and garden vegetables." In the following tables, by the same authority, the foods are grouped so that those of approximately like nutritive ratios are compared against each other. Table giving Composition of Foods, showing Waste Matter and Digestible Nutrients.'^ Kind of Food. Nutritive Ratio. Refuse (Per Cent). Water (Per Cent). Digestible Dry Matter (Per Cent). Fat porter house steak Round steak, Hamburg steak, 2 Eggs, . Skim milk. Whole milk, Smoked ham Cream, . Bacon, . 2.1 1.5 1.5 1.7 1.8 4.3 4.2 18.2 15.1 12.7 7.2 11.2 10.7 7.7 52.4 60.7 66.0 65.5 90.5 87.0 48.0 74.0 17.4 38.5 31.4 34.0 22.2 9.2 12.5 38.3 25.0 71.0 1 Adapted from Farmer's Bulletin 142, United States Department of Agriculture. ' Average of 12 fair samples collected in Burlington, Vt. Table showing Cost of Digestible Nutrients per Pound in Various Foodstuffs. Kind of Food. Nutritive Ratio. Ordinary Price. Cost per Pound of Digestible Dry Matter. Porter house steak, . Round steak, Hamburg steak. Eggs (1 dozen=lJ^ pounds), Skim milk. Plain milk. Ham, . Certified milk. Clean milk, Cream, Bacon, 1 : 1.8 4.3 4.2 4.3 4.3 18.0 15.0 30 cents pound. 20 cents pound. 20 cents pound. 36 cents pound. 2H cents quart. 7 cents quart. 25 cents pound. 15 cents quart. 12 cents quart. 40 cents quart. 25 cents pound. $0.80 .64 .60 1.03 .14 .28 .65 .60 .48 .80 .35 The following rules for the care of milk in the home should be posted in the pantry. They are furnished in card form, free, by the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture. 1. Take in millc and cream as soon as possible after being left at your door and place in refrigerator. 2. Keep milk and cream cold until ready for use. 3. If ice cannot be had, wrap the bottle in a wet cloth and stand it in an open dish of water by an open window, out of the sun. Evap- oration of the water will cool the milk. 4. Keep milk and cream covered until wanted, and in the bottle in which it is deUvered. In open bowls or pitchers it will absorb odors from food and collect flies and dust. 5. Pour from the bottle only what milk or cream is needed for immediate use. 6. Milk or cream that has become warm should never be poured back into the bottle of cold milk or cream. 7. Utensils used for milk should first be rinsed with cold water, then washed with warm water and soap or washing powder, and finally rinsed with boiling water, thoroughly drained and allowed to become cold before being filled with milk. 8. Have a separate bottle of milk for the baby. 9. Wash and return all milk and cream bottles daily. 10. No person ailing or sick with contagious disease, or one having the care of such person, should have anything to do with the care of milk or of milk utensils. I ' Circular No. 2 MASSACHUSETTS STATE BOARD OF AM^fJUk^.^'^" of t . FEB 5- 1914 INSECTICIDES, FUNGICIEI^S;''''' AND DIRECTIONS FOR THEIR USE. By H. T. Fernald, Ph.D., State Nursery Inspector. BOSTON: WEIGHT & POTTEE FEINTING CO., STATE PEINTERS, 18 Post Office Square. 1913. Approved by The State Board of Publication, INSECTICIDES, FUNGICIDES, AND DIREC- TIONS FOK THEIR USE. Plants in a vigorous and healthy condition can niuch better resist the attacks of insects and diseases than when not thriv- ing. Good cultivation, proper fertilizers, the best condition of the soil and careful attention are all, therefore, important factors in the production of good crops. Spraying or other methods of treatment are also frequently needed, however, if the best results are to be obtained, and directions for the preparation and application of spray materials are therefore given here. Spraying Apparatus. Most of the pumps now on the market should do reasonably good work when properly used. The nozzle to use for fungous diseases should be some form of Bordeaux nozzle; for insects, in most cases some tj'pe of Vermorel nozzle, which sends out the spray as a fine mist or fog, is the best. Hose generally lasts but one season, and is so liable to give out during the spraying the following year that it is better to buy a cheaper grade and expect it to last only during one year. Wash out pumps, hose, nozzle and tank thoroughly as soon as through spraying each time, and drain the hose. Overhaul the apparatus and see that it is in working order before the time comes for its use, or time will be lost when it can least be spared. The best all-round pump for the average place is a barrel pump, and in most cases one entering the side of the barrel, though this is not essential. On large estates, or with large numbers of trees to spray a power outfit is often more economical in the end. Two, 30 or 40 foot leads of hose, one- fourth or at least not over one-half inch inside diameter, and two extension rods having a cut-off at the bottom, are well worth having. General Suggestions. Spray at the right time. Too many people delay spraying until too late to accomplish much good. Be prepared for breakdowns of pump, hose or nozzle, and have repair parts at hand, particularly extra couplings and hose splicers for burst hose. Have your materials for making the spray all together and near a water supply. Much time is lost in mixing materials where this is not the case. Use the right treatment and apply it thoroughly if you desire good results. Remember, however, to stop spraying before the spray runs off. It is only what stays on the tree which does the work, and too much put on will wash off some which would otherwise remain. "Kill two birds with one stone" whenever possible. Some sprays consisting of a combined insecticide and fungicide, applied at the right time, will kill several different kinds of insects which may be present, and also prevent several of the fungous diseases. INSECTICIDES. Insects either chew and swallow solid food or suck the sap from plants. For the former class, poison is usually spread over their food (generally leaves), to be swallowed with it, and such poisons are termed stomach poisons. For the other class, stomach poisons are useless, and materials must be used which kill the insects by touching them. Such materials are called contact insecticides. They are not necessarily poisons in the usual sense of the word. Stomach Poisons (for Chewing Insects). 1. Paris Green (Dry). Paris green, 1 pound. Flour or plaster, 100 pounds. Mix thoroughly and apply evenly; best when dew is on the plants. The use of Paris green in this form is quite hmited, spraying it being preferable in most cases. 2. Paris Green (Wet). Parts. Per Barrel. Paris green, .... 1 pound f pound. Quick lime, .... 2 pounds. | pound. Water, 150 gallons. 50 gallons. Slake the lime, sprinkling in the Paris green gradually, then add the rest of the water. Do not let it stand long before using. For the peach and other plants with tender leaves use 23^ ounces Paris green and 5 ounces of quick lime to 50 gallons of water, instead of the amounts given above. Keep the mix- ture well stirred while spraying. Paris green is coming into disfavor, being much more likely to burn the leaves than arsenate of lead. 3. Arsenate of Lead. Arsenate of lead can be made by the user, but with many good brands on the market, and difficulty in getting the ma- terials from which to make it, it is usually better to buy it. It can be obtained either as a paste or dry, but as a general rule the paste seems to have thus far given slightly better satisfaction. It must be thoroughly mixed with the amount of water called for by the directions sent with it, but can be used stronger if necessary. In general, 3 pounds to 50 gallons of water is the best strength. Contact Insecticides (for Sucking Insects — Plant Lice, Scales, etc.). 4. Kerosene Emulsion. Any good hard soap, shaved fine, ^ pound. Soft water, 1 gallon. Kerosene, 2 gallons. Dissolve the soap in the water, which should be hot; then remove from the fire, add the kerosene and churn with a hand spray pump, turning the nozzle into the container, continuing the churning until the material gets thick and goes hard through the pump. This is the stock material. For use against plant lice, mix 1 part of this stock with 9 parts of water, and spray. For tougher insects, such as leaf hoppers, mix 1 part of stock with 5 parts of water. This is the best contact insecticide for soft-bodied insects, but if for any reason it cannot be used, try 5. Whale Oil Soap (for Summer Use). Parts. Per Barrel. Potash whale oil soap, . . 1 pound. 9 pounds. Hot water, .... 5 gallons. 45 gallons. 6. Whale Oil Soap (for Winter Use). Parts. Per Barrel. Potash whale oil soap, . . 2 pounds. 80 pounds. Hot water, .... 1 gallon. 40 gallons. This was formerly much used as a winter treatment for the San Jose scale, but is not now considered as good as some other materials. It is included here only in case other treatments cannot be used. 7. Lime-Sulfur Wash (for Winter Use). Fresh stone lime, 20 pounds. Flowers of sulphur, 18 pounds. Water, 45 to 50 gallons. Slake the lime with some of the water in a large iron kettle, sprinkling in the sulfur gradually. Start a fire under the kettle to continue the heat begun by the slaking lime, and boil till the mixture becomes dark orange in color, adding water till 35 or 40 gallons are in the kettle. Boiling should probably take from forty minutes to an hour. Stir frequently, and a successfully prepared lot should have little sediment on the bottom when the boiling is finished. Strain through a fine meshed strainer into the spray pump, adding the rest of the water, and spray while warm. It is generally better to use only the freshly prepared wash, though good results have some- times been obtained with it even when it has stood over night. This should not be applied to trees after the leaves have opened. Ready-made lime-sulfur wash is now on the market, and as it is nearly as good as the home-made article, it is generally better to buv it than make it. 8. Lime-Sulfur Wash {for Summer Use). Fresh stone lime, 8 pounds. Flowers of sulphur, 8 pounds. Water, 50 gallons. Place the lime in a barrel and add enough water to almost cover it. When it begins to slake sprinkle in the sulfur through a sieve, to break up any lumps present. Stir constantly and add water as needed to form a thick paste, and then gradually thin to a thin paste. The mixture should boil for several minutes. When well slaked add enough water to cool it; strain into the pump, add the rest of the water and spray. Do not let the mixture remain hot for more than five minutes after the boiling stops. The best action of the lime is obtained when larger amounts than those above are used, hence make up three or four times this formula at one time, if that much will be needed. In straining, take out the coarse particles of lime, but work the sulfur through the strainer. 9. Miscible (Soluble) Oils. These oils can be made by the user, but require so much time and trouble to prepare that it is in most cases better to buy them. Several good brands are on the market, but they should generally be used stronger than the directions call for. One part of the oil thoroughly mixed with from 12 to 14 parts of water is about the best strength to use. 10. Carbolic Acid Emulsion. Hard soap, shaved fine, 1 pound. Water, 1 gallon. Crude carbolic acid, 1 pint. Dissolve the soap in boiling water; add the carbolic acid and churn with a spray pump, as described for kerosene emul- sion, until the materials are thoroughly mixed and do not separate on standing. Dilute 1 part of this with 30 parts of water for use. 8 11. Hellebore. Hellebore, 1 ounce. Water, 1 to 2 gallons. Steep the hellebore in a pint of water and gradually add the rest of the water. It may also be used dry, dusted on the plants, either pure or mixed with about half its bulk of flour or plaster. 12. Insect Powder (Pyrethrum. Buhach). Mix with half its bulk of flour or plaster, and keep in a tight can twenty-four hours; then dust on the plants. FUNGICIDES. 13. Bordeaux Mixture. Copper sulfate (blue vitriol), 4 pounds. Lime (unslaked), 4 pounds. Water, 25 to 50 gallons. Dissolve the copper sulfate in some of the water in a wooden or earthen dish. Slake the lime in a wooden pail, using only enough water, added carefully, to slake thoroughly. Now add water and stir, till the lime is about like thick cream. Place the rest of the water not already used in a barrel, and pour these into the water together and stir. Strain through a fine wire mesh before using. Trouble in obtaining good Bordeaux mixture may be due to poor lime. Select lumps for slaking, and with small amounts use hot water. In slaking, neither allow the lime to dry nor be entirely covered by water. After the final mixing, put a knife blade into the mixture, and if copper is deposited on the blade add a little more lime. There are five different strengths of Bordeaux mixture, for use under different conditions. (a) Copper sulfate and lime, 4 pounds each; water, 25 gallons. (6) Copper sulfate and lime, 4 pounds each; water, 50 gallons. (c) Copper sulfate, 3 pounds; lime, 6 pounds; water, 50 gallons. (d) Copper sulfate, 2 pounds; lime, 2 pounds; water, 50 gallons. (e) Copper sulfate, 3 pounds; lime, 9 pounds; water, 50 gallons. The last three are for use on tender leaves, like peach, etc.; (a) above is for use before the leaves open; the others for later applications. 14. Copper Sulfate. Copper sulfate, 1 pound. Water, 25 gallons. Do not use on trees in leaf. 15. Potassium Sulfid. Potassium sulfid, 3 ounces. Water, 10 gallons. For mildew on gooseberry, etc. 16. Ammpniacal Copper Carbonate. Copper carbonate, 5 ounces. Ammonia (26 degrees Beaum^), 3 pints. Water, 50 gallons. Dissolve the carbonate in the ammonia and keep tightly stoppered. To use, add the water. This solution does not keep long after the water has been added. 17. Formalin. Formalin (40 per cent, formaldehyde), 8 ounces. Water, 15 gallons. For scab on potatoes. Keep seed potatoes in this for two hours, then dry before planting. 18. Corrosive Sublimate. Corrosive sublimate, 2 ounces. Water, 15 gallons. 10 Dissolve the sublimate in 2 gallons of hot water, then add the other 13 gallons and let stand several hours, stirring occa- sionally. Put seed potatoes in this for an hour and a half, then dry before planting. Use no metal pails or dishes in this work, and clean everything used, thoroughly, as this substance is very poisonous. Insecticides and Fungicides combined. Where these can be used it is advantageous to do so, as two separate sprayings can often be avoided in this way. 19. Bordeaux Mixture and Paris Green. Bordeaux mixture, 50 gallons. Paris green, 6 ounces. Mix the Paris green well into the Bordeaux mixture. 20. Bordeaux Mixture and Arsenate of Lead. Thoroughly mix the amount of arsenate of lead called for by the directions elsewhere in this bulletin, with 50 gallons of Bordeaux mixture. 21. Lime-sulfur and Arsenate of Lead. Work up 2 pounds arsenate of lead well with water; then add to 50 gallons lime-sulfur wash (summer strength), mixing thoroughly. 22. Ivory Soa,p. Ivory soap (large size), 1 bar. Water, 15 gallons. Apply warm. FUMIGANTS. 23. Sulfur {for Empty Houses). Burn about 6 ounces sulfur to each 1,000 cubic feet of space. Keep house tightly closed for at least twelve hours. 24. Sulfur (for Houses with Growing Plants). Paint some of the heat pipes with a mixture of sulfur and oil; or heat a small amount of sulfur in a kettle over a kerosene stove, taking care that it does not catch fire. 11 25. Tobacco. Various firms sell paper rolls soaked in tobacco extract to burn in houses. Tobacco extracts of various strength can also be obtained, to evaporate over stoves. The stronger extracts are usually quite effective against plant lice if the house is tight. 26. Carbon Disulfid. Use 2 pounds of carbon disulfid to every 1,000 feet of space, pouring it into shallow dishes in the upper part of the place to be fumigated. Close everything tightly and leave for twenty- four hours. Open and air for ten minutes before entering or using anything fumigated. Do not use this treatment in any place near a fire, hot steam pipes or where there is much heat, as the disulfid catches fire easily, even from a lighted cigar. 27. Hydrocyanic Acid (for Nursery Stock). Potassic cyanid (98 or 99 per cent.). SuKuric acid (1.83 specific gravity commercial). Water. Multiply the number of cubic feet to be fumigated by .2 or .25, giving the number of grams of cyanid needed for the house or box; divide this by 28.35, giving the weight of the cyanid in ounces. Take 1 fluid ounce of acid and three times as many fluid ounces of water as was taken in ounces by weight of the cyanid. Mix the water and acid in an earthen or granite ware jar, then by loose bag and string drop in the cyanid after tightly closing the place to be fumigated. Leave closed forty minutes, then open from the outside and air for at least ten minutes before entering. 28. Hydrocyanic Acid (for Empty Houses). Potassic cyanid (98 or 99 per cent.), 1 ounce per 100 cubic feet. Sulfuric acid (1.83 specific gravity commercial), 1 fluid ounce per 100 cubic feet. Water, 3 fluid ounces per 100 cubic feet. Mix and use as directed under No. 27. 12 TREATMENT OF PLANTS. Apple. Apple Maggot or Railroad Worm. Keep the apples which drop from the trees from rotting on the ground by gathering and destroying them. Fallen fruit of early varieties should be picked up twice a week; fall va- rieties, such as the Porter, etc., once a week; and winter varieties, such as the Baldwin, at least once in every two weeks. Pay especial attention in this regard to the early varieties. Begin as soon as the fruit begins to fall, and continue till the middle of October. If this is done thoroughly there should be little trouble from this pest after the second season. Bud Moth. Spray with No. 3, 3 pounds in 50 gallons of water, just as the buds begin to open. Repeat just after the blossoms fall. Canker. Cut off and burn diseased twigs. Winter spraying with the lime-sulfur wash (No. 7) for San Jose scale is also effective for canker. Keep fallen fruit picked up. Canker Worms. Band the trunks with tree tanglefoot: October 1, for the fall canker worm; on the first warm day in March, for the spring canker worm; or spray as soon as the blossoms fall, with a stomach poison. Codling Moth {Apple Worm). Spray with arsenate of lead, 3 pounds in 50 gallons of water, as soon as the blossoms fall; repeat about the 20th to 25th of June. Crown Gall. Buy nursery stock free from this disease. Destroy all trees found affected. Leaf Spots, Scab, Sooty Mold. Spray with Bordeaux mixture (No. 136). 13 Oyster-shell Scale {Oyster Back). Spray thoroughly as soon as the young hatch (about June 1) with kerosene emulsion (No. 4), stock 1 part, water 6 parts, and repeat in ten days. Dead scales which remain all summer after treatment do not indicate failm-e of the treatment. Plum Curculio. The plum curculio feeds on young apple leaves and also punctures the fruit, causing hard spots with woody places inside them. Spray with arsenate of lead 3 pounds, water 50 gallons, after the leaves begin to develop, but before the blos- soms open. Repeat after the blossoms fall, as for the codling moth. Repeat three to four weeks later. Bordeaux mixture can advantageously be combined with the arsenate of lead in these treatments (No. 20). Jarring the trees about sunset, beginning ten days after the blossoms fall, makes the insects drop. Spread a white cloth over the ground before jarring the trees, and destroy those insects which fall on it. Repeat this once every week for about three weeks. Round-headed Borer. Look for "sawdust" at the base of the trunk in October and trace this to cavities just imder the bark above, in which the borers are, where they may be cut out and killed. Put wire mosquito netting around the trunk in form of a cone, the lower end entering the ground and the upper end close around the trunk about 2 feet up, keeping the borers out and also pro- tecting from mice and rabbits in winter. San Jose Scale. Spray thoroughly during the winter or spring, before the buds open, with lime-sulfur wash (No. 7) or a miscible oil (No. 9). Use a nozzle giving a misty spray. If badly infested, spray before January with the lime-sulfur, and just before the buds open with the oil. With one spraying each year it will probably be better to alternate the lime-sulfur and the oil. 14 Woolly Aphis. White, woolly places on limbs in fall, also on roots, these last being the most injurious. Remove the soil to the upper roots 2 feet out from the trunk, and pour on kerosene emulsion, stock 1 part, water 2 parts, mixed ; then replace the earth. General Plan of Treatment. Spray once or twice during the winter, according to con- ditions present, with lime-sulfur, miscible oil or both, for the San Jose scale. Spray with arsenate of lead and Bordeaux (using No. 13a for the Bordeaux) just before the buds begin to open, for bud moth and curculio. Repeat just after the blos- soms fall (using No. 136 for the Bordeaux) for these and also for leaf spots, canker worms and the codling moth. Repeat about the 20th of June for the last insect. For other insects, special treatment. i. Asparagus. Asparagus Beetles. Keep cutting beds closely cut, leaving a few stalks for the insects to lay their eggs on. Destroy these once a week and let others take their place. Spray the fruit stems with arsenate of lead about once a month during the summer. Let fowls run in the beds. Asparagus Miner. A maggot boring in and sometimes girdling the stalks near the ground. Keep the bed cut close as late as possible, except for a few trap plants to be destroyed the last of June. Rust. Fertilize* highly; cultivate well in dry seasons, and in pre- paring a new bed use considerable stable manure. Bean. Anthracnose. Use clean seed. Spray with Bordeaux (No. 13a) when the leaves open, and repeat if needed. 15 Weevils in Seed. Place seed on gathering in a tight box and fumigate for twenty-four hours, using 'a tablespoonful of carbon disulfid to every cubic foot of space in the box. Keep the box away from fire during the treatment. Then store for winter. Beet. Flea Beetle. Spray with arsenate of lead or Bordeaux (No. 136), as needed. Leaf Spot. Spray with Bordeaux (No. 136) when four or five leaves have formed, and at intervals of about twelve days thereafter, if necessary. Cabbage, Cauliflower. Black Rot. Treat the seed with formalin 1 pound, water 20 gallons, for fifteen minutes. Do not plant in ground already infected. Cabbage Worm. Spray with arsenate of lead 2 pounds in 50 gallons of water, as needed, till the heads begin to form; then dust with helle- bore instead. Clubfoot. Do not plant on infected land. On infected land apply 50 to 75 bushels of lime per acre. Cutworms. If noticed while preparing the ground for planting, cut clover and spray it with Paris green and scatter it over the field. After the plants are up, make a mash of 60 pounds bran or middlings, 1 pound Paris green, water to make a mash, and enough molasses to sweeten well. Put a teaspoonful of this at the base of each plant and keep fowls away. The cutworms will prefer the sweet mash to the plants. 16 Root Maggot. Fit a disk of tarred paper on the ground around the stem of each plant when setting. Hellebore dusted on the ground around the stem about once a week is often successful. Cherry. Brown Rot, etc. See "Peach." See "Apple." Curculio. Plant Lice. Spray with kerosene emulsion (No. 7), stock 1 part, water 9 parts, when the lice first appear. After the leaves curl it is too late to treat successfully. Slug. Spray with a stomach poison (No. 2 or 3) when they first appear. Corn. Wireworms. To protect seed, dip in arsenate of lead paste diluted with water to consistency of thick paint. Dry and plant. Late fall plowing for several years, rotation of crops, and trapping with freshly cut clover sprayed with a stomach poison and placed under boards in the field, all help to control this serious pest. Currant, Gooseberry. Currant Worm. Apply a stomach poison — preferably No. 3 — as soon as the leaves develop. Currant Stem Borer. Bores along the center of the stem. Cut off and burn in- fested stems. 17 Currant Stem Girdler. Girdles growing shoots which wilt and are very noticeable. Cut off these shoots as soon as seen, at least 3 inches below the girdled place, and burn them. Leaf Blight. Spray with Bordeaux mixture (No. 13a) before the leaves start. Repeat later if necessary with No. 136. Mildew. Spray with potassium sulfid (No. 15) as soon as the mildew appears. Cucumber, Melon, Squash. Anthracnose, Alternaria. There is little in the way of treatment which is effective for these diseases. Downy Mildew. Spray with Bordeaux mixture (No. 136 or 13c) about August 10, and repeat every ten days if the mildew appears. Striped Cucumber Beetle. Start plants under netting. Apply arsenate of lead to the plants, and air-slaked lime or wood ashes around the stem freely. Squash Bug. Start under netting. Destroy the clusters of red-brown eggs on the underside of the leaves. » Squash-vine Borer. Plant some summer squashes early as traps. Start the main crop under netting. Cover stems with earth to start roots from the joints if possible. Harrow in the fall and plow deep in the spring. 18 In General. Collect and destroy these plants as soon as the crop has been gathered. Grape. Anthracnose, Black Rot, Mildews. Spray with Bordeaux mixture (No. 136) as soon as any of these diseases appear. Flea Beetles. Attack the buds, and later the leaves. Spray with arsenate of lead 4 pounds, water 50 gallons, and repeat if necessary. No. 19 or 20 may be used to advantage. Rose Bug. Hand picking. In General. Spray before the buds open with No. 19 or 20. After the leaves have developed spray 'with No. 136. Repeat this after the fruit has set, or use it with No. 3, if insects are present. Greenhouse Plants. Control diseases by keeping the houses in the best condition. When empty, fumigate with No. 23 or 28. Burns and Wilts. To avoid lettuce top burn, low temperatures on cloudy days and at night, — 35 degrees to 45 degrees at night. Cucumber wilt is caused by too little light and air, and too high tem- perature. Rusts. Select healthy stock. Remove rusted parts. Keep water off the leaves, at least in cloudy weather, watering the leaves only on bright mornings, when they will quickly dry. Mildews and Leaf Spots. In general, caused by too much moisture and too little light and air. For cucumber anthracnose and rose mildew paint the heat pipes occasionally with sulfur and oil. 19 Plant Lice. Spray with No. 22, or use No. 24 or 25. Red Spider. Spray frequently with clear water or soap (No. 22). Spray plants not affected by sulfur with flowers of sulfur 1 ounce, water 1 gallon, and soap enough to make the sulfur mix with the water. Thrips. Fumigate with strong tobacco extract vaporized. Repeat as needed. White Fly. Fumigate with hydrocyanic acid (No. 27), but use only .007 to .01 gram of cyanid per cubic foot, according to how tight the house is, with the corresponding amounts of acid and water. Fumigate for three hours at night and repeat twice at intervals of fourteen days. Use this treatment with some caution. Eel Worms. Freeze, sterilize or change the soil. Onion. Onion Maggot. Apply No. 10 as soon as the plants are up, wetting the ground well around them for 2 or 3 inches. Repeat once a week for about three times. No satisfactory treatment for large fields has vet been found. Smut. Wet the seed before sowing, with 1 pint of formalin in 30 gallons of water. A drip attachment to the seeder will do this. Thrips (Blight). Collect all refuse in the field as soon as the crop is gathered, and burn it. Burn over all grass land and rubbish around onion fields during late fall, as the thrips winter in such places, and burning destroys large numbers of them. 20 Oats. Smut. Soak the seed for ten minutes in formalin 1 pint, water 36 gallons, then spread out to dry for two or three days. Pea. Weevil. See "Bean." Peach. Brown Rot, Scab. The lime-sulfur wash (No. 7) for San Jose scale is effective for brown rot. If this has not been used, apply No. 16 before the fruit is fully grown, and repeat if necessary. The lime- sulfur wash (No. 8), either alone or with arsenate of lead (No. 21), applied four to five weeks after the blossoms fall, is very useful, followed by the lime-sulfur (No. 8) alone four or five weeks before the fruit ripens. Peach Leaf Curl, Twig Blight. Lime-sulfur wash in winter for the San Jose scale should protect from these diseases. If it has not been applied, use Bordeaux (No. 13a) before the buds swell in spring. Peach Borer. Cut out borers early in spring. Mound up earth 18 inches around the trunks in June and remove in September. In California hard asphaltum, grades C and D, heated and applied with a brush to the trunk from below ground to 5 inches above ground, giving two coats, the second as soon as the first hardens, has given good results. How this will work in the east is not yet known. Peach Yellows and Rosette. Destroy diseased trees. Plant Lice. See "Cherry." 21 Plum Curculio. See "Apple." San Jose Scale. See "Apple." Shot-hole Fungus. Spray with lime-sulfur wash, as for San Jose scale. After the leaves develop use Bordeaux mixture (No. ISd or 13e). Pear. Blight. Remove affected branches. Spray before the leaves develop with No. 7, 13a or 14. Codling Moth. See "Apple." Leaf Blights, Fruit Spots. Spray with Bordeaux mixture (No. 136 or 13c) as often as necessary. Pear Psylla. Spray with lime-sulfur as for San Jose scale. Spray the ground beneath the tree also. Use kerosene emulsion (No. 4), stock 1 part, water 4 parts, as soon as the blossoms fall. Pear Slug. See "Cherry." San Jose Scale. See "x\pple." In General. Spray just before the buds open with No. 7 for scale, psylla and blight. Just after the blossoms fall spray with arsenate of lead and Bordeaux (No. 20, using 136 or 13c for the Bordeaux) for leaf feeders, codling moth, blights and spots. Repeat about the 20th to 25th of June. Plum. Black Knot. Cut off and burn infested branches 6 inches below the knots. Spray in early spring with No. 7 or 14. 22 Brown Rot, Leaf Curl, Shot-hole Fungus. See "Peach." Curculio, Peach Borer, San Jose Scale. See "Apple" and "Peach." Potato. Early and Late Blight, Potato Beetle, Flea Beetle. Spray with No. 19 or 20 (Bordeaux 136) when the plants are 5 or 6 inches tall, — earlier if the potato beetle is present, — and repeat every two weeks or as often as necessary. Scab. Soak seed potatoes one and one-half hours in No. 18 or two hours in No. 17; then dry before planting. Avoid stable manure for fertilizer, using acid phosphate or sulfate of am- monia. Raspberry, Blackberry. Anthracnose. Cut out infested canes. Rust. Destroy badly infected plants. Tree Cricket. Rows of punctures along the canes in fall, causing them to crack open and die from this point to the tips. Cut off and burn before May. Rose. Leaf Hopper. Spray thoroughly with kerosene emulsion (No. 4), stock 1 part^ water 4 or 5 parts. Plant Lice. Spray as for hopper, with stock 1 part, water 9 parts. Red Spider. Spray with flowers of sulfur 1 pound, water 5 gallons. Add some soap to make the sulfur mix with the water. 23 Shade Trees. Elm-leaf Beetle. Spray about the middle of June with arsenate of lead 5 pounds, water 50 gallons. Caterpillars, etc. Spray when these first appear with No. 3, 5 pounds to 50 gallons of water. Gypsy and Broum-tail Moths. For information as to the control of these insects, apply to the State Forester, 6 Beacon Street, Boston. Spruce Gall Louse. Pick off the soft green galls when they form in May and June : or spray the tree thoroughly with strong kerosene emul- sion (No. 4), stock 1 part, water 5 parts, the last of April. Plant Lice, Woolly or Otherwise. Spray with No. 4, stock 1 part, water 9 parts, when they appear. Strawberry. Croicn Borer. Eats out the crowns of the plants. Start new beds some distance away, using only young runners. INIove the beds every two or three years. White Grubs. Rotation of crops, leaving the beds in the same places as short a time as possible. Tomatoes. Cutworms. See "Cabbage." Flea Beetle. See "Potato." Circular No. 3 (Supplanting Nature Leaflet No. 42.) MASSACHUSETTS STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. BALANCED RATIONS FOR DAIRY STOCK. By J. B. LiNDSEY, Ph.D., Chemist to the Board. BOSTON: WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 32 DERNE STREET. 1914. APPRpVED BY The State Boaed op Publication, BALANCED RATIONS FOR DAIRY STOCK. BY J. B, LINDSEY. 1. Composition of Cattle Feeds. All cattle feeds, whether in the form of grains and their by- products, or as hay, corn silage and straw, are composed of the following groups of substances : — Water. — The several grains and their by-products contain from 7 to 12 per cent of water; hay and straw, 12 to 16 per cent; field-cured corn stover, 30 to 40 per cent; and corn silage, 76 to 80 per cent. Ash represents the mineral ingredients, and constitutes the ashes after the feed is burned. These ashes consist of lime, potash, soda, magnesia, iron, phosphoric and sulfuric acids. Protein is a collective name for all of the nitrogenous matter; it corresponds to the lean meat in the animal, and may be termed "vegetable meat." It has the same elementary com- position as animal flesh. When fed to animals as a component of the various feed stuffs, it serves as the exclusive source of flesh as well as a source of heat or energy and fat. Crude fiber or cellulose is the coarse or woody part of the plant. It may be called the plant's framework. It is a source of heat or energy and fat. Non-nitrogenous extract matter represents the sugars, starch and gums. It is the principal source of heat or energy and fat for the dairy animal. Fat includes not only the various oils and fats in all grains and coarse fodders, but also waxes, resins and coloring matters. It is frequently termed ether extract, because it is that portion of the plant soluble in ether. It serves as a source of heat or energy and fat in the body of the animal. Carbohydrates is a term which is generally used to include both the fiber and the extract matter. It will thus be seen that all of the several groups of nutrients — protein, carbohydrates and fat — are sources of energy; that is, they furnish the food or fuel to maintain the life of the body. They also are convertible into fat. The protein, however (including the ash), is the only source of flesh or lean meat. In order to form the bones all of the groups are used. 2. Digestibility of Cattle Feeds. The several groups of nutrients above described, which make up the various cattle feeds, are valuable to the animal only in so far as they can be digested and assimilated. The con- centrated feeds are considerably more digestible than the coarse fodders, as a single illustration will show : — 100 Pounds Timotht Hat. 100 Pounds Gluten Feed. Composi- tion. Per Cent Digestible. Pounds Digestible. Composi- tion. Per Cent Digestible. Pounds Digestible. Water, 15.0 - - 8.5 - - Ash, . 4.3 - - 1.7 - - Protein, . 6.3 48 3.0 26.2 85 22.3 Fiber, 28.4 58 16.5 7.2 76 5.5 Extract matter, 43.6 63 27.5 53,3 89 47.4 Fat, . 2.4 61 1.5 3.1 83 2.6 Totals, 100.0 - 48.5 100.0 - 77.8 In the first and fourth columns are given the composition of average samples of timothy hay and of gluten feed. In the second and fifth columns are shown the percentages of the different groups which are digestible. Thus, of the 6.3 pounds of protein in timothy, 48 per cent are digestible, or 3 pounds; and of the 26.2 pounds of protein in 100 pounds of gluten feed, 85 per cent, or 22.3 pounds, are digestible. Excluding the ash, which is not generally taken into account, it is shown that 100 pounds of timothy hay contain about 48 pounds of digestible or actual food material, and 100 pounds of gluten feed 78 pounds. It is evident, therefore, that the gluten feed is de- cidedly more valuable as a source of nutrition than the timothy hay. 3. Method of Measuring the Efficiency of Feeding Stuffs. The digestibility of a feed, however, is not the true measure- ment of its nutritive value, for the reason that some feeds require more energy for their digestion than others. What is termed net energy value, expressed in the form of calories or therms, represents more accurately the true nutritive values of feeding stuffs. Explanation. — The entire amount of heat or energy con- tained in a feeding stuff is termed its total heat or energy value. All of this heat or energy cannot be utilized by the animal for the purposes of maintaining its body in a state of equilibrium, or for aiding in the production of growth and milk. The several losses may be enumerated as follows : (a) the undigested material, i.e., the faeces; (6) the incompletely used material of the urine; (c) the work required in the processes of digestion and assimilation in preparing the nutrients so that they can be used for maintenance and for the production of growth and milk. These several sources of loss expressed as energy, de- ducted from the total energy, leave the real or net energy value. Here follows a table showing the relative net energy values of a few of the more important feeding stuffs. Instead of expressing the relative energy values in therms of energy, they are stated on the basis of 100 for the sake of direct comparison. The figures were secured by the use of the so-called Kellner method.^ They are not perfect, but represent the results of the best method that we have available at this time. Corn meal is taken as 100 and the other feeds, both concentrated and coarse, are compared with it: — Corn meal, 100.00 Apple pomace, 10.99 Brewers' dried grains, 65.96 Brewers' wet grains, 17 . 78 Buckwheat middlings, 89 . 82 Corn bran, 77.78 Corn silage, 12.40 1 For a full explanation of the components of the animal body, the composition of feeds, the different ways in which the food is used in the animal body, and the explanation for using the therm in the calculation of rations for farm animals, see Farmers' Bulletin 346, United States Department of Agriculture, prepared by H. P. Armsby. Corn stover, from field, 27.37 Corn stover, very dry, , 36 . 26 Cottonseed meal, 94 . 50 Distillers' dried grains, largely from corn, 93 . 80 Gluten feed, 90.99 Hay, barnyard millet, 35 . 91 Hay, English (mixed grasses), fine early cut, . . . . 43.16 Hay, Kentucky blue grass, 40 . 94 Hajr, orchard grass, 37.54 Hay, red top, 42.81 Hay, rowen, 48.07 Hay, swamp or swale, 22 . 92 Hay, tall oat grass, . .36.02 Hay, timothy, 36.02 Hominy meal, 104.80 Linseed meal (old process), 93.92 Malt sprouts, 65 . 96 Oats, ground, 83.27 Wheat bran, 57.31 Wheat kernels, red, 92.28 Wheat kernels, white, 93.92 Wheat middlings (flour), . .^ 98.01 Wheat middlings (standard) , 67 . 37 It should be borne in mind that the above figures express only net energy and not protein value. If protein is needed to balance the ration, it can be purchased most economically in the high-grade protein concentrates, such as cottonseed meal, gluten meal, gluten feed, distillers' dried grains and the like. 4. Nutritive Ratio of Cattle Feeds. The numerical relation which the digestible protein bears to the other digestible organic nutrients (fiber, extract matter and fat^) is termed the nutritive ratio of the feed or ration. Timothy hay has, for example, 3 parts of digestible protein to 47.3 parts of other nutrients, or as 1 is to 15.8. This is termed a very wide nutritive ratio. Gluten feed contains 22.3 parts of digestible protein to 58.6 parts of other nutrients or as 1 is to 2.6. This may be termed a very narrow nutritive ratio or proportion. All feeds having a nutritive ratio of 1 to 5 or less may be said to have narrow ratios, those from 1 to 5 to 1 to 8 a medium ratio, and above 1 to 8 a wide ratio. 1 The fat is converted into the energy equivalent of the starch or fiber by multiplying by 2.2; thus, 3 per cent of fat would have an energy equivalent of 6.6 per cent or parts of starch. The cereals and non-leguminous coarse fodders have medium to wide ratios, leguminous coarse fodders medium ratios, and the leguminous seeds and concentrated by-products narrow ratios. 5. Combining Coarse and Concentrated Feeds (Balanced Rations). Desirable rations for dairy stock should possess (a) palata- bility, (6) sufficient bulk, and (c) 1 part of protein to 5.5 to 7 parts of the other digestible organic nutrients. If the ratio is much narrower than 1 to 5.5, the ration is likely to be too stimulating for continuous feeding, and the animal is likely to become thin in flesh. If the ratio is much wider than 1 to 7, the tendency will be for the animal to put on fat rather than to give milk. In both cases the ration may be said to be out of balance. For both economical and physiological reasons it is necessary that a considerable portion of the daily ration of the dairy animal should be composed of coarse fodder or roughage, be- cause such materials are easily and cheaply produced upon the farm, and because the digestive tract of the bovine is especially suited to utilize them. Most of these home-grown coarse feeds, however, are very high in carbohydrates and have a relatively low digestibility. It is necessary, therefore, to supplement them to an extent with the cereal grains, which, though rela- tively low in protein, are very digestible; and with the con- centrated by-products, w^hich, in addition to a relatively high digestibility, are quite rich in protein. A single illustration will make this clear. Many experiments have demonstrated that a 1,000-pound cow, producing daily 10 quarts of milk of average quality, needs approximately the following amounts of digestible nutrients : — Digestible. Protein. Fat. Carbohydrates. Total. Nutritive Ratio. Pounds, . . 2.25 .5 13 or 13.5 16 1 to 5.6 or 7 Now% if this animal were fed daily as much of an extra quality of hay as she would consume (28 to 30 pounds), she would receive : — Digestible. Protein. Fat. Carbohydrates. Total. Nutritive Ratio. Pounds, . . . 1.3 .3 13 14.6 1 to 10.5 8 Such a ration is deficient in total digestible nutrients as well as in digestible protein. If 7 pounds of the hay were replaced by an equal amount of corn meal, the hay and corn meal would furnish : — Digestible. Protein. Fat. Carbohydrates. Total. Nutritive Ratio. Pounds, . . 1.4 .47 14.35 16.22 Ito 11 The corn meal being very digestible, but a one-sided or starchy feed, would sufficiently increase the total digestible nutrients, but not the protein. If 4 pounds of corn meal were replaced by 2 pounds of bran and 2 pounds of cottonseed meal, the several feeds would supply : — Digestible. Protein. Fat. Carbohydrates. Total. Nutritive Ratio. Pounds, . 2.07 .60 13.20 15.87 1 to 6.6 The replacing of 7 pounds of hay with 3 pounds of corn meal rich in digestible matter and with 2 pounds each of bran and cottonseed meal especially rich in digestible protein, furnishes a ration containing less fiber, and more starchy matter and protein than is contained in the hay. Such a ration contains the requisite amount of both total digestible matter and di- gestible protein, and may be said to be properly balanced. 6. Types of Balanced Rations. Because of the high prices usually prevailing for all con- centrated feeds, dairymen are frequently in doubt as to the kinds to be selected and the amount to be fed in order to secure the best returns for the money invested. Farmers selling cream to the creamery, or located where there is not a quick demand for milk, probably will not find it economical to feed over 3 to 5 pounds of purchased grain daily, and will use maxi- mum amounts of home-grown hay and silage (1 to If bushels of silage and what hay the animal will eat clean) . If the silage is well eared, 1| pounds each of cottonseed meal and flour middlings, sprinkled over the silage to distribute it, will pro- duce a fairly well-balanced ration, and prove helpful in main- taining the milk flow. If corn meal is a home product rather than silage, mix by weight j bran, ^ corn and cob meal and ^ cottonseed meal (100 pounds bran, 200 pounds corn and cob meal and 100 pounds cottonseed meal), and feed 5 to 6 quarts daily, or by weight, f corn and cob meal and ^ cottonseed meal and feed 4 to 5 quarts daily, together with one feeding of cut or shredded corn stover and what hay the animal will clean up. Producers of market milk generally find it advisable to feed somewhat more grain, and a number of combinations are suggested which vAW produce satisfactory balanced rations when fed with what hay the animal will eat clean (18 to 24 pounds a day), or with 1 bushel of corn silage and 10 to 16 pounds of hay. I. 100 pounds bran. 100 pounds flour middlings. 100 pounds gluten feed. Mix and feed 6 to 8 pounds (7 to 9 quarts) daily. III. 100 pounds wheat bran. 200 pounds gluten feed. 35 pounds cottonseed meal. Mix and feed 7 pounds (7 quarts) daily. V. 75 pounds wheat bran. 150 pounds corn and cob meal. 100 pounds cottonseed meal. Mix and feed 6 to 7 pounds (or quarts) daily. VII. 150 pounds distillers' grains. 150 pounds standard middlings. 100 pounds com or hominy meal. Mix and feed 7 pounds (or quarts) daily. IX. 200 pounds dried brewers' grains. 100 pounds corn meal. 50 pounds cottonseed meal. Mix and feed 7 pounds (9 quarts) daily. II. 100 pounds bran. 100 pounds corn or hominy meal.^ 100 pounds cottonseed meal. Mix and feed 6 to 8 pounds (7 to 9 quarts) daily. IV. 100 pounds wheat bran or malt sprouts. 100 pounds corn or hominy meal. 150 pounds gluten feed. Mix and feed 7 pounds (or quarts) daily. VI. 100 pounds distillers' grains. 100 pounds malt sprouts. 150 pounds corn meal. 50 pounds cottonseed meal. Mix and feed 7 pounds (7 to 8 quarts) daily. VIII. 150 pounds wheat bran. 200 pounds gluten feed. Mix and feed 7 pounds (8 to 9 quarts) daily. X.2 300 pounds bran. 100 pounds flour middlings. 100 pounds corn meal. 100 pounds ground oats. 300 pounds gluten feed. 100 pounds linseed meal. Mix and feed as desired. XI. 1 . 5 pounds gluten feed. 1 . 5 pounds cottonseed meal. 4.0 pounds dried beet pulp.' XII. 3 pounds distillers' grains. 4 pounds dried beet pulp.' ' Corn and cob meal if on hand can be used in place of corn or hominy meal. * Ration designed for cows on test; rather expensive for ordinarj' purposes. « Beet pulp should be moistened with two to three times its weight of water before feeding. 10 The cost of a pound of the several mixtures is Hkely to vary from 1.4 to 1.6 cents. It is beheved that the above selections are more economical on the basis of their content of nutritive material than most of the sugar feeds and other proprietary mixtures. In general it may be said that the amount of grain to be fed daily depends (a) upon the size of the cow, (b) daily milk yield and (c) the local market value of the milk. The richer the milk, the more food is required to produce a given amount; and vice versa. Six to 7 pounds of the above mixtures is a fair average amount for cows weighing 800 to 900 pounds, which are yielding 10 quarts of 4 to 5 per cent milk. For every 2 quarts of milk yielded in excess of this amount the grain ration may be in- creased by 1 pound. 7. Rations for Young Stock. Young dairy stock may receive 1 peck or more of silage daily, depending upon their size, in addition to what hay, corn stover or other coarse fodder they will eat clean; or the entire roughage may consist of hay. Ten to 15 pounds of roots daily in cases where silage is not available will prove appetizing and helpful. Grass and clover rowen form a very desirable feed for growing animals. In addition to the above, it is usually advisable to feed from 1 to 3 pounds daily of a grain mixture reasonably rich in protein and ash. ^ Any of the above mix- tures will prove satisfactory. The writer has found mixtures by weight of | wheat bran and ^ flour middlings; or J bran, f corn meal and J flour middlings; or ^ bran, | corn meal and I ground oats quite satisfactory. A ration composed of late- cut hay and corn meal would not be desirable, it lacking both flesh and bone forming material (protein and ash). Several months before the heifer freshens it is well, if cir- cumstances permit, to increase the grain ration to 5 or 6 pounds per day in order to get her used to grain and to encourage a large future milk flow. The feeder will do well to bear the following in mind: — 1. Late-cut hay is noticeably less nutritious than early-cut. ' If the roughage consists largely of grass or clover rowen, 2 pounds daily of a mixture of bran and corn meal, or even of corn meal alone, will prove satisfactory. 11 2. The fine grasses are more nutritious than the coarse. 3. The clovers and alfalfa should be cut in early bloom. If cut in late bloom their nutritive value is noticeably lessened. 4. Concentrated feeds, aside from their palatability, should be purchased for their high digestibility or net energj^ value and protein content. 5. The cereals have a high net energy value; cottonseed meal, gluten feed, distillers' dried grains and flour middlings, while they are highly digestible, are purchased as a rule because of their protein content. 6. Wheat bran is an expensive source of nutrition, but its bulk and laxative qualities frequently commend its use to eastern feeders in amounts not exceeding 25 to 30 per cent of the entire grain ration. 7. Some proprietary grain mixtures are fairly economical; others which contain low-grade by-products are quite expen- sive, due to the fact that such feed mixtures are sold at about the same prices as the high-grade concentrates. 8. The farm is the carbohydrate factory. As a rule, it is not practicable for the farmer or dairyman to produce all of the high-grade protein feeds to supplement his home-grown carbohydrates. He should endeavor to produce as much as possible of the needed protein in the form of clover, alfalfa or soy beans. In some cases he w411 find it necessary to purchase corn and the like, but this is as a rule not good economy. "^i*^ ®l)c €ommotau)caltl) of iJlaesacljusctts* STATE BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. CIRCULAR No. 4. December, 1913. Apple Packing for Massachusetts Growers. Bv ALBERT R. JENKS, formerly with the Turner Hill Farm, Ipswich, Mass., now Horticultural Adviser, Hampden County Improvement League, Springfield, Mass. BOSTON : WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 32 DERNE STREET. 1913. Approved bv The State Boap.d of PublicatiOxNT. APPLE PACKING FOR MASSACHUSETTS GROWERS. By ALBERT R. JENKS. The fast-growing commercial importance of the apple crop in Massachusetts demands that the packing phase of the in- dustry be given intelligent study, and that all discoveries of proven worth be put into practical application. As the apple crop increases in size the cheaper grades will be pushed from the market. The selling price of the better grades will be lowered, thus making it possible for more people to use a large quantity of apples each succeeding year. Along with a lower selling price, the cost of production must be reduced and better methods of packing adopted. Wonderful strides have recently been made in the methods used by fruit growers in the management of their orchards. Only very recently have growers begun to give more time and attention to the packing and marketing of their fruit. At present this is fully one-half of the problem. It is true that we have improved upon our forefather's method of harvesting his fruit, — that of shaking the apples to the ground and picking them up in sacks, or allowing them to fall off and then picking them up. It has remained for our western pioneer apple growers to teach us really up-to-date methods. Improved methods of picking must precede any advance in the packing of apples. Too little thought often- times is given to this phase. Apples may be excellently grown and finely packed, but unless they are carefully picked they will not bring the highest market price. It is very hard to know just when an apple has reached the stage when, if picked, it will keep the longest and still retain the highest quality for culinary and dessert purposes. The time will vary according to the soil, its moisture content, the va- riety of apple, the stock, the exposure and the purpose for which the fruit is sold. Experience is necessary to deter- mine this point, but there is less danger of picking too early than too late. A fair test of ripeness is to lift the apple gen- tly and twist it slightly. If it parts readily from the spur, the apple is ripe enough to pick. If the apples are to be placed in ordinary storage they should be picked earlier than if they are to be put into cold storage. Harvesting. In picking apples handle them as carefully as eggs. Em- ploy men who can pick with two hands. Great care should be exercised not to detach the stems, because when a stem is pulled out it breaks the skin; this allows the bacteria to enter the apple, resulting in rot and disease in an otherwise sound apple. Many markets refuse apples with 25 per cent, of the stems missing. Equal care should be exercised in picking apples to leave all fruit spurs unbroken upon the limbs. Each broken spur means that several apples are deducted from the next three or four years' crops. This is an absolutely unnecessary loss, if due care is exercised. Men should never be allowed to climb into the trees while picking, especially young trees, because broken branches and bruised limbs are bound to result from such a procedure. Wounds and bruises upon the limbs constitute ideal condi- tions under which canker diseases start and flourish. Light, strong stepladders should be used for low trees; for taller trees, light pointed ladders, which will fit into crotches in the limbs, are better than straight or round ladders. Exten- sion ladders are necessary for very tall trees. There are many kinds of picking bags, buckets and baskets upon the market. Most growers prefer the oak, splint, half- bushel basket which has a swinging bale, allowing the basket to be lowered into the barrel or other receptacle and the con- tents poured out without any danger of bruising the fruit. The baskets should first be oiled, thus makins: them more < I 6 durable; thej should then be padded with canvas or burlap. Picking receptacles that open from the bottom are not en- tirely satisfactory at present, and picking bags tend to bruise the apples more or less. Heavy wire bent in the form of the letter S, with the upper part large enough to put over limbs and the lower part to fit the handle of the basket, are very useful. This will enable the pickers to use both hands. It is quite essential that practically all the picking be done by hand as, up to the present time, the patent pickers have not been so perfected as not to bruise the fruit, or else they are deficient in other ways. Patent pickers may be used for stray scattered apples. The question of field receptacles for the apples now arises. This all depends upon the future use of the fruit. One must have previously decided whether or not any of the apples are of high enough quality to box. Many Massachu- setts gTowers are adopting some of the good western methods. Box packing, the packing of apples in packages smaller than the apple barrel, generally the bushel box, is one of these good methods. Some Massachusetts growers, however, are adopting box packing long before the quality of their apples justifies this method. This is a serious mistake. The apple box should be used only for apples of extra good quality. The grower can realize the most money from his apples when packed in this way. For instance, it would be difficult to obtain $7.50 to $9 per barrel for good Mcintosh apples, but there is an excellent market for A-1 Mcintosh apples packed in boxes at from $2.50 to $3 a box. The fruitstand man likes the box package because he knows how many apples he is buying for a certain sum, and therefore knows how many he can sell for 10 cents and still make a good profit. The apples packed in this way must be sound and of a uni- form size, color and shape. The consumer likes the box package because it is more attractive, and because he can use them all before they decay; satisfaction being given, additional sales are guaranteed. Quality being secured, it is still hard to say just what varieties should be put into boxes in preference to barrels. We are now testing out mar- kets with box apples, and a few more years' experience will show which varieties may be marketed in this way. At present it looks as if the following varieties, if of high enough quality, should be boxed in order to secure the larg- est returns : — - Yellow Transparent. Red Astrachan. Duchess. Gravenstein. Wealthy, Fameuse. Winter Banana. Wagener. Mcintosh Red. Baldwin. Sutton Beauty. Alexander. Rome Beauty. Northern Spy. King. York Imperial. Many of these varieties will yield even greater profits if put into smaller packages than the bushel box. Above all things, do not box apples if they are not of the very best quality. The fact that many growers in Massachu- setts have been boxing apples suitable only for sale in bar- rels has put eastern box apples into disfavor among the com- mission men. As a rule, it is well to box only a small fraction of a crop from old renovated trees, and grade the remainder for barrels and culls. Hampers, baskets, corru- gated packages and other small receptacles have not yet be- come practical enough to demand the consideration of the average grower. They are suitable for special markets, and each individual must determine their suitability in his own case. Apples which are to be boxed should be handled with even greater care than fancy barrel apples. The field receptacle should be of small dimensions, preferably something in the nature of a common bushel box. The apples should be laid into the box, not poured in. It is advisable to place a sheet of cheap paper between each tier of apples in the box, thus eliminating all danger of puncture from the stems of other apples. Do not fill the box entirely full, or, if this is done, risers should be used upon the ends of the boxes in order to be able to stack them without danger of bruising the apples. The ideal receptacle will probably be something in the nature of a box 36 by 18 by 11 inches. It is not prac- ticable to box-pack apples in the field. They should be hauled to the packing shed, and immediately graded, packed and marketed, or put into cold storage. If one plans to pack his apples in barrels it is always a debatable question whether or not the packing should be done in the field or in the packing shed. Local conditions often- times decide this question. It is generally better, however, to haul the apples to a central packing place, as the facili- ties for better and more rapid work can there be provided. Barreled apples thus packed generally bring 10 or 15 cents more a barrel, because, as a rule, the work is done better. Then, too, if the apples are brought immediately to a cen- tral packing house, they generally have an opportunity to become cool before they are placed in the barrels. This adds to their keeping qualities very materially. If the varieties are in large, compact blocks in the orchard, and the packing shed is quite a long distance away, it undoubtedly is cheaper to pack the apples in the field. In this case one needs no field receptacles, as the pickers can empty their baskets directly upon the sorting table. When the packing-shed plan is followed, cheap but firm barrels are. probably the best field receptacles. These should be filled not more than four-fifths full. A low-down spring wagon, with a broad platform and broad wheels which will turn in under the plat- form, should be used. Such a wagon is shown in Fig. 1, opposite page 4. Recently, bolster springs have been placed upon the market. By using these springs almost any wagon may be made suitable for orchard use. Fruit hauled on such a wagon will be bruised but very little. Barbel Packing — Standard Barrel. Many different types of tables are in use for sorting apples for barrel use. The most common table is shown in Fig. 2. This represents what is called the end-delivery table, and is a very good table for use when one is careful not to handle the apples roughly. The dimensions are as follows : length. 8 7 feet; width at back, 31/4 feet; height at front, 32 inches; height at back, 36 inches ; height of side boards, 6 inches. Spaces are left between the boards in the bottom of the table for the dirt and leaves to sift through. The boards must be of a soft wood and smoothed off, in order not to in- jure the fruit. The back of the table is purposely made five or six inches higher in order that the apples may roll down towards the front. It is necessary to have three men working at such a table to get the best results. An upturned barrel is placed at the end of the table. On this is placed a basket for a certain grade, — the grade which is running the smallest. A man stands at the side of the table and sorts. He has one or two upturned barrels beside him which hold the baskets for other grades. The third man in the crew knocks the tail end out of the barrels, picks out the facer apples, puts them into the barrels and empties the baskets of the two sorters into their proper barrels. Three men working in a crew in such a manner will' average about 40 to 45 barrels per day. One extra man can head up and stencil all the barrels put up by three such crews. A heavier table is often used in packing-house work. It is 9 feet long, 6 feet wide and 33 inches high in front, with the table running lengthwise. The back of the table is 38 inches high and the side 8 inches high. The bottom is slatted, as in the end-delivery table. Three men are needed in the sorting crew, as at the other table. The only advan- tage of this table is the fact that more field barrels can be emptied upon it at one time. The Sulzer bill, which was signed by the President Aug. 3, 1912, and which became operative July 1, 1913, stand- ardizes the apple barrel and takes care of the grades of the apples. The bill follows : — The Sulzer Bill, Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, that the standard bari'el for apples shall be of the following dimensions when measured FIG. 2. — End-delivery sorting table. without distention of its parts : Length of stave, twenty-eight and one- half inches; diameter of head, seventeen and one-eighth inches; dis- tance between heads, twenty-six inches ; circumference of bulge, sixty- four inches outside measurement, representing as nearly as possible seven thousand and fifty-six cubic inches, provided that steel barrels containing the interior dimensions provided for in this Section shall be construed as a compliance therewith. Sec. 2. That the standard grades for apples when packed in bar- rels which shall be shipped or delivered for shipment in interstate or foreign commerce, or which shall be sold or offered for sale within the District of Columbia or the Territories of the United States shall be as follows: Apples of one variety, which are well-grown speci- mens, hand picked, of good color for the variety, normal shape, prac- tically free from insect and fungous injury, bruises and other defects, except such as are necessarily caused in the operation of pack- ing, or apples of one variety which are not more than ten percentum beloio the foregoing specifications, shall he " Standard Grade mini- mum size two and one-half inches," if the minimum size of the apples is two and one-half inches, in transverse diameter; '' Standard Grade minimum size two and one-fourth inches/' if the minimum size of the apples is two and one-fourth inches in transverse diameter; or " Standard Grade minimum size two inches," if the minimum size of the apples is txvo inches in transverse diameter. Sec. 3. That the barrels in which apples are packed in accordance with the provisions of this Act may be branded in accordance with Section two of this Act. Sec. 4. That all barrels packed with apples shall be deemed to be below standard if the barrel bears any statement, design or device indicating that the barrel is a standard barrel of apples, as herein defined, and the capacity of the barrel is less than the capacity pre- scribed by Section one of this Act, unless the barrel shall be plainly marked on end and side with words or figures showing the fractional relation which the actual capacity of the barrel bears to the capacity prescribed by Section one of this Act. The marking required by this paragraph shall be in block letters of size not less than seventy-two point one inch gothic. Sec. 5. That barrels packed with apples shall be deemed to be misbranded within the meaning of this Act: First. — If the barrel bears any statement, design or de\ace indi- cating that the apples contained therein are " Standard Grade " and the apples when packed do not conform to the requirements pre- scribed by Section two of this Act. Second. — If the barrel bears any statement, design or device indi- cating that the apples contained therein are " Standard Grade " and the barrel fails to bear also a statement of the name of the varietv. 10 tJie name of the locality where grown and the name of the packer or the person by whose authority the apples were packed and the barrel marked. Sec. 6. That any person, firm or corporation, or association who shall knowingly pack or cause to be packed apples in barrels, or who shall knowingly sell or offer for sale such barrels in violation of the provisions of this Act, shall be liable to a penalty of One Dollar and costs for each such barrel so sold or offered for sale, to be recovered at the suit of the United States in any court of the United States having jurisdiction. Sec. 7. That this Act shall be in force and effect from and after the first day of July, nineteen hundred and thirteen. It is seen that there is but one grade and but three sizes, which are governed by the minimum size of the apples in each grade. Any one desiring a copy of this law, with explanations and advice, may obtain it by writing to the International Apple Shippers' Association, 613 Mercantile Building, Roch- ester, IST. Y. Any one desiring further information should write to the secretary of the State Board of Agriculture, Room 136, State House, Boston, Mass. Owing to the frequent difficulty of obtaining apple barrels, one should order them in advance of the time they are needed. Use only new barrels for the best size and perhaps for the second best size. If second-hand barrels are used at all they should be carefully cleaned. Hard-wood barrels with elm hoops are the best. The actual packing of the barrel consists in placing a corrugated head on the bottom of the barrel. The final top of the barrel is the bottom as it is being packed. If the quality of the apples warrants it, a fancy lace paper circle is next put into the barrel. An oiled or paraffined paper circle is put in next, which prevents any dirt which may pos- sibly sift into the barrel through the cover from coming in contact with the fruit, and also prevents excessive moisture transpiration from the apples. The head of the barrel is now faced with uniform sized apples of a grade which is typical of the contents of the barrel. These apples should be of good color, or at least show good color around the stem ends. 11 Stemmers or small shears should be used to cut the ends from the long stems, so that they will not puncture the oiled paper circle and will rest more evenly upon the face end. This is sometimes omitted in strictly commercial work. The face layer is put in stem end down, in concentric circles. The outside or larger circle is placed first, of a uniform sized apple which will just fill the circle snugly. Each con- centric circle is placed in the same way. The center will require one, two, three, four or six apples, varying in accord- ance with the sizes of apples used. The next layer is placed the same way by some growers, especially for their extra fancy and exhibition barrels. Most commercial growers now make the second layer by placing the heavy colored cheek of the apples in the cavities formed between the apples of the face layer. This method makes the barrel look much better when opened. About a bushel of apples is next carefully emptied upon these two face layers, before the barrel is shaken at all. The barrel should be carefully shaken then, and after each succeeding basket is put in, until it is full. The shaking, or " racking " as it is called, tends to work the apples down into all of the cavities. In this way a compact package is secured and possibility of bruising is eliminated. The height to which the barrel should be filled varies ac- cording to varieties, and opinion on this point differs in different localities,. It should be just high enough so that when the head is pressed in all apples will be held firm, and yet not so tight as to bruise them. The last layer should be placed with stem ends uppermost. This makes it easier to put the head in, and if by mistake the bottom should be opened, it will present a much better appearance. A corru- gated head is also used at the tail end as it helps to prevent bruising when the tail is pressed in. It should be nailed in place with six three-and-a-half-penny nails. It is advisable also to nail liners to the tail end of the barrel. The barrel is reversed, and if it is to be shipped a long distance the head should also be nailed in a like manner as an added precau- tion. The head of the barrel should be stenciled in accord- ance with Section 5 of the Sulzer bill. 12 Barreled apples if held for any length of time should be placed on their sides. They should be packed in a car in this way. This method of storing prevents the fruit in a barrel from bearing the weight of other barrels, because the package itself bears it. The following score card, or some slight modification of it, is generally used for judging the barreled apples : — Points. Uniformity of size of a])ples, 20 Uniformity of color of apples, 20 Uniformity of shape of apples, 10 Condition and freedom from blemishes, 20 Attractiveness, ineh;ding facing and tailing, . . ... 15 The barrel and trimmings, . 5 Firmness of apples in the barrel, 10 100 Box Packing. The western growers have succeeded wonderfully with the apple box. This is due entirely to the fact that they were compelled to pack quality apples. Furthermore, they can- not afford to ship the cheaper grades of apples the long dis- tance to the markets. The Box. The first consideration in box packing is the box itself. Many shapes and sizes have been used. At present, however, there are only two in general use. The dimensions are: Special, 10 by 11 by 20 inches, inside measurement; Stand- ard, 101/^ by 111/2 t»y 18 inches, inside measurement. The boxes contain a trifle less than a standard bushel, but when they have the necessary bulge they accommodate more than a bushel. The two boxes are designed for different sized apples, but the Standard is being used more and more, prob- ably about 70 per cent at the present time. Apples are sold by the number in the box and not by weight or measure. The ends of the box should be of one piece, % inch thick, with the grain running crosswise; the sides should be 1/4 to % inch thick and of one piece; the tops and bottoms should 13 be of two pieces each, a little less than 14 i^ich thick, the two pieces making them more elastic. There should be two cleats for the top of the box and two for the bottom on each end. These hold the top and bottom securely, as the bulge has a tendency to push the thin boards over the nail-heads. The boxes generally come knocked down, and can be put to- gether during rainy weather, before the season opens. Four nails should be used for the sides, at each end. Four or five penny cement-coated nails are the best; they hold better. Fig. 3. — A convenient type of packing table. The Packing Table. The packing table, such as is shown in Fig, 3, is about 3 by 4 feet, made of 6 by 1 inch boards with 2 by 4 inch joists as posts. A stout canvas is stretched across the top of the boards. An old piece of rubber hose may be nailed along the top of the boards over the canvas to protect the apples from bruising. Shelves for holding the apple box are made at a slant on opposite corners of the table. Extra shelves may 14 also be made under the table for holding wrapping paper and other packing accessories, thus saving a lot of the packer's time by having everything convenient. Grading. As the apples are placed upon the table they are generally graded for size and color. It requires as much skill to grade apples well as it does to pack them well. Grading is some- times done by machine, but machine grading is not entirely satisfactory at present. An amateur starting to grade for size should have a thin board convenient, with holes of the different diameters cut in it. Occasionally, when in doubt, he can try the apples in the different sized holes. It takes a great deal of practice for one to become an efficient grader, although some people learn very rapidly. Two men can pack to good advantage at one table. One may pack a cer- tain size while the other is packing some other size, thus keeping the table fairly well cleaned off. Lining the Box. The box is lined on the bottom, sides and top with pieces of paper each 17% by 26 inches for the Standard box and 19% by 26 inches for the Special box. These are placed so that they overlap about 2 inches in the bottom of the box. They are long enough to cover the sides and the top, lapping over about 2 inches when the box is packed. The ends are rarely lined. Many growers crease these papers where the sides meet the bottom, which is really the top of the box, so that when the bulge is pushed down the paper will not be torn. The paper costs about Y cents per pound. Wrappiiig. All apples should be wrapped in tissue paper. This helps to retain the moisture content of the apples and also makes a cushion between them. In case an apple should decay the paper also prevents the rot from spreading. Apples also pack more firmly when wrapped. Wrapping paper can be 15 obtained either plain or printed. Oftentimes the large or- chardists have their brand or trade name printed upon the wrapper. This makes it cost a little more, but it is a good form of advertising. The v^rhite tissue is the best, although different colors are used. It comes in different sizes, which are used according to the size of the apples. The common sizes are 9 by 9 inches, 10 by 10 inches and 11 by 11 inches. Supplies of the three sizes should be kept on hand; the 10 by 10 inch size, however, is most largely used. Many beginners at apple packing have difficulty with the wrapping of the apple. Wrapping methods vary among dif- ferent packers. The points sought for are speed and an at- tractive appearance when wrapped. The paper is taken with the left hand towards one corner. The apple is placed in the paper, blossom end down ; the four loose corners are folded in ; the left hand places the apple in the box. By placing the blossom end downward in the hand, the surplus loose corners are wrapped around the stem end, thus protecting the apples with which it may come in contact. Layer papers are used in the top and bottom of the box inside of the lining paper; they are also used between the layers of apples, in order to raise the height of the pack when necessary. It comes in different colors and weights, but a medium weight, white, rough cardboard, lY^/^ by 11 inches for the Standard box and 191/0 by 10 inches for the Special box, is the best. A shelf should be made to put on the apple box to hold the wrapping paper, such as is seen in Fig. 4. Thumb-cuts should also be provided to put upon the thumb of the left hand for grasping the single sheet of wrapping paper. Packing. The packer is now ready for work. He stands in front of the box, vnth wrapping paper on the shelf and apples at his right upon the table. With his left hand he grasps a sheet of wrapping paper at the comer, while with his right he grasps a certain sized apple which he is about to pack. The experienced packer knows at a glance what pack he must 16 use to have every apple tight in the box, and also how many apples he will need to pack the box. There are three systems of packing in use, the straight, the diagonal and the offset. The diagonal, however, is used almost entirely. It is the hardest to pack, but it is by far the most attractive and the most efficient. Apples in a square pack generally become bruised in shipment, because each apple is placed directly over the other. Apples may vary more in size in diagonal packing than in square packing; they also tend to bruise much less in this pack, because each apple rests in the space between two or four others. The offset pack presents more empty space to the critical pur- chaser when he takes off the side of the box to look at the apples; therefore it should be used only when necessary. The size of an apple is always considered as the greatest distance from cheek to cheek, and not the distance from stem end to blossom end. A well-packed box of apples should always have a bulge of % inch upon both top and bottom. The top and bottom bulged in this way act as springs to hold all the apples tightly. This bulge is most easily attained by selecting apples with a little greater diameter for use in the middle of each layer. As the box is packed this bulge will be about 11/2 inches in the middle, but when the bottom is nailed on, the top of the box will spring out, thus making both top and bottom equal. (See Fig. 5 for illustration of bulge.) The pack should be but little in excess of the height of the box at the ends. This generally comes all right because of the size of the box and the kind of pack selected for the several sizes of apples. Apples which have a diameter of 2% inches make a five tier pack of either 188, 198, 200 or 225; 2% inches in diameter make a four and a half tier pack of either 138, 150, 163 or 175 ; 2% inches in diameter make a four tier pack of either 113 or 125 ; SYs inches in diameter make a three or two and a half tier pack of either 36, 48, 56, 64, 72 or 80. The number varies with the varietv, caused bv their different shapes and thicknesses. The regular Standard box is 101/2 by ll^o ^7 18 inches, and can be used for nearly all of these packs. Fig. 4. — I')0\ luirtially imcUed, slmwinu: constructiou ;iu(l iiositiou of hod. Fig. 5.— The bulge. The box at the left shows too little bulge, the one lu the eenter the proper bulge, and the one at the right too much. 17 It is sometimes a hard question for beginners to decide when to use the different packs, such as the 4-4, 4-3, 3-3, 3-2 or the 2-2. This varies with the size of the apple being packed, the size of the box and the variety of apple. The 2-2 and 3-2 are the packs most in favor among fruit growers. It is advisable to pack the apples upon their cheeks (Fig. G) whenever possible, as they present a much better appearance. A few of the varieties and sizes require stem-end pack- ing (Fig. 7). Experience and long-continued practice will overcome most of the difficulties experienced by beginners in box packing. In the 2-2 pack (Fig. 6), start by placing one apple in the lower left comer and another apple half way between the cheek of the first apple and the opposite side of the box. The next two apples are placed into the equal spaces formed by the first two apples. In Fig. 6 the first apple in the fourth row has slipped down. It should show a space between the apple and the end of the box. The operation of placing two apples in the cavities left by the last two apples should be continued until the top of the box is reached. Th(i layer of apples should be pulled down towards the paper which will then leave sufficient space to insert two more apples. These last two apples will cause all the others to become firm in the box. If the apples are of such a size that layer papers are necessary to raise the height of the apples, a paper is inserted after the first layer is complete. The second layer in the box is packed in the same way, except that the first apple is placed in the lower right corner. This means that all the apples in this layer are placed in the pockets formed by the apples in the first layers, and that when the box is nailed no apple will be bearing the entire weight of any other apple. Each succeeding layer is packed in the same way, being careful that each layer is started so that the apples will be in the pockets formed by the apples of the preceding layer. The 3-2 pack is very similar to the preceding 2-2 pack, except that three apples are used in alternate rows instead of two. This means that the 3-3 pack requires a much 18 smaller apple. Fig. 7 shows this method packed stem-end instead of cheek. This pack is started by placing one apple in each lower corner and one in the center of the space be- tween these two apples. Two apples are next placed, partly filling the cavities formed by the three apples. These two apples leave three cavities which are filled by three apples, etc., until the first layer is completed. In starting the second layer, two apples are used, then three, etc., thus filling the small pockets formed by the apples in the lower layer. The 4-4 pack is the square pack (see Fig. 8). The apples must be of such a size that four of them just fit into the box across the end. These are placed, and then four more, etc., until the layer is completed. The next three or four layers are packed in the same way, which means that every apple except those in the upper layer of the box must bear the entire weight of one or more apples above it upon its cheek. This invariably means a blemish upon the cheek, which immedi- ately lowers the price. The ofiset pack (see Fig. 8), generally a 3-3 pack, is started by placing three apples with their cheeks firmly to- gether, with these firmly against the left side of the box. This will leave a space between the last apple and the right side of the box; start the next three apples in this cavity. Place two more against this first one in the same way, which will leave the cavity upon the left side. Continue this pro- cedure until the layer is completed. The second layer is started from the right side, and the remaining layers alter- nate until the box is completed. In packing apples upon their cheeks always pack them with their stem ends pointing toward one of the ends of the box. After the box is packed a layer paper is placed upon it, the ends of the lining paper which have been hanging loose on the side are folded over the apples, the box taken to the box press and the bottom nailed on. Box presses are upon the market and can be purchased very cheaply. Oftentimes they are made at home. 2 5s< o b -. ^-VKf^^M^lfcr-^.^t '--,. Fig. f<. — Tlio (liffi-rent kinds of packs. Beginning at tin- k-ft, (1) off.sft; rij square; (:i and 4) diagonal. 19 Labeling. Every grower who puts up fruit fit for box packing should have a label to paste upon the end of his apple boxes. The label should be stenciled with the class of fruit, such as " Fancy " or " Extra Fancy," in the upper left corner. The number of apples in the box should be placed in the upper right corner. The variety of apples can appropriately be placed between the two upper corners. Boxes when piled upon each other should always be placed upon their sides. They pile better and the fruit is not damaged by this method. Other difficulties experienced by beginners at apple pack- ing will be overcome by intelligent study and continued prac- tice. A grower who uses the box package for marketing his strictly high-quality fruit ought to net a larger profit than if he marketed it in the large, bulky barrel. The box pack- age has succeeded wonderfully with the progressive western fruit grower, and is also finding favor with the up-to-date eastern grower who does not make the mistake of using in- ferior grades. Circular No. 5 MASSACHUSETTS STATE BOAED OF AGEICULTUEE. PORK MAKING FOR MASSACHUSETTS FARMERS. By Dr. GEO. M. TWITCHELL, Auburn, Me. BOSTON: WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 32 DERNE STREET. 1913. LIST OF CIRCULARS PUBLISHED BY THE MASSACHU- SETTS STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. No. 1. Food Value of Milk. No. 2. Insecticides, Fungicides, and Directions for their Use. No. 3. Balanced Rations for Dairy Stock. No. 4. Apple Packing for Massachusetts Growers. No. 5. Pork Making for Massachusetts Farmers. No. 6. Three Common Scale Insects. Approved by The State Board of Publication. POEK MAKING FOR MASSACHUSETTS FARMERS. A long-neglected industry promises rich returns under modern methods. Dk. Geo. M. Twitcheix, Auburn, Me. Among all the specific lines of farm work, whether cropping or breeding, none is more stable or certain to return a generous per cent, year by year*, upon the outlay, than pork making, yet through- out Massachusetts no branch of agriculture is so much neglected. Here and there single individuals, or corporations, have engaged in the business, but all the while we face the fact that the State does not produce pork products sufficient yearly for one week's supply for its own inhabitants. What is true in Massachusetts holds throughout New England. All the while men are running here and there searching after some avenue into which energies may be directed and success insured. We have passed out of the era of low prices for any meat prod- uct, and with our steadily increasing population there is no prospect of any permanent reduction below present standards. For these reasons it is perfectly safe to figure the industry upon the prices of 1911 and be certain that fluctuations will insure just as good an average, and probably better. With these fundamental facts recognized, surprise increases as one contemplates, on the one hand, the possible sure returns, and the almost total lack of recog- nition of the same by the rural inhabitant, on the other. Modern" Methods a Necessity. The greatest stumbling block in the pathway of the average man who contemplates the possibilities of pork production is the old- fashioned pigsty. Habit is so exacting that its full force can hardly be imagined. The pigpen must go, before pork making can become either a lucrative or even an attractive industry. It is one of the relics of olden times to which New England clings tenaciously. Pork may easily be made the cleanest, sweetest and most healthful of all the meat products. Naturally the hog is one of the neatest of animals, so that in judging the industry it must be from the view- point of the man who conforms to the demands and conditions of to-day. Economic pork production hinges upon the utilization of forage crops, the pasturing of the herd and the cutting out of all pur- chased grain. The problem is, can this be made effective in actual practice as in the west? Here is the crux of the whole situation. Fortunately, we have the experience of a number sufficient to maintain the claim. ]\Iethods of utilizing Fokage Crops. One acre in forage crops will provide all the food wanted by eight well-gi'own brood sows, and one-half acre in rutabaga tur- nips and mangels will supply the bulk of food for winter, until we approach farrowing time. Add to this clover hay and a minimum amount of grain and we have an ideal winter ration. How much grain Avill be demanded cannot be stated in pounds or bushels because of the individuality of the animals and difference in digestive and assimilative capacity. This grain should be corn chiefly, and experience will determine the amount required to sup- plement the roots and clover, the purpose being to keep each brood sow in healthy, growing condition. "While good results will follow the pasturing of a herd on an acre sown to rape, clover and barley, at the rate of 3 pounds of dwarf Essex rape, 7 pounds of red clover and 1 bushel of barley, I am convinced that the plan outlined by Commissioner Huson of New York, and practiced yearly by him, is more economical and will insure better results. The first is the plan followed at Elmwood farm, when I was in charge there, and which gave surprising returns. Mr. Huson divides this acre into three or four paddocks, with movable hurdles thirty inches high. In September he sows rye in one and turns onto that in early spring, where the shoats thrive wonderfully. By the time it is gone over, but not eaten too close, the paddock of rape, sown in early spring, as soon as the ground is warm, is ready. Then follows one of clover and then one of oats and peas. By the time these have been fairly eaten down the rye will have come again and matured a fair crop of grain, every kernel of which will be utilized. Naturally, the process of change from one paddock to another will be modified by the conditions, the best results obtain- ing when excessive growth is checked by changing from one to another and each one watched to see that it is not eaten too close. Of course the amount of ground demanded will be determined by the number of hogs kept, but this process of supplying the most healthful and cheapest food possible is so simple that it must com- mend itself to every would-be pork maker. March pigs grown in this way should be ready for market in October, requiring only enough grain to be carried along steadily, and finally finished in short order for the early market. For this finishing, corn and pumpkins, grown alongside the paddocks, constitute the best and most economi- cal food to be obtained, reducing cost of production and labor of feeding to the lowest dollar, while insuring a quality of product impossible to mature in close pens or with swill-fed animals. The whole ijroblera of profitable pig production hinges on one's ability to minimize cost, both of labor and purchased grain, and, at the same time, feed to insure steady growth. For this reason the grow- ing of the finishing crops alongside the summer pasture must com- mend itself to every business pig grower. The first step is to grow a strong, bony frame, with abundance of flesh and muscle. This insured, the cost of finishing may be reduced by restricting the range, care being taken at all times to keep everything clean and make certain a bountiful supply of fresh Avater. We not onlj^ want fat, but it must be hardened for market. The inexpensiveness of a crop of pumpkins, and their value in promoting growth, as well as their general tonic effect, make them an ideal food to combine with corn. If the pumpkins and corn are grown alongside the pasture, the whole expense of handling and feeding is minimized, the labor item being confined to cutting and throwing over the fence. To turn the drove into this field might save labor, but the loss from corn and jiumpkins trampled upon and wasted would be heavy. If by any other combination of rations the same rapid fattening can be insured at less expense, then surely it should be followed, the whole pi'oblem being to obtain most rapid growth towards the market at the least expense. Two possible dangers to be avoided are those of not feeding at regular hours or the attempt to save in quantity. Either Avill prove suicidal. Instead, the effort should be to so feed as to encourage the largest consumption consistent with health. No arbitrary rules can be given, as much depends upon the eye and hand of the feeder. There is good evidence in support of the claim that one has but to establish himself in this industry, by some such plan as here out- lined, freeing his stock entirely from the old-time methods of pigsty or barn-cellar growing, and advertising a healthy product made only on forage crops, in open pastures with home-grown grain, in order to insure a permanent market at advanced prices. The absolute purity and cleanliness of the product, and freedom from all pos- sible taint of impure surroundings and stale swill feed, will attract buyers. It will be undei-stood here as everywhere that an abundance of fresh water must be available at all times, and if possible it is best to equip a field in close proximity to a brook or within easy access to a water supply. In this way the labor item during the growing season is practically eliminated. The best cure for disease is prevention, and that will practically be insured by the plan here outlined. Disease lurks in filth or is carried in decayed food. Fresh air, sunshine and pure water are germ destroyers. But behind the problem of feeding lie some important factors, not one of which can be overlooked. » TrPK AND Breed. Too many start with or breed from immature sows. The hog of to-day bears but a slight resemblance to its early ancestors. The process of elimination and intensification of traits, form, growth, etc., coupled with the law of environment, has resulted in a creature radically different from the long-nosed rooter of years ago or the razorback of the sovith. To be a successful breeder one must enter fully into an appreciation of the changes resulting in what we see to-day, and be prepared to push the wall of opposing forces still further into the background. So tenacious is the law of reversion that there is demanded a firm grip and steady hand to insure im- provement. The question of breeds is here as elsewhere secondary to type. The pork maker wants a pig which, given right condi- tions, will make from 175 to 225 pounds of dressed product in six months. First of all, we want the long-bodied, deep barreled, strongly built sow, with a broad, intelligent face, a docile, quiet disposition, the ability to consume a large quantity of food and certainly to supply an abundance of milk for a litter of generous dimensions. Breeding White Ohesters I found that some sows would produce 12 or more, at every litter, while own sisters brought but 7 or 8; also that these large producers would give 2 or 3 pigs or more, which, at four weeks, would weigh 25 pounds, with the balance following closely, while the best I could do with others was 18 or 19 pounds. It takes a trial trip to gain this information, but a man has himself to blame if he gets a second dose. Blood alone does not insure type desired, though strains of each of the breeds have this well established. Here is where experience is the best teacher. Naturally, enthusiasm will center about the breed which pleases the eye, be it black or white, but pork makers to be profitable must never lose sight of the standard of utility which must always center in type adapted to purpose. Looking for special results, a specialized animal is demanded, one bred' and built for rapid pork making. Brood sows which are worth usmg as mothers are worth keeping so long as they will produce. It is i-uinous policy to change yearly. Keep a sow as long as she is rugged and productive. Surely no one can justify the use of a grade boar while he may succeed well with grade sows. In a boar look first of all to the character, type, production and disposition of his ancestors on both sides. Find- ing these to be satisfactory, what of the animal himself? Is he strong on his legs, compact rather than long in body, massive in shoulders, with good hams, and, above all, does he possess the shape and character of head wanted in the profitable meat maker? Did he come from a dam noted for large litters of strong, healthy pig-s? After making the selection test him, and, if satisfactoiy, keep him as long as he is of service. Beyond that when the time comes to change be sure and get another of the same breed and still better in every essential. The trials, troubles and disappointments of would-be pork growers may very largely be traced to the use of immature sows or boai-s, or an almost total neglect of the laws of breeding in making selection. The single fact that one, or the other, is a Chester, Berkshire, Poland China or Yorkshire proves very little, simply for the reason that so many who breed what they term pure-bred stock, either fail to register same or neglect the essential principle of worth and cling to blood alone. On this rock thousands have gone down who aspired to be known as breeders. There is a blood inheritance, which, backed by individual merit is of transcendent value, and this alone will satisfy or recompense the breeder. No man looking for the dollars through cheap pork pro- duction can afford to mix breeds. Price in a boar bears slight relation to value as a sire. Important as is breeding it must always be backed by good feeding, health and vigor being the goal one is seeking. Care at Farrowing Time. The evils and troubles of pork raising can, in the great majority of cases, be traced directly to want of proper food or care. Es- pecially is this true at farrowing time. If, in every pen where brood sows are kept, there is a small box constantly supplied with 1 bushel of charcoal, 1/2 bushel of ashes, 1 peck of salt and 4 pounds of sulphur, mixed together, there will be little danger of trouble at this critical period. Sows eat their pigs because of an unsatisfied craving, the result of unbalanced and improper rations. When the time comes to separate the brood sows and place them in pens, with guardrails all around, the time has also come to change the feed, and from now on middlings should form the bulk given, with some vegetables to keep the bowels in good condition. Not until close to farrowing should excess of sloppy food be given. If the sow has been handled gently all along she looks upon her care-taker as a friend. Not a day should pass without a visit to the pens and a few moments devoted to scratching her back. Then, when the little pigs come, she will not be disturbed by your presence, and many accidents will be avoided. It is these seemingly trivial steps which tell mightily in profitable pork production. If a litter of pigs is farrowed early in March, the sows should be ready to breed in September, though some wait one year, believ- ing that they will be more productive and the offspring larger. 8 Very much depends upon liow tlie pigs are reared. If kept growing from the first, and in good condition, not fat, they will be ready to take up the duties of pig bearing so as to bring their first litter at twelve to thirteen months of age. No rigid rule can be laid down, so much depending upon the owner. No sow should be kept for breeding unless she be growthy, healthy, vigorous and full of life, with body of good length and depth. Never use a weakling or one that has halted in the least during the period of growth. The rule is that nature is lavish in providing teats for a lai'ge family, and surely no wide-awake breeder w^ould use a sow deficient in this respect. Many are the little details a breeder must have in mind if lie is to succeed, and not one can be neglected. Care of Pigs. In every pen there should be a slatted partition arranged, to be lifted up and dropped easily. After the pigs have had their break- fast, lift this and drive them under, then drop in place. They are with their mother, yet separate from her, and the exercise sure to follow an attempt to get with her will do much to ward off disease and promote vigor and strength. Repeat this again in the after- noon, but surely allow the family to be together overnight. Before two weeks old a small trough should be provided, into which pour a little fresh milk at frequent hours, being careful to thoroughly cleanse each time before filling. Gradually a little mid- dlings may be added, and when the time comes for weaning, the process is simple and there will be no loss. Instead of taking the pigs away from the sow, when six to eight weeks old, remove the sow from the pigs and they will hardly miss her, because they are in the only house they have ever known. It means a big, big loss to put a litter of pigs in strange quarters and have them squeal and starve for a couple of days, when a little thoughi would save all this. Look well to the teeth of the little fellows, but don't hunt for black ones as the cause of all earthly ills. If any are over sharp and are lacerating the cheek snip off the top with a pair of sharp pincers, A healthy sow can well produce two litters a year though there is not as much profit in the second as the spring litter, but a little attention should be given to time of their coming. It is well, if the quarters are warm, to have the early litter come the very first of March and then breed the sow again five days after removing her from the pigs. This would allow for them to run with her six to eight weeks, and have the second litter come the last of Aug-ust. Success Dependent on Type op Man. There is no chance for a shiftless man to win success in this business, for the details, while not burdensome, are exacting and will not permit of neglect. No man should attempt to keep hogs Avho does not visit his paddocks or pens daily, who cannot find the right side of a hog and be on friendly terms with every one, and who does not see in the business full scope for all the skill, thought and application at his command. It is a good business for any live man, but one not to be neglected. The measure of profit will depend upon the energy and watchfulness as well as appreciation of the master. Fi'om a purely business standpoint pork produc- tion may well be urged u]x»n Massachusetts farmers, for, scattered all over the State, there are skilled breeders, of all representative breeds, and full advantage can easily be taken of all expense, study and experience expended by these specialists in building up their strains. EsiDecially should this business appeal to the man of moderate means, for it is not a difficult proposition for one ton of pork to be produced from the offspring of a single sow in one season, and surely, following the hints here given for production of home-grown food, it comes pretty near a case where a man has his cake and eats it also, for be has his brood sow left for further production, his farm is being improved, and a substantial sum is yearly being added to his net income. Rightly fed and properly treated thei'e is no animal so free from disease as the hog. •'to* Prevention op Disease. If by any cause disease gets a foothold, radical measures should be resorted to at once to prevent a spread, and to cure the sick. Isolation is the first step to be insisted upon, and that in dry, clean, well-ventilated pens. Then will come the specific treatment given in the bulletins published by the government. Recognizing fully the importance of prompt and thorough measures, it is yet necessary to emphasize again and again the supreme value of pre- vention of disease by a proper recognition of sanitary and hygienic conditions, and the use of nature's best food products in the mak- ing of choice, fresh, delicious pork. Cost op Production. Growing the roots, forage crops and corn for finishing, pigs can be grown to six months and to dress from 175 to 225 pounds for 4 cents per pound. We must remember that the rapidly grown young pig gives the best net returns, that it costs much more to 10 gain a pound after six months old than at four, and that the secret of success lies in rapid growth, generous feeding at finishing and an early visit to the block and the pork barrel. If it were possible to stimulate pork production along economic business Hues, so as to supply the home markets of the State, a new life would be injected into every department of agricultural work, and an era of rural prosperity be ushered in such as was never before witnessed. The market is at our doors here iu New England; the demand is active; the army of nonproducers increases steadily. There is no possibility for lower prices to be maintained, and this field, open before the energetic home builder, is attractive, perma- nent and sure to be remunerative in an increasing ratio as the days go by. ■7.V . - ■' Circular No. 6 Supplanting Nature Leaflet No. 33. August, 1913. MASSACHUSETTS STATE BOAED OF AGE^lilSMi?^^ THREE COMMON SCALE INSECTS. By H. T. FERNALD, Ph.D., State Nursery Inspector. BOSTON: WEIGHT & POTTEE PEINTIXG CO., STATE PEINTERS, 32 DERNE STEEET. 1913. LIST OF CIRCULARS PUBLISHED BY THE MASSACHU- SETTS STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. No. 1. Food Value of Milk. No. 2. Insecticides, FungicideSj and Directions for their Use. No. 3. Balanced Rations for Dairy Stock. No. 4. Apple Packing for Massachusetts Growers. No. 5. Pork Making for Massachusetts Farmers. No. 6. Three Common Scale Insects. Approved by The State Board of Publication. THREE COMMON SCALE INSECTS. BY H. T. FERNALD, PH.D. Fruit growers often find scale insects (formerly called bark lice) on their trees, and of these there are three kinds which are abundant in Massachusetts. These are known as the San Jose scale, the oyster-shell scale and the scurfy scale. The Sax Jose Scale. This pest, which is the most destruc- tive scale we have, is now generally distributed in the State. The scale is round (circular) in outline, or nearly so, and when full grown is about as large as a small pin head, highest in the middle and grayish- brown in color. The young are born alive, beginning about the middle of Jime, and are produced at intervals of two or three days for Fig. 1. — Different stages of the San Jos4 scale, enlarged five times. (From Virginia State Crop Pest Commis- sion Bulletin, 1904.) about a month before the parent dies. The young are very small, yellow, and crawl about for a time till they find a satis- factory place on which to settle. During this time they may crawl on to the feet of some larger insect or bird, and thus be carried to some other tree, where they may crawl off and infest that tree, or they may be blown by gusts of wind on to trees near by. When ready to settle down, they work their beaks into the bark till they reach the sap upon which they feed, then begin to produce waxy, white threads on their backs. These threads soon mat together, forming a circular white scale, and to this are added molted skins as the insect grows. These skins and the action of the weather; turn the scale gray or blackish, so that young scales may often show black, white and gray, arranged more or less in concentric rings, though they are so small that this can be seen only under a magnifying glass. In a month or less from the time they were born these young have become mature and in their turn are producing young, and there is accordingly an almost continuous production of young from the middle of June till cold weather begins, the process in Massachusetts usually ending before the first of December. At this time there will be scale insects of all ages on the trees, but all the adults and young scales die during the winter, leaving only those which are half or two-thirds grown. The early spring months are used by these in completing their growth, the adult condition being reached and reproduction beginning, as already stated, about the middle of June. Treatment. This pest can be successfully treated only during the win- ter months. Many different methods have been used, but most of these are either worthless or too expensive to be available. Trees nearly dead can probably be saved by treatment; but this does not usually pay, it takes the trees so long to recover. In most cases it is better to destroy such trees. Where treatment is advisable miscible oils and the lime- sulfur wash are now much in favor for this purpose. Lime-sulfur Wash. — This may be made where it is to be applied, or can be purchased ready made. Apparently the home-made material is slightly the better, but this is often offset by the inconvenience or impossibility of preparing it where it is to be used. Several formulas have been given for making the wash but there seems to be little difference in the results. One ffood formula is : — to Lime, 20 pounds. Sulfur, 18 pounds. Water, .48 gallons. As spraying is usually done with barrel pumps holding about 50 gallons, this formula is prepared to fill such a barrel. The lime used should be the best stone lime, freshly burned, and as little slaked by standing as possible. Finish- ing lime gives excellent results. The sulfur should be either flowers of sulfur or sulfur flour; stick sulfur will not do. These materials should be prepared in an iron kettle holding at least 30 or 40 gallons, as follows : Place 6 or 8 gallons of water in the kettle, start a fire under it, and slake the lime, getting this as fine as pos- sible in the slaking. When this is well under way gradually add the sulfur, stirring it in well, and keep the fire going to continue the heat begun by the slaking lime. Boil the mix- ture, adding water as may be needed from time to time, till the color of the liquid becomes dark orange-red. This should take from forty minutes to an hour, the longer boiling seem- ing to bring more of the sulfur into solution and leaving less sediment at the bottom of the kettle. When the boiling is completed strain the liquid into the spray pump barrel, using a strainer of copper wire of at least 20 threads to the inch, then add any water necessary to make the 48 gallons, and spray. The cooking is sometimes done in barrels by the use of steam led into them, but for some reason this often fails to give as good results as the use of a fire. If for anv reason this home-made wash cannot be made 6 use of, numerous readj-made lime-sulfur washes are on the market, and can be used with quite satisfactory results. A concentrated home-made lime-sulfur wash is now being used to quite an extent. The method of making, keeping and diluting this for application can hardly be given within the limits of this paper. Miscible Oils. — Many orchardists are now using miscible oils — often wrongly called soluble oils — instead of the lime-sulfur wash. A satisfactory miscible oil can be made by the person desiring to use it, but the trouble and time necessary are so great that this is not often done, and the oil is generally purchased, ready for use on dilution with, water. A number of different miscible oils are now on the market, and most of them can be expected to give very good results when not too much diluted and when thoroughly applied. Where the scale is abundant the dilution should not be more than one part of oil to fourteen parts of water, though in order to reduce the cost, directions accompanying these ma- terials often direct that one part of oil be mixed with twenty of water. This generally makes the spray too weak to be sufficiently effective. General Spraying Directions. In spraying for scale insects thorough work is necessary if satisfactory results are expected. Only those scales actually reached by the spray will be killed, and a very few left on a tree will be sufficient to heavily restock it by the following fall. Formerly a very fine misty spray was considered the best for the work, less of the material being wasted. At the present time the tendency is to use a coarser nozzle, thus making it possible to drive the spray with more force, and also to cover the trees more rapidly with the same thorough- ness as that given by the other nozzle. By spraying in this way the loss of material is more than made up by the saving of time and of wages to the men doing the work. Spraying for the San Jose scale should be done during the . winter months, while the trees are leafless and dormant. It should not be done after the buds have opened in the spring sufficiently to show a green (or white, in the case of the blossom buds) color, as the spray is so strong that injury may then result. Many orchardists are now spraying, one winter with the lime-sulfur wash, and the following winter with one of the miscible oils, believing that by an alternation of the two ma- terials better results are obtained. Whatever the material used may be, the spraying should be thorough, and every part of the tree covered with the spray. If windy weather pre- vents good work, it is often possible to S23ray one side of the trees and complete the treatment at some later time. Sometimes summer treatments seem advisable on trees badly affected. In such cases either of the above materials can be made use of, though they should be diluted much more than for winter use. Many other trees besides fruit trees and many shrubs are attacked by the San Jose scale, but the treatment for these is the same as that ffiven above. fc)^ The Oystee-shell Scale. This common jDest on apple, pear, ash, poplar and willow trees and lilac bushes is much larger than the San Jose scale, and is of different form, being long, rather pointed at one end and broader and rounded at the other, and mav be curved along its length, the form as a whole suggesting that of an oyster shell, which has given it its name. It is brown or dull gray in color, this last shade being most common on the ash, willow and lilac. The life history of this scale is so different from that of the San Jose scale that the treatment for it is also very different. The winter is passed by this insect in the egg. At this time the parent insect which produced the scale lies dead under the pointed end of the scale, and the rest of the space is occupied by from twenty to a hundred tiny whitish eggs. These hatch about the first of June, and the young, which are whitish-yellow, and closely resemble the young of the San Jose scale, push out from beneath the parent scale and crawl about, seeking for a place to settle and feed. When 8 PHHVHHPH BHHIHH . '^ ~r' ^^■■■■1 jKll^H The scurfy scale. The San Jos6 scale. The oyster-shell scale. Three Common Orchard Scales. — Twice Natural Size. this has been found a scale begins to form over the back of the insect, and by October it has become fully grown, has laid its eggs behind it under its scale and has died. These eggs pass the winter and hatch the following June. From this it is evident that there is but one brood of these insects each year. Farther south there are two broods a year, and it is possible that there may be two in Massachu- setts in some cases, but, if so, it is unusual. Fig. 2. — Oyster-shell scale: o, under side of female scale, showing e?gs ; 6, upper side of same, both much enlarged ; c, female scales on a branch, natural size; d, male scale much enlarged; e, male scales on branch, natural size. The fine lines to the right of a, 6 and d show the real length of the scales. (Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1894.) Treatment. As the eggs of these scales all hatch about the first of June, this fact may be taken advantage of in the treatment. The crawling young are entirely unprotected by any scale, are soft-bodied, and can be killed by spraying with kerosene emulsion or with whaleoil soap, if taken at the right time. The only difficulty is that in order to be destroyed each one 10 must be touched by the spray, and they are very small. This means that the spraying must be thorough. Whale-oil Soap. — Whale-oil soap, 1 pound ; water, 4 or 5 gallons. Spray thoroughly about the first of June, accord- ing to whether the season is early or late, and repeat in from ten days to two weeks. This second application will be likelv to reach some which were missed the first time, and also any which had not hatched when the first treatment was given. Kerosene Emulsion. — Hard soap shaved fine, 1/2 pound ; water, 1 gallon; kerosene, 2 gallons. Dissolve the soap in boiling water, then remove from the fire and pour it into the kerosene and churn with a spray pump, turning the noz- zle back into the mixture ; continue this till the mixture changes first to a creamy, then to a soft, butter-like mass. This will keep for some time. Use 1 part of this mixed with 9 parts of water to spray. If the water used is hard, the emul- sion may not form un- less borax or soda be added to make the water soft. The Scurfy Scale. This scale, which is also verv common on apple and pear trees, is about as long as the ovster-shell scale, but is broader, rather pear- shaped, and white or grayish-white in color. Its life history is about the same as that of the oyster-shell scale, but the eggs are purple, as are also the crawling young. The treatment is the same as for the oyster-shell scale, and should be applied at the same time. Fig. 3. — Scurfy scale: a, female, 6, male scales natural size, on twigs; c, female scale, much enlarged ; d, male scale, much enlarged. (Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1894.) ®!)c CommonrutaUl) of ilta0sacl)U5ctt5. STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. I » v CIRCULAR No. 7. FEB 5* 1914 November, 1913. J^i_gTiOTlltH.l"1*l Contribution from the Dairy Bureau, P. M. Harwood, r.e/i^^O^itJiO THE DAIRY INDUSTRY IN DENMARK. Reprint of an Extract from "A Short Survey of the Danish Agriculture," Published by the Royal Danish Agri- cultural Society, Copenhagen, Denmark June, 1913. (Edited by P. M. HARWOOD.) BOSTON : WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 32 DERNE STREET. 1913. Approved uy The State Boakd'of Publication. THE MIRY INDUSTRY IN DENMARK. Note. — This article is republished for the purpose of rendering available to Massachusetts people the history and status of Danish dairying from highest authority. Italicized portions are by the editor. 1 hectare (ha.) equals about 2^ acres (2.471059 acres); 1 kilogram (kg.) equals 2.2 pounds (2.204622 pounds); 1 krone (kr. equals 100 ore) equals 26.8 cents; 1 ore equals .268 cents. — Editor. The dairy industry in Denmark is in reality not very old. Up to about 1830-50, farmers doubted whether dairying paid or not. After 1850 the dairy industry in- creased more and more and the larger estates took the lead and showed, by experiments and practical measures, that dairying paid. There was no great export, partly because the butter had not yet gained a reputation on the world's market, and partly because they could not make a uniform product, as the many small batches made on the small farms were of a very uneven quality. Segelcke (1831-1902) contributed very much to the rapid development of the Danish dairy industry. He put in an enormous amount of work as the counselor of the Royal agricultural society, in order to establish a regular and systematic dairy industry. He impressed his ideas everywhere by training and appointing dairy counselors, and made the farmers understand that by proper and intelligent work a good profit could be made by dairying. At the London exposition in 1879 the Danish butter conquered in the international competition, and this result was due chiefly to the purposeful work of Segelcke. After the introduction of the separator the work was further systematized, and when the first co-operative creameries were started the small farmer, with one or only a few cows, received as much for his milk and be- came of the same importance as the estate owner with the many cows; and when the farmers reahzed this, one co-operative creamery after another was erected. That this movement in favor of co-operative creameries became so phenomenal was surely also due to the fact that the creameries were built very cheaply, and hence the farmers were not scared by any great outlays, as it must be re- membered that they were not accustomed to have much cash in hand. This development may best be outlined by the following figures: in 1882 the first co-operative creamery was erected (while the first individual one was started in 1863), and up to 1886 there were erected 86; from 1891-95 it was 169; from 1896-1900 it was 119. The total number in 1913 was 1,188 co-operative and 300 individual or estate creameries, and hence the total may now be put at fully 1,500. In 1909 there were reported 182,373 herds with 1,281,974 cows, and of these 154,602 herds with 1,059,359 cows supplied milk to the co-operative creameries. The follow- ing table shows the support of the co-operative creameries given by farms according to size : — Per Cent. • Herds. Cows. JJp to 0.55 ha.., 1.36 acres • . 70.1 67.5 From 0.55 ha., 1.36 acres, to 4.96 ha., 12.26 acres. 84.9 86.3 From 4.96 ha., 12.26 acres, to 14.89 ha., 36.79 acres, . 88.1 88.9 From 14.89 ha., 36.79 acres, to 29.79 ha., 73.61 acres, 90.3 90.8 From 29.79 ha., 73.61 acres, to 59.57 ha., 147.20 acres. 88.9 88.0 From 59.57 ha., 147.20 acres, to 238.30 ha., 588.85 acres. 82.8 73.9 Above 238.30 ha., 588.85 acres 49.0 38.8 The table shows that only half of the largest estates deliver milk to the co-operative creameries. They either make up the milk at home or contract it to the individual creameries or to the city dealers. The total milk produc- tion of the country may be placed at 3,500 million kg., 7,716,177,000 pounds, and of this about 2,700 milHon kg., 5,952,479,400 iDounds, go to the co-operative creameries. The payment for the milk to the members of the co- operative creameries is usually made by calculating the full value for the whole milk delivered and deducting the value of skimmed and buttermilk returned. This value is agreed upon at the general meeting. The statements are made up weekly and the payments are made monthly. As a rule, rather a large amount is left over at the end of the financial year, and this "surplus" is distributed ac- cording to the whole milk delivered. This surplus averages for the whole country about 15 per cent, of the payments made to the suppliers. The total working expenses — besides milk hauHng — averaged (1912) 8.89 kr. per 1,000 kg., or $1.08 yer 1,000 'pounds; the milk hauling, 3.43 kr. per 1,000 kg., or $0.42 per 1,000 pounds. There are, on an average, 156 suppliers and 956 cows per co-operative cream- ery, and the cows average 2,520 kg., 5,555.65 pounds milk (against 2,627 kg., 5,791.54 pounds, in 1911) de- livered to the creamery. It took 25.5 pounds of milk to make 1 pound of butter, and the whole milk netted (in 1912) 9.7 ore per kg., or $0,012 per pound. The salaries averaged for the same year 1.60 kr,, or $0,194 V^^ 1,000 pounds; the fuel, 1.04 kr., or $0,126 per 1,000 pounds (against 0.86 kr., or $0,104 per 1,000 pounds, for 1911), and the maintenance of buildings and inventory as well as renewals, 0.59 kr., or $0.07 per 1,000 pounds; all per 1,000 kg. milk. The co-operative creameries handled, on an average, fully 2.5 million kg., 5,511,555 pounds, milk annually. The fire insurance averages about 30,000 kr., $8,040, and the debts fully 15,000 kr., $4,020, per creamery. Butter is mainly produced, but some cheese is also made either from skimmed milk or from mixtures of skimmed milk and whole milk (10, 15, 25 and 40 per cent., seldom more, whole milk), yet the production is hardly much more than 15 million kg., 33,069,330 pounds, annually. There is also some cheese made from pasteurized milk and, at times, some casein. There is one milk-condensing factory, erected in 1907 in Nakskov. ^Yhile the butter export in the period 1865-69 averaged about 5 million kg., 11,023,110 pounds, it was in 1880-84 about 15 million kg., 33,069,330 i^ounds; in 1885-89 fully 25 million kg., 55,115,550 pounds; in 1900-04 fully 85 million kg., 187,392,870 pounds; -1905 made it 93 million kg., 205,029,846 pounds; 1906 it was 92 million kg., 202,825,224 pounds; 1907 it was 100 million kg., 220,462,200 pounds; in 1908 and 1909 it topped with 102 million kg., 224,871,444 pounds; in 1910 it fell to 91 million kg., 200,620,602 pounds; and in 1911 it was 92 million kg., 202,825,224 pounds. This drop in the butter export during the last years is due to the great increase in the export of milk and cream. This amounted, in 1910, to 23.7 million kg., 52,249,541 pounds, and in 1911 to 30.45 million kg., 67,130,740 pounds, valued in 1910 at 11 million kr., $2,948,000, and in 1911 at about 15 million kr., $4,020,000. In 1909 the export of milk and cream was rather insignificant. Of the exported butter, however, a part is foreign, which fs re-exported, and this amounts to about 12 million kg., 26,455,464 pounds, while the total import was 15 to 16 million kg., 33,069,330 to 35,273,952 pounds. It should be noted that all foreign butter must be so marked whether consumed or exported. The cheese import is, as a rule, about 0.75 million kg., 1,653,466 pounds, generally a little less, while the export is only about 0.2 million kg., 440,924 pounds, and thus of no consequence. There is a law ordaining that all butter made for export must be made from pasteurized cream (at least 80° C), and it must not contain more than 16 per cent, moisture, nor contain any other preservative than salt. The butter is exported in firkins (1 hundredweight net), with two "Lur" branded staves and the registered number of the creamery. The police and the margarine inspectors control the pasteurization, and the experiment laboratory analyzes the samples sent in by them. In order to shortly designate the factors which have caused this strong growth of our dairy industry, we must first mention Segelcke (1836-97), and Fjord (1825-91) whose pioneer work as director of the experiment labora- tory has been of inestimable value; next, the co-operative movement which united the milk-suppliers, large as well as small, and made it possible to produce large and uniform lines of butter. The appointment of dairy counselors who, by lectures and inspections of the creameries and by acting as judges at exhibitions, have done, and surely continue to do, a great educational work, is also a factor of importance. Further- more, the expositions where the products are scored by the merchants, the counselors and the buttermakers jointly are also of great educational value. We have essentially three kinds of exhibitions, namely: — 1. The pail shows of which each locality arranges 6 to 9 annually. The butter is scored about fourteen days old and is ordered in without previous notice (surprise tests). The written judgment is returned to the creamery with the butter. 2. Provincial exhibitions which are made once a year in each of the three provinces, Jutland, Fyn and Seeland- Lolland-Falster. At these the creameries know the time beforehand, and hence they are in reality only a trial of what the buttermakers can do when put on their mettle. At the same time there are exhibited cheese and dairy ma- chinery and supplies. Instructive lectures about the butter, cheese and machinery display are delivered and sometimes is added a popular instructive subject. 3. The experiment laboratory butter scorings take place, as a rule, once a week, and since January, 1912, have been compulsory for every creamery desiring to use the "Lur" brand and thus produce export butter. The creamery, accepted for control, is obliged, without previous warning and on written or wired order, to send in immediately a firkin of its finished butter to be scored. The butter is scored when fourteen days old by 9 judges (merchants, counselors and buttermakers) in three sets. If the butter from a creamery is of poor quality (under the proclama- tions by the agricultural department of Nov. 18, 1911, and July 8, 1912) the right to use the "Lur" brand may be canceled until the production is again of good quality. If there is more "than 16 per cent, moisture in the butter 8 the "Lur" brand on the firkin is at once obliterated and the butter may then be sold only at home as "waterbutter." Finally, the milk-scoring associations must be mentioned. Their aim is to score the milk arriving at the creameries either by a special milk judge or by the manager. The milk is classified and, in many creameries, a little more than the average price is paid for the good and a little less for the poorer milk, and the supplier is thus spurred on to deliver a better quality. ' ®l)e €ommontoealtl) of ifta00acl)U6etts. STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. CIRCULAR No. 8. December, 1913. Contribution from the Dairy Bureau, P. M. Harwood, General Agent. COST OF MILK PRODUCTION. By FRED RASMUSSEN, Professor of Dairying, New Hampshire College of Agriculture and THE Mechanic Arts, Durham, N. H. BOSTON: WEIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 32 DERNE STREET. 1913. Approved by The State Board of Publication. COST OF MILK PRODUCTION. BY PROF. FRED RASMUSSEN. No manufactured article will for any length of time be sold below the cost of manufacture. Milk is a manufactured article, being manufactured or produced by the dairy farmer. For several years great quantities of milk have been sold by the farmer below the cost of production, which fact accounts for the unsatisfactory dairy condition existing to- day in many sections of Massachusetts and other New Eng- land States. Because it proved unprofitable, not one but hundreds of dairy farmers have discontinued the production of milk. A farm is in some respects like a department store, in which, unless accurate accounts are kept, one department often pays the deficit of another. Farm operations are very closely interrelated and nearly always merge into one an- other. Only people who have tried to keep records know what a difficult problem it is to keep even approximately accurate records of all work and transactions on the farm. This fact as much as any other is responsible for the universal lack of comprehensive records to be found on farms. The New Hampshire Experiment Station has for the last two years studied the cost of milk production in the State of New Hampshire, and has been able to obtain, through the records of the Lyndeboro Cow Test Association, figures on the cost of production in the section covered by this association. Complete records have been kept of 326 cows distributed in 26 different herds. The amount of milk and butter fat produced, and the cost of feed consumed, by these cows are known. Estimates of cost of buildings and equipment have been made, and records have been kept for other factors entering into the cost of milk production. The average production of the 326 cows was as follows : — Yearly Average of 30.18 Cows. Average number of pounds of milk per cow, Average number of pounds of butter fat per cow, Average value of milk per cow per year, Average cost of feed per cow per year, . Average return per cow per year above feed cost. Returns for each dollar's worth of feed consumed. Average cost of feed to produce 100 pounds of milk, Average cost of feed to produce a quart of milk (cents), 6,463.20 243.60 $116 42 $73 03 $43 77 $1 59 $1 13 2.40 The conditions for an economic production from these herds were a great deal better than the average New Hamp- shire conditions (1) because the cows were above the average found in the State (the United States Department of Agri- culture, in co-operation with the New Hampshire Experiment Station in a field survey of four towns in Hillsboro County, including South Lyndeboro, found the average production to be 5,062 pounds per cow, while the average of the above- mentioned herds was 6,463.2 pounds); (2) because the farmers during the year had a monthly opportunity of re- ceiving expert advice on feeding and other factors entering into the economic production of milk (the discussions also at the monthly meetings showed that the majority of the farm- ers were feeding liberally and were studying the whole prop- osition of economic milk production); (3) the fact that 103 cows were sold before the end of the year (most of them because they were found unprofitable) tends to show a higher production and a higher profit per cow than if they had been kept throughout the year. Summary of Cost of Milk Production.^ The following is a summary of the expenses entering into the annual cost of production per cow on a 20-cow dairy farm : — 1 Detailed information is found in Extension Bulletin No. 2, New Hampshire Experiment Station, Durham, N. H. Cost of feed, $73 03 Labor, 32 33 Delivery, 7 18 Housing, 9 05 Depreciation on cow, 8 83 Bedding, 4 00 Bull, 3 79 Taxes and interest, 4 55 Ice, and coal and wood for heating, 2 17 Veterinary service and medicine, 87 Tools, utensils, salt, etc., 53 Cow Test Association, expenses per cow per year, . . . 1 40 Credit. INIanure, Calf, $147 73 Slo 00 3 00 18 00 $129 73 The total cost of keeping a cow under farm conditions as found in New Hampshire is $147.73; of this amount $73.03 represents the feed cost, while other expenses, or what may be termed "fixed charges," represent $74.70, or in this case one-half of the total cost. To oflFset the total cost of keeping a cow are the following factors: (1) the milk produced; (2) the manure; and (3) the calf. The value of the manure and calf is considered equivalent to $18 per year; subtracting $18 from $147.73 leaves $129.73, the balance to be covered by the milk produced. In other words, it costs $129.73 to produce 6,463.2 pounds of milk with an average of 3.76 per cent, fat, or 4-3 cents per quart. The fact that 103 cows found to be unprofitable were sold before the end of the year makes the average production higher and the cost of production lower than it would have been if these cows had been retained for the whole vear. Production Necessary for Profit. As the average price for milk in the different zones varies, the following table will make it possible to make comparisons 6 for prices between 40 and 24 cents per can, or 4.7 and 2.8 cents per quart : — Average Price per Quart. Amount. Number of Quarts. Number of Pounds of Milk. SO 047, $129 73 2,249.9 5,837.4 044, 129 73 2,392.2 6,143.4 042, 129 73 3,016.4 6,485.4 040, 129 73 3,198.6 6,867.0 037, 129 73 3,394.0 7,297.2 035, 129 73 3,620.0 7,783.2 032, 129 73 3,878.7 8,339.4 030, 129 73 4,176.8 8,980.2 028, 129 73 4,525.1 9,729.0 From the records obtained by the Lyndeboro Cow Test Association it seems clear that a mature cow to be profitable must produce 6,000 to 8,000 pounds of milk per year, de- pending upon the price obtained. Since this amount is con- siderably above the average production, a large number of the dairy cows in New Hampshire are apparently kept at a loss. Cost of Production under Average Conditions. The last census report shows the average production of milk per cow in Massachusetts to be 4,524 pounds; in New Hampshire, 3,775 pounds; in Vermont, 3,982 pounds. No doubt the actual production in the several States is higher than this. In the writer's opinion a more nearly correct estimate is between 5,000 and 5,500 pounds of milk. To get conditions which will represent average production for Massachusetts, New Hampshire and Vermont let us take the 39 cows of the 26 herds studied producing between 5,000 and 6,000 pounds with an average production of 5540 pounds of milk. The cost of production will be as follows : — All items of expense as given on page 5 will be the same, except the cost of feed, the cost of delivering the milk to the station and the Cow Test Association expenses. These three items represent a difference of $6.12 for the cost of the feed, $1.02 for the delivery and $1.40 for the Cow Test Association expenses, or a total of $8.54. Subtracting $8.54 from $129.73, the total average cost (see page 5) leaves $121.19 as the expense per cow per year. Milk to the amount of 5,540 pounds equals 2,462.2 quarts,^ or, in other words, it costs $121.19 to produce 2,462.2 quarts of milk, or 4.92 cents yer quart. At a selling price of milk ranging between 30 to 40 cents per can, or from 3.7 to 4.7 cents a quart, the farmer no doubt is selling milk below the actual cost of production. Comparison of Increase in Cost of Production with Increase in Price obtained by Farmer. The following table shows the increase in the cost of the most common feeds and the increase in price of milk to the farmer and the increase in price to the consumer in 1904 and 1912. Prices for hay have been obtained from reports of Boston Chamber of Commerce. Prices for grain have been obtained from a table compiled by J. B. Lindsey, Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station. The price of milk per quart to the farmer is the price paid in the middle zone by one of the largest milk contractors in Boston. The price paid by the consumer is the price paid for milk delivered in glass for family use in Boston. Article. Prices in 1904. Prices in 1912. Increase in Per Cent. Hay, grade No. 2, per ton. $13-S16 50 $21 50-S28 57.7-64.7 Linseed meal per ton, 25 17 39 30 56.2 Distillers' grain per ton. 24 31 39 94 35.5 Bran per ton. 20 87 27 96 34.4 Gluten feed per ton. 24 24 31 51 29.9 Corn meal per ton, . 23 68 30 20 27.5 Cottonseed meal per ton, 26 52 31 20 17.6 Milk: — Farmer's price per quart (cents). 3 24 3 90 20.4 Consumer's price per quart (cents), . 7 50 9 00 20,0 ' An average quart of milk weighs approximately 2.15 pounds. Owing, however, to shrink age in handling, the quart of milk when ready for sale will be the product of approximately 2.25 pounds. Therefore 2.25 is here used in reducing pounds to quarts. 8 Since the food cost per cow per year is one-half, and with high-producing cows more than one-half, of the total cost of keeping a cow, it can readily be seen- from the above table that, although the price of milk to-day is higher to the farmer, it is not in proportion to the increase in the cost of feed, and consequently the farmer in 1912 had less income from his cows than he had in 1904. Add to this the increased cost of cows, which in the same period probably amounted to 30 per cent., the increase in wages probably from 25 to 30 per cent., and the additional labor required due to more stringent regulations, and it can readily be seen that at the present time the farmer is pro- ducing milk below the cost of production even to a greater extent than in 1904. This does not mean that the farmer has actually paid out more money at the end of the year than he has received for dairy products sold, but it means he has accejjted an interest less than 5 per cent, on his investment in buildings, equipment and cows; he has accepted low wages for his oivn labor and the labor of his family, and has marketed his crops fed to the cotvs at less than market prices. These are the main factors which have made it possible for him to produce milk at such an apparent loss. No manufactured article will for any length of time be sold below the cost of manufacture. The dairy farmer cannot continue to produce milk at a cost of 4.92 cents per quart and sell it for about 4 cents per quart. Unless the price is increased to the farmer the production of milk neces- sarily will decrease. A shortage of milk means a higher price for milk to the consumer. Beef and eggs have almost doubled in price in the last ten years, and the consumer is still buying both. An increase in price of only 1 cent per quart to the farmer would encourage the dairy farmer to continue to produce milk, which at this time is of extreme importance to the future development of the dairy business. The 1-cent in- crease to the consumer which would necessarily follow would tend to prevent a threatening shortage of milk in Boston and prevent the price of milk soaring to the same relative high level as eggs and beef. ©lie Commontnealtl) of iltassacliueetts. STATE BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE. CIRCULAR No. 9 December, 1914. SECOND EDITION. Contribution from the Dairy Bureau, P. M. Harwood, General Agent. WHAT IT COSTS TO PEODUCE MILK IN NEW ENGLAND. By p. M. harwood. With Quotations from Special Articles by Mr. Elmer D. Howe, Prof. John M. Trueman, Prof. Fred Rasmussen, and Bulletin by Dr. J. B. Lindsey. BOSTON : WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 32 DERNE STREET. 1914. Approved by The State Board of Publication. WHAT IT COSTS TO PRODUCE MILK IN NEW ENGLAND.^ BY P. M. HARWOOD. It costs around 5 cents and upward to produce a quart of market milk. It costs 6 cents and upward, frequently 8 cents, to pro- duce a quart of milk of superior quality and cleanliness.^ It costs 10 to 12 cents and upward to produce a quart of certified milk. Market milk brought in by railroad cannot be sold at retail in large cities under the present system of handling, and return 5 cents to the producer and a fair profit to the dealer, for less than 10 cents per quart. Milk of superior quality and cleanliness, usually a near-by product, cannot be profitably sold at retail for less than 10 to 12 cents per quart, according to the locality and condi- tions. Certified milk cannot be retailed for less than 15 to 20 cents per quart and return cost to the producer with a fair margin for the distributor. Retailing milk is a business by itself, whether done by the milk producer or by another. The amount of certified milk sold in Massachusetts — the product of 10 to 12 dairies — is very small. The amount of milk of superior quality and cleanliness, while considerably larger than that of certified milk, is small when compared with general market milk. There were shipped into Boston by rail 114,433,976 quarts of milk in 1906 and 104,099,234 quarts in 1912, making a decrease of 10,334,742 quarts in six years. This, in the face 1 The exact coat of milk production ia not the same for any two dairymen; neither is it the same from time to time with any one dairyman. Variations in milk flow, available foods, accidental losses, hired help, and many other things enter into the computation. Therefore the cost of producing a quart of milk can be stated only in general terms. * This includes so-called "inspected milk." of an increasing population, indicates decreased consump- tion of fluid milk per capita, — poor economy. There were assessed 181,818 milch cows in 1906 and 151,276 milch cows in 1913, making a decrease of 30,540 in seven years, indicating an unprofitable industry. The permanent prosperity of a nation depends upon a prosperous agriculture; a prosperous agriculture in turn de- pends in large degree upon prosperous dairying. Milk is a cheap food at 12 cents per quart. See Circular No. 1, "Food Value of Milk." Until some other available animal product of equal nutri- tive value, ratio and digestibility, purchasable for the same or less money, is discovered, no consumer in a large city can justly complain of 10 cents per quart as a retail price for market milk. The milk brought into Boston by railroad in 1912 returned to the producer 3.818 ^ cents per quart. This milk cost the farmer who produced it approximately 5 cents per quart. Inability to obtain cost price for milk is the principal cause of so many milk producers going out of business. Consumers should be willing to help in the correction of this evil, especially as they will be the ones to suffer most in the end on account of a milk shortage. This can be done by using more milk; insisting upon clean milk and paying a fair price for it; taking proper care of milk in the home; and by co-operation in procuring just freight rates and economical distribution. Milk should be sold on its merits both as regards milk solids and cleanliness. The value of dairy inspection is often overestimated, — that of milk inspection never. Penalization accomplishes little; education and encourage- ment much. Clean milk can be obtained surely and permanently only when CLEANLINESS IS PAID FOR. Raise the price of milk to the producer ONE CENT PER QUART, and the greatest single step in solving the problem will have been taken. ' United States Department of Agriculture figures. Elmer D. Howe, graduate and trustee of the Massachu- setts Agricultural College, and practical dairyman of Marl- borough, Massachusetts, says: — Our experiment stations agree that the average cow in milk needs, for economical production, 25 pounds of hay or its equivalent in silage, roots, etc., plus 8 pounds of grain. This will make the food cost per day (with hay at $20 per ton and grain at $30 per ton), 37 cents per cow. For 40 cows, food cost per day equals, . . . . . . $14 80 A building for housing stock and hay will average to cost $100 per cow; interest on $4,000 at 5 per cent equals per day, ... 60 Depreciation of building at 5 per cent per year equals per day, . 60 Depreciation of cows and loss in replacing equals per day (low esti- mate), ........... 75 Taxes on building and cows (not on land) per day, ... 30 Milking 40 cows at 20 cents per hour equals per day, . . . 1 60 Grooming 40 cows equals per day, ...... 40 Cleaning stables and feeding per day, ...... 60 Wear and tear of small tools, currycombs, brooms, etc., including service of bull, cost of city water, veterinary fees, ice, light, etc., . 15 $19 80 Against this we have a credit of $2.50 per day for manure and 30 cents per day for calves born during the year (calves at $3 each at birth) , 2 80 Net cost for 40 cows per day, ...... $17 00 For more than fifteen years we have weighed every cow's milk both morning and night and our records show that our cows (and we keep none that give less than 5,000 pounds per year) average just about 7 quarts per day. Forty cows, then, will average to produce 280 quarts of milk per day at an average daily cost of $17, or a trifle over 6 cents per quart. By substituting 30 pounds of ensilage for 15 pounds of hay in the daily ration of each cow we are able to cut the cost to about 5 cents per quart, but the closest scrutiny will not reveal any other item where a saving can be made. That Mr. Howe's figures are not too high is obvious when we consider that he has made no account of waste in han- dling, superintendence or profits beyond interest at 5 per cent. Prof. John M. Trueman, formerly of the Connecticut Agricultural College, Storrs, Connecticut, now of the Agri- cultural College, Truro, Nova Scotia, in relation to the produc- tion of milk at the Connecticut Agricultural College says : — Cost of Feeding, i Silage, 4 tons at $4, $16 00 Hay, 1^ tons at $1,6 24 00 Grain, 1} tons at $30 37 50 Pasture, four months, ......... 8 00 Total $85 50 In years when pasture is short, and grain and silage or green fodder must be fed all summer, the cost per year will frequently go up as high as $100. The total cost of keeping each cow per year, therefore, is as follows : — Feed Bedding, ..... Keep of bull (for herd of 25 cows) , Taxes on cow and barn, Interest on money invested in cows. Barn rent, ..... Insurance, ..... Depreciation of cow, . Light, medicine, etc., . Labor, ..... Total, $85 00 5 00 3 00 1 25 3 75 3 00 40 13 00 2 00 33 60 $150 00 The cows thus fed and cared for included Jerseys, Guernseys, Ayershires and Holsteins. Some were very good producers, others only fair. The average for the whole lot for the five years was 6,378 pounds per cow, which on the basis of 2j ^ pounds to the quart is equal to 2,834 quarts. Although this is not a heavy yield, it is a good aver- age for a herd of 25 cows made up of several breeds. It requires extra skill and good management to increase the yield beyond this point. When it is remembered that the average yearly production for the New England States is less than 2,200 quarts per cow, it will seem that a herd making over 2,834 is doing fairly well. It is useless there- fore, to hope to decrease the cost of milk by much further increase in the yearly production of the cows. Any material increase over 3,000 quarts in a large herd comes high from the necessary weeding out of ordinary producers and the small numbers of high producers to be found. The cow should be credited with her calves and with the manure she makes. We cannot allow more than $5 per year for calves, nor more than $10 per year for manure in the barnyard. We can, there- fore, credit the cow with $15 and subtract that amount from the $150 * These figures represent the average cost of five years, 1907-11, and are somewhat too low for 1913. 2 The theoretical weight of a quart of milk is 2.15 pounds. Considering, however, waste which necessarily occurs in handling, 2.25 pounds more nearly represents what could be actually sold. Hence 2.25 is used in reducing pounds to quarts. that it cost to keep her. This leaves $135 to be balanced by 2,834 quarts of milk, which would require the milk to be sold at the farmer's door for practically 4.75 cents per quart. This amount simply pays for the actual cost of the investment and labor put on the milk. It allows nothing for the farmer's skill as manager, nor for the extra hours he must work planning for the improvement of his herd and the running of the business, and nothing for profits. He has simply received 5 per cent on his investment and common laborer's wages. If he is going to improve his farm and build up a permanent agri- culture in an advancing rural community, and continue in business, he will require 5.75 cents or more per quart to pay the bill. Fred Rasmussen, Professor of Dairying, New Hampshire Agricultural College, Durham, New Hampshire, says: — The last census report shows the average production of milk per cow in Massachusetts to be 4,524 pounds, in New Hampshire 3,775 pounds, in Vermont 3,982 pounds. No doubt the actual production in the several States is higher than this. In the writer's opinion a more nearly correct estimate is between 5,000 pounds and 5,500 pounds of milk. To get conditions which will represent average production for Mas- sachusetts, New Hampshire and Vermont let us take the 39 cows, of the 26 herds ^ studied, producing between 5,500 and 6,000 pounds with an average production of 5,540 pounds of milk. The Cost of Production. Cost of feed, ' Labor, Delivery, . Htjusing, Depreciation of cow. Bedding, Bull, . Taxes and interest, Ice, coal and wood for heating. Veterinary service, and mec icine. Tools, utensils, salt, etc., • Credit: — Manure, Calf , ^ . . $66 91 32 33 6 16 9 05 8 83 4 00 3 79 4 55 2 17 87 53 $15 00 3 00 $139 19 18 00 Total, $121 19 1 See Circular No. 8 of this series; also Bulletin No. 2, New Hampshire College and Experi- ment Station. 2 It costs less to feed these" average " cows than it does higher producers, which accounts for the difference in figures here given from those used in Circular No. 8. 8 Five thousand five hundred and forty pounds of milk equals 2,462 quarts, or, in other words, it costs 1121.19 to produce 2,462 quarts of milk, or J!i..92 cents per quart. At a seUing price of milk ranging between 30 to 40 cents per can, or 3.7 to 4.7 cents a quart, the farmer, no doubt, is selling milk below the actual cost of production. Comparison of Increase in Cost of Production with Increase IN Price obtained by Farmer. The following table shows the increase in the cost of the most common feeds, the increase in price of milk to the farmer and the increase in price to the consumer, 1904 and 1912. Prices for hay have been obtained from reports of the Boston Chamber of Commerce. Prices for grain have been obtained from a table compiled by J. B. Lindsey, Massachusetts Agricultural Experi- ment Station. The price of milk per quart to the farmer is the price paid in the middle zone by one of the largest milk contractors in Boston, The price paid by the consumer is the price paid for milk delivered in glass for family use in Boston. d ^, d ^ Milk. o Q H H a o t. H-^ g .s S3 H 13 CD a.-i •^^ Article. Hay, Grade No. 2, per Ton. p. 1 O 2 1 a i 1 .a a I. v 'a- 0) S a a a m si if a .Z{r> 2 s S ■SH ^e Rust (Gymnosporangium maceopus Lk.). This species of fungus is believed to be the principal cause of the apple rust in our section, one of the stages being found on the pear and quince. It is also believed to produce the so-called cedar apple on out common pasture juniper (Juni- perus virginiana) . Its appearance during the past few years has seemed to coincide with a general epidemic of rust throughout the country, and although it had been unusually rare on apples for many years in Massachusetts up to the past three or four years, since then it has often been found on foliage, and sometimes on the fruit. It is more common on neglected trees than in a scientifically managed orchard. All rusts are difficult to control by spraying, but besides the general treatment which apple trees should receive each year, sanitary methods of culture should be practiced. Apple Scab (Venturta Pomi (Fr.) Wint,). A disease known as apple scab has been present in Mas- sachusetts for many years, afi:'ecting both the leaves and fruit and occasionally the twigs of several varieties of apple trees, — in this Stale, more particularly the light-colored varieties. Fortunately, the disease seldom assumes a severe form here. It is more commonly found on the foliage than on the fruit, especially in unsprayed, neglected orchards. It is character- i~ bfj ^1 be O o 7. B \^- I/? PEAR BLIGHT CANKER Fig. 0. — Pear bliyiht cauker. 9 ized on both the leaves and fruit by dai-k-colored or olivaceous spots, giving, as the name indicates, a scabby appearance to the frnit and leaves. Treatment with lime and sulphur in the spring, in the dor- mant period, according to our observations, holds the fungus in check. Other fungicides also control it. Pink Mold or Pink Rot (Cephalothecium roseum Cda.). Since 1902 a pink mold has been known to be associated with apple scab, although it has caused little or no trouble in this region. As the name implies, it is of a pinkish color and is confined to the scabby spots on the fruit, developing over the surface of the scab. Although the fungus has been present for some time in this region on dead wood, etc., it was supposed to be perfectly harmless until 1902, when it was discovered as an accompaniment of the scab. It causes much more injury elsewhere than here, and is more severe in moist seasons. Any treatment which will control the scab is applicable to this mold. Leaf Blight (Sphteropsis Malorum Pk.). It is generally believed at the present time, from the re- sults of experiments, that the above-named fungus is the cause of the so-called leaf spots of the apple, although they were formerly attributed to other fungi, known as Phyllos- ticta Pyrina Sacc. and P. limitata Pk. These two species of Phyllosticta are now considered merely accompaniments of the leaf spot, occurring only in the later stages of the disease. The foliage of most neglected apple trees develops these spots, and the disease is sometimes severe enough to affect the gi'owth of the tree. The fungi associated with the leaf spots, however, are easily controlled by spraying with lime and sulphur in the spring before the buds open, and therefore are of minor importance in well-cared-for orchards. Many orchards go through the season without a spot as a result of spraying with lime and sulphur in the dormant period of the tree. 10 Sooty Blotch or Fly Speck (Phyllachora pomigena (ScHw.) Sacc). A fungous growth known as sooty blotch or fly speck has been common for many years, occurring on the surface of apples. With us it affects Greenings more commonly, some- times discoloring the fruit to quite an extent. It was for- merly believed that there were two species of fungi, — one causing the blotch, the other fly speck, — but it is now gen- erally recognized that one species of fungus causes both. Both of these forms occur on the surface of the fruit and do not penetrate the cuticle, and they can easily be removed by washing. Sooty blotch forms large, irregular, olive-brown areas on the fruit, while fly speck occurs as minute dark-colored dots scattered over the surface. The trouble appears to be more abundant in the shade and where there is considerable mois- ture. The fungus does not injure the fruit other than to aftect its market value, and it ^ can usually be controlled by spraying late in the season with Bordeaux mixture. Apple Blight^ Fire Blight, Twig Bligift,, etc. (Bacil- lus amylovorus (Burr.) DeToni.). This blight has been common for many years on apples, pears and quinces, and is often severe in some jDarts of the United States. It is caused by a minute organism (bacil- lus), and it is generally recogTiized that infection takes place at the period of pollination. The blight is characterized by a blackening and shriveling of parts of the twigs or branches, and the leaves droop and turn brown, but do not fall. The organisms under certain conditions multiply very rapidly in the nectaries of the flower, and are readily transferred to other flowers bv bees. From the nectaries the bacteria e'ain entrance to the tissues of the small branches, causing them to collapse. In most cases direct infection probably occurs by means of insects, abrasions, etc. The blight organism also occasionally causes what is termed blight canker. The 11 blight is not so serious in our section on the apple as on the pear and quince. The principal methods of control consist in pruning out the infected limbs, at least a few inches below the affected region. Fall and winter pruning is considered better than summer pruning, since the affected parts may be more readily found, whereas in summer the disease may be spreading rapidly and all of it may not be eradicated. In all cases of pruning, antiseptic methods should be employed, such as sterilizing with formalin or some other substance the tools used in pruning, or treating the cut surfaces with creosote, etc. PowDEiJY Mildew (Erysiphe Polygoni DC). This mildew is seldom found on apples in this section. It occurs on nursery stock in some regions, where it causes more or less injury in the form of a mildew effect on the upper surface of the leaf. Ckown Gall. • Crown gall (Fig. T) has caused vexation and worry to many fruit growers for the past few years, although the amount of actual injury done is somewhat problematical. For a few years considerable infected apple stock came into our State from outside, but for the past four or five years orchardists have been more particular about their material, and cleaner stock has been obtainable. There are only a few instances where trees have been so severely affected as to die, but one never knows when complications may set in and result in loss. There are many forms of galls affecting plants, but prac- tically all have a similar distorting effect on the tissue, which may seriously interfere with the vital processes of the plant. Eel worm galls, which are similar in appearance to those found on the apple tree roots, cause little injury to tomatoes and cucumbers, but are very injurious to roses, violets and melons, and in the south, various other crops, including some trees, are affected. There is much difference of opinion as to the effect of crown 12 gall on apple trees, which appears to be more injurious in the warmer parts of the country. Nevertheless, no orchardist should accept material affected by this disease. While the specific bacterial organism has been isolated, and many cross inoculations made, there is yet much to be learned concerning the relation of a particular type of gall to another. Extensive investigations made by Smith and Townsend seem to indicate that the organisms causing crown gall on the raspberry and apple are similar, yet our raspberry has had galls for years, while apple trees have been free from them until comparatively recently. Crown gall was not observed here until certain infected stock was obtained from outside the State. Where infected stock has been planted and cultivated, the disease spreads from one field to another, and seedlings raised on soil which was formerly free from the organism become infected. It is possible that much of our infected stock already planted will pull through and develop into bearing trees ; but it is a wise precaution to se- cure clean trees when planting. Crown gall, as its name implies, is characterized by a gall formation near the crown, which causes a distortion of the tissue, and in very severe cases it interferes with the function of the plant to such an extent that death results. Hairy root (Fig. 8), which is characterized by the ab- normal production of roots, giving a hairy effect, appears to be a similar trouble, although it is much less common with us. Baldwin Spot ok Fruit Pit. This spot, which has been known by several names, has been present in Massachusetts since 1898 at least, and has been confined, to our knowledge, to the Baldwin in this sec- tion. It is characterized by small spots or indentations on the surface of the fruit, ranging from 2 to 4 millimeters or more in diameter, which are scarcely perceptible to one not acquainted with the disease. The spots are usually so in- significant that expert judges of fruit have been known to place promium,s at fruit shows on apples badly affected with this trouble. In cutting open an affected fruit, numerous ■J 13 brown areas may be seen extending quite deeply into the tis- sue, which give it a bitter taste. The cause of this spot is not known. Some years ago we tried to associate it with meteorological conditions, and in- terviewed many fruit growers in regard to its appearance in different seasons, but we were unable to establish any definite relationship, although the spot seemed to be more common after extremely dry periods. The disease is apparently of a functional nature, since spraying has no effect on it. Baldwin Fruit Spot (Cylindrospokium Pomi Brooks). This disease (Fig. 9) is characterized by spots very similar in many ways to those caused by the Baldwin spot or fruit pit, and has only been observed on apples in this State for three or four years. Only recently an experienced fruit grower, in describing this spot before a number of orchard specialists, found none of his audience familiar with it. The spots are larger and more distinct, and the indentation is usually lacking, so that as a rule there is little excuse for confusing it with the old Baldwin spot. It attacks several varieties of apples, differing in this respect from the Baldwin spot previously noted. This disease is caused by a fungiis (Cyiindrospoi'ium Pomi Brooks) and is much more severe here than the Baldwin spot, but like this it extends below the surface and turns the tissue a reddish brown. According to Dr. Brooks of the IN^ew Hampshire station, who has given it much attention, it first appears about the middle of August. The spots develop about two weeks before harvesting, during periods -of dampness. The fungus gains entrance to the fruit in July or early August, and is said to be controlled by spraying with Bordeaux mixture, applications being made in June or early in July. From the general appearance of this spot one might surmise that it was the old Baldwin spot at- tacked by a fungus which has modified its appearance some- what, although it occurs, as has been said, on a much larger number of varieties. An inspection for the last three years of some of the best orchards in the State has revealed only a few affected apples 14 on each tree, although on individual trees in some orchards we have seen 50 per cent, of the apples diseased, and in many cases no spotting at all was seen. The trees vv^hich were so badly affected were old ones which had recently been culti- vated and fertilized, and the manager attributed the out- break to the application of nitrogenous fertilizers and the recent renovation of the orchard. Another successful orchard manager gave damp periods following drought as the cause. For five years we have been having severe droughts in the summer, followed by rains in the fall, and this spot has made its appearance during this period. Winterkilling. Winterkilling often occurs below the surface of the ground as well as above. During the cold winter of 1903-04 many apple trees were seriously injured, both above and below, in some States whole orchards being wiped out. Such injury is not always associated with cold weather, much depending on the condition of the tissue befol-e the tree enters the winter. The causes underlying winter injury are severe cold, when the frost penetrates to great depths; sudden and severe cold following prolonged warm periods in the fall; general low vitality, caused by lack of food; insect or fungous attacks; lack of moisture and organic matter in the soil ; lack of snow covering; location in exposed situations, etc. Any condition which favors a soft growth and immaturity of the wood, whether from too much moisture or too heavy manuring and fertilizing, tends to produce winterkilling, as does also absence of sufficient sunlight. Trees gTowing where they re- ceive the overflow from cesspools, etc., have been known to winterkill when others near by would not. Piling dirt three or four inches high around the base of young trees in winter often causes injury similar to winterkilling in nature, and tarred paper has the same effect. Barnyard manure used as a mulching helps to prevent injury from winterkilling, and even sod is a great pro- tection. Fig. 9— Showing Baldwin fruit spot (r,,liii(iro. sjwriiiiii) on apple. 15 Frost Cracks. Frost cracks are sometimes found disfiguring and injuring fruit trees by splitting the bark and wood of the limbs. In some cases they open only one-half inch or so, while in severe cases they may be three or four inches wide. They occur usually during sudden reductions in winter tempera- ture. Extreme cold has a similar effect on the tissue to dry- ing or shrinking, by causing a withdrawal of water from the cell walls, thus rupturing the tissue, and while the cracks sometimes heal over, they more often do not. They open wide in winter, and their opening and closing are affected by various meteorological conditions. Frost cracks are very difficult to treat, but we have found that the best way to handle them is to paint the inner surfaces of the cracks with coal tar or paint in winter when they open up. Then in spring or summer, when the cracks close, staples of one-half or five-eighth inch iron, with prongs three or four inches long and pointed ends, may be driven into the trees after boring a hole with an auger. The staples should be painted and the bark cut away underneath, so that they may be driven in flush with the wood, when they will heal over and disappear. Frost Blisters. Occasionally during the past ten years we have observed a spotting on apple leaves caused by injury from spring frosts, and during the summer of 1902 considerable defoliation re- sulted, as much as 30 per cent, of the leaves falling from certain trees in July and August. The trouble was in gen- eral confined to the sections where the spring frost was most severe. This frost injury occurs just as the leaves are unfolding, the frost rupturing the tender epidermal cells on the under side of the leaves. As the leaves develop, conspicuous, ir- regular spots may be found on the upper surface, corre- sponding in a general way to the ruptured areas on the under 16 side of the leaves. The heavy loss of water from the leaves following this injury causes them to deteriorate and fall off in large quantities. Treating Cavities. ISTo tree is so often found with cavities as the apple, and perhaps none will thrive with so much decay of the heart- wood, etc., as this species. The principal cause of the decay is poor pruning and lack of antiseptic treatment of wounds. When long stubs are left after pruning, the decay works into the heartwood and a cavity results. These long stubs never heal over, since the healing surface is not in direct communi- cation with the How of plastic substances. Large wounds, if not painted, will decay even if the branches are cut close. Apple trees will live and thrive for many years, even when the heartwood of the trunk is completely destroyed, since the sapwood appears to be immune to most of the organisms causing decay. Modern tree surgery methods, however, can be used to good advantage on^ apple trees. A cavity should first have a thorough cleaning, followed by treatment with creosote, and should then either be filled with cement, or the orifice of the cavity tinned over or covered with some other suitable material. Effects of Drought. It often happens that in a wet spring trees will produce more foliage than they can support throughout the summer, especially if a severe drought occurs, resulting in a prema- ture loss of foliage. The ideal moisture conditions for fruit trees consist in having a plentiful supply of moisture during the growth and early ripening of the fruit, with a bright and relatively dry period, characteristic of Indian summer, for the maturity. If there is too little moisture in summer the fruit is likely to be small ; on the other hand, a dry summer followed by heavy fall rains affects the quality of the fruit and the ripening of the tissue, and is conducive to winterkill- ing. As already noted, it may also have some effect on the occurrence of the Baldwin spot. 17 Sun Scald. This is a common type of injury, especially to the apple, pear, peach and plum, and is more likely to affect nonripened wood. It is much more common on neglected apple trees, and a few years ago was quite prevalent in the State, particu- larly on the lower branches, which were secluded from the light. Sun scald is characterized by a sunken, blackened appearance of the bark. Anything which prevents the wood from ripening makes the tree more susceptible to this trouble, and canker often follows it. A similar trouble is known as collar rot, to which certain varieties of apples are particularly susceptible. This at- tacks the base of the tree, and is characterized by the death and abnormal appearance of the outer bark. Storage Bukns. A storage burn of the apple which causes discolored spots, and which is undoubtedlv a climatic trouble, occurs oc- casionally. This was unusually common during the fall of 1912, and one large shipment of Massachusetts apples to Europe was ruined in transit by the burn. There are undoubtedly a number of causes responsible for storage burns, such as lack of light, too much soil moisture, etc., when the fruit is ripening, also warm periods such as were common during the past fall and winter (1912-13). Speaying Injury. Most of the spray injuries in our region result from unfavorable climatic conditions preceding or during the time of spraying, although some are due to the unusual sus- ceptibility of certain varieties, and others to improperly prepared spray material. Peach and plum trees, for ex- ample, are injured by customary strengths of the Bordeaux mixture, and we have seen plum trees defoliated by spraying with arsenate of lead. It is possible to cause injury with almost any insecticide or fungicide under certain conditions, 18 and this is also true of fumigation. Many of our oil sprays have been known to injure apple and even shade trees when in the dormant condition, and judgment must be used in applying them. Even kerosene can sometimes be sprayed on certain plants without injury, although at other times it may kill the plant. Kerosene used directly or diluted with water is dangerous to many trees, as are various other oils. Bordeaux mixture, even when properly prepared, causes burning to fruit trees under certain conditions (Fig. 10). In the south such injuries are more common than with us, but even here russeting of the fruit sometimes occurs from Bor- deaux, as well as burning of the foliage. Meteorological con- ditions are responsible for some of the injury from spraying; for instance, spraying during cloudy periods, when the foliage and wood are not properly matured ; and spraying mixtures left on the foliage in solution for a long or short period cause injury. Therefore, trees sprayed in the sun- shine, when the solution quickly dries on the foliage, are less likely to burn. There are also many other factors which enter into burning of the foliage and russeting of the fruit, such as soil moisture. Sunlight as a Factor tn Apple Orchards. No factor has a more important bearing on vegetation than sunlight. Through its action on foliage, plants obtain most of their food from the air, and tissue is rendered less sus- ceptible to disease, since the physiological effect is to inhibit growth and render tissue more resistant. Aside from the necessity of pruning apple trees to make them low headed to facilitate picking the fruit, pruning is very important from the disease standpoint. Proper pruning and thinning- give light a chance to reach all the branches, fruit and foliage, and thus modify the tissue and make it more resist- ant. Light is also important in preventing sun scald, winter- killing and other troubles. A few years ago sun scald was quite common on neglected apple trees in our State. The most notable feature connected with the injury was the fact that it was confined to the shaded Fig. 10. — Bordeaux injury on apjile. 19 limbs and branches where the light was more or less excluded, and was very rare on thinned trees. On the other hand, too intense' light may cause injury to tender growths when shaded, as when young trees are suddenly stripped of their foliage by insects, or where too rapid growth results from severe pruning, followed by cultivation and fertilization. Sun scald is occasionally found on the larger limbs of trees which have been more or less shaded, and therefore receive too much light from severe pruning. A well-thinned tree is likely to be less alfected by different diseases, and the danger from burning of various kinds is lessened. Undoubtedly much of the spraying injury to fruit and foliage is associated with lack of light and other climatic fac- tors, and the injury from fumigation has a relation to light intensity and moisture. There is much evidence to show that the practice of pruning apple trees is of much importance in controlling certain troubles. u> ®l)c tfommonrciealtf) of iVia55ac\)\m\\e>A \ t^^ STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. FEB1G19H I \i\ {'■' CIRCULAR No. 13. January, 1914. Contribution from the Dairy Bureau, P. M. Harwood, General Agent. CLEAN MILK CONTEST. 1913. By p. M. harwood, In Charge of Contest. BOSTON: WEIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 32 DERNE STREET. 1914. CIRCULARS PUBLISHED BY THE MASSACHUSETTS STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. 1. "Food Value of Milk," by Mr. P. M. Harwood. Third edition, revised April, 1913. 2. "Insecticides, Fungicides, and Directions for their Use," by Dr. H. T. Fernald, 1913. 3. "Balanced Rations for Dairy Stock," by Dr. J. B. Lindsey, 1913. 4. "Apple Packing for Massachusetts Growers," by Mr. A. R. Jenks, Januarj^, 1914. 5. "Pork Making for Massachusetts Farmers, " by Dr. G. M. Twitch- ell, July, 1913. 6. "Three Common Scale Insects," by Dr. H. T. Fernald, August, 1913. 7. "The Dairy Industry in Denmark," edited by Mr. P. M. Har- wood, November, 1913. 8. "Cost of Milk Production," by Prof. Fred Rasmus.sen, December, 1913. 9. "What it costs to produce Milk in New England," by Mr. P. M. Harwood, December, 1913. 10. "Protection of Massachusetts Dairies from Flies," by Mr. P. M. Harwood, November, 1913. 11. "Some Bacteriological Aspects of Clean Milk Inspection," by Dr. C. E. Marshall, December, 1913. 12. "Apple Diseases," by Dr. G. E. Stone, January, 1914. Approved by the State Board of Publication. REPORT OF CLEAN MILK CONTEST, 1913. BY P. M. HARWOOD. Chapter 96 of the Acts and Resolves of the Massachusetts Legislature, 1913, entitled, " Resolve to provide for the encouragement of dairying and the production of milk and dairy products of superior quality," gave to the State Board of Agriculture the sum of $15,000, of which not over S5,000 could be expended in any one year. By vote of the Board, the carrying out of the provisions of this resolve was given to its Dairy Bureau. Accordingly, the Bureau took up the work and laid out a campaign along lines which, so far as we know, are practically new. The following was issued in the month of August : — Notice to Massachusetts Dairymen. The Commonwealth of Massachusetts has given into the hands of the State Board of Agriculture a sum not exceeding $5,000 annually for tliree years, to be expended in the encouragement of practical dairj^- ing and the production of milk and dairy products of superior quality and cleanliness. This sum is only one-fifth of the amount originally asked for, and on that account only a portion of the work originally intended can be done. This year a beginning is made by offering prizes sufficiently liberal to induce a spirited contest in cleanly methods, with a ^dew of encouraging the habit of keeping dirt and flies out of milk and other dairy products. A popular bulletin entitled, " Cost of a quart of milk," will be issued if funds permit. Next year other phases of the question may be taken up. The State Board of Agriculture, through its Dairy Bureau, offers $2,550 in cash prizes for clean miUc. For convenience the State will be divided into two sections, viz., eastern and western. The eastern section comprises the counties of Essex, Middlesex, Suffolk, Norfolk, Bristol, Plymouth, Barnstable, Dukes and Nantucket; and the western section, the counties of Worcester, Franklin, Hampden, Hampshire and Berkshire. Dairies located in the eastern section will be visited during the month of September, and those in the western section during the month of October, by duly authorized experts, and samples of hand-drawn, un- strained, mixed milk taken and tested for cleanliness. The results of the tests in the eastern section may be shown in con- nection with the dairy exliibit of the Massachusetts Dairymen's Asso- ciation to be held at the Brockton Fair, September 30 to October 3, inclusive. The results of the tests in the western section will be shown at the exhibition of the Massachusetts Dairymen's Association, to be held in connection with the public winter meeting of the State Board of Agriculture at Springfield, December 2, 3 and 4. The prizes offered in each section are as follows : — First prize, Second prize, Third prize. Fourth prize, Fifth prize, Sixth prize, Seventh prize, Eighth prize. Ninth prize. Tenth prize, $100 00 95 00 90 00 85 00 80 00 75 00 70 00 65 00 60 00 55 00 Eleventh prize, Twelfth prize. Thirteenth prize, . Fourteenth prize, Fifteenth prize, Sixteenth prize, Seventeenth prize, Eighteenth prize, . Nineteenth prize, Twentieth prize, . $50 00 45 00 40 00 35 00 30 00 25 00 20 00 15 00 10 00 5 00 There will also be awarded sweepstakes prizes for the entire State, as follows : — First prize. Second prize, Third prize. $200 00 150 00 100 00 Four hundred and fifty dollars in cash prizes are also offered for dairies best protected from flies, ^ as follows : — First prize, . $100 00 Fourth prize. . $70 00 Second prize, . 90 00 Fifth prize, . . 60 00 Third prize. . 80 00 Sixth prize, . . 50 00 This latter contest is open to all Massachusetts dairies of five cows or more, whose owners are practical farmers superintending their own dairies. Separate entries required. Entries close August 30. Entry blanks may be obtained of the State Board of Agriculture, 136 State House, Boston, Mass. Rules for Clean Milk Contest. 1. These prizes are open for contest only to dairies of five or more cows in this Commonwealth, whose owners are practical farmers su- perintending their own dairies. 1 For report of this contest see Circular No. 10. 2. All entries for prizes in the eastern section, comprising Essex, Middlesex, Suffolk, Norfolk, Bristol, Plymouth, Barnstable, Dukes and Nantucket counties, must be made on or before Aug. 30, 1913. Those in the western section, comprising Worcester, Franklin, Hampshire, Hampden and Berkshire counties, must be made on or before Sept. 30, 1913. 3. Dairies will be visited at times most convenient for the agents. Owners shall be notified in ample time, and must not commence milk- ing until after the agent arrives. One visit to each dairy will be made by the agent for the purpose of taking the milk sample, and, if through fault of the contestant the agent is not able to obtain such sample at the time of his visit, said contestant shall thereby forfeit all claims in this contest. 4. A sample from the hand-drawn, unstrained, mixed milk from five or more cows will be taken and tested for sediment. 5. The dairies must be open for full and complete inspection, and questions asked by the agents must be fully answered. 6. Each dairy shall be numbered by the agent, and that number, known only to him, shall be written upon the paper holding the sedi- ment sample and sealed in a suitable receptacle. The same number shall be written upon a card, containing the name of the owner of the dairy, and sealed in an envelope. These cards and samples shall be delivered to the general agent of the Dairy Bureau of the State Board of Agriculture. The envelope, containing the name of the owner, shall not be opened until after the awards have been made. 7. The prizes will be awarded by competent experts, and the de- cision of these judges shall be final. 8. No prize shall be allowed for milk that is not meritoriously clean. 9. In case of ties, prizes shall be equally divided. 10. Announcement of the prizes awarded in the eastern section may be made at the Brockton Fair, September 30. Announcement of those in the western section, and of the sweepstakes prizes for the State, will be made at the public winter meeting of the State Board of Agriculture, in Springfield, December 2. Rules for Protection from Flies Contest. In awarding prizes in this contest the following points will be empha- sized : — Means adopted to prevent fly breeding, including the disposal and treatment of manure, refuse, etc. Thoroughness in screening. Best methods of trapping. General effectiveness of the whole scheme. 1. (Rule 1 as printed above.) 2. All entries must be made on or before Sept. 1, 1913. 3. (Rule 5 as printed above.) 4. (Rule 7 as printed above.) 5. No prizes shall be awarded unless, in the opinion of the judges, they are fully merited. 6. (Rule 9 as printed above.) 7. Announcement of awards will be made on or before Dec. 2, 1913. Boston, Mass., August, 1913. In response to the above notice, 37 eligible contestants entered the clean milk contest in the eastern section, and 114 in the western section. Eighteen contestants entered the protection from flies contest. In the clean milk contest an agent was sent to each farm who obtained from the owner replies to a list of ques- tions with which he was provided, and who took photo- graphs, both interior and exterior, of the stables, etc. The milk of five cows, drawn in the presence of the agent, was thoroughly mixed by means of stirring with a long-handled dipper, after which one pint of milk was dipped out and run through a sediment tester. The absorbent cotton in the bottom of this tester was then removed and attached to a small piece of round filter paper and placed in a box which contained a number. This box was then sealed. The agent, provided w4th a card bearing the contestant's name, then wrote the number of the box upon the card and sealed the same in an envelope. Both box and card were afterwards turned over to the general agent of the Dairy Bureau in whose possession they remained sealed until handed to the judge. Prof. Samuel C. Prescott of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, who placed the entire 37 contestants in the eastern section, and the first 50 in the western section, in their proper order. After the prizes had been awarded the envelopes were opened and it was then ascertained who had won them. It should be here stated that nearly all the cottons showed well for unstrained milk, and the only reason why some failed was not because of very dirty cottons but simply because some one else had a slightly cleaner one. In many cases a magni- fying glass was necessary to determine the difference. A brief description of the methods of the several success- ful contestants is as follows : — Report of Clean INIilk Contest, Eastern Section, 1913. The winner of the first prize in the eastern section, State Board of Agriculture clean milk contest, 1913, was Mr. Edmund B. Hutchins of Stoughton. Mr. Hutchins owns a farm of 30 acres and keeps 14 cows. He has lived on his present farm since 1909. In July, 1912, his barn was burned. He then fixed over an old shed in which he now keeps his cows. Since the cows have been thus housed he has won four first prizes for clean milk as follows : at Amherst, Edmund B. Hutchins' Stable. Massachusetts Dairymen's Show, March, 1913, first prize- in special class for milk from 10 cows, a Guernsey bull calf, which in turn won first prize in his class at the Brockton Fair in October and was later sold for $100; at Brockton, Massachusetts Dairymen's Show, October, 1913, first prize in class 1, milk of 5 cows entered; at the Massachusetts Dairymen's Show, State Board of Agri- culture meeting, Springfield, December, 1913, first prize in class 1, milk of 4 coavs entered; and the State Board of Agriculture prize of §100 in the eastern section contest, above noted, September, 1913. The total monej' value of these prizes is $255. His bacteria count at Amherst. 8 show was 400, at Brockton, 500 and at Springfield, 1300 per cubic centimeter. Mr Hutchins washes and wipes the udders before milking and uses a small-top copper pail of his own design. His cows are kept reasonably clean all of the time. He retails his milk at 9 and 10 cents per quart. Mr Kenneth E. Webb, Needham, winner of the second prize in the eastern section, is comparatively new in the business. He with his brother purchased a farm of 144 acres three years ago and engaged in the milk business. They keep 31 cows. The stable is made out of what used to be an old hay barn and stable combined. Mr. Webb retailed his milk at 9 cents per quart before he won the prize, but after the announcement in the local paper that he had won second prize, he was besieged by appli- cations for more milk. He advanced the price 1 cent per quart, and says that he is now receiving $100 more per month than he did formerly, thus showing that there is a demand for clean milk for which people are willing to pay a reasonable price. Mr. Fred Miller, Methuen, winner of the third prize, has a farm of 150 acres. He has a modern barn with a wing stable with monitor roof. He keeps 48 cows. Milkers are required to wash their hands before milking. Flanks and udders are wiped with a damp cloth. Cows are groomed every day in winter. Floors are sprinkled to lay dust. Mixing tank is kept covered. Milking is done in small-top pail. Milk is retailed from 8 to 12 cents per quart. Mr. C. Herbert Poore, Haverhill, winner of the fourth prize, owns a farm of 40 acres. He has a barn with base- ment stable and keeps 30 cows. Milkers are required to wash their hands before milking. Cows' flanks and udders are washed twice daily and grooming is also done twice a day. He uses a milk pail of his own manufacture with a small opening in the top. The pail is so constructed that it is also used as a milking stool. Milk is retailed at 12 cents per quart. Mr. Manuel G. White, North Falmouth, owns a farm of 48 acres and keeps 6 cows. He has an old-style barn with a stable in main barn on floor level over cellar. Milkers are required to wash their hands before milking. Flanks are brushed and wiped with a clean cloth. He uses a half- closed pail to milk in. Milk is retailed at 12 cents per quart. Mr. Ernest W. Burks, Natick, winner of the sixth prize, owns a farm of 14 acres and keeps 25 cows. He has an excel- lent modern barn with wing stable with monitor roof. The floor and walls are of cement. He washes his hands before milking. Udders and flanks are brushed and washed and wiped daily. He uses milk pail with a sliding cover. Milk is retailed at 9 cents per quart. Mr. Horace Holmes, Kingston, winner of the seventh prize, has a farm of 14 acres and keeps t) cows. He has an old-style barn; the stable is in the form of a lean-to against the barn. He washes his hands before milking, and flanks and udders are wiped with a damp cloth. He milks into a sterilac pail, and milk is wholesaled for 45 cents per 8^-quart can. Messrs. G. C. and W. C. Wilkins, Plainville, winners of the eighth prize, have a farm of 80 acres. They have an old-stvle barn with stable in main barn on floor level with cement floor. A small-top pail is used. Udders and flanks are kept clipped all the time and are brushed and washed. Milk is retailed at 9 cents per quart. Mr. Walter S. Holder, Chelmsford, winner of the ninth prize, has a farm of 30 acres and keeps 6 cows. He has a small neat barn with stable in main barn on floor level over cellar. An open-top pail is used. He washes his hands before milking, wets down the stable with a sprinkler, wipes flanks and udders with a wet cloth. Milk is sold at wholesale at 40 cents per 8|-quart can. Mr. Frank W. Chase, Oak Bluffs, winner of the tenth prize, has a farm of 150 acres and keeps 21 cows. He has an old barn with lean-to stable. He milks into an open- top pail. Stable is sprinkled to lay the dust. Udders and flanks are wiped with a clean, white cloth. INIilkers are required to wash their hands before milking. Milk is sold at 10 cents per quart. 10 Miss Helen Holmes, Kingston, winner of the eleventh prize, has a farm of 90 acres and keeps 20 cows. She has an old barn with a modern wing stable and cement floor. It is well lighted and ventilated by the King system. Open- top pails are used. Milkers are required to wash their hands before milking. The stable is wet down to lay the dust. The flanks are wiped with a damp sponge, and the udders are wiped with a damp cloth. Milk is retailed at 10 cents per quart. Mr. Harry F. Carpenter, Attleborough, winner of the twelfth prize, has a farm of 40 acres. The stable is in the main barn on floor level over the cellar. He uses a small-top pail. Milkers are required to wash their hands before milking. Udders are wiped with damp cloth and flanks are brushed. Milk is sold for 6 cents per quart. Mr. John Quinn, Kingston, winner of the thirteenth prize, has a farm of 30 acres and keeps 15 cows. The stable is in the main barn on floor level over cellar. He milks into an open-top pail. Milkers are required to wash their hands before milking. Cows are brushed and udders and flanks are wiped with a damp cloth. Milk is retailed at 9 cents per quart. Mr. Benjamin W. Shaw, South Weymouth, winner of the fourteenth prize, owns a farm of 42 acres and keeps 27 cows. The stable is in the basement and has a cement floor which is washed once a week. Cows' flanks and udders are washed and wiped. He uses a small-top pail. Milk is sold at 9 cents per quart. Mr. John H. Ahola, Lanesborough, winner of the fifteenth prize, owns a farm of 2 acres. He keeps 13 cows. He has an old barn with the stable in the main barn on floor level. A small-top pail is used to milk in. Milkers are required to wash their hands before milking. Flanks and udders are wiped with a damp cloth. Cows are groomed daily in winter. Milk is sold at retail for 7 cents per quart. Messrs. Crosby & Flitner, Billerica, winners of the six- teenth prize, have a farm of 35 acres and keep 16 cows. The stable is in the main barn over the cellar. An open- top pail is used. Cows are groomed daily when stabled. 11 Milkers are required to wash their hands before milking. Milk is sold at wholesale at 36 cents per can. Mr. Josiah Q. Packard, Brockton, winner of the seventeenth prize, has a farm of 84 acres and keeps 35 cows. The stable is in the form of an extension from the main barn. He milks into a hooded pail. Flanks and udders are brushed before milking. Milk is retailed for 9 cents per quart. Mr. Charles S. Bisbee, Haverhill, winner of the eighteenth prize, has a farm of 35 acres and keeps 6 cows. The stable is in the main barn over the cellar. He milks into an open- top pail. He washes his hands before milking. Flanks and udders are brushed with hands. Milk wholesales at 40 cents per can. Mr. Marcus C. Southworth, Brockton, winner of the nineteenth prize, has a farm of 105 acres and keeps 80 cows. The stable is in the form of an extension from the main barn. It is well lighted and ventilated. He milks into an open-top pail. The stable is wet down to lay the dust. Flanks and udders are washed. Milk is sold at 9 cents per quart. Mr. Jose Pontes, Swansea, winner of the twentieth prize, has a farm of 44f acres and keeps 7 cows. The stable is in the main barn on floor level. He milks into an open-top pail. He washes his hands before milking. Udders are wiped with a damp cloth. Milk is wholesaled at 44 cents per can. Report of Clean Milk Contest, Western Section, 1913. The first prize in the western section. State Board of Agriculture clean milk contest, 1913, and also first sweep- stake prize in the same contest, was won by Mr. Peter Kronvall, East Longmeadow. Mr. and Mrs. Kronvall are both natives of Sweden and have lived in this country thirty years. When they came here Mr. Kronvall worked in a stone quarry, and fourteen years ago they decided to buy a farm, and purchased the one on which they are now Uving. Mr. Kronvall does not know how to milk and does not care for cov/s, but his wife urged him to stock the farm 12 and promised him, if he did so, that she would do the milk- ing herself. When Mrs. Kronvall was ten years old her mother was taken seriously ill, and there was no one else to do the milking but this little girl of tender years. She conscientiously milked the cow just as she had seen her mother do it. From that day to this Mrs. Kronvall has milked cows in no way different from the way she was taught, and she did no differently in this contest. Her system of milking consists of first fastening the tail to the cow's leg with a small cord and then, with a little warm Peter Kronvall' s Barn. water, rapidly washing the udder and wiping it dry with a clean cloth. These preparatory measures are performed with great rapidity, occupying only one or two minutes. She then holds the pail between her knees just out from under the cow. It will be seen that in this position no dirt can fall from the cow into the pail. The milk from this farm is sold to an Italian peddler who distributes the milk along Water Street and vicinity, the poorest section of Springfield. After the announcement of the winning of the prizes was made in the local papers, many calls were re- ceived over the telephone from the wealthy section of Springfield for milk from this farm. The total winnings of Mr. Kronvall in this contest amounted to $300. Mr. Joseph S. Hillman, Hardwick, winner of the second 13 prize and second sweepstake prize, totaling $245, has a farm of 96 acres and keeps 16 cows. He has a modern, well-lighted stable with monitor roof, and abundant air space. He wipes flanks with burlap, and grooms daily in winter. He uses both small-top pails and 10-quart cans to milk in. Milk is sold at 45 cents per 10-quart can to Springfield contractor. Mr. Hillman did the milk- ing himself in this contest and used a 10-quart can. Mr. Rufus H. Randall, Bolton, winner of the third prize and the third sweepstake prize, totahng $190, has a farm of 101 acres and keeps 18 cows. He has a barn with a stable inside over cellar. A damp sponge is used to wipe flanks and udders. He uses a small-top pail. The milk is sold at wholesale for 50 cents per can and eight cents per quart retail, and is marketed in Clinton. Mr. Randall did the milking himself in this contest. Mr. Willard M. Cooper, Agawam, winner of the fourth prize, has a farm of 85 acres and keeps 18 cows. The stable is in the main barn on floor level; there is no barn cellar. He wipes flanks and udders with a damp cloth, and grooms daily in winter. A small-top milk pail is used. Milk is sold to a Springfield peddler at 50 cents per 10-quart can. Mr. Cooper did the milking in this contest. Mr. Clarence B. Brown, Brimfield, winner of the fifth prize, has a farm of 175 acres and keeps 22 cows. He has a barn with modern stable extension in the form of a wing with a cement floor. He washes and wipes flanks and udders before milking. A small-top pail is used. He makes butter which he sells at 40 cents per pound. Skim milk is fed to pigs and hens. Mr. Brown did the milking himself in this contest. Mr. Sylvester Spellman, East Longmeadow, winner of the sixth prize, has a farm of 70 acres and keeps 21 cows. He has a well-lighted stable with a cement floor. He wipes the flanks and udders with a damp cloth, and grooms daily in winter. A small-top pail is used. Milk is sold in Spring- field at 47^ cents per 10-quart can. Mr. Spellman did the milking in this contest. Mr. William H. Morey, Cummington, winner of the 14 seventh prize, runs a farm of 400 acres and keeps 21 cows. He has a barn with a basement stable in which is a cement floor. He brushes off flanks and udders with hands. Cows are groomed twice a week in winter. An open-top pail is used. He sells cream to Cummington Creamery, receiv- ing 36 cents per pound for butter fat. He did the milking himself in this contest. Miss M. Anna Cleveland, Hardwick, winner of the eighth prize, runs a farm of 330 acres and keeps 30 cows. She has an old-style barn with stable over barn cellar. Flanks and udders are wiped with a dry cloth. Cows are groomed daily in winter. Milk is sold to Springfield contractor for 45 cents per 10-quart can. The foreman, Mr. Brewster, did the milking in this contest. Mr. Oscar C. Pomeroy, Longmeadow, winner of the ninth prize, has a farm of 125 acres and keeps 23 cows. Stable is in a lean-to on floor level over cellar. He wipes the flanks and udders with a damp cloth, and grooms daily in winter. A small-top milk pail is used to milk in. Milk is sold in Springfield at 8 cents per quart retail and 5 cents per quart wholesale. Mr. Pomeroy did the milking himself in this contest. Mr. Marchant M. Martin, Southborough, winner of the tenth prize, has a farm of 58 acres and keeps 9 cows. His stable is an extension to an old barn. It is well lighted and ventilated, and has a cement floor. Udders and flanks are washed, and cows are groomed daily. He does his own milking. Milk is sold at 28 and 40 cents per 8|-quart can. Mr. Joseph C. White, West Springfield, winner of the eleventh prize, has a farm of 150 acres and keeps 12 cows. He has an old-style barn with stable which has a cement floor. Flanks and udders are washed and then wiped with dry burlap. A small-top pail is used to milk in. Milk is sold at 50 cents per 10-quart can in Springfield. Mr. White did the milking himself in this contest. Mr. Charles J. Nelson, Agawam, winner of the twelfth prize, has a farm of 252 acres and keeps 8 cows. He has an old-style barn with a lean-to stable. Udders and flanks are wiped with a damp sponge, and cows are groomed the 15 year around. He milks into a small-top pail. Milk is sold in Springfield at 45 cents per 10-quart can. Mr. Hermon W. King, East Longmeadow, winner of the thirteenth prize, has a farm of 85 acres and keeps 20 cows. He has an old-style barn with stable in end with wooden floor. Flanks and udders are wiped with a damp cloth; he grooms five times a week in winter. Floors are sprinkled before milking. Small-top milk pail is used. Milk is sold in Springfield at 50 cents per 10-quart can. Mr. King did the milking himself in this contest. F. J. Pomeroy & Son, Agawam, winners of the fourteenth prize, have a farm of 100 acres and keep 24 cows. The stable is in the main barn on floor level over cellar. Flanks and udders are wiped with a damp cloth. A small-top pail is used to milk in. Milk is sold at wholesale for 7 cents per quart, and at retail for 9 cents per quart. Milk goes to Springfield. Mr. Pomeroy's son did the milking in this contest. Mr. Dana S. Moore, West Springfield, winner of the fif- teenth prize, has a farm of 180 acres and keeps 15 cows. The stable is in the main barn on floor level. He wipes flanks and udders with a damp cloth before milking. A small-top pail is used to milk in. Milk is sold in Spring- field at 45 cents per 10-quart can. Mr. Moore did the milking in this contest. Mr. John B. Walker, Orange, winner of the sixteenth prize, has a farm of 89| acres and keeps 6 cows. He has an upright frame barn with stable on floor level over cellar. He brushes and wipes flanks and udders with a damp cloth, and grooms cows daily in winter. He uses a small-top milk pail. Milk is sold for 5 and 6 cents per quart. He did the milking himself in this contest. Mr. James Lawton, East Longmeadow, winner of the seventeenth prize, has a farm of 100 acres and keeps 10 cows. His stable is in the main barn on floor level over cellar. He wipes flanks and udders wdth a damp cloth. A small-top milk pail is used. Milk is sold in Springfield at 45 cents per 10-quart can. The hired man, a Polander, did the milking in this contest. 16 Mr, Leander W. Newton, Southborough, winner of the eighteenth prize, has a farm of 17 acres and keeps 10 cows. He has a stable in the form of a lean-to against the main barn. The stable has a cement floor and large air space. He washes flanks and udders, and grooms every other day. A small-top pail is used to milk in. Milk is sold at 50 cents per 8^-quart can and goes to the Deerfoot Farms' dairy. Mr. Newton did the milking in this contest. Mr. Henry S. Ashley, East Longmeadow, winner of the nineteenth prize, has a farm of 89 acres and keeps 18 cows. His stable is in main barn on floor level over cellar. Flanks are wiped with a dry cloth, but udders are washed. A small-top milk pail is used. Cows are groomed daily in winter. Milk is sold in Springfield at 50 cents per 10-quart can. Mr. Ashley did the milking in this contest. Mr. William Reimers, Monson, winner of the twentieth prize, has a farm of 130 acres and keeps 8 cows. His stable is in the main barn on floor level. Flanks and udders are wiped with a damp cloth. He uses a small-top milk pail. Milk is sold at 47 cents per 10-quart can in Springfield. Both Mr. Reimers and his son milked in this contest. One lesson stands out prominently in this contest, and that is the importance of giving strict attention to keepiiig dirt out of milk. The person who does this most efficiently wins the prize. Clean stables and clean surroundings are all right as far as they go, but one careless milker spoils all the expense and pains taken by the conscientious owner, while a painstaking, clean milker can obtain clean milk under much less favorable conditions. All of the above-named contestants cheerfully signed the following expression of determination at the close of the contest : — Consideration of the generosity of the Commonwealth in offering liberal prizes for the production of clean milk, together with my own interest in the matter, leads me to express my determination to con- tinue the means adopted in this contest and to add thereto from time to time such improvements as appear practical, to the end that the present high standing of Massachusetts milk may be maintained and its quality improved. ®l)c ^ommonroealtl) of iltassacliusctts. STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. CIRCULAR No. 14. March, 1914. THE CULTURE OF THE CURRANT. By U. p. HEDRICK, Horticulturist of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station. BOSTON: WEIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 32 DERNE STREET. 1914. Approved by Thk State Board of Publication. CUERANTS. BY U. P. HEDRICK. Currants ripen at a time of the year when other fruits are scarce, and therefore play an important part in fruit growing, both for home use and for the markets. Moreover, their sprightHness of flavor and healthfulness commend them for the home garden, while the fact that they can be picked and sold before fully ripe, and therefore bear shipment well and with but little waste, commends them for market purposes. The currant is a northern plant and refuses to grow in any but a cold climate. It stands well the lowest temperature reached in the United States, but is quickly injured by hot summer suns. In selecting a location for this fruit, then, even in northern latitudes, a cool, northern exposure is de- sirable. For small plantations the shade of trees or of build- ings can often be utilized, while in commercial plantings high land may be made to offset low latitude. Soils. The currant will bear fruit in almost any soil, but to produce profitable crops it should be planted in a cool, moist soil. Clay loams, or even a stiff loam, if well drained, meet well the soil requirement of the currant. The plant is a rank grower, and whatever the soil, it must be rich. Moreover, the roots do not extend far, and the food must therefore be close at hand. Stable manure is a most acceptable fertilizer, but should be applied the season previous to the setting of the plants, or in old plantations the application should be made in the fall or winter. Many currant growers maintain that muriate or sulphate of potash used at the rate of from 100 to 200 pounds per acre increases productiveness and adds quality to the fruit. Probably, however, the fertilizer re- quirements of the plant are best determined by individual experiments with potash, phosphoric acid and nitrogen. Propagation, Since the currant is easily propagated, growers of this fruit can often raise their own plants advantageously, the process being as follows: as soon as the leaves fall in the autumn make hardwood cuttings varying in length from 6 to 10 inches. In dry climates and in light soils the longer length is preferable, while in moist and rich soils the shorter length will sujBice. The cuttings may be put in the ground as soon as made or, and perhaps better, they should be tied in bundles and buried butt end up in moist sand until spring. When the planting season arrives, which should be as early as possible in the spring, the cuttings are set from 4 to 6 inches apart rather deeply in the soil, leaving one or two buds above the surface with the earth pressed firmly about the butts. If fall planting is preferred the cuttings are thought to root rather more quickly and better if packed in damp moss for a week or two before planting. Fall set cuttings must always be mulehed during the winter. The cuttings will start in almost any soil, but do somewhat better in a rich, moist one. The following fall these cuttings should be set in nursery rows, the plants being 8 to 10 inches apart, and the rows 3 feet. Here they should be left one or two years and kept cultivated. t Planting. Either one or two year old plants may be used in starting a plantation, but, all things considered, the two-year-old plants are the better. The commonest distance apart is 6 by 4 feet, though the tendency is to give greater distance in the row, which permits cultivation both ways. Since the plants form a comparatively permanent plantation the land should be well drained, and in the best possible tilth at setting time. The transplanting is quickly and cheaply done by marking both ways and plowing a deep furrow one way and then setting the plants at the intersection of furrow and mark. In all but very cold climates the planting can best be done in the fall, and if severity of climate makes it neces- sary to set in the spring the work should be done as early as possible. There are no difficulties about transplanting, but the usual precautions of trimming roots and tops and of firming the earth should be observed. Cultural Treatment. The currant fruits early and the plant makes its growth early; therefore, it is urgent that the cultivation be early, thorough and frequent to conserve moisture and set free plant food. All of the varieties of the currant are shallow rooted, and the cultivation must of necessity be shallow to prevent injury to the roots and for that reason plowing is impossible. In growing the currant for home use it is often convenient to mulch with straw or coarse stable manure in place of cultivating. In commercial plantations such mulch- ing can seldom be made to give as good results as careful cultivation. In midsummer cultivation should cease and a cover crop be planted. Probably the best cover crop is one of clover or vetch in combination with oats or barley, to be sown in late July or early August; 12 or 15 pounds of clover seed to the acre and 20 or 25 pounds of vetch, sown with a half bushel of oats or barley, give proper proportions of seed. Pruning. Left to themselves currant plants rapidly become thickets, to prevent which there must be yearly pruning, which consists for the most part in removing old canes and thinning out new ones. In the pruning encourage an upright growth or the bush form with several stems rather than a straggly habit with but few stems. From four to eight stems are desirable, depending upon soil and variety. Aim to keep a continuous supply of vigorous shoots coming on. In well- pruned plantations no wood' over three years old should be found. In pruning keep in mind that the best fruit is borne at the base of the one-year-old shoots, and on one-year-old spurs on two and three-year-old wood. Vigorous shoots may occasionally be headed in, particularly if the plants be young, but heading in ought not to be often necessary. The plantation should be removed or renewed as soon as vigor wanes, which is usually at ten or twelve years, de- pending upon variety, soil and treatment. 6 Harvesting. There are several essentials to harvesting currants for market purposes. Chief of these are that the fruit must be dry when picked, not too ripe but hard and firm, and that the clusters be intact. So picked the fruit stands ship- ment well even to distant markets, but if the items named be overlooked the product often quickly spoils even in send- ing to near-by markets. Of course the nearer the market the riper the fruit may be allowed to become. Fruit for jelly should not be fully ripe. For home use picking can be de- layed until the fruit is quite ripe, and may often be kept on the plants until midsummer if the bushes be protected from birds by covering with netting. Currants are commonly marketed in quart baskets or in grape baskets. In the former case they are shjipped in crates holding 16 or 32 quarts. The 8-pound grape basket is now preferred in many markets, and is the more convenient way of shipping, both for the producer and the buyer. Profits. Profits vary greatly, but year in and year out this fruit gives very good returns, though in many cases the market must be developed or vigorously sought for. While many plantations do not yield more than 50 bushels to the acre, crops of from 100 to 250 bushels per acre under good culture are not uncommon. Unfortunately, the price fluctuates rather more than for most other fruits, and the small local markets are usually supplied from home gardens. Canning and jelly factories use this fruit in large quantities, and commercial growers ought to know before planting that they have an outlet for the sale of a part of their crop for canning or jelly. A fair average of the price paid for currants at the factory would be 5 cents a pound. Pests. The currant suffers from several pests of which the currant worm, familiar to all, is most troublesome. This worm is to be found throughout the eastern part of the United States in all plantations, and must be combated if a profitable crop is to be grown. Happily, it is easily poisoned with any of the arsenical sprays or, if it has been permitted to continue its depredations until near fruiting time, powdered hellebore at the rate of a teaspoonful to a gallon of water is an effec- tive remedy. The currant borer is also a serious pest in many parts of the east. With a little experience infested canes can easily be told, and the pest can be controlled by cutting out and destroying such canes in early spring. The San Jose scale also attacks the currant, and may be given the same treatment as on other fruits. One of the oil sprays is better than lime and sulphur on currant bushes, as the scale sometimes gets on the branches below the ground, and so a spray is needed which will spread. In eastern Massachusetts the bushes must be watched for the eggs and nests of the brown-tail and gypsy moths. Both of these can be detected and destroyed in winter. These are the only pests requiring constant looking after, though several fungi infect the plants more or less in different localities and may need treatment with fungicides. Commercial plantations should be sprayed with fungicide and an arsenical as soon as the fruit begins to swell, and again with a fungicide immediately after the fruit has been picked. Varieties. The following list should be considered in selecting varieties for either home or market purposes. It includes the standard kinds and several new sorts which are well worth trying. The Cherry is a standard sort, with large but short clusters produced in great abundance. Diploma is comparatively new, but to be commended be- cause of its vigorous, upright habit of growth and large, light red, semi-transparent berries. Fay succeeds remarkably well in some locations, but fails in others. Its sprawHng habit of growth is a defect. Perfection is a comparatively new kind much above the average in flavor; vigorous, productive and of good habit of growth. Red Cross is liked by some because of the mild flavor of its fruit and its lateness. 8 Red Dutch, an old sort with small fruit, is still prized by some. Ruby is a mild-flavored variety very suitable for home use. Wilder is one of the best late varieties; the bush is very vigorous, the fruit large and the season long. All of the above are red currants. In some markets there is a demand for white sorts which are usually milder in flavor. Of the white varieties White Imperial is the most desirable because of its mild and very pleasant flavor. White Grape, however, produces larger and more attractive fruit than White Imperial. Black currants belong to a different species than the red and white sorts, but thrive under essentially the same culture, demanding only a little more room. The fruit to those unaccustomed to it is not pleasant in either odor or flavor, but it is much esteemed by those who have learned its use, both as a dessert fruit and because of medicinal qualities. The strong musky flavor disappears in part if the currants be scalded for a few minutes in boiling water and then cooked in fresh water. Champion and Prince of Wales are by far the best of the several black currants. ®l)c aTommonroealtl} of ittassacljusctts, STATE BOAED OF AGEICULTURE. CIRCULAR No. 15. June, 1914. CANTALOUPE GROWING IN , MASSACHUSETTS. By J. M. S. Leach, Sunderland, Mass. From the Sixtt-first Annual Report of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture. BOSTON : WEIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS. 32 DERNE STREET. 1914. Approved by The State Board of Publication. CANTALOUPE GEOWING IN MASSACHUSETTS. J. M. S. LEACH, SUNDERLAND, MASS. Probably the melon does not strictly belong in New England, but in a hotter, more equable cHmate, with a longer season. Of necessity, therefore, we raise it under many diflSculties, and seldom with a perfect degree of suc- cess. But the fruit, when successfully grown, is so delicious in flavor, and so universally popular, that the effort to produce it, even under circumstances not entirely favorable, seems well worth while. The wandering Israelites complained that they could not forget the melons of Egypt, and if they were good ones, it is hardly to be wondered at. There are many influences that. go into the making of a crop of melons, many of them beyond the control of the grower. This bulletin is an effort to deal with those condi- tions that he can govern. Soil. A light loam is generally preferred. Melons do best if they are planted on land which has been in clover or alfalfa sod the previous year, as the nitrogen of the decaying roots and stubble is very beneficial to the melons. There is no question that this one thing often makes the difference be- tween a record crop and a poor one. Good crops, however, are grown on old land. Early Melons. To escape the early frosts of fall is only a secondary reason for growing melons early in this latitude. The primary reasons are that the earliest of the melon crop is sold with less competition, so that sales are easier and prices better; and that marketing is well advanced before the dog-days, with their rains and "muggy" heat, set the ground to steam- ing, and in consequence the vines to bhghting. To get an early start one should get the seed in the ground as early as the late frosts will permit, and as soon as the ground is warm enough for germination. Some prefer to gain time by starting the plants under glass. This is at best a dehcate operation and requires patience and study. Many of the great melon growers of the Arkansas valley start them in cold-frames with success, and claim a hardier plant is grown than in a hotbed; but the writer, in several years' trial, has always encountered some difficulty in get- ting a good stand in cold-frames. Perhaps there is too much cloudy weather in our early spring for the beds to warm up sufficiently. A hotbed, though more expensive, overcomes the difficulty, and if well handled insures a good germination and continu- ous growth. Such a hotbed requires 1}^ or 2 feet of horse manure in the bottom, which should be put in, leveled and trodden enough to make a level floor for the receptacles in which the seeds are sown. Plant boxes or inverted turf may be used for these. We use some of both. With boxes, finely composted manure may be mixed with rich loam for filling. The manure may be screened through an inch-mesh screen made of old telephone wire. If preferred, manure may be put in the bottom of the boxes, pressed down, and the loam put on top. If the loam is sterilized with steam, the weed seeds will be killed, so that the necessity of weed- ing the beds may be obviated. The "damping off" fungus will also be destroyed, and the growth of the plants be greatly promoted by sterilizing. Success can, however, be attained without it. The boxes may be bought in the flat, and tacked together as used. These should be filled level full. If turf is used, it is preferable to select in the fall the place where it is to be cut, spreading on a coat of stable manure to enrich it. The sod may be cut into 5 or 6 inch squares, about 5 inches thick, and laid soil up, on the manure of the hotbed. After all is ready the glass should be put in place for two or three days, to allow the bed to warm up, after which it is ready for the seed, provided that the soil has reached a uniform temperature of about 80°. The hotbed needs to be under the care of some one who will not forget it. So long as the beds are kept moist, and until plants begin to come up, temperature running up to 120° will do no harm. When the plants are up, 100° is all right for the first ten days; after that a lower temperature will do. These, of course, are daytime temperatures. Some loss of heat will cause them to go down more or less at night, perhaps to around 80°. Ventilation must never be forgotten. The need of it increases with the growth of the plants as it is necessary that they be well " hardened off " before transplanting, and also because all the plants in the bed may be destroyed by neglecting ventilation for even an hour on a hot, bright day. The growth of the plants may of course be promoted by light applications of hen manure and acid phosphate, but care should be used to see that the bed gets air after this application, since escaping ammonia may do injury. Or the plants may be watered with a nitrate of soda solution. Plants should be thinned to one or two in a box in order to get a stocky plant. The proper time to transplant is when the little vines have four leaves. Transplanting may be left until there are six leaves, but should never be done earlier than the four-leaf stage. Just before transplanting time the plants must be gradually hardened by leaving off the glass. In setting, the bed is thoroughly wet down, after which the boxes or turfs are loaded on a wagon and taken to the field. They are placed in the furrow and the soil drawn around them with a hoe. In case boxes are used thev are cut away as the cube of wet earth is placed in the ground. If the plants are hoed at once and frequently, watering is seldom necessary. Field Planting. Two things should be fixed in the mind with this system of planting. Since the early start of the crop is important, the soil should be put into the finest possible tilth for the 6 seed, because such condition not only insures their early germination, but makes the plant food more available. Depth of planting should be determined somewhat by the condition of the soil, a light, dry soil and dry weather re- quiring deeper planting. If planted too deep they are slow in coming, and reach the surface in weakened condition; if too shallow, the seed will dry up. Perhaps 13^ inches is a fair depth for average conditions. Seed should be used liber- allv to allow for losses from insects. Hills are generally placed 6 by 6 or 6 by 4 feet. Thin to two plants when cutworms and bugs are gone. Some seed in drills with a seed sower, thinning later to single plants 1 or 2 feet apart. Before the plants come up the soil some- times gets baked on the surface of the hill, and needs to be loosened by the fingers, or by passing a garden rake lightly over it with a lifting motion. The critical period in the entire life of the melon plant is the first fortnight after it comes up. It is the start of the race, and everything depends on the plant getting away without a handicap, for a cantaloupe vine never recovers from a setback. To understand the importance of care at this stage it is necessary to notice the structure of the plant. Pull one up and you will see that you have the two-seed leaves with a tuft between where the true leaves are waiting to come out, while below the surface there is nothing but the stem tapering into one long, stringy root running straight down into the ground. Now keep this state of the plant in mind while you notice that for days all the plants in the hill seem at a standstill. What are they waiting for? Simply for their mouths! Pull up another plant now and you will see roots putting out laterally on all sides of the taproot. These are the feeders, and as they push out into your finely pre- pared soil on every hand watch the plants spring forward into life and growth; the first true leaf unfolds in a day. The vine is off with a rapid growth that must never be checked for a moment till its work is done. But here is the important point. At this stage the plant needs a nurse. Nothing in these first few days must be al- lowed to trouble it, — neither the striped beetle that would sting its stem and sap its leaves, nor the wind that would wrench and twist its delicate stem, nor the heat and drought that would burn the soil and make it too dry for the infant feed roots to take their first taste of food and drink, and to reach out into the surrounding soil for the nourishment for which the tiny plant above ground is waiting. Hoeing at this time will do more good than at. any other in the life of the plants. It mulches them and protects their scant roots. The drawing of the soil up around the plants braces them against destructive winds, while working about the hills tends to scare away the striped beetle, which is very timid. The hoe must be used with great care, how- ever, on account of the shallowness of the roots. Fertilizing. Barnvard manure seems to offer the best and safest means of feeding the melon plant. Variation in opinion as to the method of application is wide. Manuring in the hill is the most common practice, and under irrigation or elsewhere where there is plenty of water it is the most economical way. But if one's crop must suffer each summer from drought, that effect will undoubtedly be aggravated by a lot of coarse manure in the hill. This is especially clear when we recall that chemically all decaying is burning, dif- fering only from the burning of fire in its slower action. Thus you create a little drought of your own under each hill, a wholly unnecessary provision in recent years in Massachusetts. This drying-out process is augmented by the fact that the thick pad of manure tends to retard capillary movement of water from below. Therefore, if the manuring in the hill plan is to be followed, the manure should be thoroughly mixed w^ith the soil. Considering our dry summers, the writer prefers scattering the manure along a furrow and working it into the soil with a spiked-toothed cultivator set as narrow as possible. We sometimes do this in the fall. Broadcasting the manure is certainly as good a way as any except that it takes so much manure. It may be well to add that most of those who have ex- perimented carefully recommend manuring in the hill; but 8 we in the east must remember that the experiments were generally tried with irrigated vines, which is quite a differ- ent matter. The common fear that the vine will not get the full benefit of manure unless it is placed immediately at the hill is wrong. Get hold of a mature cantaloupe vine and work the main roots carefully out of the soil. You will find them longer than the vines. The writer has frequently dissected a root out of the ground between 4 and 5 feet long, without getting to the end of it. These feed roots reach everywhere, and on account of their length the melon vine can go farther than most plants in search of food. Lo- cating the roots in this way will teach another lesson, which is that they are not far below the surface, and the cultivator must be set accordingly. With chemical fertilizers experiments show interesting va- riations. Among the large growers in the irrigated sections of the west the use of such fertilizers in the hill has been attended with serious hazard, while under New England conditions the plan has often succeeded. But it must be thoroughly mixed with the soil or it is liable to burn the tender plants so that they seem to go back into the ground, or even fail to come up at all, the strong chemicals destroy- ing the sprouting seed. A good way is to make a shallow furrow and scatter the fertilizer with a McWhorter sower, and then scratch it in with a light cultivator or some such tool. The writer has used a mixture analyzing nitrogen 5 per cent, phosphoric acid 7 per cent, and potash 9 per cent, generally hand-mixed, as follows : — Pounds. Sulphate potash (high grade), 360 Nitrate soda, 150 Sulphate ammonia, 100 High-grade tankage (9 to 10 per cent nitrogen and 4 to 6 per cent phosphoric acid), 580 Acid phosphate (16 per cent), 810 Total, 2,000 From 800 to 1,000 pounds of this mixture per acre should be applied. Cultivation. The importance of this subject is greatly underestimated. The grower who hoes his melons primarily to kill the weeds is a crude workman. The object should be to keep the soil stirred for a mulch, to keep fresh soil up around the plants, and to keep the soil fine to make its elements more available as food for the plants. The hand hoeing is very important. The dry, baked soil should first be drawn away from the plants, preferably by hand, and fresh, fine dirt drawn up around them with the hoe. The whole purpose of 'cultiva- tion is, like fertilizing, to promote a continuous growth. As has been said, all cultivation should be shallow after growth is well started. Enemies. Cutworms, Bugs and Blight. Especially following turf or a cover crop, unless it is. plowed in the fall, cutworms are generally abundant and very destructive. In a small patch they may be dug out in the morning; on a larger scale they may be poisoned by a mixture of Paris green, molasses and bran, a teaspoonful dropped near the hill in the afternoon. When planting, the cutworms should be remembered and seed used rather abun- dantly. The striped bugs trouble but a few days generally, but that at a critical time, when the plants are tender and young and must be protected. Land plaster or gypsum dusted over the hills will drive them away, so will ashes or dust; or a mixture may be made of these and a few drops of turpen- tine added. A hill is occasionally found infested with lice. This should be burned on sight, or else buried and the top of the soil under the hill scraped off and covered also. Save the ladybugs, as they feed on the lice. Blight is to the melon vine what cholera is to the hog, — the one great enemy. It has, in its various forms, several different scientific names, perhaps unimportant here. The blight has practically driven melon growing out of New England. The scientists have given their best endeavor to the problem, and sometime they will solve it, if it can be 10 solved. Meantime prevention must be studied, and the first step is to advance the crop as far as possible before the sultry weather of the dog-days. Insects are suspected of spreading the disease, and so should be eliminated. A steady, continuous growth should be maintained for the sake of the physical vigor of the plants. To frequent culti- vation might be added a light applicatio.n of nitrate of soda as the vine approaches maturity, the object being to drive the plant into the dangerous August weather with the thrift- iest possible growth. There are strains of melons called rust resistant. Their rust-resistant qualities vary under different conditions of climate and weather. On the whole, they represent an ad- vance, but the time has not come to depend on them greatly in the east. Spraying. Some good results in cucumber growing have been achieved by spraying. With melons the success has not been as gen- eral; some report good, and some very indifferent, results. Variation in results is probably explained by the fact that sometimes the disease present is one susceptible to the ef- fects of spraying and sometimes not, the bacterial wilt not generally yielding to such treatment as readily as downy mildew or anthracnose, if at all. Undoubtedly, also, the violence and rapidity of the attack vary and have their influence on the measure of success in spraying. Under the usual circumstances melons should never fol- low melons in successive years. A rotation of three years, at least, is generally advisable, although one prominent grower states that he has raised melons eighteen years on the same field by sowing with rye after picking and plowing in the rye in the spring. He states that the eighteenth crop was better than the first. Spraying must not be put off until nearly time for the blight to appear, but should be begun as a preventive measure as soon as the plants are well above the ground, and continued once in ten days or so till the fruit is safe or the vines past hope. Use Bordeaux. This will stain the fruit more or less, but that is not important. 11 . One point in respect to spraying the writer has never seen mentioned in print, namely, its tendency to very sHghtly reduce the yield in the first of the season. The increase, however, in the latter part more than compensates for this early loss. The reason is that the covering of Bordeaux shades the leaf which requires sunlight, though this same effect seems to benefit potatoes, whose growth appears to be promoted by the shading. Bees. The writer considers a sw^arm or two of bees in the vicinity of the melon piece an advantage in pollenizing the blossoms. They tend to help the vines to make a larger setting of fruit, and to a more perfect condition of the melons. Varieties. This is a subject upon which much advice is offered, but its value is doubtful. No one can tell the prospective grower the variety that is best for him. The writer, living in the Connecticut valley, recommended certain tried varieties to a farmer in eastern Massachusetts, who proceeded to make a complete failure with them, but he went further and made just as complete a success with those that had not done well with us. A person buying a very nice Rocky Ford cantaloupe will plant the seed because he reasons that Hke produces like, forgetting that the conditions have as much as the seed to do with the outcome. "That Rocky Ford melon was good, wasn't it?" "Yes." "Then why can't I grow one just hke it?" "You can — in Colorado." Seed that produced a fine melon in the dry atmosphere and constant sunshine of a •Colorado summer will often mold and develop deficient flavor in our more humid air. There will be exceptional cases, but that simply means that the grower happened to strike something that fitted his special conditions. One great lesson that the eastern grower needs to learn is that the seed should be acclimated. Why is it that certain growers have won a great reputation for their product? They have adapted a melon to their soil. 12 Under Connecticut valley conditions the Emerald Gem is an extra early and very refined melon as to flavor, but it is not a good shipper or keeper. We raise it to supply trade till something else is ready. Next in this region may come the Extra Early Osage, or, if the market cares for them, some of the Gem type of melons, like Burrell's Gem. These are all yellow-fleshed melons. Green varieties may be se- lected if preferred. The beginner should try more than one kind and stick to it, and develop by selection a strain of his own perfectly adapted, if possible, to his conditions. Hybridizing. Just how far this subject is a legitimate subject of study and experiment to the average grower is a question. The process is interesting and occasionally profitable, but it draws on the most valuable asset the farmer has, — his own personal specialized attention. Sometimes a growet finds himself in possession of a variety that seems adapted to his locality and market, but lacks some one necessary quality which it may be worth while to try to supply by a cross with a melon that possesses it. Random crossing produces 99 inferior varieties to 1 valuable one. In our own work our difficulty at first was to find a vari- ety that combined flavor with standing-up quality in the market; and to this we sought to add a degree of hardihood that would carry the plant through to fall in healthy condi- tion. In the former we feel satisfied with results. In the latter we have been only partially successful. A peculiarity of certain vines, like the cucumber, is that they bear their stamens and pistils on different flowers. This is true of some varieties of cantaloupes, but not of others. Many melon vines produce perfect flowers, having many staminate blossoms in addition. If it is desired to obtain something definite and known in a cross, the closed petals or corolla and stamens should be cut away from the flower just before the bloom opens, after which the flower may be covered again for a day. A small paper bag will do for this. At the end of this time it is in about the right condition to receive the pollen, which 13 may be rubbed off on the pistil by touching it with the anthers of a freshly opened bloom. It should then be covered again for a few days. In all such efforts the foundation melon should be selected for its flavor, and other qualities bred upon that founda- tion. In attaining the ends sought uniformity of size should always be considered. No plan of selling that sends to market various sizes jumbled together will ever give general satisfaction. Picking Melons. Roughly speaking, most cantaloupes start to loosen from the vine at the stem when ripening. Sometimes this is first detected bj^ a drop or two of juice that oozes from the junc- tion of the fruit and stem. Again the bottom of the canta- loupe, being on the ground, generally looks greenish v^hite while the melon is unripe, but takes on a creamy tint ap- proaching yellow, when ripe. There is also, generally, a slight change in color discernible under the netting, the deep, dark green changing to an olive green. A little experience as a picker will soon obviate the necessity of any rules. A glance will tell one the stage of the fruit. Marketing. This is a weak spot in present-day agriculture. There are certain principles to consider and they classify them- selves under two heads, — honesty and efficiency. Honesty on the part of a melon grower is even more es- sential than with growers of other farm products, because the quahty of the fruit does not appear until it is opened. The responsibihty of seeing that his customers get good melons, therefore, rests wholly on the grower. The tempta- tion is constant to let melons slip by the sorter that look passable, but contain nothing but disappointment to the buyer. This is both a foolish and unprofitable policy. The grower's name should go with the goods, and his name should mean quality. The goods should be so graded in respect to size as to facilitate selling, making pricing con- venient. Three sizes are generally made, — Pony, Stand- ard and Jumbo. 14 Goods should be marketed, as far as possible, to the same customers year after year, in order that the latter may learn to know and have confidence in the goods. When such custom has been established the grower should make it his business to take care of the buyer, and see that his needs are supplied regularly. The establishing of such mutual confidence and dependence is of equal importance to both parties. The great but much neglected secret of marketing is to always recognize one's obligation to the buyer, to give him goods uniformly graded and priced, of absolutely dependable using quality, and to assume the obligation of seeing that his needs are always suppHed. The temptation to deUver unripe fruit and specimens of questionable quality, because prices are high and demand good, will never appeal for a moment to the grower who thinks; for he will realize that he is not merely selling goods, but building a market. There is only one place where in- ferior stock should be marketed, and that is the hog pas- ture. That we have obstacles to melon growing in Massachusetts there can be no doubt; but half the failures would be successes if the grower made a study of the plant, its eccen- tricities and its needs. QL\)t (Jtommonrocaltt) of ittassacliusctt STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. 0. CIRCULAR No. 16. June, 1914. PRUNING THE GRAPE. By Prof. U. P. Hedrick. From the Sixty-first Annual Report of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture. BOSTON: WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 32 DERNE STREET. 1914. Approved by The State Board of Publication. s o o p o n PRUNING THE GRAPE. PROF. U. P. HEDRICK. Why prune grapes i Grapes are pruned to prevent over- bearing, to increase the size of bunch and berry, to maintain the vigor of the vines, and to keep them within proper bounds. A glance at the reasons for pruning shows that the operation has to do with the modification of the vigor and the fruitfulness of the plant, which is pruning proper, and with training, which aims to keep the vines in manageable size and shape. A man can care for his vines better if he keeps clearly in mind these quite distinct objects of pruning. Whatever the method of pruning and training chosen, and as we shall see there are many, the grower must take in account the relationship of the wood to fruit-bearing. Grapes are produced on the base of the shoots of the same year, which in their turn spring from the canes of the pre- ceding year. This important fact must be emphasized by an illustration. The average yield of a Concord grapevine is about 15 pounds ; it requires from forty to sixty clusters of grapes to produce this quantity of fruit. As a shoot bears from two to three clusters, twenty to thirty buds must be left on the previous year's growth to furnish the required number of clusters. Therefore two, three or more canes are selected and are variously distributed on one or two main stems in accordance with the system of pruning. Good pruning, then, means removing all wood except canes or spurs sufficient to furnish the shoots necessary to produce the desired number of clusters of gi-apes. Teems defined. Before going further we must define several terms. The trunJc is the body of the vine when two or more years old. An ami is a branch from the trunk, two or more years old. A cane is a one-year-old branch of the arm or trunk. A spur is a very short but annually lengthening arm from which cane renewals are made. A slioot is the growing, leafy branch of the current season. Systems of Pruning. Grape growers designate distinct methods of pruning as " systems," of which there are a score or more, only a few of which need be described in this article. " Before taking up the several systems it must be said that pruning to main- tain vigor and promote fruitfulness is more essential than training in any particular way, though there necessarily exists a close, relationship between pruning and training. Usually, it is true, a vineyard should be pruned and trained in accordance with one of the named systems, but very often lack of vigor in the vine will not permit the pruning neces- sary to train all vines in the vineyard in the desired way. Thus, in pruning and training the operator must be able to exercise good judgment. The vineyardist must decide how much pruning each individual vine in his vineyard is to receive, and according to what system his whole vineyard can be trained to the best advantage. When the vines are vigorous the system of training is largely optional with the grower, but if they lack vigor one is often forced to adopt a system which he might not otherwise choose. For ex- ample, strong-growing varieties, like Concord and E'iagara, do best trained with the shoots drooping ; whereas weak-grow- ing sorts, as Delaware, are usually best trained with shoots upright. Drooping System. We come now to the discussion of the several systems, and may as well take up first those in which the shoots are allowed to droop and hang free, the drooping systems, which Single-stem Kniffen system. .-- — X. T""'^ ' =r'" T ■^^- — fe -^ / /I ^ m 1 i Two-stem Kniflfen sv.'^tem. have the advantage of being more economical, as no summer tying is necessary. A man named Kniffen was the orig- inator of this method of training grapes, and his name is perpetuated in all of its many modifications now to be described. Single-stem, Four-cane Kniffen System. In this method of training, a single trunJj is carried to the top wire of the trellis. This can be done in most vine- yards the second or third year after setting. The top wire is at an average height of 51/4 feet above the ground, the lower wire 2 feet lower. Four canes are taken from side spurs on the trunk and laid to right and left on each wire. The upper canes should be longer than the lower ones, as the vines are most vigorous at the extremity of the stem. The trunk is permanently tied to each wire. Pruning, then, consists of cutting out all but four of the canes that have developed from the canes of previous years, selecting the most vigorous and those that are closest to the main trunk, cutting them back to five or six buds and again tying up. Probably this is, the country over, the most generally used method of training grapes, its simplicity commending it in particular to the novice. Two-stem, Four-cane Kniffen System. This system is very similar to the one just described, the difference being that two permanent trunks are brought up from the ground, one to the lower wire and the other to the top wire, with two canes taken off from each. In using the two-stem method the canes taken off from each trunk may have the same number of buds, the two trunks being considered as distinct vines. This system is supposed to be particularly well adapted to strong-growing varieties on fertile soils. Y-stem Kniffen System. The Y-stem differs from the two-stem in that instead of the two stems being brought up from the ground, a branch is taken from the main stem a little below the lower wire from whence it is carried to the top wire and tied. The 6 number of canes laid down and the subsequent treatment are the same as in the other systems so far described. This method, too, is used when vines are vigorous and the soil rich. Umbrella Knijfen Systeyn. In the umbrella Kniffen system two canes are used in- stead of four, each having from eight to twenty buds. The canes are taken from spurs on the trunk at the top wire. They are then tied to right and left for a distance along the upper wire after which they are bent down to the lower wire and secured. The clusters of grapes are supposed to be better protected from heat and sunscald by the umbrella method of training, and the method is used, therefore, in warm climates and with tender varieties in cold climates. One-wire Knijfen System. The one-wire Kniffen is a modification of the umbrella method, but differs in that the trellis has but one wire about 4 feet above the ground. The trunk is fastened to the wire and two canes of from ten to twelve buds are taken off and laid to right and left of the stem. The cheapness of the trellis commends this system to some growers. Upright Systems. The upright systems are those in which two or more canes or arms are carried horizontally along the wires or obliquely across them, and the shoots as they develop are tied to wires above. Several upright systems, each with distinctive merits, are in vogue with grape growers. The High Renewal System. In this system the trellis is made with two or more, usu- ally three, wires. The lower wire is placed from 18 to 30 inches above the ground, while the second and third wires are 20 inches apart. The trunk of the vine is carried to the first wire, and two canes each with from six to ten buds are taken off to right and left a little below the wire. The shoots that grow from the buds on these canes are tied to rmbrcUa Kiiiflfen system. t'liautaui|ii;i system. the second wire and then to the third, as growth permits. I^ear the base of the canes, but upon older wood at the head of the stem, short spurs carrying two or three buds are main- tained from which shoots develop to furnish the fruiting canes of the following year. In this method the amount of old wood retained is reduced to a minimum, but the labor of tying is greatly increased. Large quantity and high quality of fruit commend the method. Spur Renewal; Horizontal-arm Spur System. The trellis for this system is practically the same as for the high renewal. Two canes are laid down to right and left, as in the high renewal, but in this system these canes become permanent arms and do service for several years. The shoots that develop from buds on these canes the cur- rent vear are cut back to two buds. Two shoots are allowed to go from each of these spurs and are tied to the upper wires. In the fall the cane developed from the upper bud of the spur is cut away and the other canes cut to two buds as before. At the beginning of the next season we have, as in the previous year, two shoots springing from a spur on these permanent arms. The spurs lengthen rapidly and become crooked, making it necessary to cut them away every few vears and to grow others from shoots that arise on the arms. The spurs are developed from 5 to 20 inches apart. Formerly a favorite method of training, the " spur renewal " is now passing from practice. Spur Renewal; Chautauqua System. This system is a modification of the one just described much used in the great Chautauqua Belt in western Xew York. Permanent arms are used to support the shoots which, as they grow, are tied to the two or three wire trellis. The shoots may be tied obliquely or perpendicularly. If two wires are used they are placed about 34 inches apart ; if three, about 20 inches apart. The canes for tying up the following year either develop directly from the old wood or arise from spurs on the arms, or from the best buds of the past season's canes. The old arms should be renewed at 8 frequent intervals. Possibly the Concord and Niagara, under average conditions, are best trained either in this way or in the four-cane Kniffen system. Arbors and Bowers. But little skill is needed to train grapes as coverings for arbors and bowers. The permanent trunks are carried to the top or center of the arbor. From these trunks canes are laid out from year to year at intervals of about 24 inches, a feat possible only by leaving spurs for renewal. The vines should stand from 6 to 10 feet apart, and the canes are cut at half the distance between the vines, meeting in. the middle of the dividing space. Shoots springing from these canes cover the arbor. The object in this sort of training is to secure shade, and it is not to be expected that fine grapes can be so grown, but if the vines are severely cut back from year to year, grapes of very fair quality and in considerable quantity may be produced. Pruning Neglected Vines. !Many times it becomes desirable to prune neglected vines. Occasionally one finds a vineyard several years old that has never been pruned. In either case such vines can seldom be made over advantageously. If they are healthy and vigor- ous the best thing to do is to gTow a new vine from a cane taken out from the root. The old trunk in such a case is allowed to remain until the new one is strong enough to be tied to the wires. To encourage the production of a new cane from the roots, and to induce vigorous growth in the new trunk, the old vine should be heavily cut back. If the new cane is exceptionally strong it can be tied to the wires at the end of the first season. More often it should be cut back in the winter to about three buds, from one of which the permanent trunk can be grown the second season. The new trunlv is tied as if it were a young vine. Suckers are bound to arise under such treatment, and these should be removed frequently. Time to prune. Grapes may be pruned from the dropping of the leaves in the fall to the swelling of the buds in the spring. Prun- ing after sap begins to flow is devitalizing. It is seldom advisable to prune when vines are frozen, as the brittle canes are easily broken during handling. Summer pruning is far less practiced now than formerly, with a tendency to do less and less of it. It is used to re- move surjDlus shoots and in heading back canes to keep them within limits. Very often shoots grow from weak buds on the fruiting canes to the detriment of the fruit-bearing shoots. These weaklings should be rubbed off. So, too, shoots often break from arms, spurs or even the trunk where they are not wanted. These should be removed. Secondary shoots sometimes appear on fruiting shoots, especially in the axils of the latter; these should be rubbed off. Here, for the most part, summer pruning should end. Tying. Tying the canes and shoots to the trellis is a task requir- ing quickness, skill and good judgment. Canes are tied be- fore buds swell in the spring, and the shoots must be tied during the summer. The materials used in tying are vari- ous, such as raffia, wool twine, wire, willow, carpet rags, gi'een rye straw, corn husks and bass wood bark. The canes should be tied to the windward side of the wire, and this tie is now almost always made with a ^N'o. 18 gauge, an- nealed wire about 4 inches in length. The tie is a double loop about wire and cane made by the workman standing on the opposite side of the wire from the cane. The wire should be soft, but even then the work must be done with mittens or gloves. The cane is bound snugly to the trellis that there mav be no chafins;. Shoots are best tied with rafBa or wool twine, the tie being made very loosely to permit growth in the diameter of the shoot. 10 Odds and Ends of Pruning. Grapes are best pruned with small, light, specially made pruning shears. Usually the canes are allowed to remain tied to the wires or stakes until the pruning is done, though in the Kniffen systems the strings may be cut. The work of pruning is best done by a skilled man who only makes the cuts or " blocks out." After the vineyard is " blocked out " the wires must be stripped. Stripping is usually done by unskilled labor. The prunings are hauled from the vine- yard by a horse attached to any one of several devices, prob- ably the best of which is a pole a little smaller than the pole used to bind a load of hay. A horse is hitched to the pole by means of a rope dra^vn through a hole about 4 feet from the large end of the pole. The small end is held in the hand as the butt is pulled along the ground. After the first vines are caught, the rest of the brush clings to the wood until a load is secured. Stripping and hauling must be done before the buds swell in the spring, otherwise many young buds will be broken off by pruned vines. The Trellis. Posts for the trellis are best made of chestnut or locust. They should be from 6 to 8 feet in length, reserving the heaviest for end posts. One post to every three vines is suffi- cient. The end posts are driven to a depth of from 22 to 23 inches and braced by a 2 by 4 or 4 by 4, notched to fit the post half-way from the gi'ound to the top and standing obliquely to the ground where it is held by a 4 by 4 stake. Posts other than those at the end can if properly sharpened be driven into holes made with a crowbar. The best wire for the trellis is No. 9 or No. 10, the number and height of Vi^ires depending upon the vigor of the vines and the sys- tem of training. The wire is best secured to the end post by winding it once around the post and then around itself several times. Ordinary fence staples suffice to hold the wires on the posts, enough space being left in the staple to permit loosening and tightening. High-renewal system. I'nined Ijut not stripped. High-renewal system, rrinieil and Stripped. "^38C. ®l)e C^oinmontuealtl) of itta00ac[)U0ett0. STATE BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE. CIRCULAR No. 17 April, 1915. Second Edition. POULTRY FEEDS AND METHODS OF FEEDING. By J. C. GRAHAM. From the Sixty-first Annual Report of the Massachusetts State Board op Agriculture. BOSTON: WEIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 32 DERNE STREET. 1915. Apprpved by The State Board op Publication. POULTKY FEEDS AND METHODS OF FEEDING.' JOHN C. GRAHAM, PROFESSOR OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY, MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTUR.\L COLLEGE. It is impossible to discuss intelligently the subjects of feeds luid feeding, from both a practical and scientific point of view, without thoroughly understanding a number of important terms now in quite common use. We can hardly pick up a |>oultry journal or a book on this subject without coming in contact with such terms as protein, carbohydrates, fats, nutritive ratio, balanced ration, etc. As there mav be some readers who are not familiar with these terms, thev will be defined in order that the discussions which follow may be fully understood. Proteins are made up of the nitrogenous portions of feeds. They are the body builders, used in making the lean meat, eggs, hair, nerves, tendons, etc. Carbohydrates are the starches and sugars particularly. These are used for energy and heat. A hen may eat a large amount of carbohydrates in twenty-four hours and yet at the end of the time, if she were killed and her flesh analyzed, we would find not more than one per cent of carbohydrates in her body, although her food has been composed largely of these materials. It shows how completely these are changed into other things. Fats are the oily portions of food ; they are also used in the body for heat and energy. The important thing alx>ut them is that they are worth for that purpose two and one-fourth times as much as the same weight of carbohydrates. That is, one jiound of fats will produce as much heat and energy as two and one-fourth ix)unds of carbohydrates. A balanced ration is one in M'hich the amounts of protein, carbohydrates, fats and ash are in such proportions that when it is eaten by the hen there will be no waste of any one of these components. From " Agriculture of Massachusetts," W13. Food principles, or food compounds, include protein, carbo- hydrates and fats. The nutritive ratio is the ratio between the amount of di- gestible crude protein and the carbohydrates and fats in any given feed. It is found by multiplying the amount of digestible l\ nus. . Cecum AloufK G-u/let Stomach, or PrOi'crifr'iculus cT-Gi sxnrd. .T-'sinofeas -ZDuocienuiii -Jnfesf/ne Digestive Organs of a Wen fats by 21/4, adding it to the digestible carbohydrates and divid- ing the sum by the amomit of digestible protein. We should also have some knowledge of the digestive appara- tus of the hen if we wish to thoroughly understand her needs. This plate represents the digestive organs extending from the head to the vent. Thej were removed from the hen a few weeks ago, placed in the position that we see them here and drawn. This plate does not show the relative position of the organs in the body, bnt it does represent their relative size. What is known as the gnllet extends from the mouth to the crop, which is a reservoir for holding the food until it is soft- ened more or less by the secretions of the mouth and of the crop itself. The crop is not the true stomach of the fowl, as many suppose. The true stomach is an enlargement of what might be termed the continuation of the gnillet from the crop to the gizzard. Another term for it is the proventriculus. On ojDening it we find that its walls are quite thick and muscular, and lined with gastric glands similar to those in the lining of the human stomach. The gizzard is an irregularly shaped organ, the largest in the body, and has thick muscular walls of a verv fine grain and of a bluish, dark red color. Partiallv enfolding the gizzard we find the liver, composed of two very large lobes. Attached to it is the gall bladder, where the bile is stored. Near it also is the spleen, an organ whose use we do not thoroughly understand, although some scientists believe it has some relation to digestion, as it is not found in the same condition just before and after meals. The pancreas is the long, flat, pinkish organ lying close to the upper end of tJie intestines, or what is termed the duo- dcimiii. This secretes pancreatic juice. The intestines extend from ihc gizzard to the anus, about six or seven inches from which we find two blind sacks, called the ceca. They are some- times spoken of as the " blind guts," and correspond to the appendix in man, but are double in the fowl. In diagiiosing black liead in turkeys, or coccidiosis as it is kno^vn in fowls, wo find the ceca greatly enlarged, and many times their lining- is eaten ofl^, or they may be filled with a hard, cheesy substance. These organs seem to bo the habitat for many intestinal worms, and if one is making a diagnosis for coccidiosis, or worms, he would naturally examine the ceca first. The part of the in- testines extending from the ceca to the anus is called the rec- tum. The enlargement of the intestine just forward of the vent is called the cloaca. It is a reserA^oir where the fa?ces giitlier before being expelled from the body. The urinal duet o]jening' into this reservoir is a very important factor in study- ing the digestibility of feeds in poultry. The fact that the urine and tlic fWces mix before being expelled makes it very diiRcult to study the digestion of protein, particularly because in the fseoes we find the undigested portions of the feed and in the urine the nitrogenous materials that come from the broken-down cells of the body. As these mix before being expelled, it is xevy hard t(^ determine how much of the nitro- gen comes from the indigestible portions of the feed and how nuich from the urine. The entire leng-th of the digestive ap- paratus of the hen is about five feet, varying somewhat in different individuals. Some think that there is a relation be- tween its leng-th and egg production, Init more data will l)e needed to verify this theory. The process of digestion is somewhat as follows : the food is swallowed by the hen and remains in the croj:* for a time to be softened. It then passes, into the stomach, where it is mixed with gastric juice which acts \\\)pears that each hen consumed about 100 pounds of grain, mash and hay, or just about 4 ounces per day, — a showing which should be of value in determining the amount of feed required daily for a eiven flock of hens. What I have said above refers to feeding lavers. In feed- ing breeders I would not use the same methods l\v any means. As previously stated, the main object in feeding layers is to get the highest num1)er of eggs possible for the amount of grain fed, so they should be pushed to the limit. On the other hand, we are feeding breeders for an entirely different object. We want to get from them not merely eggs to be used as human food, bnt eggs containing strong, vigorous germs that will hatch well, and not only live but grow rajiidly to maturity. We therefore must feed es]:»ecially for vigor. The breeders shonld l)e separated in the fall from the layers, kept by tliom- 23 selves, and fed on drv mash and whole and cracked grains, given in deej) litter. We do not want them to lay too many eggs in the fall and early winter becanse we believe this saps their vitality to a certain extent before the breeding season is on. If they are eating t()(» mnch mash or laying too many eggs it is well to close the mash ho[)i)er (hiring the forenoon and leave it open only afternoons. This will cause them to work harder for the feed, and keep them in much better con- dition for the breeding season. They should not be fed an excessive amount of animal fo^xl, as it has been found to be detrimental to the hatching ability of the eggs and to the growth of tlie chicks. The best kind of animal food for breed- ers is skim milk or buttermilk, which can l)e fed in large quantities without injuring them in any way. Table 16. — Data sliowing Effect of Various Animal Fee(h upon Per- centage of Eggs hatched. K C a 3 T3 C 3 O fe -^ 3J o a AxiMAL Food used. a ei< -U o _g Q St 15 s •o o o o 'S "3 ..J o bC M K "3 ..J 0 1^ c 6 o su & Q < H h O CIh U 1 Buttermilk 720 233 1,453 $18 16 2,040 10.68 55.0 1.61 2 10 per cent beef scrap in dry mash. 840 337 34 19 85 1,670 14.28 50.5 2.51 3 Beef .scrap in hopper, . 900 216 14U 22 21 1,664 15.84 33.0 4.00 4 No animal food, . 900 224 - 17 99 1,496 12.69 59.5 1.76 0 Green cut bone, . 900 196 127i 21 37 1,654 15.48 40.5 3.18 This chart shows the results of an experiment 'carried on at Guelph, Can., by Prof. W. R. Graham, head of the poultry department at that statioai. The best results were obtained, on the whole, from feeding skim milk, and the poorest results from feeding green cut bone and beef scraji in a separate hopper. This experiment covered a ])eriod from October to ]\rarcli, and all of the eggs laid l)v each ]ien, which contained 28 hens, were incubated. .24 From this and data from other experiment stations it is evident that in feeding breeders we should not feed too much animal food, unless in the form of milk ; and not push them for high egg production during the fall and early winter, but give them plenty of exercise, free range if possible, and all the green food they want. Feeding the broody hen is something that is sadly neglected by a great many poultrymen. I have been surprised to find that there are some who starve them for a number of days in order to break them up. This seems cruel to me, and also an expensive way of doing it. The main object of the poultryman is to bring the broody hen to laying again in the shortest pos- sible time, therefore she should be fed on vei-y rich feeds, and even tempted in every way to eat. So treated, most broody hens will begin to lay again in from ten to fifteen days. A stimulating mash should be given to these hens, if to no others. In feeding poultry, the main thing after all is not the fee II II II II "2t Front vtev^ -0 C^ -0 0- ZC Rear view* — sKov^ina vervtilattorj Cross secti'oa 0^ novelty yu sidino r side viev/ Nc5t plan ^l)t tfommonrocaltl) of iWassacljusctt^, STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. CIRCULAR No. 18. June, 1914. FARM WATER SUPPLIES. By S. p. Gates. From the Sixty-first Annual Report of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture. BOSTON: WEIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 32 DERNE STREET. 1914. Approved by The State Board of Publication. FARM WATER SUPPLIES. BY S. P. GATES. The question of the development of adequate and dependable water supplies for farms, situated beyond the limits of municipal supplies in Massachusetts, is yearly becoming a more serious prob- lem. Until recent years most farms in the Bay State have depended for their water supply upon one or more dug wells or springs which, according to local traditions, " have never been known to go dry." Many farms are dependent entirely upon such sources for their water supply to-day. It is conceded that many of these old wells and springs which thrive only when moisture is abundant and the rain- fall plenty, " never did go dry," prior to a decade ago. In those years a few hogsheads of water a day, obtained oftentimes under difficulty, sufficed for all requirements. To-day the progi-essive farmer is seeking to obtain the advantage of certain luxuries on the farm, common to city homes, and the water consumption for domestic purposes alone has increased to a surpris- ing extent. Beyond this, and of si^ecial vital importance from an agricultural standpoint, the problem of an abundant water supply for irrigating purposes is frequently a most perplexing and serious one. This is due to the fact that the demands upon these surface supplies are greatest in seasons of the year when, because of climatic conditions, the least amount of water is available. Surface springs and dug wells are supplied by the immediate rainfall, and, such being the case, the shortage of water from these supplies can be more readily understood after studying the official reports bearing upon the rainfall in Massachusetts, as prepared by the State Board of Health. These observations were taken upon the Sudbury River water- shed, and show the average rainfall for periods of five years since 1890. Inches. 1890 to 1894, 46.56 1895 to 1899, 46.72 1900 to 1904, 48.16 1905 to 1909, 41.81 1910 to 1911, 37.01 The comparatively light rainfall of recent years, the evaporation during the hot dry months of summer, and the increased consump- tion all figxire prominently in the shortage of water from surface sources in the farming district. The problems involved in the development of water supplies that can be depended upon during all seasons of the year have already been successfully worked out for many large farms and private estates in Massachusetts by those equipped by study and experience to prescribe the best method after examining the conditions. The development of water supplies from undergTound sources, or deep down in the bed rock, while long regarded as a mystery has proven to be the solution of the problem. The water which falls upon the earth in the form of rain is dis- posed of in three distinct ways, — one portion suffers evaporation, a second portion runs over the surface and escajoes into brooks and streams, while a third portion sinks into the ground. This third portion usually jDursues a subterranean course, and during its jour- ney frequently collects into well-defined channels and lakes. A careful study of the surface contours and geological conditions is necessary in locating these underground collecting basins. This must be done in order to determine the natural water courses in relation to the surrounding country and the position and inclination of, the underlying bed rock, and to locate the deposits of sand and gTavel without which no great amount of water can be obtained. In some places hereabouts, where surface indications might lead us to believe a good supply of water exists, none can be found. This is due to the fact that the stratum below the surface is very fine, hard-packed sand, or hardpan, which is practically imj^ervious to water. Whenever in low land the formation is coarse sand or gravel, inexhaustible water supplies can be developed by the driven well method. Such wells are put down by hand and penetrate the gi'avel to a point where the best results are to be had. They were first driven in this region in about 1870. At the beginning they were merely pipes driven into the ground at random, and results were very uncertain. Locations are Flowing Wells at stoughton. Mas... ^^^^^ted now with reference to the 3a feet deep. drainage area and the overlying earth deposits. These wells average from 35 to 40 feet in depth in Massachusetts, and will often yield from 40 to 50 gallons of water per minute. There are a great many systems of driven wells in the State to-day furnishing large supplies of excellent water for cities and towns, farms, institutions and industrial plants. Most of these t^ystems consist of a number of 2V2-ineh wells connected to suction pipes of ample size to take care of the volume of water to be handled. They are connected in a way to produce the least possible friction, and the water from the main suction passes through a sand and air separator, thence to the pumping engine. The most notable of the driven-well systems in Massachusetts is the municipal water supply plant at Lowell, where 5,500,000 gallons of water per day are pumped from wells of this type. In many Flowing Well at Kingston, Mass., 40 feet deep. farming districts of the State it is possible to obtain abundant and permanent water supplies by this method. The glacial deposits which overlie the bed rock throughout the State are variable in character. Wherever this deposit is clay or hardpan the driven well system is impracticable, but there is the deep drilled well to resort to. In sinking these wells an outer casing is driven down by steam power until rock is encountered. Upon striking the bed rock a hole of approximately the same diameter as the casing is drilled into it for several feet, and then gi-adually tapered down to the proper diameter to receive a smaller casing. This inner pipe constitutes the permanent well casing, and is firmly driven into tlie tapered hole, effectively shutting out the earth forma- tion above the ledge. From this point the drilling is confined en- tirely to the bed rock. This bed rock in Massachusetts, like the glacial deposits, is variable in character, but is for the most part seamy, and these seams or fissures are water-bearing. In drilling, 6 the seams are cut, and the water when released flows upward into the well and is ready to be pumped. The yield from wells of this type cannot be predetermined, but such wells are rarely failures. Data taken from the records of the pioneer artesian well company in the State, indicate the average depth of these wells to be from 250 to 300 feet, and the average yield from 50 to 60 gallons of water per minute. These deep wells furnish most satisfactory supplies, as the water is usually in a high state of purity and can be de- pended upon at all times, inasmuch as it has access to the wells at depths where it is not affected by surface conditions. Unlike hand driven wells, surface conditions do not show the depth and dip of water-bearing seams in the bed rock, and they cannot be determined until the work is in progress and the seams opened up in drilling. Consequently wells of this type, in most Electric Pumping Outfit. eases, may be located at any convenient point in relation to the building to be supplied, thereby eliminating long lines of piping. Progressive well drillers, as a rule, keep accurate records of the formations passed through, and the depths where water is found. Accordingly, where work of a similar nature is contemplated, the best way to determine the probable depth and yield of a deep well is to consult the records of firms having had experience in the gen- eral location of the proposed work. The modern drilled well, when properly constructed, is immune from the evils common to dug wells and other surface supplies. The method of connecting the well casing to the bed rock, from which point the well is cased all the way to the pump, prevents con- tamination from surface drainage and insures against the entrance of insects and reptiles. There are various methods and so-called " systems " in vogue to- day for pumping, storing and distributing the water obtained by the methods as described above. Named in the probable order of their importance and popularity, the list of pumps is as follows : the electric pump; the gasolene engine driven i)ump; the steam driven pump ; the hot air engine driven pump ; and the windmill. For storing and distributing, the pressure tank, the gravity reservoir of concrete, and the gxavity tank of wood or steel, on a skeleton tower of wood or steel, about cover the field. Where electricity is available, the electric pump is probably the best solution of the pumping problem, as with this power the con- trolling switch may be located in the house or barn, where it will be accessible at all times, irrespective of the location of the pump. This is of considerable importance during the inclement weather of the winter season, and, coujoled with the simplicity and safety of operation, which is such that a child or woman properly instructed may with impunity be appointed engineer, makes the electric pump the most desirable. Another feature which recommends the electric pump is the automatic control to which it readily lends itself, the pump automatically, and without manual assistance, starting and stopping as a high and low water level or a high and low pressure is obtained in the storage tank. The advent of the automobile and the motor boat has gone far to popularize the gasolene engine as a motive power to drive the farm pump, having overcome the fear which many farmers had for gasolene, as well as creating, practically overnight, an abundant crop of gasolene engine repair shops, no town now being too small or isolated to support at least one dealer or mechanic capable of rei^airing any of the current makes of gasolene engines. The gaso- lene engine driven pumj? is comjDaet and self-contained, and may be quickly started by a competent operator. It is highly efficient, and in general gives good satisfaction, being less desirable than the electric pump only in the fact that it requires considerable physical streng-th on the part of the operator, and cannot readily be auto- matically controlled. This is at times a hardship, especially during the winter season, if the location of the engine is at a considerable distance from the dwelling house. The steam driven pump is too well known to require discussion. but is rapidly losing caste as a farm pump, owing to the cost of coal and of its transportation, or the necessity of constantly re- plenishing the fire, if wood is used as fuel. The amount of time required on the part of the operator tends to further discourage the present-day farmer in the use of this type of power. Also, in many cases, the electric or gasolene engine driven pump may be installed in a building already erected on the farm, whereas the use of the steam pump usually means the construction of an entirely new building. The hot air engine driven pump is probably the simplest and safest engine driven pump on the market at the present day, but 8 owing to its rather limited capacity, together with the element of time required on the part of the operator, causes its value as a farm pump to be rather questionable. This pump, however, is almost ideal for purely domestic use in a country house or summer cottage, where the use of water is comparatively limited and elec- tricity is not available. The windmill of our grandfathers' time needs no description. It has been a good and faithful servant, but the march of progress along the pathway of farm efficiency has discarded it together with many other implements and methods more or less primitive. Its chief sins are, or more properly speaking were, the inevitable yearly repairs due to the exposure to the elements; the hardship of climb- ing the tower to lubricate the mechanism at the top; the noise and unsightliness ; and last and most important of all, the fact that the operation of the pump depended entirely upon the action of the wind. For storing and distributing the water about the farm the pressure tank is without a rival. This type of tank is usually buried just outside the house or barn cellar, Avith one end of the tank protruding through the wall into the interior, thus providmg an accessible and frost-proof location for all controlling valves. In larger installa- tions a special pit is constructed' around the head of tank or tanks. It is, of course, desirable about the farm, for agricultural as well as live-stock purposes, to preserve an even temperature of water the year round. This the pressure tank does to perfection, the water being drawn from the tank at practically the same temperature at which it leaves the well, irrespective of the season. Also a much larger measure of fire protection, as well as a better pressure for sprinkling and spraying, is obtained from the pressure tank than would ordinarily be obtained from a gravity system. The gravity reservoir of concrete is possible only where the ground elevations are suitable, and the cost of construction, together with the cost of piping, should be carefully considered before this method is decided upon. The wooden tank on a skeleton tower of steel or wood is probably the cheapest and most common of gravity systems. The points to be considered in connection with this system are the limited pressure obtainable, the unsightliness and the diffi- culty of adequately and economically frost-jDroofing the tank and piping. In conclusion, it should be said that the water-supply problem on the farm is one worthy of considerable thought from an engineering standpoint, and it is well for the farmer who contemplates such improvements to consult with the engineers of a reputable house engaged in the business before making up his mind as to the system best adapted to his needs. STATE BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. CIRCULAR No. 19. June, 1914. THE NEW ORCHARD. By Phof. F. C. Seaks. From the Sixty-first Annual Report of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture. BOSTON: WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 32 DERNE STREET. 1914. Approved by The State Board of Publication. THE NEW ORCHAKD. PROF. F. C. SEARS OF THE MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. Doubtless many iu the audience are familiar with the Bay Road Fruit Farm, which is " The New Orchard " re- ferred to in the title on our program, but it may be worth while for the benefit of those who are not, to state that it is an orchard at Amherst which was started in 1908 by Pro- fessor Waugh and myself, and which now comprises about 125 acres. It is not my jDurpose to discuss all the problems that have come up in the development of this orchard, but rather to select a few of the more important, and those which are likely to be of more general interest. First, a few words in regard to the character of the planta- tions which have been set. Many fruit growers consider that one line of fruit is sufficient, such as apples or peaches, and some even go so far as to say that if one is growing apples, a single variety, or two at the outside, will give the most profitable returns. As a general proposition this is probably true. It reduces "the number of questions about which the owner must have expert knowledge, and allows him to concentrate on a few lines ; and every one will agree that the profits from many orchards have been reduced owing to the multiplication of varieties. But it has seemed to us that there was another and very important side to the ques- tion, and that is the better distribution of the labor required where one plants several varieties of any fruit and several different kinds of fruit. For example, if a man ties up to the Baldwin apple, which all will agree is the most profit- able single variety of any fruit, he has three or four seasons of the year durina: which- he is rushed with work. These are the seasons of pruning, spraying, picking and cultivation (if he cultivates). During the balance of the year he has practically nothing to do in his orchard. On the other hand, if he enlarges his list of varieties, and still more if he in- cludes several classes of fruits in his plantings, his season for labor is very decidedly extended. In the matter of pick- ing, for example, instead of having it all come in two weeks, the last of September and the first of October, his picking season extends from the last of July to the middle of October, which is a very decided advantage. Another point which has influenced us in increasing our list of varieties somewhat, and in planting other fruits than the apple, is that this en- ables one to hold his customers better. One customer may want Sutton, another Wagener and another Palmer Green- ing. For the growler who is catering to a personal market, the ability to offer a choice of varieties is certainly worth considering. Looking at the subject in this way, while we have made apples our leading fruit, we- have also set peaches, pears, plums and quinces, and we expect to add grapes and cher- ries. Our list of important varieties in apples is, in the order of ripening: Yellow Transparent, Red Astrachan, Oldenburg, Wealthy, Mcintosh, Hubbardston, Sutton, Pal- mer Greening, Wagener, Rhode Island Greening and Baldwin. Of course we have set many more trees of some of these than of others. Probably five-sixths of the plant- ings are made up of Baldwin, Mcintosh, Wagener, Rhode Island Greening and Palmer Greening. In peaches we have set: Greensborough, Carman, Cham- pion, Belle of Georgia and Elberta. This gives a good suc- cession, though not a perfect one. There are breaks in the line which we want to fill in ; and we especially need a variety that is later than Elberta. A question which we have found it very difficult to settle is what crops to grow among the young trees during the first few years of the orchard. To be satisfactory a crop must first of all leave the trees in at least as good condition as they would have been Avithout it, and second, it must be profitable to the owner. This is a difficult combination to get ; at least. we have found it so. To be a benefit to the orchard the crop must require good cultivation, and must not spread out so as to shade the trees or rob them of food; and it is very desir- able, also, that it should make its gi-eatest growth at a dif- ferent period from the trees. In order to be profitable it must be a crop which the owner can use to advantage on the farm or which he can sell for cash. As we keep no stock, other than our teams, there is little that we can use except hay and corn, and of course hay cannot be grown in an orchard. We have not considered it advisable to go into truck crops, and we are therefore restricted to general crops that can be sold for cash. Those which we have found most satisfactory under our conditions are : beans, soy beans, corn, potatoes, cabbage, squash, strawberries. Even strawberries we find objectionable in any but very young orchards because they prevent cross-cultivation, and still more because they require to be kept in the land two years. It is impossible to keep the young trees in as good condition where the land can- not be given a thorough preparation in the spring. Another question which has caused us no end of difficulty, and which we have not yet solved to our entire satisfaction, is the old, perennial question of cover crops. Many people think this question was settled years ago. As a matter of fact, it never was settled, and probably never will be except as each man settles it for himself, and that temporarily. The most important offices of a cover crop are the following, arranged roughly in the order of their importance : — 1. To add humus to the soil. 2. To prevent washing of the soil. 3. To check the growth of the tree. 4. To add nitrogen to the soil. In addition to this, if the crop is to be used on an orchard of any size, and if the owner is not a millionaire, the seed must be reasonably cheap. It might seem like a relatively simple matter to grow a good crop of some plant in the soil in the early autumn which shall accomplish all of the things mentioned above, and not be very costly, but in our case, at least, it has not proved so. Our soil is relatively light, which probably makes it more difficult to grow good crops, and it was badly run out when we began, whicli undoubtedly complicates matters. At the present time the following are our most promising crops: buckwheat, barley, dwarf Essex rape, turnips, soy beans and rye. The great advantage of buckwheat is that it will grow almost anywhere and that it leaves the soil in fine condition. Also that it tends to reseed itself from year to year, so that one saves on the bill for seed. This is a very important point, and I believe that by changing our methods a little we can get cover crops that will almost always reseed them- selves. The change in methods would be principally in the direction of shortening the season of cultivation, so that not all of the seed will have sprouted before it comes time to " lay by " the orchard. Another practice we have found helpful in getting a good growth of cover crop is to apply a little fertilizer when the cover crop is so\vn. In fact, we are even contemplating changing the time for applying our orchard fertilizers from early spring to the date at which the cover crop is sown, for of course in the long run the trees get the plant food which is taken up temporarily by the cover crop. A point in favor of turnips and dwarf Essex rape is the low cost of seed. Two pounds will sow an acre, and the former costs about 35 cents a pound, while the latter can be had for about 8 cents. Where one is sowing a large acreage this low cost of seed looks very attractive. A further ad- vantage of turnips is that under anything like favorable cir- cumstances a good many of them will grow large enough to be marketable. One can then go through the patch and pull out enough to more than pay for the cost of the crop, and still have a good stand to act as a cover. It might be of interest to say just a Avord about some of the orchard implements that we are using, because in the handling of an orchard our success depends to a great extent on what sort of tools we have to work with. While we have a great many different implements, the three which we use most are the " light-draft orchard harrow," the " California orchard plow " and the " orchard cultivator." The first men- tioned is a light form of spring-tooth harrow, mounted on p. o n o wheels, and it comes nearer to doing all the work in the orchard in one day than anything else I have ever seen. Our teams have done as much as 20 acres in a day with this har- row. The California orchard plow consists of a gang of four discs at the end of a long beam, and its strong point is that one can get close up to the trees with the plow and still keep the team well away. We have found it better than any other plow we have yet tried. The " orchard cultivator " is an implement with rigid teeth, and is especially useful where there is hard work to be performed ; that is, where the soil is heavy and the weeds are bad. Under such conditions the light-draft harrow will not work satisfactorily. A practice which has become a regular thing in our or- chards is thinning the fruit. I believe that it is hard to overestimate the value of this operation. It not only gets rid of the poor, defective specimens that would be of little or no value at picking time, and so relieves the owner of the necessity of deciding what to do with them, but it also re- lieves the tree of the strain of developing these fruits to ma- turity, and consequently makes annual crops more probable. Many people are deterred from thinning by the idea that it is an endless and costly job. Our advice to such people would be to try it. We have had our thinning done prin- cipally by boys about fifteen years of age, and we find it costs us about 40 cents per tree to thin the fruit on full-sized bear- ing apple trees, and about 2 cents to thin a peach tree that will bear two to three baskets. With the apples our prac- tice is to go over the tree twice, the first time about the 10th of July and the second time a month later. The first time our orders are to thin so that no spur will have two apples. Defective fruits are also removed. The second time we look especially for defective fruits, but also thin out where the fruit looks thick. I do not believe any other practice, with the exception of spraying, is more important if one wishes to grow the best fruit. I cannot let this opportunity pass without mentioning the record of a small Baldwin orchard that was on the land when we bought it. The trees are probably thirty-five years old, and were so poor that it was seriously suggested that they 8 should be cut down and a " real orchard " set iu their place. But instead of this thej were pruned and fertilized and sprayed, with the result that the third year they bore 200 barrels of apples and the fifth year 175 barrels, for which we were offered $1 more per barrel than the market price, on account of the quality of the fruit. There are hundreds of old orchards in the State that would do as well if they were given the same treatment. We start in the spring with pruning and dormant spray- ing, and this is followed by spraying our apples for codling moth. If we had only peaches we should omit this spraying. Then later on we spray our peaches with self-boiled lime- sulphur, at a time when there is little to do in the apple orchard. Then all of our lower lands are seeded down to hay, a crop that lends itself admirably to the profitable dis- tribution of labor, because haying comes in just as we are through spraying and is out of the way just in time to begin picking the earliest peaches. Now a few words in closing about marketing our fruit. We have worked principally to develop a family trade in fruits, and personally I believe that this is by far the most valuable kind of trade. I had rather sell a man five barrels of apples at $4 a barrel than two boxes at $2.50. On the other hand, we must not overlook the fact that the less fruit one sells a customer at one time the more that customer is willing to pay. At two apples for 5 cents (a very reasonable price where one is buying a few apples to eat) a barrel of apples (estimated at 350 apples) will sell for $8.75. In fact, I believe that if growers could persuade their grocery- man to handle the fruit on a commission, some form of small basket or carton would be very profitable. This plan not only gives the advantage of better prices to the grower, but it gives him a certain control over the price, which is very desirable. Mr. Taylok. Where would you prune a two-year-old tree? Professor Seae&. I wouldn't prune it at all until next spring. ■;f. Mr. TAYI.OR. But in the spring where would you take the top off? Professor Sears. Way down in here somewhere (indi- cating). Mr. Taylor. Doesn't the nitrogenous quality of Winter Vetch somewhat overbalance the cost of it? Professor Sears.. Yes, it would. That is a point I thought of but haven't emphasized. Yes. Question. What do you do with the fruit you thin out ? Professor Sears. We haven't done anything. Even the second thinning is so early that it has no value; the fruit at the second thinning is still so small and immature that I don't think it will bother you. I think you will find the greatest difficulty is to get your men to thin it enough. The tree looks fearful when you get through ; the ground is cov- ered with fruit, and it doesn't seem that there is any left on the tree, but when you come around to jDicking time I think you will wish you had thinned more. I think that is the experience of every one who has thinned, that he couldn't get his men to thin enough ; but if you can get the boys to realize that they are your trees and realize what the purpose is, and you can get them to carry out instructions until there is only one fruit left on the spur, you will be surprised at the result. Mr. Taylor. I was verv much interested, when I went over your orchard, in seeing the development of fruit spurs on what we call the water sprouts in the center of the tree. Professor Sears. In the old trees ? Mr. Taylor. Yes. It was something new to me. Professor Sears. The chairman calls attention to the fact that we have been able to develop fruit spurs on a lot of the water sprouts. That has been rather good, I think. Com- monly we wouldn't have satisfactory development of fruit spurs, and so we took the water sprouts, and undertook to develop paying w^ood, or fruit spurs, on those, and we have been reasonably successful, I think. Mr, Taylor. How long do you run those fruit spurs ? Do you leave the stubs more than two years ? Professor Sears. The idea is simply this : if you have 10 an old tree where the small branches have been cleaned off so that it isn't paying, so that you are getting no return from that section of the tree, the only way you can get it back is by developing the water sprouts and developing fruit spurs on the sides of those, and after those come up go right dow'n to perhaps within two or three inches and make them throw outside shoots, and the tree will start bearing, and if we find that it isn't doing as well as it should, we cut them out. Mr. Gleason. I would like to ask the professor what fer- tilizer he uses on these orchards. Professor Seaes. I might say that we very strongly be- lieve in the practice of fertilizing orchards, and those of you who have kept track of the recent discussions on fertilization know that the results in the different stations have been very varied. They have run all the way from the Pennsylvania station, which has shown very marked advantages from fertilization, to the work at Geneva, N. Y., where they concluded that they didn't find any virtue in it, and not only that, but they didn't get the money back that it cost to put the fertilizer on. There is one other experiment that ought to be recorded, and that is at Amherst, where we have planted primarily to test the advantage of dif^ ferent forms of fertilization by potash. I w^on't enter into that question now, but, incidentally, in the center of that orchard was a block that didn't receive any fertilizer, and the result has been that that block which didn't receive any at all has been way behind the other blocks. No matter w^hat fertilizer has been put on, those others have been way ahead. To my mind, that, and the Pennsylvania station ex- periment, are proof enough that under most circumstances fertilization is a good thing, and that has been the way in which we have handled our orchard. We have not only put on nitrogen for our young trees to start off with, but we have gone on the assumption that it was a good thing and would encourage them in cominsr into bearing. We have furnished also potash and phosphoric acid for our young trees. We have used nitrate of soda, a couple of ounces, perhaps, to each tree, and acid phosphate and high-grade 11 sulphate of potash, making them up at the rate of 5 pounds of phosphoric acid and 3 pounds of potash. On the old orchard that we renovated we have used each year 500 pounds of basic slag and 300 pounds of potash, and on all our orchards we have used a good quantity of fertilizer, almost always in these forms that I have mentioned; that is, we used basic slag, as a rule, on the old orchards that were cultivated, and always high-grade sulphate of potash; and for our young trees we usually used acid phosphate or phosphoric acid ; and then we have used lime as I have sug- gested, more on crops than on the orchards. I think that is very important for the trees, particularly on land that has been seeded down. Mr. Taylok. How much lime do you use ? Professor Seaes. We have been putting on a ton per acre. I know that Mr. Haslett at the station said that some persons said it would require 5 tons per acre, but I wouldn't advise putting on that quantity. Put on a ton per acre to start with. Mr. William Hanson. Did you ever see a man cutting a Mcintosh tree ? I set out an orchard two years ago with Mcintosh fillers, and I had a man tell me this summer that he never had the heart to cut his out. I am going to set out another orchard next spring, and he advises me to put them in blocks and not use the Mcintosh for fillers, because I would never have the heart to cut them out. Professor Sears. Well, that is coming right back at me, certainly. I have never seen a man cutting out Mcintosh, but I have seen men cut out Wagener and Wealthy, and if I had the heart to cut out Wagener I think I would have the heart to cut out Mcintosh. I quite appreciate the difficulty, and I am quite certain that perhaps the rank and file won't have the grit to cut them out. My idea is that if we find we haven't the grit to do it, we can have the hired man cut them out while we are gone. [Laughter.] Question^ I would like to ask what percentage of wood you would cut out on an old orchard when renovating it ? Professor Seaes. That is a question that it is impossible 12 to answer. It would go, I should say, all the way from 90 per cent down to perhaps 4 or 5, depending on the condition of the tree. In our work in renovating we started in and cut out dead wood, and if you have a particular tree in mind, you will know how much will be left on the tree when you get through with it. My boys have been working for the last three weeks on renovating old trees, and they were in- structed to cut out the dead wood. I was talking it over with the class to-day, and we agreed that the cutting ran all the way from 16 up to 50 per cent dead wood, so you see there is considerable variation according to the tree itself. Then, after you have got the dead wood out, the question comes up what else to do; but after you have cut out, say, 60 per cent, that is about the time you quit; there isn't much of anything left. But in an ordinary tree of the type I have seen renovated, I should think it would run somewhere around 25 per cent. Of course, it is impossible to say with- out knowing what the tree looks like. Mr. Brennan. I would like to ask the professor if I understood him correctly when he said they were considering fertilizing cover crops ? Is that fertilizing coming at a time when it will introduce a growth of new wood ? Professor Sears. I am glad you raised that point. We don't at that time put on any great amount of nitrogen to start with, but the cover crop will use up most of the nitro- gen. Then, you would not get very close to the tree with the fertilizer. If you wanted to get it satisfactorily you would keep away from the tree with the fertilizer. We have tried it to a limited extent, but the dressing of nitrogen, or what- ever we were using, would be relatively light. Mr. Hanson. I would like to ask what kind of fertilizers will give color to apples. Professor Sears.. Why, I don't know. I doubt if any one knows. The men here in this audience are better quali- fied to discuss that than I am, but the latest evidence I have heard seems to be rather against the view that any fertilizer actually gives color. You can destroy it by the use of too much nitrogen, but evidence seems to be lacking to abso- Heading l)ack a four-year-old apple tree. 13 lutely prove that you can increase it, unless possibly by the use of potash. Mr. George Packard. On the question of filler trees, I would like to ask why peach trees couldn't be used, which live but a few years naturally, anyway, instead of apple trees, which are valuable. I think it is almost a crime to kill a Wealthy tree. Professor Sears. Yes, peach trees will die in several years, and if it will ease your conscience any, that might be better for you, Mr. Packard. Still, I don't think it is any more of a crime to cut out a Mcintosh tree than it is to go into that Mcintosh tree and then cut whatever limbs are necessary. The two stand right together. I know a man feels a little worse about cutting out a tree than he would about cutting out some limbs. To answer the other question about peach fillers, that is a legitimate practice, and a good many people do it. We have done it ourselves, but I have two objections to it, and I think they are legitimate objections. The first is that you quite frequently come to a point where you want to handle the soil differently for the peaches than for the apples, par- ticularly in the matter of the fertilizers which contain con- siderable nitrogen. Here is a good illustration which comes to my mind now. The college has a block of apples, inter- planted with peaches, trees about eighteen years old. In 1906, I think it was, the peaches were much damaged by a hard winter ; and after a severe pruning in the spring it was desired to push the peaches along, and so they were given a good application of nitrate of soda, which the peaches wanted, and some of the trees are still in good shape in the orchard now. The apples, however, which include Mcin- tosh and Wealthy and Baldwins and various standard sorts, were just coming into bearing nicely, and they didn't want any nitrogen ; it was just what they didn't want. Well, the result was that they started off to a big wood growth, and have been trying to get over that ever since. That was six years ago, and they are just getting sobered down where they would have been if it hadn't been for that nitrate of soda. So I think that it is an objection ; that you frequently 14 come to a point where you want to treat the soil differently for peaches and for apples. Another objection is one also frequently noted, that you want to spray with different material or at different times, and you have got to go back and forth from one tree to the other, and if you simply make up your mind to do it at different times, it means you have got to go over the orchard twice, which adds to the expense. Those are my reasons for not liking it, but I have seen it overcome in a number of cases and have put in peaches, but I don't think it is the best practice, and I entirely agree with the gentleman who said it is best to put a tree in and when you get through with it cut it out. Mr. Ikwin. Don't you consider the Mcintosh better than the Baldwin to-day, for money ? Professor Sears. Well, I don't know. Yes, to a limited extent I consider it better, but I am a great friend of the old Baldwin, myself. It is an apple to tie up to week after week and night after night. ^ The Baldwin is as good as anything you get. Mr. Ikwin. But it doesn't bring the price. Professor Sb-ars. No, I know it doesn't bring the price. I don't want to say anything against the Mcintosh, because I think it is a fine apple. Mr. Packard. I would like to ask this as to fertilizers. If the peach-tree fertilizer harms the apple trees next to them, why couldn't the application of fertilizer be made lo- cally? Some years ago I set out an orchard with peach trees in between, and in due course the peach trees died. The apple trees came right along as well as could be ex- pected of any apple trees, and I lost nothing by it. Professor Sears. The difficulty is that the roots don't stay where they belong ; the peach-tree roots go right among the apple roots, and the apple-tree roots go right among the peach-tree roots, and if you- have these trees 20 feet apart, at the age when the fertilizer would be applied, undoubtedly the apple roots would be trying to occupy all the soil, and so would the peach roots, so that when you put any fertilizer on it would be on both of them at the same time. No. 4.] FACTORS IN SUCCESSFUL FARMING. 55 THE MOST IMPORTANT FACTORS IN SUCCESSFUL FARMING. G. F. WARREN', PROFESSOR OP PARM MANAGEMENT, CORNELL UNIVERSITY. During the past six years we have been securing from farmers in 'New York State records of their capital and busi- ness receipts and expenses, in order to find out how much farmers are making, and why some are making more than others. During this time we have obtained records of 2,917 farms. From seven years' study of this question we have de- termined the relative importance of different factors on profits. Labor Income defined. In order to understand this discussion it will be necessary to know what is meant by labor income. By this we mean the amount of money that the farmer has made in addition to interest on his capital. It corresponds to a hired man's wages when the hired man receives a house and some farm products. Table 1 shows the averages for Tompkins county.^ The average capital on these farms was $5,527. This includes land, buildings, stock, machinery, tools, feed and seed on April 1 and cash to run the farm. The average receipts for the year were $1,146. Any unsold products or increase in animals is counted as a receipt. The average expenses were $389. This includes all business or farm expenses. It 1 For a fuller discussion of methods of work and other conclusions, see Bulletin 295 of the Cornell Experiment Station. The purpose of this work is not to compare farming with city work, but to study the relation of various factors to profits in farming. The hired man and the farmer get many farm products from the farm. These and very many other factors must be considered in order to compare farming with city work. Labor income is an excel- lent means of measuring the success of a farmer, as it is directly comparable with hired man's wages when the man gets a house and farm products. 56 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. does not include any personal expenses, but includes the value of board furnisbed to hired help. The difference be- tween the receipts and expenses averaged $757. Table 1. — Averages, Tompkins County Number of farms, 615 Average capital, . $5,527 Average receipts, . 1,146 Average business expenses. 389 Receipts less expenses, . 757 Interest at 5 per cent, . 276 Income from unpaid labor. 481 Value of unpaid labor except owner's. 58 Labor income, « 423 This $757 was earned by the farmer's money and the work of the family. Money can readily be loaned on farm mortgages at 5 per cent. Hence, only $481 can be said to have been earned by the labor of the farmer and his family. The unpaid farm labor by members of the family would have cost about $58 if it had been hired. The farmer really earned as his wages $423. This we call his labor income. Hired men in this region get about $360, house rent and some farm products. If a farmer's labor income is less than this he might as well lend his money and hire out. About one-third of the farmers in Tompkins County are making less than hired men's wages; one-third are making wages ; and one-third make more than wages. Table 2 shows the same results for Livingston County. The region is a very prosperous one and gives an average labor income of $584. ' Table 2. — Averages, Lit ingston County f. Number of farms, .... 574 Average capital, . $10,548 Average receipts, . . 2,172 Average business expenses. 980 Receipts less expenses, . 1,192 Interest at 5 per cent, . 527 Income from unpaid labor, 665 Value of unpaid labor except owner's. 81 Labor income. • 584 No. 4.] FACTORS IN SUCCESSFUL FARMING. 57 Most Important Factors affecting Profits. The four most important factors affecting profits have been found to be size of business, crop yields, production per cow or other animals, and diversity of the business. So strikingly do these four factors stand out that if v^e know them we can guess the labor income with approximate ac- curacy in about 95 per cent of the cases. Only in a few cases do practical farmers make other mistakes of so serious a nature as to prevent them from getting a good labor income when these four factors are favorable. Farms not balanced. — Farmers are like other people, — they have hobbies. There is practically no relationship be- tween good cows and good crops, or between size of the farm and production of crops or cows. We find that the farmers who have the best cows average very little above their neigh- bors in crop yields. That the crops are good gives no indi- cation of whether the cows are good or bad. On the average, there is practically no relation either between the size of the farm and quality of the crops or cows. As a result we have all kinds of combinations of the factors of profits. There are very few farms that rank well in each of the four respects. Size of Business. — There are many ways in which the size of the business may be measured. Farms may be com- pared on number of days of work done, number of men kept, • amount of capital invested, number of cows or other animals kept, number of work animals, number of acres of land, or acres of crops grown. So long as we are dealing with fairly uniform conditions each of these comparisons will give about the same results as an average of large numbers; but when a particular farm is considered it may be placed in a dif- ferent class when the method of sorting is changed. Relation of Capital to Profits. — Tables 3, 4, 5 and 6 show the relation of capital to profits. The farmers in either of these counties who do not have a capital of at least $5,000 are not doing as well as hired men. In Tompkins 58 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Table 3. — Relation of Capital to Profits on 615 Farms operated by Owners, Tompkins County, N. Y. Capital. Average Labor Income. $2,000 or less, $2,001 to $4,000, $4,001 to $6,000, $6,001 to $8,000, $8,001 to $10,000, $10,001 to $15,000, Over $15,000, $192 240 399 530 639 870 1,104 County over one-third of the farmers had less than $4,000 capital, but not one of these made a labor income of $1,000. About two-fifths of the men with $10,000 capital made over $1,000 labor income. The figures for all the other regions show the same results. Table 4. — Comparison of Profits on Same 615 Farms. Per Cent of the P'armers Capital. ^^^„?1^1^.°^ making Labor Incomes of Over $1,000. $2,000 or less, $2,001 to $4,000, $4,001 to $6,000, $6,001 to $8,000, 94 14 $8,001 to $10,000, 45 22 $10,001 to $15,000 44 32 Over $15,000, . . 13 46 Table 5. — Relation of Capital to Labor Income on 578 Farms, North- ern Livingston County, N. Y. Capital. Number of Farms. Average Labor Income. $5,000 or less, $5,001 to $7,500, $7,501 to $10,000, $10,001 to $15,000, $15,001 to $20,000, $20,001 to $30,000, Over $30,000, 87 80 112 164 62 55 18 $291 407 480 769 1,001 1,062 1,691 No. 4.] FACTORS IN SUCCESSFUL FARMING. 59 Table 6. • — Comparison of Profits on Same 578 Farms. Capital. Per Cent of the Farmers making Labor Incomes of Over $1,000. $5,000 or less, . , 7 «5,001 to $7,500, 11 $7,501 to $10,000, 16 $10,001 to $15,000, 33 $15,001 to $20,000, 46 $20,001 to $30,000. 51 Over $30,000, 50 Relation of Amount of Labor employed to Profits. — If we measure size of business by number of men, or total value of labor directed, we find the same comparisons. Those farmers who do not direct at least one man besides them- selves do not, on the average, earn much more than farm wages. Table 7 gives such a comparison for Tompkins County, N. Y. The total value of labor directed includes the farmer's labor, estimated at $326 for the year, this be- ing the average price that farmers estimated it would cost to hire the labor done. If the total labor directed does not equal about $650 to $700, the farm does not employ one hired man for full time besides the farmer. Table 7. — Relation of Labor to Profits. Value of Total Labor. Labor Income. $347. 426, 557, 730, 960, 1,307. $288 332 432 534 721 1,194 Relation of Size of Farm to Profits. — A better measure of size of business is the acreage farmed, or better still, the 60 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. acreage of crops grown. Tables 8 and 9 give such compari- sons for general farming where hay, grain, potatoes, cab- bage and apples are the usual crops, and where a consider- able proportion of the farmers keep dairy cows. Table 8. — Relation of Size of Farm to Profits, 586 Farms, Tomp- kins County, N. Y. Acres. Number of Farms. Average Size (Acres). Average Tillable Area (Acres J. Labor Income. 30 or less, 31 to 50, . 51 to 100, . 101 to 150, . 151 to 200, . Over 200, . Average, 30 108 214 143 57 34 21 49 83 124 177 261 103 18 38 60 88 117 160 $168 254 373 436 635 946 $415 Table 9. — Relation of Size of Farm to Profits, 578 Farms, Livingston County, N. Y. Acres Farmed. Number of Farms. Average Size t Acres). Tillable Area (Acres). Labor Income. 30 or less, 31 to 50, 51 to 100, 101 to 150, 151 to 200, Over 200, 17 35 147 178 89 112 20 43 79 127 175 305 17 37 61 104 142 241 $54 295 437 593 934 1,082 In these regions the average farmer with less than 50 acres would make more money if he sold his farm, lent his money and hired out as a farm laborer, or better yet, be- came a tenant on a larger farm; or in many cases he might better go in debt for a large farm and own it. Comparatively few farmers with less than 100 acres made very good profits. Of the 551 farmers who farmed 100 acres or less, only 6 made labor incomes of $1,500. But of 292 farmers who farmed over 150 acres, 60 made over $1,500. No. 4.] FACTORS IN SUCCESSFUL FARMING. 61 Relation of Acres of Crops to Profits. — A still better way of measuring size is to compare the area of crops grown. This includes all harvested crops, but does not in- clude pasture. Table 10 gives such a comparison. Table 10. — Relation of Acres of Crops to Labor Income. Acres of Crops. Average Acres of Crops. Number of Farms. Labor Income. 20 or less 14 18 $24 21 to 40 31 55 257 41 to 60 51 95 400 61 to 80 69 115 481 81 to 100 90 06 642 101 to 140, 118 112 937 Over 140 193 88 1,261 Most of the economies in production are dependent on the area of crops grown. Five horses are enough to raise 100 to 150 acres of general farm crops when the crops con- sist of a good combination of grain, hay and potatoes, apples or cabbage. If the crops are of the above kinds there should be at least 20 acres per horse, but if they are hay and grain there should be at least 30 acres per horse. In the eastern States the cost of horse labor per acre is more than the in- terest on the value of the land. While five horses can raise 125 acres of crops it is difficult to raise 50 acres of crops with two horses. Farm machinery is built on the two, three and four-horse basis. Evidentlv if one has less than 80 acres of crops he must either go without good machinery or must keep too many horses. There is no other solution of the problem for him. Machinery, horses and labor cannot be used efficiently with less than 80 to 100 acres of crops ; and 200 acres is still bet- ter. The various reasons for this have been published else- where. For this discussion it is sufficient to see that size of business is very important and that crop acres is one of the best measures of size. 62 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. The time spent in growing even an average crop in reason- ably large areas pays the highest wages of any farm work. If a farmer has a large area of crops, it not only indicates a good-sized business, but indicates that the farmer is doing a large amount of work that pays well. Crop Yields. Increased yield per acre is important, but not nearly so important as is usually assumed. Table 11 shows the rela- tion of yield to labor income, when 100 per cent represents the average yield of the region. Table 11. — Relation of Crop Yields to Labor Income, 571). Farms. Percentage Yield. Average Percentage. Number of Farm3. Labor Income. 75 or less, 76 to 85, 86 to 95, 96 to 105, 106 to 115, 116 to 125, Over 125, 67 81 90 101 110 120 138 58 60 102 116 103 66 69 $165 219 663 570 878 951 1,090 An increased yield per acre makes the business larger, and if not carried too far is a good thing. After one secures yields of perhaps a fifth better than the neighbors on the same soil he must be careful that his cost per bushel for the increased crop is not more than the increase is worth. If the neighbors on the same soil get II/2 tons of hay per acre it may pay to grow 2 tons. If, under these conditions, one wishes 3 tons, it can usually be grown at less cost per ton on two acres than on one acre. This is the reason why the acres of crops have more influence on profits than does the yield per acre. Production per Cow. All dairy products are produced on a very close margin of profit. It is very easy to feed cows so as to lose all that one has made by raising crops. Table 12 shows the rela- tion of receipts per cow to profits. Those farmers who get No. 4.] FACTORS IN SUCCESSFUL FARMING. 63 over $75 per cow are the only ones who are making good labor incomes. In this case $75 per cow indicates about 6,000 pounds of milk. Table 12. — Relation of Receipts per Cow to Profits, Tompkins County, N. Y. Recfipts per Cow. Labor Income. $30 or less, $31 to $50. $51 to $75, $76 to $100, Over $100, It will be seen that while farmers who get average crops are often doing very well, it takes much better than average cows to pay. Diversity of Industry. If a farmer raises nothing but crops he usually wastes considerable material that could be used to a profit to feed animals. If he raises animals only he spends all his time on the farm enterprise that is least likely to pay good wages. He does not get so much for his manure because a heavy ap- plication on one acre does not usually bring as good returns per ton as if spread on two acres. 'Nor is he so likely to keep horses and men fully employed. To care for a dozen cows is about half work for a man. One man can do this and raise the cows' feed and cash crops to sell besides. Table 13 shows such a comparison. The farmers who combine cash crops and stock make more than those who go to either extreme of specialization. Table 13. — Diversified Farming related to Profits on Farms selling Wholesale Market Milk, Livingston County, N. Y. Per Cent of Receipts from Crops. 15 or less, 16 to 30, 31 to 50, Number of Farms. 14 28 25 Average Area. 209 218 264 Labor Income. $769 1,210 1,225 64 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Table 14 shows that crop yields are less important than size of farm or production per cow. The combination of good cows and a large farm gives a better chance than good crops and good cows. Table 14. — Comparative Importance of Size, Crop Yields and Pro- dvction per Cow, Jefferson County. All farms (670) 97 farms (best crops, 132 per cent), 97 farms (best cows, $84+), 97 farms (largest, 224+ acres), 23 farms (best crops and cows), . 11 farms (best cows and size), Per Cent making Over $1,000 Labor Income. 22 24 41 43 39 73 As has been previously stated, there seems to be little re- lation between any of these factors. If a farmer is good in one respect it does not tell anything about the other points. Balanced Fakms. Evidently a farmer who is as good as the average in every particular is very far from an average man. He is a very unusual man. In Jefferson County, out of 670 farmers, only 32 were as good as the average in each of the four respects. The average labor income of this region was $609, but the farmers who were as good as the average in size (143 acres or more), crop yields, receipts per cow ($59 or more) and in diversity (20 per cent or more from crops) made an average of $1,491, and only 6 of them failed to make as much as $1,000. As a standard for dairy farms, we may take the average of all farmers in three regions who sold market milk and who made labor incomes of $2,000 or more. Table 15 gives these averages. No. 4.] FACTORS IN SUCCESSFUL FARMING. 65 Table 15. — A verages for 23 Farms selling Wholesale Market Milk {Three Counties). Acres, 257 Crop acres, 154 Crop index, 119 Receipts per cow (32 cows), $98 Milk sold (pounds), 6,470 Per cent of receipts from crops, ...... 34 Labor income, $2,658 Our records give similar comparisons for other types of farming. But the principles of size and production hold on the truck farms and crop farms as well as on dairy farms. Individual Farms. It is evident that we can give a very close estimate of labor income if we know the above four factors. The fol- lowing examples are from Jeiferson County : — Farm 1. Crop acres, 29; very poor. Crop index, 208; excellent. Receipts per cow (11 cows), $116; excellent. Per cent of receipts from crops, 21; excellent. Labor income, $980. This is the best record for so small an area. It represents the top notch in the " little farm well tilled." Splendid crops, splendid cows, even on the small area, crops to sell, and all work done by the farmer himself with two months of hired labor. Such a farmer as this should be able to make $3,000 labor income if he rented land on which to grow 100 acres more of crops, doubled his number of cows, and kept two men by the year. With this system he would not have to work so hard. Farm 2. Crop acres, 21; very poor. Crop index (hay, 3.3 tons; silage, 13 tons), 211; excellent. Receipts per cow (8 cows), $90; excellent. Per cent of receipts from crops, 22; excellent. Hired labor, $250 ; poor for the size. Labor income, $380. 66 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. This farmer kept poorer cows and hired one man, although he had so little work' to do. For these reasons he made less than the owner of farm 1. Farm 3. Crop acres, 133; good. Crop index (hay, 1.1 tons; oats, 25 bushels), 75; poor. Receipts per cow (20 cows), $95; excellent. Per cent of receipts from crops, 16; fair. Labor income, $1,661. This farmer gets crops only three-fourths as good as his neighbors, but with the large area he should make a good profit from growing them. He sells part, and what he feeds to cows he makes a second profit on because he gets such good returns per cow. We should expect him to do verj well indeed. His crops are only one-third as good as farms 1 and 2, but the larger area more than makes up. If the soil is as good as his neighbors he might readily bring his labor income to $2,000 by raising better crops. Farm 4. Crop acres, 110; excellent. Crop index, 142; excellent. Receipts per cow, $96; excellent. Per cent of receipts from crops, 19 ; excellent. Labor income, $2,239. This farm is excellent in every particular. We should expect it to make at least $2,000, as it does. About the only difference from farm 3 is in crop yield. Farm 5. Crop acres, 109 ; excellent. Crop index, 120; excellent. Receipts per cow (32 cows), $56; poor. Per cent of receipts from crops, 4; poor. Labor income, minus $113. This farmer made very good profit on his crops of which he had a good acreage. But he fed these crops to cows that did not pay their feed bill. If he had excellent cows his No. 4.] FACTORS IN SUCCESSFUL FARMING. 67 labor income would be $1,500, but as it is he did not even make interest on his capital. He paid for the privilege of working. Farm 6. Crop acres, 259; excellent. Crop index, 134; excellent. Receipts per cow (33 cows), $74; good. Per cent of receipts from crops, 53; excellent. Labor income, $3,270. This is the highest labor income made by any farmer who sold milk at wholesale. With his unusually large area of good crops he could easily raise his labor income to $4,000 by keeping better cows. After one has studied large numbers of records it becomes possible to tell whether the labor income is poor, good, fair or excellent by knowing these few figures. This is the final proof that these are the most important factors of profits ; and it applies to other types of farming equally well. In about 5 cases out of 100 some other factor affects the re- sults so decidedly as to make the guess wrong. But on most farms a good-sized area of crops and good yields have so strong an influence as to overshadow other factors, and al- most insure good returns if the crops are sold or are fed to animals that bring good returns. There are some city men in the audience. I may say that all this discussion is from results by practical farmers. City men are most likely to fail from putting too much money in buildings and keeping too many men, and from doing too many fanev thines that are called scientific farming, but that are really " folly farming." Experienced farmers do not often make serious mistakes in these things. A Farmer's CATECHis:Nr. Each farmer will do well to compare his farm with suc- cessful farms, to see where it is weak and whether it can be improved, by asking himself these questions : — Have I 80 to 200 acres of crops ? If not, can I buy or rent more land ? 68 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. Are my crop yields 10 to 20 per cent better than my neighbors' who have the same soil ? If not, will it not pay to improve them ? Are my cows at least 50 per cent better than my neigh- bors' ? If not, how much am I losing on them per year ? Had I best stop keeping cows, or get better ones ? Am I getting at least 20 per cent of my receipts from the sale of cash crops ? If not, could I make more by raising cash crops ? Am I getting at least 20 per cent of my money from animal products ? If not, am I making good use of low-grade farm products, and am I and my horses kept well employed most of the year? Question. Is that $11,000 you showed on the slide the actual capital, the equity ? Professor Warren. 'No, it is the total capital, the value of the investment. The average mortgage, deducted from this, gives you what the farmer owns. The average is some- thing like $2,000 ; still, it doesn't make a different figure. Suppose the farmer is in debt for all his capital, he would pay this interest; if he was in debt for none of it, he pays it to himself, you see. Question. (Following slide showing increased output per man, but not increased output per horse.) Isn't that due to improved machinery? Professor Warren. An improved driver and improved machinery, yes, but here is the thing: a lot of men here probably remember when you never cultivated anything with more than one horse, and now a lot of you use a two-horse cultivator and do almost twice as much per man. A good many can remember when you always plowed using two horses, and then you commenced to plow with three, and some with four, and the further west you get the more you find. The result is more crops raised per man, but the horse isn't doing any more. Even with four horses and one driver you won't get any more work than if you had two men driving two horses apiece, but the man is doing more. You find the same thing all the way through ; take, for instance, No. 4.] FACTORS IN SUCCESSFUL FARMING. 69 the mowing machine. I know of a farm of which I happen to have photographs of three generations of mowing ma- chines, — a 4-foot, 5-foot and an 8-foot, — and the 8-foot draws easier than anj of the others, tires the horses less, also, because the 4-foot machine was built when the horses had to draw a mowing machine that went northeast when you went northwest. That is economy, — a straight im- provement in machinery. So, all the way through farmers are getting to use more horsepower; and a horse, properly directed, is equal to ten men. Question. Are you willing to admit that on a good many farms it would require three horses tO' plow what two would do on another farm ? Professor Wakren. Certainly, certainly; but per man it holds just the same. If the driver is driving two on that farm, or three, and somebody else is driving one, he will plow more acres' per man, but not any more per horse, ordi- narily. Question. Can you compare the records of one man keep- ing 20 cows and selling cream, and another keeping 20 cows and selling milk ? Professor Warken. I had those slides, but I left them in the hotel because I didn't want to mix this subject up. Mar- ket milk pays considerably better than any other dairy product. You have the same cost for dairying with market milk that you do with the other. Question. At what rate per quart ? Professor Warren. At the rate we get in 'New York State in any county, and in Massachusetts it will be more emphatic, because you don't get for your butter proportion- ately more than you do for your milk. I am more in favor of market milk in this State than with us, because you make more on your milk than you do on your butter. You don't get any more than they do in Illinois for butter, unless you retail it. Mr. R. H. Race. I would like to know what is the prac- tical application of this morning's address. Are we going to stay on the farm, or hire out for $60 a month ? Professor Warren. You are not going to get into the $60 70 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. class, but unless you are going to make more than $60 you had better not stay on the farm, because you are worth more than that in the world. The practical application is to have enough acres so that you are going to get enough crops to keep your horses busy. Xow, one-half of the farmers in America rent all their land ; that is one way. Another way is, suppose you own some land and not enough, you can rent some of your neighbor ; and one-fifth of the farmers in America do that. Another way: there are just lots of farmers, good farmers, who would be benefited, particularly if they are young men, if they would dare to go in debt and buy some land near them. Still another way is not to buy at first the land for farming, but to be a tenant long enough until you get money ahead. Be a hired man until you get money enough to buy a lame horse or two or three, and don't change too soon from a hired man to an owner. Be a tenant until you have got money enough to buy two or three acres of some man, and then you can buy that and rent some more ; and you can do that little jtrick of throwing the hay over onto yours without taking the manure back, and that is usually done. [Laughter.] It isn't necessary to have all the money in the United States to get into farming that way. The man who has $2,000 can be a tenant on a big farm and do a big business and beat the men with a little patch all to pieces. Another way is, if you have got good enough land, to make the business pay on the same acreage by going into trucking; but don't all raise truck. There is enough pro- duced in Massachusetts now to supply most of the people, and you know what happens to truck crop prices when you get too much. Don't do it unless you have got good land. Now, about the cows. You have got to buy them because you don't raise them much in this State. You can't afford to feed 4-cent milk to calves unless you are fairly sure you will some day get the money back. You can raise some cows, but be critical ; don't raise . a calf merely because it is a heifer. Raise only the very cream of them. Now, as to crops, you don't need to get a double crop yield. If you get 25 per cent better than your neighbor, you are going to do pretty well. No. 4.] FACTORS IN SUCCESSFUL FARMING. 71 Those are the practical applications, it seems to me, and if you give me those figures, those four factors I spoke about, I can tell jou, practically, how much money you will make, and perhaps tell you where the weak point is. Now, there isn't much satisfaction in going out and making that $2 a month on a farm just because some newspaper has said it is a good thing to get back to the land and hear the robins sing. There is no pleasure in hearing a robin sing Avhen you are getting only $2 a month and your wages. Mr. Potter. I don't quite understand what the method is of making comparisons between large and small farms. For instance, do you go along a road and pick out a good large farm and then go along and pick out a small one ? It doesn't seem to me that you get a fair comparison be- tween the large and the small. Professor Warken. We take absolutely every farm in a section, and that is the only fair comparison. That is a question which we have to answer daily. We take abso- lutely every farm, good and bad, big and little, and have made the figures from all of them. Mr. Potter. That is what I didn't understand. I thought you said 600 farms. Professor Warren. Well, those are all within that re- gion ; those are all the farms operated by their owners. I didn't put the tenant farmers in that slide, because I didn't want to confuse you. We find, of course, great variations. But what is the limit ? Why, to move up a step better, you don't need a million acres. A farm of 200 acres, with 100 in crops, or 300 acres with 150 acres in crops, is a good farm ; but when you get down to less than 80 acres of crops you have got to figure some to find a fair profit. Mr. Wilder.. Did you find those figures all prepared, or did you have to do some preliminary work in getting them ? Professor Warren. We get them by asking the farmer all his sales. It takes about a quarter of a day to get them on each farm, on the average, and I feel that we get them with a great degree of accuracy because of the way in which we ask. If we ask a farmer M'hat his receipts are, he doesn't know, but if we say, " How much did vou eet for vour 72 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. milk ? " he is probably able to tell ; then we check it up by going to the creamery and seeing if his method is accurate. If we ask him for his total expenses, he doesn't always know, but if I say, " How much did you spend for horseshoeing ? " his wife will be right around there to jog his memory, you bet, and you will get pretty close to it. We say, " How much was your threshing bill ? " and we get that, because he knows he had so many oats, and so forth, and he gives us the yield and we know there is so much oats, and at so much a bushel, and we get the threshing bill in that way, and so we can check it right straight along, and check up all the points, because we know most of these things. Then we have the cost accounts on a good many farms which help us. Then you can ask him his yield in hay and you can judge by the barn capacity whether he overestimated it or not. Then, you see, these conclusions are very sweeping. When a man gets $3 and another $3 and another $3, right straight through, and one fellow overestimates a couple of dollars on his horse- shoeing bill, you see it doesn't make any great difference in the end. Mr. Race. ISTow, the speaker discourages buying a farm and starting in with a small field, but a man hasn't any courage to work for a home on a hired farm. The farm should have a home value. Then he hasn't said anything about the boys who leave home, the best of them, who leave their fathers on the farms that aren't good enough for them to do farming on. I was talking with a big milk dealer in Port Chester, a suburb of 'Rew York, the other day, and he said he owned a farm in Egremont on which he had 30 cows, and he says to me, " I have sold the milk from those cows and I have got the money to show ; it was $4,000 last season." He hired a man, a boss farmer. He doesn't do any work on his farm, but the boss farmer is working it, doing work for another man. He says to me, " I have got too big a farm. I have 130 acres and we have got to come to a smaller farm." Now, that is true ; we have got to come to the smaller farm to get the boys that have gone away to come back to the farm. The boys want to go to the city where they get the salaries. We only produce 7 per cent more in this county No. 4.] FACTORS IN SUCCESSFUL FARMING. 73 than we consume all told ; that is what the State Board of Agriculture put out, and we are getting down pretty close. If we should have a famine we should have to go to Russia to get something to eat. A fellow goes to the city and gets $60 or $70 a month, pays $30 for house rent, and all things, and where is his money ? The cashier of a bank in Great Barrington said the other day something which I want to re- peat to you. I said to him, " Who are your depositors in your bank ? Who are the most reliable ? Where does the most money come from that you can depend on ? He says, " The farmers." " How about the business men ? " And he says, " They overdraw their accounts every month." Professor Waeren. Perhaps we had better turn it around the other way, about boys leaving the farm. We have studied this thing, and it isn't all hot air, as it is in the papers. We went to every farmhouse and said, " How many children have you ? " We asked them, " What is each child doing?" We got the occupation of the daughters, the hus- bands, the sons, found what they were doing, and found that 82 per cent of the sons were staying on the larger farms of 200 acres and over. I don't remember the exact percentage on the small farms, but it was about 29 per cent. The sons will not stay on the small farms where there is nothing for them to do. Mr. Race. Then a man had better buy a farm right side of his and put the boy on it. Professor Warren. That is business. [Laughter and applause.] Suppose you have got 8 cows and 15 acres of hay and a little corn silage and a little oats and have got four sons and, of course, you aren't dead yet yourself — Mr. Race. Then I would have four farms right around there and work them between the four sons. Professor Warren. And tJiat is business, too ; and then you get your 200 acres, [Applause.] The little farm busi- ness is a question of whether you are going to starve to death or not. The crop yield per acre on the large farm is as good, or better, than on the small. Furthermore, on the small farm the horse eats up about all it earns, and there is nothing much left. The 200-acre farms are contributing 74 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. much more per acre for human food as a surplus to sell than the small ones. If a horse; cuts 5 acres of hay, he eats the whole thing up, pretty nearly, but when a horse is farm- ing 30 acres of crops, perhaps 10 or 15 of that will be hay, — and it runs more than that in !New England, — and then he doesn't eat it all. The yield per acre is better on the larger farms, or just as good, and since there are fewer horses per acre, they don't eat it all up, and the larger also contributes more to human food. Now, if you want to get to the bottom end of nowhere, just take, for example, Rus- sia, or go further, to China, and see what they are doing there. Professor Gilmore, who has worked over there, says their greatest problem is the lack of men. They can't build railroads because every man has to work on the farm to keep himself. Each gets his little bit of a farm, and man- ages to scratch out a bare living for himself; he doesn't have anything to sell to feed the fellows who build the rail- roads. You have got to have a smaller and smaller per- centage of our population oij the soil, or civilization stops. With 100 per cent farmers we have no civilization; and the smaller the percentage of farmers, the higher the civilization. In America one man raises food enough to feed five families, while in China three men raise onlv enough to feed four families, and so they haven't men enough to build their rail- roads. They have got to open up Manchuria and get some farms big| enough so that one man will raise enough to feed two or three, and until they can release men from those little truck patches they won't be building any railroads. Oh, I had forgotten. There was that other question of Mr. Race's in regard to home value. The figures I am giving you are what the farmer gets for his labor. If he does not have any other source of income than the farm he must get a reasonable wage before he can have much of a home value there. The farmers who don't get more than $2 a day for wages, besides interest on their capital, are not living in a home that is very valuable, and the sons aren't impressed with the desirability of that sort of home. We have got to have a reasonable income, and your little farm doesn't give it. I showed you one of 11 acres, but that is a muck patch. No. 4.] FACTORS IN SUCCESSFUL FARMING. 75 You can't get such results up on the granite hillside with 11 acres. I believe, though, that the little farm is going to do great things for the city worker ; not the millionaire who has a big place, but the small worker in the factory. I believe we are going to get the factories out into the smaller towns, where the employees can live near the town and have truck patches ; where they can earn a part of their support, and raise children and crops while at work in the factories. I believe most thoroughly in every city worker, who can, living on a farm. That is the home question. He has another source of income, and he doesn't have to sell anything from his farm. It makes a good place where he can bring up his children. But of course that isn't farming. Farming is taking land and out of that land creating enough money income so that vou can educate vour children, and so that vou can have readino- matter in vour home, and music in vour home if you want it. That takes a reasonable wage, and I have shown you this morning the four most important factors in making that reasonable wage. Farming is not a bad busi- ness ; it is a good business if you like it and if you have got the thing organized on a reasonable basis, I^ow, I have not tried to compare farming with city occu- pations. I have compared farming with farming to show how to make one farm pay as well as the next pays, whether either is good, bad or indifferent ; that isn't the subject this morning. When you try to compare farming with city wages you have got a pretty complicated problem, which we have no time to discuss this morning. Mr. Worth. Now, before any questions are asked, Mr. P. M. Ilarwood would like to make a statement while the gentlemen are all here. 76 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Pub. Doc. " PKOTECTION FROM FLIES " CONTEST. MR. P. M. HARWOOD. / Yesterday I promised that if I could I would obtain from the office and ready, to you what we had written in relation to the " protection Y^om flies " contest. Perhaps I ought to say, for the benefi\ of those who were not here yesterday, that the State of Massachusetts has offered sums of money not to exceed $5,000 p^r year for three consecutive years for the encouragement o% dairying. Only one-fifth of what was asked for was granted us. We have aimed at two points : one, to encourage clean iivilk, — the production of clean milk in the pails before it is '^trained ; therefore prizes were offered totaling $2,100 for mt|k which appeared to be the cleanest. We have also awardeA prizes for dairies protected from flies. Now, if we ^an inojice dairymen to be more cleanly in their methods of milkmg, keeping the dirt out and keeping the flies out, we think "we have accomplished a good deal, and we think that a better way than penalizing people for not doing what they should do is to encourage them by giving prizes for doing bettek Nothing has ap- pealed to me since I came to this meeting: as have the words of many of the unsuccessful contestants (i^iX4 being the total number, only 20 ,of whom could be succeJ^ful), who have told me that they/will try again if they have an opportunity ; they say that tjaey have learned more in thisXcontest about the production'' of clean milk than they ever knew before in all their experience of years in dairying. This is en- couraging./^ \ I want to say just a word about taking advantage of the psychological moment. Mr. Kenneth E. Webb, winner of the second prize in the eastern section, was here yesterday QH)t €ommonxocati\) of ittassacIiuBctts, STATE BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. CIRCULAR No. 21. June, 1914. BREEDING AND FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE. By F. E. Duffy. From the Sixtt-first Annual Report of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture. BOSTON : WEIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 32 DERNE STREET. 1914. Approved by The State Board of Publication. BREEDING AND FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE. MR. F. E. DUFFY, "WEST HARTFORD, CONN. May the day soon come when no man who does not love the dairy cow shall feed or breed her. I use the word " love " advisedly. The good breeder to my mind is the one who joys to minister to her wants, delights in her presence during his waking hours, goes to his rest to dream of a more perfect dairy type of his breed yet to be, and if he is a pray- ing man, the prayer of his heart will be that the dairy cow which he breeds may more nearly approximate perfection. I say that every breeder of dairy cattle should love his particular breed and should recognize it as his life work to perfect the type or ideal of that breed. May his love be as great and his discretion greater than that of an old Scotch- man whom I once knew, who was never profane unless the transcendent qualities of his well-loved "Ayrshire coos" were called in question. He declared that when a man in Scotland rented land, if he was wise in agriculture he would buy a "bunch" of "Ayrshire coos," and if he breeds them "well for a ten year" he could pay for his farm; and if he keeps the increase " well for five year more " he could buy his neiffhbor's farm; and if he learned his business and " tended his coos well until he was fifty year old " he could buy every farm that joined him. How much of this description was born of the Scotchman's enthusiasm I must leave you to judge. But this I know, that on a beautiful May day in the 90's I was present at a sale of his dairy cattle, and the best breeders of Ayrshires in the country had traveled many a weary mile to this farm in the back country at Hemmingford, Quebec. The farm was six miles from a railroad, and yet this herd was sold to these breeders for three times the amount that Mr. Clellan was able to get for his farm. I have cited this instance, and I might cite numberless like ones, as a proof of a position that I am about to take that is not eagerly assented to in ]!s^ew England. It is this : that breeding registered dairy cattle of any of the four dairy breeds is the most profitable kind of dairying for 90 per cent of the peojDle engaged in the dairy industry in ISTew England. I except the men who make mar- ket milk and who live in close proximity to our cities. But I am inclined to the opinion that even they might be in- cluded and the truth of the proposition still be verified. In attemj)ting to substantiate this statement I shall try to cover the whole scope of my subject. Whether I will or no I must invite the young men of the rural communities to engage in breeding and feeding the dairy cow. Is it worth while ? Is there anything in this constant bab- bling about back to the land and keeping the young people on the farm ? Something, perhaps ; but its importance has been greatly exaggerated. ' There are enough agricultural products, and especially dairy products, produced already to meet every reasonable demand. In the beginning this country was populated practically by farmers alone, but as inventions have aided the farmer he has been able to dis- pense with much manual labor, until to-day 60 per cent of the population dwell in the cities and only 40 per cent on the farm. As inventions continue to multiply, and they certainly will, less and less people proportionally will be re- quired on the farm. This is as it should be. What needs to be remedied is extortionate transportation charges and the excessive costs of distribution. The city papers should teach their readers that the agricultural industry is the only industry in this country that is on a strictly competitive basis. Farming is the only industry in the country that welcomes every comer to its ranks, the city editor included, and furnishes them with all the instruction at its command to compete with us and to help lower the cost of our products. If the " back to the land " propaganda could be carried out it would bring about another agricultural depression in prices and another exodus of country people to the cities ; and so on ad infinitum. I do not believe we are in any great danger of such a repetition of history. American lands are nearly developed, and the population of our cities will continue to increase much faster than the farming population. Furthermore, whether or no agriculture is to become a profession, it is rapidly being divided into distinct branches, and each branch to be carried on effectively requires a high degree of intelli- gence and skill. As the years go by the intelligence and training given by the schools and the skill obtained by prac- tice will receive greater and greater rewards. Herein is your opportunity, young man. You will be paid according to the intelligence, training and skill you acquire in breeding and feeding dairy cattle, and if you possess these attributes in a high degi'ee your reward will compare favorably to that to be had in any other industry. But you say : What about the teachings of our " modern " agricultural papers, that are so glibly reciting that success can be insured by using a few well-meant recipes of how to conduct a farm according to the rules of scientific agricul- ture as laid down in their columns ? I have this to say about their teachings, that they are mostly prepared by newspaper reporters out of a job. Their reports of profits of men who merely take up agriculture as a pastime are truly wonderful. These reports and their wonderful figures bring to mind the dictum of Carroll D. Wright ; " While figures will not lie, liars will figure." Xor is this type of agricultural paper the only agency that is deceiving the people in this respect. This country is spending large sums of monej^ collecting statistics that remind one of D'Israeli's saying that " There are lies, damn lies, and statistics." We have also officials in this country who from these figures draw equally unusual conclusions. A very distinguished official recently " demon- strated " by such figures that in the course of the advance in prices in this country the farmer had reaped a reward out of all proportion to that of the man engaged in an;y other industry. To prove his statement he cited the profits of raising corn. He stated that the value of an acre of corn, including forage, was $16, and proved by his figures that 25 6 per cent of this was net profit, leaving $12 as the expense of raising the crop. Now it is a fact that an acre of corn of the weights given by him depletes the soil of $12 worth of fertility. I have taken so much of your time to correct the common error of to-day in many quarters in underestimating the im- portance, and the possible profits, of the breeding of dairy cattle. The breeding of registered dairy cattle, if done skill- fully and intelligently, is the most profitable kind of dairy husbandry. It is a business requiring skill and intelligence of that order that is possessed by the New England farm boy who has learned how to do well every task on one of these little four or five cow hill farms. I would have him possess a good common school education in addition to his farm edu- cation, and besides that all the higher education he can get, providing it can be done in a reasonable time and does not estrange him from the cow and her care. Every breeder should read the agi'icultural papers, especially the dairy press, and without fail he must study the breed paper of his dairy breed. He should get in as close touch as possible with the agTicultural college in his State. The best dairy man that I have ever known received his inspiration for work from a six weeks' course in dairying. He should be a . member of the Dairymen's Association of his State, also of the Jersey, Holstein, Guernsey or Ayrshire associations. I would recommend VanPelt's " Cow Demonstration " for a handbook, and Davenport's " Principles of Breeding " for a textbook, on breeding. He should also spend an hour each day reading the best English authors on breeding dairy cattle. He must possess skill in judging the dairy cow, and to get it should see and study every great dairy cow of his breed within one hundred miles of his home. He must know his score card and be able to see the fault or merit of each particular organ. That such a life work is a delightful one all may admit ; but what about the fellow who says it won't pay? It is paying on tens of thousands of dairy farms in America to-day. It pays even if only the increased value of the dairy product is considered. In my own experience in breeding in eight years I was enabled to increase the dairy product of my herd SSYs per cent, and to increase the price of that product as well. One breeder in Connecticut has sold $10,- 000 worth of stock during the last year from a farm of 150 acres. Now, my boy, if you go at this business right and select a good woman as your partner (using the greatest pre- caution in her selection, for you will never make a more im- portant one), you may be assured of a just return for your labor. The New England dairymen who are raising regis- tered cattle as a part of their dairy enterprise are the only dairymen in New England that are receiving the profit that they should from their business. If a young man and his wise counsellor are about to make their first investment in registered dairy stock, how shall it be done ? If the education that I have outlined has been neglected, then they are poorly equipped for this task. The prime requisite in a breeding herd is a good bull ; and great bulls are sons of great mothers. So the buyer must know the mother, and if possible the grand dams; and much care should be given in studying these matrons. Skill in select- ing good dairy cows can be acquired by any New England boy of a good common school education who will put his best energies into the work. Selection of the bull is the greatest factor in building up the dairy herd; but the judg- ing of the dam of the bull must precede the examination of the bull himself. The best method of studying the dairy cow is to study the cow herself. Get a thorough understanding of the score card ; get a course in an agricultural college if possible ; get all the help you can from dairy papers, bulletins and books on breeding ; but with all your getting, get a thorough knowl- edge of that particular cow. Study a good cow at every op- portunity, and if the opportunity does not present itself often enough, make opportunities by visiting the best herds in the country. This must be field work. Any discussion of the subject can only be suggestive. This afternoon we will briefly touch upon five points : the indications of constitution, of capacity, of nervous tempera- ment, of blood circulation and of ability to produce. Con- stitution is indicated by the large open nostril, large wind- pipe, depth from the top of the shoulder to the floor of the chest, and breadth of chest. These indications must be pos- sessed by the cows close up in our bull's pedigree if he is to be the progenitor of a great herd of dairy animals. The mother of our bull, and the grandmothers as well, must have capacity to digest large quantities of food without destroy- ing their future usefulness. It is not enough to know that these cows have done a good year's work, but that they are able to repeat the performance for a period of years. She should have a large mouth, and, what is of equal importance, width, depth and strength of jaw. She should have a long, broad, deep barrel, though length is not of as great im- portance as breadth and depth. She should have broad, flat, well-sprung ribs; but more important than these is that indefinable thing that judges call quality; and here, the eye failing, the judge of the dairy cow must determine by the feel of the' texture of the hide and hair whether the cow has strength and efficiency to properly digest her food. The cow must have a strong nervous temperament also if she is to digest her food well and secrete the milk neces- sary to make her a profitable animal. The large, bright, prominent, jDlacid eye, and the intelligent expression indi- cate this type of nervous temperament. The spinal processes should be open and free from fat, not large but sharj) and clean cut. The hips and ribs should also be free from fat, sharp and well defined. This matter of nervous temperament must not be sliffhted. Sit around and watch her for a half an hour if you are thinking of buying her. See that she is ever at her work and is not easily disturbed. The mammary veins and milk wells are the best indica- tions of a strong circulation. The veins should be long, large and as tortuous as may be. If they enter the abdomen through many milk wells so much the better. The milk wells should be large and clean cut. Study well also the udder and its attachment. Insist on the large, broad, spheri- cal udder running way to the front and attached high in the rear and level on the bottom. Avoid the pendant and tilted udders. The thigh must be thin and incurving, to 9 give room for that breadth of udder so necessary to secure the requisite size. You should see the cow milked to make sure that the udder is entirely free from hard fatty tissue, and that the quality and texture is all that is to be desired. In brief, the udder should be imiform and symmetrical, spherical, and the quarters smoothly joined, with four easily milked teats of good size. Do not forget to demand the size, and remember that the udder cannot be attached too high in the rear, have too great breadth, or run too far to the front. If the mother of the bull possesses all these qualities in a marked degree she should be a comely matron ; and if she has grace and beauty she is worthy to be the mother of our bull. Possibly we might excuse the grand dams if they were only fairly good in some of these points, but any marked weak- ness in any one of them should be sufficient to cause us to reject the bull himself and look further for our dairy sire. The pedigree of the bull being satisfactory, what shall we demand of the animal himself? He should possess the re- finement and form of the dairv cow as far as is consistent tj with a strong masculinity, but do not let us confuse ugliness or beefiness with masculinity. He should have all the indi- cations of constitution, capacity, strong nervous tempera- ment, well-marked mammary veins and milk wells, with as large and well-placed rudimentaries as it is possible to get. He should possess majesty, beauty, power and be every inch a king. I have not mentioned the sire and grandsires, be- cause I should be inclined to greater leniency in judging them than in judging the cows. But I should require of them the same general type sought for in my dairy sire. Having selected my herd bull, I would next look for the females to mate with him. I would, if possible, select two or more registered cows or heifers, animals possessing constitu- tion, capacity, nervous temperament, and the indications of circulation and ability even if heifers, for these qualities are stamped on the calf if possessed in a strong degree. And above all things see to it that your heifers or cows are sired by a great bull, as the daughters of a sire inherit his excel- lencies or defects with almost unfailing accuracy. If my capital were limited (and the breeders on small farms whom 10 I am most interested in will have a small capital to commence on) I would secure teny twenty or thirty good grades of big capacity and ability, with all the other points of excellence that grades can be found to possess. I would keep ten or twenty cows, and so on, increasing by tens, as these are the nimibers that one or two or more men can economically care for. Having selected or retained a herd of cattle (for many times it is much better to retain grades of kno^vn profitable production rather than to risk the hazards of purchase) it is now necessary to consider from a broader standpoint how to establish a registered herd of the best quality. We must remember that a great producing animal is the product of the three factors of wise selection, good environ- ment and skillful feeding. It is folly to attempt to breed a great herd of cattle without a good cow home to put them in. Sunlight and pure air are as free as the grace of God, and they are necessary to the uplift of the bovine family. The laws of Connecticut, and I doubt not of Massachusetts, are stringent in requiring the access of light and also as to pro- viding good ventilation, but in Connecticut the laws to secure ventilation are not so well worked out. But if our herd is to be healthy and productive our stable must be well ventilated and free from odors. The King system of ventilation is best. It is simple, cheap and can be put into any stable. Muslin ventilation comes next. Every stable should be as well lighted as the living room of the family. The old farm stable can be made comfortable and sanitary, but if we have skillfully selected our herd it will pay for a better one as the years pass. The good dairy cow should be well fed from the day she is born until she has finished her life work. I leave the calf with the cow for five days, until the mother's milk is fit for use. I then give 1 quart of milk, diluted with 1 pint of water, three times daily for five more days, and then feed 2 quarts of milk so diluted morning and evening for three weeks ; and during the next week skim milk is substituted for the whole milk. For the first three or four feeds I sweeten the milk with 2 tablespoonfuls of granulated sugar, so that the calf may more readily learn to drink. The calf should be given grain and hay as soon as it 11 will take them, and should have all it will take of these until it is a year old. The haj should be rowen or early cut fine hay, preferably clover, or alfalfa after the calf is six months old. For the next six months the heifer should consume a large quantity of good hay and 4 pounds of grain per day, if not on excellent pasture. There are many ex- cellent mixtures of grain. We are using a mixture of corn- meal and bran, each one part, and dry grains, two parts, for feeding our young stock. If bred to freshen, at two years of age, the heifer should have an increase of grain after she is eighteen months old. I gradually increase the grain from 4 to 8 pounds up to ten days before calving. If there is any sign of caked udder or fever I give a pound of Epsom salts three or four days before calving. I use the same treatment for cows about to calve. Eemember that the heifer carrying her first calf should have all the feed she needs, and of a highly nitrogenous nature. For this reason I w^ould use silage only once a day, but would jDrefer beet pulp or roots. The hay should be clover or alfalfa if obtainable, but if not, early cut, fine hay should be fed a growing heifer, calf or dairy cow. The quality of a dairyman or breeder may be very accurately rated by the quality of the hay that he feeds. Hay for a dairy herd should be stored by July 10, and preferably by July 4. Hay stored later should only be used to feed horses or oxen. I hesitate to discuss the feeding of the milch cow, as in our State, at least, there seems to be such a wide belief in a few simple glib rules that do work fairly well, and if taken at their true value would really be of considerable aid in feeding. A cow in my opinion can no more be fed by rule than can a man. The balanced ration, the number of pounds of grain to the number of pounds of milk, when, and how to feed, all are matters that admit of such variations as the skillful feeder only can apply. I shall oifer no dairy rations, but I shall say that the feeder who cannot prepare a balanced ration at a moment's notice is ill fitted for his work, and furthermore the feeder who will not change the composition of the ration as the. cow indicates the need of a change, by putting on flesh or losing 12 flesh, has not acquired that skill in feeding that might be his for a reasonable effort. In a word, learn all the rules of feeding you may, but always test them out on the cow. If the evidence given by the cow contradicts the rule, be- lieve the cow, every time. The skilled eye and hand of the successful breeder and feeder is the thing to be sought, with sufficient knowledge of the nutrients as an aid in the selec- tion of feeds. One point on which all skillful feeders will agree is that the value in feeding of a good quality of coarse forage cannot be overestimated. Grain cannot take the place of early cut, well cured alfalfa, clover, or rowen hay, and the quality and curing of silage is of almost as much im- portance; while roots, especially beets, tone up the digestive organs to do their most effective work. My experience is that the narrow ration is the more ef- ficient, but an easily digested carbohydrate is added fre- quently, and if good results are obtained it is retained for a few weeks and then withdrawn and the consequences watched. During extreme cold weather- a quart of hominy or cornmeal can be added to advantage and then dropped when the weather moderates. The hair and hide of the cow are the first index of overfeeding. The skillful feeder notes his cow and prevents a breakdown. Henry, on " Feeds and Feed- ing," should be the feeder's textbook, and he should read the best dairy papers. If our voimo; breeder will care for his reaistered bull and females, study their needs and retain their increase, adding to them another heifer or two as he is able; will study and reflect on their care, and, as Josh Billings has said, emulate the merits of a postage stamp in sticking to one thing, he will live to bless the day that he began to breed registered dairy cattle. Mr. F. A. Judith. I would like to ask if a dairyman can afford to pay $27 a ton for alfalfa when he can buy fair mixed hay for $20. Mr. Duffy. Well, that depends on what you call fair mixed hay. Was it cut by the 20th of June ? Mr. Judith. Yes. Our hay is cut in good season ; that 13 is, it is cut along the latter part of June, perhaps the middle to the latter part. It consists of clover, timothy and red top. Mr. Duffy. Well, now, that of course would depend alto- gether on the quality of the hay, and I wouldn't want to say offhand I wouldn't buy it, but I actually believe from my experience to-day that if I had some corking good cows I could afford to buy the alfalfa. I still believe that I have stood in my own light when I would not buy beet pulp and sell timothy. I had one of the best fields of clover two years ago I ever raised, and for some unknown reason it was filled with alsike, but I have taken it out and am feeding alfalfa, and I know I am doing the right thing and I am getting big returns. I wouldn't dare to feed that hay. Xow, about ten days after we got through haying at my farm, a friend of mine invited me down to Storrs. It was around the 25th of July; we went from Hartford in an automobile to Storrs, and I was perfectly astounded to see the dairymen along the road putting in hay to feed their dairy cattle. Why, they couldn't expect to succeed. They have no right to succeed and don't succeed. 'Now, people say dairying doesn't pay, and they are trying to find out what is the reason. Well, there are men who are making dairying pay, even at the prices for market milk in Boston and Hartford; men are making money producing milk of that kind; but there are also others who are not. The men who are making the monev are the men who are working along the right line, in that and every special line of agriculture. In Connecticut they are making money, but they know how to do the thing and do it right' and the fellow who is kicking and says he can't make it pay has got to think it over and change his method. Mr. Lee. I would like to ask about beet pulp. Do you shorten your grain ration ? Do you feed the pulp wet ? Mr. Duffy. Feed it wet, and do not shorten the grain ration very much. Mr. Lee. It is rather expensive, but mighty good. Mr. Duffy. When you get $400 or $500 worth of milk by feeding it, what do you care? If you can increase your yield, what difference does it make ? 14 Mr. Lee. That is true. Mr. Duffy. I don't believe that makes any difference so long as you can increase the product for the average cow from 15 to 25 per cent, if you have got the right kind of cow. Question. How much beet pulp do you feed in a day ? Mr. Duffy. Not over 5 or 6 pounds, and when you begin to feed silage, not over 3 or 4. Professor Brooks. Mr. Chairman, I want to emphasize, if I may, what the speaker has said concerning the importance of good, fine, mixed hay, like clover. Many of you have been on the grounds of the Agricultural College in Amherst. We have about 30 acres, which is really part of our campus. We do not like to break it up on account of its proximity to the college buildings, so it has been kept permanently in grass, without being plowed, for about thirty years. It is top dressed with fertilizer and does admirably. The prevailing species are Kentucky blue grass, white clover, red clover, fescue and some orchard grass, no doubt a little timothy. That land produces usually about 2 tons of hay to the acre. We mean to cut it every year before Commencement, which is about the 20th of June. In successful seasons, favorable seasons, that is, with well-distributed and sufficient rains, the white clover is sometimes at the level of my knees. I have never seen so tall and so luxuriant white clover else- where. Now, we have had a good deal of experience in feeding this hay to dairy cows, in comparison with other hays, not excepting alfalfa, and Mr. Forestall, whom many of you know, and who is a good judge of dairy cows and a good feeder, told me that whenever he changed from alfalfa to the hay from these old mowings, he noted an increase in the milk ; and Dr. Ramsey, whom many of you know by reputa- tion, has told me more than once that he would get about 3 pints of milk pel* cow more when feeding this hay than when feeding an ordinary mixture of timothy, red top and clover. I don't wish anything that I say to influence any of you against growing alfalfa. It is a splendid crop, which we ought to grow wherever we can, but we should not forget that our own familiar grasses and white clover and alsike 15 clover will give us a splendid hay wbicli will compare very favorably with the very best of alfalfa. Question. I would like to ask Professor Brooks what fertilizer he puts on this land. Professor Brooks. A mixture of basic slag and sulphate of potash, about 500 pounds to the acre of the slag meal and 150 of high-grade sulphate of potash. On some parts of the mowing, in place of the high-grade sulphate, we have used low-grade sulphate on the top, 300 pounds to the acre; and in other parts, in addition to the slag meal and potash, we are using nitrate of soda in varying quantities, from 150 pounds to the acre, on some portions, to 250 pounds on others. With slag and potash in the quantities which I have indi- cated, and adding about 150 pounds of the nitrate of soda, we get a splendid crop with a large proportion of clover. ®:i)c ^ommonrDealtt) ^f iWasBacl)ii0ett0. STATE BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. CIRCULAR No. 22 October, 1914. THE ARMY WORM By Dr. H. T. Fernald. From the Sixtt-second Ankual Report of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture. BOSTON: WEIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 32 DERNE STREET. 1914. Approved by The State Board of Publication. THE ARMY WORM, {Heliophila unipuncta, Haworth.) By Dr. H. T. Fernald. The army worm is widely distributed over the United States and from time to time causes considerable loss. Usually it is not abundant, but after a period of a dozen or more years it suddenly appears in large numbers, feeding upon various plants, and marching in armies attracts much attention. The present season has been one of its years of unusual abundance in Massachusetts, and this has led to many inquiries about the insect, its habits, methods of con- trol and the chances that it may reappear another year. These inquiries have led to the publication of this paper. History. Records of previous years of abundance of the army worm in Massachusetts are not as complete as could be desired. Nevertheless, old diaries and journals give some evidence as to early periods of abundance in New England, which may be of interest. Flint summarizes weather and crop conditions from records from various sources. Here we learn that "the next dry summer was in 1666, when most of the grain was scorched up and the Indian corn eaten by the worms. In 1743 there were millions of devouring worms in armies, threatening to cut off every green thing. In 1770 'a very uncommon sort of worm called the canker worm ate the corn and grass all as they went above ground which cut short the crops in many places.'" As the true canker worms feed on the foliage of trees, the use of this name here is manifestly incorrect. This appearance of the insect is also recorded by Noah Webster, and in more detail by Powers, as follows: "In the summer of 1770 this whole section of country was visited by an extraordinary calamity. . . . It was an army of worms which extended from Lancaster, New Hampshire, to Northfield in Massachusetts. They began to appear the latter part of July, 1770, and con- tinued their ravages until September. The inhabitants de- nominated them the "Northern Army," as they seemed to advance from the north or northwest and pas? east and south, though I do not learn that they ever passed the high lands between the Connecticut and Merrimack rivers." The caterpillar had "a stripe upon the back like black vel- vet; on either side a yellow stripe from end to end; and the rest of the body was brown. . . . There were fields of corn on the meadows in Haverhill and Newbury standing so thick, large and tall that in some instances it was difficult to see a man standing more than a rod in the field from the outermost row; but in ten days from the first appearance of the Northern Army nothing remained of this corn but the bare stalks! . . . About the first of September the worms suddenly disappeared. ... In just eleven years afterward, in 1781, the same kind of worm appeared again, and the fears of the people were much excited, but they were comparatively few in number, and no one of the kind has ever been seen since." Webster states that in 1790 large numbers of army worms appeared in Connecticut and were very destructive. In 1817 this insect appeared in Worcester County in great abundance, and again in many places in 1860 (Fitch). Fitch's report, though dated 1860 and published in 1861, contains some internal evidence that events which occurred in 1861 may have been included, and it is probable that the invasion was in the latter year, as was the case in Mas- sachusetts and in the country at large. Round records the appearance of the army worm in 1882 in Massachusetts. The next appearance of the insect in this State was in 1894, when it was abundant in the southeastern part of the State, and in some towns in Franklin County, followed in 1896 by its general abundance throughout New England. This was the last time the insect was abundant until the present season (1914), when it has been very generally present over southeastern Massachusetts, in a number of towns north of Boston, in some parts of Worcester County, and in Long- meadow. It should be noted that particularly in the case of some of the older records given above the absolute identity of the insects concerned with the army worm is not conclusive. The probability of their being the same, however, is so great as to leave little doubt. The Present Invasion. During 1914 reports of the presence of the army worm began about the 20th of July and continued until about the 10th of August. These reports were mainly from points south of Boston and east of Mansfield, and the insects ap- pear to have been most abundant in the southern part of Plymouth County and in Barnstable, Dukes and Nantucket counties. From these reports the following list of towns in which the insect was reported has been prepared, much information on this point having been obtained by the kindness of the State Forester's office : — Abington. Arlington. Athol. Attleborough. Barnstable. Berkley. Boston. Bourne. Braintree. Brewster. Brighton. Brockton. Carver. Chatham. Chelmsford. Cohasset. Dartmouth. Dighton. Duxbury. East Bridgewater. Easton. Edgartown. Fairhaven. Fall River. Falmouth. Gloucester. Halifax. Hanover. Hanson. Harvard. Harwich. Hingham. Holbrook. Hj^annis. Longmeadow. Mansfield. Medford. Middleborough. Milford. Nantucket. Newbury. North Andover. Northbridge. Norton. Norwell. Oak Bluffs. Pembroke. PljTiiouth. Plympton. Raynham. Rochester, Rockland. Rockport. Salisbury. Scituate. Seekonk. Somerset. Swansea. Taunton. Tisbury. Topsfield. Wareham. West Boylston. West Bridgewater. Weymouth. Whitman. Worcester. Life and Habits. The life history of this insect varies in different parts of the country. In the south Dr. L. O. Howard considers that there may be as many as six generations a year. In New England the evidence indicates two generations, although possibly there may be but one in some portions of Massa- chusetts, this point not having been conclusively settled. Under these circumstances only a general outline of the life of the army worm can be given. It appears probable that in Massachusetts these insects pass the winter as partly grown caterpillars, which resume their feeding the following spring and upon reaching full size go a few inches into the ground and there transform into dark brown pupae (Fig. 1), in which condition they remain for two or three weeks. At the end of this period the insects have changed to moths which escape from the ground and fly at night, laying eggs for the next generation. The moths (Fig. 1) spread about an inch and a half and are rather uniformly brownish or reddish brown, with a single small white spot near the center of each fore wing above Fig. 1. — Adult army worm moth; eggs in grass sheath ; pupa. ( From Report of United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, 1879.) iM and a small black spot near the center of each hind wing beneath. These moths lay their eggs (Fig. 1) in rows of about twenty in a place, in the sheaths of the leaves of various grasses and grains, or on stubble, straw stacks, etc., several rows being sometimes placed on the same plant. The total num- ber of eggs laid by a single moth is perhaps five or six hundred. These eggs probably remain a week or ten days before hatching into tiny caterpillars which feed upon the plants. The time spent in this stage varies under different conditions, but it is probable that a month would be about the average. When full grown, the caterpillar (Fig. 2) is about an inch and a half long, with a velvety black band along its back from head to tail. At each side of this band is a narrow yellowish stripe, then a brown one, and lastly — nearly down the side to the legs — another yellowish stripe. These colors vary greatly, however, the most distinctive marking being the velvety black band on the back with the lighter band at each side. When through feeding, the caterpillars go into the ground, pupate and transform into moths, as already described for the earlier brood. The moths soon appear (they appeared the last of August and early in September in 1914) and lay their eggs, and the caterpillars from these feed for a time before winter, resuming their feeding in the spring. The moths this year were very noticeable toward night, feeding on honey dew on pear leaves where it had been left by the Pear Psylla, which was very abundant. 'From this outline, it is evident that the caterpillars feed late in the fall and early in the spring in one generation or brood, and during the summer in another. It appears to Fig. 2. — Caterpillar of army worm. (From Report of United suites Department of Agriculture, 1879.) 8 be always the latter generation which causes the devasta- tion and which marches in armies at times, giving the in- sect its name. The army worm appears to feed generally in low meadows, near swamps, and where various grasses have rank growth. Its appearance in large armies is not a usual or normal thing, but seems to be due to the exhaustion of its food or to such great abundance as to force it to spread to other places. In this spread the caterpillars all march in the same direction until new food supplies are available, where they continue feeding. The direction of the march varies in different localities. Though usually feeding only on grasses and grains, under the pressure of hunger, it may attack peas, beets, lettuce, cabbage, cauliflower, pigweed, cranberries and other plants. Losses and Methods of Control. The army worm may be very abundant without its presence being known, when it is feeding on low and neg- lected lands, around swamps and such places. When it leaves these localities, though, and marches off in search of more food, and particularly when it reaches and begins to attack some crop of value, it is quickly noticed, and its abundance usually develops the fear that the loss will be very great. The present season has illustrated this condition. Reports of enormous losses have been numerous from many places, but personal visits to some of these have failed to indicate any very great amount of destruction. Examination of many places where the loss was estimated at as much as $500 leads to the opinion that one-fifth of this amount would be more nearly correct. A member of the State Board who visited various parts of the towns of Bridgewater, Middleborough, Wareham, Carver, Plympton and Plymouth during the height of the invasion this year has supplied the following statement : — At the Bridgewater State Farm the army worms were very numer- ous, though Mr. Bacon, the farmer there, stated that the attack was not as bad as in 1896. The greatest injury was to oats and grass, and Caterpillars of army worm feeding on corn. (From Slingerland.) would perhaps reach $500. There were several smaller outbreaks in Bridgewater, but with slight money loss. Middleborough had numer- ous though small outbreaks, the total loss being estimated at $300. In Wareham some la^vns and small fields of grass were injured, the estimated loss being less than $100. Reports of damage to cranberry- bogs in Carver failed to be supported on investigation; a few mowing fields attacked indicated a loss of perhaps $100. In Plymouth no places were found where the insect was causing any appreciable injury. In these towns the whole question of damage has been much over- estimated without question, for all cases reported were followed up and always found to be much exaggerated. When the army worm is discovered in abundance, in its usual low-ground or swampy haunts, it may be controlled by spraying there with Paris green or arsenate of lead. If the former material be used, as much as 3 pounds of the Paris green to 75 gallons of water should be used; if arse- nate of lead be taken, at least 5 pounds to 50 gallons of water should be used. In either case the object of this is to destroy the caterpillars before they start to march to other fields, and after a treatment as strong as this the grass, or whatever the plants may be, cannot be used. Paris green at the strength named will probably burn the plants later. This treatment, then, sacrifices the grass, or whatever the caterpillars may be feeding upon, for the pur- pose of destroying the insects before they start for more valuable crops near by. When the insects are discovered on the march, or actually at work on growing crops, the method of control must be chosen to meet the particular conditions present in each case. If they are marching to a grass field, a strip across and just ahead of the line of march can be heavily sprayed as directed above. This particular strip will of course be at least partly eaten by the army, and anything remaining Avould be so heavily poisoned that it would be unsafe to feed to stock. But in this way protection for the fields be- yond may be obtained. Sometimes it is possible to place a thick strip of Tarvia (road oil) across the line of march. This should be kept fresh and renewed when necessary; sometimes a furrow plowed across, throwing the earth toward the army, is quite effective, the caterpillars finding 10 it difficult to crawl up the vertical side of the furrow, and crawling along it instead. About every 10 feet along the furrow a small hole should be dug in which the caterpillars collect, and where they can be destroyed by crushing or pouring in kerosene or quicklime. A band an inch or more deep of powdered lime (agricultural lime) has proved quite an effective barrier in some cases this year, and in others better results were obtained by plowing the furrow so as to throw the earth out on the side away from the caterpillars. In any case a furrow to be effective must be thoroughly dry. The dust band so frequently recommended did not prove satisfactory. Excellent results attended the use of a bran mash bait. This was prepared by taking 1 pound of Paris green, 25 pounds of bran or middlings, 2 quarts of cheap molasses, and water to make a thick mash when thoroughly stirred. This was placed in strips across the line of march or spread broadcast, and the caterpillars fed freely upon it. The drawback to this method is that fowls and many birds feed freely upon this mash and are also poisoned. This may also happen if birds feed upon poisoned caterpillars. Sometimes the army worms crawl up on the stems of grasses, grains, etc., and remain there feeding, so that materials placed on the ground, such as bran mash, do not reach them. In several instances two men with a rope stretched between them, walking across fields where this was the case, would knock off the caterpillars, which would then feed upon the poisoned bait below. If cranberry bogs are menaced from the sides, filling the ditches quite full of water should prove effective when this is possible. If not, and the worms can enter the bog or are already in it, spraying with arsenate of lead as already directed is probably the best treatment. Enemies. There are many enemies of the army worm. Birds feed freely upon it, and during the present season the State Ornithologist, Mr. E. H. Forbush, has collected reports that the "birds seen to feed on the army worms here and 11 in other places were: the chipping sparrow, English field sparrow, song sparrow, robin, flicker, bluebird, blackbird, king bird. We also found the brown thrasher and the towhee apparently feeding on the caterpillars, and people reported the cow bird, cat bird, pheasant, yellow-legs and Upland Plover feeding upon them. Robins appear to be among the most effective of all, and the English sparrows were quite numerous in the browned fields, and were seen time after time feeding on the caterpillar. The nearly extinct heath hen has increased under protec- tion so that there are hundreds of them now on Marthas Vineyard. They receive food in the infested fields in some numbers, and apparently were feeding on the army worm, but we could not get near enough to be positive of this even with our glasses." In addition, poultry and toads appear to consider this insect an excellent food, and devour manv of the cater- pillars. Numerous insects are also enemies of this pest. Among them are several kinds of Tachina flies, which are sometimes so numerous in the fields when the army worms are abun- dant as to attract notice by their buzzing. They lay their eggs on the caterpillars, usually just behind the head, where they show as small whitish oval bodies. The maggots which hatch from these eggs burrow into the caterpillars and feed upon them and finally kill them, though not until much if not all of the feeding they will do has been com- pleted. These flies and their eggs have been noticed in a great many cases this season. In addition, several hymen- opterous parasites are known and several kinds of beetles feed upon the caterpillars. Outbreaks in Future. Various theories as to the causes determining outbreaks of the army worm have been offered, but none are wholly satisfactory. Those places where outbreaks have occurred this season are not liable to have another for a number of years. This seems to be a general rule. Even the genera- 12 tion which would normally appear this fall and feed till time to hibernate is likely to have been reduced by the parasites and other enemies during the summer generation so as to be of no importance or even difficult to find. What may happen in places where the army worm was not abundant the present year is of much importance. Nothing certain can be said upon this point. It should be noted that 1896 was an army worm year over a large part of the country, and that is also true the present season, reports of the abundance of this insect having been received from as far west as Wisconsin. In 1894 army worms were very numerous in the Cape Cod region and in parts of Franklin County near the Con- necticut River in Massachusetts. No reports of its abun- dance in the State in 1895 have been noted. May we expect a general outbreak in other portions of the State next sum- mer, or two years from now, thus paralleling the conditions in 1894 and 1896? It is not possible to answer this ques- tion now, but it would be well to watch the low meadows and areas near swampy land next June and July for any unusual abundance of caterpillars in the grass lands and rank growth, and if the caterpillars are plenty, kill them by spraying, as already directed, before they consume their food there and start to march to other places. If 1915 and 1916 go by without any unusual abundance of this insect, it is perhaps probable that any immediate danger of an outbreak is over, and that a period of some years at least is liable to elapse before its reappearance. Literature. A few of the more important references to articles on the army worm, particularly with relation to New England, are given below: — Comstock, Report U. S. Dept. of Agriculture for 1879, 187, 1880. Fitch, Sixth. Report, Trans. N. Y. Agricultural Society, 885, 1860. Flint, Second Report, Secretary Mass. Board of Agriculture, 34, 1855. Kirkland, The Army Worm, Agriculture of Mass., 1896, 264, 1897. Lounsbury, Bulletin 28. Hatch (Mass.) Ex. Sta., 10, 1895. Powers, Hist. Sketches in the Coos County, N. H., 1st ed., 105, 1840. 13 Riley, Twenty-fifth Report, Secretary Mass. Board of Agriculture, 1877, 243, 1878. Riley, Report U. S. Dept. of Agriculture for 1881 and 1882, 89, 1882. Round, Thirtieth Report, Secretary Mass. Board of Agriculture, 1882, 337, 1883. Webster, History of Epidemic and Pestilential Diseases, I., 259, 1799. ®l)c Commonrucaltl) of ilTa00acl)U0ctt0. STATE BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. CIRCULAR No. 23. June, 1914. Rural Credit, Banking and Agricultural Co-opera- tion IN Europe. By J. Lewis Ellsworth. From the Sixty-first Annual Report of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture. BOSTON: WEIGHT & potter PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 32 DERNE STREET. 1914. Approved by The State Board of Publication. RURAL CREDIT, BANKING AND AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION IN EUROPE. J. LEWIS ELLSWORTH. The commission to which I was a delegate was a national commission directed to study the systems of rural credit and agricultural co-operation existing in Europe. It consisted of 78 members; 7 were appointed by the President, 65 were appointed by the Governors of different States and by a few interested organizations, and 6 repre- sented Canada. The delegation from Massachusetts con- sisted of Pres. Kenyon L. Butterfield of the Agricultural College, appointed by President Wilson, and Mrs. Charlotte B. Ware and myself, appointed by Governor Foss. The Southern Commercial Congress initiated this movement for an organized study of the systems of co-operation and rural credit in European countries, recognizing the need of such facilities in this country if our agriculture is to prosper. European countries were long since forced to face these prob- lems and have made great strides in this direction. To them, then, the American commission turned to ascertain how their methods and organizations could be made to assist in develop- ing a more profitable agriculture and better country life con- ditions here in the United States. We here in America are apt to think of the inhabitants of the European countries as rather decadent, both physically and mentally. This we found to be far from the fact, as everywhere the Italians, Germans or Danes, as the case might be, were splendid men, strong and intelligent, making a very evident success of agriculture and utilizing every bit of land that could be made available. K^ot only were they profiting by their systems of co-operation and rural credit, but they seemed to have a thorough knowledge of the general principles and the details of growing their crops and breeding their horses, cattle, sheep and hogs. While in every country and at every stop, the commission gathered much of interest and much valuable information, the time at my disposal forbids even a hurried discussion of conditions in all of these different countries. I shall, then, simply endeavor to explain the two systems of rural credit which seem most successful and most applicable to our con- ditions, — the systems now operative in Germany, — and then give you an insight into the methods and results of busi- ness co-operation among the farmers of Germany, Denmark and Holland, with a brief reference to conditions in Austria- Hungary and France, in which five countries, and especially in the first three, both the systems of co-operative credit and co-operative business seemed to have been more fully de- veloped than elsewhere. Rural Credit. The rural credit systems of Germany have to do with two distinct and necessary forms of credit, — the short-term or personal loan, and the long-term, which is usually the land- mortgage loan. In regard to the personal or short-term loan we found two distinct systems in Germany, — one serving the urban districts, the other operative in rural territory. These are the Sehultze-Delitsche system, which usually oper- ates in cities and towns and is not strictly a local institution, and the Eaiffeisen system, which confines its activities to local rural districts. Our interest centers in the latter type, and I shall therefore not attempt to describe the former, but shall confine my observations to the Raiffeisen loan associa- tions. Baijfeisen Loan Associations. Their founder, Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen, was born of very poor parents in 1818. Although his education was very meager he developed a deep interest in his fellow coun- trymen which prompted him to make an effort to relieve them from oppression by usurers and " loan sharks," and evolve a scheme whereby they might secure funds at a reason- able rate of interest. The result of his efforts was the estab- lishment of the so-called '' Raiffeisen banks," which have since proved such a blessing to the lower classes in Germany. Before his death these banks had become very numerous. The memory of " Father Raiffeisen," as he is known among the German people, is one of their choicest possessions. Briefly, the principles upon which the Eaift'eisen banks are founded are as follows : — (a) Unlimited liability of all members as security. (&) Permanent reserve fund as additional security. (c) Limitation of area, insuring personal acquaintance of all members, and none may belong to more than one society at one time. (cZ) Loans are made only for productive or provident pur- poses and only to members; investigation made first as to the purpose and then as to the actual use of the loan ; maxi- mum time of loan five years. (e) Facilities for repayment by installments; borrower also at liberty to cancel full debt by payment at any time. (/) Absence of profit seeking, dividends being limited to rate of interest paid by borrower, if any are declared. (g) Office holders, with single exception of secretary or " accountant," not remunerated for services. (h) The aim is to improve not only the material but the moral condition of their members. The capital is originally raised upon shares which are sold to members, the average cost of these shares being in the vicinity of $25. Regardless of the number of shares held each member has but one vote. ISTo loans are made to others than members, and as a rule they are not made for more than four years, never for more than five. They are payable, not in a lump sum at a certain specified date, which often comes so hard on the borrower, but may be paid in installments. In every case the length of the term for the repayment of loans is fixed in advance, and this term and the amount of installments are proportioned to the object of the loan and the ability of the borrower to repay. These banks receive deposits both from members and outsiders, although confin- 6 iiig all loans to members. The interest on loans ranges from 414 to 5 per cent. Satisfactorily indorsed notes or collaterals are accepted as security. All officers and trustees are chosen by the members and serve for four years. The " account- ant," or cashier, receives about Yio of 1 per cent on all trans- actions. The societies reserve the right of recalling loans upon one to three months' notice, but this is very seldom done. These Raiffeisen banks have succeeded in reducing the rates of interest for farmers from 6, 7 and 8 per cent down to 4 and 5 per cent. Again, funds are always available, while previous to the organization of these banks there was often great difficulty in securing loans under any conditions what- soever. These societies are not permitted to speculate in any way. They are built upon a foundation of Christianity and loyalty, but at their meetings discussions of both denomi- national or political subjects are forbidden. The founder of these local Raiffeisen societies, realizing from the beginning the need of combination in order to pro- vide centers for equalization of funds by a non-profit seeking organization, finally solved this problem by the establishment of central banks in each province. The local banks adjust the finances of their members, and the central banks adjust the finances of the local societies in the same manner. The German Agricultural Central Loan Bank in turn balances the supply and demand among the provincial central banks, obtains credit and makes necessary investments for them. This central bank has twelve branches in different parts of the country. While the local societies are in no way under government supervision, the central bank is subject to inspection by a representative of the government, as the State has made an appropriation in its aid upon which 3 per cent interest is paid to the State. !N'either the inspector nor the government can close the bank, but in case of mis- management the appropriation can be withdrawn. The original intention was to have other co-operative undertak- ings carried on by the local Raiffeisen societies, but experi- ence has proved that this is impracticable, and has shown the advisability of independent organizations for these opera- tions. These we will consider later. The Landschaften, or Land-mortgage Loan Associations. Of the various land-mortgage, or long-term, credit systems operative in Germany we shall discuss but one, known as the Landschaften and found largely in northern Germany, for it seems to me that it is this system, or some modification of it, which will eventually be found applicable to conditions in this country. It is a system which will appeal to any one who has ever had experience with a mortgage on the farm, for it eliminates entirely some disagreeable features which characterize the negotiation of farm mortgages here. To begin with, we at times have great difficulty in securing a purchaser for a farm mortgage unless the interest rate is high. This is due to several reasons : Such mortgages are not a liquid investment ; the purchaser must ascertain the soundness of the title ; he must determine the sufficiency of the security offered ; he must see that interest and principal are collected; and he must see that the property involved does not deteriorate to such an extent that the security is endangered ; and he must also see that taxes are paid. Then, too, the requirement of repayment in a lump sum, and the limited time for which mortgages are allowed to run, are very serious hindrances. These two factors in many in- stances force the mortgagor to either secure a renewal at a still higher rate of interest or else to contract a new mortgage. It is just these features which the mortgage-credit associa- tions have been organized to eliminate, and this they have done, the so-called " Landschaften " especially. To begin with, the farmer seeking a mortgage has no direct personal relations with the person who furnishes the money. He goes to the Landschaft and makes kno^vn his wants. The first step taken is to secure an impartial valuation of his property. This is made by three different parties: first, by two or three of the members of the Landschaft who live in his vicinity; second, by an independent valuer, such as the professor of agriculture in the nearest university; and third, by the officials of the Landschaft. The lowest of the three valuations is then taken as a basis for the loan, which, as a further precaution, is limited to only two-thirds of the lowest 8 valuation. The borrower does not receive this amount in actual cash, but is given bonds to the specified amount of which he himself then disposes. He may sell them through his own banker, or the banking department connected with the Landschaft will sell them for him in the open market. The one who buys these bonds, and is really the mortgagee, has as security not only this individual mortgage but the pool of all mortgages in the hands of the Landschaft, and, in addi- tion, the reserve fund which the organization is constantly building up. The law provides that the money of widows and orphans may be invested only in government bonds or in Landschaften bonds, the security and stability of which is thus recognized, and is due largely to the fact that the gov- ernment has supervision over the organizations, each of which represents one political district. Borrower and lender, then, do not come into any direct personal contact. The lender secures the interest on his in- vestment, not from the borrower, but from the Landschaft. This is payable on the 1st of April and is usually 3I/2 per cent. If at any time he desires to make other use of his prin- cipal he cannot " foreclose," neither can he collect from the Landschaft. He simply sells his bonds in the open market. !Kow as to the borrower. The day before the Landschaft has to pay the interest on its bonds it collects the interest from its members who are carrying mortgages. The rate of interest collected is 4 per cent ; the I/2 per cent difference be- tween this and what the lender receives is used to meet run- ning expenses first, and then to build up a surplus or reserve fund. Each year the borrower pays also a fixed sum which goes toward the reduction of the principal, until at the end, usually, of either forty-five or fifty-four years the mortgage is amortized or " cancelled." The payments in excess of the running expenses and what goes into the reserve fund are used to buy up the bonds, so that when the mortgage be- comes amortized the entire bond issue upon it has been bought up. If, however, the borrower fails to pay the in- terest, his land may be sold in the open market, and owing to the low valuation which has been placed upon it, a larger amount than the bond issue must invariably be realized. The Landschaft is reimbursed for the bonds issued and the bal- ance goes back to the borrower. In this way the organization and the bondholders are protected, and then, too, there is also the surplus to fall back upon. All officers and directors of Landschaften are appointed by the King, and the books and accounts are inspected and audited every month by law officers. There is, in addition, a special deputy appointed by the King to control the con- duet of the Landschaft. Every possible precaution against mismanagement is thus taken, and here lies the secret of their success. It seems to me that this system, or some variation of it, combining availability of funds, low and at stable rates of interest, freedom from danger of foreclosure and gi'adual amortization, could be and should be worked out and put into practice as a solution to the problem of long- term credit here in America. The system itself is sound, and its success in this country would depend very largely upon the reliability and capacity of its officers. Business Co-opekation. The subject of co-operative rural credits is very closely allied to that of business co-operation among farmers, as it re- quires credit to finance the co-operative societies. We have already made some progress in co-operative buying and sell- ing in this country. The citrus fruit growers of the west, the apple producers of Oregon and Washington, and the dairymen of the northwest are among our foremost examples, not to mention the cranberry growers of Cape Cod. The full- est development, however, has as yet been reached only in foreign countries. The co-operative societies in Germany comprise supply societies, dairying associations, corn-selling and granary as- sociations, cattle-selling societies, egg-selling societies, elec- tricity societies, machine societies and several minor kinds. The supply societies deal mainly in fertilizers and feed- ing stuffs. One, two or three parishes are usually included in the jurisdiction of a single society, the area being gov- 10 erned by its ability to furnisli enough members to secure the advantages of purchasing in bulk. Central organizations, representing all local societies in a province or State, are organized to make the buying power still greater and thus reduce costs still further. There are three principal types of co-operative dairies, — those in which the cream is separated and butter made, but the milk and buttermilk are returned to the producers ; those which sell new milk or utilize the new milk for making but- ter and cheese and use the by-products as food for pigs ; and those known as cream depots, which only separate the cream, which is then sent to a central dairy or to the towns. A milk supply from at least 300 to 400 cows must be guaranteed be- fore definite steps toward organizing a society are taken. Members must deliver to the central station all milk not needed for use on the farm or in the home. Payment is usually based on the fat content. Central organizations have been formed to some extent. The co-operative grain-selling societies aim to secure for the producer improved facilities for drying, cleaning and grading seeds; to regulate prices by reservation of supply; to enable the farmers to secure credit with corn in the ware- house as security; to lessen or eliminate payments to mid- dlemen ; and to reduce transportation charges. The cattle-selling associations aim at the elimination of superfluous charges in getting cattle to the market; but although attempts have been made in Germany to establish co-operative slaughterhouses similar to those in Denmark they have as yet been unsuccessful. The majority of the societies sell on commission, and all animals are insured against damage in transit and against partial or total loss at the hands of the inspectors. Many societies maintain their own system of insurance. The co-operative egg-selling societies, in addition to the grading and handling of eggs, seek to promote the poultry industry by advising their members as to breeding and feed- ing, turning their attention to better methods of housing, and selling them desirable birds at very low prices. 11 During recent years there has been a very rapid growth of co-oi^erative societies for providing their members with elec- tric light and power. There are at present about 700 of these societies. A scarcity of farm labor and the introduction of different kinds of electrical farm machinery have been fac- tors in a rapid increase in the number of these societies dur- ing the past few years. The low cost of maintenance of such machines ; the absence of expense when they are not in use ; the ease and quickness of their operation ; the possibility of one man's operating several machines at the same time ; their freedom from fire risk, and their cleanliness, all favor the use of electricity as a farm power. ' Its use has also been found to be relatively very economical. These societies are of three tyjDes, — those producing and distributing power, those owning their installation but securing their electricity from other sources, and those composed of groups of con- sumers who guarantee the purchase of certain amounts of power and thus obtain reduced rates. Other societies in operation are vine-growers' societies, beet-sugar factories, breeding societies and land purchase and settlement societies. An industry in Germany which assumes at least a par- tially co-operative form is the distilling of denatured alcohol. The distilleries are scattered through the country, about 4,000 in all, with a central selling depot in Berlin. The in- dustry is based upon the utilization of the potato crop, nearly 80 per cent of all German alcohol being produced from this tuber, whereby the crop is made a paying one. By concen- trating 900 bushels into the original weight of 100 bushels, and in this transformation using only the starch and return- ing the balance of the product to the farm to be fed to stock and returned again to the land, an exceedingly profitable industry was created. All of the regulation German co-operative societies are composed of at least seven persons banded together for the furtherance of common business ends. These must take shares and make themselves jointly and severally liable, either to a fixed amount per share or to the full extent of their property. The larger number of societies have organ- 12 ized central banks or trading stations for provinces or States, and have further strengthened their status by creating central banks or stations operating over Prussia or Germany. Business Co-operation in Attstria-Hungaky. In Austria-Hungary the co-operative movement began little over sixty years ago, but became important with the founding of the Budapest Central Co-operative Creamery, upon the incentive of the Minister of Agriculture, in 1883. The 1912 report shows a membership of 140 farmers holding 648 shares. When organized the value of shares was 800 kronen, or $160 each. The association owns a large plant which we visited. The milk comes in from the surrounding country in large cans, and is weighed and turned into the large pasteur- izing tank. Then follows the bottling for market. Sweet milk, baby milk and " sour milk " are sold. Some of the milk is separated, part of the cream being sold and butter made from the remainder. . All milk is delivered to retail shops, most of which deal in milk or milk products exclu- sively, selling from pushcarts as well as directly from the store. Seven hundred men and women are employed to handle the output of this association, which amounted, in the month of April, 1913, to 1,909,600 liters (2,055,360 quarts) of milk. The farmers are paid according to the fat content of the milk, which ranged from 3.24 to 3.8 per cent, averag- ing about 3.6 per cent. I have described the city co-operative milk plant. The Minister of Agriculture has the following to say in regard to the co-operative village dairy associations : — Endeavors to form Village Dairy Co-operative associations were, for a long time, unsuccessful, as our people were not inclined to take up with strange movements, nor did they think it worth while to combine for the sale of their output. It was very difficult to con- vince small farmers that it would pay to establish an association which needed some thousands of crowns initial capital. The Min- ister, however, finally succeeded in persuading the inhabitants of Maria-Kemend County to form an association. Hardly half of the farmers entered, but as the business became established, every owner of a business, every owner of a cow, to the last man, eventually 13 joined. The output of milk beyond domestic requirements, to the extent of 1,300 to 1,400 liters daily, was delivered to the association. Butter and curds (cheese) are made by machinery, and the milk itself brings in a clear 12 heller (2V2 cents) per liter. In this man- ner the members cleared 3,500 kronen ($700) during the year for milk, which previously was either consumed in the house or wasted. This opened a new source of income, produced gi'eater benefit year by year, and quickly became a potent factor in the enrichment of the village farmers. In co-operative distribution Hungary is far advanced. There are two distinct types of societies formed known as the " organized," that is, under the jurisdiction of some central organization, and the " unorganized." The central society which controls the former supplies them with goods and working capital, and attends to the wholesale purchase of supplies. They deal mainly in household necessities, pro- visions, seed, commercial fertilizers, machines, tools, etc. The unorganized societies are independent individual insti- tutions and may be divided into two classes, — those dealing in household requisites and provisions and those dealing in all kinds of agricultural supplies. I had the pleasure of visiting the central supply house of the former type of organization in Budapest. The main building is filled with all kinds of merchandise, practically everything imaginable to eat, drink or wear, also farming machinery and implements, seed, fertilizers, etc. The establishment included mills for grinding grain, salt, sugar and paint, apparatus for roasting coffee, and a box and cordage factory. An immense force of help is employed. In 1898 there were only 16 affiliated societies, while now the organization has so demonstrated its value that there are 1,195. In Austria we found co-operative milk plants similar to those in Budapest and other parts of Hungary. Vienna, the capital, claims the largest co-operative dairy plant in existence. The milk is distributed to the sale depots in 102 wagons, which also transport the milk to the central plant as it arrives at the railway stations from the farms. The em- ployees at the plant number 660, and 212 horses are kept. 14 Including the persons who deliver the milk the number of em- ployees would be about 1,200. The branch depots have about 210 pushcarts for delivering the milk. This immense proposition began its career in 1881 with 33 members, which in 1911-12 had increased to 631. The milk at the railroad station is valued at 4^ cents per quart. Upon its arrival at the plant it is strained and pasteurized. A specialty is made of baby milk, prepared by special methods. Fresh milk is sold in sealed glass bottles, of which from 80,000 to 90,000 are filled every night. This is said to be the largest bottling plant in the world. BuSIISrESS Co-OPEKATION" IN" DeNMAKK. Of all the countries visited Denmark showed the most marked development of the different types of business co- operation. The Danes were leaders in the organization of co-operative business. Formerly a corn-producing country, with Germany as its principal market, Denmark in 1879 sud- denly found that market cut off by an edict issued by the German Kaiser barring admission to this product. The Danes then turned their attention to cattle raising and later to pig raising and poultry growing. Then came the necessity of disposing of their new products, first the butter, then the bacon and later the eggs. Co-operation seemed the open door, and they were not long in taking advantage of it. The piece- meal adoption of co-operation, first for one purpose and then for another, resulted in a division of the different projects, into dairy societies, supply purchasing societies, bacon curing societies, etc., so that one man may belong to nine or ten different societies, each performing a separate function. The co-operative dairy societies compel their members to feed only certain things, to cool their milk to a specified temperature immediately and hold it at that temperature, and to obey such similar regulations as will insure a uniform high-grade product. Each member, however, is glad to be obliged by the society to do these things, which result in larger sales, a sure market and better prices. These societies have meant great progress for the small dairy farmer. The 15 following partial description of the " Dairy Sanderum," at Odense, taken from a circular given us upon our visit to that dairy, gives an idea of this type of co-operative organiza- tion : — Began to Avork on the 1st of May, 1910. "Was established by the farmers of seven villages in the neighborhood of Odense, with 130 members and a total of 1,000 cows. Milk delivered in a year by its members is 2,750,000 kilogi-ams (quarts). Besides, the dairy buys 1,000,000 kilograms from 50 farms, with 370 cows. The funds were raised by a loan for which all members are liable jointly and sep- arately. This loan is to be amortized in a series of years. The transport of the mUk from the producers to the dairy is carried on by the dairy itself, and takes place once a day at least. From the milk deliveries 30 jDer cent is returned to the providers and 15 per cent is used to make cheese of. The rest is sold in town as butter, cream, baby milk, sweet milk and skimmed milk. Accounts for the milk are settled every week, according to the butter quota- tion and the contents of fat found by testing every day. Ten per cent is retained to be paid out at the end of the year as overplus. The dairy owns 23 wagons for transporting milk from the farmers and to its shops and customers. It also owns 12 horses for use in town delivery, but hires horses for bringing in the milk. The dairy has 20 stores in Odense selling only its products. In this same town of Odense we visited a co-operative slaughterhouse representing about 7,000 farmers. The es- stablishment itself is valued at 2,000,000 kroner ($536,000). The weekly killings amount to 2,200 hogs and 500 cattle, while the production per week averages 1,000 strips of bacon, 10 tons of lard, 10 tons of sausage and 10 tons of tinned goods. This is only one of many such organizations in Den- mark, and is a sample of the co-operative societies which have resulted from the loss of the German market for corn and the consequent necessity of catering to the English trade. This trade demanded a different type of hog from the long legged Danish breed, and white Yorkshire boars were se- cured and crossed with the Danish breed, a cross which pro- duced an ideal type for the market, weighing about 180 pounds and giving a uniform, standard product. Private 16 concerns with large capital were at first heavy competitors, but their uneven output failed to successfully compete with the uniform product of the co-operative organizations. Egg production forms a very important part of the Danish farmer's source of income. To increase the returns in this branch of agriculture, co-operative egg export societies have been formed. The most important of these is called the " Dansk-Andels Aegeksport.'' This was organized in 1895, and a fifth of all the eggs now exported from Denmark now pass through its hands. It embraces 550 afiiliated branches with a total membership of 40,000 poultry keepers. Each branch has its local depot and appoints a collector who is paid a small commission on eggs collected. The eggs are purchased by weight, which induces the farmer to keep improved breeds and strains. There are stringent rules to insure that all eggs collected have been laid since the previous collection, and a penalty of a fine or expulsion is inflicted for violations. All eggs are branded with the trade-mark of the society and also the reference number of the branch society and the registered number of the member who sup- plied them. In this way it is possible to trace any defective egg from the breakfast table right back to the producer; and it is needless to say that very few poor eggs are found. The local depots forward the eggs to central packing stations situated in towns having convenient communication with English ports. The eggs are sorted into five different grades and packed in wool, 1,440 eggs in each box. There is the least possible delay between producer and consumer. This method insures the consumer a reliable article at a reasonable price; it guarantees the producer a maximum price as well, by the elimination of middlemen. The price paid the farmer is set by the society. At the end of each year the net profits are divided among the members in proportion to the value of the eggs received from each. These are only some of the many forms of business co- operation in Denmark. Mention only can be made of the live-stock societies, one of which is the cow-testing associa- tion in aid of which the government appropriated 120,000 kroner (about $32,000) ; horse-breeding associations, pig- 17 rearing societies, sheep-breeding societies, and societies for the insurance of live stock against loss from fire, storm and hail. Business Co-operation in Holland. The sturdy Holland folk are indeed models of cleanliness. The stories we read of cow stables so clean that one could eat his meals in them are not exaggerated. The country is truly one large " spotless town." Marvellous progress has been made in co-operation in Holland, the government hav- ing propagated its principles with excellent results. Four forms of constitution have been drawn up, and prospective associations must adopt one of these as a basis of future operations. Rural credit associations of the Raiffeisen type have made a remarkable growth. Co-operative purchasing societies for fertilizers and feeds are federated, but each branch does it^ own buying. Co-operative selling societies have mostly been organized for vegetables and fruit, and make use of the English market very largely. The dairy co-operative so- cieties have been most highly perfected. These are federated into an " All-Netherlands Federation." The government early saw the advantage of State control of testing, and now does it all, placing at the service of the farmers skilled test- ers, who act also in the capacity of general advisers. The product which stands the test is branded with the sign of quality, " N'ederlandsch Botercontrole," which is recognized as a guarantee in all markets. A form of society originally established in Switzerland and later in Denmark and Hol- land for recording milk yields, especially those obtained by breeding for production, has shown excellent results. In 1897 the average yield was 812 gallons; in 1904, 1,019 gal- lons. Since that time it has declined, but it still stands at 898 gallons of 3.5 per cent butter fat. Holland has about 400 co-operative horse insurance socie- ties, insuring about 40,000 animals, and 50 to 60 goat and sheep insurance societies, covering some 6,006 animals. 18 Ekench Co-opeeation. While the commission was in Paris, M. Albert Viger, who has several times been Minister of Agriculture, gave an ad- dress. He stated that there are 10,000 co-operative associa- tions in France with a membership of 65,000. These societies purchase feeds, fertilizers, seeds and agricultural tools, and sell dairy and other products of the farmers. Co-operative societies conduct mutual insurance against loss by fire, crop damage by hail, cattle loss from disease, and life insurance. These insurance societies are for farmers only and have a membership of 80,000. Individually these societies would be weak, but they are federated into one large and powerful association. This central organization main- tains a legal department where any question of law is looked up, legal papers drawn or examined and legal advice given to members. As many as 10,000 letters are received and answered every year. The organization of this work was a difficult matter and required a deal of hard labor by M. Viger and his coworkers, for strong opposition, especially from insurance companies, was encountered. Their sign is two hands clasped and their motto, " One for all and all for one." Much more might be said and written in regard to the wonderful trip of the commission and its opportunity for observing conditions and methods in the several countries visited. I feel, however, that I have said enough to at least set you thinking, and I trust that I have made clear some of the methods and practices which have proved so successful across the water. I feel that co-operation is the keynote of future progress and universal success in agriculture in this country. We shall do well to get out from under the frame- work of individualism upon which we have so long depended for shelter from competitive products, and upon the solid foundation of agriculture erect a framework of co-operation which will, beyond a question, be sufficient to sustain any burden of competition which it may be called upon to support. 19 I would suggest that the milk producers in the several dif- ferent sections of the ISTew England States build co-operative creameries convenient to the largest supply, expending only the amount of money really necessary to build and equip such plants, so that the farmers can stand ready to demand a living price for their milk; and if the buyers do not agree to the proposed price, the milk can be converted into butter and the skimmed milk returned to the farmers under the same method that is pursued in Denmark. The interest on the money invested to carry out this scheme would be very small, and should be considered as belonging in the same class of expenditures as insurance. Mr. George McKerrow of Wisconsin informs me that an organization of farmers in Woodstock, Illinois, has carried out this plan successfully, and increased the price received by the producer for milk 10 cents per 100 pounds. One other suggestion to help solve the milk question on the lines above recommended is that the Boston Chamber of Commerce, through its committee on agriculture, help finance a co-operative milk-selling plant in Boston. With such a plant in operation the producers would receive more for their product, while the price to consumers would not be increased. Indeed, I firmly believe that under co-operative methods the price to the consmner would be lowered. So let us strive for co-operativ^e organization here in Massachusetts, to the end that our farming may be made more prosperous and our life upon the farm may be still more worth the living. Mr. Taylok. I would like to ask Mr. Ellsworth what prices they get for milk in Germany. Mr. Ellsworth. The farmer gets from 21/^ to 21/2 cents a quart, and in some parts he gets as high as 4 cents. Mr. Mteick. I would like to make one point very briefly and very vigorously to the farmers of Massachusetts, and that is that the basis of co-operative success in Europe or in this country is going to be financial co-operation, banking co- operation, credit co-operation. ISTow, we have had in Massa- chusetts since 1909 a credit union law. It is one of the best 20 laws ; it embraces the best results of European experience in co-operative credit societies. We should have these co- operative credit societies fomied under that law in every school district and township in Massachusetts. Though the law is here, it has not been agitated; it has not been con- sidered by the farmers' organizations, and yet, it is a most excellent law. It was enacted in the State of Texas last year, and it came very near being enacted over in ISTew York. That law should be supplemented by carrying out the Land- schaft idea in the form of a land-mortgage bank, under the auspices and with the co-operation of the State, and a bill, or a standard measure, for that purpose has been drawn, and I have copies of it here for any one who is interested. This bill for a State land-mortgage bank should go through the Legislature of this State this next year, and Massachusetts should lead the way not only in the local co-operative bank- ing under the law of 1909, but also in the land-mortgage bank. Just one word further : of course, the price of money varies with supply and demand, but under a proper system of land-mortgage banking the current rate of interest, whether high or low, now paid, or ordinarily paid for mort- gage money, will be sufficient not only to pay the interest, but also to pay the expenses and gradually pay off the principal. ®l)c iEommonroealtl) oi ittassacbusctts, STATE BOAED OF AGKICULTURE. CIRCULAR No. 24. June, 1914. ALFALFA GROWING By Joseph Wing, From the Sixty-first Annual Report of the Massachusetts^State Board of Agriculture. BOSTON : WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 32 DERNE STREET. 1914. Approved by The State Board of Publication. ALFALFA GROWING IN MASSACHUSETTS. JOSEPH E. WING OF MECHANICSBURG, O. Coming the other day by day train through Xew York and then through western Massachusetts, I gazed out of the car windows with deep interest. I longed to know well the old land of my fathers. The little farms fascinated me. I longed to know whether it is well with them, whether or no there is prosperity there, and hope and good outlook. And as I came along, I mentally rebuilt many of the farms that I saw. I drained the marshy places. I took out the dividing fences and made the fields larger. I limed the fields, and covered some of them with alfalfa. It was deeply' borne in upon me that there is need for an alfalfa crusade in this old land, for from Rochester to Spring- field I did not see one field that I was sure was set to alfalfa. 'Nor did I see one field that could not grow it, when conditions are made right. There is no crop that has greater possibilities for the ISTew England farmer. It is a hardy plant. Frosts do not much damage it. You may not be well situated for corn growing, but you are well situated for growing alfalfa. You are not too far north, for they are growing it by thousands of acres in the Saskatchewan, where the thermometer goes often to 50° below zero. Thev have learned that alfalfa does not winterkill there when they leave uncut the last growth. That is a lesson that Massachu- setts farmers need to learn, perhaps, — to leave a strong growth to hold the snows of winter and to protect the crowns of the plant. On Woodland Farm, our home in Ohio, we let the alfalfa go into winter always with a growth of a foot or more, and since we learned to do that we have had no winter- killing. Doubtless you have before heard the praises of alfalfa sung and now you ask, " Is it a practicable crop for the Massa- chusetts farmer ? Can I grow it ? I live on the sandy river bottoms ; can I grow it there ? I live on the clay hills ; can I grow it there also ? " To this I reply, " Yes, alfalfa will grow profitably on every farm in Massachusetts. There are no exceptions, so long as the drainage can be made good. Let us consider the requirements of the alfalfa plant. It makes its growth mainly by the aid of the bacteria that inhabit its roots. These bacteria live upon the air that is in the soil. They have the power to take nitrogen from the air, digest it, and make available the nitrogen for feeding the plants. The lesson is plain. Alfalfa must not be in a waterlogged soil. There must be air in the soil as well as moisture. Drainage, then, is the first requisite of an alfalfa field. Lime is the second requisite. All the natural alfalfa- growing regions of the world have soils strongly impregnated with limestone. Idaho alfalfa fields have about 4 per cent of limestone in them. Colorado soils have at least as much. l^ebraska soils have from l^/o to 4 per cent of carbonate of lime. In Onondaga County, N. Y., where alfalfa grows so easily and so well, the soil is rich in lime; the rocks underlying the region are of limestone. Successful alfalfa growing is a mere matter of the chemistry of the soil, — that and the attention to a few easily learned likings of the plant. When it co-mes to liming soils for alfalfa growing, one needs to forget most of what he has read of the functions of lime in the soil, because alfalfa uses lime in a different man- ner and for a different purpose from most other plants. The lime is for the bacteria, to enable them to gather the nitrogen from the air. Just how this is done we do not know, but this is sure : with abundant lime in the soil we find abundant and active nitrifying alfalfa bacteria, while without the lime we find few bacteria and these inactive. Markedlv healthy alfalfa is always found to be on soils filled with lime- stone. To the alfalfa plant limestone in the soil is far more important and essential than manure. Given drainage, a soil filled with air, then limestone, what comes next in the order of essentials to alfalfa culture ? ISText I put manure turned down deep under the soil. Once an alfalfa field is established, I never afterward put stable manure on it, but keep it going with chemicals instead ; but I like well to turn under a good coat of manure when I es- tablish a field. The manure does much more than feed the plant, it promotes bacterial life in the soil as well. Where a soil has much manure and much limestone as well, one will find his biggest, healthiest alfalfa; and if he will dig down in the soil he will find immense numbers of nodules contain- ing the nitrifying bacteria. As alfalfa needs to be estab- lished only once in five or more years, one can afford to give it a lot of manure when he lays it down. ISText in order of importance I put phosphorus and potash. Alfalfa draws heavily on the soil for these mineral elements. I like to use basic slag for this purpose. Five hundred pounds to the acre seems with me to do as well at the outset as more, but as it is a fairly cheap substance, and does not leach away from the soil, one can just as well apply 1,000 pounds to the acre, and it will be all the better for it. For the potash, one can use either muriate or sulphate, whichever is the cheaper, and at rates of from 200 pounds per acre up, depending upon the soil. Soils derived from granite rocks, and good heavy clays, ought not to need much potash. Sandy soils and peaty soils will need more. It is an element that does not leach away ; once applied, it is yours until the plants get it, that is, except on very sandy soils. On these, no doubt, frequent small applications will prove better than occasional large ones. Inoculation comes next in order. I like to take soil from a good alfalfa field and sow it directly in front of a harrow at the rate of about 400 poimds to the acre, or more if it is readily available. That gives efficient inoculation, or one can use the commercial cultures on the seed. I think that these cultures are now generally successful. They cost more than does the method of soil inoculation; that is their only fault I think. Or one can use both soil and seed inoculation, and that is the best way of all. The better the inoculation the more rapid will be the growth of the young alfalfa ; the sooner it will get above the weeds. Inoculation is never needed twice on the same land, for when alfalfa has once grown on it successfully it will remain inoculated for a very long time, if not forever. Making the Seed Bed. I like to plow deep for alfalfa, but to plow some time be- fore seeding if I can ; then work the land dowa firm and make the surface level. We use the plank drag for this. With the seed bed level one can cover the seed accurately and not too deep. Half an inch is the proper depth of seeding ; an inch may do no harm, but deeper than that will usually kill the seed. We like to sow with an alfalfa drill, for then we can better regulate the rate of seeding and also the depth. The drill makes the seed go further also. Ten pounds of alfalfa seed drilled in to a proper depth in a good seed bed will give a very thick stand, and fifteen pounds sown broadcast will give enough. If the seed bed is poor, however, you must use more seed. The time of sowing does not much matter, though I prefer to sow early in order to get a strong plant before winter comes. As soon as hard freezing is over in the spring one can sow, say, by April 15. If frosts come after the alfalfa has come up, all the better ; they will kill some of the weeds and will not be likely to kill the alfalfa. Alfalfa may also be sown in May or June, July or even early in August. It will do well sown at any season, but better I think in 'New Eng- land if sown in early April or late July. As to the nurse or cover crop, there are two kinds that are permissible and, I think, only two ; and only in early spring should any nurse crop be sown. Beardless spring barley is the best, sown at the rate of 1 bushel to the acre, no more. It will make a good cutting of hay and the hay is of good quality. Oats shade the alfalfa too heavily and are an injury to it. In midsummer sow no nurse crop at all. The alfalfa then needs all the soil and all the moisture for its own uses. The other permissible nurse crop is winter wheat, sown at the rate of a bushel to the acre at the same time that the alfalfa is sown in April. The effect is to discourage weeds and grass. The wheat cuts a small crop of hay of good quality and dies at midsummer, leaving the land clean for the alfalfa. Each year on Woodland Earm we sow alfalfa in all three ways: alone, with barley and with wheat. We are not able to say which is the best, as all give us good stands; but the barley gives us the profit of a crop of hay, and then nearly as good a stand of alfalfa as when it is sown with wheat or alone. I advise the Massachusetts farmer to test the thing on his own land by sowing strips in each way and observing the result. Having the alfalfa sown, and covered lightly by drawing a plank drag over it, or by some other method that will not cover it too deep, we may be certain that it will grow vigor- ously. The next thing is to know when to cut it. Not know- ing this has cost many alfalfa growers dear. Barley or wheat is to be cut for hay, but we do not pay attention to these plants in deciding when to cut the alfalfa ; instead we observe the little alfalfa plants with care to see when they start, down by the surface of the ground, little new shoots or buds. When these shoots start we cut the alfalfa, to- gether with its nurse crop. We never cut sooner. That is the rule for cutting alfalfa during all its life, to cut it when the little shoots have appeared and not to cut it earlier; for it is ruin to alfalfa to cut it before these shoots appear. Why this is, no one knows, but take my word for it, it brings ruin ; and perhaps more alfalfa fields in Massachusetts have been made unprofitable in this manner than in any other. Do not pay attention to bloom, or lack of bloom, as an index of when to cut, but be governed by the state of the basal shoots or buds entirely, and this throughout all the life of the plant. !N^ow, that is all, except one important thing: keep out of the alfalfa field except when you go in to make hay. Espe- cially in winter do not allow any one to trespass in it. Let it alone. And remember when you are harvesting your 5 tons of hay per acre that alfalfa draws heavily on the soil for phosphorus and potash, and feed the alfalfa meadow 8 every year. Our standard top-dressing in Ohio is of acid phosphate or basic slag 500 pounds, and of muriate of potash 100 pounds per acre. Thus fed it keeps in strong growth for five to ten years at least. When June grass runs into the alfalfa, take a spring-tooth harrow and dig it out. Go over the land in two directions and tear out the last root of the grass. Bucher & Gibbs, Canton, O., make a special al- falfa spring-tooth harrow that will take out any sort of grass and leave the alfalfa unharmed. This is best done just after taking off a crop of hay, immediately after the hay is raked. The harrowing will not harm the alfalfa; will do it good, in fact. Now let's go back to the lime question, seeing that it is the key to alfalfa growing in Massachusetts. I like to use the unburned ground limestone. It is the cheapest and best source of lime for the soil, if one is so situated that he can get it. Happily, a beginning has been made in limestone grinding in your State. There cannot be a farm in Massa- chusetts that does not need ^ full carload of limestone. Buy it in bulk and get it in car lots at the low price, then use it liberally. I prefer to use as much as 8 tons to the acre of raw ground limestone or marble dust. Of course there are cases where this would be too costly, and less must be used at the start. Then additional lime can be applied later and worked in with the spring-tooth harrow. Of burned lime I would use from 2 tons up to the acre. There are localities where burned lime is the cheaper source of calcium. Ground limestone has, however, the better effect on alfalfa. As to the probable profits. Any acre of land in Massa- chusetts that is tillable and drained can profitably be set to alfalfa. The cost for lime, fertilizers, manure, seed and labor may be as much as $50, or even more. The cost of lime and manure are the determining factors. The first year one gets two cuttings, supposing he sows in April. The first cutting is of barley hay, say ly^ tons to the acre. Later he gets a cutting of pure alfalfa hay, of about 1 ton to the acre. Next year he gets three cuttings, one of about 2 tons, one of iy2 tons, one of 1 ton, or from 4 to 4^ tons per acre. There is no expense of seeding or preparing the land after the first year. One merely feeds back the chemicals that the alfalfa has withdrawn from the land and harvests with joy and great profit his crop. It is the surest crop there is ex- cept the pasture grass and the forest trees. There is no need whatever of failure in establishing alfalfa in Massachusetts. In recent years I have helped establish alfalfa on farms from Texas to Vermont, without a single failure. Why, just be- low ISTew York, in northern New Jersey, at Plainsboro, is the Walker-Gordon farm with 475 acres of alfalfa, all re- cently established and all successful. From that farm they sell nearly $1,000 worth of milk each day, and it comes in large part from their own soil, through the channels of the alfalfa roots. That farm is not on especially favorable soil. Mr. Jeffers, the manager, is simply an alfalfa enthusiast, and manures, drains, limes, inoculates and sows the alfalfa with never a fear of failure. He buys an old, " worn out " farm and pulls out the old fence rows, cleans it up, manures and limes it, and sets the whole farm at once to alfalfa. Gentlemen, last spring I came home to Woodland Farm from a long journey and found on the farm 100 acres of alfalfa that seemed to me especially beautiful and fine. I longed for men to come and see it, and so we announced that we would give a picnic on Woodland Farm, an Alfalfa Day picnic. The Governor came. Dean Price of our Agricul- ■ tural College came, many other notable men came ; and to our bewildered joy there came also 3,500 men and women from our own State of Ohio and adjoining States. It was one of the happiest days of my life. We tramped through the fields together and then assembled on the lawn, where lectures were given and information imparted how successfully to grow alfalfa. In a little booklet we have put pictures of this great gathering of farmers, and given quite careful instructions how to gi'ow alfalfa. If you will send us your names we will be glad to send the booklet. Question. I had a soil which is a light loam, with sand underneath, and I put on 2 tons of burnt lime on one-eighth 10 of an acre, ten years ago ; and at that place the alfalfa has done better than anywhere else. Mr. Wing. That makes about 16 tons to the acre, and simply illustrates the fact that alfalfa is a plant that is crazy for lime. Mr. Wilder. What about witch grass ? Mr. Wing. That is a terrible thing, especially in Xew England, isn't it? We find that two years of very thorough cultivation of corn will entirelv eradicate it, but we culti- vated that corn a little more and deeper than we ought to have for the good of the corn. We used two horses and cul- tivated with a sharp, narrow shovel that goes down deep and takes out the grass, and absolutely destroyed it in two years. We do not sow the alfalfa in land until tJie witch grass has been thoroughly cleaned out. Mr. Olmstead. I find that if vou wait until the alfalfa blossoms, you will get a pretty hard first cutting for good feeding. Mr. Wing. Well, sometimes alfalfa will get a little bit harder the first cutting than you like, but even if it should, you must not cut before the shoots come. Now, I will tell you a little story. Down in Georgia I started some alfalfa for a gentleman. It got finer and finer. I got some ground limestone and put it on that poor, red clay soil, and made it grow marvelously, so that he got from some of the acres 5 tons to the acre, and it was a wonderful sight. Then he got a man down from the north, a mighty intelligent man, who came down to manage the alfalfa farm. This man knew cows wonderfully well, but he did not know alfalfa at all. The first time he cut the alfalfa he cut it two weeks too late. ^Naturally, it was very woody and the cows didn't like it. Then, he said, " I will remedy that," and he cut the new cutting ten days too soon. The cows liked that, but the al- falfa didn't like it, however; and after he had cut it once more ten days too soon, I never saw such a wreck as that field was. The next growth was yellow and red, and the weeds were over the top of it, and the alfalfa looked as though it was going to die; and he had 150 acres in that condition. Prof. H. J. Wheeler. I wish you would say what you 11 would do if a very severe attack of leaf blight struck your alfalfa, — whether you would cut it or leave it. Mr. Wing. Dr. Wheeler, I would never cut it, even with leaf blight, until the shoots appeared. By the way, the leaf blight, in my experience, comes very little if a man has his soil chemically right and if he hasn't been trespassing on it in some way. I found some places where the fishermen had made a path through the alfalfa, as they went down to fish, and the kuif blight followed along where they went; and where the teams turn around in the alfalfa, where the corn fields join onto it, it also appears; but in the 100 acres we have in alfalfa at Woodland Farm we have no blight except in spots like these. But even if I did have it, I would not cut the alfalfa until the little shoots come. I might feel awfully sorry, but I wouldn't cut. Professor Wpieeler. In the case of long protracted drought, with, say, three weeks of no rain, it becomes woody and the leaves drop. Mr. Wing. I believe even then, even with the long drought and the leaves dropping off, I would wait for the little shoots. I would be afraid to cut before they appear. Mr. Palmerton. Why do you recommend muriate of potash instead of sulphate ? Mr. Wing. Because it is cheaper with us, that's all. T should think one would do almost as well as the other, would it not. Professor Wheeler ? Professor Wheelek. I think the muriate has the ad- vantage of being the more soluble, and if you put in enough lime you will be ahead of the game by using the muriate instead of the sulphate. Secretary Wheeler. I would like to ask what kind of seed you use. Mr. Wing. That is very important in ISTew England. In !N^ew England I would not use the imported seed, because you are likely to get the Turkestan, which is not very productive under your conditions ; and may even get something worse, such as that from Algeria, which will not stand the winter here; and you might get various kinds of weeds. I would rather get the seed for here from Montana, the Dakotas or 12 l^ebraska, for that will be hardy, or else the Grim, which is a Minnesota strain which has been grown a long time. Professor Wheeler. Won't you speak about curing and the danger of spontaneous combustion? Mr. Wing. Oh, yes. Well, the little leaves have in them nearly all of the fat and the protein, actually more than is in wheat bran or middlings. Now, what would you think of having one of your hired men go out and cover an acre with middlings or wheat bran ? You would say, " Heavens ! What a waste," and yet there are men who do what amounts to the same thing with their alfalfa. The lesson is to rake it before the leaves drop ofF, while they are still tough enough to hang on. You can't tell when that will be, but I was going to say I would begin mowing in the afternoon and make the hay the next afternoon, but I am not sure about that. I would let it lie there long enough, then rake it in small windrows. Our rakers have these instructions, to make the windrows small, and then make the shocks not wide and spread all over the -ground, but narrow and tall ; and when they are put up in that way the stems have a drooping tendency and a big rain can fall and hardly damage it, and it may stay in the shocks a day or two. But you must not leave it there very long, because the young alfalfa is going to come right up and will be bleached under the shock. So, if the next day is good and hot, about 10 or 11 o'clock come out and open it about four or five forkfuls, and then it may be turned over and be dry enough to be ready for the barn. Dr. Wheeler spoke about spontaneous combustion. A great many barns are burned from putting in alfalfa hay that wasn't dry enough. Get it as dry as you can, — not bone dry, but it should never be wet enough for moisture to be wrung out of it; that is our test. That should be the very outside limit ; and get it as much dryer than that as you can. I have seen it go into a barn holding 120 tons, and come out with- out much damage. It has come out yellow or brown, but never had damage from mold. However, in a barn where you only put a few loads you must get it dry or you will have some mold. 13 That is all I know about curing, except the various ways of putting it up on frames. It is a good plan, of course, to have covers to put over it. I have had a hay cap made of sheeting about 42 inches square. Mr. Jeffreys, in his big alfalfa farm in New Jersey, has them, and he has a wire like a woman's hat pin that he sticks in each corner to hold it on the shock. Mr. Palmerton. I would like to ask something further about lime; you spoke of using ground limestone as prefer- able, perhaps, to burned lime. Did I understand you cor- rectly ? Mr. Wing. I think it makes bigger alfalfa. Mr. Palmerton. Now, in New England here we are offered a gTound marble which is as insoluble as sharks' teeth. Mr. Wing. Ground marble dust ? Mr. Palmerton. Well, I should say granulated marble, and I want to know whether that is preferable to hydrated lime or burned lime, — so-called air-slacked lime, — or whether a good carbonate of lime, shell marl or something of that sort would be all right. Mr. Wing. It is all a question of price. Will you please tell me what the marble dust is costing you? Mr. Palmerton. Down here in this section, about $4 or $5 a ton. Mr. Wing. That is too much. I believe there is a place somewhere in western Massachusetts where they grind it and put it on the car for $1.50 or $1.25 a ton. They put it on the car for $1.25 in carloads, and if there is one farm in New England that couldn't use a carload of limestone, I don't know where it is. You ought to buy it in carload lots. That price of $5 a ton for ground marble dust is entirely too high. I would rather use burned lime than the marble dust at that price. But I don't know that it makes a great dif- ference what form you use, if you remember that the un- burned only has about half as much calcium as the burned. Marl has good results if it has enough calcium. Mr. E. H. Ray. I bought lime last year for $4.75, and 14 dry marl for $6. We pay $3.50 for lime at the quarry, and pay $1.75 to get it out. We can buy marl for $6 a ton, and burned limestone I think costs us $7. Mr. Wing. Burned limestone would be cheaper than the marl at that rate. Now, I think you need a cheaper source ; you need lots of places that are grinding it. Oyster shell ground makes a good source. Mr. Eay. I think it costs about $5 a ton delivered, in carload lots. Mr. Wing. We have worked up a cheaper source of sup- ply in the west, for some reason, than you have here. We do something that is rather a joke on the lime grinders. We buy screenings from the limestone quarries that tliey mean to sell to the concrete workers. We buy it for 75 cents a yard, and a yard is 2,800 pounds, and by putting it on in larger quantities we get fine results. Some of you might be so situated that you could get it. Mr. Ray. We can buy ground lime ash for about $7 a ton. Mr. Wing. Some lime and some potash in that. How- ever, that is pretty expensive, too. Mr. W. L. Mitchell. I believe that many of you are not aware of the compulsory by-product of the lime from our kilns and the lime burners, which I accidentally ran across some years ago, and which is usually sold and delivered under $7. In fact, we have a good quality of lime ash, of which the supply is limited, but it costs not over $3, usually a little less than that, carrying a little wood ash, with from 50 to 75 cents or $1 per ton of plant food value, often, and from 45 to 50 cents worth of lime. Mr. Wing. Very good. Mr. MiTCHEi.L. Then we have a lot of stacked lime, a by-product of the kiln, stacked sometimes higher than this room, which is partly recarbonated and still takes a long time to airslack through the stack, getting a little combined moisture, which doesn't seem to show much more than the hydrated, but costs about the same. That supply is going to be open. If you can get it on the basis of freight at $1.50, for $4.50 per ton in bulk, with that plant food in it, it seems 15 to me something important that has been overlooked. In !N'ew York State they have tried to get it and have offered more money, but I have felt an interest in New England, and J^ew England has had her share so far. Mr. Palmekton. Might I ask for the best people to deal with ? Mr. Mitchell. There are several kilns near Pittsfield not owned by the lime trust. Mr. Palmekton. The rate from there to here is some- thing like $2.25 a ton. Mr. Mitchell. It is 5% cents, and going east, only $1.50 a ton, clear into Boston for $1.40 a ton, on the Boston & Albany road. The other roads have not given us suitable lime rates, the Boston & Maine in particular. Mr. Wing. The railroad people, a great many of them, are interested in agriculture and they have the farmers in mind, and it seems to me that if they are properly inter- viewed they might learn to give you the right sort of lime rate. In Illinois and several other western States the roads haul it for i/^ cent a ton a mile, and that is the rate you ought to have here. Secretary Wheeler. I would like to ask what is the relative advantage between inoculating with some of the bacterial preparations or cultures and with soil. Do you not think that using soil, taking it from one farm or one center to another and sowing it, is likely to introduce very danger- ous weeds which wouldn't be introduced by using the culture ? Mr. Wing. There is something in that. Cultures cost $2 an acre, and that is my first objection. I believe they are now fairly efficient, and if you have used the amount of manure that you really ought to have, you will get inocula- tion with the culture, I am sure. However, Ave have never been particularly afraid of weeds in alfalfa. I believe you have more permanent ones in Massachusetts than we have. Mr. Mayo. This is an introduced weed (indicating a plant). Mr. Wing. There may be something in that which might frighten me more than I have been frightened. 16 . Professor Brooks. The plant which has been held up by the speaker, which somewhat resembles the wild strawberry, is what we call cinquefoil, or, in English, five fingers. There are several species of that, and this one is the most common. The gentleman who brought it here in talking with me said that he thought it had killed the alfalfa. I told him that while he might be right, I thought it was probable it was more a symptom than a cause; that it indicated an acid con- dition of the soil, and that was the reason the alfalfa died. ISTow, while I am on my feet — and I will say I hope there is a representative of the ISTew York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad present — I might say that while it is fashionable to say a great deal against the New Haven road in these days, I happen to know that its management has taken up this matter of furnishing the farmers cheaper lime. I believe, indeed, that I brought the matter to their attention among the first. They are establishing a plant in western Connecti- cut for grinding limestone, and they propose to sell it at the lowest possible rate, and will give reduced freight rates to any points reached by their lines. I am not able to say just what the rates will be, but I know that that is their plan. Mr. Wing. That is splendid. Mr. Mayo. I would like to know if you think it is pos- sible by hybridization to get an alfalfa plant which is more drought resistant, a more vigorous grower and one that would have more growth of foliage. Mr. Wing. Well, Professor Hanson is working on the hybridization of alfalfa, and we will wait for him and see what comes out of it. Mr. P. E. Peck. I would like to ask how you get the lime deep enough. Do you plow it in ? Mr. Wing. We like to apply half of it before plowing and the other half afterward. Then the half that is put in before plowing is turned under, and the next half is mixed with the disc harrow. Mr. Peck. Do you apply it again after tlie crop is es- tablished ? Mr. Wing. Yes, we have done that, too, with fine results. ®l)e Commonrocaltti of iHasaacliusctts. STATE BOAED OF AGEICULTURE. CIRCULAR No. 25. June, 1914. HOW TO BUY FERTILIZERS. By R. Edwards Annin, Jr. From the Sixty-first Ann-ual Report of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture. BOSTON: WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 32 DERNE STREET. 1914. Appeoved by The State Board of Publication. HOW TO BUY FERTILIZEES. R. EDWARDS ANNIN, JR. All plants require ten elements for their growth. These are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, iron, sulphur, cal- cium, mag-nesium, phosphorus and potassium. The first four are gases, and three of them — carbon, hydrogen and oxygen — are secured by the plant from the air and water without the necessity of any aid from man. Of the six elements which come from the soil, iron, sulphur and mag- nesiimi are usually present in sufficient quantities and avail- able forms in practically all soils. Continuous cropping, however, has brought most soils in Massachusetts to the point where nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are not present in large enough availahle quantities to produce maximum crops. They may be called the essential fertilizing elements. Cal- cium (lime) is rarely needed as a fertilizing element, but is often needed as a soil amendment ; that is, to sweeten sour soils and make heavy soils more friable. It may, therefore, be called an occasional fertilizing element. In buying commercial fertilizers, therefore, farmers are buying nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in highly con- centrated form. A few things that commercial fertilizers can and cannot do should be kept clearly in mind. 1. Some of them, such as dried blood and cottonseed meal, do add some organic matter (humus) to the soil, but only a small part of what is needed. 2. They will not correct poor drainage conditions. 3. They will not overcome bad results due to poor seed, improper planting or careless methods. 4. They may have a slight good or bad effect on the physical condition of the soil, according to how they are compounded. 5. The best brands of commercial fertilizers are quickly available to plants, and so the food contained in them is mostly used the year of its application. The potash and phosphoric acid which they contain will be available to future crops if more is applied than is used the first season. From an economic standpoint fully enough should be used each season to produce the crop sought. Barnyard manure and commercial fertilizers are often compared, to the disadvantage of the latter. This compari- son would be more intelligent if it was kept in mind that barnyard manure not only adds the three fertilizing elements to the soil, but is also the most useful of soil amendments in that it (1) adds large quantities of humus, (2) contains in- numerable beneficial bacteria, and (3) opens up clay soils and makes leachy soils more compact and retentive of moisture and plant food. A large part of the plant food contained in solid manure is very slowly available, and so the effect of a heavy applica- tion may still be seen for some years. This means a long delay in securing returns on the full investment. In comparing fertilizer and manure it should also be noted that many farmers expect 200 or 300 pounds of a cheap ready-mixed fertilizer, costing, perhaps, $1.50 a hundred, to show as good results as 20 two-horse loads of manure, worth at least $1 a load. The question of buying fertilizers, therefore, resolves itself into securing at the least cost the most pounds of the three elements, and in getting them in the best proportions and combinations to supply the plant as required. It is im- portant to avoid using a large excess at any one time, and to have the fertilizer compounded so as to prevent its loss by leaching. To do this intelligently the following facts must be known: (1) the amounts and availability of the three fer- tilizing ingredients contained in the various goods offered for sale, (2) the value of these ingredients, and (3) the char- acter of the soil and of the crop to be grown. The fertilizer laws now on the statute books in most States require that all fertilizers be sold on a guaranteed analysis, and that this analysis shall be printed on the bag or con- tainer. The only figures that need be printed to comply with this law in some States are the percentage of total nitrogen, available phosphoric acid, insoluble phosphoric acid, and of total potash, but Rhode Island requires soluble phosphoric acid. The fertilizer bag sometimes has printed on it, or on the tags attached, a number of figures which might at first seem to be unnecessary, such as the equivalent of nitrogen in ammonia; but in some States this is required by law, so in order to meet all State requirements both are often given. The equivalent of potash in sulphate of potash is necessary to show the fact, in case it is not all from muriate. These figures may be misleading to some persons not thor- oughly acquainted with fertilizer lore, and it would be a step in the direction of intelligent understanding of these matters if the fertilizer laws could all be made uniform as concerns these requirements. The figures on the bag are on a percentage basis. For ex- ample, a fertilizer with 2 per cent nitrogen, 5 per cent phos- phoric acid and 6 per cent potash would contain in 1 ton, 40 pounds of nitrogen, 100 pounds of phosphoric acid and 120 pounds of potash. While it is unnecessary for a farmer to carry in his head the exact analyses of the fertilizing materials, as these are published annually in the fertilizer bulletin of the Massa- chusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, it is desirable that he should have a working knowledge of the make-up of the principal raw materials, which are as follows : — Nitrate of soda contains about 15.5 per cent nitrogen. Sulphate of ammonia contains about 20.5 per cent nitrogen. Acid phosphate contains about 12-16 per cent available phosphoric acid. Basic slag contains about 12-18 per cent total phosphoric acid. Muriate of potash contains about 50 per cent potash. High-grade sulphate of potash contains 48-49 per cent potash. In order to find the money value of fertilizers another essential factor must be brought into use, namely, the value per pound of the several fertilizing ingredients. This information is published annually by the directors 6 of tlie experiment stations of the eastern States, and is re- produced here in abbreviated form : — Nitrogen in nitrates, . Nitrogen in ammonia salts, Organic nitrogen, Phosphoric acid, soluble in water, Phosphoric acid, insoluble, Potash in sulphate of potash, . Potash in muriate of j^otash, . Cents per Pound. 16.5 16.5 22.5 4.5 2.0 5.0 4.0 With these two sets of figures of the analysis and trade values at hand it will be simple to compute the trade value of any fertilizer. An example will make this clear. Take the mixed fertilizer mentioned previously in this article, a 2-5-6 brand, and let it be assumed that four-fifths of the phosphoric acid is soluble in water, and one-fifth insoluble, and that all the potash is in the form of muriate of potash. It must be recognized that two fertilizers having the same trade value may still vary in their crop-producing power, dependent upon the materials used in compounding them. The value of this brand would be computed as follows : — 1 per cent nitrogen (organic) equals 20 pounds per ton, at 22.5 cents equals $4.50 1 per cent nitrogen (nitrate) equals 20 pounds per ton, at 16.5 cents equals 3.30 4 per cent phos}Dlioric acid equals 80 pounds per ton, at 4.5 cents equals 3.60 1 per cent phosphoric acid equals 20 pounds per ton, at 2 cents equals .40 6 per cent potash equals 120 pounds per ton, at 4 cents equals 4.80 $16.60 This particular material should cost $16.60 per ton at retail in the large market centers, such as !N^ew York or Boston; and to this, of course, must be added the cost of new bags and freight to the buyer's station. ISJ^itrate of soda analyzing 15.65 per cent nitrogen would contain 15.65 x 20 = 313 pounds of nitrogen, and should be worth $51.64 per ton. If this simple method of figuring fertilizer values were universally used farmers would often find that they were paying too much for their fertilizing ingredients when bought in some of the mixed goods having a low analysis. These '' cheap " brands are the most expensive to buy. A ton of 2-8-2 fertilizer costs just as much to mix, ship, handle and to bag as a 4-8-10, but its value will be barely half as much. It must be evident that freight is being paid in the former case on a large amount of unnecessary material on accoimt of the lower analysis of some of the ingredients used in their manufacture. High-grade ready-mixed goods, on the contrary, are often as economical for the farmer as unmixed chemicals. Finally, in buying fertilizers, buying the raw materials and mixing them at home will sometimes be found to be eco- nomical. A shovel, a sand screen and a tight floor are the only essentials ; provided, of course, that certain of the chem- icals are reground just before using them. Care must be taken, however, not to mix the materials until just as they are needed, as otherwise manv of them are sure to become hard and difficult to handle. The bags in which original shipments of nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, and potash salts are made are particu- larlv likelv to be torn because of the hardening of the con- tents. In such cases more or less material is wasted. Some of it is also absorbed and held in the bags in which it is shipped. These losses, and the necessity of cash payment for chemicals, must be considered in comparison with the good drillable condition of ready-mixed goods even after long storage, the shipment in sound new bags, the extension of reasonable credit, and the fact that the ammonia is less sub- ject to loss by leaching than when wholly from nitrate of soda, as it frequently is in home-mixed goods. ®l)c Commontoealtl) of ittasaacljusctts. STATE BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE. CIRCULAR No. 26. June, 1914. NUT CULTURE. By William C. Deming. From the Sixtt-first Annual Report of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture. BOSTON: WEIGHT & POTTER PRINTIXG CO., STATE PRINTERS, 32 DERNE STREET. 1914. ApI'roved by The State Board of Publicatiox. NUT CULTURE FOR MASSACHUSETTS. WILLIAM C. DEMING, SECRETARY OF THE NORTHERN NUT GROWERS' ASSOCIATION, GEORGETOWN, CONN, It is witliiu the range of sane belief that, had the nut tree been as easy of propagation as the apple or peach, the hills of !New England would now hold as many orchards of nut trees as of the other fruits. The best specimens of our native nuts would have been selected, grafted and sold by nursery- men. Foreign nuts would have been introduced, and accli- mated varieties of the Persian and other walnuts, almonds and filberts developed. At first thought it seems strange that this has not already been done, but a little reflection will disclose the reasons. To hundreds of men has occurred the idea of growing nuts. The natural thing would be to plant the nuts themselves, choosing fine types and planting the best. The results were always disappointing. Filberts grew well but died off about the time they were beginning to bear. Almonds either died from the effects of climate, or did not bear, or what they bore was of little value. The shagbark, butternut and black walnut grew slowly because never given cultivation or fer- tilization, rarely bore "before they were fifteen years old, often not until they were tw^enty-five. Some bore little or nothing, and of those that did bear freely the nuts were almost always inferior to the planted nuts. The same re- marks apply to the pecan, except that in the north few trees, raised as they almost all were from Texas or Louisiana nuts, could stand the climate, and those that did either bore no nuts, or those they bore did not fill or were too small to be of any value. The " English " walnut has been often planted, and while a few trees have survived and are the source of our gi-eat expectations for this nut, most of them did not live or, if they did, either did not bear at all or bore an inferior nut after long years of waiting. The chestnut alone has been developed to a large degree, due chiefly to the comparative ease of propagation, and was our only nut certainty, until the blight came and put a halt to iDrogi'ess in this direction. Of course it occurred to some to try to bud or graft from choice native trees on native seedlings. But this was almost invariably a failure, as great refinement of technique is nec- essary for success in propagating most of the nut trees. The chestnut, almond and filbert are easier of propagation, but these have all been interfered with by the causes mentioned. For these and for other reasons it has been slow work reaching the point which we believe we now have reached, where we can make rapid progress in nut growing, due chiefly to our acquirement of the art of budding and grafting all the nut trees. ISTot all the problems are yet solved, but we think that we can see the way to solve them, though we have not yet ad- vanced so far that we can advise commercial planting. We are still in the experimental stage, and except for a number of chestnut orchards, mostly in Xew Jersey and Pennsyl- vania, and an orchard of about 225 seedling walnut trees in northern Kew York, there are no bearing, commercial orchards of nut trees in the north. The success of the pecan in the south, and of the almond and walnut on the Pacific coast, the growing number of persons able to live in the country, or to have country places, and the consequent increasing interest in the accompaniments of country life, together with the activities of an enlarging group of individuals and societies, farseeing enough to fore- tell the future great importance of nuts, — all have contrib- uted to cause an interest in nut growing that is spreading rapidly. With our growing population and the increasing restric- tion of our great cattle ranges, the consequent diminishing meat supply and increase in its cost, active minds are look- ing elsewhere for our supply of the important, muscle- building, energy-yielding, expensive protein element of our food. This will be supplied chiefly from such sources as cheese, dried fish, the legumes, the hen and nuts. We shall grow nut trees, not too close together, between them beans and alfalfa, keep some chiqkens and a cow, and be forever in- dependent of the butcher, even if we do have to send to the grocer for an occasional codfish for our Sunday morning fish cakes. We can predict the day when it will be possible to send to the grocer's, not the butcher's, for a nut chop or steak. Thus the distasteful associations, and possible dan- gers, of butcher's meat may be easily done away with if we choose. The following table shows how nuts rank, in comparison with some other articles of diet, as suppliers of protein, fat and starch. Food Value of Nuts, and of Other Foods for Comparison. Nuts. Sugar, Fuel Value Protein. Fat. Starch, etc. per Pound (Caloriea). Almond, 21.4 54.4 13.8 2,895 Beechnut, . 21.8 49.9 18.0 2,740 Brazil nut, . 17.4 65.0 5.7 3,120 Butternut, . 27.9 61.2 3.4 3,370 Chestnut, dry, 10.7 7.8 70 1 1,840 Cocoanut, . 6.6 56.2 13.7 2,805 Filbert, 16.5 64.0 11.7 3,100 Hickory nut. 15.4 67.4 11.4 3,345 Peanut, 29.8 43.5 14.7 2,610 Pecan, 12.1 70.7 8.5 3,300 Pine nut. 3.3.9 48.2 6.5 2,710 Pistachio, . 22.6 54.5 15.6 3,250 Walnut, 18.2 60.7 13.7 3,075 Other Foods. Beef steak, 19. S 13.6 950 Cheese, Cheddar, 27.7 36.8 4.1 2,145 Eggs, boiled 12.4 10,7 - 680 Wheat flour 11.4 1.0 74.8 1,650 Beans, dried 22.5 1.8 55.2 1,605 Potatoes, 2.2 .1 18 0 385 Apoles .4 .5 13.0 290 Raisina 2.6 3.3 73.6 1,605 From this table it may be seen that butternuts contain about 28 per cent of protein, or the same as Cheddar cheese, and a third more than beefsteak. Pecans contain over 70 per cent of fat, or twice as much as the cheese and more than five times that of the beefsteak and nearly seven times as much as eggs. Chestnuts contain 70 per cent of starch, or nearly as much as high-grade "wheat flour and four times Diagram and values shoiwing importahons of nuts into \\\e United States during tlic post fifteen ijears. Aueraqe annual increase ^952,203. 7S^6 Jd99 1900 1901 J902 J903 J904' 1905 1906 1907 7903 1909 1910 I9IJ 1912 ^2,497,160. 3, /OS, 975. 3,4^8^,637. 3, 756, J 36. 4, 213, 776. 5, 033, 726. 5, 473, 307 6, J 54, 514. 7, 223, 607 9, 375, 371. 9, 563, 742. 3. 604, 253. 13. 246, 742. 14,493,413. 15, 323, 003. Reproduced by permission from the " Pesan Review." as much as potatoes. One can see that something more can be made of nuts than a relish or a dessert. The importance of nuts as food is further shown by the importation of nuts and nut products into the United States, and the rapid increase in the value of the importations. Further evidence of the importance of nut growing may be found in the extent of their cultivation and use in Europe and other continents. The walnut trees on many farms in southern France detennine its rental value and foi'm a chief source of income to the tenant. In parts of France, Italy and other countries chestnuts furnish flour for bread for man, and chestnuts and acorns furnish forage for animals. Prof. J. Russell Smith relates that when he stopi^ed at the house of the mayor of a little town in Corsica the mayor went to a bin and brought out a measure of chest- nuts to feed the horse. In Mediterranean countries the almond is an important crop for home use and export. In our own country the walnut, almond and filbert on the Pacific coast are becoming industries of national value. In 1912 they produced 3,000 tons of almonds and 11,250 tons of walnuts. In the south the development of the pecan, and of the pecan industry, is one of the wonders of horticulture. Barely twelve years ago the propagation of the pecan was practically unknown, and seedling trees the sole dependence. Xow thousands of acres are occupied with tens of thou- sands of trees, grafted or budded from selected wild trees. These wonderful pecans, that hardly any of us northerners have ever seen, so different from the grocery store pecan, and that fetch up to 50 cents or more a pound in the home markets of the south, are not artificial hybrids, the result of man's scientific work, but nature's own product which has been merely propagated and perpetuated by the art of man. The same process is awaited by the native nuts of the north. The walnut growers of the Pacific coast and the pecan gi'owers of the south have shown us the way. The entire success of nut growing depends on the art of propagation. To get trees bearing true to type, and as early as the apple, we must set grafted or budded trees, just as with the apple. Xo one should think of setting an orchard of seedling nuts any more than an orchard of seedling apples or peaches. Of course the development of new varieties must come from raising seedling trees by planting nuts. 8 One in many of these seedling trees will be notably superior. On this account the growing of seedlings from hybrid or selected nuts must be practiced by those who have the oppor- tunity, but the perpetuation of superior nuts, secured in this way, or found in nature, cannot be accomplished by plant- ing nuts, but only by a sexual propagation. Consequently, the man who wants to grow good nuts, and only good nuts, must either plant budded and grafted trees or graft and bud his own seedlings. Success in grafting and budding the walnuts and hickories can be attained only by expert knowledge, hired or labo- riously acquired. The other nuts are mostly fairly easy of propagation by the usual methods. Government and other bulletins may be had that teach by word and diagram the methods of propagation. But an easier and surer way to learn is to practice under the eye of an expert. Beginning with nut culture should not be delayed, how- ever, until one has learned the art of propagation. Nuts should be planted, and budded or gi-afted trees, to be ob- tained now from special nut nurserymen, should be set, and the methods of propagation may be practiced and learned while the nuts are growing to furnish stocks and the costly trees to furnish scions. Top working native walnuts and hickories to improved varieties is a promising, though hardly demonstrated, possi- bility. It is the habit of the walnuts and hickories to send a tap- root down until it reaches permanent water. A tree that, from any cause, is prevented from doing this will not attain its perfect development nor reach the allotted span of its existence. To get the most perfect development of such a tree Mr. J. C. Cooper suggests, as an illustration, that an old well be filled with rubbish and good soil and the tree planted over that. Nurserymen's instructions for setting and after care should be carefully followed. The first two or three years are critical times with these taprooted trees, rudely torn from their half-accomplished purpose of fighting their way thi'ough the hard earth to permanent water. They must be visited almost daily at critical periods, and treated with all the refinements of horticulture that can be mastered, but above all given plenty of deeply placed water when droughts are upon them and w^inter protection until well established. Soil and climate requirements are not fully known. Com- ments about these will be made under the individual nuts, and in the course of the general remarks. Planting nut trees about the house and barns may be recommended, as such locations are usually fertile, bushes and weeds would not be present, daily observation would be . more likely, and most nut trees are desirable for shade and ornament. Fence corner planting is not to be recommended, since the trees generally have to compete with native and adapted weeds, bushes or trees, and they are out of sight and mind. Roadside planting has had advocates, but is usually un- desirable, as it would be for fruit trees in general, on account of the reasons given above and because of the depre- dations of man and his straying animals. Some day, when the whole country is a garden, and the government the gar- dener as in some foreign countries, such planting may be advantageous. For the man whose nut-growing tastes are scientific the creation of new kinds of nuts by cross fertilizing offers a field unexcelled in horticulture. The walnuts cross so freely with one another, as also do the hickories, and even some hickories with walnuts, that the possibilities seem endless. Results have already been attained in breeding fine chest- nuts, immune to blight, by crossing the American chinkapin and the Japanese chestnut. This work ought to be much more extensively taken up by experiment stations and pri- vate individuals. The literature in this country on nut growing is fairly comprehensive, except that the only systematic works on the subject are not up to date. Every one interested, however, should read " The Xut Culturist," by Andrew S. Fuller, the 10 Orange Judd Company, Xew York, 1906, for its informa- tion, the charm of its style and the enthusiasm of the author. " ^ut Culture in the United States," United States De- partment of Agriculture, 1896, should also be read, but is out of print and scarce. The government publishes separate bulletins on the pecan, walnut and other nuts, their food value, diseases, etc., and most of the States where the pecan and walnut are grown have issued bulletins on these nuts. Most of these, and other nut literature, are listed in a circular of the Northern 'Nut Growers Association, sent free on application to the secre- tary, and the annual reports of this association contain papers and discussions on different phases of nut growing. Can Nuts be grown" in New England? Of course every one knows that a great quantity of nuts is already grown in New England, but every one also knows that most of them grow where nature planted them. What we want to know is whether we can grow nuts that will be greatly superior to the wild nuts, — the ordinaiy run, — and whether we can grow them in quantity for our own use or for commercial purposes. The answer will come under the following two heads : — 1. The Development of Our Native Nuts. The pecan in the south shows us what can be done. It is just as possible with our own native nuts. Far off in the fields and forests there is manv an old nut tree that bears a nut worth growing; there must be some that are better than most of us have ever seen. Year by year these are passing away and, with our diminishing forests, they are not being replaced by nature. We now know how to propa- gate nut trees. It is therefore the duty of every one who cares anything about such things to make known to some authority any tree whose nuts he thinks sufficiently valuable that it may be propagated. If it is any incentive to such an act, it is safe to promise that the nut, if worthy of per- petuation, will be given the name of the person who first makes it kno%vn. There are as vet not a half dozen northern 11 nuts, excluding the chestnut, that are being commerciallv propagated. Practically, there is but a single nut, the Hales hickory, and that is sold in very limited numbers. 2. The Introduction of Alien Nuts. This part of the subject had best be taken up under the head of the individual varieties. Let us consider first, and for the sake of completeness, those nuts about which there is the least to say. The Pistachio. — This is being tried by experimenters. The following remarks about the almond will apply, in a general way, to this nut. At present we know too little about it to say more. The Almond. — The finer varieties of this valuable nut are being grown very profitably on the Pacific slope. It ai:)pears to be well demonstrated that the so-called soft-shelled almonds are either too tender in wood to stand our climate, or they bloom so early in spring that they are caught by late frosts. It seems also to be a fact that the hard-shelled almond is quite hardy and bears fruit even in New England. It has been asserted that the fruit of the hard-shelled almond is not valuable, while others say it is as good as the soft- shelled, the only difference being in the shells. Bulletin ISTo. 26, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, 1902, page 7 says, " The most valuable almonds of commerce are those grown in southeastern Spain. Thev are hard-shelled varieties. . . ." It would seem as though the almond ought to grow wherever the peach will, being of that family, or that it could be trained to do so. There appear to be no records of attempts to breed hardy varieties, and this apparently offers a good field for experiment. Large numbers of seed- liuas should be grown from seeds of choice varieties, brought from their northern limits, perhaps from Oregon or Wash- ington in this country, or from Europe. Variation in the resulting seedlings should give us, in time, the wished-for adapted varieties. Good authorities consider the almond worth gi'owing for its beautiful flowers alone. 12 The Pine Nuts. — In many parts of the world the edible seeds of various species of pine are more or less used for food. They sometimes come on the market as Pinolas or Pihon nuts. In the Andes mountains is a pine that bears very large nuts or seeds. Many of the edible seeded pines are hardy and offer a good field for experiment. The Beech. — Experts believe that this splendid tree is worthy of trial and experiment as a nut-producing tree. The nut is familiar to us all. If one could be found that was of some size it would be of value. In many localities the nuts do not fill. It should be grown on rocky hillsides and other places unfit for cultivation, to furnish mast for the fat- tening of hogs. The Oak. — As a mast producer the oak probably ranks before the beech. There are varieties bearing nuts sweet enough to be edible by man. It seems as if a way should be found of utilizing, in this countrv as in foreian coim- tries, the very abundant fruit of this gTeat, hardy and long- lived tree. It is very suitable for reforesting rocky slopes to furnish mast for swine, and for its timber. More atten- tion should be given to growing the beech, oak and chestnut as forage producers for feeding animals. J. Russell Smith says, " Approximately nine-tenths of the proceeds of Amer- ican agriculture go to nourish the quadruped, and man eats the remaining one-tenth." The Chestnut. — This is the great tragedy of nut grow- ing. The chestnut is culturally the highest developed of our native nuts. A number of men have crossed our native chestnuts and various foreign ones and produced varieties of ample size and excellent quality, bearing young and abundantly. Commercial orchards have been established in a number of places, and many smaller ones for home use, and many of these were bearing profitably. The chestnut industry appeared to be on an established basis, but a few years ago the chestnut blight appeared and has upset the equilibrium of the situation. The disease is now found from Maine to the Carolinas, and even on the Pacific coast. Where it first began it has killed every tree. It seems to be gradually doing the same wherever it is present. It is true 13 that in some of the older cultivated commercial orchards the claims of the owners, that they can keep the blight under control by constant watchfulness and inspection of the trees with control measures, seem to be borne out. But it looks as if our native trees were doomed. A bright ray of hope for the cultivation of chestnuts has been shed by the experiments of Dr. Van Fleet of the United States Department of Agriculture. It is now ac- cepted that the chestnut blight was imported from the Orient where it is found endemic. The Oriental chestnuts have more or less immunity. So has our native chinkapin. Dr. Van Fleet has crossed the chinkapin with the Japanese chestnut and got resulting hybrids combining the size of the Japanese and the high quality of the chinkapin, at the same time securing great, perhaps complete, immunity from the blight. Moreover, these chestnuts bear very young and an- nually, some bearing in less than two years from the seed, and some of them several pounds of nuts in their third year. These nuts are not yet available for distribution, but per- sons who are interested should consult the " Journal of Heredity " for January, 1914, where Dr. Van Fleet de- scribes his experiments and results with illustrations. This number also contains two illustrated articles on the chestnut blight. Eecommendations for the chestnut in New England at present are to try them in very limited numbers, giving them good care to promote vigorous gro^vth, and watching them to discover the earliest evidences of the blight, which should be treated as the pear blight would be. Unless they can be given this careful attention it would be better not to set them at all. There are no immune varieties of the American chestnut. Among the best of those we have are the Rochester, Boone and Paragon, which may be bought of several reliable nur- serymen. The Japanese varieties are generally coarse and not of good quality, though there are said to be superior ones. The Japanese chestnuts grow rapidly, bear yoimg and are beautiful, and useful as screens or in masses. Many cases of severe illness, and several deaths, have been u attributed to eating chestnuts from blighted trees, and until official verification or refutation of such assertion is ob- tained it would be better to abstain from eating chestnuts from trees affected by the blight, and even from those grow- ing in regions where the blight is present, even though the j)articular tree may show no evidences of it. The Filbert. — No native hazel large enough to be worth propagating has been brought to notice. This is a pity be- cause the native hazel is practically immune to a blight that attacks the large imported filbert and destroys it before profitable crops are born. On the Pacific coast, however, the disease seems not to be present, and the nut is success- fully gi'own. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture might keep the blight under control, but what we must work for is a good filbert that is immune, by selection from native types or crosses with the foreign filbert. Such experiments are under way, and when the desired result is obtained a prom- ising field of nut culture will be opened, for the filbert is very hardy, of rapid growth and early maturity, productive, easy of cultivation and adapted to many soils and climates. It is the nut from which to get quick results, to tide over the period of waiting for other nut trees to mature. As fillers between such other trees the filbert ought also to be valuable. Conquering the filbert blight is one of the most important problems of nut gi'owing. The Hickories. — Of this family of about sixteen mem- bers, all native onlv on the IN^orth American continent, the first in importance, at the present time, is the pecan. Its great development in the south has been spoken of, but it has also a future in the north. It gTows as a native in southern Indiana and the neigh- boring States, where immense trees are found in large groves of pure stand, and some of the nuts are almost the equal of the southern pecan in size, and equal, if not superior, in quality. The pecans of this locality have received the gen- eral name of " the Indiana pecan." The best of them are being commercially propagated and can be bought in quan- tity. How far north of its native habitat it can be moved. 15 and continue to fruit profitably, is unkno^vn. Even the southern jDecan tree may be perfectly hardy in the north. There is one at Hartford, Conn., that is 9 feet 3 inches in circumference, and others in New England, but none, so far as I Imow, that bears an edible nut. This may be some- times because of imperfect pollination, but is due more probably to insufficient length of gi'owing season. State- ments by nurserymen as to the bearing possibilities of any pecan north of New Jersey and Long Island are purely fanciful. One cannot say what they will do, for none are known to be fruiting. But there is every reason to believe that pecans of the Indiana type will be found to fruit successfully much far- ther north than their native range, and their trial is recom- mended. Tlie Shagharh HicJcory. — The shagbark is the pecan of the north, waiting its turn for the development its southern brother has had. As it appears in the market it is as variable as the grocery store pecan ; some small, thick-shelled, difficult to extract from the shell, or of inferior quality ; while now and then is found one that has the opposite characteristics. At its best it is nearly the equal of the pecan in quality. Some prefer it. There is nothing now to prevent the selection of the best of our native shagbarks, their propagation, dissemination and gi'owing in orchard form. The ordinary run of native shag- barks retails at 15 to 20 cents a pound. If there are 60 pounds in a bushel the value of a barrel of ordinary " hickory nuts " is of easy computation. Even now selected shagbarks rival the high-priced pecans. When we have determined the best shagbarks to grow, which we have not yet done, we can send scions to expert propagators, or we may get them to come and top work our native seedlings, or any variety of hickory, to the shagbark or the pecan of our choice. Or we may learn to do this our- selves. The tree is perfectly acclimated over most of the north- east, and will grow in many places where only forest trees 16 can find a foothold. It needs only to be well cared for until established, and given room for development, and it will take care of itself. It is said to do best where there is lime in the soil, which, of course, may be added. The Walnut. — We must be on the lookout for types of the black walnut and butternut that are worth gi-owing. Both these are native and hardy, the butternut flourishing- further north than the other, and if such nuts can be found they will fill a valuable place. Their propagation is suffi- ciently simple, as all the walnuts can be gTafted or budded interchangeably. The Japanese heartnut has striking characteristics that make it valuable for the north. It is very hardy and grows with extreme rapidity under favorable circumstances, mak- ing a very handsome tree and bearing early a heart-shaped nut of good quality that cracks easily from the shell. This nut is worthy of extended trial, but one should have a guar- antee from the nurseryman that it is not the Siebold walnut, a very similar tree, but one' that bears a very inferior nut. The Persian Walnut (" English " or Circassian Walnut, Madeira Nut). — The so-called "English" walnut is at- tracting more popular attention as a nut for northern grow- ing than any other at the present moment. One reason for this is that, while it is not a native nut, here and there a tree is growing and bearing well in almost every State in the Union. Some of the best of these are being propagated and can be bought in quantity, but very probably there are better ones that have never been brought to the attention of nut growers. All such trees should be made known and studied, for it is certain that the nut is going to be one of the most valuable for northern propagation, and some day a great food and revenue producer. Eecommendations. These depend on the tastes and wishes of the man who wants to 2T0W the nuts. If thev are strictlv scientific, with time and money to back them, let him experiment with the less known kinds, such as the almond, pistache and pine nuts ; let him raise great quantities of seedlings, discard the 17 unworthy majority and test out the minority ; let him help in the search for valuable types of native nuts, and labor to simplify and perfect the art of propagation; let him breed chestnuts and filberts that will resist the blights ; and let him experiment with the hybridizing of nuts and all its wonder- fid possibilities. If he only wants a few trees for home use, and to satisfy a variegated horticultural taste, let him set one or two trees of as many different varieties as his preferences and oppor- tunities allow, much as he would so many fruit trees, only being sure to give them extra good care, especially for the first few years. If he wishes to grow nuts to make money, the time is not yet come when the planting of orchards on a commercial scale can be recommended. If he were willing to risk it, however, particularly if his location or climate were espe- ciallv favorable, orchards of carefullv selected varieties of the Persian walnut, properly managed, would be almost certain to be profitable, and orchards of the Indiana pecan would be a bright possibility. Far outside the native range of the chestnut, in a favorable localitv, to be determined onlv bv trial, a chestnut orchard might prove very profitable. The promising new immune hybrid chestnut may entirely change the face of the chestnut- growing industry. The advantages and desirability of nut culture might be summed up as follows : — Advances in the art of propagation, and other factors, have now made available nut trees that will bear early and true to type, like our apples and peaches. The uncertain seedling is no longer our sole dependence. The products of nut culture are clean and free from dis- ease fferms, unless contaminated bv unsanitarv handling after cracking. The careful person will have his nuts cracked and the meats picked out at home, or cooked before eaten. They can be kept and used as needed and do not require refrigeration like meat, and the chance of ptomaine poison- ing, if possible, is very remote. 18 They are palatable and varied in flavor and capable of being prepared as food in many different styles. They are of high food value, as already shown, and in cost they compete on at least equal terms with other sources of food. After the trees are once established, but not until then, no great amount of care is necessary, so far as experience goes; harvesting can be done by a child, cold storage is not needed, the product is not soon perishable and market gluts will not be likelv. The life of many nut trees, when properly grown, is very long, much longer than that of the other fruit trees, in most instances. Even a few nut trees about the house will supply the fam- ily, help to solve the problem of the high cost of food, and provide some income. From 21 pecan trees, seven to twenty years old, on his own home lot, Mr. J. B. Wight of Cairo, Ga., in 1911 sold the nuts for $500. The Lindsay pecan tree at twenty-three years of age bore 638 pounds of nuts. There is no more peace and satisfaction giving occupation than that of horticulture, and no more fascinating branch of horticulture than nut growing. %l- Series of 1913. Vol. 26. No. 2. LIBRARY of f b ^ IVI ei 55 j-i tt c Itl tj s e t MASSACHUSETJ^ g ig^^ AgrieuUt»rftl CEOP EEFO-RT FOR THE Month Of June, 1913. Peach Growing in Western Massachusetts. ISSUED MONTHLY, MAY TO OCTOBER, BY STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE, STATE HOUSE, BOSTON, MASS. Wilfrid Wheeler, Secretary. Entered June 3, 1904, at Boston, Mass., as Second-Class Matter, UNDER Act of Congress op June 6, 1900. BOSTON: WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 32 DERNE STREET. 1913. CONTENTS PAGE Crop Conditions, United States, 4 Wholesale and Retail Prices Compared, 5 Weather of June, 7 Weather, Special Telegraphic Reports, .8 Notices of Meetings and Public Gatherings, 8 Summary of General Crop Conditions, 11 Notes of General Crop Correspondents, 17 Summary of Fruit Crop Conditions, 42 Notes of Fruit Crop Correspondents, 48 Summary of Market-garden Crop Conditions, .... 59 Notes of Market-garden Crop Correspondents, ... 64 Summary of Cranberry Crop Conditions, 71 Notes of Cranberry Crop Correspondents, .... 73 Peach Growing in Western Massachusetts, 79 Appeoved by The State Board of Publication. Crop Eeport for the Month of June, 1913. Office of the State Board of Agriculture, Boston, Mass., July 1, 1913. Owing to the unusually large size of the May crop report, and to the moving of the State printers, that issue was un- avoidably delayed in publication. It is the purpose of those in charge to have a set date upon which the report shall be issued, and upon which it may be expected by its readers. To insure such publication it will be necessary for our cor- respondents to make their returns as nearly as possible upon the dates specified upon the blanks. The blanks will be sent out a day or so earlier, so as to give more opportunity for observation and inquiry. The reports on different specialties have been continued in this, the ci'op report for June, the list of questions has been broadened where possible, and our staff of special corre- spondents has been increased as fast as desirable persons could be secured. Full reports of frost injury and insect damage are contained herein, and methods and practices in different sections are outlined. The information received through the market-gardeners' returns in regard to irriga- tion will be found of especial interest, as the practice is re- ceiving more and more attention each year ; a larger number of returns, however, would have been productive of still more valuable data. The special bulletin this month is entitled " Peach Growing in Western Massachusetts," and was pre- pared by Mr. L. W. Eice of Wilbraham, and delivered by him at the last annual meeting of the Massachusetts Fruit Grow- ers' Association. Mr. Eice is actively engaged in the peach- growing industry, and is one of the most practical men whom we have in this State. This article, then, is especially inter- esting and valuable to those who are now engaged or are planning to engage in this industry. CROP CONDITIONS JUNE 1, 1913. The Crop Eeporting Board of the Bureau of Statistics, United States Department of Agriculture, estimates, from the reports of the correspondents and agents of the bureau, as follows for the United States : — Crop. Spring wheat, Winter wheat. All wheat, Oats, Barley, Rye, Hay, Pastures, Acreage, 1913. Per Cent of 1912. 97.0 116.4 108.3 101.1 96.3 Acres. 18,663,000 30,938,000 49,601,000 38,341,000 7,255,000 Condition June 1 (Per Cent). 1913. 93.5 83.5 87.2 87.0 87.1 90.9 87.5 89.2 1912. 95.8 74.3 83.3 91.1 91.1 87.7 89.8 93.7 Ten- Year Aver- age. 93.8 80.7 86.1 88.4 90.5 89.7 89.5 Condi- tion May 1, 1913 (Per Cent). 91.9 91.0 88.5 87.1 The estimated yields indicated by the condition of crops on June 1, 1913, and final yields in preceding years, for comparison, follow : — Yield per Acre (Bushels). Total Production in Millions or Bushels. Crop. 1913.1 Final Esti- mate, 1912. Aver- age, 1908-12. 1913.1 Final Esti- mate, 1912. Final Esti- mate, 1911. Census, 1909. Winter wheat. Spring wheat, All wheat, Oats Barley, .... Rye 15.9 13.5 15.0 28.8 24.4 16.5 15.1 17.2 15.9 37.4 29.7 16.8 15.2 13.3 14,6 29.7 24.5 16.2 492 252 744 1,104 177 400 330 730 1,418 224 36 430 191 621 922 160 33 418 265 683 1,007 173 30 ' Interpreted from condition reports. WHOLESALE AND RETAIL PRICES COMPARED. [From the Crop Reporter op the United States Department of Agriculture for the Month of June.] The marked advance in prices during the last twenty years, and consequent discussion of the cost of living, prompts' many persons to make inquiries concerning the difference be- tween consumers' and producers' prices, and concerning whether such differences have widened owing to the recent increased prices. Most agricultural products before reaching the ultimate consumer undergo some modification or manufacture. Wheat is manufactured into flour, hogs are slaughtered and con- verted into pork and lard, and many fruits and vegetables are preserved or canned. Probably three-fourths of all pro- ducts undergo some such modification between the primary producer and the ultimate consumer. Eggs, milk, farm but- ter, live poultry, and green fruits and vegetables comprise practically all products which are purchased by the ultimate consumer in the same form as sold by the producers, and there are exceptions among these products ; for instance, milk is frequently modified and bottled, and country butter is now a relatively small portion of all the butter sold. In 1910 the Department of Agriculture made an investi- gation of the farm, wholesale and retail prices of butter, eggs, milk and poultry. From this investigation, which was made in the last week of January, 1910, it appeared that con- sumers in the 71 cities covered were paying an average of about 38.1 cents per dozen for fresh eggs, retail dealers were paying about 32 cents, and near-by producers reported re- ceiving an average of 30.4 cents ; the average price received by all producers of the United States, according to reports of county correspondents of the Bureau of Statistics, was 28.9 cents per dozen. IsTear-by producers frequently receive a premium over the prices of distantly shipped eggs ; also, many farmers sell their eggs directly to the consumer, in which cases the consumer's price and the producer's price would be the same. The average price paid by the consum- ers, 38.1 cents, was about 19 per cent higher than the price 6 paid for eggs by retail dealers, 25 per cent higher than that received by near-by producers, and 32 per cent higher than the average price received by producers of the United States, 28.9 cents, as stated above. In this calculation no allowance is made for losses occasioned by breaking, spoiling or other- wise between the producer and consumer. Chickens were purchased by consumers at 18.7 cents per pound and by retail dealers at 15 cents, while they were sold by near-by producers at 11.7 cents; the average of reports of all county correspondents at about the same time was 11.1 cents per pound. The price paid by consumers, 18.7 cents, was nearly 25 per cent higher than the price paid by re- tailers, nearly 60 per cent higher than the price reported re- ceived by near-by producers, and 68 per cent higher than the average price received by all producers, as reported by county correspondents of the Bureau of Statistics. The average price paid by consumers for milk was 8.5 cents per quart ; the average price paid by retail dealers was 4.7 cents, and the average price reported as received by pro- ducers was 4.5 cents. In some cities there are wholesale receivers and retail delivery dealers; the average price paid by delivery dealers to wholesale dealers was 6.4 cents. The price paid by consumers for milk was thus about 89 per cent higher than the price received by those producers who did not peddle their milk. The average price of creamery butter in tubs to consumers was 86.5 cents per pound; the price paid for it by retail dealers was 31.8 cents; the retail price thus being nearly 15 per cent above the price paid by the retail dealer. In order to ascertain whether the relative differences be- tween producers' and consumers' prices have widened during the last twenty years, comparisons have been made of the relative retail prices of certain articles reported by the Bureau of Labor Statistics with the wholesale prices, to- gether with the raw material from which manufactured, as reported by Bradstreet's. The articles selected are wheat and flour, steers and beef, hogs and ham and lard, sheep and mutton. Comparing the average of prices for the last ten years. 1903-12, with the preceding ten years, 1893-1902, it ap- pears that the price of wheat (Xo. 2 red, Chicago) advanced 32 per cent, the wholesale price of flour advanced 29 per cent, and the retail price of flonr advanced only 28 per cent. The price of hogs advanced about 33 per cent; the whole- sale price of hams advanced 24 per cent, and retail price of smoked hams advanced about 32 per cent; retail smoked bacon advanced 55 per cent, and pork chops advanced 41 per cent; the wholesale price of lard advanced 31 per cent and the retail price advanced about 30 per cent. The price of steers (Chicago) advanced 24 per cent; the wholesale price of beef advanced 23 per cent; the retail price of sirloin steak advanced 19 per cent; round steak advanced 30 per cent; and rib roast advanced 23 per cent. The price of sheep advanced 19 per cent, and the wholesale price of mut- ton advanced 36 per cent; the retail price is jiot given. The average farm price of potatoes on December 1 of the ten years, 1903-12, as estimated yearly by the Department of Agriculture, was about 26 per cent higher than for the pre- ceding 10 years, whereas the retail price advanced in the same period about 29 per cent. It would appear from the figures quoted that whatever be the margin between the producer's price and the consumer's price it has not widened much, if any, during the last twenty years of advancing prices. WEATHER OF JUNE. The weather of the month was of the average midsummer type, with temperature about the normal, and rainfall irregu- larly distributed, and, generally speaking, below the average for June. The daily temperatures were without marked ex- tremes, the maxima ranging in the 80's on many days, but seldom above 90°, and the night temperatures in the 60's, ex- cepting during the closing week, when the nights were warmer. In some sections there was a scarcity of rain, and droughty conditions prevailed during the later, half of the month, while in others heavy rains attending local storms gave precipitation near or above the seasonal average. There 8 was an abundance of sunshine, and, excepting in sections where the rainfall was deficient, the conditions were very favorable for planting, to growing crops, and to cultivation. At the close of the month it was generally considered that the season was behind the average. SPECIAL TELEGRAPHIC REPORTS. [Weather Bureau, Boston.] Weeh ending June 2. — iN'ew England. Boston : Cool, cloudy, showery weather prevailed until the last few days, which were warm and favorable. Weeh ending June 9. — New England. Boston: Fair and warm weather prevailed during the week, except at the close, which was cool, with light showers. Weeh ending June 16. — New England. Boston : Clear weather prevailed. Temperatures were low the first part of the week, with frosts reported in some places. Temperatures were seasonable afterwards. Weeh ending June 23. — New England. Boston : The weather was seasonable and favorable. Light to moderate showers occurred and were beneficial. NOTICES OF MEETINGS AND PUBLIC GATHERINGS. Poultry. Poidlry Conference and Field Meeting of the State Poul- try Association. — To be held at the Massachusetts Agricul- tural College, July 29, 30 and 31. Every live poultryman should attend. Summer Field Meeting of the Board of Agriculture. — The date has been set for the summer field meeting of the Board. Friday, August 1, is the day, the Barnstable Fair grounds the place, the State Grange and the Barnstable County Agricultural Society are the co-operating organiza- tions. Some of the best speakers of this State and other States will be on the program, and some excellent talks and demonstrations may be expected. Many years have elapsed since the Board has held a meeting in this particular part of the State, and this should be a rousing one. It will be 9 well worth the necessary time and effort to be present at this meeting. A program will be sent upon application to this office. State Grange Field Days. — Arrangements have been completed for the annual series of summer field meetings of the Patrons of Husbandry of Massachusetts, and the com- plete schedule is given below, one of these big meetings hav- ing been arranged within easy reach of all the Patrons of the State. This is a very extensive series of State Grange field meetings, and great enthusiasm and interest mark their prep- aration in every case. Each meeting will be held under the joint auspices of the State Grange and the local Pomona Grange. The locations are all central, and many of them among the best farms in the State. Good speaking, music and other features at every field day. General basket dinner, sports and a good time for every one. A big vacation resting day in the midst of the summer's work. A good investment for everybody who attends. The meetings are : — Wednesday, July 23, Danvers, at the Dudley P. Rogers farm. Thursday, July 24, Winchendon, at Lake Dennison. Friday, July 25, Waban, at the Boston Market Garden farm. Saturday, July 26, Pembroke, at Mayflower Grove. Monday, July 28, Cummington, on the Fair grounds. Tuesday, July 29, Fitchburg, at Whalom Park. Wednesday, July 30, Westborough, at Lake Chauney. Thursday, July 31, Colrain, at Hillside Park. Friday, August 1, Barnstable, on the Fair grounds in conjunction with the summer field meeting of the State Board of Agriculture and field day of the Barnstable County Agricultural Society. Saturday, August 2, Acton Center, on the Acton Common. Monday, August 4, Springfield, at Forest Park. Tuesday, August 5, Athol, at Brookside Park. Wednesday, August 6, Billerica, at the farm of De Lacy Corkum. Thursday, August 7, Greenwich, at the farm of George Loux. Saturday, Aug-ust 9, Lakeville, at Lakeside Park. Tuesday, August 12, Leominster, at the farm of J. Henry Johnson. Wednesday, August 13, at Canobie Lake, near the city of Law- rence. Thursday, August 14, Berkshire, at the farm of George Ingalls. Friday, August 15, Greenfield, at Shattuck Park. 10 Tuesday, August 19, Kussell, at Riverside Grove. Wednesday, August 20, West Brookfield, at the farm of John H. Webb. Thursday, Augiist 21, Sunderland, at the farm of Dr. M. H. Williams. Friday, August 22, Foxborough, at Lakeview Park. Wednesday, August 27, Monterey, at Turner's Landing, Lake Buell. Among the speakers at the summer field meetings will be the following well-known people, and all will bring a live message for the Patrons of Massachusetts : — Hon. Oliver Wilson of Illinois, master of the ISTational Grange ; Hon. IST. P. Hull of Michigan, lecturer of the Na- tional Grange; Mrs. Eva S. McDowell of Wellesley, treas- urer of the ISTational Grange ; Hon. C. S. Stetson, master of the Maine State Grange and chairman of the executive com- mittee of the ISTational Grange; Hon. John W. Weeks, United States Senator from Massachusetts; Hon. Gifford Pinchot of Washington, D. C. ; Congressmen Augustus P. Gardner, Thomas C. Thacher and Allen T. Treadway; El- mer A. Stevens, treasurer of the Commonwealth ; Dr. David Sneddon, State Commissioner of Education; Prof. F. W. Pane, State Forester; Wilfrid Wheeler, Secretary of State Board of Agriculture; Frank D. Kemp, of the State High- way Commission ; George H. Graham, of the State Fish and Game Commission ; representatives of the State Agricultural College at Amherst; J. E. Warren, supervisor of rural schools; Eufus W. Stimson, director of agricultural educa- tion; State Master Charles M. Gardner, State Overseer Ed- ward E. Chapman, State Lecturer Evan F. Pichardson, State Chaplain Pev. Evan F. Wheelock and other well-known speakers. 11 SUMMARY OF GENERAL CROP CONDITIONS. In the circular to general crop correspondents, returnable June 27, the following questions were asked : — 1. What insects are proving most injurious in your local- ity ? (Name in order of greatest damage done.) 2. Give condition of Indian corn (100 representing nor- mal). What is the acreage as compared with normal (give per cent) ? Increase; decrease. 3. (a) Has haying begun? (&) What is the hay crop prospect (100 representing normal) ? 4. (a) Compared with normal, what is the acreage of early potatoes (give per cent)? Increase; decrease. (&) What is the prospect for the crop (100 representing nor- mal) ? 5. (a) How do early market-garden crops compare with normal (give per cent) ? In yield; in price. (&) What is the prospect for those not yet harvested (100 representing normal) ? 6. How does the supply of dairy cows compare with one year ago (give per cent) ? Increase ; decrease. T. (a) How does the production of the following dairy products compare with that of one year ago (give per cent) ? Milk : increase ; decrease. Cream : increase ; decrease. But- ter: increase; decrease, (h) What is the average net whole- sale price, per can of Sl/o quarts, received for milk ? What is the average retail price per quart? How do these prices compare with those of one year ago ? 8. What is the condition of pasturage in your locality (100 representing normal) ? 9. What is the outlook for such of the following fruits as are grown for market (100 representing a normal crop) ? Apples, pears, peaches, plums, strawberries, currants, goose- berries, raspberries, blackberries, cranberries. 12 10. Have you liad damaging frosts since the last report (May 24) ? If so, give date or dates, temperatures, crops damaged and extent of damage. Returns were received from 121 correspondents, and from them the following summary was compiled : — Insects. The month of June has brought into prominence a greater number of insects, a total of 25 different kinds being re- ported. As might be expected, the tent caterpillar, reported so generally last month as doing the most damage, is again named this month by 69 correspondents. The caterpillars had practically ceased operations at time of making returns, but the leafless trees attested only too plainly to the havoc wrought. The worst injury is reported from Berkshire, Hampshire, Franklin and Plymouth counties, in order named. The potato beetle is reported by 55 correspondents, chiefly in the four western counties. Bristol, ]^orfolk and Barnstable, with their sandy soils, and crops more susceptible to its attacks, are sufferihg most from the ravages of the cut- worm, this insect being mentioned by 52 correspondents. The brown-tail moth is working principally in Middlesex, Essex, Norfolk, Worcester and Plymouth, with 26 reports ; while the gypsy moth, with 18 reports, is most prevalent in Essex, Middlesex, IvTorfolk and Worcester counties. The squash bug and striped cucumber beetles are feeding on the gourds of Hampden, Bristol, Middlesex, Essex and Worcester, with 14 returns. Cabbage worms in ISTorfolk and Plymouth, cran- berry fire worms in Barnstable, rose chafers in Essex and Plymouth, green apple aphids in Bristol and Hampden, onion maggots in Hampshire and Essex, forest tent cater- pillars in Barnstable, Hampshire and Hampden, canker worms in Franklin, elm-leaf beetles in Berkshire, Norfolk and Worcester, and others, are mentioned. Indian Cokn. Corn is late from one to two weeks, owing to cool dry weather, which not only restrained farmers from planting early but retarded germination. At time of making returns 13 the crop was small but growing well. The condition is: Nantucket, 100; Barnstable, 95.8; Plymouth, 90.7; Dukes, 90; Hampden, 89.7; Bristol, 86.8; Hampshire, 86.5; Essex, 86; Franklin, 85.7; Worcester, 83.8; Middlesex, 82.5; Berk- shire, 76.2; N^orfolk, 75; the State, 85.6. The acreage is: Franklin, 101.5; Essex, 101.2; Dukes and E'antucket, 100; Worcester and Hampshire, 99.5 ; Hampden, 99 ; Middlesex, 98; Barnstable, 97.5; Berkshire, 96.1; Bristol, 94.5; Nor- folk, 94; Plymouth, 81; the State, 98.6. The Hay Ckop. Haying has begun in every county, although very little had been done in Berkshire. Of the 121 replies to this ques- tion, 82, or 67.8 per cent, were in the aflSrmative, and 39, or 32.2 per cent, in the negative. This is a larger percentage of affiiTnative returns than in any of the past ten years. Of those reporting "yes," 23, or 28 per cent, stated that "very little " or " hardly any " had been done. A rough estimate of the extent to which farmers had begun cutting may be de- rived from the percentage of returns to this effect, by coun- ties, in order, as follows: Norfolk, Dukes and Nantucket, 100; Bristol, 91; Plymouth, 88.8; Middlesex, 84.7; Barn- stable, 83.3; Franklin, 77; Hampden, 70; Worcester, 60; Essex, 50 ; Hampshire, 40 ; Berkshire, 10. Grasslands did not get enough rain in June to offset, in spite of the warm sunshine, the effects of the cool cloudy weather of May. Old mowings in particular have not sufficiently recovered from the droughts of the last few years to bring the average con- dition of all grasslands up to anywhere near normal. The hay crop prospect is: Bristol, 88; Middlesex, 85.3; Essex, 84.7; Plymouth, 83.1; Worcester, 82.9; Hampshire, 82; Hampden, 80.8; Norfolk, 80; Dukes, 75; Barnstable, 74.1; Franklin, 72.5; Berkshire, 70; Nantucket, 60; the State, 79.8. Early Potatoes. The acreage of early potatoes is: Worcester, 100.6; Mid- dlesex, Plymouth, Dukes and Nantucket, 100; Berkshire, 98.6; Hampshire, 95; Barnstable, 94; Essex, 93; Franklin, 92.8; Norfolk, 90; Bristol, 89.3; Hampden, 71; the State, 14 96.9. The crop is later than normal, and some pieces are re- ported as just showing above the ground. The vines are growing well, however, and from the returns of those cor- respondents who do not consider the crop too little advanced for purposes of estimate the following summary is derived: Berkshire and E'antucket, 100; Plymouth, 98.2; Norfolk, 93.8 ; Essex, 93 ; Middlesex, 92.2 ; Hampshire, 91.6 ; Hamp- den, 90.8; Franklin, 89.2; Bristol, 86; Worcester, 84.2; Barnstable, 76.7; Dukes, 75; the State, 89.3. Early Market-gaeden Crops. Comparatively little market gardening is done in the west- ern counties, and kitchen gardens had not yielded enough for many correspondents to form an estimate as to either quantity or price. Very full returns from the truck sections are at hand, and the summary of the eastern counties is con- sequently the more reliable. The yield has been : I^Tantucket, 100; Hampshire, 98.7; Bristol, 96.7; Essex, 9.5; Plymouth, 93.6; Barnstable, 91.9 j Berkshire, 90; Hampden, 86.7; Worcester, 86.1; Middlesex, 84.2; Franklin, 82.5; Norfolk, 78.8; Dukes, no return; the State, 90.1. While the yield was below normal, prices have ruled high, and there prevails a sentiment of fair crops and good prices. The average prices, as compared with normal, are: Middle- sex, 105 ; Worcester, 104.3 ; Hampshire, 103.8 ; Essex, 102.5 ; Barnstable, 102 ; Franklin, 101.6 ; Nantucket, Plym- outh, Norfolk, Hampden and Berkshire, 100; Bristol, 93.1 ; Dukes, no report ; the State, 101.1. The early market- garden crops not yet harvested promise even better yields than those already marketed, the returns reflecting the influ- ence of better growing conditions. Crop prospect estimates are: Hampshire, 102.5; Dukes and Nantucket, 100; Barn- stable, 98; Plymouth, 95.8; Franklin, 95; Norfolk and Berkshire, 93.7; Essex, 93.3; Hampden, 93; Bristol, 90; Middlesex, 89.5 ; Worcester, 85.5 ; the State, 92.5. 15 Dairy Cows. During the past year the supply of dairy cows has de- creased 6.8 per cent for the State, as a whole, with the most marked falling off in Nantucket, Hampden and Middlesex. The supply most nearly approaches that of last year in the county of Plymouth. From that of one year ago the supply has decreased as follows: Dukes, 25; Hampden, 14.1; Mid- dlesex, 12.2; Franklin, 10.4; N"antucket, 10; Norfolk, 8.3; Berkshire, 7.5; Worcester and Barnstable, 4.2; Essex, 3.8; Bristol, 3.G; Hampshire, 2.5; Plymouth, 1.2; the State, 6.8. So long as dairymen continue to dispose of their herds the supply will follow the decline in the demand. Dairy Products. The production of milk, cream and butter has not de- creased in proportion to the cow supply decline; in fact, cream production has increased in a few counties. With 100 representing the quantity of milk produced one year ago, the production on June 27 was: Dukes, 110; Berkshire, 107.2; Plymouth, 100; Hampshire and Barnstable, 98.8; Bristol, 98.5; Worcester, 97.8; Essex, 95; Hampden, 94.2; Nan- tucket, Norfolk and Franklin, 90; Middlesex, 84.4; the State, 96.2. For the State, as represented by the five west- ern — the chief producing — counties, cream production has increased .3 per cent, and is: Hampden, 113.3; Franklin, 100.8; Berkshire, 100; Worcester, 97.7; Hampshire, 91.7; the State, 100.3. The butter-making figures as compared with one year ago are: Hampshire, 98.8; Franklin, 97; Hampden, 96.7; Berkshire, 95.8; Worcester, 93.8; the State, 96. The conclusion, from a study of all the returns, may run something as follows : dairy cows are in less supply because the demand has decreased, as a result of farmers discontinu- ing, for other pursuits, the production of milk. The amount of milk made has fallen off because dairymen have sold their herds, and because more milk is skimmed for the butter and ice-cream factories, as shown by the increase in cream pro- duction. The butter decrease may be due to a decline in the farm-made product, without consideration of the factory. 16 or it may mean absolute aggregate decrease. The dairy busi- ness as necessarily conducted by the majority of Massnchu- setts farmers is the least profitable branch of their operations, and many within the past six years have discovered the fact and sold out. Many others, nevertheless, realizing that ani- mal husbandry is fundamental to the maintenance of soil fertility, continue to face a small profit, or even a deficit, in order that their money crops may not suffer. For the sake of the business of farming let us not forsake the dairy cow ! Milk Prices. Milk is wholesaled at different rates to city and town dis- tributors, bakeries, stores and individuals, so that returns vary between such wide limits as 20 cents and 51 cents per can of 8^ quarts. Prices also depend upon the distance from market, the relative supply and the retail price as fixed according to the wealth and particular requirements of the consumer. Note that the following wholesale price averages reflect all these conditions separately, or in combination, as do the retail price averages given later: Plymouth, 48.3 cents ; Bristol, 43.5; Barnstable, 43.3; E"orfolk, 40.8; Essex, 40.2; Middlesex, 39.5; Hampden, 38.1; Hampshire, 36; Worces- ter, 34.9; Berkshire, 31.6; Franklin, 28.6; Dukes and Nan- tucket, no report; the State, 37.8. Retail prices have advanced 1 or 2 cents per quart in some places within the past year. Outside of Suffolk County, which, if reported, would probably lead the list, average retail prices are: Nantucket, 9 cents; Norfolk, 8.75; Plym- outh, 8.5; Essex, 8.25; Barnstable, 8.2; Bristol, 8.04; Dukes, 8; Middlesex, 7.9; Worcester and Hampden, 7; Berkshire, 6.9; Hampshire, 6.8; Franklin, 6; the State, 8.4. Pasturage. As compared with the last three or four years pasturage is in much better condition, although still far from normal. The condition is: Dukes, 100; Hampshire, 97; Worcester, 92.7; Bristol, 91.5; Essex, 90.6; Middlesex, 90.4; Plymouth and Nantucket, 90; Franklin, 88.5; Barnstable, 88.3; 17 Hampden, 85.8; ]^orfolk, 83.6; Berkshire, 78.8; the State, 89.6. Rain is badly needed for such upland pastures as are not supplied with springs, and many of our pastures are so scantily sodded ■ that frequent rainfall is necessary to keep them in grazeable shape. Fruits and Berries. The berry crop prospect rather exceeds that for tree fruits. Blackberries, in particular, bloomed full and offer promise of a 91.5 per cent crop. Pears far exceed the other large fruits, while plums are rated lowest, owing to light bloom and frost. At present tlie outlook for apples is discouraging, and doubtless reflects the depressing effect of the sight of count- less trees stripped by tent caterpillars. The damage has in reality been done to wild trees and trees not cared for, while those sprayed suffered only from frost damage to the bloom. The fruit crop prospect table is printed in the special summary of fruit crop conditions. Frosts. Frosts occurred June 7 to 10 in all counties save Essex, ■K'orfolk, Dukes and JSTantucket. Temperatures ranged from 22° F. to 38° F. The most severe damage was done in Berk- shire and Franklin counties, where grass, corn and nearly all vegetables were damaged. Worcester County correspondents ref)ort slight damage. Middlesex crops suffered more, with " gi'eat damage to early market-garden crops " in one local- ity, while frost " killed the strawberry crop " in another, and cut beans, tomatoes, potatoes and vines in other sections. Reports of damage in other counties are few and slight in- jury done. NOTES OF GENERAL CROP CORRESPONDENTS. [Returned to us June 27.] Berkshire County, Williamstoivn (S. A. HiCKOx). — Tent caterpillars are proving most injurious at the present time. Condition of Indian corn is 90 per cent of normal; acreage, 80. It is hard to tell whether the grass crop will recover from the dry weather; it Avill depend upon 18 conditions during the next ten days; old meadows are now doomed. Haying has not begun, and the prospect is 75. The acreage of early potatoes is 90 per cent of normal. It is too early to give definite information about market-garden crops. The supply of dairy cows has decreased 10 per cent over one year ago, witli a corresponding decrease in the supply of milk, cream and butter. Average net wholesale price of milk is 34 cents per can; at retail, 7 cents per quart. These prices are normal. The outlook for the following fruits compared with normal is: apples, 20; pears, 20; strawberries, 20; currants, 30; raspberries, 30; blackberries, 60. Frosts have injured beans, corn, i^otatoes and all market-garden crops badl}^; apples and all small fruits were nearly ruined. North Adams (C. M. Ottman). — The tent caterpillar, potato beetle and cutworm are doing the most damage. Indian corn, con- dition, 75; acreage, 90. Haying has begnan and the prospect is for 70 per cent of a normal crop. Acreage of early potatoes is 75 per cent of normal; the cro^D will be about normal. Early market- garden crops about 80 per cent of the normal in yield; 100 j^er cent in jDrice; those not yet harvested promise a 100 per cent crop. The supply of dairy cows has increased 10 per cent over one year ago. There has been a corresponding increase in the production of milk and cream. Average net wholesale price for milk is 34 cents per can ; retail price, 7 cents per quart. These prices are identical with those of a year ago. Condition of i^asturage is 90. The outlook for the following fruits is : apples, 25 ; pears, 15 ; plums, 10 ; straw- berries, 15; currants, 40; gooseberries, 40; raspberries, 90; black- berries, 100. On June 10 the temperature dropped to 30°. The hay crop is very light and there is very little fruit except rasj^berries. Hancock (D. L. Whitmak). — Potato beetles are doing the most damage. Indian corn, condition, 95; acreage, 100. The hay crop prospect is 65 per cent and operations have not commenced. The acreage of early potatoes has increased 15 per cent; the crop pros- pect is 110. Very few market-garden crops grown here; prospect for these is 100. The supply of dairy cows has decreased 10 per cent over last year; there has been a coiTesponding decrease in the production of milk and butter. Milk prices, 30 cents per can at wholesale; 5 cents per quart at retail. The prices are about the same as usual. Condition of pasturage, 80. Fruit outlook is: apples, 65; pears, 70; plums, 60; currants, 60. On June 8 and 9 the temperature dropped to 30°, and beans and tomatoes were killed. So far it has been a cold, dry season. Cheshire (L. J. Northup). — The Colorado potato beetle is doing the most damage. Indian corn, condition, 70 ; acreage, 100. Haying has not commenced, and the prospect is for about a 40 per cent erojj. The acreage of eai-ly potatoes remains about the same. It 19 is rather early to make an estimate of the ci'op. Early market- garden crops are about 100 j^er cent in yield and in price; the prospect for those not harvested is 100. The supply of dairy cows has decreased 20 per cent over last year. The i^roduction of milk has decreased 15 i^er cent and butter the same amount. The average net wholesale price of milk is 30 cents per can; the retail price per quart is 8 cents. These prices are the same as usual. Condition of pasturage is 60. Strawberry outlook is 75. Do not remember any damaging frosts of late. Windsor (Harry A. Ford). — The tent caterpillar is doing the most damage. Indian corn is 80 per cent of normal in condition and the acreage is 100. Haying has not begun; if we do not get rain soon the crop will not be over 75. The acreage of early potatoes is 90 per cent as compai*ed with normal. Very few market-garden crops raised. The number of dairy cows is growing smaller each year, the number this year being about 90 per cent of the number in 1912. The supply of milk has decreased proportionately. Milk retails at from 5 to 8 cents per quart. Condition of i^asturage, 100. The apple crop will be about 25 per cent of normal, owing to the frosts; blackberries, 100. On June 8 and 9 the temperature dropped to 32° in some places, and potatoes and nearly everything else Avere cut down. Peru (F. G. Creamer). — Haying has not begiui yet, and the prospect is for about a 75 per cent cro}). The supply of dairy cows has decreased 25 per cent over last year. Condition of pasturage is good. The early frosts injured the hay crop. Apples look well. Washington (E. H. Eames). — Very little insect damage as yet. Indian corn, 50 per cent of normal in condition, and the acreage is 75 per cent of normal. It is too early to estimate the potato crop. The supply of dairy cows is about the same as last year, and dairy products are about the same. The net wholesale jDrice of milk is 34 cents per can; retail, 7 cents per quart. These prices are about the same as a year ago. Pasturage is about 50 per cent of normal. Apples promise only a 50 per cent crop. There have been no frosts since the last report. Lee (E. J. Norman). — The tent caterpillar, the pine-tree nist, the elm-leaf beetle and the cutworm are doing a good deal of dam- age. Indian corn is very late, condition, 50. The acreage is about 115. Haying has not begun; the prosjDect is for a light crop on account of dry weather; compared with last year, 75. The acreage of early potatoes has been increased 25 per cent. It is too early to estimate the potato crop. Early market-garden crops, 90 per cent of normal in yield, 100 per cent in price. The prospect for those not yet harvested is 75; possibly better if we get rain. The supply of dairy cows is about the same as one vear ago. Milk 20 retails at 8 cents per quart, which is a raise of 1 cent over a year ago. Condition of pastures. 80. The fruit outlook is: apples, 45; pears, 45; plums, 5; strawberries, 25; currants, 90; gooseberries, 80; raspberries, 90; blackberries, 90. On June 8 and 9 the tem- perature dropped to 32° and 33°. Tomatoes, potatoes, beans, cu- cumbers and squashes were damaged from 25 to 75 per cent. The month has not been very satisfactory. During the early part it was cold, and at present it is hot and dry with a good deal of wind. Becket (W. H. Snow). — The potato beetle and caterpillars are doing the most damage. Indian corn, condition, 100; acreage, 105. Haying has not begun as yet; prospect is 75. The acreage of early potatoes is 95. Early market-garden crops are about 90 per cent in yield, and are very late. The supply of dairy cows has decreased 10 per cent during the last year. The supply of milk and cream IS about the same as usual. The average retail price of milk is 7 cents per quart, which is an increase of 1 cent over a year ago. The fruit outlook is: apples, 90; pears, 90; strawberries, 100; cur- rants, 100. Corn, potatoes, tomatoes, squashes and cucumbers, as well as most other crops, were damaged by fi-osts. "We had a very dry May. Franklin County. Eowe (Henry D. Wright). — Indian corn, condition, 50. The acreage is 75 per cent of normal. Haying has not begun; the pros- pect is 60 per cent. I think the frost has injured the hay crop. The acreage of early potatoes is about normal. The supply of dairy cows has decreased 25 per cent over one year ago; there has been a corresponding decrease in milk production. The condition of pasturage is 100, Apples promise a 50 per cent crop, while the strawberry crop was practically ruined by frosts. Colrain (W. H. Davenport). — The tent caterpillar has been very bad, but damage is about past ; canker worm has done some damage. Indian corn, condition, 90; acreage, 110. Haying has not begun; the crop will not be over 75. The acreage of early potatoes is 75 per cent of normal; the prospect is not over 50. Early market- garden crops, about 50 per cent of normal in yield; the prospect for- those not harvested is poor. The supply of daiiy cows is about the same as one year ago. Milk retails for 6 cents per quart. Con- dition of pastures, 75. The fruit outlook is: apples, 60; pears, few; peaches, few; plums, few; strawberries, 50; currants, gooseberries, raspberries and blackberries, few. .There was a frost on June 7, but not a very heavy one. The weather nearly all of the month has been cold, dry and backward. Leyden (Frank R. Foster). — The acreage of Indian corn is about normal. Haying has just begun; the crop promises about 55 per cent of normal. The acreage of early potatoes is 100 and 21 the prospect is also 100. Early market-garden crops are about normal in yield and price, and the prospect for those not hai'vested is 100. The supply of dairy cows has decreased 25 per cent during the last year. The production of milk and cream is about the same as one year ago, but the production of butter has increased 10 per cent. Condition of pastures, 80. The fruit outlook is: apples, 60; pears, 100; peaches, 100; strawberries, 40; raspberries, 100; black- berries, 100. On June 9 and 10 the temperature fell from 32° to 34°, and frosts cut early potatoes, beans and corn and greatly damaged the hay crop. Hawley (C. F. Sears). — Indian corn, condition, 75; acreage, about normal. Prospect for the hay crop, 60. Haying has not begun. The acreage of early potatoes is about normal and the pros- pect for the crop is 100. The supply of dairy cows and the amount of milk produced has decreased 5 per cent since one year ago. Milk prices are the same as usual. Pasturage condition, 80. The fruit outlook is: apples, 50; currants, 75; raspberries, 75; black- berries, 100. Frost on June 8 did considerable damage to the hay crop. Buckland (Eugene D. Griswold). — The tent caterpillar is doing the most injury. Indian corn is about 100 per cent in condition, although a trifle late; acreage, compared with normal, is 100. There has been very little haying done; grass is now growing well, but the crop will be about 80 per cent of normal. Acreage of early potatoes is normal; it is difficult to tell what the prospect is, as they were set back by frosts. Pastures, condition, 85. The fruit outlook is: apples, 75; pears, 80; peaches, 90. June 10 was very cold ; frost damaged potatoes and corn in some parts of the town and spoiled nearly all of the gardens. Montague (A. M. Lyman). — Tent caterpillars, cutworms and potato bugs seem to be doing most damage. Indian com, condition, 90; acreage, 100. Haying has begun; the crop prospect is about 80. Compared with normal the acreage of early potatoes is 110; the prospect for the crop is about 90. Early market-garden crops are about 90 per cent of normal in yield, 100 in price; those not yet harvested promise 90. The supply of dairy cows has decreased 10 per cent over one year ago. There has been a corresponding decrease in the production of milk, cream and buttex*. The average net wholesale price of milk is 25 cents per can; at retail, 5 cents per quart. These prices are about the same as one year ago. Con- dition of pasturage, 80. The fruit outlook is: apples, 50; pears, 50; peaches, 40: plums, 40; strawberries, 60; raspberries, 25; cur- rants, 80: blackberries, 40. The hard frost of June 10 did much damage to asparagrus. The above shrinkage on fruit and berries is due to frost. There has been but little rain since May 1, which has shortened the hay crop 40 per cent. Pastures are very short. 99 Sunderland (George P. Smith), — Larvae of potato beetles are numerous. Indian corn, condition, 88. The acreage is about nor- mal. Haying has begun, but not much has been cut; prospect is 85 ; good on rich, new seeding, old fields short. The acreage of early potatoes is about normal; the prospect for the crop is 90. Early market-garden crops are about 90 per cent in yield and 105 per cent. in price, and the prospect for those not harvested is 95. The supply of dairy cows has decreased 5 per cent during the last year. The supply- of milk is about the same, but the cream supply has de- creased about 5 per cent. The average wholesale price of milk is 30 cents per can; retail price per quart, between 5 and 6 cents, which is a slight increase over a year ago. Pasturage condition, 95. The fruit outlook is : apples, 70 ; pears, 85 ; i^lums, 50 ; strawberries, 75; currants, 85; raspberries, 60; blackberries, 90. Tobacco is all set and stand is good, with growth normal. Onions are late but growing rapidly; some fields are thin. New Salem (Daniel Ballakd). — Most injurious insects are tent caterpillars and potato bugs. The condition of Indian corn is 75; acreage is normal. Haying has begun and the crop will be about 70 per cent of normal. The supply of dairy coavs is as usual. The wholesale price paid for milk per can is 34 cents, and it retails for 6 cents per quart. These prices are a trifle higher than one year ago. Condition of pastures is 90. The fruit outlook is: apples, 100; pears, 90; strawberries, 85. Frosts did a little damage to gar- dens in low places in early June. Hampshire County. Plainfield (C. A. Williams). — Tent caterpillars are doing the most damage, and the potato bug next. Condition of corn is 90; its acreage is 110. Farmers have not begun haying; the prospect is for 80 per cent of a normal crop. The acreage of early potatoes is normal, and the prospect is for a 90 per cent crop. Early market-garden crops show 95 per cent of a normal yield; prices ai'e 110; the prospect for those not harvested is 110. There is a de- crease of about 10 per cent in the supply of dairy cows, and the supply of milk, cream and butter has decreased accordingly; 6 cents per quart is the price paid for milk at retail, which is about the same as last year. Pastures are about normal. The fruit out- look is: apples and pears, 75; peaches, 50; plums, 85; raspberries and blackberries, 100. No frosts since May 28. The cold month of May and late frosts have put most crops back, and the dry weatlier has also hurt them. Goshen (George L. Barrus). — Tent caterpillars have been the most injurious insects, but the potato beetle is now coming. The condition of corn is 90; the acreage is 85. Haying has not been 23 commenced. The frosts hurt gxass on low lands, and the crop looks rather light. There is a 5 per cent increase in the acreage of all potatoes, and there is a prospect for a 100 per cent crop. Dairy cows continue in the same supply as a year ago. No wholesaling of milk done; retail price is 6 cents per quart, which is the same as a year ago. Pastures are in normal condition. The fruit out- look is : apples, 75 ; pears, i^lums, strawberries and blackberries, 100. No serious frosts. Chesterfield (Horatio Bisbee). — Tent caterpillars have been very plentiful and have set back the leaves on apple trees. Indian corn is in 90 per cent of a normal condition; its acreage is 100. No haying has been done yet; frosts in May and the cold, dry weather have put it back, and have reduced the prospects to a 70 per cent crop. Early potatoes will yield a nonnal crop. The sup- ply of dairy cows shows a decrease of 10 per cent, and there are corresponding decreases in the production of milk and cream. Pasturage is in normal condition. The fruit outlook is: apples, 60; Avild blackberries, 120. There have been frosts which killed tomatoes, beans, etc. Corn was planted late; came up well, and is looking good, but is small. Potatoes and other erojDS are backward, with a prospect of a very light crop of hay. Frosts hurt apples on low gi'ounds. The wild blackberry bloom was very full. Westhampton (Levi Burt). — No serious damage has been done by insects in this vicinity. The condition of corn is 75, with acreage normal. Haying has not been started; prospect is for 80 per cent of a normal crop. Milk is selling for the same prices as last year. Pasturage is in noi-mal condition. The fruit outlook is: apples and pears, 50 ; peaches, 25 ; strawberries, 50 ; currants, 100. South Hadley (W. F. Person). — No insect damage is noticed except that done by potato bugs. The condition of Indian corn is about 75; its acreage is normal. No one is haying to any extent. The hay crop will be about 90 per cent of normal. The early po- tato acreage is about 75. The crop is very late. All market-garden crops are late, but are good — 100 per cent — in yield, and are selling at normal prices. Those not yet har\'ested promise a 100 per cent yield. The supply of cows is about the same as last year; production of milk is 90 per cent of that of a year ago; wholesale price of milk is 6 cents per quart, and this commodity retails for 8 cents, Avhich is 1 cent higher than a year ago. Pasturage is 90 to 100 per cent of a normal in condition. The fruit outlook is: apples, 50; pears, 75; strawberries, 90; raspberries, 75; blaek- bemes, 90. Hadley (H. C. Russell). — The most troublesome insects are tent caterpillars, currant worms, cutworms and potato bugs. The con- dition of Indian corn is 90, and the usual acreage has been planted. 24 Haying has been started and there is iDromise for 80 per cent of a normal crop. A 10 j^er cent greater acreage of early potatoes has been j^lanted, and the crop promises to be as usual. In yield, market-garden crops are 100; in price, 105. The prospect for those not yet harvested is 100. The number of dairy cows is 5 per cent less than a year ago, with a corresponding decrease in dairy prod- ucts. The average net wholesale price i^aid for milk is 30 cents per can; the average retail price per quart is 6 cents. These prices show a 5 per cent increase over those of one year ago. Pasturage is in 90 per cent condition. The fruit outlook is: apples and pears, 110; peaches and strawberries, 50; currants, 75; blackberries, 50. Amherst (William P. Brooks). — Onion maggots and cutworms are proving most injurious. Corn is backward; its condition is 90; the acreage is normal. Haying has begun and the crop will show a 100 per cent yield. A normal acreage of early potatoes has been i^lanted, and the prospect is for a '90 per cent crop. Yields and prices of early market-garden eroj)s are about normal, and the prospect for those not yet harvested is the same. There is no marked difference in the supply of dairy cows between now and a year ago, and the same may be said of dairy products. Milk re- tails for 8 cents per quart, which is the same price received a year ago. Condition of pastures is 100. The fruit outlook is: ajDples and pears, 75; peaches, 100; .plums, 50; strawberries, 75; currants, raspberries and blackberries, 100. Greenwich (Walter H. Glazier). — The most injurious insects are cutworms. The condition of corn is 95; the acreage has been increased 10 per cent above normal. No haying has been done as yet; there is a prospect of a 95 per cent crop. The supply of dairy cows is about the same; the price of milk per can is 32 cents; per quart at retail, 6 cents. These prices are about the same as those one year ago. In the early part of June a hard frost cut crops badly. Planting has been late, but everything is looking quite well. There will be no fruit in this town to speak of, as the May frosts destroyed the bloom. Hampden County. Blandford (Enos W. Boise). — The most injurious insect has been the tent caterpillar, with potato beetles most troublesome at present. The corn crop is in 90 per cent condition, and a normal amount has been planted. Very little haying has been begun; the prospect is for 85 per cent of a normal crop. A normal acreage of early potatoes has been put in. Early market-garden crops show a yield of 80, but are selling for normal prices; those not yet harvested will be 90 per cent crops. The number of dairy cows has been de- ci'eased 20 per cent over a year ago. Milk and cream i^roduction 25 has fallen off 10 per cent, while butter production has decreased 20 l^er cent. Milk sells for 45 cents per can at wholesale and 7 cents per quart at retail, which prices prevailed a year ago. Pasturage is in 90 per cent condition. The fruit outlook is: apples, 50; j^ears, 40; pfeaches, 50; plums, 10; strawberries, 50; currants, rasiDberries and blackberries, 90. Eussell (E. D. Parks). — The most troublesome insects are the tent caterpillars and cuiTant worms, while the potato beetles are just coming on in very great numbers. Corn is in 90 per cent condition; the acreage is 85 per cent of normal. Haying has commenced; the prospect is for an 80 per cent crop. The number of early potatoes planted has been increased 5 per cent, and there is prospect for an 80 per cent crop. In both yield and price early market-garden crops are 90 per cent of a normal, and those not yet harvested will yield 95. The supiDly of daii-y cows has increased 20 per cent; the pro- duction of milk shows a 10 per cent inei'ease, while cream and but- ter show 5 per cent increases. Milk is selling for 34 cents per can at wholesale and for 6 cents per quart at retail, the same prices having been received a year ago. Pasturage has been in very good condition, but is now drying up very fast. The fruit prospect is: apples, 85; pears, 90; peaches and plums, 85; strawberries, 60; currants, 90; raspberries and blackberries, 90, if we have rain. Soiithwick (L. A. Fowler). — The elm-leaf beetles and potato bugs are proving most injurious. In both condition and acreage, Indian corn is normal. Hardly any haying has been begun; there will be a 90 per cent crop. Early potatoes show a 10 per cent increase in acreage. No noticeable change is evident in the supply of cows, but there is an increase of 10 per cent in the production of cream. The average net wholesale price paid for milk per can is 47 cents; that paid per quart is 7 cents, which prices prevailed one year ago. Pastures are in 100 per cent condition. The fruit outlook is: apples, 100; pears, 60; strawberries, 25; raspberries, 80. West Springfield (N. T. Smith). — Indian corn is in 80 per cent condition; its acreage is 90 per cent of a normal. Very little has as yet been done. There is indication of a 75 per cent crop, but this prospect may improve if rains are abundant. The acreage of early potatoes has decreased 10 per cent; the prospect is favorable if the crop is carefully cared for. Early market-garden crops have yielded 85 per cent of normal, but are bringing normal prices. With favorable weather the prospect for those not yet harvested might be called 100. By the report of the cattle inspector, dairy cows have decreased 14 per cent; milk production has decreased 12 per cent ; this product is sold for 4^2 cents per quart wholesale, and 8 cents per quart retail, just the same as one year ago. Pastures are in 75 per cent condition. The fruit outlook is: apples, good; pears, 26 set heavily; peaches, very few; strawberries, very short crop; rasp- berries and blackberries, promising. The apple trees in this town are mostly dead. East Longmeadow (John L, Davis). — The codling moth, potato beetle, tent catei'pillar, cutworm, wire worm and squash bug are the most injurious insects. The condition of Indian corn is 80; its acreage is 90. Haying has begun and there is prospect for a 60 per cent crop. The early potato acreage is about normal; prospect for the early crop is 75; that for the late potato crop, 100. In yield, early market-garden croj^s are 80 ; in price, 10 per cent higher than normal; the prospect for those not harvested is 100. The daiiy cow supply shows an increase of 10 per cent, and milk production has been increased in the same degree. The wholesale price paid for milk per 10-quart can is 4^4 cents per quart, which is the same as last year. Pastures are in 80 per cent condition. The fruit out- look is: apples and pears, 50; peaches. 20; plums, 40; strawberries, GO. Frosts on about June 10, for two nights in succession, damaged beans, peas, tomato plants, some corn and potatoes and also straw- berries. Wilbraham (H. M. Bliss). — The condition of Indian corn is 75 to 80. The acreage is 90. Farmers have not begun haying; the hay crop prospect is 85 to 90. Compared with normal the acreage of early potatoes is 80 per, cent, being an increase of 5 per cent over last year; crop prospect is 90. Early market-garden crops, in comparison with normal, are about 85. The supply of dairy cows has decreased 25 per cent over one year ago, with a corresponding decrease in the production of milk, cream and butter. The whole- sale price of milk is 35 cents per can, 8 cents per quart at retail. These prices are about the same as a year ago. The fruit outlook is: apples, 85; pears, 90; peaches, 70; strawberries, 80; currants, 75. The temperature has several times dropped to freezing, and once dropped to between 25° and 30°, doing gi'eat damage to peaches. The season is very backward; some i^lanted corn and po- tatoes onl}' last week. Monson (F. D. Rogers). — 'Potato bugs, striped cucumber beetle, squash bugs, tent caterpillars and cutworm have been very plentiful. Indian corn, condition, 100 ; acreage, compared with normal, 110. The hay-crop prospect is 80, but no harvesting has been done as yet. The production of dairy products is practically the same as that of one year ago, although the number of cows is on the de- crease. The retail price received for milk is 7 cents per quart. Condition of pasturage, 90. The fruit outlook is : apples, 25 ; pears, 75; peaches, 25; strawberries, 50; goosebemes, 75; raspberries, 100; blackberries, 100. Frosts have done considerable damage since date of last rei3ort. 27 Hampden (E. Norton Davis). — Cutworms, apple aphis, potato beetle, flee beetle, striped squash bug and the rose chafer are doing much damage. Indian corn, condition, 80; acreage, about normal. Haying has barely begun; the crop prospect is 75. The prospect for garden vegetables is 80. Dairy cows remain about the same in numbers, although there has been a decrease of about 10 per cent in the amount of milk produced and an increase of 20 per cent in butter. Average net wholesale price of milk, 34 cents per can; average retail price, 5 cents per quart. These prices are about the same as usual. Condition of pasturage is 85 to 90 per cent of normal. The prospect for the apple crop is 40; peaches, 10. No damage from frosts to speak of. "Worcester County. Athol (Clifford H. Smith). — All kinds of insects are plentiful this year. Condition of Indian corn, 75. The acreage has been increased about 20 per cent above normal. Haying has just begun; crop prospect is 80. The acreage of early potatoes is about 110 per cent of normal; the crop prospect is 65. Market-garden crops 55 per cent of normal in yield, 100 in price; those not yet harvested, prospect, 90. Supply of dairy cows is about the same as one year ago. There has been about a 10 per cent decrease in milk produc- tion, 10 per cent increase in cream production and 25 per cent decrease in the amount of butter made. The average wholesale net price of milk is 50 cents per can; the average retail price per quart is 8 cents. These prices are the same as a year ago. Con- dition of pasturage in this locality, 40. The fruit outlook is : apples, 40; plums, 20; strawberries, 60; raspberries, 75; blackberries, 75. Gardner (W. E. Knight). — Cutworms are the most injurious. Condition of Indian corn, 90; acreage, about normal. Haying has begun and the prospect is 85 per cent for the crop. The acreage of early potatoes is about normal; the crop prospect, 85. Dairy products are about the same in amount as one year ago; wholesale price received for milk, 35 cents per can; retail price, 7 cents per quart, which is about the same as a year ago. Condition of pas- turage, 75. Fruit prospect: apples, 65; pears, 90; raspberries, 85. There have been no damaging frosts since the last report. Fitchhurg (Dr. Jabez Fisher). — Haying has not yet been be- gun; crop prospect is 75. Condition of pasturage is 80 per cent of normal. Fruit outlook is: apples, 70; pears, 100; strawben-ies, 60; grapes, 80. Cold, dry winds have not favored vegetation, even with good sunshine. Hubbardston (Charles C. Colby). — Tent caterpillars and brown-tails are most in evidence. Indian corn, condition, 90; acre- age, about normal. Haying has begun and the prospect for the 28 crop is 75 to 80, Acreage of early potatoes is about normal; the I^rospect for the crop is 90. Dairy cows have decreased 10 per cent in the last year. The production of milk has decreased from 8 to 10 per cent. The average wholesale price per can is 31 to 33 cents; the average retail price per quart is 6 cents. These prices are about the same as last year. Pasturage, condition, 100. The apple prospect is about nonnal. Dana (Lyman Randall). — Cutworms, tent caterpillars and po- tato bugs are most injurious. Indian corn, condition, 60; acreage, 100. Haying has not begun; the prospect for the crop is 80. Early potato acreage is about the same as last year; prospect for the crop is hard to tell as yef; although somewhat backward they are looking well. Market-garden crops are late and probably about 75 per cent of normal in yield; about normal in price; those not yet har- vested promise about 75. The supply of dairy cows is about the same as one year ago, and the production of dairy products has not changed. Milk retails at 8 cents per quart, which is about the same as one year ago. Pasturage, 75. Fruit prospect : apples, 25 ; pears, 50; peaches, 10; strawberries, 10; raspberries, 75; blackberries, 40; cranben-ies, 80. About the 1st of June w^e had severe frosts; nearly all crops were damaged more or less. New Braintree (Charles D. Sage). — Very little damage is being done by insects just now ; - elm-leaf beetles causing some trouble. Indian corn, condition, 80. Haying has begun, and the prospect is for an 80 per cent crop. The acreage of early potatoes is about 90 per cent of normal; prospect for the crop is about 90. There is no increase in the number of dairy cows. It is almost impossible to get reliable help on the farm, and with the low price of milk farmers are discouraged and want to get out of the dairy business. There has been a decrease of 10 per cent in the production of milk during the past year, cream, 20 per cent, butter, 20 per cent. Al- though it is hard to average the price of milk, I should say at wholesale it is 32 cents per can; at retail, 7 cents j^er quart. The condition of pasturage is about 85, the severe droughts for the past two years having injured the sward. The fruit prospect is: apples, 75; pears, 50; plums, 50. West Brookfield (Myron A. Richardson). — The elm-leaf beetle, tent caterpillar, cutworm and potato bug are proving most injurious. Acreage of Indian corn is about normal, although there is a slight increase. No haying has been done; the crop prospect is 75. The acreage of early potatoes is about the same as usual; it is too early to give figures in regard to the crop. Dairy cows are scarce and high. The milk production is smaller than a year ago; average price per can, 30 cents, which is somewhat lower than a year ago. Pasturage condition, 60. The outlook for fruits is: apples, 60; 29 pears, 90; strawberries, 100; currants, 90; blackberries, 100. No frost damage during June. North Brook-field (John H. Lane). — Tent caterpillar, Colorado potato beetle and striped squash bug are doing the most damage. Indian corn, condition, 90; acreage, about normal. Hay crop pros- pect is 60, and haying has commenced. The acreage of early potatoes is 100 and the prospect for the crop, 75. Prospect for market-garden crops is 75, although they are somewhat late; in price, 120; prospect for those not j'et hal'^'ested, 75. The number of dairy cows is about 90 per cent as compared with one year ago. The production of milk has decreased about 5 per cent during the last year; price per can, 34 cents wholesale; 7 cents per quart at retaih Condition of pasturage, 60. The fruit crop prospect is: apples, 10; pears, 10; plums, 10. The May frosts proved very injurious to fruits, and the caterpillars destroyed much of what the frosts left. Southhridge (E. T, Torrey). — Tent caterpillar and cutworm lead the insect destroyers. Condition of Indian corn is 100, and the acreage is about normal. Very little haying has been done as yet; hay crop prospect, 120, Prices for market- garden crops are about normal ; prospect for those not harvested, 110. The supply of dairy cows is about equal to that of one year ago; the production of milk is about 125 per cent as compared to that of a year ago; average wholesale net price, 40 cents per can; retail price, 7 and 8 cents per quart, this being nearly 1 cent higher than last year. Condition of pastures, 150. Fruit crop prospect: apples, 80; strawberries, 100; blackberries, 110. Leicester (H. H. Kingsbury). — Most damage is being done by potato beetles and squash bugs; the tent caterpillar has been very destructive, but now is in the inactive stage. Condition of Indian corn, 90; acreage, about normal. No haying has been done as yet; crop prospect, 85. Acreage of early potatoes 140 per cent com- pared with normal; the prospect for the crop is indefinite at the present time. Average net wholesale price of milk is 40 cents per can; average retail price, 8 cents per quart. Dairy products are about the same as one year ago; the number of cows is also about the same. Apples and pears promise a 90 per cent crop. No frost injury has been noticed during the past month. Sutlon (IT. L. Ray). — The tent caterpillar has been doing the most damage. Indian corn, condition, 75; compared with normal the acreage is 65. Verj'^ little haying has been done; prospect for the crop, 90. Very few early potatoes grown in this section. Pros- pect for market-garden crops, 75. Dairy cows and their products are about the same as one year ago; milk prices, wholesale, 34 cents per can; retail, 6 cents per quart. These prices are about the same 30 as last year. Condition of pasturage is 90. The outlook for fruits is : ajDples, 50 ; pears, 90 ; iDeaches, 25 ; strawberries, 75. Southborough (Edward F. Collins). — The most injurious in- sects at present are potato bugs and cucumber bugs. Condition of corn is 95 ; acreage, about 90 per cent of normal. Haying has begim and there will be a 100 per cent crop. The acreage of early potatoes is about 90 per cent of normal; prospect for the crop, 100. Market- garden crops about normal in yield; in price, 105. The supply of dairy cows has decreased about 10 per cent during the past year, with a corresponding decrease in the milk production; wholesale price for milk, 38 cents per can ; retail price, 8 cents per quart ; these are 10 per cent less than one year ago. Condition of pasturage in this locality, 100. The fruit crop prosjDeet is: apples, 10; pears, 100; peaches, 10; plums, 100; strawberries, 100; currants, 100; raspberries, 100. Sterling (Hknry S, Sawyer). — The brown-tail and gypsy moths are doing most damage in this locality. Condition of Indian corn, 75. Hay crop jDrospect, 90; haying is under way. The acreage of early potatoes is 90 per cent of normal; prospect for the crop is 90. Early market-garden crops not hax'vested, and the prospect for the crop is rather doubtful. The supply of dairy cows is about the same as last year, as also is the supply of dairy products. The price of butter has increased 2 cents per pound; the net wholesale l^rice of milk is 32 cents per can; retail price, 7 cents per quart. These prices are about the same as usual. Pasturage condition, 100. The fruit outlook is: apples, 50; pears, 50; peaches, 25; plums, 25; strawberries, 25; currants, 50; raspberries, 25. Lancaster (J. F. Brown). — Cutworms are the most injurious insects. Indian corn, condition, 80; acreage, 100. Haying has be- gun, and the prospect for the crop is 85; old fields seem very light. Prospect for the potato crop is good. Early market-garden crops are about 90 in yield; 100 in price; the prospect for those not yet harvested is 85. The supply of dairy cows has decreased 10 per cent since last year. Pasturage condition, 100. The fruit outlook is: apples, 80; pears, 100; peaches, 75; gooseberries, 100; raspberries, 100; blackberries, 100. On June 6 the temperature was 30° in low sections, and 36° in the uplands. Middlesex County. Townsend (G. A. Wilder). — The most injurious insects are the tent caterpillar, brown-tail and gypsy moth and elm-leaf beetle. Indian corn is in 85 per cent condition and the acreage is normal. Haying has begun ; the prospect is for a 75 per cent crop. The acreage of early potatoes is about the same as usual, and there will be an 80 per cent crop. Comj^ared with normal, early market- 31 garden crops show a 75 per cent yield and are from 15 to 25 per cent higher in price. The prospect for those not yet harvested is 75. Compared with one year ago, the supply of dairy cows shows a decrease of 10 per cent. There has been a decrease of 10 per cent in the production of both milk and cream and a decrease of 15 per cent in that of butter. The retail price of milk averages 7 cents. Pasturage is in 85 per cent condition. The fruit outlook is: apples, pears, peaches and plums, 25; strawberries, 50; cun*ants, 40; gooseberries, raspberries and blackberries, 25; cranberries, 45. There have been damaging frosts. Westford (J. W. Fletcher). — Gypsy moths are doing the most damage. The condition of Indian corn is 85; acreage has been in- creased 10 per cent. Haying has not begun; the prospect is for 90 per cent of a normal crop. The acreage of early potatoes is 75 per cent of normal. Dairy cows are in about the same supply. Milk is selling wholesale at 32 cents per can and retail at 6 cents per quart, the same as one year ago. Pasturage is in 90 per cent con- dition. The fruit outlook is: apples, 50; pears, 75; strawberries, 80; raspberries, 100; blackberries, 25. BlUerica (E. F. Dickinson). — Cateri:>illars, brown-tail moths and gypsy moths are proving most injurious. The condition of Indian corn is 90; the acreage is 110. Haying has begun and there will be 85 per cent of a normal crop. There is a normal acreage of early potatoes and the crojD is looking well but is late. Early market- garden crops show 75 per cent of a normal 3'ield; prices are normal. The prospect for those not yet harvested is 80. Milk sells for 36 cents per can of 8V2 quarts and retails at 7 cents per quart, which prices prevailed one year ago. Pastures are in 100 per cent condi- tion. The fruit outlook is: apples, 55; pears, 75; peaches, 40; plums, 35; strawberries, 80; currants, 75. The frost on June 10 did slight damage to corn, beans and tomatoes; the temperature was 38° F. For all outdoor vegetables this is a late season. Tree fniits, however, are rather earlier than i;sual, and apples are large for this date. Stow (Geo. W. Bradley). — The most injurious insects are the tent caterpillar and the brown-tail and gypsy moths. The condition of corn is 50 ; its acreage is 75. Haying has commenced, with a prospect for an 80 per cent crop. Eai'ly potatoes have increased 25 per cent in acreage. The prospect is for a yield of 75 per cent. Dairy cows have decreased 25 per cent in supjily. Milk production has decreased 50 per cent; butter production, 25 per cent. Forty cents per can is the price paid for milk sold at wholesale, while the retail price received is 6 cents per quart, which are about the same as a year ago. Pasturage is in 80 per cent condition and needs rain. The fruit outlook is: apples and pears, 50: peaches, 10; strawberries, 50; currants. 25; raspbemes, 50; blackberries, 75. 32 Maynard (L. H. Maynard). — Tent caterpillars have done the most damage in this section; cutworms and potato beetles are very numerous. Corn is backward, but its condition is 90; its acreage is 100. Farmers have started haying with an outlook for a 100 per cent crop. A normal acreage of early potatoes has been put in, and there will be a normal crop. In both yield and price early market-garden crops are normal, and the prospect for those not yet harvested is the same. Pasturage is in 100 per cent condition. The fruit outlook is : apples, 75 ; pears, 50 ; plums, 100 ; strawberries, 25; other small fruits, 100. We had a heavy frost the first of the month which practically killed the strawberry crop and was of great damage to early market-garden crops. Marlborough (E. D. Hovte). — Tent caterpillars, brown-tail and gypsy moths, eutwoi'ms and potato beetles are doing the greatest amount of injury. The condition of Indian corn is 95. The amount planted is normal. Farmers have started in haying, with a prospect for a 99 per cent crop. The acreage of early potatoes is 100, and there is prospect for a 100 per cent crop. Early market-garden crops not yet ha^rvested promise a 95 per cent yield. The dairy cow supply has fallen off 2 per cent. Milk is selling at 38 cents per can at wholesale and at 8 cents per quart retail. These prices prevailed a year ago. The condition of pastures is 100. The fruit outlook is: apples, 50; pears, 95; peaches, 50; plums, 100; strawberries, 90; gooseberries, 100; blackberries, 100. This is a better season for grass than last year. HopJcinion (W. V. Thompson). — The insects that are working the most havoc are tent caterpillars, brown-tail moth and squash bugs. Indian corn is in 80 per cent condition, and the acreage is about 100. Haying has begun; the prospect is for a 90 per cent yield. Dairj' cows continue in about the same supply, with about the same amount of milk produced. Milk is sold for 28 cents per can at the car, while the average retail price per quart is 7 cents. These prices are just the same as a year ago. Pastures are in fair condition, 80. The fruit outlook is: pears, strawberries, raspberries and blackberries, 100. The season started early, but crops are all of ten days late. Newton (G. L. Marcy). — Potato beetles are proving the most injurious. Not much haying has been done; there is promise of an 80 per cent crop. The prospect is for a normal crop of early po- tatoes. Early market-garden crops germinated poorly; prices rule good. Those not yet harvested will yield 90. There is a falling off of 10 per cent of the supply of dairy cows, with a similar decrease in the production of milk, which sells from 40 to 50 cents per can wholesale and 9 cents per quart retail. These prices are the same as those realized a year ago. Pastures are in 100 per cent condition. 33 The fruit outlook is: pears, plums and strawberries, 100; black- berries and cranberries, limited. Lincoln (C. S. Wheeler). — Tent caterpillars and brown-tail moths have done the most injury but are now gone. Both kinds of squash bugs are now busy. The condition of corn is 90 ; the acreage is 95. Very little haying has been done. The hay crop prospect is 95. With no change in the acreage of early potatoes, the promise is for a normal crop. In yield, market-garden crops are 80; in price, 100; those not yet harvested will give a 100 per cent yield. The supply of dairy cows has decreased 10 per cent, while the pro- duction of milk has fallen off in the same degree. The average net wholesale price per can received for milk is 39 cents, while this commodity brings 10 cents per quart at retail. These prices show no great change over those of a year ago. Pastures are in 100 per cent condition. The fruit outlook is: apples, 55; peaches, 50; strawberries, 75; currants, 70; gooseberries, 60; blackberries, 60. Winchester (S. S. Symmes). — The most troublesome insects are tent caterpillars, brown-tail moths and leopard moths. Grass is being cut, but there will not be over a 75 per cent crop. Grass roots have been winterkilled in many places. In yield, early market- garden crops are 75 ; in price, 100. Those not yet haiTested promise only a 75 per cent crop. The ground is rather dry. There has been a decrease of 25 per cent in the supply of dairy cows, and the same decrease pertains to milk. The average net wholesale price of 50 cents per can is realized for milk, while 10 cents per quart is the average retail jDrice. These prices are the same as a year ago. All milk raised is sold locally. Pasturage is in 50 per cent condition. The fruit outlook is: apples, 75; pears and peaches, 100; plums, 25; strawberries and currants, 50. On June 9 frost cut beans and tomato plants in places; the temperature was 38° F. Essex County. Methuen (Frederick A. Kussell). — Those insects proving most injurious are brown-tail moths, tent caterpillars, gypsy moths, asparagus beetles, forest bugs and potato beetles. Veiy little Indian corn is raised. The condition of sweet and ensilage corn is 100. Haying has not begun; the prospect offered is for a 75 per cent crop. A falling off of 20 per cent in the acreage of early potatoes is noticeable. The yield promised is 75 per cent of a normal. Early market-garden crops show a 100 per cent yield, and are getting a 110 per cent price. Those not yet han-ested promise to be 100 per cent crops. Cows are in normal supply, as is milk. This product brings 38 cents per can wholesale and 8 cents per quart retail. The same prices prevailed a year ago. Pastures are in normal condition. The fruit outlook is: apples, 50; pears and peaches, 150; straw- 34 berries, 75, Market-garden crops, requiring liot weather, are not looking as well as usual, and late-sown cabbage is not germinating well on account of dry weather. Merrimac (S. Bixby Sargent). — Gypsy moths are proving the most troublesome insects. The condition of Indian corn is 80; as compared with normal, there is a slight increase in acreage. Hajdng has begun and the prospect for the crop is 90. There is not much change in the acreage of early potatoes; the prospect for the crop is 100. The supply of dairy cows has decreased. The average net wholesale price for milk is 40 to 45 cents per can, and the retaU price is 8 cents per quart. The condition of pastures is about the same as usual, not especially good, anyway. Pheasants have done considerable damage by pulling corn. Groveland (A. S. Longfellow). — Gypsy moths, potato bugs, onion maggots and cutworms are the most troublesome insects. In- dian corn is in 95 per cent condition, while the acreage is normal. No haying has been done; there is a promise of an 80 per cent crop. The acreage of early potatoes has been decreased 25 per cent; the crop prospect is 90. As compared with one year ago, milk supply has decreased 10 per cent. Cans are selling for 37 cents wholesale, and the retail price is 8 cents per quart. The wholesale price is slightly lower than last year. The condition of pasturage is 75. The fruit outlook is : apples, 25 ; pears, 80 ; peaches and strawberries, 75; raspberries, 90. Newbury (Geo. W. Adams). — The most injurious insects are the brown-tail moth, tent caterpillar and gypsy moth. The condition of corn is 80; the acreage is 105. Farmers have commenced haying, with a promise of an 85 to 90 per cent crop. The acreage of early potatoes has increased 10 i^er cent. There is a prospect for a normal crop. Early market-garden crops have yielded 90 and have brought 100 per cent prices. There is a good prospect for those not yet harvested. There are apparently more dairy cows, but in reality there is a 5 per cent decrease. Milk production has fallen off 10 per cent; the supply of cream is about the same, with a slight de- crease in the production of butter. Milk prices average higher than a year ago. Pastures are in 90 to 100 per cent condition. The fruit outlook is : apples, 100 ; peai-s, 80 ; peaches, 100 ; plums, 90 ; strawberries, 90; other small fruits, 100. It is impossible to get at the prices on milk, as hardly any two producers sell under the same conditions. Local prices vary from 6 to 8 cents per quart. A little wholesaled at Boston contractors' prices. Tops field (B. P. Pike). — Gypsy and brown-tail moths and po- tato beetles appear to be producing the gi'eatest havoc. In both condition and acreage Indian corn is 100. Haying has begun, with an 80 per cent crop prospect. There is an average acreage of early 35 potatoes; the prospect is for a 100 per cent crop. Market-gardeu crops have yielded normally and sold at normal prices; those not yet harvested promise 100 per cent yield. The supply of dairy cows has decreased 10 per cent, as has milk production. This com- modity wholesales for 38 cents per can, which is the price received one year ago. Pastures are in 90 per cent condition. The fruit outlook is: apples and pears, 80; peaches, 100; strawberries, 80;. blackbeiTies, 100. Hamilton (Geo. R. Dodge). — Cutworms, potato beetles and rose chafers are proving to be the most injurious insects. The condition of corn is 75; its acreage is 100. No haying has been done; the prospect is for an 85 per cent crop. Late potatoes show an acreage of about 85 per cent. In yield, early market-garden crops are 90; in price, 100. Those not yet harvested promise 80. The supply of dairy cows is the same as one year ago, and milk production has remained the same. The price per can received for milk is 45 cents; the retail price is 9 cents, which prices prevailed last year. Pastui'es are in about 85 per cent condition. The fruit outlook is : apples. 25; pears, 75; peaches, 50; plums, 10; strawberries, 50; currants and gooseberries, 75; raspberries, 80; blackberries, 95. Norfolk County. Dover (Lewis B. Paine). — The worst insect pest is the cutworm. The condition of corn is 75; the acreage is 100. Haying has begun, with a prospect of 50 per cent on old land and 80 per cent on new seeded fields. Early potatoes offer a 100 per cent prospect. Early market-garden crops have yielded 80, with prices ruling about as usual. All market-garden crops not harvested are growing well and promise a 90 per cent yield. Dairy cows have decreased 10 per cent in the last year and there has been a similar reduction in the production of milk. This product wholesales for 34 cents per can and retails at 9 cents per quart. The wholesale price is 1 to 2 cents liigher than last year. Pasturage is in 60 per cent condition. The fruit outlook is: apples, pears and peaches, 50; strawberries, 75; currants, 60; raspberries and blackberries, 80. Norwood (Frank A. Fales). — The most troublesome insect pests are the brown-tail moths, cutworms and potato beetles. Indian corn is looking well, with an acreage of 90. Haying has begun with promise for an 80 per cent crop. The early potato acreage is 20 per cent below normal ; the promise is for a 75 per cent yield. Early market-garden crops have produced 60 per cent and sold at 90. Those not harvested will be 85 per cent crops. As compared with a year ago, dairy cows are 15 per cent less in supply. A corre- sponding decrease is noted in milk. The wholesale price received for milk is 42 cents per can, while the average retail price is 9 cents 36 per quart. These prices show increases of 2 cents per can and 1 cent per quart. Pasturage is in 75 per cent condition. The fruit outlook is: apples, 75; pears, 50; strawberries, 80; currants, 90. The hay crop on old land was injured by the dry spell in 1912. The season is two to three weeks late on account of the cold, wet spring. Wrcntham (Jeremiah A. Cobb). — On trees the elm-leaf beetle is doing the most damage, while crops are suffering principally from the cutworms and Colorado beetle. Indian corn is late, just coming up; the acreage is normal. Haying was begun from a week to ten days earlier than usual; the prospect offered is for a 100 per cent crop. In family gardens potatoes are looking well. Dairy cows continue in the same supply, and milk and cream have not changed within the past year. Milk wholesales for 38 to 40 cents per can, while the retailers get 8 cents per quart. These prices are the same as last year. Condition of pastures is 100. The fruit outlook is: apples, 75 to 80; pears, 100 to 125; peaches, 300 to 400, — best in years; plums, 25 to 35; strawberries, 75; cuiTants, 100; gooseberries were frozen and there are none; raspberries and blackberries, 100. The season is two weeks late for cultivated crops, but the hay crop is early. Foxhorough (Wm. E. Perkins). — The condition of corn is 75. The acreage is 80. Haying has commenced, with an 80 per cent prospect. The original number of cows is kept. Milk wholesales for 45 cents per can and retails for 8 cents per quart, which prices are the same as last year. Pastures are in normal condition. The fruit outlook is: apples, pears and peaches, 100; plums, 50; straw- berries, 75; other small fruits, 100. The spring has been rather cold and backward and crops are not up to the normal. An unusual number of cutworms have damaged garden crops in most jDlaces. Cohasset (Ellery C. Bates). — The worst insect pest this season has been the tent caterpillar. Haying has begun, and that cut indi- cates a 75 to 85 per cent crop. The acreage of and prospect for early potatoes are 100. In both yield and price early market-garden crops are 100, while a normal prospect is offered for those not har- vested. Dairy cows, milk and cream are in normal supply. Milk brings 45 cents per can at wholesale and 8 to 10 cents per quart retail, which are the normal prices. Pastures are in 100 per cent condition. The fruit outlook is : apples, pears and strawberries, 50. Bristol County. Mansfield (E. Jasper Fisher). — Cutworms and potato beetles seem to be doing the greatest amount of damage. The Indian corn acreage has been decreased 25 per cent, while the crop is in only 70 per cent condition. Very little haying has been done as yet; 37 there is promise for a 75 per cent crop. The prospect for the very few early potatoes raised is 90, Early market-garden crops have yielded 85 per cent, and the prices are good. Those not yet har- vested promise 90 per cent crops. Cows are in about the same sup- ply as last year. Milk brings 45 cents per can wholesale, and 8 cents per quart retail, which are about the same, practically, as a year ago. Pastures are in 75 per cent condition. The fruit outlook is: apples, 70; pears, 80; plums, a failure; strawbenies, 75; rasp- berries, 90; blackberries, 100; cranberries, 90. Some frost was re- ported but no damage. Attleborough (Isaac Alger). — The most troublesome insects are the potato beetles. The condition of corn is 90; the acreage is 100. Haying has not begun ; prospect is for 95 per cent of a normal crop. The early potato crop prospect is 85. Early market-garden crops have yielded 100, while those not hai-\'ested promise a normal yield. The supply of cows and the production of milk continue normal. The wholesale price per can for milk is 50 cents per 10 quarts; the retail price ranges from 7 to 9 cents. The fruit outlook is: apples, 85 ; pears, 100 ; strawberries, 110 ; cranberries, 100. At the farm we get 60 cents per 10-quart can of milk. Rehoboth (Harold A. Goff). — Cutworms and potato bugs are doing the most insect injury at present. Indian corn condition is 100; acreage shows a 5 per cent increase. Haying has begun, with a promise of a 70 per cent crop. The early potato acreage has been increased 10 per cent. The crop offers a 95 per cent promise. Early market-garden crops have yielded 100, and good prices have pre- vailed; those still growing promise 95 per cent yields. The dairy cow supply has decreased 5 per cent, and milk production has fallen off 10 per cent. The wholesale price received for milk per can of 8 quarts is 50 cents, while the retail price is 8 and 9 cents. These are about the same prices as ruled a year ago. The condition of pastures is 80. We have had many hard winds which blew a lot of fruit from the trees. Swansea (F. G. Arnold). — Tent caterpillars have raised the most havoc. In both condition and acreage Indian corn is normal. Farmers have commenced haying, with the prospect of taking off a 75 per cent crop. The acreage of early potatoes has decreased 25 per cent; the crop prospect is 90. In yield, early market-garden crops have been 100 and in price, 90; those not yet harvested promise 80 per cent crops. The supply of cows has fallen oft" 10 per cent, but milk production continues the same as one year ago. This commodity wholesales for 44 cents per can and retails for 9 cents per quart. These prices show advances of 4 cents per can and 1 cent per quart over those of one year ago. Pastures are in noi-mal condition. The frait outlook is: apples, 50; pears, 75; peaches and strawberries, 80. 38 Acushnet (M. S. Douglas). — The most troublesome insects are the potato beetles and cutworms, Indian corn is in 50 per cent con- dition, with a normal acreage planted. Haying has begun, and the promise is for a 75 per cent crop. Early potatoes show an acreage increase of 25 per cent, and offer a crop prospect of 80. Early market-garden crops have furnished a normal yield and brought 90 per cent prices; those not hai-vested promise an 80 per cent yield. Dairy cows are in the same supply as last year and milk and cream production have increased 5 per cent. Milk is wholesaled for 51 cents per can and retails for 8 cents per quart, which prices are the same as last year. Pasturage is in 100 per cent condition. Fruit outlook is: apples and pears, 75; peaches, strawberries, raspberries and blackberries, 100. There was frost on June 10. Fairhaven (D. W. Deane). — The most troublesome insects are the cutworms and striped beetles. Indian corn is in 90 per cent condition; its acreage is 85. Haying has begun with the prospect of a 60 per cent crop. The early potato acreage is 80 and the prospect is the same. Early market-garden crops show an 85 per cent yield, with prices 10 per cent off; those still growing promise to yield 95 per cent. The dairy cow supply and milk production have increased 10 per cent over one year ago. Cream and butter are in normal supply. Milk at wholesale brings 50 cents per can, while the retail price is 8 cents per quart. These prices are the same as last year. Pasturage is in 90 per cent condition. The plum out- look is 90. In fact, the outlook for all fruits is good, but they are so late in blooming that the prospect for the set cannot be estimated. Plymouth County. Brockton (Davis Copeland). — Green cabbage worms, cutworms, cucumber beetles and I'ose bugs are the insects which are proving most injurious. The condition of corn is 80; the acreage is 100. Little haying has been done as yet; the prospect is 75. The acreage of early potatoes is 100, and the prospect is for a normal crop. Early market-garden crops have yielded 75, and there is promise that those not harvested will give the same yield. The dairy cow supply shows a falling off of 10 per cent. Milk wholesales for 45 cents per can. The condition of pasturage is 75. The outlook for apples, pears, peaches, strawberries and blackberries is 100. Norwell (Henry A. Turner). — The most troublesome insects are tent caterpillars, cutworms and brown-taU moths. Haying has be- gun; hardly enough has been cut for one to form an estimate. Early potatoes are late, but are coming up at last. Strawberries are bringing more than the usual price. Dairy cows are in about the same supply as last year. Milk brings 8 cents per quart retail, which is a slight rise over last year. The condition of pasturage i 39 is 90. The fruit outlook is: apples, 50; pears and peaches, 75; plums, 50; strawberries, 100. Crops have suffered from frost, but very little. Hanover {HARmso^ L. House). — Tent caterpillars, cutworms and potato beetles seem to be the most injurious insect pests. The con- dition and acreage of corn is 100. Haying has hardly begnn; there is promise of an 85 per cent crop. The early potato acreage is normal, with the prospect of a 90 per cent yield. Compared with normal, early market-garden crops are 100 in both yield and price, and those not harvested offer the same prospect. Dairy cows re- main in the same supply, and production of milk, cream and butter has not changed from last year. The average retail price per quart for milk is 8 cents, which is the same as one year ago. No dairy farms in this town wholesale milk. The condition of pasturage is 90. The fruit outlook is: apples, 50; pears, 100; peaches, straw- berries and currants, 75; cranberries, 100. Marshfield (L. C. Bartlett). — The most injurious insects are the cutworms and tent caterpillars. The condition and acreage of corn is 100. Haying has begun, with the prospect for a normal crop. There is a normal acreage of early potatoes, and a prospect for a 100 per cent crop. Early market-garden crops have yielded 100 per cent, and it is expected that those not harvested will yield likewise. The dairy cow supply and milk production continue nor- mal. Milk sells at retail for 8 cents per quart, the same as last year. The condition of pasturage is 100. The fruit outlook is: apples, 100; pears, 50; peaches, 100; plums, 50; strawberries, 100. Plympton (WtNTHROP Fillebrown). — The most damage by in- sect pests is being done by tent caterpillars, potato bugs and gypsy and brown-tail moths. The condition of Indian corn is 90; the acreage is 110. Farmers have begun cutting hay; the crop will be about 80 per cent. There is a normal acreage of early potatoes. Early market-garden crops have yielded 105 and have sold for 100. Those still in the gi'ound will furnish normal crops. The dairy cow supply and milk production are normal. Milk wholesales for 45 cents per can and retails at 9 cents per quart, which is 1 cent higher than one year ago. The condition of pastures is 105. The fruit outlook is : apples, 95 ; pears, peaches, plums, strawberries, currants, blackberries, raspberries and cranberries, 100; gooseberries, 90. Frosts on June 9 and 10 did some damage. Carver (J. A. Vaughan). — Most insect damage is being done by the tent caterpillars and currant worms. The condition of corn is 100; the acreage is 75. No haying has been done as yet; the pros- pect is for a normal crop. Early market-garden crops yielded 75 and realized normal prices. The condition of pasturage is 75. The fruit outlook is: apples and pears, 75; plums, 50; strawberries, 75; currants, 50; gooseberries, 75; cranberries, 100. 40 Wareham (A. B. Savart). — Tent caterpillars are about the only ones that are doing much harm. Indian corn is in 90 per cent con- dition with a normal acreage planted. Haying has beg-un, with the prospect for a 75 per cent crop. The early potato crop prospect is 100. Normal crops and prices prevail in the case of early market- garden truck, and that not harvested promises a normal yield. Milk retails at 10 cents per quart, there being no change from last year. Pastures are in 100 per cent condition. The fruit outlook is: apples, 60; pears, 100; peaches, 90; plums, 80; strawberries and currants, 100; gooseberries, 90; rasjDberries, blackberries and cran- berries, 100. Barnstable County. Bourne (Robert S. Handy). — The forest tent caterpillar, the common tent caterpillar, eranberi-y fireworm, cutworm and maggot l^rove to be doing the most injury. In both condition and acreage Indian coi'n is 100. Haying has begun, with the jDrospect for a 60 per cent crop. The acreage of eai'ly potatoes is 150, with a 75 l^er cent prospect. Early market-garden crops have yielded nor- mally and have brought normal prices, while those not harvested promise 100 per cent crops. Dairy cows are in normal supply. Milk sells at retail for 10 cents per quart, which is the same price as last year. Condition of pasture is 60. The fruit outlook is : strawbei'ries, 90; cranberries, 75. On Juuq 9 frost with a bog temperature of 26° damaged cranberries 50 per cent. Sandwich (Henry F. Hoxie). — The most injurious insects are the jDotato beetle, cutworm and the cranberiy fireworm. The condi- tion and acreage of corn is 100. Farmers have begun haying with an 80 per cent prospect. A normal acreage of early potatoes has been jDlanted, and a normal crop is promised. In yield, early market-garden crops have been 110, with prices, 100; those still growing promise normal yields. The supply of dairy cows has increased 10 per cent, and milk production in the same degree. The wholesale price realized for milk is 45 cents per can. The retail price is 7 cents per quart, just the same as last year. Pasturage is in 90 per cent condition. The fruit outlook is: apples and pears, 100; peaches, 75; plums, strawberries, currants, goose- berries and raspberries, 100; cranberries, 110. The hay crop was evidently damaged by a dry spell here when the grass was getting started. Pasturage is light for want of rain. Dennis (Joshua Crovs^ell). — The most troublesome insects seem to be the common and forest tent caterpillars. Condition of corn is 90; acreage is 95. Farmers have begun haying, with the prospect for a 75 per cent crop. The early potato acreage has been slightly increased. There is a prospect for an 85 per cent crop. Early market-garden crops have yielded 80 and sold for 100. The pros- 41 peet for those still growing is 90. The dairy cow supply has fallen off 20 per cent, while milk and cream production has decreased 10 per cent. Milk brings 7 cents per quart retail, just the same as last year. Condition of pastures is 90. Fruit outlook is: apples, 60; strawberries, 75; cranberries, looking well. Some frosts occurred in early June, but did not do much damage, Truro (John B. Dyer). — The most damage by insect pests is being done by tent caterpillars, brown-tail moths and cutworms. In both condition and acreage Indian corn is 100. No haying has been done so far; the prospect is for a 100 per cent crop. The early potato acreage is 100, and the crop will be normal. Compared with normal, early market-garden crops are 100 in both yield and price, and the same may be said of those not harvested. The dairy cow and dairy product supply continues normal. Milk brings 40 cents per can wholesale and 6 cents per quart retail, about the same as last year. The condition of pastures is 125, The f iTiit outlook is : apples and pears, 100; peaches, 125; small fruits, 100, Some slight frosts have occurred with no particular damage. Dukes County, West Tisbury (Geo. Hunt Luce). — The insects proving most in- jurious are potato beetle and tent caterpillar. Condition of corn is 90; the acreage, 100. Haying has begun, with the crop prospect of 75. A normal acreage of early potatoes has been planted; the crop prospect is 75. Early market-garden crops not harvested promise 100. The dairy cow supply is 75 as compared with one year ago. Milk production has increased 10 per cent ; 8 cents per quart is the retail price paid for milk, about the same as last year. Condition of pasturage is 100. The fruit outlook is: apples and pears, 50; peaches, 10; strawberries and blackbemes, 100; cran- berries, 75. The season started very early with us, then came cold and dry weather, injuring the fruit bloom and setting back the growth of all vegetation, so that we have old meadow hay that is ripe, while timothy is backward, Nantucket County. Nantucket (H. G. Worth). — The most injurious insect pests are l^otato bugs and cutworms. The condition and acreage of Indian corn are 100. Farmers have started cutting hay, with the croiD pros- pect of 60. The early potato acreage and crop prosj^ect are 100. Early market-gai-den crops have yielded normal and have brought 100 per cent prices. The same may be said of those not harvested. The dairy cow supply and milk have fallen off 10 per cent. This product retails for 9 cents per quart. This is the same price as paid a year ago. Pasturage is in 90 per cent condition. The fruit outlook is: strawberries, 90; cranberries, 100. 42 SUMMARY OF FEUIT CROP CONDITIONS. In the circular to fruit crop correspondeuts, returnable June 27, the following questions were asked: — 1. Have frosts done noticeable damage to the following fruit crops (give dates and per cent of damage) ? Apples, pears, peaches, plums, cherries, small fruits. 2. Have tree fruits set well (give per cent of blossoms set, if possible) ? Has there been much drop ? 3. What are the prospects for the following crops ? Ap- ple, pear, peach, plum, cherry, currant, raspberry, black- berry, blueberry. 4. What methods of cultivation are practiced in orchards in your vicinity? (a) Sod mulch (state whether grass is cut and removed or left on gi;ound) ? (&) Clean culture? (c) Are legTunes, such as clover, cow peas, vetch or alfalfa, planted in orchards as cover crops ? If not, what cover crops are used ? 5. What insects are doing most damage in orchards ? 6. Has fire blight appeared in any orchards ? 7. To what extent was the strawberry crop injured by frost ? 8. Have prices of strawberries been satisfactory? Com- pare with average. Compare with 1912. 9. Is summer spraying for sooty fungus or other fruit dis- eases practiced at all in your vicinity ? Returns were received from 67 correspondents, and from them the following summary was compiled : — Frost Damage. A larger number of reports upon the frost damage to fruit crops would have been productive of more accurate deduc- tions ; the following table will, however, give a reasonably correct idea of this damage. It will be noticed that plums. 43 pears and apples were the heaviest sufferers for the State as a whole. The counties of the State, ranking them in order of greatest damage done to all fruits, were as follows: Berk- shire, Hampden, Franklin, Bristol, Norfolk, Middlesex, Hampshire, Worcester and Essex equal, Barnstable and Plymouth. There were no reports on fruits from Dukes and Nantucket counties. Damage of Fruits by Counties [Per Cent). County. Apples. Pears. Peaches. Plums. Cherries. Small Fruits. Berkshire, . 60.01 55.01 -= 63.51 10.03 5.0» Franklin, . 27.8 30.7 41.6 27.1 45.7 32.8 Hampshire, 31.2 12.5 61.01 38.0 -1 50.01 Hampden, . 27.0 26.2 60.0 50.01 37.51 11.6 Worcester, . ■ 10.0 4.0 11.0 11.0 3.8 17.0 Middlesex, . 21.9 16.5 21.8 39.5 19.5 21.2 Essex, 8.7 7.1 14.2 25.0 - 1.4 Norfolk, . 25.03 25.03 _2 25.03 25.03 _2 Bristol, _3 -3 50.03 85.03 _3 25.03 Plymouth, . 8.2 - 3.31 16.6 - - Barnstable,. _3 _3 _3 50.01 _3 _3 State, . 20.2 15 6 24 9 32.7 16.0 16.0 1 Two reports. - No report. 3 One report. Teee Fkuits, Set and Deop. For the State as a whole the returns indicate that the set of tree fruits was 57.7 per cent of the bloom. Frosts in Berkshire County were evidently very injurious, although the small number of reports from this county detract some- what from the value of the deductions. The figures at hand give the per cent of blossoms which formed fruit in com- parison with total bloom as follows : Barnstable, 75 ; Hamp- shire, 75; Plymouth, 71.6; Hampden, 62.5; Essex, 60; Mid- dlesex, 57.6; Franklin, 56.2; Bristol, 50; Worcester, 47.5; Norfolk, 25 ; Berkshire, 5. In general, the drop has been fully an average, although many reported it as just begin- ning. This is doubtless due to the drought, which is now becoming felt, although frost injury caused considerable 44 drop. It is worthy of note that several correspondents men- tioned the fact that where orchards were sprayed the drop was much lighter. In Hampden, Worcester, jSTorfolk and Plymouth counties the drop was rather heavy; in Berkshire, Franklin, Hampshire and Essex about average; in Middle- sex, Bristol and Barnstable it was lighter than usual. Feuit Prospect. The following table, compiled from the returns of special fruit correspondents and general correspondents combined, gives a fairly complete and accurate idea of the prospect for the different crops at the present time (100 per cent repre- sents a normal crop) : — 45 ^ CO CD o o o o o o o o o o O ■^ 'S* r^ r^ uo -* •axvig s g s CO 00 52 s g 00 ^ —1 et c» CI o " Ci o n •?a3iDn?nB]xI § »— 1 _ _ ^ _ ^ o o o " » o w w w o o M •sojjnQ s s o - g » lo w M r« m _^ o o t^ O c* o o O O o o M •ajqB'jBnjBg o 00 o o 1— < CO CO § o 2 § - g § « t>- o o t^ O t- o o o o o o •tl^nouiXij 00 00 g §8 C-1 00 s s g g § w _^ _ *o l^ 00 o o 00 o o o CO CO o "lo^sug § CO oo IS 00 00 S3 - § oc Ci ^ - r- r* o zO o oo »o o CO CO o •jjIopoM g g CI 00 o o CT> o g CO ■* C I I I I CO I I I I Q •^ I I I I I I I r I I I r r I I I I t I I r I I I I I I I I I I I I I i-t CO n a Q © d bog _2 s 3 o 3 O (1| ft o s >1 .a h 2 =* ftS OOOOOIOOOOWICCO o -^ o 00 c<3 r* t^ ^^ cqco O I I I I I I I I 1 I I I I I r I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I r I I r r I I r I I 1 1 I I I I 1 I r 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I r I I I t I I I I I r I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I ^1 I I I I I I I I I r I I I I I I I I I bis •a o o o o o o o t>- O O <:0 O O IIII„II III OO ICOCO OiO I CO C^ t-H -.»* < I 1 I I I I I I I I ^•1 I I I I I I I r I I I I I r I I I I I <-l I I I I I I I O I I I I I o I I I I I I I I I I I o o sis o, >> -s 6 3:— c ! O ' a o . ■a o. 2 C3 Silage, hay and other roughage may be credited to tillage and charged to fodder account at market prices, less manurial value if to be fed. Fodder account may be credited and stock charged as fed. Stock should be credited with manure. Government j^amphlet for values. Manure account may be credited and charged where used. Cement manure pits pay 50 per cent dividends. In other words, extra value in two years' manure pays for cost of construction. Stable may be credited and other departments charged with work done. Stock to be fattened may be handled as follows: credit daiiy and charge live stock; credit sheep, charge mutton, etc., weighing if possible at time of transfer and charging feed and care to new department to ascertain cost of fattening. Date and customers' name columns may appear on either right or left page of journal as debits or credits permit of space. Improvements should be kept track of in order to give a clearer idea of the selling value as well as to show where the profits go. Expenses should be charged regnlarly with such amounts for taxes, insurance and interest (on money invested, even if no mortgage) as will anticipate them in full when due. If you can't show profits besides wages for yourself and interest on the money invested, poor crops and accidental loss of stock may wipe out your living expenses even. Charge expense regularly with depreciation in such amounts as will cover average expectation of life of the stock, usefulness of equipment and repairs of the buildings. You have thus set aside before drawing profits a fund out of which stock and implements may be replaced and repairs made. It is like putting money in the bank. Should you wish to draw profits from the business it is well to open a surplus account and a percentage of each period's profits may be charged to it. This provides you with a steady drawing account when bad crops and losses cut profits, even when losing. Keep your personal drawings and expenses within earnings. Whether or not you have a dollar in the bank, if instructions are followed as outlined, it is in the business and you haven't become your own worst customer. You don't allow the hands overdrafts. File columns are to jDrovide a close watch on total amount of money owed you at any time. Check over customers' accounts occasionally and see that total amount agrees with difference be- tween footings of journal file columns. Customers' charge entries may be made thus: credit amount of sale in proper department column of journal, write customer's name 10 in name column, enter date (once for each day), and charge file column with amount of sale. Head a bill for the customer (if a new one), post amount and put " F '" in narrow column on debit side of journal. This shows you where to find account. When jDayment is made on account, credit file column, enter cus- tomer's name and charge cash column. Post amount to bill and put " F " in narrow column on credit side, showing that credit has been given. If payment is for full amount, bill may be destroyed or removed to dead index and returned to the live one when account is opened again. Do not remove bills from file, except when paid in full, without lea^dng a memorandum thereon, though they may not be lost, as difference between file column footings is equal to total of all bills on file. In Order to verify, close and balance Books. List up the bills you owe (not accounts), enter lump through enti-y column credit side of journai, and post to resource and liabilities card. On debit side of journal charge subdivisions of this amount to departments as they owe. Post difference of file column' footings to resource and liabilities card. Take an inventory of things susceptible to market fluctuations in value. Inventory values should be purchase prices and not selling prices, else you are anticipating your profits and aff'ecting next period's showing. Post through entry column debit side to resource and liabilities card, and on credit side through department columns as they belong. Expenses should be picked over and apportioned as they belong. Credit inventory column and charge department columns with original inventory at start. Transfer differences in department column footings to profit and loss columns. Post inventory, profit and loss column footings and cash and bank balance to resource and liabilities card. All column footings now having been taken into consideration, your resource and liabilities card is now a complete statement show- ing condition of your business, and footings should balance. If not, look for errors in transferring amounts. If divisible by 9, without remainder, they are most likely transpositions of figures, such as posting 27 for 72, 35 for 53, or dollars for cents of same number. 11 To RE-OPEN A Set op Books. Return balances of cash, bank, file, and profit and loss to their proper columns in the journal. Reverse the bills payable and inventory (taken at the close of the period) entries. These reverse entries are necessary in order to keep payments of this period's cash for departm.ent bills owed last month from affect- ing last or next period's showing. They enable you to show exact business and profits without re- gard to whether you owe or are owed more or less than at the start. Note that inventory column leaves your department columns show- ing only receipts and expenditures, or, practically, your profits or losses at any stage of the period without necessitating balancing j^our books except for verification. Entry columns are provided that you may watch more closely the amount owed you by all customers (by the file columns) than if department entries were made through these columns. Profit and loss columns are provided that you may not have to open accounts for each department. Resource and liabilities card takes place of cards for all. The principles being explained the application rests with you according to your requirements. Summing up the principles you will probably note that many things enter into the cost of production that you may not have considered before. Does your selling price allow margin enough to cover them? Price is easily obtained. It's quality that is hard to get. Watch your quality and demand the price. The higher the quality the more trouble you will have in keeping up with your orders. Time spent on accounts will pay you more money than any department of your farm. Only a few minutes a day are necessary. Let them go and you have to wait for your memory. A memory that you think is infallible may cause you most loss, both in money and trade. A customer lost isn't replaced by a new one gained. The lost one has reasons which do not make good advertising copy. You may keep accounts on the bam door and be successful, but keep them you must or your stable may eat up the profit made by the much-despised hens. 12 Large Farm Accoctnts. Necessary to use: multi-column journal, small ledger and indexed bill-board file. The accounts kept in the ledger on diversified farming are gen- erally as follows : — Capital. Produce. Personal. Pasturage. Bill account. Taxes. Inventory account. Insurance. Profit and loss. Dairy. Stable. Sheep. Utensils. Pigs. Implements. Poultry. Household. Improvements. Fodder. Depreciations. Tillage. Manure. Grain. Wood lot. Labor. Land and buildings. Instructions for small farm accounts apply except as noted below. All entries must first be made in the journal. Inventory, entry and profit and loss columns in journal are unnecessary and are covered by the ledger account columns. File and file columns are now used only for short-time customers and customers with small accounts, larger and long-winded accounts being carried in the ledger. Unnecessary to have columns on both sides for some departments, only on the side where you have frequent entries, entries on the other side being made through the ledger account columns to the dejoartment account in the ledger. Entries made in the ledger account columns should be immediately posted to their account in the ledger. When posted put the ledger page in the narrow column for reference. You may have milk, cream and butter columns in the journal and all go to the credit of dairy in the ledger. You may have department accounts in the ledger without any journal columns for them if entries are infrequent. Do not post from any columns except ledger accounts' columns to the ledger, and from none but file columns to the file, except at closing. You will have no resource and liability account in the ledger, as it is subdivided into accounts for each department. Closing and reopening entries are made through ledger accounts' columns to accounts in the ledger. 13 Closing and Balancing Books. Take inventory. Subdivide expenses. Take preliminary trial balance (consisting of credit balances in one column and debit balances in the other). This must take into consideration the footing-s of your journal columns, except ledger accounts' columns, as well as the ledger accounts. Footings of these columns should be equal. Take into account bills payable and receivable. Post footings of journal columns, except ledger accounts' columns, to the accounts in the ledger. Make entries (through the journal) of balances of department accounts to profit and loss account. Pinal trial balance will now prove your books and show your true standing. Reopening Entries. Bring file and cash accounts back to the journal. Reverse inventory and bills payable and receivable entries. Explanatory Entries. — Say land and buildings are worth $1,000 ; cash on hand and in bank, $550,76; bills receivable, $83.60; bills payable, $38,70 ; utensils and implements, $278,90. Inventory shows : cows, $75; hens, $200; pigs, $35; sheep, $80; and produce, $40. Make entries as shown on accompanying pages. Capital account now shows your assets. It is now necessary to reverse the bills payable entry so that when you pay out money in this period, for bills contracted in the previous one, your departments will have a credit to offset the charge against them of cash paid out for the last period's business. Bills receivable entry is reversed that departments may have a charge against them to offset money received this period that was due to last period's business. Individual stock or pen records should be kept in order to keep the departments up to their fullest capacity for business. Entries in the usual course of business may be made as follows : — George Jones buj's a can of cream, $8; you bring back from him 3 cans of skim milk for the pigs, value, 25 cents. Stable is credited 50 cents for hauling the cream. You exchange a case of eggs, $6, for 4 bags of gTain worth $6.25, and pay 25 cents c^sh to the miller. Charles Murphy pays $10 he owed for a pig sold previously to starting your accounts. These explanations, by the changing of column or department headings, are of use for any and all kinds of business. They are not given with the intention of making you a bookkeeper. Stick to your last (as the cobbler says), call in clerical assistance. It will pay big. 14 It is very necessary, however, that you understand the principles of accounts if not the methods. You can't expect employees to do your thinking. If they were capable of it they wouldn't be em- ployees long. Make sure that everything that enters into the cost of production is taken into consideration. This must be personal knowledge. Be unhampered by tradition. If you can't make a department pay after trying different methods drop it in favor of another. ®l)c ^Drnmonroealtl) of iHae^acljusetts. STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. CIRCULAR No. 30. June, 1914. FARM ICE HOUSES. By Prof. B. S. Pickett. From the Sixty-first Annual Report of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture. BOSTON: WEIGHT & POTTEE FEINTING CO., STATE PEINTEES. 32 DEENE STEEET. 1914. Approved by The State Boakd of Pubucation. FAKM ICE HOUSES.' BY B. S. PICKETT, M.S., PROFESSOR OF POMOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, URBANA, ILL. Massachusetts farmers in general are so familiar with the advan- tages in the use of ice on the farm during the summer that it is almost superfluous to call their attention again to these advantages. The use of ice for the cooling and preservation of milk, cream and butter has, however, been so long considered the principal object of ice-storage on the farm that it may not be out of place to call atten- tion to some of the other advantages of having a supply of this cheapest of nature's refrigerating agents on hand. The use of ice for the cooling of small fruits, including straw- berries, raspberries, gooseberries and cun-ants, has scarcely become, as yet, a general practice, other than as a means of holding them for a day or so for home consumption. Experiments in California, On- tario and in Australia have, however, indicated a great advantage in the precooling of many kinds of fruit as a means of improving their carrying capacity, and there is little doubt that the use of ice for the immediate cooling of fruits as they come from the plantations will come more and more into general use, particularly in a State like Massachusetts, where small-fruit culture must become of ever greater and greater importance in the fruit-growing industries of the State. A few of the larger producers of orchard fruits may also find it advantageous to use ice for the precooling, or even for the storage, of large quantities of fruit during the packing season, though the New England climate at this time of the year is, on the whole, rather favorable for the preservation of the orchard fruits until such time as they can be placed in regular city cold storage. A convenient supply of ice on the farm pro\ddes also a good means of preserving butter, eggs and meats during the hot weather. It enables the farmer to market his perishable products at more con- venient times, and sometimes enables him to avoid overstocked mar- kets. It is a boon in case of sickness, and it is hardly necessary to say that it is almost an essential to the housewife in good house- keeping. 1 Crop Report for September, 1913. The numerous streams, ponds and lakes of Massachusetts provide, with the help of the winter climate, a sufficient supply of ice for summer refrigeration on the farm at little more than the cost of the labor in harvesting the ice crop. With this readily available supply, and an appreciation of the advantages of storing sufficient for the summer's needs, the principal question in the minds of Massachu- setts farmers will be in what manner to store the ice rather than whether or not storage is desirable. This article will, therefore, deal more directly with the tyi3es of storage houses than with theoretical considerations of the value of the ice during the summer season. The earliest form of ice-storage in use was the cave or pit. His- torical records show that both the Persians and the Romans made TYa^ Ooor SurFaceDraifl gj^^il Fig. 1. — Ice pit. use of ice brought from mountain caves to cool their beverages dur- ing the summer, and the practice of storing in such places has con- tinued to the i^resent time. Caves and pits have the advantage of protection from the direct rays of the sun, and of a comparatively steady temjDcrature throughout the entire season. They have, how- ever, the very serious disadvantages of poor drainage, inaccessibility and inconvenience in storing, removing or sometimes in both storing and removing, the ice. Fig. 1 illustrates a comparatively modern type of ice pit, showing how it is provided with artificial drainage and with insulation, with a roof as an additional protection against the loss of ice. Of comparatively recent introduction, but of almost equal primi- tiveness in construction, is the use of the ice stack. This method of storing ice is extremely simple and may be explained in a few words. In a shaded place on a gentle northern slope a rough floor of rails, rough boards or logs is laid as nearly flat as the materials used will permit. These floor materials should be laid parallel with the slope so that the spaces and irregularities between them will provide drainage down the slope. Over these rough boards should be placed 8 inches of sawdust or mill shavings, or 12 inches of wild hay. The ice is then stacked up as squarely as the blocks will permit, and to a height about equal to the rectangular dimensions of the pile if the quantity to be stored is small, or to as great a height as can con- veniently be handled in case the quantity is very large. The nearer cubical the whole pile, up to a convenient height for handling, the less the loss from melting will be. The whole pile must then be cov- ered with sawdust, shavings or wild hay, and the top protected by a cover which will turn the rain. Usually there is a sufficient supply of used lumber about a farm for this purpose, but a canvas cover can be used if desired. Fig. 2 shows one method of covering an ice Fig. 2. — Ice stack. A, capboarcls held together by wire and staples; B, side boards standing on end and leaning against ice stack; C, wild hay; D, rough flooring; E, surface drain. Stack, Among the disadvantages in the use of the ice stack are the great waste in ice which must accompany the poor character of the insulation, and the difficulty of getting sufficient material to cover the entire stack. This latter difficulty is sometimes met by planting posts the height of the pile at its four corners at a distance of 8 to 10 inches from the corners of the stack, nailing on a few rough boards and confining the insulating material to the space between the boai'ds and the ice. When this practice is followed, however, it will be seen that one is approaching the true building, or ice house, and it is practically a foregone conclusion that it would be much cheaper and more satisfactory in the long run to build a permanent rather than a temporary structure for the purpose. The ice stack is also likely to be inconvenient in location. A satisfactory place for it may not be available near the buildings. It is unsightly in appearance, and if located at some distance from the house and barns it will not give the service desired. The ice stack is, however, of value as a means of supplementing an inadequate home supply during the early part of the season. This is particularly likely to be true on large dairy farms where the ice house is not of sufficient capacity to carry a full summer supply. Under these conditions an ice stack built near the pond where the ice is gathered, or at some place convenient to the barns, may have its place of usefulness. The third type of farm ice-storage may be termed the makeshift ice house. It consists in the appropriation, for the purpose of stor- ing ice, of one end of the woodshed, a bos stall in the stable, a corner in a leanto shed, the tool house or an abandoned chicken house. Occasionally such a makeshift ice-storage may be satisfactory and hold as much ice as is needed. The probabilities are, however, that it will not permit of adequate insulation, and that it will not carry sufficient ice to supply the farm needs through the summer. Not being constructed for the immediate purpose of storing ice it will not be adequately drained or ventilated, and if located in a conspicuous part of the farmyard it may prove to be a very unsightly part of the farm equipment. If ice is stored in a makeshift house care must be taken to see that there is no danger from fire as a result of spon- taneous combustion in the insulating material. Of storage houses there are many sizes, forms and methods of construction. The essentials of an ice house are : first, capacity large enough for its purpose; second, good insulation so as to prevent rapid loss of the ice through melting; third, drainage to carry away the water from the bottom of the pile of ice, as it melts; fourth, ventilation at the top of the ice pile; fifth, convenience of location; sixth, an appearance that does not detract from the general attrac- tiveness of the farm buildings; seventh, reasonable cost. The size of the ice house must be calculated in cubic feet of capac- ity, allowing 45 to 50 cubic feet of space for each ton of ice to be stored. A house 12 feet square and 11 feet high will hold approxi- mately 25 tons of ice, — sufficient to supply a moderate-sized farm where the consumption of ice for milk cooling is not exceptionally large, — allowing space for the insulating material. The most effective insulating materials available are dead air, wood and paper. Brick, stone, earth and concrete are fair con- ductors of heat, and are therefore not desirable for insulating pur- poses, though brick, stone and concrete may in some cases be desir- able as outside walls, either for the sake of their superior lasting qualities or because they may correspond to the materials used in other buildings on the farm in question. Since wood is the only material available for construction among those named as desirable for insulation, it is recommended as the most generally satisfactory material for the construction of ice houses. Dead-air spaces may be formed by an extremely careful construction of walls, but this would be entirely impractical in a farm ice house, and if dead air is to be used as an insulating material it must be obtained by the use of sawdust and shavings, both of which materials are fairly available to Massachusetts farmers. When tightly packed between the ice and the walls of the storage house, shavings and sawdust enmesh in their crevices large quantities of air which is practically immovable in character, or dead, as storage-house constructors speak of it. Con- siderable air is also contained in the pores of the sawdust and shav- ings, and it is this immovable air, even more than the material itself, which makes of sawdust and shavings good insulating materials. Hay is less desirable than sawdust or shavings because the air en- meshed in it is not so finely divided, and may circulate to some extent. It takes a larger quantity of hay, and hence more space between the ice and the walls of the building, to give the same amount of protection with this material as with shavings or sawdust. For the most perfect result from the use of hay, sawdust and shavings the material must be dry, as any of these materials when wet are fairly good conductors of heat. For the best result at least 8 inches of well-packed sawdust or shavings should be used between the ice and the walls, and the top of the ice should be covered to a depth of 10 uiches. If hay is used at least 12 inches should be allowed be- tween the ice and the walls, and 14 or 15 inches on the surface of the ice. Drainage is necessary because the water from the melting ice is a good conductor of heat, and if it accumulates in the bottom of the ice house and stands up about the lower tiers of ice it will cause a rapid loss. It will, moreover, soon soak the insulating material and thus permit rapid conduction of heat directly from the walls to the main stack of ice. It is also unsanitary, and will cause a rapid rotting of the timbers in the ice house. Drainage is secured by the selection of a well-drained site, or by placing a tile beneath the ice house. Where the house must be con- structed on a soil which does not drain well naturally, an excavation should be made the size of the house and 12 inches in depth. In the center of this excavation should be placed a row of tile leading to a satisfactory outlet, and the entire excavation filled in covering the tile with coarse gi'avel or cinders. Ventilation should be arranged for over the top of the ice stack. Where the building is completely closed, the air above the ice beneath the roof becomes highly heated and causes a rapid loss by direct radiation of heat to the ice. Reliance for insulation is placed on the sawdust, sha\dng-s or hay which immediately covers the ice. rather than upon the main body of air above this insulated covering. By 8 placing a ventilator in the ridge of the roof, and leaving a 6-inch opening below the plates all around the side of the building, a suffi- cient circulation of air will be secured. The farm ice house should be located convenient to the buildings and in as inconspicuous a spot as can be selected. It is a common practice to locate the ice house close to the milk room for the sake of convenience in handling the ice. Occasionally the ice house is located near the pond where the ice is obtained, but unless this is immediately accessible to the building-s the farmer will fail to make Fig. 3. — Well-built farm ice house plan. A, siding placed vertically; B, inside layer of boards placed horizontally; C, sills and plates made of two 2 by 4's spiked together; D, sawdust; E, 2 by 4 studs on 24 inch centers; F, posts about 7 by 7, 3 feet in ground and 11 feet above ground; G, opening for ice full height of house, and closed by boards placed in groove, constructed as shown in drawing; H, battens. as much use out of the stored ice as he would if it were located within convenient reach. The appearance of the ice house must be left to the judg-ment of the constructor. Nothing more can be said than to indicate that it should be in keeping with the other buildings on the farm. The ice house is for an extremely utilitarian purpose, and ornate ornamenta- tion on a structure of this kind is uncalled for and usually entirely out of place. Ice houses that will caiTy ice satisfactorily through the summer may be built at very small cost. The framework may well consist of roughhewn posts gathered from the farmer's wood lot. No floor is necessary. A double ribband of 2 by 4's securely spiked to the posts will provide both plates and sills. The studding should con- sist of 2 by 4's on 24-ineh centers. The walls may be built of a single laj'er of rough boards nailed to the outside of the studding, or, if a better eonstnaction is desired, with better ai^pearance, building • • • •• • •' » •jt • • ■H '1 Fig. 4. — Well-built farm ice house. Elevation: A, plates; B, 6-inch open space between weather boarding and plates; C, weather boarding; D, posts (shown in dotted lines); E, studs; F, opening for ice; G, sills; H, gravel for drainage; I, tile. paper may be used over this first layer of boards, and a second layer of boards, planed on one side and matched for size, may be nailed vertically over the first layer, this second layer to be battened with 1%,-inch battens, breaking all the joints. The latter type of construction, while much neater and more lasting, is but little moi'e effective in the preservation of the ice, provided sufficient insulation is used between the walls and the ice itself, the outer wall being essentially only a protection against the wind and weather. The roof is essential to keep out the rain, and as a protection against the direct rays of the sun, and must be the best constructed part of the 10 building. It may be of shingles, sheet metal or some ready pre- pared roofing, all of which materials are thoroughly satisfactory with the exception of those which are black. An ice-house roof should preferably be light in color in order to reflect the rays of the sun. An ice house, holding 30 to 50 tons of ice, of solid construction, properly drained, and neat in appearance will cost from $50, where the farmer supplies considerable of his own material and labor, to $125, where all the materials are purchased and labor hired for the construction of the house. !> \